“This field identification guide was prepared under a collaborative research programme between Fauna & Flora International, Smithsonian Institution, the Myanmar Forest De- partment and several local scientists. It is intended to aid the identification of high conservation species and sites for development planning, environmental impact assess- ments, academic research – and for personal interest. It’s production was funded with the generous support of KfW – the German Develop- ment Bank – and the Helmsley Charitable Trust. TABLE OF CONTENTS Preface 7 Introduction 11 Amphibia 19 Caecilians — worm amphibians Anurans — frogs and toads Reptilia 87 Lizards Snakes Turtles Crocodilians Acknowledgments 187 Sources of illustrations & Photographic Image 189 Index 191 Copyright © 2019 Fauna & Flora International. Some rights reserved. The material featured in this publication is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike Licence. The details of this licence may be viewed in full at https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0 Preface Beginning in 2014, Dan Mulcahy (DGM) joined the Fauna & Flora International-Myanmar Programme’s biological assessment teams to survey the amphibians and reptiles of the proposed Tanintharyi National Park. Based on nearly twenty years of working on the herpetofauna of Myanmar, George Zug prepared a tentative guide and checklist to amphibians and reptiles that might be encountered. Sections of the guide were revised prior to Mulcahy’s subsequent 2015 and 2016 assessment surveys to the proposed protected areas further south and to the Myeik Archipelago in 2017. These herpetofaunal surveys and specifically the molecular genetics work and specimen vouchers thereof began to add significantly to the knowledge of the diversity of southern Tanintharyi. Before these surveys, our information on the components of this herpetofauna was little advanced over the random vertebrate surveys by British naturalists of the latter half of the 19th century. More recent surveys by Zug and colleagues over the past two decades focused in other areas of Myanmar, with only four recent surveys in Tanintharyi in the area northeast of Dawei (2009, 2010) and near Kawthaung (2003), areas not visited by Mulcahy. What we could predict would occur on the western face [forest] of the Tanintharyi Mountain range was derived from those surveys and surveys of the Keang Krachan National Park and Phetchaburi Province, Thailand, which lie east of our Burmese survey areas. The present guide is specifically directed to the areas recently surveyed by FFI teams in the southern Tanintharyi Mountains, specifically the proposed Tanintharyi National Park and the proposed Lenya NP including its extension, and the adjacent lowlands. For that reason, we have defined South Tanintharyi as the area of Myanmar south of latitude 13°N [approximately from the town of Palaw southward]. We also note that 13°N represents approximately the beginning of the Malay Peninsula of Southeast Asia (Fig. 1). The guide includes descriptions of 50 amphibians (2 caecilians, 48 frogs) and 121 reptiles (45 lizards, 59 snakes, 14 turtles, 3 crocodilians). 7 The basis for the included species are all amphibian and reptile species vouchered by the FFI teams and the species that we anticipate occurring there based on our surveys and the additional sources mentioned above. We have included some, but not all species reported to occur in the abutting provinces of Thailand (Phetchaburi, Prachuap Khiri Khan, Champhon, Ranong). Biologically, this area is important as it represents the transition area from the Malayan to the mainland Southeast Asian fauna and flora as it is just north of the Isthmus of Kra and is the base of the Malay Peninsula. We have purposefully excluded marine species, thus seaturtles (Cheloniidae, Dermochelyidae), seasnakes (Hydrophis), seakraits (Laticauda), and most rear-fanged mudsnakes (Homalopsidae) are not included owing to the absence of surveys where these groups would live. The marine herpetofauna is even more poorly surveyed in this area than the terrestrial herpetofauna. Comments in this guide provide additional information regarding natural history, geography, taxonomy, and miscellaneous observations of the authors. Fig.1 Outline map of South Tanintharyi. 8 9 Introduction The guide is organized by taxonomic groups and the subgroups therein. Sequentially, we offer a brief introduction to the biology and composition of each of the major groups: caecilians; frogs; lizards; snakes; turtles, and crocodilians. Keys are provided to identify the families within each of these groups. Each family account usually begins with a key to genera that occur in South Tanintharyi. At this stage, we do not provide keys to the species in each genus, rather we offer a set of diagnostic feature and brief comments on the biology for each species. For many of the species, particularly anurans, identifications were confirmed with genetics, as many of them remain cryptic and require rigorous morphological analyses for discernment. Our species accounts are based on adults and where sample size is adequate on specimens from southern Tanintharyi. Although our use of diagnostic features may cause users a little more work in identifying a specimen “in hand” to species, we believe that these descriptions increase the user’s familiarity with all South Tanintharyi species within a genus thereby increasing the reliability of the species identification of the specimen in hand. The diagnostic features or traits will always include a set of body measurements and often proportions. The measurements vary among the different taxonomic groups because different measurements are used to characterize species within different groups. The traits are defined within each group’s accounts. However, body size (Snoutvent length, SVL) is always a listed trait and always for adults, where possible also separate size ranges for females and males. Those descriptions based solely on data from Tanintharyi specimens are identified by a dot [•] in front of the specific name. In a few instances, these strictly Tanintharyi accounts are based on small samples (n = 2–5); however, data from the literature, presumably of the same species, have differences hence our preference for small samples rather than adding features that may not occur in the populations of South Tanintharyi. Readers will find question marks in some descriptions because we were unable to confirm meristic or mensural values for an account item owing to our sample lacking one member of a sex and/or the data were not available in the herpetological literature. Some “species” were identified based on comparison of published 10 11 sequences from other sources. Because of the close genetic similarities, we infer these to be the same, undescribed species Common Descriptive Terminology revealed by other scientists (e.g. Fejervarya sp1). Because the “species” also occur in other regions, we wait for taxonomic experts Position Terms: on these groups to conduct comprehensive studies and properly describe them. We look forward to updating these sections in later Anterior. Front versions of the guide. Dorsal. Top side, includes head, neck, back We would be remiss if we did not inform the user that accurate (=dorsum), sacrum (sacral). identification of some Tanintharyi species is not always possible. Juveniles, especially among frogs, are difficult to segregate by Dorsolateral. Outer upper edge of body and head species owing to absence of adult characteristic. Another aspect, where it curves ventrally. again mainly among frogs, is the presence of cryptic species pairs or triplets occurring in the same location. We discovered this Lateral. Side, includes all surface from head phenomen first among the Polypedates treefrogs. We would not onto tail. have recognized it as quickly as we did if we had not been preparing Middorsal. Midline of the body on top side; used molecular genetics for each specimen. Those data are being Sagittal. in reference to this position whether published elsewhere in the primary literature with reservations on the head, trunk, and so forth. Sag- because they are based on a limited amount of data and sampling. ittal typically used in a longitudinal This situation has been repeated in subsequent surveys and is one sense. of the reasons for asking users of the guide to use descriptions for the identification of species rather than a single key couplet. Parasagittal. Longitudinal and parallel to the sagittal We anticipate future work will improve our understanding of the plane. species in this region as we become more familiar with them, which will allow for complete identification keys and ask user for patience Posterior. Rear. and participation by providing feedback to this initial guide. Venter. Entire underside of an animal. Ventral. Underside, composed of chin (outside of mouth cavity to corners of lower jaw), throat (from chin to base of neck), chest (base of neck to rear of rib cage), belly (end of chest to pelvic area; also known as abdomen). Ventrolateral Outer lower edge of body and head where it curves beneath body. 12 13 Morphology: Morphology: Abdomen, also belly. From the end of the sternum Nuchal. Border area between and on to the pubis (muscle mass of back of head and neck; also hindlimbs). Nape. Axillary. Area or point where forelimbs Parietal. Top rear of the head; also attaches to the body, usually large paired bone forming referenced to posterior edge of rear of braincase. the juncture. Postorbital or temporal. Side of head between orbit Chest, also throax. From base of throat to the end and eardrum (tympanum). of the sternum. Sacrum. Area above the pelvic girdle. Chin. Area from the tip of mandibles to end of mandibles; outer Snout. Dorsal tip of head, including surface of head beneath buccal nostrils. cavity. Supraorbital, Immediately above the orbit, Face. Area between naris and orbit interorbital, and frontal. between the orbits, and (eye); also referred to as loreal immediately behind orbits, or preorbital area. respectively. Inguinal. Area or point where hindlimbs Throat. Area from behind jaw attaches to the body, usually articulation to immediately in referenced to anterior edge of front of chest; lower surface the juncture. of neck from chin to chest. Intercalary cartilage. Block of cartilage between Trunk. Body from shoulders to hips penulitimate and ultimate pha- (sacrum) and base of tail. langes in the feet of treefrogs. It gives the toe tip a hinged ap- Tympanum. Ear drum. pearance. Vent. Opening at base of tail or end Metacarpal tubercles. Tubercles of various sizes on of body in postmetamorphic inner and outer edge of the frogs. Vent is the exit of palm of the forefoot or hand. the cloaca that collects the waste products of urinary Metatarsal tubercles. Tubercles of various sizes on and digestive systems, as well inner and outer edge of the sole as sperm or eggs from the of the hindfoot or foot. reproductive tract. Naris or nostril. Opening of nasal passage to exterior; often called choana (plural, choanae). 14 15 Fig.2 Anatomical features of anurans. (A) Dorsolateral view of frog with anatomical position terms. (B) Ventral view of frog with anatomical regional terms and two visual measurement examples. (C) Lateral view of frog head with anatomical terms. (D) Ventral view of forefoot (hand) and metacarpal terminology. (E) Ventral view of hindfoot (foot) and metatarsal terminology. 16 17 Amphibia Common Terms Used in Amphibian Descriptions Measurements SVL. Snout-vent length, straight-line distance from tip of snout to anteromedial edge of vent. HeadL. Head length, distance from tip of snout to posterior edge of the jaw articulation. HeadW. Head width, transverse distance from left to right outer edge of jaw articulation. EyeD. Eye diameter, horizontal diameter of eye. TympD. Tympanum diameter, measured horizontally from outside of tympanic annulus (raised edge around the ear drum). TrunkL. Trunk length, distance from posterior edge of forelimb at its juncture with the body to anterior edge of the hindlimb at its junction with the body. HindlL. Hindlimb length, with limb straightened from the vent to the tip of the longest toe, almost always the fourth toe. 18 19 Skin Surface Morphology Morphology, general Corrugated. Numerous low glandular skin Circummarginal groove. Expanded digital pads often folds, closely packed and arranged possess a groove between the longitudinally. outer portion of the pad in contact Dermal Transverse segmental folds (annuli; with the substrate and inner part rings. singular, annulus) in skin of caecilians; adjacent to the phalangeal tip. in some species, dermal scales are Intercalary An extra cartilaginous rod that buried in the groove between the cartilage. occurs between the terminal rings. and penultimate bony phalanges Glandular. Low to mid height, small to medium- in hylid and rhacophorid frogs, sized tubercles with flat tops. permitting the expanded digital Granular. Low, small tubercles with rounded or pad to be placed fully parallel to blunt tops. the substrate to which the toe is adhering. Pebbled. Small to large flatten tubercles, usually Metacarpal Enlarged friction pads (tubercles) in juxtaposition and often of mixed tubercles. on proximal surface of palm. sizes. Metatarsal Enlarged friction pads (tubercles) Rictal Glandular enlargement at corner of tubercles. on proximal surface of sole. gland. mouth. Rugose. Mixture of various size tubercles closely packed. Coloration includes Color and Pattern Smooth. No tubercles or folds. Inguinal spot. Single unicolor spot or bicolored Spinose Bearing spines; often atop conical ocellus on trunk near its juncture with [also tubercles or sheet of small spines, the hindlimb. spiny]. each rising from a single cell. Rump patch. Area of contrasting color above or Warty. Numerous warts, multiple sizes, and surrounding vent. usually separated by low rugose or granular skin. For other coloration terms, see snake section’s common terms. Wrinkled Similar to corrugated with numerous [also folded]. skin folds Fig.3 Schematic illustration of a caecilian. 20 21 Caecilians – Worm Amphibians Ichthyophiidae Taylor, 1968 Ichthyophis kohtaoensis Taylor, 1960 Caecilians (Gymnophiona) are a peculiar group of tetrapodous vertebrates. They have an ancient divergence from the other living Kohtao Striped Caecilian amphibians, frogs (Anura) and salamanders (Caudata). They are to- Adults to 290 mm total length, not known to be sexually dimorphic tally limbless with no trace of fore- or hindlimb skeletal remnants, in size; data on size is limited. and the body is strongly annulated with dermal rings, head short with broad rounded snout and an extremely short tail. In general Overall purplish brown above and below; lateral cream stripe on appearance, caecilians are easily mistaken for earthworms (or lips to middle of eye continuing length of body to near vent; first snakes), and like earthworms and some snakes, they are burrow- cervical groove shallow dorsally and often absent middorsally; 358 ers. They are readily distinguised from snakes by their dermal an- to 366 annuli on body, 3 to 5 on tail; no middorsal light stripe on nuli. Although occasionally found on the surface, they are primarily body subterranean, burrowing through soil and thick leaf litter. They bur- row with forward head thrust pushing the soil aside. This digging Comments.