MARINE FAUNA
AND FLORA
OF BERMUDA
A Systematic Guide
to the Identification
of Marine Organisms
Edited by
WOLFGANG STERRER
Bermuda Biological Station
St. George's, Bermuda
in cooperation with
Christiane Schoepfer-Sterrer
and 63 text contributors
A Wiley-Interscience Publication
JOHN WILEY & SONS
New York Chichester Brisbane Toronto Singapore
ANTHOZOA 159
sucker) on the exumbrella. Color vari?
able, mostly greenish gray-blue, the
greenish color due to zooxanthellae
embedded in the mesoglea. Polyp
slender; strobilation of the monodisc
type. Medusae are found, upside?
down and usually in large congrega?
tions, on the muddy bottoms of in?
shore bays and ponds.
W. STERRER
Class Anthozoa (Corals, anemones)
CHARACTERISTICS: Exclusively polypoid, sol?
itary or colonial eNIDARIA. Oral end ex?
panded into oral disc which bears the mouth and
one or more rings of hollow tentacles.
Stomodeum well developed, often with 1 or 2
siphonoglyphs. Gastrovascular cavity compart?
mentalized by radially arranged mesenteries.
Mesoglea a mesenchymal or fibrous connective
tissue. Adult body sizes range from
Scleractinia of 2 mm diameter to whip-like
Antipatharia 7 m long. Colonies of
Scleractinia may also reach several meters
in diameter and weigh several tons. Most
anthozoans, however, measure between 3
and 50 em. Most orders possess some kind
of inorganic supporting structure, such as
a calcareous or horny axis or microscopic
calcareous sclerites distributed throughout
the tissue. Some gorgonians and pen?
natulids have both supporting axes and
sclerites, whereas the Actiniaria, Coral?
limorpharia, Zoanthidea and Ceriantharia
have no such supporting structure. Antho?
zoans are among the most colorful animals
in the reef environment. Unfortunately
the pigments are rarely retained in pre?
served specimens and, although distinctive
in some species, color is not usually a reli?
able taxonomic character. Anthozoans are
predominantly sedentary animals, often
firmly attached to the substrate. The only
locomotion involved in most life cycles is
in the planktonic larval stage. However,
many Actiniaria and Ceriantharia can
move if exposed to unfavorable condi?
tions. Actiniaria can creep along on their
pedal discs at 8-10 cm/hr, pull themselves
by their tentacles, move by peristalsis
through loose sediment, float in currents,
and even swim by coordinated tentacular
motion.
Both subclasses are represented in Ber?
muda. Because the orders are so diverse
morphologically, they are often discussed
separately. In some classifications the an?
thozoan orders are grouped into 3 (not the
2 considered here) subclasses, splitting off
the Ceriantharia and Antipatharia into a
separate subclass, the Ceriantipatharia.
Corallimorpharia are sometimes consid?
ered a suborder of Scleractinia. Approxi?
mately 6,500 species of Anthozoa are
known. Of 93 species reported from Ber?
muda, 76 are included here; the remain?
ing 17 are deep-water or rare shallow?
water species.
OCCURRENCE: Throughout the world
oceans from the Arctic to the Antarctic,
from the intertidal to hadal depths (10,700
m), and in temperatures of - 1? to 30?C. In
general, more species occur in the shallow?
water tropical and subtropical regions as?
sociated with coral reefs, but virtually all
benthic marine habitats are exploited. Full
oceanic salinity is usually required, but
some scleractinians and gorgonians can
tolerate brackish water of 1.7% salinity.
Some zoanthids and actinians thrive in pol?
luted areas. Substrate type is an important
factor governing distribution; some
species require mud, others sand or hard
substrates, and others are epizoic or
epiphytic. Anthozoans are usually patchy
in distribution, often abundant in coral
reef habitats where conditions of substrate,
light and current combine to create highly
productive areas. Densities of 27-30 col?
onies of Scleractinia or Gorgonacea per
square meter are not unusual in reef envi-
160 KINGDOM ANIMALIA
ronments, whereas antipatharians rarely
exceed 2-3 colonies/m~.
Most intertidal and shallow-water An?
thozoa can be collected with the aid of a
hammer and chisel while snorkeling or
SCUBA diving. A wooden spatula or flat
bivalve shell is good for detaching
anemones. Burrowing actinians, cerian?
thids and pennatulids may be obtained by
sieving of sand and mud, preferably after
the animals have been spotted in the ex?
panded condition. It is best to collect
cerianthids at night or at dusk, when most
species expand. If kept moist, and the tem?
perature is controlled, anemones may live
for several days and even survive shipment
by mail. Deep-water (over 70 m) species
are usually collected fortuitously by trawl?
ing and dredging, or selectively by sub?
mersible.
Some anthozoans are commercially or
pharmacologically important. Some gor?
gonians and zoanthids contain compounds
(prostaglandins and palytoxin, respec?
tively) that are biologically very active
and of pharmaceutical value. Care must
be taken when collecting the zoanthid
Palythoa in late summer because it contains
a highly toxic substance (palytoxin) which
is very irritating to the skin and open cuts,
causing severe pain and long-lasting blis?
ters. Actinians, some scleractinians and
cerianthids are popular aquarium animals.
Finally, because anthozoans constitute
most of the mass of coral and patch reefs,
they contribute to storm protection, tourist
recreation and sand production, not to
mention the habitats provided for innu?
merable other animals, many of which are
eaten by humans. The taking of corals for
souvenirs is strongly discouraged, and pro?
hibited by law in certain areas (Coral Reef
Preserves).
IDENTIFICATION: Because of the
phological diversity within the
mor?
class,
identification relies on a great number of
characters and methods.
The basic structural unit of alllhozoans is the
polyp, which may exist alone or in a colonial aJTan~e?
ment, all contiguous polyps tracing their ancestry
through asexual budding to a single founder polyp.
The polyp usually has a short, squat, cylindrical body
(column) with a flattened oral end (oral disc). The
mouth occupies the center of the oral disc and is sur?
rounded by several rings (cycles) of hollow tentacles.
The mouth leads through a short, longitudinally
ridged tube (stomodeum) into the ~astrovascularcav?
ity (coelenteron). The hollow tentacles are continuous
with this cavity. Sometimes the stomodeum is flat?
tened, with one or both of the narrow edges modified
into flagellated grooves (siphonoglyphs) that propel
water into the polyp. The ~astrovascularcavity is ra?
dially partitioned by thin lamellae (mesenteries,
septa) on which the gonads develop. The inner, free
edges of the mesentel'ies bear distinct, thickened
rims, the (mesenterial) filaments, which perform the
functions of digestion, absorption and excretion.
These filaments generally have the form of a simple
cord, often very sinuous in the lower part of the
polyp. In Ceriantharia the filaments in the upper part
of the polyp are bilobed, in Actiniaria and Zoanthidea
trilobed. Mesenteries (except in Ceriantharia) are ar?
ranged in cycles of different order. They are termed
perfect or complete if they are attached to the col?
umn, oral disc, base and stomodeum; imperfect or
incomplete if they do not reach the stomodeum. The
inner, free edges of the imperfect mesenteries
(mesenterial filaments) are sometimes very sinuous
and trilobed. Most anthozoan polyps are bilaterally
symmetrical, the axis bein~ determined by the
siphonoglyphs or the flattened stomodeum. Two
mesenteries may occur symmetrically on both sides of
the axis (coupled) and/or directly adjacent (in pairs).
The space between the mesenteries of a pair is called
an endocoel, the space between 2 pairs an exocoel. A
directive mesentery pair flanks a siphonoglyph. In
some elongate actinians there may be 8 well?
developed, fertile macromesenteries alternating with
8 smaller sterile micromesenteries. Nematocysts, tbe
characteristic "stinging capsules" of Coelenterata, are
found on the tentacles, stomodeum, column and
mesenterial filaments of all Anthozoa. The fine struc?
ture of nematocysts as well as the cnidom (types of
nematocysts in a species or higher taxon) are impor?
tant criteria for classification. The body wall of an
anthozoan is composed of 3 layers: an outer ectoderm
(epidermis), an inner endoderm (gastrodermis) and
an intermediate mesoglea, composed of a mesenchy?
mal or fibrous connective tissue. The mesoglea of a
colonial anthozoan is collectively termed coenen-
ANTHOZOA 161
chyme. Many species contain symbiotic zooxanthellae
(dinoflagellates) that enable many Scleractinia to be
reef~building (hermatypic) in shallow, well-lit waters;
the other, non-reef-building (ahermatypic) Sclerac?
tinia, i.e., without zooxanthellae, are able to live in
dark, cold deeper waters.
The following terms pertain to features of individ?
ual orders rather than the entire class.
All gorgonaceans have a central supporting struc?
ture, usually called the axis in Scleraxonia and the
central core in Holaxonia. The axis is composed of
horny material and usually fused sclerites; the central
core has a horny outer layer (cortex) surrounding a
chambered core but sclerites are not present. Sur?
rounding the cortex the inner and outer rinds, con?
centric layers of mesoglea (coenenchyme), make up
most of the colony. Within the coenenchyme numer?
ous tiny calcareous skeletal elements (sclerites) lend
support to the coenenchyme. Sclerites occur in many
different sizes and shapes. One of the simplest kinds
is the spindle, a straight, monaxial structure pointed
at both ends. Scales are thin, flat sclerites and plates
are thicker scales. Monaxial, elongate sclerites that
are enlarged at one end (the head) are called clubs.
Leaf-clubs have heads ornamented with foliate pro?
cesses whereas wart-clubs have only low, blunt pro?
tuberances on their heads. Capstans are monaxial
spicules with 2 whorls of tubercles at either end and
terminal tufts. Quadriradiates, also called "butterfly
spicules", have 4 terminal processes, usually radiating
in the same plane. The portion of the expanded
polyp that projects above the surface of the branch is
called the anthocodium; it can be retracted into a
tubular basal neck zone (calyx), which may support a
transverse ring of sclerites (collaret). Directly above
the collaret are groups of vertically arranged sclerites,
peaking at each tentacle. The peaks are called points
and the collaret and points are collectively termed the
crown and points. Above the points are the 8 tenta?
cles.