— Occurs in wet forest habitats, often adjacent to behavior explains the many cranial adaptations of caecilians, such streams; forages on the surface of forest floor during wet weather; as a compact and tightly sutured skull, eyes beneath surface of likely preys mainly on arthropods. Distribution is likely confined to skin, and an underslung jaw. In addition to a well-developed sense the north-central part of the Malay Peninsula of smell, they a have a pair of retractable, chemosensory tentacles, one on each side behind the nostril. Ichthyophis supachaii Taylor, 1960 Caecilians occur worldwide, except Australia, in the tropics. Most Peninsular Striped Caecilian are burrowers, a few aquatic. They have internal fertilization; this Adults to 313 mm total length, not known to be sexually dimorphic enables some species to be live bearers, although all ichthyophid in size; data on size is limited. species lay eggs, and likely all may have a parent stay with the eggs until they hatch. Overall lavender grey above and medium grey below, lateral cream spots on lips; lateral cream stripe on trunk from neck to near vent; Asia has two families of caecilians, although only one (Ichthyophi- first cervical groove shallow dorsally and often absent middorsally; idae) has representatives (genus Ichthyophis) in southern Tanin- 295 to 321 annuli on body, 3 to 5 on tail; no middorsal light stripe tharyi and adjacent peninsular Thailand. Presently we have found on body only one species to occur in our area of study. Comments.— This species occurs south of Isthmus of Kra in Thailand. It is a possible, although unlikely, caecilian species in South Tanintharyi. 22 23 Anurans – Frogs & Toads Key to the Families of Tanintharyi Anurans Anurans are unique among the coldblooded (ectothermic) 1. No teeth on the upper jaw (maxillae) …. 2 vertebrates in having no tail and a reduced and constant number 1’. Teeth present on the upper jaw ….…… 3 of trunk vertebrae in their post-embryonic larval (tadpole) stage. 2. Dorsal surface of head, trunk, and limbs rough with numerous Their unique body form of a short body with head joined directly warts (small to large)......................................................... Bufonidae without neck and four sturdy limbs, hind pair almost always longer than forelimbs is an adaptation for jumping (saltatory locomotion). 2’. Dorsal surface of head, trunk, and limbs smooth or superficially smooth but finely spinose………………….…… Microhylidae This body form has proved incredibly adaptative and adaptable, 3. Hindfeet webbed and toes with expanded digit tips (pads); and has permitted high diversification with nearly 7000 species intercalary cartilage between penultimate and terminal (ultimate) worldwide. Frogs are absent only from Antarctica and oceanic phalanges, giving the toe tip a hinged appearance; all digits possess islands, otherwise occurring everywhere from the driest habitats an intercalary cartilage ……………..……………… Rhacophoridae to the edge of snow lines on high mountains, and even edging into the Arctic in some areas. They are, however, most abundant and 3’. Hindfeet partially or fully webbed, or web free; with or without diverse in subtropical and tropical habitats. There are eight families expanded digital pads; no intercalary cartilage in digits …... 4 in Myanmar. They occur in all habitats, including the Central Dry 4. Fore and hindfeet with medium to strongly expanded digital tips Zone with its five months without rain. SouthTanintharyi has seven ..…………………… 5 families and nearly 50 species of frogs, although likely more. An 4’. Digit tips of fore and hind feet variable, ranging from narrow but exact number of species is not possible because our molecular rounded digit tips to slightly expanded ......……………………. 6 studies are revealing that many species, assumed to be a single species, appear to be complexes of multiple species. 5. Adults medium to large bodied, greater than 50 mm SVL; expanded digit tips of forefeet larger commonly larger than those of Frogs are characterized by a twophase life style: aquatic larvae hindfeet; forefeet web free, usually extensive webbing on hindfeet (tadpoles) metamorphosing into a terrestrial four-limbed juvenile .................….. Ranidae in a miniaturized adult body form. However, not all frog species have this indirect developmental mode; however, all but one Burmese 5’. Adults small, less than 50 mm SVL; fore and hindfeet digit tips species (Alcalus tasanae) do. Frogs with direct development deposit modestly expanded, squarish and subequal; forefeet web free, their eggs in a moist, terrestrial location (commonly guarded by hindfeet strongly webbed.Ceratobatrachidae one of the parents) and development occurs totally within the egg 6. Terrestrial frogs with multicolored irises; fore and hindfoot digits capsule. When the egg hatches, a miniature froglet emerges. not expanded.............[Leptobrachium] …............... Megophryidae A1 A2 B C 6’. Semiaquatic frogs with single colored irises, digit tips expanded or not-Dicroglossidae Fig.4 Some identification features of anuran feet. Dorsal (A1) and lateral (A2) views of a digit of Rhacophorus showing an expanded digit tip (pad) dorsally and laterally the offset pad owing to the presence of an intercalary cartilage between the penultimate and ultimate phalanges. (B) Ventral view of a hindfoot lacking webbing. (C) Ventral view of a hindfoot with full webbing. 24 25 Bufonidae A B Bufonids are the true toads, and most species possess a warty skin. Each wart is a concentration of single-celled cutaneous poison glands. Most of the medium-sized and larger warts ooze (secrete) a thick, milky poison. Aside from the poison being distasteful and an irritant, it is also lethal in large doses to most vertebrates. Most toad species look like a toad and are easily identified as bufonids. The species do vary greatly in size from tiny species of 14 to 16 mm SVL to large species over 200 mm SVL. Among the 400+ species Duttaphrynus melanostictus and 30+ genera, toads vary greatly in shape, although most are Fig. 5 Morphological features of toads. (A) Dorsal view of head and shoulders of terrestrial and move by walking and hopping. Toads occur almost a Duttaphrynus melanostictus with well-developed cranial crests of canthal ridge continuous with supraorbital ridge joining postorbital ridge and a short everywhere; only Australia lacks a native species of toad. supratympanic ridge touching the large parotoid gland. (B) Dorsolateral view of head and shoulder of an Ingerophrynus, glandular covered pre- and supraorbital Key to genera and species of Bufonidae ridges continuous with supratympanic ridge joining the small, round parotoid gland. 1. Cranial ridges absent or indistinct …….. 2 Ansonia kraensis Matsui, Khonsue & Nabhitabhata, 1’. One or more distinct cranial ridges present (Figure 3A) 2005 ………….…..……….............. 3 Malayan Stream Toad 2. Tympanum large, its diameter nearly equals diameter of Adults, females 24–28 mm, males 20–22 mm SVL, sexually eye; small, round parotoid glands; stout, small (SVL ≤ 50 mm) Ingerophrynus macrotis dimorphic; TrunkL/SVL not available, HindlL/SVL 148–156%, HeadL/bodied......……………. SVL 29–34%, HeadW/SVL 28–32%, OrbD/SVL 8–11%, TympD/SVL 2’. Tympanum large, its diameter equals diameter of eye; no 4–7%. parotoid glands; slender, small (SVL ≤ 50 mm), and long limbed ...... ............................................................. Ansonia Skin, dorsally head and trunk with minute to small warts, underside coarsely granular on abdomen, finally granular on throat and chest. 3. Weak canthal and no preorbital ridges, supraorbital and parietal Digit tips, bluntly rounded on fingers and toes; no webbing between ridges forming straight or slightly curved ridge on each side above fingers of forefoot, modest webbing between toes of hindfoot. eye, supratypmpanic ridge distinct; no dermal fold on inside of ankle .................................................................... Ingerophrynus parvus Dorsal ground color medium brown with irregular darker marks 3’. Canthal and supratympanic ridges present; dermal fold present on head and on trunk; dorsal surface of thigh brown banded with wide indistinct orangish yellow bands; underside shiny white or absent on inside of ankle ……….…….………………...…..… 4 background strongly mottled with dark brown. 4. Canthal and supraorbital present, latter commonly flattened; large dermal fold (tarsal fold) on sided of ankle; hindfeet with well- Comments.— This species occurs in montane forest streams and developed webbing ...…... Phrynoides asper seepage areas on the Thai side of the Tenasserim mountain range 4’. Canthal and supratympanic well developed and usually south of the southern tip of Tanintharyi. We have not found it on the Burmese side where it is apparently replaced by Ansonia thinthinae. cornified on dorsal crests; large oblong parotoid gland on neck and shoulder of each side ................................................................ 26 27 • Ansonia thinthinae Wilkinson, Sellas, & Vindum, 2012 Dorsal ground color mid olive-brown, darker or lighter on tops of some warts; no thigh pattern dorsally, occasional white irregular Thin Thin’s Stream Toad shaped spots on dark background on rear of thigh. Underside olive- tan with diffuse brown spotting. Adults, females 22–27 mm, males 19–24 mm SVL, sexually Comments.— Secondary forests to villages, this terrestrial and dimorphic; TrunkL/SVL 36–48%, HindlL/SVL 156–180%, HeadL/SVL nocturnal anuran is widespread and well known to most inhabitants 30–34%, HeadW/HeadL 81–94%, OrbD/HeadL 32–40%, TympD/OrbD of Southeast Asia. 54–71%. • Ingerophrynus parvus (Boulenger, 1887) Skin, dorsally from tip of head to sacrum tuberculate, variable small tubercles closely packed; upper surface of limbs with equal-sized Malayan Dwarf Toad small tubercles; underside, chin and throat smooth, chest and stomach granular with pavement of flattened tubercles. Digit tips, Adults, females 40–46 mm, males 31–40 mm SVL, sexually bluntly rounded on fingers and toes; no webbing between fingers dimorphic; TrunkL/SVL 35–42%, HindlL/SVL 145–156%, HeadL/SVL of forefoot, near full webbing of hindfoot. 30–34%, HeadW/HeadL 108–114%, OrbD/HeadL 36–41%, TympD/ OrbD 65–73%. Overall dorsal ground color black from head to sacrum and dorsally on limbs, occasional splashes of yellow, especially on limbs; eyelids, Skin, dorsally coarse granular owing to dense covering of small lips, and entire underside mottled bright yellow on black. warts; only interorbital area smooth and lacking warts; moderate round to shorten oblong parotoid gland on each side of neck; venter Comments.— Presently known from only Tanintharyi; occurs in also granular with closely packed small flatten tubercles. Digit tips, forested streams, usually streamside and mostly nocturnal. bluntly rounded on fingers and toes; no webbing between fingers of forefoot, only fourth toe of hindfoot extends beyond tightly bound • Duttaphrynus melanostictus (Schneider, 1799) foot; palmar surface of forefoot with large external metacarpal tubercle, internal tubercle smaller but conspicuous. Asian Black-spined Toad Dorsal ground color variable, usually medium brown on head, face, Adults, females 79–104 mm, males 67–86 mm SVL, sexually lips and trunk with ill-defined dark marks on dorsum, esp., posterior dimorphic; TrunkL/SVL 31–44%, HindlL/SVL 121–147%, HeadL/SVL two-thirds of trunk; dorsal surface of thigh and crus with broad dark 33–40%, HeadW/HeadL 102–120%, OrbD/HeadL 25–37%, TympD/ bars. Underside dusky tan background mottled with dark brown, OrbD 53–77%. chin and throat of males uniformly dark. Skin, dorsally head and nape smooth except for supraorbital crests, Comments.— Streamside in forest, terrestrial and nocturnal. remainder of dorsal surface with various size warts, two longitudinal Occurs broadly in southern Indochina to Sumatra and Java. series of widely spaced warts parasagitally on back and another series mid-laterally on each side of trunk, latter often cream • Phrynoidis asper (Gravenhorst, 1829) colored; underside granular with closely packed flatten tubercles. Digit tips, bluntly rounded on fingers and toes; no webbing between Asian Giant Toad fingers of forefoot, moderate webbing (two-thirds) between toes of hindfoot. Large round outer metacarpal tubercle and small inner Adults, females 123–128 mm, males 96–108 mm SV, sexually one; modest inner and outer metatarsal tubercles. dimorphic; TrunkL/SVL 32–40%, HindlL/SVL 145–158%, HeadL/SVL 33–35%, HeadW/HeadL 101–116%, OrbD/HeadL 28–39%, TympD/ OrbD 32–44%. 28 29 Skin warty everywhere, dorsally on head scattered small warts, Dorsal ground color medium brown to orangish brown on head, parotoid moderatesized elliptical and connected to orbit with thick trunk, and limbs, usually unicolor, occasionally ill-defined brown glandular cranial ridge; underside pebbly, with edge of lower jaw blotch from between eyes, expanded on trunk, to near sacrum; up- and chest rugose with small warts/tubercles. Digit tips, bluntly per lip tan with two to three dark brown bars, dorsal surface of thigh rounded on fingers and toes, underside of tips of all digits with with widely spaced dark brown bars; undersided creamy to grayish round, moderate size articular pads, large round outer metacarpal white. tubercle, moderate, round inner metacarpal tubercle, small elliptical metatarsal tubercles; no webbing between fingers of forefoot, Comments.— Lives adjacent to streams in heavily forested ar- moderately complete webbing between toes of hindfoot. Distinct eas. Presently known in Myanmar only from the Kawthaung area of tarsal fold in juveniles and adults. southern-most Tanintharyi and the Tanintharyi Nature Reserve. Dorsal ground color mid to dark brown, unicolor on head to sacrum, mottled with cream on side of head and ventrolaterally on neck and A B C trunk; dorsal surface of hindlimbs medium brown banded with dark brown; underside tannish white speckled with dark brown. Comments.— Streamside in forest, terrestrial and nocturnal. Occurs in peninsular Thailand southward to Sumatra, Java and northern Borneo. D Ceratobatrachidae A diverse group of mostly small to medium-sized frogs that occur Fig.6 Morphological features of dicroglossids. Body shapes of Fejervarya (A), from southern China to the Philippines and New Guinea. All appear Limnonectes (B), and Occidozyga (C). (D) Front of mouth/jaws of Limnonectes to have direct development, i.e., eggs laid in moist microhabitats showing the enlarged odontoid processes (“fangs”) on the lower jaw. and development proceeds entirely within the egg-capsule, upon Dicroglossidae hatching a miniature froglet appears. Alcalus tasanae (Smith, 1921) Dicroglossid frogs with a single exception are Asian frogs. Their center of diversity is tropical Asia from India to the Philippines and Tha San Dwarf Cascadefrog southward into the Lesser Sunda Islands. Dicroglossids consist of two morphotype groups. The dicroglossinae possess the more Adults, females ~26–43 mm, males ~20–37 mm SVL, sexually di- typical ranoid (“true frog”) shape; whereas the occidozygine morphic; TrunkL/SVL ~30%, HindlL/SVL 152%, HeadL/SVL 45%, display two distinct shapes, a wartless toad shape and a tear- HeadW/HeadL 108%, OrbD/HeadL 34%. drop shape with large, horizontal positioned hindlimbs with very large webbed feet. The latter subfamily contains only two genera Skin, dorsally from head to sacrum with numerous small, smooth (Ingerana [4 species], Occidozyga [12+ sp.]); all species are small to tubercles, underside smooth without raised tubercles; tympanum moderate-sized. The dicroglossines are more diverse in size, shape, exposed. Fore- and hindfeet digits broadly expanded with squarish and habits although most terrestrial or semiaquatic. tips bearing circummarginal grooves; no webbing of forefeet, hind- feet strongly webbed. 30 31 Key to genera of Dicroglossidae — Dicroglossinae & Dorsal ground color medium olive brown from head to sacrum, Occidozyginae including limbs; scattered small blackish marks on trunk; dorsal surface of thigh with faded dark bars, posterior thigh dark brown 1. Fore- and hindfeet digit tips blunt to modestly expanded; no with white mottling. Face brown, large dark brown spots on light webbing on forefeet, hindfeet strongly webbed …………………….. 3 upper lip; dark spots on lower lip highlighted on cream-colored background; venter cream with numerous faded small brown 1’. Forefeet with narrow round tips, hindfeet digit tips not or slightly marks. expanded; no webbing on forefeet, hindfeet modestly or strongly webbed ……….............................…….. 2 Comments.— Recently a molecular and morphological study 2. Short, robust body; finger and toe tips expanded, hindfeet basally revealed that the widespread Crab-eating Frog was really a species webbed … Ingerana complex of three species. F. cancrivora is the species living along the coast of the Bay of Bengal and Andaman Sea. The preceding 2’. Body broad tear-shaped; fingers and toes pointed, hindfeet metrics derive from a sample from Selangor, Malaysia. This frog strongly webbed nearly to tips .............................................. Occidozyga is a tidal flats, mangrove and tidal stream frog. Our surveys have 3. Head usually broad, as wide or nearly as wide as length; lower jaw not censused its preferred habitat, thus its presence in South with “fangs,” center odontoid process lower than process on each Tanintharyi remains unverified, although it likely occurs here. side; prominent rictal gland at posterior corner of jaw ………..……….. Limnonectes • Fejervarya “limnocharis” 3’. Head pointed triangular, width of head less than its length; lower Grassfrog complex jaw lacks fangs, center odontoid process as high as side or lower than odontoid concavity………..……………… 4 Comments.— Fejervarya “limnocharis” as indicate by quote marks 4. Adults large, SVL>70 mm SVL; two large metacarpal tubercles, is a complex of similar appearing widespread terrestrialsemiaquatic no inner metatarsal tubercle; midventral black stripe from chin onto frogs, common throughout the lowlands of tropical Asia. They occur throat …………...….…….. Hoplobatrachus in a variety of open-sky habitats from rice paddies to grass and 4’. Adults moderate sized to large, SVL usually <70 mm SVL; three sedge borders of rivers and lakes. The following three Tanintharyi large metacarpal tubercles, tiny inner metatarsal tubercle; dark species (F. cf. multistriata, F. sp1, F. sp2) are members of this marking confined to margin of lips and dark lateral throat marks complex. (vocal sacs) in adult males ...…………………….....…… Fejervarya • Fejervarya multistriata (Hallowell, 1861) Dicroglossidae — Dicroglossinae Grassfrog Fejervarya cancrivora (Gravenhorst, 1829) Adults, females 41–59 mm, males 41–42 mm SVL, sexually Crab-eating Grassfrog dimorphic; TrunkL/SVL 31–41%, HindlL/SVL 165–185%, HeadL/SVL 39–46%, HeadW/HeadL 77–86%, OrbD/HeadL 25–29%, TympD/OrbD Adults, females 61–98 mm, males 59–71 mm SVL, sexually 54–57%. dimorphic; TrunkL/SVL ~ 42%, HindlL/SVL 143–154%, HeadL/SVL 30–35%, HeadW/HeadL 96–108%, OrbD/HeadL 33–34%, TympD/ Skin, dorsally rugose and bearing numerous narrow longitudinal OrbD sexually dimorphic ♀ 52–58%, ♂ 63–65%. glandular fold, also on sides; venter smooth. Finger and toe tips not expanded, bluntly rounded; no webbing on forefoot, hindfoot Skin, dorsally head and trunk smooth to slightly rugose, underside half webbed with third toe elongate with half of its length beyond smooth. Digit tips, bluntly rounded on fingers, narrowly rounded on webbing; forefoot with three nearly equal-sized metacarpal toes; no webbing on forefoot, hindfoot fully webbed with webbing tubercle at base of palm, hindfoot with large spade-shaped inner extending as flange to tip of 4th toe. metatarsal tubercle, tiny outer tubercle. 32 33 Dorsal ground color medium brown to brown overlain by dark • Fejervarya sp2 (Kotaki et al. 2010–hp3 Clade 11) brown blotches (some transverse) on top, about half individuals Grassfrog with cream middorsal longitudinal stripe; laterally trunk light brown to gray background with dark brown spots; dorsally thigh with Adults, females 38–43 mm, males 31–34 mm SVL, sexually distinct dark brown bars, rear of thigh dark brown with small white dimorphic; TrunkL/SVL 43–48%, HindlL/SVL 166–177%, HeadL/SVL reticulations. Lips barred in dark brown and broad cream diagonal 37–39%, HeadW/HeadL 85–86%, OrbD/HeadL 30–37%, TympD/OrbD postorbital stripe to corner of jaw. Underside shiny white, thighs tan. 60–71%. Comments.— Semiaquatic and nocturnal, marsh and pond edges Skin, dorsally head smooth to parietals, thereafter strongly rugose in forested areas. Overall distribution unknown. with combination of broken longitudinal glandular folds and small • Fejervarya sp1 (Kotaki et al. 2010-hp2 Clade 21) tubercles, tubercles especially concentrated on side of trunk and dorsally on hindlimbs. Digit tips, bluntly rounded on fingers, slightly Grassfrog expanded on toes; no webbing between fingers of forefoot, nearly full webbing between toes of hindfoot; three large metacarpal Adults, females 46–55 mm, males 39–46 mm SVL, sexually tubercle, inner largest with progressive decrease in size to outer; dimorphic; TrunkL/SVL 34–47%, HindlL/SVL 141–168%, HeadL/SVL modest ellipitical inner metarsal tubercle, outer small but distinct. 34–45%, HeadW/HeadL 83–96%, OrbD/HeadL 28–33%, TympD/ OrbD 58–72%. Overall dorsal color brown to dark brown, usually numerous dark Skin, dorsally head smooth to parietals, thereafter strongly rugose brown spots on top and sides of trunk; some individuals with thin with combination of broken longitudinal glandular folds and small (occas. broad) middorsal light stripe from snout to sacrum; dorsal tubercles, tubercles especially concentrated on side of trunk and surface of thigh dark banded, posterior surface mix of dark spots dorsally on hindlimbs. Digit tips, bluntly rounded on fingers, slightly above and light spots below; face dark, lower lip with dark bars expanded on toes; no webbing between fingers of forefoot, nearly extending onto chin; chin and throat patterned with midventral full webbing between toes of hindfoot; three enlarged ellipitical dark stripe, some spotting near lips and irregular spotting on lips, metacarpal tubercle, inner largest, progressively smaller; tiny remainder of venter creamy white. outer metatarsal tubercle, medium large ellipitical inner metatarsal Comments.— Semiaquatic, nocturnal residents of banks of forest tubercle. streams. Overall distribution unknown. Overall dorsal color brown to dark brown, usually numerous dark Hoplobatrachus rugulosus (Wiegmann, 1834) brown spots on top and sides of trunk; dorsal surface of thigh dark Asian Rugose Bullfrog banded, posterior surface mix of dark spots above and light spots below; face dark, lower lip with dark bars extending onto chin; chin Adults, females 77–103 mm, males 63–89 mm SVL, sexually and throat patterned with midventral dark stripe, some spotting dimorphic; TrunkL/SVL 34–43%, HindlL/SVL 137–143%, HeadL/SVL near lips and irregular spotting on lips, remainder of venter creamy 18–23%, HeadW/HeadL 120–149%, OrbD/HeadL 46–69%, TympD/ white. OrbD 61–83%. Comments.— Semiaquatic, nocturnal residents of banks of forest Skin, dorsally head smooth to parietals, thereafter strongly rugose streams. Overall distribution unknown. with combination of broken longitudinal glandular folds and small tubercles, tubercles especially concentrated on side of trunk and dorsally on hindlimbs. Digit tips, bluntly rounded on fingers, slightly expanded on toes; no webbing between fingers of forefoot, nearly 34 35 full webbing between toes of hindfoot; two enlarged metacarpal Comments.— Nocturnal and semiaquatic, although adults often tubercle, inner ellipital, outer round; tiny outer metatarsal tubercle, occurs in streams; a forest species of clear water streams. Occurs medium large ellipitical tubercle on inner margin. widely in Southeast Asia including Sumatra and Java. Overall dorsal color brown to dark brown, usually numerous dark • Limnonectes doriae (Boulenger, 1887) brown spots on top and sides of trunk; dorsal surface of thigh dark Doria’s Fanged Frog banded, posterior surface mix of dark spots above and light spots below; face dark, lower lip with dark bars extending onto chin; chin Adults, females 38.1–49.6 mm, males 46.1–50.7 mm SVL, sexually and throat patterned with midventral dark stripe, some spotting dimorphic; TrunkL/SVL 31–41%, HindlL/SVL 161–201%, HeadL/SVL near lips and irregular spotting on lips, remainder of venter creamy female 41–48% male 47–52%, HeadW/HeadL female 80–102% male white. 95–105%, OrbD/HeadL 22–33%, TympD/OrbD female 59–83% male 90–112%. Comments.— Likely resident of South Tanintharyi, although its presence has not been confirmed. Occurs broadly in tropical Asia Skin, dorsally from middle of head to sacrum finely rugose from southern China and Myanmar southward into Peninsular becoming strongly rugose on sides and dorsal surface of limbs; Malaysia. Beginning of monsoon breeder in semi-permanent water, underside, chin and throat smooth to lightly rugose, chest and such as paddies, then frogs seemingly disappears. abdomen lightly corrugated. Digit tips, slightly expanded on fingers and toes; no webbing on forefoot, modest (two-thirds) webbing Preceding meristic data from the Myanmar sample of Schmalz and on hindfoot; forefoot with three nearly equal-sized metacarpal Zug, 2002. tubercle at base of palm, hindfoot with large spadeshaped inner metatarsal tubercle, tiny outer tubercle. • Limnonectes blythii (Boulenger, 1920) Blyth’s Fanged Frog Dorsal color variable from medium brown to dark olive brown; male unicolor to some diffuse dark markings dorsally, females typically Adults, females 83–105 mm, males 88–101 mm SVL, sexually lighter dorsally often with intraocular dark bar, scattered dark spots dimorphic; TrunkL/SVL 28–35%, HindlL/SVL 165–185%, HeadL/SVL to streaks on trunk and regularly light middorsal stripe; no distinct 39–46%, HeadW/HeadL 77–86%, OrbD/HeadL 25–29%, TympD/OrbD thigh pattern; on face of both sexes bold, broad white and dark bars 54–87%. on lips, most evident on lower lips. Underside, dusky chin elsewhere Dorsally skin superficially smooth, but finely rugose to lightly white, hindlimbs in males often yellow to orange, especially on crus. rugose with few small tubercles on sided of trunk; underside shiny Comments.— Nocturnal in primary and secondary forest; stream- smooth. Digit tips on hands and feet slightly expanded and bluntly side resident of forest streams. Occurs throughout Malay Penisula. rounded; no webbing between fingers of forefoot, near full webbing between toes of hindfoot; forefoot with three metacarpal tubercle • Limnonectes limborgi (Sclater, 1892) at base of palm, inner largest outer smallest, hindfoot with large Limborg’s Fanged Frog spade-shaped inner metatarsal tubercle, tiny outer tubercle. Adults, females 24.7–28.0 mm, males 20.8–27.9 mm SVL; TrunkL/ Dorsal color variable from medium tan, brownish olive to rufous SVL 36–45%, HindlL/SVL 160–184%, HeadL/SVL 39–49%, HeadW/ brown; dorsum without pattern to scattered dark spots, few HeadL 85–101%, OrbD/HeadL 24–37%, TympD/OrbD 43–68%. individuals with middorsal longitudinal cream stripe; dorsal surface of thigh dark banded or not, posterior thigh usually with finely Skin, dorsally head to sacrum smooth, smooth to finely rugose on reticulate pattern; soles of hindfeet dark brown to black; top of head dorsal surfaces limbs and on sides of trunk, underside from chin to and face uniform ground color, dark supratemporal border, lips dark pubis shiny smooth. Digit tips slightly expanded on fingers and toes, and light banded (most evident ventrally); entire underside white. somewhat conical shaped; no webbing between fingers of forefoot, 36 37 toes half webbed; forefoot with three metacarpal tubercles at base laterally from body, rather than downward; forefeet without of palm, inner largest decreasing in size to outermost; hindfoot with webbing and all four fingers are long and pointed; hindlimbs stout large spade-shaped inner metatarsal tubercle, tiny outer tubercle. and longer than body; large hindfeet fully webbed and toe tips similarly pointed. Overall dorsal color medium brown throughout, some darker spots on trunk, thighs banded diffuse to bold; few individuals with Puddlefrogs are diurnal and nocturnal, terrestrial and semiaquatic middorsal cream stripe for snout to vent; underside ivory to creamy often sitting adjacent to small bodies of water; secondary forest white; lower lip white and dark barred. and open agricultural land, often in road-rut puddles to banks of small ponds and streamside. Comments.— Nocturnal in primary and secondary forest; stream- side resident of forest streams Occurs in Malay Peninsula. • Occidozyga lima (Gravenhorst, 1829) Dicroglossidae — Occidozyginae Gray-green Puddlefrog • Ingerana tenasserimensis (Slater, 1892) Adults, females 27–32 mm, males 26–27 mm SVL, sexually Tenasserim Tricklefrog dimorphic; TrunkL/SVL 29–38%, HindlL/SVL 153–178%, HeadL/SVL 30–38%, HeadW/HeadL 90–110%, OrbD/HeadL 28–33%, TympD/ Adults, females 20–22 mm, males 14–20 mm SVL, sexually OrbD 79–94%. dimorphic; TrunkL/SVL 37–45%, HindlL/SVL 176–197 %, HeadL/SVL 39–46%, HeadW/HeadL 90–97%, OrbD/HeadL 30–39%, TympD/OrbD Skin, dorsally head numerous small spiculate tubercles, trunk 55–79%. uniformly tuberculate with small tubercles, underside with large flatten tubercles on chest and stomach. Digit tips, tapering to Skin, dorsally head smooth, trunk smooth to lightly corrugated; narrow bluntly rounded tips on fingers, similarly on toes; no venter smooth from chin to thighs. Digit tips lightly expanded webbing between fingers of forefeet, fully webbed hindfeet. equally on fingers and toes; hands web free, hindfoot about half webbed; two equal-sized metacarpals on base of palm, large Overall dorsal color light to dark greyish olive, scattered small elongate inner metatarsal tubercle, outer small or none, narrow dark marks on head, larger ones on trunk, face and temporal area flange on outside of sole and proximal phalanx of outer toe. lighter than top of head; dorsal surface of thigh with scattered black, posterior surface boldy patterned with broad horizontal Overall dorsal color brown to medium brown; numerous dorsal dark white stripe highlighted ventrally with black stripe; underside from brown marks, first is intraorbital and continues on trunk to sacrum, near white to dusky ground color with paired dark stripes on chin occasional indication of broad light brown dorsolateral stripes; and neck, chest and belly usually darker than chin and irregularly upper lip light with pair of dark bars beneath corners of eye; thigh marked with white spots, base of thigh with pair of dark bars edged and crus dark banded dorsally; underside dusky brown (speckled) medially with white spots. from chin through chest, abdomen light brown to tan. Comments.