Pennatulaceans are composed of I large, axial pri ?
mary polyp that consists of an anchoring peduncle
and a distal rachis, from which the secondary polyps
arise. Secondary polyps consist of siphonozooids, con?
trolling water circulation, and autozooids, the typical
food-gathering polyps.
Many species of Actiniaria have a muscle band
(marginal sphincter) that encircles the upper part of
the column. Each mesentery bears a longitudinal
muscular band, the retractor. Basilar muscles are
present in species with a broadly attached pedal disc.
The column can usually be divided into the scapus
(column proper) and the scapulus, a histologically dif?
ferentiated region at the level of the sphincter. Some?
times there is a capitular region above the scapulus,
separated by a fold of tissue (collar or parapet), and a
groove (fossa) that occurs between the collar and the
base of the capitulum. The scapulus and capitulum
are invariably smooth, but the scapus may bear a vari?
ety of special structures, such as vesicles, hollow,
nematocyst-bearing outgrowths of the gastrovascular
cavity; acrorhagi, vesicle-like nematocyst batteries oc?
curring on the parapet or in the fossa; pseudotenta?
cles, large, branched, inflated, vesicle-like structures
bearing acrorhagus-like nematocyst batteries; warts,
adhesive, generally brightly colored, button-shaped
structures similar to vesicles; and tenaculi, adhesive,
solid mesogleal papillae also used to attach foreign
particles to the column. The column may also be
pierced by tiny, regularly arranged pores (cinclides)
that provide for rapid water expulsion during a sud?
den contraction and for the emission of acontia.
Acontia are long, spirally coiled threads generally be?
low the mesenterial filaments, thought to function in
defense.
The calcareous skeleton of scleractinian coral col?
onies (corallum) is made up of individual units (coral?
lites) produced by individual polyps. The calice is the
oral surface of a corallite. Some of the growth f"rms
of colonial Scleractinia include cerioid-closely ap?
pressed prismatic corallites, which usually share fused
walls; plocoid-slightly more widely spaced, cylindri?
cal corallites with separate walls; phaceloid-parallel
or nearly parallel, laterally free corallites; and mean?
droid-meandering rows of confluent corallites with
walls only between rows. In meandroid coralla, rows
of corallites (valleys) alternate with slightly elevated
walls (collines); the colline may be grooved on top by
an ambulacrum. Between each pair of mesenteries is
a thin calcareous septum (sometimes called sclerosep?
tum to distinguish it from a mesentery). Each septum
is composed of numerous radiating rods (trabeculae)
arranged in a plane. The trabeculae of each septum
are usually grouped into one or more fan-shaped pat?
terns (fan systems). Usually the trabeculae are parallel
and closely adjacent (solid septum), or there is space
between the trabeculae (fenestrate septum). Small
rods or bars (synapticulae) may connect opposed
faces of adjacent septa. If the upper margin of a sep?
tum projects above the calicular edge it is termed an
exsert septum. Small vertical lobes or pillars on the
lower inner edges of the septa are termed pali or
paliform lobes. The columella is a calcareous axial
structure tiJUnd in the calices of many species. It is
quite variable in shape, including twisted or straight
rods, straight or labyrinthiform lamellae, and spongy
or solid masses. In colonial Scleractinia the calcium
carbonate deposited between corallites is called
coenosteum. It may be solid or vesicular; in the latter
case, small thin plates called dissepiments form per?
pendicular to the growth gradient, forming small
cavities in the coenosteum. Dissepiments may also 0(-
162 KINGDOM ANIMALIA
cur within the corallites of both colonial and solitary
corals.
In the Corallimorpharia, the tentacles on the oral
disc are sometimes segregated into peripheral mar?
ginal tentacles and more central discal tentacles; the
latter are often branched. Some of the unbranched
tentacles have knob-like tips (acrospheres) heavily la?
den with nematocysts.
The mesenteries in Zoanthidea are both paired
and coupled, with alternating complete and incom?
plete mesenteries, except for the 4th through 6th
mesenteries on either side of the dorsal directive.
Most zoanthids have 2 consecutive imcomplete
mesenteries in the 5th and 6th positions (the brachy?
cnemic arrangement), but some have 2 adjacent, com?
plete mesenteries in the 4th and 5th positions (the
macrocnemic arrangement).
Ceriantharia also have tentacles of 2 kinds: short
labial tentacles surrounding the mouth, and larger
peripherally arranged marginal tentacles. Mesen?
teries are arranged in couples, not pairs, which one
after another develop in the multiplication chamber
situated opposite the single siphonoglyph. Successive
couples are arranged in a regular bilateral pattern of
repeating duplets (suborder Penicillaria) or quartets
(suborder Spirularia) of mesenteries. Mesenterial
filaments may bear both craspedonemes, thread-like,
branched, and often bunched processes, or a single
aboral acontioid, a short, thick, acontium-like thread.
The horny skeleton (axis) of Antipatharia is often
covered by numerous small spines. If a colony con?
sists primarily of a single main stem it is called mono?
podial but even monopodial colonies may bear pin?
nules (symmetrically arranged, simple or branched
ramifications of smaller branch diameter). If the pin?
nule branches dichotomously once or twice, second?
ary and tertiary pinnules, respectively, result. There
are no calcareous elements in the mesoglea.
Characters used in the classification of
the Alcyonaria include nature of the skele?
ton if any, arrangement of polyps, branch?
ing pattern, terminal branch diameter,
sometimes color and, most importantly,
the shape and distribution of sclerites. The
sclerites can be easily separated from the
tissue by dropping a small amount of
sodium hypochlorite (full-strength com?
mercial bleach) onto a small piece of tissue
on a glass slide. Within minutes the or?
ganic tissue dissolves and the sclerites may
be rinsed, covered with a cover slip, and
examined. For more permanent mounts
the sclerites should be repeatedly rinsed
with water in a small vial, after which an
alcoholic suspension of spicules should be
pipetted onto a slide, allowed to dry, and
mounted in balsam or a synthetic resin.
To identify the non-skeleton-bearing
Zoantharia (Actiniaria, Corallimorpharia,
Ceriantharia, Zoanthidea), both the inter?
nal and external anatomy must be exam?
ined. This is generally done on the basis of
preserved specimens. Menthol or mag?
nesium chloride may be used to relax
specimens prior to preservation. The gen?
eral internal anatomy is best studied on the
basis of a transverse cut of the column. To
determine the character of the (marginal)
sphincter a longitudinal cut is required in
addition. To study the general anatomy of
Ceriantharia it is enough to make a longi?
tudinal cut of the body. It may also be im?
portant to examine the types and distribu?
tion of nematocysts, though this is not
necessary for identifying Bermuda species,
The nematocysts are prepared by making
a squash preparation of a tiny piece of
(preferably living) tissue in a drop of sea?
water. Examine with a microscope (prefer?
ably with interference contrast) under oil
immersion (l,000 x ).
The classification of the Scleractinia re?
lies entirely on characteristics of the coral?
lum. The tissue should be removed by
soaking the specimen in sodium hypochlo?
rite, followed by thorough rinsing. It may
be necessary to cut through or break a
corallum to examine its internal structure.
Identification of the Antipatharia re?
quires examination of the colony form,
axis spination, and external characteristics
of the polyp.
Haematoxylin and eosin and Gomori
Trichrome Stain are usually good histo?
logical stains for anthozoan tissue.
Fixation and Preservation: In general,
all anthozoans can be fixed in 6-10% for?
malin (mixed with seawater) and pre?
served in 70% ethanol. Exceptions are Ac?
tiniaria and Zoanthidea, which retain their
colors better in formalin. It is usually desir?
able to fix the specimen in the expanded
ANTHOZOA 163
condition. For gorgonians and zoanthids a
7.5-8.0% solution of magnesium chloride
in fresh water is effective for narcotization.
The magnesium chloride is repeatedly
substituted for half of the water in the con?
tainer until most of the seawater has been_
replaced. The animal is then killed with
concentrated formalin. Menthol crystals
dropped on the water surface are effective
in relaxing many Actiniaria and Cerian?
tharia. Scleractinia are usually preserved
dry, as are some gorgonians and anti?
patharians. Bouin's fixative may be used
for histology; however, neither Bouin's
nor formalin should be used in cases
where calcareous structures are to be pre?
served.
BIOLOGY: Sexual reproduction is either
dioecious or hermaphroditic; protandrous
hermaphroditism is usual in monoecious
forms. Gonads are often limited to certain
mesenteries. Fertilization is either internal
or external. Periods of sexual activity for
most species are unknown. The gorgonian
Plexaura homomalla is sexually active in
June and July; however, some tropical
Scleractinia are fertile year round, but on a
lunar periodicity. All orders except Ac?
tiniaria and Ceriantharia include species
that produce colonies by asexual repro?
duction. The original founder polyp, a
product of sexual reproduction, may pro?
duce colonies consisting of millions of
asexually budded polyps. When budding
occurs the original polyp usually remains
intact and one additional polyp is pro?
duced, either within the original tentacular
ring (intratentacular budding) or outside
of it (extratentacular budding). In the case
of parricidal budding, however, the origi?
nal polyp is destroyed, giving rise to
numerous daughter polyps. Although the
Actiniaria do not produce colonies, they
are capable of asexual reproduction by
pedal laceration and longitudinal and
transverse fission. Transverse fission is also
known to occur in Ceriantharia. Growth
rates and longevity of anthozoans are also
poorly known. One tropical shallow-water
gorgonian has an annual growth rate of
0.1-4.0 cm, whereas a deep-water species is
known to average 0.9 cm/yr. Branching
reef Scleractinia may grow 4.5-27 cm/yr,
massive species 0.3-1.9 cm/yr, and deep?
water ahermatypes about 0.6 cm/yr. Anti?
patharians can grow 2-10 cm/yr. Some
deep-water gorgonians and antipatharians
reach sexual maturity at 12-13 yr and may
live for over 70 yr. Actinians have been
kept in aquaria for over 70 yr, and it is not
unreasonable to surmise that some massive
colonial corals are centuries old.
Anthozoans obtain nourishment by a
variety of methods. Most are suspension
feeders, preying on zooplankton and small
crustaceans, fish, jellyfish, etc., by using
their tentacles and extruded mesenterial
filaments. Both structures have abundant
nematocysts that, when discharged, are ca?
pable of immobilizing and adhering to
small animals. Cilia and mucus aid in the
capture and transport of food to the
mouth. In this manner many anthozoans
are also known to ingest particulate or?
ganic matter (detritus), including bacteria,
in the same manner. Dissolved organics
are quickly assimilated, but their role in
nutrition is not fully understood. Some an?
thozoans may also receive nourishment
from a symbiotic relationship. All orders
except the Pennatulacea, Ceriantharia and
Antipatharia include species that possess
symbiotic dinoflagellate algae (zooxanthel?
lae) in their endodermal tissue. These sym?
biotic species are especially abundant in
tropical reef habitats. The zooxanthellae
receive protection and waste products
from the anthozoan, whereas the advan?
tages to the anthozoan are variable and not
fully understood. Zooxanthellae undoubt?
edly promote calcification in Scleractinia;
in general, zooxanthellae probably provide
some nourishment for the anthozoan in
the form of dissolved organics, e.g., vita?
mins, glucose and amino acids. Some gor-
164 KINGDOM ANIMALIA
REFERENCES: For general information see HYMAN
(1940) and BAYER & OWRE (1968). General refer?
ences to the following orders include: Alcyonacea,
Gorgonacea, and Pennatulacea (BAYER 1956;
BAYER & WEINHEIMER 1974; CAIRNS 1976);
Actiniaria and Corallimorpharia (CARLGREN 1949;
DEN HARTOG 1980); Scleractinia (WELLS 1956);
Zoanthidea (HADDON & SHACKLETON 1891,
CARLGREN 1923); Ceriantharia (CARLGREN
1912; DEN HARTOG 1977); and Antipatharia (OP?
RESKO 1972).
For a general reference to Bermuda's Anthozoa
see VERRILL (1900a, 1901 a, 1907b). Specific refer?
ences to the Bermudian fauna include Alcyonaria
(BAYER 1961; VERRILL 1900a, 1907b); Actiniaria
(VERRILL 1899, 1900a, 1907b); Scleractinia (VER?
RILL 1900a, 1901 b, c, 1907b; LABORE I. 1966;
WELLS 1972); Corallimorpharia (VERRI1.1. 1907b,
DEN HARTOG 19S0); Zoanthidea (VERRILL
1900a, 1907b); Ceriantharia (VERRILL 190Ia). Anti?
patharia are previously unreported from Bermuda.
gonians seem to depend entirely on nutri ?
tion from the zooxanthellae; they die if
placed in darkness, even if provided with
food.
Although formidably armed with ne?
matocysts for protection, Anthozoa are not
immune to predation. Some of the most
common predators are gastropods, poly?
chaetes, echinoids, asteroids, pycnogo?
nids and fishes.
There are numerous associations, both
parasitic and symbiotic, of Anthozoa with
other animals, e. g., parasitic copepods in
most gorgonian gastrovascular cavities;
pycnogonid cysts on gorgonians; and Mil?
lepora encrustation of branching corals.
Other less destructive examples include as?
sociations of Actiniaria with ciliate proto?
zoans, amphipods, shrimps, crabs and
fishes; Zoanthidea with sponges; gorgo?
nians with ophiuroids and crinoids; and
gorgonians and scleractinians with poly?
chaetes, which alter the coral branches to
form their tubes.
Plate 36
DEVELOPMENT: The fertilized anthozoan
zygote undergoes cleavage, resulting in a
stereo- or coeloblastula. Gastrulation pro?
ceeds by delamination and invagination, or
ingression, producing a ciliated planula,
the common planktonic larva. The planula
may drift in the plankton for weeks, dur?
ing which time it forms its first mesen?
teries. A ring of tentacles is formed, usu?
ally after the planula has settled. The
pelagic larvae of zoanthids are called zoan?
thella (or Semper's larva) and zoanthina.
The former usually develop into species of
Palythoa, the latter into Zoanthus. The
planulae of Ceriantharia float on the sur?
face and are therefore often collected in
surface plankton tows. These larvae pass
through a cerinula stage of 6 mesenteries.
S.CL.
O.
F.
ALCYONARIA (= OCTOCO?
RALLIA): Colonial Anthozoa
with 8 pinnate (feathered) tenta?
cles and 8 unpaired mesenteries.
(All orders but the Stolonifera,
T elestacea and Coenothecalia are
represented in Bda.)
Plate 46
ALCYONACEA (Soft corals):
Alcyonaria with thick and encrust?
ing, lobate, or erect and arbores?
cent attached colonies consisting
of very long polyps that usually
extend from the base of the col?
ony to the uppermost branches.
(Of approximately 1,000 species
only 14 are known from the west?
ern Atlantic; 1 has been collected
from Bda.)
NIDALIIDAE: Alcyonacea with
simple or divided, stiff, cylin?
drical branches. Coenenchyme
rigid, densely packed with tuber-
ANTHOZOA 165
o.
8.0.
F.
culate spindles. Anthocodial ar?
mature in form of crown and
points.
Nidalia occidentalis Gray (Dan?
delion coral): Clavate colonies
with polyps containing flat scales
with scalloped edges. Granulated
platelets abundant in pharyngeal
walls. Spindles have diameters of
about 1/6 their lengths. Colonies
white, pale orange or yellowish
brown. Lower shelf and upper
slope depths. (Color Plate 5.12.)
GORGONACEA (Sea fans, Sea
whips): Alcyonaria with arbo?
rescent (rarely lobate or encrust?
ing), attached colonies consisting
of polyps with uniformly short
gastrovascular cavities. Special?
ized axial structures usually pres?
ent. (Of approximately 1,200
species, 23 are known from Bda;
20 are included here.)
SCLERAXONIA: Gorgonacea
with axial structure composed of
free or fused spicules.
BRIAREIDAE: Scleraxonia with
axis of separate spicules; axis
perforated by gastrodermal ca?
nals throughout the branches
and not separated from cortex by
boundary canals. (1 sp. from
Bda.)
Briareum polyanthes (Duch. &
Mich.): Genus with large (up to
0.8 mm) tuberculate spindles and
3-armed bodies.-Species forms
incrustations on rocks, dead
coral, and other living gorgo?
nians. Polyps very large, purplish
brown. At few nearshore lo?
calities.
S.O.
F.
HOLAXONIA: Gorgonacea
with a distinct central axis com?
posed of horny material or a mix?
ture of horny and calcareous sub?
stances.
PLEXAURIDAE: Holaxonia
with a soft, cross-chambered cen?
tral core. Cortex of axis loc?
ulated. Sclerites often over 0.20
mm long; clubs usually present.
Branches stout. (14 spp. from
Bda.)
Plexaura homomalla (Esper)
(=P lexauropsis tricolor Stiasny,
1935): Genus with stout tree?
like colonies having thick, bushy
branches. Outer layer of rind
with sclerites composed mostly
of spindles and clubs; inner layer
of spiny spindles that are usu?
ally purple.-Species with end
branches 2.5-5.0 mm wide. Inner
rind contains purple capstans,
middle rind composed of spin?
dles, and outer rind with large
asymmetric leaf-clubs having
serrate leaves with distinct
transverse collaret. Colonies to
35 em tall; dark brown. On patch
reefs and outer reefs. Most active
spawning VI-VII. Growth rate:
0.13-4.2 cm/yr, average 2.0 cm/
yr. Predators: gastropods Cypho?
ma gibbosum (Flamingo tongue)
and Simnia; also labrid fish.
P. flexuosa Lamouroux (= P. ed?
wardsi sensu Stiasny, 1935):
Genus as above.-Species with
end branches 2.5-4.5 mm wide.
Inner rind contains purple cap?
stans and short rods, middle rind
composed of short spindles,
outer rind large leaf-clubs with
serrate folia. Anthocodia without
Briareum polyanthes
~~03mm
~ ~ ~
~ ~ 05mm
l i Plexaura homomalla)1mm
46 ALCYONACEA, GORGONACEA 1 (Soft corals 1)
166
ANTHOZOA
collaret. Colonies to 40 cm tall.
Color variable: yellow, brown,
purple and reddish purple; com?
monly purple in Bermuda.
Primarily a clear-water (patch
reef and outer reef) species.
Spawning VI-VII. The dominant
octocoral species in shallow water
(to 3 m). (Color Plate 5.8-10.)
Pseudoplexaura porosa (Hout?
tuyn) (= Plexauropsis bieolor Ver?
rill, 1907; P. erassa sensu Verrill,
1907): Genus with outer' rind of
smooth leaf-clubs or smooth?
headed wart-clubs, spiny spin?
dles, and capstans, all colorless.
Middle rind with white or pur?
ple spindles. Polyps lacking scler?
ites and fully retractile, resulting
in gaping, elliptical pores on
branch.-Species with calycular
apertures separated by distances
smaller than their own diameters
(hence the porous appearance of
dry specimens!). Apertures 1.0?
1.5 mm wide. Leaf-clubs of outer
rind large (to 0.4 mm long) and
coarsely sculptured; spindles also
large (to 1 mm long), often uni?
laterally spinose. Colonies to 225
cm tall (!), yellow, brownish or
reddish purple. Extremely com?
mon. Near shore, patch and
outer reefs, 1-15 m. (Color Plate
5.3,4.)
P. Jlagellosa (Houttuyn) (= Plex?
aura esperi Verrill, 1907): Genus
as above.-Species with calycular
apertures usually separated by
distances greater than their own
diameters. Apertures 0.5-1.0 mm
wide. Leaf-clubs of outer rind
rarely exceed 0.1 mm in length
and have r~lUnded folia, usually
not globose; spindles slender,
167
rarely over 0.4 mm long, with
simple sculpture. Colonies to 100
cm tall; purple. Inner and outer
reefs, 5-15 m.
P. wagenaari (Stiasny): Genus
as above.-Species with calycular
aperture separated by distances
greater than their own diame?
ters. Apertures 0.5-1.0 mm wide.
Leaf-clubs of outer rind rarely
exceed 0.2 mm and have globose
heads; spindles stout, usually less
than 0.5 mm long, with com?
plicated sculpture. Colonies to 30
cm tall. Rose, gray, light greenish
gray or purple. Inner and outer
reefs, 5-15 m.