— The preceding description of an Occidozyga is a general match for what has been considered the widespread Comments.— Nocturnal and terrestrial living along forest streams. Burmese O. lima. Over the past decade, we have discovered Distribution appears to be Peninsular Myanmar and adjacent that there are likely multiple “O. lima” species in Myanmar. This Thailand into northern Malaysia. observation has been recently confirmed by DNA analysis (Mulchay et al., 2018) and simultaneously morphological examination reveals • Puddlefrogs (Occidozyga) external differences among the multiple populations. “O.lima” is widespread from eastern India through southern China and Small frogs (18–55 mm SVL) with pointy head and robust body; Southeast Asia to Java. dorsal skin is finely spiculate; fore and hindlimbs project distinctly 38 39 • Occidozyga martensii (Peters, 1867) Overall dorsal color medium brownish olive with broad tan band Malayan Puddlefrog 1–3 from behind eyes to nape; some individuals lack this band, other with or without band possess broad parasagittal tannish stripes, Adults, females 21–28 mm, males 19–24 mm SVL, sexually few individuals with narrow light vertebral stripe from nape to dimorphic; Females — TrunkL/SVL 30–41%, HindlL/SVL 142–177%, sacrum; dorsal and posterior surfaces of thigh patternless; face HeadL/SVL 30–37%, HeadW/HeadL 95–128%, OrbD/HeadL 26–34%, with broad diagonal stripe from eye to anterior lip and to corner of TympD/OrbD 57–95%; Males — TrunkL/SVL 25–37%, HindlL/SVL jaw. 159–190%, HeadL/SVL 31–39%, HeadW/HeadL 93–114%, OrbD/ HeadL 32–38%, TympD/OrbD 48–80%. Comments.— Our recent molecular analyses reveal several unique lineages of Occidozyga, including this one from the proposed Skin, dorsally head smooth, trunk lightly corrugated with scattered, Tanintharyi National Park, close relationship was found with smooth flat tubercles, chin and throat smooth, chest and stomach specimens from the National Nature Reserve northeast of Dawei faintly corrugated. Digit tips, narrow and bluntly rounded on fingers (A. Bogisich pers. comm.). This lineage represents an undescribed and toes; no webbing between fingers of forefeet, fully webbed species, which may be endemic to the Tanintharyi region. hindfeet. Overall dorsal color medium brownish olive, with broad transverse tan band from behind eye to anterior edge of the trunk; some Megophryidae individuals lack this “parietal” band and may have broad tan parasagittal stripes; few individuals with narrow vertebral light South Tanintharyi has a single representative genus of megophryid stripe. Face with broad diagonal light stripes from eye to lip and to frogs, Leptobrachium. Thus far, a single species has been detected corner of jaw. and appears widespread in forested habitats and in some instances disturbed one that retains some forest-like habitats. Comments.— Our recent molecular analyses reveal that this Leptobrachium is easily identified by bright bicolor or tricolor irises. species complex represents three distinct clades and more work The megophryid family or Toadfrogs is a small group of less than is needed to determine if this complex consists of multiple species. 100 species, and most are terrestrial anurans. Their distribution Occurs from southern China throughout Southeast Asia. is centered on Southeast Asia and the Greater Sundas. Most species occur streamside in forested habitats. All have indirect • Occidozyga spD Malayan Puddlefrog development with eggs laid in water, hatching into free-swimming larvae (tadpoles) and metamorphosing into tiny froglets. Adults, females 25–29 mm, males 19–22 mm SVL, sexually dimorphic; Females — TrunkL/SVL 35–42%, HindlL/SVL 145–171%, • Leptobrachium smithi Matsui, Nabhkitabhata, and HeadL/SVL 34–43%, HeadW/HeadL 81–103%, OrbD/HeadL 26–35%, Panha, 1999 TympD/OrbD 54–76%; Males — TrunkL/SVL 34–36%, HindlL/SVL Southern Bicolor-eyed Toadfrog 164–174%, HeadL/SVL 36–41%, HeadW/HeadL 87–106%, OrbD/ HeadL 32–46%, TympD/OrbD 35–62%. Adults, females 50–69 mm, males 46–58 mm SVL, sexually Skin, dorsally head smooth to lightly corrugated, trunk lightly dimorphic; TrunkL/SVL 41–47%, HindlL/SVL 122–135%, HeadL/SVL corrugated with widespread, smooth flat tubercles, chin and throat 39–49%, HeadW/HeadL 91–105%, OrbD/HeadL 27–36%, TympD/ smooth, chest and stomach with numerous small flat tubercles. OrbD 48–66%. Size range for Thai specimens is females 56–78 mm, Digit tips, bluntly rounded on fingers and toes; no webbing between males 36–68 mm SVL fingers of forefoot, fully webbed hindfeet. Skin, dorsally head and trunk smooth and shiny, flat tubercles laterally onto underside. Digit tips, bluntly rounded on fingers and toes; no webbing between fingers of forefoot, modest webbing 40 41 (two-thirds) between toes of hindfoot. Pair of large round Only two, Kalophryninae and Microhylinae, occur in Southeast Asia, metacarpal tubercles on palm, small inner metatarsal tubercle on and both are present in southern Tanintharyi. sole. Key to the genera of Microhylidae A B C 1. Large, triangular digital pads on fore- and hindfeet ………….....……..………. Kaloula 1’. Forefeet with small digital pads or rounded finger tips; hindfeet with none to modest digital pads ……………….……………… 2 D E 2. Dorsally with broad cloak of glandular skin with tiny spinules from rear of head to vent, giving frog triangular body outline ............. ............................................. Kalophrynus 2’. Dorsally skin lightly rugose to smooth, body outline tear- shaped with pointed snout or elongate with blunt snout …..…………………………………..……. 3 Fig.7 Some morphological features of microhylid frogs. Body shapes of (A) 3. Hindfeet without webbing; toes lack disks, tips bluntly rounded Kalophrynus, (B) Kaloula, (C) Microhyla. Ventral view of the hands of a (D) Microhyla ……..……… Micryletta heymonsi and (E) Micryletta inornata. 3’. Hindfeet moderately to strongly webbed, web extends third or Overall dorsal color medium brown on head, trunk, and limbs; more length of the fourth toe; toes with small discs, variable in size large dark brown irregular-shaped mark edged narrowly with ……...................………….…….. Microhyla black and white occurs on top of head with extensions forming supratympanic crescent on each side, forming smaller marks on Microhylidae — Kalophryninae dorsal trunk, and even smaller and rounded marks on lower side of body; dorsal surface of thigh distinctly banded with narrow, white- • Kalophrynus interlineatus (Blyth, 1855) edged bands, posterior surface white-spotted to reticulate on Striped Sticky Frog dark brown. Underside, males with dark chins and throats, females dusky; chest white to beige, stomach heavily spotted in dark brown Adults, females 35–46 mm, males 34–45 mm SVL; TrunkL/SVL to black. Eyes with double colored irises, yellow, orange or red 35–44%, HindlL/SVL 122–148%, HeadL/SVL 28–37%, HeadW/HeadL above and dark below 95–115%, OrbD/HeadL 30–37%, TympD/OrbD 63–100%. Comments.— Nocturnal forest floor denizen in both primary and Skin, dorsally head smooth, trunk with glandular cloak from nape secondary forest. Occurs broadly in Myanmar and Thailand. to vent, its surface covered with tiny spines; limbs similarly spiny Microhylidae above, underside lightly rugose. Digit tips, bluntly rounded on fingers and toes; no webbing between fingers of forefoot, modest webbing between toes of hindfoot. A diverse group of small to medium-sized frogs. They occur worldwide and have diversified broadly from fossorial to arboreal Ground color variable (rufous, tan to dark brown), usually with dark species, and on most continents, their diversification have lead reverse-V striping from nape through length of trunk; dark circular to unique morphologies, which are recognized by 10 subfamilial spot (ocellus) in inguinal area; top of thighs distintly banded; designation based on morphotypes and molecular data (clades). underside with dusky chin and anterior throat, lighter posteriorly. 42 43 Comments.— Forests, secondary and primary, although occurs Skin dorsally smooth, almost leatherly from to sacrum and on adjacent to streams often found distant from stream bed; terrestrial limbs; underside, chin and throat granular with tightly backed small and nocturnal. Occurs from central Myanmar through Indochina. tubercles, remainder of venter leathery and faintly rugose. Hands with long fingers, tips expanded as blunt rectangular pads without Microhylidae — Microhylinae circum-marginal grooves; toe tips not expanded, bluntly rounded; • Kaloula latidisca Chan, Grismer & Brown, 2014 no webbing between fingers, modest webbing between toes. Three metacarpal tubercles (circular to elliptical), outer largest, Malayan Painted Bullfrog inner medium-sized, and middle smallest. Two metatarsal tubercles, both spade–like, inner largest. Adults, females 43–52 mm, males 39–51 mm SVL; TrunkL/SVL 39– 47%, HindlL/SVL 136–166%, HeadL/SVL 28–39%, HeadW/HeadL 81– Overall dorsal color medium to dark brown, broad beige to tan 136%, OrbD/HeadL 22–36%, Tympanum hidden by large glandular dorsolateral stripes that are continuous with light colored snout; fold. most individuals with light cream patch at each junction of leg with body, these patches continuous with dorsal thigh pattern, posterior Short, blunt-snouted head indistinguishingly joining block-shaped surface of thigh dark with some dusky spots. Underside, chin dusky, body; limbs slender of modest length and short; hands appear throat to pubis dusky tan background with dense small reticulate of large. Skin, dorsally head smooth to lightly corrugated, trunk lightly medium brown. corrugated, underside smooth with flattened tubercles. Digit tips large and triangular on fingers, blunt, unexpanded square tips on Comments.— Nocturnal, terrestrial to semiarboreal; ecologically toes; slight webbing at base of fingers, toes about third webbed tolerant from town to open forest habitats; widespread in Myanmar with flattened flanges on free edge of toes. and Southeast Asia.We observed K. pulchra in the towns of Myeik and Bokpynin during our recent surveys, along streets and parking Overall dorsal color medium brown with dark brown markings; lot along the coastal ports; perhaps these populations represent an head unicolor or lightly dark spotted dorsally, lighter brown without introduction. markings on face and cheeks; variably shaped dark brown marking on trunk from nape to pelvis, similarly on sides of trunk; commonly • Microhyla butleri Boulenger, 1900 white patches on fore- and hindlimbs at insertion with body; rear of thigh dark and white mottled; underside medium dark brown with Butler’s Narrow-mouth Frog scattering of irregular-shaped mark of medium brown. Adults, females 22–23 mm, males ?? mm SVL; TrunkL/SVL 42–43%, Comments.— Mainly a forest species, terrestrial, arboreal, HindlL/SVL 180–194%, HeadL/SVL 32%, HeadW/HeadL 96–97%, and nocturnal. Our recent molecular analyses indicate that the OrbD/HeadL 30–32%, TympD/OrbD ??, tympanum covered by Tanintharyi specimens are K. latidisca, a recently described species glandular fold. from West Malaysia and a member of the K. baleata complex. Skin, dorsally smooth on head and limbs, lightly rugose on trunk Kaloula pulchra (Gray, 1831) from nape to sacrum, underside lightly rugose. Digit tips, bluntly Painted Bullfrog rounded and slightly expanded without circummarginal grooves on fingers and toes; no webbing on forefoot, basally webbed on Adults, females 52–58 mm, males 53–70 mm SVL; TrunkL/SVL hindfeet; three metacarpal tubercles, oblong, near-equal sized; two 40–52%, HindlL/SVL 127–154%, HeadL/SVL 26–29%, HeadW/HeadL metatarsal tubercles, moderate and subequal sized, inner elliptical, 117–130%, OrbD/HeadL 24–40%, TympD/OrbD 70–90% (tympanum outer circular. often covered by glandular fold in males). 44 45 Dorsal ground color medium brown with large dark brown mark analyses demonstrate that M. fissipes is similarly a composite from supraorbital area posteriorly to sacrum, irregular-shaped dark species and that the Tanintharyi and other Myanmar populations brown stripe laterally on trunk; dorsal surface of thigh and crus with are presently unnamed, although for convenience, here we use M. narrow dark brown bars, posteriorly thigh yellowish with brown fissipes. Recently, one research article used M. mukhlesuri for Thai speckling. and south Indochinese M. fissipes populations, previously a named used only for the Bangladesh population. Comments.— Secondary forest and cultivated areas, terrestrial and nocturnal. Widespread in Southeast Asia from southern and • Microhyla heymonsi Vogt, 1911 southwestern China to Myanmar and southward to Singapore. Black-sided Narrow-mouth Frog Southern Vietnamese M. butleri female SVL to 26mm, male’s to 23 mm. Adults, females 22–25 mm, males 18–23 mm SVL, sexually • Microhyla fissipes Boulenger, 1884 dimorphic; TrunkL/SVL 32–43%, HindlL/SVL 172–209%, HeadL/SVL Oriental Ornate Narrow-mouth Frog 28–33%, HeadW/HeadL 100–120%, OrbD/HeadL 28–39%, TympD/ OrbD ??, tympanum covered by glandular fold. Adults, females 24–28 mm, males 23–27 mm SVL, borderline Skin, dorsally head smooth, trunk, sides, and limbs finely rugose, sexually dimorphic; TrunkL/SVL 33–39%, HindlL/SVL 152–236%, underside smooth. Digit tips, bluntly rounded on fingers, barely HeadL/SVL 26–33%, HeadW/HeadL 94–116%, OrbD/HeadL 31–41%, expanded on toes; no webbing of forefeet, hindfeet about half TympD/OrbD ??, tympanum covered by glandular fold. webbed; three large metacarpal tubercles, inner and outer circular touching proximally, inner oblong and about half size of other Skin, dorsally smooth to finely rugose, underside smooth. Digit two tubercles; two oblong metatarsal tubercles, moderate and tips, bluntly rounded on fingers and toes; no webbing of forefoot, subequal sized. slight webbing basally between toes of hindfoot; three large metcarpal tubercles, round to oblong, outer largest, middle and Dorsally superficially two-toned, light dorsum and dark laterally inner subequal, outer and inner usually touch proximally; two well- from snout to inguina; dorsum tan ground color with broad medial developed metatarsal tubercles, outer slightly larger than inner, wash of grayish tan, regularly with thin tan medial stripe from snout both circular. to vent; dorsally limbs tan with vague grayish tan bars; posteriorly thigh with ventrolateral (bottom) dark brown stripe extending to Dorsal ground color medium brown with large, dark brown arrow- ankle and bottom of feet; venter tan with dusky chin. like figure from between eyes to sacrum; face dark brown and dark brown laterally from behind eye to midtrunk; dorsal surface of thigh Comments.— Secondary forest and cultivated areas, terrestrial with one or two narrow dark bars, posterior surface with pericloacal and nocturnal. Another widespread Asian Microhyla species that is dark mark and densely dark speckled laterally. Venter white to a complex of multiple species from southwestern China to eastern cream, dark speckling from chin to throat in females, densely Myanmar southward to Sumatra. speckled in males. • Microhyla mantheyi Das, Yaakob, and Sukumaran, 2007 Comments.