Plate 47
Eunicea fusca Duch. & Mich.:
Genus with tree-like colonies and
bushy branches with prominent,
tubular calyces. Outer rind with
small, colorless clubs and purple,
warty spindles; middle rind with
large colorless, white or purple
spindles.-Species with terminal
branches 3 mm or less in diame?
ter. Outer rind contains small
(rarely over 0.1 mm) wart-clubs;
middle rind has spindles about 1
mm long. Colonies rarely above
50 cm tall; gray.
E. tourneforti Milne Edwards &
Haime (= Eunieeopsis atra Verrill,
1901 a; Eunieeopsis tourneforti
sensu Verrill, 1907): Genus as
above.-Species with outer rind
containing leaf-clubs and wart?
clubs to 0.15 mm long; middle
rind with stout, long (to 1.5 mm)
0.1 mm
1.5mm E. calyculata
0.3mm
47 Eunicea, Plexaurella (Soft corals 2)
168
ANTHOZOA
spindles. Colonies broad, can?
delabrum-shaped. The typical
form has terminal branches lO?
15 mm in diameter and well?
developed lower calycular lips. E.
lourneforli f. alra Verrill, 1901 a,
has terminal branch diameters of
6-10 mm and poorly developed
lower calycular lips. Colonies to
61 em tall; dark gray, blackish
brown, or black. Most common
on outer reefs and reef slope.
(Color Plate 5.15, 16.)
E. clavigera Bayer: Genus as
above.-Species with outer rind
containing small leaf-clubs about
0.1 mm long; middle rind with
very long (to 3 mm) spindles.
Colonies straggly, not candela?
brum-shaped. No collaret. Col?
onies rarely larger than 50 em;
brown.
E. calyculata s. s. (Ellis & Solan?
der) (=E. grandis Verrill, 1900a;
Euniceopsis grandis sensu Verrill,
1907): Genus as above.-Spe?
cies with outer rind containing
small wart-clubs, rarely longer
than 0.15 mm; middle rind with
large (to 2 mm) white spindles re?
sembling rice grains. Colonies
not candelabrum-shaped. Dis?
tinct collaret present. Branches
long and stout, 8-16 mm in diam?
eter. To 1 m tall; yellowish
brown. On patch reefs and near?
shore; never abundant.
Plexaurella dichotoma (Es?
per): Ge~1Us with rind contain?
ing numerous quadriradiates
("butterfly spicules"). Erect, di?
chotomously branched colonies
of thick, furry appearance. Calyc?
ular apertures slit-like.-Species
with weakly armed polyps, the
169
rods only 0.05-0.07 mm long.
Rind containing numerous stout
tri- and quadriradiates both to
0.5 mm long. Colonies to 100 em
tall; yellowish brown. On outer,
inner and patch reefs.
P. nutans (Duch. & Mich.):
Genus as above.-Species has
strongly armed polyps with stout
rods about 0.3 mm long. Rind
containing tri- and quadri?
radiates with slender arms,
length of sclerites to 0.45 mm.
Colony sparsely branched, to 100
em tall; gray or brown. On inner
and outer reefs.
Plate 48
Muricea laxa Verrill: Genus
with arborescent, densely
branched colonies. Branches
hard and prickly, with numer?
ous, close-set, tubular or shelf?
like, lower calycular nms
(edges).-Species with calyces
having long spindles that are
spiny proximally and smooth dis?
tally, forming prominent termi?
nal spikes in the calyx. Branching
lateral; end branches long, thin
(2-3 mm in diameter) and flex?
ible. Colonies 25-30 em tall; gray,
bluish white or yellow. Usually
found in deeper water of outer
reef, but sometimes as shallow as
2 m. (Color Plate 5.5-7.)
M. muricata (Pallas): Genus as
above.-Species with tuberculate
outer rind spindles lacking
smooth terminal spikes. Branch?
ing lateral in 1 plane; end
branches short and thick (4.5-6.0
170 KINGDOM ANIMALIA
M. atlantica
M mUricata
48 Muricea (Soft corals 3)
mm in diameter). Axis conspicu?
ously flattened at points of
branching. Rarely over 30 em
tall; white, beige or yellow. Com?
mon on patch and outer reefs.
M. atlantica (Kiikenthal) (=M.
muricata sensu Verrill, 1907):
Genus as above.-Similar to
above species, except that axis is
not flattened at points of branch?
ing. Also, outer rind spindles
sometimes have strong spines on
one side. Rarely over 50 em tall;
white or yellow. Outer reefs.
(Color Plate 5.13, 14.)
Pseudopterogorgia americana
(Gmelin) (= Gorgonia americana
sensu Verrill, 1907): Genus
with pinnate branching, twigs
round or slightly flattened;
branches do not anastomose.
Two types of sclerites predomi?
nate: straight spindles and C?
shaped scaphoids.-Species very
slimy to the touch when alive
(when dead, the mucus usually
causes the branches to stick to?
gether). Scaphoid sclerites tuber?
culate on the concave side and
echinulate on the convex side.
Colonies to 100 em tall; pale yel?
low or light purple. Common on
inner and outer reefs.
Plate 49
F. GORGONIIDAE: Holaxonia
with a soft, cross-~hamberedcen?
tral core. Sclerites rarely over
0.15 mm long; no clubs. Cortex
of axis slightly loculated. (3 spp.
from Bda.)
P. acerosa (Pallas) (Sea plume):
Genus as above.-Species not
slimy in life. Scaphoids weakly
curved, more or less smooth on
the convex side. Colonies to 180
em tall. Color of live colony light
purple, purple-red or light yel?
low becoming white upon drying.
ANTHOZOA 171
O.18mm
Pseudopterogorgia acerosa
"..oJ
'0(0
r\ I? .!"irI' .~~.,
T'\
Ellisella'
barbadensis,9
6ocm)
~
~Ii~\O.05mm J
,~J
(:.,j~i.:i.JV?
49 GORGONIIDAE, ELLISELLIDAE (Soft corals 4), PENNATULACEA (Sea pens)
Mostly nearshore; often host to
snails (Cyphoma) , the shrimp To?
zeuma and brittle stars.
Pterogorgia citrina (Esper)
(=Gorgonia citrina sensu Verrill,
1900a, 1907): Branching lat?
eral; end branches slender, stiff,
and strongly flattened. Branches
do not anastomose. Slit-like caly?
ces arranged along the 2 narrow
edges of the branches. Scaph?
oids, spindles, and anthocodial
rods present in coenenchyme.
Colonies to 45 cm tall; yellow,
sometimes with purple edges.
Primarily inshore. (Color Plate
5.1, 2.)
172 KINGDOM ANI MALIA
F.
O.
S.O.
Gorgonia ventalina L. (= G. fla?
bellum sensu Verrill, 1907):
Branches anastomose, forming
uniplanar, reticulate, fan-shaped
colonies. Branches round or
slightly compressed in the plane
of the fan. Very small calyces
located in 2 rows along edges of
branches. Scaphoids, spindles,
and anthocodial rods present in
coenenchyme. Colonies to 180
em tall and ISO em wide; purple,
rarely yellow or brown. Re?
stricted to outer and patch reefs:
(Color Plate 5.17.)
ELLISELLIDAE: Holaxonia
with a solid, calcified, flexible,
horny core. Spicules characteris?
tically dumbbell-shaped or clubs.
(3 spp. from Bda.)
Ellisella barbadensis (Duch. &
Mich.): Whip-like, unbranched
colonies with biserial or multiple
lateral bands of calyces. Whips to
2 m long and usually less than 8
mm in diameter; vermilion red
when alive. Most common on the
fore-reef slope (50 m and more).
(Color Plate 14.5.)
PENNATULACEA (Sea pens):
Alcyonaria without branches and
not firmly attached to substrate.
Primary polyp elongate proxI?
mally, forming a stalk which an?
chors the colony in mud. Second?
ary polyps originate from distal
rachis. (Of approximately 300
described species, only I IS
known from Bda.)
SESSILIFLORAE: Pennatulacea
with secondary polyps arising di?
rectly from rachis, not united
near their bases by ridge-like or
leaf-like structures.
F. KOPHOBELEMNIDAE: Sessi?
Iiflorae with bilaterally oriented
polyps on rachis, leaving a dorsal
streak bare. Colonies clavate,
with a well-developed axis.
Sclerobelemnon ef. theseus Bayer:
Slender, elongate, slightly clavate
colonies with aut6zooids ar?
ranged in about 9 irregular lon?
gitudinal rows. Sclerites are small
oval or slightly constricted
platelets with serrated ends, and
flat scales resembling double?
bitted axe heads. Colonies to IS
em tall; orange or yellow. At
depths of 50-60 m. (Color Plate
5.11.)
S.CL. ZOANTHARIA (= HEXACO?
RALLIA): Colonial or solitary
Anthozoa usually with more than
8 simple (not pinnate) tentacles.
Mesenteries both paired and un?
paired. (All recent orders of this
subclass are represented in Bda.)
O. ACTINIARIA (Sea anemones):
Solitary Zoantharia with hex?
amerously arranged mesentery
pairs. After first 6 pairs of
mesenteries, additional pairs are
formed in all exocoels. Each ten?
tacle corresponds to one inter?
mesenterial space. No skeleton.
(Of approximately 800-1,000
species III this order, 17 are
known from Bda, IS are Ill ?
eluded here. Of the 5 super?
families, the Abasilaria and
Mesomyaria are not represented
in Bda.)
Plate 50
SUP.F. BOLOCEROIDARIA: Actinia?
na without marginal sphincter
ANTHOZOA 173
F.
F.
muscle. Column divided into
scapus (often bearing vesicles)
and scapulus. Acontia absent.
BOLOCEROIDIDAE: Boloce?
roidaria with tentacles separated
from the coelenteron by a thin,
centrally perforated diaphragm
and a sphincter, which cause
the tentacles to break off easily
at this partition. Basilar muscles
absent. (2 spp. from Bda.)
Bunodeopsis antilliensis Duerden
(=B. globulifera Verrill, 1900a):
Scapus provided with sessile or
stalked vesicles of variable shape
and development (small and sim?
ple to large and highly com?
pound), and variegated in color,
usually green, brown or white.
Scapulus, oral disc, and tentacles
smooth and transparent. Mouth
occasionally surrounded by a
blue ring. With 20-40 tentacles,
variable in length and densely
speckled with fine white dots
(nematocyst batteries); usually
expanded only at night. Diame?
ter of base rarely exceeds 15 mm.
Common on dead coral, living
sponges, mangrove roots, and
Thalassia leaves. With zooxan?
thellae. Asexual reproduction by
pedal laceration common. A
strong stinger. (Color Plate 6.1.)
ALICIIDAE: Boloceroidaria
with tentacles in open connection
with the coelenteron. Basilar
muscles weak. (1 sp. from Bda.)
Lebrunia danae Duch. & Mich.
(Brown anemone; B Gill-bearing
anemone): Scapus smooth, with
4-8 highly expandable, dendritic
pseudotentacles that bear con?
spicuous, semiglobular, white to
bluish nematocyst batteries.
Scapus and pseudotentacles usu?
ally brown (zooxanthellae). Oral
disc has 96 tentacles, speckled
with fine white dots (nematocyst
batteries). Diameter of pedal disc
to 5 em, that of the expanded
crown of pseudotentacles often
more than 25 em. Found in reef
habitats, the base attached in
holes or cracks among coral and
rocks. Expands pseudotentacles
during daytime (photosynthesis),
and tentacles at night (feeding).
A severe stinger. In deeper wa?
ters (10m) often associated with
the shrimp Thor amboinensis.
(Color Plate 9.11.)
SUP.F. ACONTIARIA: Actiniaria with
a mesogleal sphincter. Acontia
always present.
F. AIPTASIIDAE: Acontiaria with
a very weak sphincter. Column
divided into scapus and scapu?
Ius. Scapus smooth, with cin?
clides. Tentacles often long. Six,
rarely 8 pairs of perfect, fertile
mesenteries. (2 spp. from Bda.)
Bartholomea annulata (Lesueur)
(=Aiptasia annulata sensu Ver?
rill, 1900a, 1907) (Ringed
anemone): Tentacles with dis?
tinct white to faint blue, incom?
plete annulations. Common in
bays, inlets and on coral reefs,
among rocks, stones and corals.
Also common in mangrove areas,
but usually not on the mangrove
roots. No asexual reproduction.
With zooxanthellae. (Color Plate
6.5.)
176 KINGDOM ANI MALIA
bottoms. Usually found In
crevices or under stones. (Color
Plate 6.11.)
Plate 51
SUP.F. ENDOMYARIA: Actiniaria
with an endodermal, occasionally
reduced sphincter. Acontia ab?
sent.
F. ACTINIIDAE: Endomyaria
with a distinct sphincter (rarely
reduced) and with an adherent
pedal disc with well-developed
basilar muscles. Column divided
into scapus and a narrow ca?
pitulum. More than 6 pairs of
mesenteries are perfect. (8 spp.
from Bda.)
Actinia bermudensis (McMur?
rich) (B Red anemone): Col?
umn smooth and low, deep red
to brownish. Fossa contains 0-24
blue, globular acrorhagi. Oral
disc with 96-140 rather short,
acute tentacles. Tentacles with?
out pattern and often more
brightly colored than the rest of
the body. Two pairs of directive
mesenteries and 2 distinct si?
phonoglyphs. Diameter of base
to 4 cm. Intertidally in holes and
under stones, often in rather
exposed localities. Viviparous;
asexual reproduction by longi?
tudinal fission has occasionally
been reported. (Color Plate 6.2.)
Pseudactinia melanaster (Verrill)
( = Anemonia elegans Verrill,
1901a, 1907; Actinia melanaster
sensu Verrill, 1901 a, 1907;
Anemonia sargassensis; Anemonia
antilliensis) (B Dark-star anem?
one): Column smooth, low,
fawn colored to reddish brown.
Variable number (sometimes
none) of cream colored acrorhagi
on parapet. Oral disc with 30-200
tapering tentacles, usually with
acute tips. Oral disc with a dis?
tinct, stellate pattern of alternat?
ing pale and dark stripes. No
directive mesenteries or si?
phonoglyphs. Diameter of base
varies from 0.5 to 4.0 cm. Subtid?
ally and intertidally on exposed
shores, in pools, on and under
stones and in holes. A small form
of this species occurs on floating
Sargassum. Asexual reproduction
by longitudinal fission common.
(Color Plate 6.3.)
Condylactis gigantea (Weinland)
(=G. passifiora sensu Verrill,
1901 a; Ilyanthopsis longifilis sensu
Verrill, 1907) (B Purple-tipped
anemone): Column smooth,
short-cylindrical to trumpet?
shaped; color bluish gray, yellow?
ish or brick-red. Acrorhagi ab?
sent. Up to 150 long, tapering,
greenish or brownish tentacles
with a conspicuous design of
pale, densely arranged, ruffte?
like striae. Tentacle tips blunt or
slightly swollen, often rose or
purple (less frequently blue or
bright green). Diameter of ex?
panded oral disc and tentacles to
30 cm; of base to 8 cm. Juveniles
often with knobby tentacles.
Common in shallow water (less
than 10m) usually on coral reefs,
rubble flats and Thalassia fields.
With zooxanthellae. Often associ?
ated with shrimp (e.g., Pericli?
menes anthophilus, Thor amboinen?
sis), crabs (e.g., Stenorhynchus
seticornis, Mithrax spp.), and a va-
Actinia bermudensis
Anthopleura carneola
51 ENDOMYARIA (Sea anemones 2)
177
178 KINGDOM ANI MALIA
riety of fishes (e.g., juvenile
wrasses, Apogon spp.). (Color
Plate 9.12.)
Anthopleura carneola (Verrill)
(=B unodactis stelloides var. car?
neola Verrill, 1907; A. varioar?
mata): Genus with acrorhagi
and scapus covered with adhe?
sive warts. Sphincter often cir?
cumscript.-Species with dirty?
green, pink or wine-colored col?
umn, which is entirely covered
with bright green, yellowish? or
reddish warts. Lower part of col?
umn often pale. Variable num?
ber of cream colored to faint red?
dish acrorhagi in the fossa. Oral
disc with 30-60 short, acute tenta?
cles, with or without a faint pat?
tern. Diameter of base to 2 em.
Common in the upper parts of
the intertidal zone under stones,
in holes or crevices. Columnar
warts often encrusted with shell
fragments. Asexual reproduc?
tion by longitudinal fission.
A. catenulata (Verrill) (= Ac?
tinoides pallida sensu Verrill
1900a; Bunodactis stelloides var.
catenulata Verrill, 1907): Cenus
as above.-Species with elongate
milk-white to pale pink colored
column. Warts of the same colors
restricted to the upper part of
the column. Oral disc with 20-43
tentacles, which have a conspicu?
ous color pattern. Oral disc usu?
ally with a conspicuous green
ring around the mouth. Diame?
ter of base to 1.5 em. Common
under stones and in crevices in
tide pools; also found in sand,
the base attached to buried
stones. Upper part of column of?
ten covered by shell fragments
adhering to the warts. No asexual
reproduction.
Bunodosoma granuliferum (Le?
sueur): Column short and cy?
lindrical, completely covered with
small vesicles and marked by a
pattern of alternating pale and
dark longitudinal bands. Parapet
modified into small, marginal
lobes that often bear cream or
pinkish, globular acrorhagi on
their aboral face. Oral disc with
96 (rarely more) brown, orange,
purple to almost black tentacles
with opaque, grayish or white
cross bars above. Diameter of
base to 5 em. Found intertidally
on exposed shores, but usually in
sheltered niches (under stones, in
holes); not common. (Color Plate
6.12.)
Actinostella flosculifera (Lesueur)
( = Phyllactis ftosculifera; Asteractis
expansa; Actinactis fiosculifera
sensu Verrill 1900a; Asteractis
ftosculifera sensu Verrill 1899,
1907) (Sand anemone): Col?
umn elongate when expanded,
with a broad, grayish to yellowish
green, disc-shaped collar, pro?
vided with numerous, radially ar?
ranged, short, often branched
protuberances. Scapus often with
a flamed pattern of cream and
bluish gray or red; the upper
scapus is darker and provided
with longitudinal rows of distinct
warts. Oral disc with 48 tentacles,
often green, yellow or red with
cream colored crossbars above.
Expanded collar to 10 em across;
base to 4 em. With zooxanthellae.
On sandy flats, in bays and inlets,
and on reefs; rarely seen. Often
buried in the sand, the base at-
ANTHOZOA 179
F.
o.
tached to a solid substrate, the
expanded collar resting on the
sand. Viviparous.
PHYMANTHIDAE: Endomy?
ana with or without a weak
sphincter and with an adherent
pedal disc with well-developed
basilar muscles. Column not di?
vided into regIOns. Oral disc
wide; divided into a distinct, pe?
ripheral, tentaculate region and a
central region with radial rows of
wart-like protuberance's (discal
tentacles). (l sp. from Bda.)
Epicystis crucifer (Lesueur)
(= Phymanthus crucifer) (B Cross?
barred anemone): Column
short and trumpet-shaped, with a
flamed pattern of cream and red.
Numerous longitudinal rows of
3-6 conspicuous purple warts in
the marginal regIOn, each row
ending m a conical marginal
wart. Tentacles short, up to 384
in number. Oral disc to 15 cm
across; base to 8 cm in diameter.
Two varieties occur in Bermuda:
a form with elevated crossbars on
the tentacles and with predomi?
nantly gray (sometimes yellow,
green or dark purple) oral disc
and tentacles (Color Plate 6.9);
and a form with smooth tenta?
cles, a brown oral disc, and ten?
tacles with yellow to faint or?
ange, radial-longitudinal stripes.
(Color Plate 6.10.) Intermediates
also occur. With zooxanthellae.
In shallow water on reefs, rocky
shores and stony-sandy flats. Of?
ten in sand, the base attached to
stones; uncommon.
SCLERACTINIA (= MADRE?
PORARIA) (Stony corals): Sol-
S.O.
F.
F.
itary or colonial Zoantharia very
similar to the Actiniaria but with
a calcareous skeleton. (Of ap?
proximately 2,500 living species,
34 are known from Bda; 25 are
included here. All 5 suborders
are represented in Bda.)
Plate 52
ASTROCOENIINA: Scleracti?
ma with septa composed of a
few simple trabeculae. Corallites
small (less than 3 mm in diame?
ter); polyps rarely with more
than 12 tentacles. Colonial.