—Secondary forest and cultivated areas, terrestrial and nocturnal; widespread in Southeast Asia. Many Asian Manthey’s Narrow-mouth Frog Microhyla species appear to be species complexes of multiple populations of individuals morphologically very similar, yet each Adults, females 25–26 mm, males 19–21 mm SVL, sexually population represents a genetically distinct, independent lineage. dimorphic; TrunkL/SVL 39–45%, HindlL/SVL 173–185%, HeadL/SVL Microhyla fissipes is a name resurrected for the “Microhyla ornata” 28–32%, HeadW/HeadL 98–104%, OrbD/HeadL 28–33%, TympD/ populations from Myanmar through Indochina and China. M. ornata OrbD ??%, tympanum covered by glandular fold. is the populations in peninsular India and Sri Lanka. Our unpublished 46 47 Skin, dorsally head to sacrum smooth, trunk and underside smooth Comments.— Secondary forest and cultivated areas, terrestrial to lightly rugose abdomen. Digit tips barely expanded, bluntly and nocturnal. Our present sample for South Tanintharyi is three rounded on all digits, slightly larger on toes; no webbing between individuals. fingers of forefeet, about half webbed on hindfeet. • Micryletta lineata (Taylor, 1962) Dorsally ground color various shades of light brown from snout to Spotted Narrow-mouth Frog sacrum and hindlimbs with darker brown paired chevrons marks on shoulder and mid trunk; sides with broad dark diagonal stripe from Adults, females 22–26 mm, males 22–24 mm SVL; TrunkL/SVL above forelimb to bottom of inguina; dorsally hindlimbs with narrow 36–47%, HindlL/SVL 145–187%, HeadL/SVL 30–40% (blunt snout), dark stripe in middle of thigh and crus, rear of thigh with dark cloacal HeadW/HeadL 91–105%, OrbD/HeadL 35–42%, TympD/OrbD 41– spot otherwise faintly mottling; head with diagonal dark stripe from 54%. eye forward to upper lip, another diagonal dark edged white stripe Skin, dorsally and ventrally smooth. Digit tips, bluntly rounded on from eye to behind jaw articulation. Venter tannish white with dusky fingers and toes; no webbing between fingers or toes. Typically six chin and throat. metacarpal tubercles on palm, three proximal one and three distal ones; all subequal in size, occasionally smaller tubercles between Comments.— Lowland forest floor species from primary forest into proximal and distal ones; single moderate–sized metatarsal degraded forest. Present known distribution is South Tanintharyi tubercle and adjacent Thailand, and southern Penisular Malaysia to Singapore. Dorsal color variable from light or medium brown to grayish brown with various dark brown marking from back of head to sacrum, • Microhyla sp ranging from broken stripes to longitudinal rows of spots or spots Pygmy Tanintharyi Narrow-mouth Frog confined to sides of trunk; dark brown lateral stripe from snout to inguina bordered below on trunk by irregular dark spots on light Adults, female 15 mm, males 12–13 mm SVL, sexually dimorphic; background; venter creamy tan, chin and throat dusky in males; TrunkL/SVL 33–43%, HindlL/SVL 208–236%, HeadL/SVL 30–33%, hindlimbs dark mottled dorsally on thigh, rear of thigh with light HeadW/HeadL 107–120%, OrbD/HeadL 37–41%, TympD/OrbD ??%, irregular-shaped spots on mid brown background tympanum covered by glandular fold. Comments.— Secondary forest and cultivated areas, terrestrial Skin, dorsally and ventrally smooth. Digit tips bluntly rounded and nocturnal. We recommend the use of lineata as specific name on fingers, slightly expanded on toes, oblong shape; no forefoot because of the genetic similarity to adjacent Thai populations. webbing, full webbing on hindfeet. Three oblong metacarpal, outer and inner equal-sized, middle one slender; two metatarsal • Micryletta sp. tubercles, outer small projecting cone, inner larger and oblong. Tanintharyi Spotted Narrow-mouth Frog Dorsally pulchra-like pattern, brownish gray background, large Adults, females 20–22 mm, males ?? mm SVL; TrunkL/SVL 37–43%, dark brown guitar-shaped mark from between eyes to sacrum, HindlL/SVL 153–170%, HeadL/SVL 31–32% (blunt snout), HeadW/ dark brown dorsolateral stripe on each side from neck to inguina, HeadL 94–103%, OrbD/HeadL 38–39%, TympD/OrbD ??, tympanum diagonal broad white stripe from eye to forearm; hindlimbs covered by glandular fold. distinctly barred; underside white with dark spotting on chin and throat. 48 49 Skin, dorsally and ventrally smooth. Digit tips, bluntly rounded on A B C fingers and toes; no webbing between fingers or toes. Seven or eight metacarpal tubercles, three basal or proximal one and four or five distal ones; latter ones of variable size, basal outer and inner tubercles largest and elliptical; inner metatarsal tubercle inconspicuous to tiny round, small ovoid outer metatarsal tubercle. Dorsally grayish brown background with faded dark brown stripes, broad medial one from between eyes to sacrum and similarly colored Fig. 8 Body shapes of some ranid frogs: (A) Amolops, (B) Hylarana, and (C) Odorrana dorsolateral ones from nuchal area to inguina; irregular-edged dark brown dorsolateral stripe from nuchal area to inguina breaking into mottled markings on posterior third of trunk; hindlimbs dark Key to the genera and species of Ranidae mottled dorsally on thigh, rear of thigh light irregular-shaped spots on mid brown background; face with dark brown stripe from snout 1. Dorsolateral glandular fold single and continuous on each side through eye and continuous with dark lateral stripe of trunk; upper of trunk …….……… 2 lip white to cream; underside white to cream, occasionally with some dark flecking on chin and anterior throat. 1’. Dorsolateral folds composed of series of interrupted glandular folds; treefrog body shape; dorsal color dark olive to green with Comments.— Secondary forest and cultivated areas, terrestrial dense overlay of dark mottling ................................................................. and nocturnal. Two individuals among the many M. lineata ..Amolops panhai vouchered were genetically distinct. Examination of this limited 2. Tympanum large, 70% to 100% of eye diameter ................................ material indicates that they are also morphologically distinct. Their description as a new species is in progress. ......................... 3 2’. Tympanum modest, 70% or less of eye diameter ……………… ………………..… 6 Ranidae 3. Dorsolateral fold thin to moderate and same color as or slightly darker than dorsum; snout sharp pointed and scoop-like Ranids are often referred to as the true frogs owing to their ..…..……...…..……… Clinotarsus penelope widespread occurrence and visibility in the northern hemisphere. They were the first frogs to attract biological studies and entered the 3’. Dorsolateral fold variable thin to moderately thick; snout variable biological literature as the example of anurans. The “Rana” shape is but not sharp or scoop–like ……………………………………….. 4 widespread (~70 %) among the diverse genera (n = 23) of ranids; 4. Dorsolateral folds thin to moderately thick and same color or however, many of the South Asian genera have diverged from the slightly lighter than dorsum; tympanum nearly as large as orbit …. 5 classic external morphology as they adapted to diverse lifestyles 4’. Dorsolateral folds moderately thick and slightly darker than and habitats. Ranids predominantly possess external development, dorsum; tympanum about 75% diameter of orbit ................................ although owing to the diverse selection of aquatic habitats for egg ........................................ Sylvirana nigrovittata laying, Asian ranids display a high diversity in tadpole morphology. 5. Two metacarpal tubercles, both modest sized, inner largest; no yellow ventrolaterally on trunk …..…………. Indosylvirana milleti 5’. Two metatarsal tubercles, inner elliptical and largest, outer small and circular; with yellow tint ventrolaterally on the trunk ………………...…….. Chalcorana eschatai 50 51 on ventral surface of hindlimbs, remainder of venter from chin through anterior abdomen glossy white. 6. Dorsolateral fold same color as or slightly darker than dorsum; digit tips strongly expanded especially on forefoot............... Comments.— Saxicolous in and along rocky forest streams; [Odorrana] …...…..…………..…......…… 8 confined to the Tenasserim Mountain Range in Thailand and 6’. Dorsolateral fold light colored, cream to white; digit tips Myanmar.USNM data supplement by data on adults from Matsui & expanded but not greatly so .…...….[Hylarana] ….…………………… 7 Nabhitabhata, 2006. 7. Three elliptical metacarpal tubercles, inner and outer subequal and largest, middle tubercle about two-thirds outer tubercle • Chalcorana eschatai (Inger, Stuart, and Iskandar, 2009) ………………………... Hylarana erythraea Peninsular Copper-cheeked Frog 7’. Three large metacarpal tubercles on each forefoot, inner largest, middle and outer about half size of elliptical inner, middle one round Slender bodied and limbed frog.Adults, females 32–46 mm, .………….…..……….…… Hylarana tytleri males 27–48 mm SVL; TrunkL/SVL 40–47%, HindlL/SVL 169–187%, HeadL/SVL 38–44%, HeadW/HeadL 69–81%, OrbD/HeadL 27–34%, 8. One metatarsal tubercle, inner large and elliptical, no outer TympD/OrbD 76–109% (large tympanum, diameter subequal to eye tubercle .......................................................................... Odorrana hosii diameter. 8’. Two metatarsal tubercles, inner elliptical and larger than circular outer tubercle ………….....……….……... Odorrana livida Skin, dorsally head to sacrum and limbs finely granular or tuberculate, underside smooth to lightly rugose. Digit tips expanded as ovate pads, each with circummarginal groove; no webbing on Amolops panhai Matsui & Nabhitabhata, 2006 forefeet, nearly totally webbed hindfeet; three moderately large metacarpal tubercles, inner narrow elongate, middle oblong, outer Peninsular Torrentfrog round, declining slightly in size from inner to outer; two metatarsal tubercles, inner elliptical and largest, outer small and circular. Adults, females 48–58 mm, males 31–34 mm SVL, sexually dimorphic; TrunkL/SVL 37–44%, HindlL/SVL 190–200%, HeadL/SVL Dorsally snout to sacrum and hindlimbs medium brown or green; 39–44%, HeadW/HeadL 84–93%, OrbD/HeadL 38–41%, TympD/OrbD ventrolaterally dark brown from rear of ear to mid-trunk or to 45–54%. inguina, upper lip bright white highlighted below by dark lower lip, wash of pale yellow to orange ventrolaterally on trunk; venter Skin, dorsally and ventrally smooth to finely rugose. Digit immaculate creamy white. Dorsal surface of thighs uniform brown tips expanded on fore- and hindfeet, near circular, each with or green, posterior surface lighter than dorsal surface with no circummarginal groove; pads of forefeet nearly twice as large distinct pattern. as those of hindfeet for corresponding digits; forefeet web free, hindfeet fully webbed with webbing to base of expanded pads. Comments.— Low arboreal species in forest and forest edge Three metacarpal tubercles, inner largest 3–4X larger than middle habitats. All previous records of this species’ occurrence were and outer tubercles; two metatarsal tubercles, inner elliptical and below the Isthmus of Kra.Larger samples in the original description midsize about 2X larger than circular outer tubercle. give larger maximum SVL, females to 57 mm, but males only to 40 Dorsal ground color olive to dark green nearly obliterated by mm. dark brown mottling on head and trunk, dorsal surface of limbs less heavily marked than trunk, on both fore- and hindlimbs dark markings arranged in bands, rear surface of thigh dark mottling. Ventrolaterally on trunk, lighter with yellowish wash in inguina and 52 53 Clinotarsus penelope Grosjean, Bordoloi, Chuaynkern, Skin, dorsally head smooth becoming increasingly finely rugose to Chakravarty, and Ohler, 2015 sacrum, laterally flatten tuberculate, forelimbs smooth, hindlimbs finely rugose; underside including limbs smooth; broad, lightly Penelope’s Tadpole Frog colored dorsolateral glandular fold from above tympana to inguina. Digit tips modestly expanded on fingers and toes, obovate on both, Moderate bodied and limbed frog. Adults, females 45 mm, males toe pads slightly smaller than on fingers; no webbing between 34–46 mm SVL; TrunkL/SVL ??–??%%, HindlL/SVL ??–??%%, HeadL/ fingers, full webbing between toes; three metacarpal elliptical SVL 39–44%, HeadW/SVL 30–35%, OrbD/HeadL ??–??%, TympD/ tubercles, inner and outer subequal and largest, middle tubercle OrbD ??–??%. Data on adults largely nonexistent; see comments about two-thirds outer tubercle; large elliptical inner metatarsal below. tubercle, inner small and circular. Skin, dorsally from snout to sacrum finely rugose with closely Dorsally from snout to sacrum variably colored from light to dark packed small smooth–topped tubercles; distinct but narrow and green bordered by broad cream to white dorsolateral folds; side flat dorsolateral fold from above eye to sacrum; slightly less rugose of head (face and temporal) and body to inguina dark brown on dorsal surface of limbs; venter appears smooth to lightly rugose. bordered below by white stripe from lips to inguina; dorsal surface of hindlimbs tan to light green with light speckling of dark brown or Digit tips modestly expanded on fingers and toes, pads with narrow transverse dark bands, posteriorly thigh often with narrow, circumperipheral grooves; forefoot without webbing, hindfeet horizontal dark stripe; underside white to cream. strongly webbed with 4th toe extending well beyond web. Three moderate large, oval metacarpal tubercles; single outer metatarsal Comments.— Disturbed area from grassy borders of ponds and tubercle. lakes to paddies, nocturnal and semiaquatic. Largely uniform beige dorsally; underside beige to light brown. • Indosylvirana milleti (Smith, 1921) Comments.— Low arboreal species in forest and forest edge Millet’s Forestfrog habitats. All previous records of this species’ occurrence were Adults, females 37–45 mm, males ?? mm SVL; TrunkL/SVL 34–35%, below the Isthmus of Kra. Thus far, we found only in the Myeik HindlL/SVL 146–196%, HeadL/SVL 41–43%, HeadW/HeadL 77–78%, Archipelago. This species is vouchered by several large tadpoles OrbD/HeadL 30–34%, TympD/OrbD 72–77%. and a recent metamorph still with tail. Even the type description of this frog as a new species was based on tadpoles and the specific Skin, dorsally from snout to sacrum finely rugose with closely name was associated with adult frogs by supposition. Tadpoles packed small smooth-topped tubercles; distinct dorsolateral fold are large (~70 mm total length) and rotund, dark brown to nearly from above eye to sacrum; slightly less rugose on dorsal surface of black dorsally and ventrally; easily recognized by dark-centerd red limbs; venter appears smooth but finely spiculate with dense tiny ocellus at base of tail. tubercles. • Hylarana erythraea (Schlegel, 1837) Digit tips modestly expanded on fingers and toes, pads with Green Paddyfrog circumperipheral grooves; forefoot barely webbed basally, hindfeet strongly webbed with 4th toe extending well beyond web. Three Adults, females 67–78 mm, males 38–47 mm SVL, sexually ellipitical metacarpal tubercles, inner largest; two metacarpal dimorphic; TrunkL/SVL 36–39%, HindlL/SVL 124–146%, HeadL/SVL tubercles, modest sized, inner largest. 37–40%, HeadW/HeadL 78–86%, OrbD/HeadL 25–30%, TympD/OrbD 77–94%. 54 55 Distinctly two-toned dorsally, middorsally brown from snout to • Odorrana livida (Blyth, 1856) sacrum and between dorsolateral folds, laterally from tip of snout Tenasserim Odorfrog to inguina dark brown; broad white upper lip stripe from snout to shoulder; underside uniform creamy white. Adults, females to 88 mm, males to 73 mm SVL, sexually dimorphic; TrunkL/SVL 32–33%, HindlL/SVL 192–198%, HeadL/SVL 39–40%, Comments.