ASTROCOENIIDAE: Astrocoe?
niina with beaded septal margins
and poorly developed coeno?
steum. Phaceloid to cerioid col?
onies formed by extratentacular
budding. (l sp. from Bda.)
Stephanocoenia michelinii Milne
Edwards & Haime (= Plesiastrea
goodei Verrill, 1900a, 1901 b,
1907) (B Small-eyed star coral):
Corallum massive, cerioid to
plocoid, often encrusting. Calices
2-3 mm in diameter, containing
24 septa. Twelve paliform lobes
arranged before the 1st and 2nd
cycles of septa. Columella sty?
liform. Brown. Rare on outer
reefs; more common in open, in?
shore waters; 2-5 m.
POCILLOPORIDAE: Astrocoe?
niina having septa with smooth
mner margms or reduced to
spmes. Well-developed, solid
coenosteum. Plocoid and usually
180 KINGDOM ANI MALIA
52 ASTROCOENIINA (Stony corals 1)
ramose colonies formed by ex?
tratentacular budding. (3 spp.
from Bda.)
Madracis decactis (Lyman) (B
Ten-rayed star coral): Genus
with well-developed septa ar?
ranged in groups of 6, 8 or 10.
Columella styliform and promi?
nent.-Species with encrusting,
massive, nodular or clavate coral?
lum. Calices about 2 mm in diam?
eter, with 10 septa each. Pali ab?
sent. Green or brown. Common
on inner reefs and in inshore wa?
ters, especially on vertical reef
edges; 1-4 m.
M. mirabilis (Duch. & Mich.):
Genus as above.-Species with
bushy colonies, to 2 m in diam?
eter. Branches 5-9 mm in diame?
ter, with blunt tips. Calices 1-2
mm in diameter, with 10 septa
each. Pali absent. Pale cream to
bright yellow. Very common in
0.5-6.0 m, especially on the verti?
cal edges of inshore reefs.
S.O.
F.
Plate 53
FUNGIINA: Scleractinia with
septa composed of numerous
trabeculae in fenestrate arrange?
ment. Synapticulae present.
Corallites usually larger than 2
mm in diameter; polyps usually
with more than 12 tentacles. Col?
onial and solitary.
AGARICIIDAE: Fungiina with
solid septothecal walls. Solitary
or colonial, the latter condition
resulting from intratentacular
budding. (l sp. from Bda.)
Agaricia fragilis Dana (B Hat
coral, Shade coral): Corallum
pedicellated, with broad (rarely
over 15 cm in diameter), thin,
saucer-shaped fronds. Calices
only on upper side of frond. Up
to 24 septa per calice. No col?
umella. Chocolate- or purple?
brown. Very common in shaded
areas such as shallow caves; inner
and outer reefs, and inshore wa?
ters; 1-15 m.
S. siderea
Siderastrea radians
Agaricia fragilis
53 FUNGIINA (Stony corals 2)
181
182
F.
F.
KINGDOM ANI MALIA
SIDERASTREIDAE: Fungiina
with slightly porous, synap?
ticulothecate walls. Usually colo?
nial, formed by both extra- and
intratentacular budding. (2 spp.
from Bda.)
Siderastrea radians (Pallas) :
Genus with extratentacular bud?
ding and cerioid corallum.?
Species with spheroidal or hemi?
spherical corallum to 30 cm in
diameter. Calices 2.5-3.5 mm in
diameter, with less than 48 septal?
calice. Inner edges of septa al?
most vertical. Greenish to brown.
Common on inner and outer
reefs and in inshore waters, in- S.D.
cluding mud flats where speci-
mens may be partially buried in
the mud and periodically ex-
posed at low tide; 0-10 m.
S. siderea (Ellis & Solander):
Genus as above.-Species with
encrusting or hemispherical,
cerioid coralla to 100 cm in di?
ameter. Calices 4-5 mm in diame?
ter, with 50-60 septa. Inner edges
of septa slope gently (about 45?)
toward the papillose columella.
Light reddish brown. On inner F.
and outer reefs and in inshore
waters; fairly common; 0-10 m.
PORITIDAE: Fungiina with
extremely porous walls and
septa. Septa composed of 3-8
loosely united trabeculae. Colo?
nial, formed by extratentacular
budding. (2 spp. from Bda.)
Porites porites (Pallas) (= P. poly?
morpha Verrill, 1901 b): Genus
with 2 cycles of septa (12) and
closely united corallites.-Spe?
cies with cerioid, ramose coral?
lum consisting of thick clumps or
irregular, stout branches. Calices
about 2 mm in diameter; septa
poorly defined. Light brown to
purple. Common in open in?
shore waters; 0.5-3.0 m.
P. astreoides Lamarck: Genus
as above.-Species with cerioid,
flat to hemispherical corallum,
often covered with small bumps.
Calices about 1.5 mm in diame?
ter. Septa poorly defined. Yel?
lowish brown. Very common in
inner and outer reefs and open
inshore waters; 0.5-15 m. (Color
Plate 6.14.)
FAVIINA: Scleractinia with
septa composed of numerous
trabeculae in laminar arrange?
ment; septal edges dentate. Syn?
apticulae absent. Corallite diame?
ter usually greater than 2 mm.
Colonial and solitary.
Plate 54
FAVIIDAE: Faviina with ex?
sert septa composed of 1 or 2 fan
systems producing a more or less
regularly dentate inner margin.
Colonies formed by both intra?
and extratentacular budding.
(All 5 spp. from Bda included.)
Favia fragum (Esper) (B Small
star coral, Golf ball coral):
Small, plocoid, pebble-like coralla
or encrustations, usually less than
10 cm in diameter. Corallites
mono-, di-, or tricentric. Calicu?
lar diameter 5-6 mm. Yellowish
brown. Common on inner reefs,
in open inshore waters, and in
M. cavernosa
D.labyrinthiformis
15cm
54 FAVIIDAE (Stony corals 3)
183
184 KINGDOM ANIMALIA
tide pools; 1-6 m. Planulation Vl?
VIII.
Diploria strigosa (Dana) (=Mean?
dra cerebrum sensu Verrill, 1901 b,
1907) (Brain coral): Genus with
meandroid, sinuous series of
corallites. Paliform lobes absent.
Trabecular linkages between
corallite centers.-Species with
hemispherical, spheroidal, or en?
crusting coralla to 200 cm in di?
ameter. Valleys about 6 mm
wide; collines not grooved. 'With
15-20 septa/em. Yellow to green?
ish brown. Very common in in?
ner and outer reefs and even in
muddy bays; 1-8 m.
M. cavernosa (L.) (= Orbicella
cavernosa sensu Verrill, 1900a,
1901 b, 1907) (Great star coral):
Genus as above.-Corallum of
species shaped as massive boul?
ders, platy fronds, or encrusta?
tions to 200 cm in diameter.
Calices 5-11 mm in diameter; 48
septa/calice. Columella well de?
veloped. Brown or green. Re?
stricted to the open clear waters
of the inner and outer reefs; 3-30
m. (Color Plate 6.13.)
Plate 55
D. labyrinthiformis (L.)
(=Meandra labyrinthiformis sensu
Verrill, 1901b, 1907) (Brain
coral): Genus as above.-Spe?
cies with hemispherical coralla
reaching 200 em in diameter.
Valleys about 5 mm wide; col?
lines distinctly grooved by am?
bulacra. With 14-17 septa/em.
Yellow or brown. Very abundant
on the outer reefs and some in?
shore water; 1-30 m.
Montastrea annularis (Ellis &
Solander) (= Orbicella hispidula;
Orbicella annularis sensu Verrill,
1900a, 1901 b, 1907) (Small star
coral): Genus with plocoid
coralla and costate coenosteum.
Columella spongy.-Corallum of
species shaped as massive boul?
ders, upright pillars, or encrusta?
tions to 200-300 em in diameter.
Calices 2-4 mm in diameter; 24
septa/calice. No paliform lobes;
columella well developed. Yel?
10wish to brown. Very common
on inner and outer reefs and in
open inshore waters; 1-30 m.
F. RHIZANGIIDAE: Faviina with
septa composed of 1 fan system
that produces an irregular septal
margin. Colony formation by
extratentacular, stoloniferous
budding, with individual polyps
often losing their original con?
nections. (3 spp. from Bda.)
Astrangia solitaria (Lesueur):
Solitary corallites or quasicol?
onies formed by asexual budding
from basal stolons. Stolons often
subsequently disrupted, giving
the appearance of exclusively sol?
itary corallites. Corallites cylin?
drical, 5-20 mm tall, 3-4 mm in
diameter. With 36 septa; no
paliform lobes. Common but
cryptic; found on undersurfaces
of rocks or other corals; 1-3 m.
Ahermatypic. (Co~or Plate 6.7.)
Colangia immersa Pourtales:
Solitary corallites or quasi?
colonies formed by asexual bud?
ding from a common basal sto?
lon. Corallites cylindrical, to 10
mm tall, 6-7 mm in diameter.
".i'if., ,
O. valenciennesi
'.".~..".?~:
4'
55 RHIZANGIIDAE-MUSSIDAE (Stony corals 4)
185
186 KINGDOM ANIMALIA
F.
With 48 septa; those of 1st cycle
much more exsert than others.
Twelve paliform lobes. Green,
with clear tentacles. Rare; found
on undersides of platy corals; 3?
95 m. Ahermatypic.
OCULINIDAE: Faviina with
exsert septa composed of 1 fan
system that produces a smooth or
minutely dentate septal margin.
Coenosteum dense. Colony for?
mation by extratentacular bud?
ding. (4 spp. from Bda.)
Oculina diffusa Lamarck (Ivory
coral, Bush coral): Genus with
well-developed columella of
twisted processes. Pali arranged
in an irregular crown before first
1 or 2 cycles of septa. No axial
corallites.-Species have ramose,
compact colonies rarely exceed?
ing 30 cm in diameter. Branches
to 10 mm in diameter. Calice 3-4
mm in diameter; 24 septa/calice.
Pale yellow. Very common on in?
shore reefs and some inshore wa?
ters, especially in areas of high
sedimentation; 1-3 m.