— Nocturnal and terrestrial, predominantly forest HeadW/HeadL 86–87%, OrbD/HeadL 31–33%, TympD/OrbD 56–58%. species living streamside although found in disturbed forests; Skin, dorsally from head to sacrum finely rugose, more tuberculate occurs spottedly throughout Southeast Asia and southern China. on sides, especially ventrolaterally; underside smooth from chin Tanintharyi Indosylvirana milleti are smaller than Vietnamese to midbody, posteriorly lightly corrugate. Digit tips on fingers topotypic individuals (♀♀ 43–49 mm, ♂♂ 33–38 mm SVL) and Thai and toes enlarged as ovate pads with circumperipheral grooves, males are 38–42 mm SVL. pads somewhat larger on fingers than toes; no webbing between fingers, fully webbed between toes of hindfoot; three large elliptical • Odorrana hosii (Boulenger, 1891) metacarpal tubercles, inner about 2X larger than middle and outer Green Odorfrog tubercles; two metatarsal tubercles, inner elliptical and 2X larger than circular outer tubercle. Adults, females 80–89 mm, males 54–58 mm SVL, sexually dimorphic; TrunkL/SVL 36–45%, HindlL/SVL 183–207%, HeadL/SVL Dorsally bright green from head to sacrum; face medium brown; 34–40%, HeadW/HeadL 78–95%, OrbD/HeadL 26–39%, TympD/OrbD dorsolaterally brown from eye to midtrunk; ventrolaterally light 52–80%. brown, slightly mottled; dorsally hindlimbs olive with broad brown bars, posteriorly thigh dark brown with scattered small white spots; Skin, dorsally from head to sacrum finely rugose, more tuberculate underside tannish white, dark brown chin and throat with small on sides, especially ventrolaterally; underside smooth from chin patches of tannish white. to midbody, posteriorly lightly corrugate. Digit tips on fingers and toes enlarged as ovate pads with circumperipheral grooves, Comments.— Forest streams, primary to moderately disturbed pads somewhat larger on fingers than toes; no webbing between montane forest. Nocturnal and semiaquatic in and among the fingers, fully webbed between toes of hindfoot; three large elliptical rocks of cascading streams. Distribution appears limited to Dawei- metacarpal tubercles, inner 2–3X middle and outer tubercles, Tenasserim mountain range in Tanintharyi. inner extends distally along first phalanx; single inner, elliptical metatarsal tubercle, no outer tubercle. • Sylvirana nigrovittata (Blyth, 1856) Black-sided Woodfrog Dorsally bright green from head to sacrum; face light green; dorsolaterally brown from eye to midtrunk; ventrolaterally light Adults, females 49–50 mm, males 41–47 mm SVL, sexually brown, slightly mottled; dorsally hindlimbs olive with narrow brown dimorphic; TrunkL/SVL 34–40%, HindlL/SVL 172–185%, HeadL/SVL bars, posteriorly thigh finely mottled olive; underside dirty white 38–44%, HeadW/HeadL 75–87%, OrbD/HeadL 30–36%, TympD/ with light dusky mottling on throat. OrbD 66–82%. Comments.— Forest streams, primary to moderately disturbed montane forest. Nocturnal and semiaquatic in and among the rocks Skin, dorsally from head to sacrum finely rugose, limbs (dorsally of cascading streams. Occurs throughout southern Thai-Malaysia and ventrally) and venter smooth; suggestion of dorsolateral folds Peninsula to Borneo. but very weakly developed; distinct humeral gland anterior at junction of forelimb and neck (present in both females and males). Forefeet web free, hindfeet strongly webbed; digital tips slightly expanded, deltoid shaped, equal-sized on fore- and hindfeet, 56 57 without circummarginal grooves; three metacarpal tubercles, all elliptical, inner 2–3X larger than moderate-sized middle and outer tubercles; two metatarsal tubercles inner elliptical and moderate- sized, outer circular and about 1/3 size of inner. Dorsal ground color brown from snout to sacrum and on hindlimbs; face (lores) dark brown from tip of snout, continuous to inguina; white upper lip continuous to shoulder and usually to inguina; dorsal surface of thigh with dark brown bands, rear of thigh mottled usually with white horizontal stripe on lower margin. Venter variable from uniform creamy white to dusky brown. Chiromantis Polypedates Rhacophorus Comments.— Lowlands to mid-montane forest (secondary Fig. 9 Hand morphology of rhacophorid frog genera. Chiromantis with basal fusion of first and second fingers, no webbing; Polypedates with independent or primary) usually stream side; nocturnal and terrestrial. Until first and second fingers, no webbing; Rhacophorus with independent first and recently widespread across Southeast Asia, now a more restricted second fingers, well-developed webbing. range in southeastern Myanmar and adjacent Thailand. The type locality of Sylvirana nigrovittata is the valley of the Tenasserim Rhacophoridae — Rhacophorinae River. Our surveys in southern Tanintharyi vouchered only one from immediately adjacent to that river, other vouchers derive from 1. Forefoot with somewhat opposable digits, first and second digits further south in the proposed Lenya National Park. Both samples fused at their base........................................................... Chiromantis are summarized in the preceding description. 1’. Forefoot not opposable and first and second digits not or slightly fused at their bas.......................................................................... 2 Rhacophoridae 2. Both fore- and hindfeet strongly webbed ……………………….………. Rhacophorus Rhacophorids are the Asian and African treefrogs, possessing slender bodies and long slender limbs ending in hands and feet 2’. Only hindfeet modestly to strong webbed; if forefeet webbed, with expanded digit tips. They comprise three subfamilies with the only at base of fingers …..…................................................................ 3 rhacophorines being the most diverse with several genera being widespread throughout tropical Asia and commonly encountered 3. Dorsal skin on crus and ankle with scattered tubercles ………….………. in forests or agricultural lands with scruby or wooded fence rows. Kurixalus Many of the common genera, e.g., Chiromantis, Polypedates, and 3’. Dorsal skin on crus and ankle smooth ……………………..…………. Rhacophorus, create foam nest by stirring the eggs and their jelly Polypedates coating with their hindlimbs as the egg mass is extruded by the female and fertilized by the male. These foam nests are usually • Chiromantis doriae (Boulenger, 1893) suspended in vegetation above water; foam nest placement Dorsal-striped Bushfrog appears species specific. When the larvae hatch, they wiggle through the foam and drop into the water below, beginning the Adults, females 29–30 mm, males 27–31 mm SVL; TrunkL/SVL typical anuran tadpole lifestyle. 43–51%, HindlL/SVL 161–180%, HeadL/SVL 34–40%, HeadW/HeadL 81–94%, OrbD/HeadL 35–41%, TympD/OrbD 43–54%. 58 59 Skin, dorsally head and trunk smooth granular to rugose; underside Comments.— Primary and secondary midmontane forest, usually pebbled. Digit tips, expanded pads on fingers and toes; no basal in scrubby vegetation at edge of forest openings; arboreal and webbing between fingers of forefoot, strong webbing between nocturnal. Occurs spottedly from Nagaland, India to Cardamon toes of hindfoot. Three metacarpal tubercles, inner largest and Mountains, Cambodia. elliptical, middle and outer tubercles much smaller elliptical; inner metatarsal tubercle midsize elliptical, outer tiny or absent. • Polypedates discantus Rujirawan, Stuart, and Aowphol, 2013 Overall dorsal color tan to cream, variously marked from totally Malayan Slender Treefrog speckled with tiny dark brown spots to larger, irregularly shaped marks from head onto back; dorsal surface of thigh with no or Adults, females 64 mm, males 48–53 mm SVL, sexually dimorphic; faded dark band, posterior surface unicolor light yellow; underside TrunkL/SVL 41–50%, HindlL/SVL 164–195%, HeadL/SVL 33–38%, unicolor cream. HeadW/HeadL 78–99%, OrbD/HeadL 32–39%, TympD/OrbD 53–70%. Comments.— Schrubby forest-edge species, arboreal in bushes, Skin, dorsally head and trunk smooth granular, narrow glandular low trees, and grass; strictly nocturnal. ridge from posterodorsal edge of eye above tympanum to shoulder, • Kurixalus bisacculus (Taylor, 1962) underside pebbled. Digit tips, bluntly rounded on fingers, disk large Taylor’s Rough-armed Treefrog on fingers 2 to 4 about ¾ size of disk on finger 1; expanded pads on toes, smaller than on fingers; slight basal webbing between fingers Adults, females 36–40 mm, males 32 mm SVL, sexually dimorphic; of forefoot, modest webbing between toes of hindfoot; three well- TrunkL/SVL 43–50%, HindlL/SVL 176–183%, HeadL/SVL 37–40%, developed metacarpal tubercles, inner narrow elliptical, middle HeadW/HeadL 81–94%, OrbD/HeadL 31–41%, TympD/OrbD 42–60%. largest broad oblong, outer broad oblong about half area of middle; one or two metatarsal tubercles, inner moderately large broad Skin, dorsally head and trunk finely granular, some moderate sized oblong, outer if present small round. tubercles on back of head, upper eyelid and temporal area; outer edge of forearm, ankle with low scalloped fringe. Digit tips with Overall dorsal color grey to light tan, near unicolor to indistinct pair large pads on fore- and hindfeet; slight webbing between third and of longitudinal medium brown stripes from snout to slightly beyond fourth fingers of forefoot, three-quarters webbing between toes shoulders trunk; face medium brown dorsally fading to white upper of hindfeet; three, well-developed elliptical metacarpal tubercles, lip, light temporal area below the dark brown edged dorsolateral all nearly equal sized; two inner metatarsal and no outer tubercles, fold; dorsal surface of thigh with three dark brown bands, posterior distalmost inner small and circular. surface with reticulate pattern almost like series of nearly abutting small white spots on dark brown background ; dorsal surface of Overall dorsal ground color dull green with light orangish brown thigh indistinctly banded alternately in medium brown, posterior markings often edged in black, large marking extends from surface nearly unicolor. between eyes to sacrum covering most of dorsal surface; narrow stripe on dorsal surface of thigh dark and light bands, bordered Comments.— Various forests to scrubby fence rows in agricultural anteriorly and posteriorly by broad orange bands. Underside, throat areas; arboreal and nocturnal. Our record represent the first to pubis white with numerous irregular dark gray spots and red on occurrence outside of Thailand. the lower abdomen and hindlimbs. A kaleidoscopic colored frog. 60 61 • Polypedates cf. leucomystax (Gravenhorst, 1829) hindfoot; three well-developed metacarpal tubercles, inner largest obovate, middle large oblong to near round, outer oblong; two White-lipped Treefrog metatarsal tubercles, inner medium-sized round, outer moderately small round. Adults, females 68–69 mm, males 44–50 mm SVL, sexually dimorphic; TrunkL/SVL 36–52%, HindlL/SVL 161–176%, HeadL/SVL Overall dorsal color greyish tan to medium brown, dorsal pattern 36–40%, HeadW/HeadL 80–91%, OrbD/HeadL 27–32%, TympD/OrbD very variable from near unicolor (occasionally scatter small to 62–100%. medium-sized dark spots) to 2 to 4 dark brown, parasagittal Skin, dorsally head smooth to granular where co-ossified, trunk longitudinal stripes; top of head unicolor to striped with face dark smooth, underside pebbled. Digit tips, bluntly rounded on fingers, brown dorsally fading to white upper lip, narrow supraocular dark disk large on fingers 2 to 4 about ¾ size on finger 1; expanded pads stripe above tympanum slanting downward to post axilla and on toes, smaller than on fingers; slight basal webbing between sometime continuing horizontally to midtrunk; dorsal surface fingers of forefoot, modest webbing between toes of hindfoot. of thigh and crus vaguely to distinctly with brown bands (usually Three metacarpal tubercles, inner largest and oblong, oblong three), moderate distinct rump patch, posterior surface of thigh middle and round outer tubercles progressively smaller; inner bold reticulate pattern (almost like abutting rows of small circular metatarsal tubercle midsize obovate, circular outer small. light spots on near black background); underside unicolor white, dusky chin and throat in some females. Overall dorsal color greyish tan to medium brown, pattern very variable from near unicolor to bold longitudinal stripes (two to four) Comments.— Various forests to scrubby fence rows in agricultural on head through trunk, stripes thin to broad; top of head unicolor to areas; arboreal and nocturnal. Widespread from Northeast India two broad stripes between eyes, face dark brown dorsally fading to and southern China, and throughout Southeast Asia. bright white upper lip; dorsal surface of thigh with three dark brown bands, posterior surface with reticulate pattern almost like series of • Polypedates mutus (Smith, 1940) nearly abutting small white spots on dark brown background. Smith’s Striped Treefrog Comments.— Various forests to scrubby fence rows in agricultural Adults, females ?–? mm, males 55–66 mm SVL, sexually dimorphic; areas; arboreal and nocturnal. The South Tanintharyi population TrunkL/SVL 40–57%, HindlL/SVL 152–177%, HeadL/SVL 33–40%, of Polypedates leucomystax likely represents two undescribed HeadW/HeadL 86–95%, OrbD/HeadL 30–36%, TympD/OrbD 64–84%. species. Skin, dorsally head tuberculate from snout to nape, trunk strongly • Polypedates megacephalus Hallowell,1861 tuberculate, underside pebbled. Digit tips, bluntly rounded disks White-spotted Thigh Treefrog with circumperipheral grooves on fingers, disk large on fingers 2 to 4 about 2–3 X width of penultimate phalanx, half that of finger Adults, females 64–68 mm, males 45–47 mm SVL, sexually 1, expanded pads on toes, each slightly less than double width of dimorphic; TrunkL/SVL 43–52%, HindlL/SVL 164–176%, HeadL/SVL penultimate phalanx; no webbing between fingers of forefoot, 33–38%, HeadW/HeadL 83–102%, OrbD/HeadL 27–40%, TympD/ modest webbing between toes of hindfoot; three well-developed OrbD 66–100%. metacarpal tubercles, inner obovate and largest, middle large oblong to near round, outer oblong; two metatarsal tubercles, inner Skin, dorsally head smooth to granular where co-ossified, trunk medium size near round, outer moderately small round. smooth, underside pebbled. Digit tips, bluntly rounded disks with circumperipheral grooves on fingers, disk large on fingers 2 to 4 Overall dorsal color greyish tan to medium brown, usually four about ¾ area on finger 1, toe pads also bluntly rounded, smaller, darker brown, parasagittal longitudinal stripes on dorsum of trunk, each less than double width of penultimate phalanx; on toes; slight top of head with parasagittal stripes, face dark brown dorsally basal web between fingers, modest to 2/3 webbing between toes of fading to white upper lip, postocular dark brown stripe on top half 62 63 of tympanum slanting downward to postaxillary and continuing • Rhacophorus kio Ohler and Delorme, 2006 horizontally to midtrunk or beyond; dorsal surface of thigh vaguely Asian Black-webbed Treefrog barred with brown bands, usually three dark brown rump patch with white border above, posterior surface with bold reticulate pattern; Adults, females 88–90 mm, males 70–79 mm SVL, sexually underside unicolor white from chin to pubis. dimorphic; TrunkL/SVL 45–55%, HindlL/SVL 160–176%, HeadL/SVL 32–36%, HeadW/HeadL 89–101%, OrbD/HeadL 27–36%, TympD/ Comments.— Various forests to scrubby fence rows in agricultural OrbD 45–54%. areas; arboreal and nocturnal. Previously known from southern China and adjacent northern Myanmar and Indochina. Populations Skin, dorsally superficially smooth (finely rugose, small smooth- of “P. mutus” in Tanintharyi likely represent two species. topped tubercles) from head to sacrum, becoming tuberculate • Rhacophorus bipunctatus Ahl, 1927 ventrolaterally and merging into pebbled venter of trunk and thighs; ventrally chin and throat nearly smooth. Digit tips strongly Double-spotted Orange-webbed Treefrog expanded on fingers and toes, pads ellipsoidal with circummarginal grooves, forefoot pads larger than hindfoot ones. Three metacarpal Adults, females 49–59 mm, males 37–46 mm SVL, sexually tubercles, inner large and oblong, middle and outer smaller, dimorphic; TrunkL/SVL 48–56%, HindlL/SVL 167–185%, HeadL/SVL flattened, and nearly invisible; small, elliptical inner metatarsal 30–33%, HeadW/HeadL 90–97%, OrbD/HeadL 29–37%, TympD/OrbD tubercle, no outer metatarsal tubercle. 57–85%. Dorsally uniform mid green on head, trunk and limbs, ventrolaterally Skin, dorsally from head to sacrum and limbs finely rugose (small, light orange fading into uniform white venter; large black spot in smooth-topped tubercles), sides of trunk smooth, venter rugose axilla; webbing organish with black basally on outer two webs of less so than dorsum. Digit tips expanded, round-edged trapezoidal, fingers and outher three webs of toes. all with circummarginal grooves; fore- and hindfeet fully webbed. Three metacarpal tubercles, inner large occupying base of first Comments.— Nocturnal and arboreal on leafy branches finger, middle and inner tubercles small and faint; small metatarsal overhanging forest streams. Occurs from southwestern China and tubercle, no outer. northeastern Myanmar into northern Indochina. In alcohol, entirely creamy white above and below with scattering of • Rhacophorus nigropalmatus Boulenger, 1895 small brown spots on top of head to midtrunk; snout and canthus Wallace’s Treefrog brown edged; axilla; webbing orangish with red spot on outer web of 4th and 5th toes. Adults, females 85–98 mm, males 83–87 mm SVL, sexually dimorphic; TrunkL/SVL ~50%, HindlL/SVL ~185%, HeadL/SVL 29– Comments.— Nocturnal and arboreal in trees bordering streams 35%, HeadW/HeadL ~96%, OrbD/HeadL ~30%, TympD/OrbD ~74%. and ponds in primary to secondary forest. Widespread from Skin, dorsally from head to sacrum smoothly rugose with densely Northeast India and southern China into Myanmar, Thailand, and packed small tubercles become larger laterally and ventrally, Vietnam. The female size data derive from Bordolio et al., 2007, as underside pebbled with medium-sized flat tubercles. Digit tips that was absent in our sample. strongly expanded on fingers and toes, pads ellipsoidal with circummarginal grooves, forefoot pads larger than hindfoot ones; fingers three-quarters webbed, toes fully webbed; large inner metacarpal tubercles, two others faint; modest inner metatarsal tubercle, outer small. 64 65 Uniform dorsal color of medium to dark green; underside and dorsally on first and second fingers yellow; webbing above and below black. Comments.— Nocturnal and arboreal in trees bordering streams and ponds in primary to secondary forest. Occurs in scattered localities from central Malay Peninsula into Sumatra and Borneo. • Rhacophorus norhayatii Chan and Grismer, 2010 Wallace’s Orange-sided Treefrog Adults, females 76–83 mm, males 61–65 mm SVL, sexually dimorphic; TrunkL/SVL 51–52%, HindlL/SVL 164–168%, HeadL/SVL 34–35%, HeadW/HeadL 105–108%, OrbD/HeadL 27–32%, TympD/ OrbD 72–88%. Skin, dorsally smooth from head to sacrum and limbs, ventrolaterally becoming rugose and underside strongly pebbled from chin to 1. Toads pelvis and on hindlimbs. Digit tips enlarged on fingers (slightly larger) and toes, pads rounded trapezoidal with circummarginal Ansonia thinthinae grooves, hands and feet fully webbed; lateral skin fold on outer [Thin Thin’s Stream Toad] edge of forearm and hand, and ankle and foot; three ellipsoidal adult SVL 19–27 mm; metacarpal tubercles, inner twice size of middle and outer, single elliptical inner metatarsal tubercle. Duttaphrynus melanostictus [Asian Black-spined Toad] Dorsally dark green body and legs; ventrolaterally black with orange SVL 67–104 mm; mottling on trunk, fore- and hindfoot webbing black with white mottling; underside ground color creamy white or orange speckled Phrynoides asper with black. [Asian Giant Toad] SVL 96–138 mm; Comments.— Nocturnal and arboreal in trees bordering streams and ponds in primary to secondary forest.Distribution appears to be Ingerophrynus parvus southern half of Malay Peninsula. Our small sample’s characteristics [Malayan Dwarf Toad] supplemented by data from Chan and Grismer, 2010. SVL 31–46 mm. From upper left and clockwise. 66 67 2. Fanged frogs and relatives 3. Puddlefrogs and relatives Fejervarya sp1.hp2 Kotaki Ingerana tenasserimensis [unnamed Grassfrog] [Tenasserim Tricklefrog] adult SVL 29–59 mm; adult SVL 14–22 mm; Hoplobatrachus rugulosus Occidozyga lima [Asian Rugose Bullfrog] [Gray-green Puddlefrog] SVL 63–103 mm; SVL 26–32 mm; Limnonectes blythi Occidozyga martensi [Blyth’s Fanged Frog] [Malayan Puddlefrog] SVL 83–105 mm; SVL 19–28 mm. L. doriae Megophryidae: [Doria’s Fanged Frog] Leptobrachium smithi SVL 38–51 mm. [Southern Bicolored Toadfrog] SVL 46–69 mm. From upper left and clockwise. From upper left and clockwise. 68 69 4. Narrow-mouth frogs 5. True frogs Kalophrynus interlineatus Amolops panhai [Striped Sticky Frog] [Panha Torrentfrog] adult SVL 35–46 mm; adult SVL 31–58 mm; Kaloula latisticta Odorrana hosii [Malayan Painted Bullfrog] [Green Odorfrog] SVL 39–52 mm; SVL 54–89 mm; Micryletta lineata Hylarana erythraea [Spotted Narrow-mouthed Frog] [Green Paddyfrog] SVL 22–26 mm; SVL 38–78 mm; Microhyla fissipes Sylvirana nigrovittata [Oriental Ornate Narrow-mouthed Frog] [Black-sided Woodfrog] SVL 23–28 mm. SVL 41–50 mm. From upper left and clockwise. From upper left and clockwise. 70 71 6. Treefrogs Chiromantis doriae [Dorsal-striped Bushfrog] 7. Flying lizards and relatives adult SVL 27–31 mm; Acanthosauria crucigera Kurixalus bisacculus [Masked Prickle-naped Lizard] [Taylor’s Rough-armed Treefrog] adult SVL 79–110 mm; SVL 32–40 mm; Bronchocela burmana Polypedates cf. leucomystax [Burmese Green Crested Lizard] [White-lipped Treefrog] SVL 79–93 mm; SVL 41–50 mm; Calotes emma Rhacophorus norhayatii [Barred Forest Lizard] [Wallace’s Orange-sided Treefrog] SVL 80–106 mm; SVL 61–83 mm. Draco taeniopterus From upper left and clockwise. [Barred Flying Lizard] SVL 59–76 mm. From upper left and clockwise. 72 73 9. More geckos 8. Geckos Gehyra mutilata[Asian Stump-toed Gecko] adult SVL 47–56 mm; Cyrtodacylus brevipalmatus [Short-palmed Bent-toed Gecko] Hemidactylus frenatus adult SVL 68–74 mm [Indo-Pacific House Gecko] SVL 42–59 mm; Cyrtodactylus lenya [Lenya Banded Bent-toed Gecko] Hemidactylus tenkatei SVL 73–74 mm; [Southeast Asian Spiny Gecko] SVL 45–65 mm; Cyrtodactylus oldhami [Oldham’s Bent-toed Gecko] Ptychozoon lionotum SVL 55–84 mm; [Smooth-backed Flying Gecko] SVL 84–93 mm. Gekko gecko [Tokay Gecko] From upper left and clockwise. SVL 132–166 mm. From upper left and clockwise. 74 75 10. Skinks 11. More skinks Dasia olivacea Lygosoma siamensis [Olive Treeskink] [Siamese Suppleskink] adult SVL 68–115 mm; adult SVL 57–78 mm Eutropis macularia Scincella reevesi [Side-spotted Sunskink] [Black-spotted Smoothskink] SVL 47–62 mm; SVL 41–55 mm; Eutropis multifasciata Sphenomorphus maculatus [Common Sunskink] [Asian Spotted Forestskink] SVL 92–127 mm; SVL 55–65 mm; Lipinia vittigera Tropidophorus berdmorei [Malayan Yellow-tailed Lipinia] [Berdmore’s Waterskink] SVL 34–44 mm. SVL 63–85 mm. From upper left and clockwise. From upper left and clockwise. 76 77 12. Filesnake and treesnakes 13. Mostly treesnakes Acrochordus granulatus Chrysopelea ornata [Little Filesnake] [Ornate Flying Snake] adult TotL ~700–1050 mm adult TotL ~400–1400 mm; Colubridae: Elaphe taeniura Ahaetulla mycterizans [Cave Racer] [Malayan Vinesnake] TotL ~900 mm–3 m; TotL ~700–1050 mm; Dendrelaphis caudolineata Boiga cyanea [Striped Bronzeback] [Green Catsnake] TotL to 1450 mm; TotL ~800–1860 mm; Dendrelaphis cyanochloris Boiga drapiezii [Blue Bronzeback] [White-spotted Catsnake] TotL 425–1235 mm. TotL ~1300–2100 mm. From upper left and clockwise. From upper left and clockwise. 78 79 14. Ratsnakes and Wolfsnake Dryocalamus subannulatus 15. Keelbacks or watersnakes [Malayan Bridlesnake] adult TotL ~360–600 mm; Xenochrophis trianguligerus [Red-sided Keelback] Gonyosoma oxycephalum adult to 1350 mm; [Red-tailed Green Ratsnake] TotL to 2.1 m; Rhabdophis nigrocinctus [Banded Green Keelback] Lycodon effraensis TotL ~635–880 mm; [Brown Wolfsnake] TotL ~700–1050 mm; Rhabdophis subminiatus [Red-necked Keelback] Ptyas mucosus TotL ~580–1300 mm; [Oriental Ratsnake] TotL ~1–2.5 m. Xenochrophis. piscator [Checkered Keelback] From upper left and clockwise. TotL ~725–1050 mm. From upper left and clockwise. 80 81 17. Mudsnakes and Mockviper 16. Kraits and cobras – dangerously Cerberus rhynchops venomous [Bockham]adult TotL 550–1.2 m; Bungarus fasciatus Enhydris enhydris [Banded Krait] [Rainbow Mudsnake] adult TotL ~650 mm–2.1 m; TotL ~360–880 mm; Naja kaouthia Homalopsis semizonata [Monocled Cobra] [Burmese Masked Mudsnake] TotL ~950 mm–2.3 m; TotL ~500–730 mm; Ophiophagus hannah Lamprophiidae: [King Cobra] Psammodynastes pulverulentus TotL ~1.0–4.0 m; [Asian Common Mockviper] TotL ~250–540 mm. Calliophis bivirgatus [Blue Malayan Coralsnake] From upper left and clockwise. TotL ~950 –1.8 m; From upper left and clockwise. 82 83 18. Blindsnakes and other burrowers 19. Vipers – dangerously venomous Argyrotyphlops diardii Daboia siamensis [Mueller’s Blindsnake] [Eastern Russel’s Viper] adult TotL to 420 mm; adult TotL to 1.6 m; Indotyphlops braminus Trimeresurus albolabris [Brahminy Blindsnake] [White-Lipped Tree Pitviper] TotL ~100–180 mm; TotL ~600–900 mm; Cylindrophidae: Trimeresurus cf popeiorum Cylindrophis burmanus [Southern Green Tree Pitviper] [Burmese Pipesnake] TotL ~380–520 mm; TotL ~220–300 mm; Trimeresurus purpureomaculatus Xenopeltidae: [Mangrove Pitviper] Xenopeltis unicolor TotL to 900 mm; [Sunbeam Snake] TotL ~600–1.3 m; From upper left and clockwise. From upper left and clockwise. 84 85 Reptilia Common Terms Used in Reptile Descriptions Measurements SVL. Snout-vent length, straight-line distance from tip of snout to anteromedial edge of vent. HeadL. Head length, distance from tip of snout to posterior edge of the jaw articulation. HeadW. Head width, transverse distance from left to right outer edge of jaw articulation. TrunkL. Trunk length, distance from posterior edge of forelimb at its juncture with the body to anterior edge of the hindlimb at its junction with the body. HindlL. Hindlimb length, with limb straightened from the vent to the tip of the longest toe, almost always the fourth toe. Meristic, Counts Different ones for lizards and snakes. See definitions at beginning of those sections. Dorsals (Dorsal) Number of middorsal/parasagittal body scales from parietals or nuchal scales to end of trunk at base of tail. Labials Number of scales bordering the mouth from rostral (supralabials, Suplab) or mental (infralabials, Inflab) to posterior corner of the mouth. Midbodys Number of trunk scales around body at (Midbody) midpo int between fore- and hindlimbs. 86 87 Nuchal Crest Number of middorsal spines with height Lizards Spines greater than base length. Lizards and snakes are closely related but anciently so. Snakes had (NucCrsS) their origin from a group of lizards, likely in the Early Cretaceous, within the lineage that today includes among others the Agamidae, Subdigital Number of enlarged scales from base of digit Varanidae, and Anguidae. Because snakes are within the lizard lamellae to claw; usually counted on the fourth digit of evolutionary group, current biologists use the name Squamata for fore- (ForefLm) or hindfoot (HindfLm). this large group and Serpentes for the snake group, but we have no formal classificatory name for all lizards, excluding snakes. Morphology Lizards are the most abundant living reptiles with over 6000 species. Lizards come in all shapes and sizes from those with Keel Longitudinal, raised ridge on scales of lizards and snakes. Contrasted with smooth long snake-like bodies, some with visible limbs and others without scales lacking keel. visible limbs, to those with short, stout bodies and thick, robust limbs, from species with total length less than 20 mm to nearly 4 Plates Alternate term for scutes of turtles; also used regularly for the enlarged head scales m. This diversity in body form is matched by a diversity of life styles of lizards, snakes, and turtles. from nectar-licking, grazing and browsing, to obligate carnivores, and from living in cool, rocky arid landscapes to tropical rainforest, Scales Cornified (keratinized) epidermal covering and from egg-laying to giving birth to miniature adult-like neonates. of the bodies of reptiles. Much of this diversity is seen in the five lizard families occurring in Scutes Used exclusively for the scales covering the Myanmar and Tanintharyi. carapaces and plastrons of turtles. A B C Common Terms Used in Lizard Descriptions Measurements D E Head length (HeadL) As in frogs, distance from tip of snout to posterior angle of jaw. Hindlimb Distance from inguina (anterior length juncture of limb with body) to tip of (HindlL) longest toe. Fig. 10 Anatomical features of lizards. Lateral views of heads of: (A) an agamid Tail length Distance from middle of vent to tip Calotes, (B) gekkonid Phyllodactylus, and (C) scincid Eutropis.The sequence (TailL) of tail. illustrates large, over-lapping head scales often keeled, small granular juxtaposition scales, and large overlapping smooth scales, respectively. Ventral Trunk length (TrunkL) Distance from axilla to inguina views of two hindfeet highlight: (D) expanded digital pads of many geckos with broaden scales (lamellae) on the underside of digits, and (E) the narrower digit morphology of a skink and most other lizards with narrow lamellae. 88 89 Scalation (scales) Key to the Families of Tanintharyi Lizards Acuminate Ending in a slender, sharp point. 1. Belly scales, small to large, circular or leaf shaped, nonoverlapping Digital Enlarged scales beneath the digits, often (juxtaposed) or overlapping (imbricate) ……………….......…...3 lamellae transversely rectangular in shape. Usually 1’ Belly scales small to large, rectangular shape and nonoverlapping counts are taken on the fourth digit, hence …………..…… 2 fourth finger lamellae (ForefLm = Fourth 2. Head covered with small, tubercle-like scales; eyelids present Forefoot Lamellae) and fourth toe lamellae …...……... Varanidae (HindfLm). Infralabials Enlarged scales bordering the mouth 2’. Head covered with large, plate-like scales; eyelids present ventrally, extend from the rostral scale to ……………...…. Lacertidae corner of the mouth. 3. Head with soft, small, nonoverlapping, tubercle-like scales; no Nasal Scale pierced by the naris or pair of scales eyelids … Gekkonidae surrounding the naris. 3’. Head with variable-sized, plate-like scales; eyelids present Nuchal Nape, dorsal area on neck immediately ...…………………………. 4 behind head. 4. Body scales keeled and acuminate, usually small and in 40 or Rostral Anteriormost scale on top of head; snout more rows at midbody ............................................................. Agamidae scale. 