O. varicosa Lesueur (Large ivory
coral, Tree coral): Genus as
above.-Species with open, ir?
regularly branched, arborescent
coralla to 40 cm tall. Branches
long, crooked, to 50 mm in diam?
eter. Calices usually raised on
mounds. Calicular diameter 3-4
mm. Rare; found in some In?
shore waters; 12-25 m.
O. valenciennesi Milne Edwards
& Haime (Ivory coral, Tree
coral): Genus as above.?
Species with open, irregularly
branched arborescent colonies to
F.
F.
40 cm tall. Branches long, 12-20
mm in diameter. Calices low, of?
ten sunken in the coenosteum,
surrounded by a low ridge.
Calicular diameter 3-5 mm. Yel?
low. Common in some inshore
waters; 2-20 m.
MEANDRINIDAE: Faviina
with exsert septa composed of 1
fan system that produces a
smooth or finely dentate septal
margin. Well-developed en?
dothecal dissepiments. Solitary,
or colonial by intratentacular
budding. (2 spp. from Bda.)
M eandrina meandrites (L.):
Massive, rounded or flat boul?
ders reaching to 100 cm in di?
ameter (rarely more than 30 cm
in Bda); smaller coralla unat?
tached. Meandroid. Septa 6-81
cm, with smooth inner edges.
Columella lamellar. Yellow,
brown, or white. Moderately
common in open, clear waters
such as outer patch reefs; 1-10 m.
Dichocoenia stokesi Milne Ed?
wards & Haime: Heavy,
rounded or flat coralla reaching
to 50 cm in diameter. Calices
mono- or polycentric, arranged
in a V-shape or in long (to 50
mm) meandroid valleys. Septa
101cm, with smooth inner edges.
Columella trabecular. Yellow or
brown. Rare; on outer reefs; 7-10
m.
MUSSIDAE: Faviina with ex?
sert septa composed of more
than 2 fan systems that produce
large, coarse, septal dentations.
Well-developed endothecal dis?
sepiments. Solitary, or colonial by
ANTHOZOA 187
mm
, /-----'
Coenocyathus goreaui Guynia annulata Rhizopsammia bermudensis
56 CARYOPHYLLIINA, DENDROPHYLLIINA (Stony corals 5)
intratentacular budding. (2 spp.
from Bda.)
Plate 56
Isophyllia sinuosa (Ellis & Solan?
der) (=1. multiflora Verrill,
1901b; Mussa anectens Verrill,
1901c, 1907; Mussa roseola Ver?
rill, 1907; Mussa dipsacea sensu
Verrill, 1907; Mussa fragilis sen?
su Verrill, 1907; I. fragilis sensu
Verrill, 1901b; I. dipsacea sensu
Verrill, 1901b) (Rose coral):
Small meandroid coralla usually
less than 20 em in diameter.
Septa 7-9/cm, with inner edges
bearing coarse teeth. Columella
spongy. Valleys 20-25 mm wide.
Form multiflora is smaller, with
narrower valleys (12-15 mm
wide) and has 11-12 septa/em.
Both forms occur in a variety of
colors: green; white, lavender,
brown and variegated. Very com?
mon on outer reefs and in in?
shore waters; 0.5-5 m. (Color
Plate 6.8.)
Scolymia sp.: Solitary, subcylin?
drical, firmly attached coralla to 7
em in diameter. Calice round,
with 4 or 5 cycles of septa. Septa
and costae coarsely dentate. Col?
umella large and trabecular.
(The specimens collected from
Bda are too small to identify as to
species.) Rare, on outer reefs.
S.D.
F.
F.
CARYOPHYLLIINA: Sclerac?
tinia with septa composed of nu?
merous trabeculae in laminar ar?
rangement; septal edges smooth.
Synapticulae absent. Corallite di?
ameter usually greater than 2
mm. Mostly solitary.
CARYOPHYLLIIDAE: Caryo?
phylliina with solid septothecal
walls. Solitary or colonial by in?
tra- or extratentacular budding.
(Of 7 spp. known from Bda the
only shallow-water species is in?
cluded here.)
Coenocyathus goreaui Wells:
Small bushy colonies of inter?
twined cylindrical corallities.
Corallites to 20 mm long and 4-6
mm in diameter. Usually 32 septa
arranged octamerally. Eight pali.
Pale pink. Rare, known only
from cavities in reef rock. Aher?
matypic.
GUYNIIDAE: Caryophylliina
with epithecal wall penetrated by
regular rows of pores. Exclu?
sively solitary and ahermatypic.
(1 sp. from Bda.)
Guynia annulata Duncan: Cor?
allum cylindrical, attached ba-
188 KINGDOM ANI MALIA
S.O.
O.
F.
sally or along its side. Extremely
small; calicular diameter 1 mm,
lenght to 10 mm. Septa 12 or 16.
Columella consists of one twisted
lath. Inconspicuous, and ex?
tremely rare in shallow water.
Known depth range 3-653 m.
DENDROPHYLLIINA: Scler?
actinia with irregularly perforate
septa composed of numerous
trabeculae; septal edges smooth.
Synapticulae present. Corallite
diameter usually greater than 2
mm. (Contains only I family,
Dendrophylliidae, and only 1 sp.
is known from Bda.)
Rhizopsammia bennudensis Wells:
Small colonies, formed by bud?
ding of corallites from an en?
crusting base. Corallites cylin?
drical, 6-8 mm in diameter, 5-10
mm tall. Septa 48/calice. Septa
and theca porous. Bright orange.
Rare; known only from cavities
in reef rock. Ahermatypic (Color
Plate 6.6.)
Plate 57
CORALLIMORPHARIA (= AS?
CLEROCORALLIA) (Coral anem?
ones, False corals): Solitary or
colonial Zoantharia with hex?
amerously arranged mesentery
pairs. More than one tentacle
corresponds to each inter?
mesenterial space. No skeleton.
(Of approximately 35 spp. world?
wide, 3 spp. are known from
Bda).
CORALLIMORPHIDAE: Cor?
allimorpharia with simple, re-
F.
tractile tentacles, bearing con?
spicuous, globular acrospheres.
Spirocysts always present. (l sp.
from Bda.)
Corynactis parvula Duch. &
Mich. Qewel anemone): With
50-100 tentacles arranged in ra?
dial rows of 3-7 tentacles each,
which increase in size toward the
margin. Outer tentacles longest,
often exceeding the diameter of
the oral disc. Diameter of base
and oral disc about 5-8 mm, that
of the expanded crown of tenta?
cles to 25 mm. Color variable:
body often orange to brown, ac?
rospheres bright orange to red.
On reefs, under stones and in
holes among dead coral; rare.
Often several specimens are clus?
tered as a result of asexual repro?
duction by pedal laceration.
(Color Plate 7.5.)
DISCOSOMATIDAE: Cup- or
disc-shaped, often firm Coral?
limorpharia with simple or den?
dritic discal tentacles lacking
acrospheres. Tropical shallow?
water forms, invariably with
zooxanthellae. (2 spp. from Bda.)
Discosoma sanctithomae (Duch. &
Mich.) (=Actinotryx sanctithomae
sensu Verrill, 1900, 1907; Rho?
dactis sanctithomae): Genus as
the family.-Species with oral
disc to 5 em in diameter, and with
a narrow, naked marginal zone,
generally bordered by distinct
but tiny marginal tentacles which
often have white acrospheres.
Discal tentacles usually well de?
veloped and distinctly dendritic.
No more than 3-7 discal tentacles
in the principal radial rows, the
total number not exceeding 300.
57 CORALLIMORPHARIA (False corals), ZOANTHIDAE (Sea mats)
189
190
O.
F.
KINGDOM ANIMALIA
Column greenish or brown; ten?
tacles often iridescent; inside of
stomodeum white. Very common
on and around coral reefs, often
forming extensive, brightly col?
ored mats. (Color Plate 7.12, 13.)
D. carlgreni (Watzl) (=Rhodactis
carlgreni; Paradiscosoma carlgreni):
Genus as above.-Species with a
smaller and more rigid body than
D. sanctithomae. No naked mar?
ginal zone. Marginal te.ntacles
generally smaller and the margin
often drawn out into small, blunt
or trifid lobes. Discal tentacles
wart-like to short and denaritic,
up to 20 in the principal radial
rows. Total number of discal ten?
tacles may reach over 1,000.
Color variable: variegated, green
with brown, orange or red; some
discal tentacles may be conspicu?
ously white or yellow; inside of
stomodeum usually yellow. On
and around coral reefs; uncom?
mon. (Color Plate 7.6, 7.)
ZOANTHIDEA (Colonial anem?
ones, Sea mats): Solitary and
colonial Zoantharia with paired
but no hexamerously arranged
mesenteries. All mesentery pairs
after the first 6 are formed in the
ventro-lateral exocoels. No skele?
ton, but sometimes calcareous
encrustation in mesoglea. (Of ap?
proximately 300 spp., 9 are
known from Bda; 7 are included
here.)
ZOANTHIDAE: Zoanthidea
with 1 or 2 mesogleal sphincter
muscles and a brachycnemic ar?
rangement of mesenteries. (7
spp. from Bda.)
Palythoa variabilis (Duerden)
( = Protopalythoa grandis Ven-ill,
1900): Genus with encrusted
mesoglea and single mesogleal
sphincter muscle.-Species with
polyps that may arise singly or be
connected by a lamellar basal
coenenchyme in groups of 4 or 5.
Large colonies cover to 0.5 m2 of
substrate. Length of column and
width of oral disc of large polyps
are 5 cm and 4 cm, respectively.
Column light brown to white, de?
pending on the degree of encrus?
tation and concentration of zoo?
xanthellae. Oral disc dark brown,
light brown, slightly greenish or
variegated, with large white
areas. Tentacles light brown,
numbering up to 82, but usually
about 68. Common on rocks in
shallow water; occasionally found
in small colonies at depths to 30
m. Often found with Zoanthus
sociatus. (Color Plate 7.3,4.)
P. mammillosa (Ellis & Solander)
(= P. grandiflora Verrill, 1900a,
1901a, 1907): Genus as above.?
Species with variable colony form
depending on habitat. On rocks
exposed to wave action, the
coenenchyme is about 3 cm thick;
colonies are 8-12 cm across, and
polyps are separated by channels
about 1 cm wide. On sand, the
coenenchyme is usually not thick?
er than 1 cm and the polyps are
spaced several centimeters apart,
usually with only the oral discs
visible. Expanded adult polyp 15
mm long with a 13 mm wide oral
disc. Column and disc ocher,
never variegated. There are usu?
ally 44-48 tentacles in fully grown
polyps. Moderately common on
rocks in shallow water.
ANTHOZOA 191
P. caribaea Duch. & Mich. (= P.
mammillosa sensu Verrill, 1901 a):
Genus as above.-Species usu?
ally forming extensive colonies
with numerous closely arranged
polyps. Proximal ends of polyps
joined in a basal coenosteum
about 1 cm thick. When fully ex?
panded, the distal portions of the
polyps rise about 4 mm from the
basal coenenchyme but when
contracted the surface of the col?
ony is almost flat. The colony is
light ocher. Number of-tentacles
increases with body size (from 20
to 44). Common on most patch
reefs and nearshore, often found
growing on dead areas of coral
heads. (Color Plate 7.8.)
Zoanthus sociatus (Ellis & Solan?
der) (= Z. proteus Verrill, 1900)
(Green sea mat): Polyps squat,
elongate, or trumpet-shaped.
Basal coenenchyme laminar, cov?
ering the surface of the substrate
to which the colony is attached,
or reticulate, composed of a net?
work of stolons that joins the
colony on several separate sub?
strates. A typical colony covers
about 10 cm2 . Mesoglea lacks en?
crustations. Length of column
and width of oral disc of ex?
panded polyp are 6 mm and 3
mm, respectively. Color variable,
but most polyps have a bluish
green or yellowish green oral
disc. The pigment of the disc is
often arranged in a series of con?
centric circles and there may be a
dark triangular patch at each cor?
ner of the slit-shaped mouth.
Tentacles light green, usually 46?
50. Column smooth, but often
polyps at edge of a colony have
numerous protuberances on the
F.
mid-column. Column light
green, often bluish towards the
distal end. Common in most of
the shallow-water bays, some?
times intertidally. Often found
with Palythoa variabilis. (Color
Plate 7.1.)
Isaurus duchassaingi (Andres):
Polyps occur singly or in small
clusters. Column usually bent,
with tubercles on the convex side
and a smooth concave side. Dur?
ing the daytime the oral disc and
tentacles are normally infolded,
leaving a small aperture at the
center of the closed oral disc.
Length and width of the column
of a large solitary specimen are 7
cm and 1 cm, respectively. Clus?
tered polyps are smaller. Column
light brown, orange, white or
chartreuse, sometimes translu?
cent because of very thick non?
encrusting mesoglea. Oral disc
and tentacles light brown. Large
polyps generally have 44-46 ten?
tacles. Filamentous green algae
and other debris often adhere to
the upper warty surface of the
column. On reefs and rocks; 0-20
m; very rare. (Color Plate 7.2.)
EPIZOANTHIDAE: Zoanthi?
dea with a single mesogleal
sphincter muscle, macrocnemic
arrangement of mesenteries, and
encrusted body wall. (1 sp. from
Bda.)
Epizoanthus minutus Duerden:
Colonies vary in size, but usually
10-20 polyps joined by thin sto?
lons constitute 1 colony. Length
of column and width of oral disc
of a large, fully expanded polyp
are 10 mm and 4 mm, respec-
192 KINGDOM ANIMALIA
F.
O.
tively. Color of polyp dependent
on the type of mesogleal encrus?
tation, but usually light brown.
The oral disc is darker brown
with a few radiating white lines.
Tentacles are brown with dark
brown bands and white tips.
Adult polyps have 32-40 tenta?
cles. Sphincter muscle weak,
located in several small cavities
near the center of the mesoglea.
Found attached to the undersur?
face of rubble in shallow wave?
exposed locations; rare. EColor
Plate 7.11.)
PARAZOANTHIDAE: Zoan?
thidea with a single endodermal
sphincter muscle, macrocnemic
arrangement of mesenteries, and
encrusted body wall. (l sp. from
Bda.)
Parazoanthus parasiticus (Duch.
& Mich.): Polyps solitary or col?
onial, joined in groups of 3 or 4
by thin stolons. Length of col?
umn to 4 mm, width of oral disc
to 4.5 mm. Column encrusted
with fine calcareous and siliceous
materials that give it a greenish
white color. Oral disc and tenta?
cles light brown. Up to 28 tenta?
cles per polyp. In shallow water
on reefs and in enclosed bays;
exclusively on sponges, such as
Niphates erecta and Cally.lpongia
vaginalis. (Color Plate 7.9.)
Plate 58
CERIANTHARIA (Tube anem?
ones): Exclusively solitary Zo?
antharia with unpaired mesen?
teries. After first 6 mesenteries,
s.O.
O.
all subsequent mesenteries are
formed in multiplication cham?
ber opposite siphonoglyph. Two
tentacles correspond to each in?
termesenterial space. No skele?
ton; tube dwellers. (Of approxi?
mately 100 species, 1 adult sp. is
known from Bda.)
PENICILLARIA: Ceriantharia
with mesenteries arranged in
duplets. Craspedonemes absent.
Older, fertile mesenteries bear
acontioids. (Only I family,
Arachnactidae, in the suborder.)
Arachnanthus nocturnus den
Hartog (= Cerianthus natans?
Verrill, 1901a): Tube en?
crusted with sand or gravel. Body
to 30 cm long, yellowish brown
(sometimes with dark brown
streaks). Upper part of body usu?
ally white. Marginal tentacles
brown with 3-6 pale crossbars on
the upper surface and fine green
streaks between their insertions.
Labial tentacles pale brown, with?
out crossbars. Siphonoglyph con?
nected with about 1/3 of the total
number of mesenteries. In shal?
low, sandy bays (often just below
tide level) where its tubes are
attached to stones. Locally com?
mon, but easily overlooked be?
cause it is usually retracted into
its tube during daytime. Juve?
niles, often without a tube, may
be found under stones. (Color
Plate 7.10.)
ANTIPATHARIA (Black cor?
als): Colonial Zoantharia with
6, 10 or 12 unpaired mesenteries
and 6 tentacles. Internal axis
keratin-like. Colonies firmly at?
tached to substrate. (Of approx-
ANTHOZOA
A. tanacetum
58 CERIANTHARIA (Tube anemones), ANTIPATHARIA (Black corals)
193
F.
imately 175 spp., 5 are known
from Bda; 4 are included here.)
ANTIPATHIDAE: Antipatha?
ria with simple (non-pinnate),
non-retractile tentacles.
pie or pinnulate with simple or
bifid spines. Polyps oval.-Spe?
cies with fan-shaped colonies to
40 cm tall. Branches not pinnu?
late. At 40-60 m, growing up?
right on a gently sloping bottom;
not uncommon.
Antipathes furcata Gray: Ge?
nus with sparsely to densely
branched colonies. Branches sim-
A. hirta Gray (=A. picea):
nus as above.-Species
Ge?
with
194 KINGDOM ANIMALIA
sparsely branched, monopodial
colonies to 80 cm tall. Pinnules
arranged biserially in 4-6 longi?
tudinal rows. Tertiary pinnules
rare. Not uncommon at 40-60 m
on gently sloping bottom.
A. tanacetum Pourtales: Genus
as above.-Species with a mono?
podial colony with pinnules ar?
ranged in 4-6 rows along the
length of the axis. Tertiary pin?
nules common. Not uncommon
below 50 m.
Stichopathes lutkeni Brook:
Monopodial colony without pin?
nules (a naked rod). Polyps ar?
ranged on 1 side of the axis
throughout its length. Colonies
straight, but sometimes coiled
near free end. To 4 m long but
not more than 1 cm in diameter.
Most common between 30 and 60
m in areas with great vertical re?
lief.
S. CAIRNS, J. C. DEN HARTOG
C. ARNESON & K. ROTZLER
[corrected after publication]
Phylum Ctenophora (Comb-jellies)
CHARACTERISTICS: Extremely transparent,
gelatinous, mostly pelagic, bisymmetric
METAZOA with 8 rows of comb-like ciliary
plates; without nematocysts. Generally 1-10
cm (rarely to 150 cm). Most species are so
transparent that only the iridescent flashes
emanating from the beating combs reveal
their presence.
The phylum is thought to be an early
offshoot from the ancestral medusoid
cnidarian. Of about 90 species known,
many of the pelagic ones are cosmopoli?
tan; 5 species from the Bermuda region
have been chosen to illustrate 5 of the 6
orders.
OCCURRENCE: Marine; some species In
brackish water. The great majority is
pelagic, drifting in swarms with surface
currents; some representatives of the or?
der Platyctenida are adapted for benthic
and even parasitic life and found on en?
crusting algae, mangrove roots, sedentary
animals and other substrates.
Collect small forms with a plankton net
outfitted with a large-volume bucket; to
obtain intact specimens of the more fragile
species, individuals should be caught in
glass jars by SCUBA.
IDENTIFICATION: Only observation in the
open water can fully reveal the delicate
beauty of these organisms. Species are
identified under the dissecting micro?
scope, preferably live, in a glass dish.
Note the 2 planes of symmetry (one through the
tentacles, the other perpendicular). The generally 8
rows of combs (plates made of fused cilia) converge,
on the aboral pole, toward the statocyst to which they
are connected by delicate rows of cilia. The move?
ment of the combs always starts at, and is directed
toward, the aboral pole, propelling the animal
through the water mouth first. Most species have I or
more pairs of delicate tentacles, beset with adhesive
bodies (colloblasts), with which they catch prey; in
Cydippida these retract into tentacular sheaths. The
mouth opens into a stomach from which a system of
canals extends into the tentacular sheaths and under
the comb rows; the latter canals also house the
gonads. In Lobata, the laterally compressed body
bears 4 short auricles and 2 often extensive lobes that
are used in locomotion; in the ribbon-shaped Cestida,
4 comb rows are reduced. The benthic Platyctenida
are extremely flattened, and have reduced comb
rows.
Fix Cydippida and Beroida, preferably
after anesthesia with magnesium chloride,
in Flemming or a mixture of mercuric
chloride (100 g) and glacial acetic acid (3
ml) in seawater (300 ml). After 15-30 min,
carefully replace fixative with fresh water,
and transfer to 70% alcohol by stages,
starting with 30%. Most Lobata and Ces-