4’. Body scales smooth (occasionally keeled) and cycloid; scales of Supralabials. Enlarged scales bordering the mouth back and venter near equal size and usually in 36 or fewer rows at dorsally, extend from the rostral scale to midbody ………………….…….. Scincidae corner of the mouth. Supranasal. Scale above and touching nasal scale, in Agamidae contact with rostral anteriorly and nasal laterally. If large, left and right supranasals Agamid lizards are largely diurnal and arboreal, hence one of the contact on midline, and if smaller, most visible Asian lizards as many sit head-down on tree trunks separated by an internasal or prefrontal scanning the ground for prey. Agamids occur broadly in the Eastern scale. Hemisphere with three separate centers of radiation: Africa; Asia, both temporate and tropical; and Australopapua. Most are moderate-sized (60–120 mm SVL) but a few are larger, reaching total length greater than 1 m. There are about 10 species in South Tanintharyi. All lay eggs. Key to the genera of Agamidae 1. Five or six elongated ribs supporting wing-like skin surface ……...…..………… Draco 1’. Ribs not elongated into a wing-like surface ...................................... ........................ 2 2. Tail very long and slender, length about three times body length; low nuchal crest; overall color green …..………. Bronchocela 90 91 2’. Tail moderately long and robust, about two times body length or Comments.— Arboreal forest lizard, diurnal. Occurs in peninsular less; coloration variable, not entirely green …........……….……….. 3 Myanmar and adjacent Thailand to central Peninsular Malayasia. 3. Trunk scales, dorsally and laterally, small, granular, and non overlapping; hindlimb and tail thick and moderately long; caudal • Bronchocela burmana (Blanford, 1878) scales small to moderate, keeled and nearly equal sized above and Burmese Green Crested Lizard below …..…….… Leiolepis Adult SVL, females 79–84 mm SVL, males 84–93 mm; TrunkL/ 3’. Trunk scales plate-like, usually overlapping and often keeled SVL 47–56%, TailL/SVL 243–361%, HindlL/SVL 86–97%, HeadL/SVL ……………..……………4 25–27%. Top of head with small scales, Suplab 9–11, Inflab 9–11, ForefLm 26–32, HindfLm 31–38, NucCrsS 6–9, no dorsal trunk 4. Two large dorsal spines on side of head, postorbital and spines, Midbody 55–67. posttemporal; well developed middorsal crest, esp. nuchal area…..……………………… Acanthosaura Overall green lizard that can lighten or darken; cheek patch of 4’. Small spines above tympanum or not, spines equal or less than greenish white; trunk with transverse band of small greenish white eye diameter; small to moderate middorsal crest …...………… 5 spots; tail with closely spaced, greenish white transverse bands. 5. Scales on trunk moderate-sized keeled and diagonal rows; Comments.— Lowland forest, often stream side. Diurnal and nuchal crest scales moderately large, erect and continuous with arboreal, mainly on outer end of branches. Likely a central peninsular dorsal crest spines; fourth toe of hindfoot distinctly longer than Malay species; there is no evidence of B. cristatella in Tanintharyi. third toe ...…………………………………... Calotes It is likely that the Bronchocela in the adjacent Thai provinces are not B. cristatella. They were identified as B. cristatella prior to the 5’. Scales on trunk, small keeled and diagonal rows; low or no dorsal description of B. rayensis and resurrection of B. burmana. crest spines, nuchal crest scales few and usually not erect; third and fourth toes nearly equal in length............................................................. • Calotes emma Gray, 1845 Pseudocalotes Barred Forestlizard • Acanthosaura crucigera(Boulenger, 1885) Adult SVL, females 82–106 mm, males 80–102 mm; TrunkL/SVL 47–51 %, TailL/SVL 252–288%, HindlL/SVL 77–86%, HeadL/SVL 27– Masked Prickle–naped Lizard 83%. Top of head with small keeled scales, large supraorbital spine, Adult SVL, females 108–110 mm, males 79–85 mm; TrunkL/SVL temporal cluster of spines and supratympanic cluster on each side; 44–52%, TailL/SVL 160–182%, HindlL/SVL 84–95%, HeadL/SVL distinct spiny crest from nuchal area (12–17 spines with height 27–28%. Top of head with small scales, large supraorbital spine > basal length), declining in height to midbody. Preaxial pocket and moderate supratemporal spine; middorsal spine divided, 5–6 of small black scales on neck in front of forelimb; all body scales nuchal ones longer than and separated from 26–32 dorsal trunk keeled, trunk scales oriented diagonally upward and backward. spines gradually decreasing in height to sacrum; Suplab 11, Inflab Suplab 10–12, Inflab 9–11, NucCrsS 12–17, Dorsals (parasagittally) 12, ForefLm 17–18, HindfLm 24. 41–45, Midbody 49–54. ForefLm 20–23, HindfLm 23–28. Strikingly colored in shades of brown; top of head medium brown, Boldly patterned in shades of brown; head light brown with narrow face with wide stripe on lower loreal area and labials, large dark dark brown pre- and postorbital stripes above dark temporal patch, brown eye patch, temporal area and neck cream tan continuous broad light colored labial stripe from snout to below temporal with chin, throat, and chest; trunk raggedly striped with dark brown patch. Trunk medium brown with white lateral stripe from neck and white; tail banded in dark brown and white. to base of tail; series of five or six middorsal dark brown bars or spots that often continue below lateral white stripe as diffuse dark marks; limbs usually transversally banded in light and dark brown. 92 93 Underside dusky with scattered white spots; chin and throat often Calotes “versicolor” (Daudin, 1802) dark, nearly black, with median cream patch. Variable Forestlizard Adult SVL, females 78–84 mm, males 83–98 mm; TrunkL/SVL 44– Comments.— Diurnal and arboreal, mainly woodland species, 52%, TailL/SVL 260–295%, HindlL/SVL 326–395%, HeadL/SVL 22– especially in open and edge areas;occurs in peninsular Myanmar 24%. Top of head with small keeled scales, no supraoribital spine, and adjacent Thailand and southern Indochina. temporal and supratympanic cluster of short spines on each side; Calotes mystaceus Duméril & Bibron, 1837 distinct spiny crest (NucCrsS) from nuchal area (female 20–26, males 32–38 spines with height > basal length). No preaxial pocket Moustached or Blue Forestlizard of small black scales on neck in front of forelimb; all body scales Adult SVL, females to 68 mm, males to 77 mm; TrunkL/SVL 46–48%, keeled, trunk scales oriented diagonally upward and backward. TailL/SVL 196–215%, HindlL/SVL 196–215%, HeadL/SVL 30%. Top Suplab 9–11, Inflab 10–11, Dorsals (parasagittally) 41–50, Midbody of head with small keeled scales, no supraorbital spine, temporal 47–54, ForefLm 20–23, HindfLm 23–28. [data from Bago lizards] and supratympanic cluster of short spines on each side; distinct Boldly patterned in brown; head orangish brown with dark brown spiny crest (NucCrsS) from nuchal area (female 20–26, males postorbital–temporal patch and below broad light colored labial 32–38 spines with height > basal length). Preaxial pocket of small stripe from snout to below temporal patch. Trunk medium brown black scales on neck in front of forelimb; all body scales keeled, with white lateral stripe from neck to base of tail; series of five or trunk scales oriented diagonally upward and backward. Suplab six middorsal dark brown bars or spots that often continue below 9–11, Inflab 10–11, Dorsals (parasagittally) 41–50, Midbody 47–54, lateral white stripe as diffuse dark marks; limbs usually transversally ForefLm 20–23, HindfLm 23–28. band in light and dark brown. Underside dusky with scattered white spots. Unmistakable Forestlizard, entire head, neck and anterior trunk bright medium blue highlighted by broad white upper lip stripe Comments.— Open canopied forest and disturbed habitats with from below naris onto neck or slightly beyond; medium brown from isolated trees on which it perches, often head down, watching for middle of trunk onto tail, with series of four large dark to rufous prey on the ground; diurnal and semiarboreal. We have not seen brown spots dorsolaterally on trunk. Females often with medium this species in southern Tanintharyi. We suspect it is absent here, brown background dorsally on head and trunk; light lip stripe and because it is common in disturbed and agricultural habitats in main dorsolateral spots persist. Myanmar. Comments.— Commonly living in disturbed habitats with isolated The scientific name is in quote marks because C. versicolor is a trees on which it perches, often head down, watching for prey southern Indian species; however, before this limited distribution on the ground. Not presently reported from South Tanintharyi, was recognized, versicolor was used for the multiple species of this common in mainland Myanmar through southern China, Thailand, complex from Pakistan into Southeast Asia, and in many instances, and Indochina. the name still occurs in scientific reports. Most species of this complex are undescribed. 94 95 • Draco blanfordii Boulenger, 1885 Comments.— Arboreal and diurnal in open forests and forest edges, including plantations and coconut grooves. Found from Blanford’s Flying Lizard southern China and eastern Myanmar through Thailand and Adult SVL, females 98–114 mm, males 101–118 mm; TrunkL/SVL Indochina to central Western Malaysia. Size data supplemented by 51–59%, TailL/SVL 174–191%, HindlL/SVL 42–56%, HeadL/SVL 17–20 data from Inger (1983). %. Top of head with small keeled scales, flatter, tiny scales on neck and small keeled, slightly imbricate scales on trunk and patagium; • Draco taeniopterus Günther, 1861 underside chin to neck small scales, 65–109 moderate-sized keeled and imbricate scales on chest and abdomen; Suplab 8–11, Inflab Barred Flying Lizard 8–11; digits slender and elongate, third and fourth fused at base, Adult SVL, females 62–76 mm, males 59–69 mm; TrunkL/SVL 46– ForefLm 27–31, HindfLm 27–35, no NucCrsS or dorsal trunk spines. 57%, TailL/SVL 186–208%, HindlL/SVL 52–60%, HeadL/SVL 19–21 %. Top of head with small scales, Suplab 7–8, Inflab 7–10, ForefLm Slender lizard, dorsally ground color olive to dusky green with 20–23, HindfLm 23–26, no NucCrsS, no dorsal trunk spines, ventrals scattered small dark spots to dark grayish green irregular and between axilla & inguina 59–73. interrupted crossbars, similar banding dorsally on fore- and hindlimbs; females lighter colored tannish green; male dewlap Slender lizard, dorsally ground color light brown with regular pattern greenish white merging into dusky throat; dorsally patagium with of beige to light brown irregular crossbars, similar banding dorsally alternating curved yellow and black bands, latter with yellow spots, on fore- and hindlimbs; male dewlap green with large patch of outer edge often with broad reddish orange band. Underside of rufous red at its base, female’s dewlap largely rufous red; dorsally patagium faded dorsal pattern and color; body venter greenish patagium with alternating curved green and black bands, outer white; tail uniform dusky to closely spaced, greenish–white edge with broad reddish orange band; ventrally patagium faded transverse bands. dorsal coloration with a pinkish tint; underside of body unicolor Comments.— Arboreal and diurnal in open forest habitats, beige. commonly in forest edges and along streams. Occurs from Comments.— Forest and forest edge; diurnal and arboreal. Occurs Bangladash to southern China and southward through Southeast from southeastern Myanmar and southern Thailand to Vietnam and Asia to central Western Malaysia. to central Western Malaysia. • Draco maculatus Gray, 1845 Leiolepis belliana (Hardwicke & Gray, 1827) Spotted Flying Lizard Common Butterfly Lizard Adult SVL, females 69–77 mm, males 62–86 mm; TrunkL/SVL 54– Adult SVL, females 107–145 mm, males 103–156 mm; TrunkL/SVL 56%, TailL/SVL 148–158%, HindlL/SVL 46–48%, HeadL/SVL 22 %. ~55–60%, TailL/SVL ~170–190%, HindlL/SVL ~48–56%, HeadL/ Top of head with small scales, Suplab 9, Inflab 7–8, ForefLm 22–26, SVL 15–20%. Top of head with small granular scales, Suplab 8–11, HindfLm 24–28; no NucCrsS, no dorsal trunk spines, 66–68 keeled Inflab 7–11, ForefLm 20–22, HindfLm 33–34, no dorsal trunk spines, ventral scales between axilla and inguina. dorsally and laterally body with small, abutting granular scales; 13– 20 precloacal scales. Slender lizard, dorsally ground color light olive gray to medium brown with few irregular dark brown and cream marks, few dark Dorsally background light brown to grayish brown from head onto narrow bands on hindlimbs; male dewlap yellow to orange with tail, tail often with greenish tint; dorsum from mid neck to anterior large light blue spot medially at its base; dorsally patagium with sacrum densely marked with abutting dark-edged, brown-centered curved broken bands of dark brown and black bands on yellowish ocelli in transverse rows of 6–8 ocelli (ocelli abutting one another red background. Underside of patagium dusky yellow without laterally, anteriorly, and posteriorly); side of trunk with vertical black pattern, body unicolor beige to grayish white. bars from dorsolateral edge of ocelli rows to near ventrolateral 96 97 edge of body; in males, interspaces bright orangish red, lighter Gekkonidae in females. Tail dorsally with faded ocelli, not in contact with one another; top of head and face uniform grayish brown; venter near Gekkonids with their nocturnal and human commensal habits uniform white. are known to all inhabitants and visitors to the tropics. Only a few species, however, live with humans, and these commensal species Comments.— We have not examined specimens from South are now widely distributed throughout the tropics. For some of Tanintharyi, rather a color image of eight adult individuals collected these ubiquitous species such as the Common House Gecko, we by a hunter in the vicinity of Myeik. We are treating this Tanintharyi do not know their original homes owing to their now widespread population as L. belliana. G. Peters (1971) examined specimens distributions. Geckos lack moveable eyelids; each eye is protected from three localities in South Tanintharyi and identified all of them by a transparent scale, the spectacle. Most geckos have expanded as L. belliana. Diurnal, terrestrial species living in burrows in open- digital pads with wide subdigital lamellae, whose surface is covered canopied forests in southern Thailand and eastern Cambodia into with thousands of fine, flexible spicules. These spicules provide the Malaysia. surface friction that allows the gecko to adhere to vertical walls and Pseudocalotes microlepis (Boulenger, 1888) to walk upside down on ceilings. Not all geckos are members of the family Gekkonidae. While the latter family is the most speciose Small-headed False Mountain Lizard family with more than a thousand species, two of the six other Adult SVL, females to 83 mm, males 52–67 mm; TrunkL/SVL ~46%, gecko families have more than 100 species each. TailL/SVL 210–260%, HindlL/SVL 52–65%, HeadL/SVL 27–31%. Top of head with small scales, body also with small scales, 69–72 Midbody; Suplab 8–10, Inflab 8–10, ForefLm 20–21, HindfLm 23–26, NucCrsS A B C 3–4 and small, no dorsal trunk spines. Brown dorsally with dark spots anteriorly, grading to grayish brown dorsolaterally on trunk and becoming light gray ventrolaterally and grading into white of venter. Head dark brown above with bright white upper and lower lips. Diurnal and arboreal forest resident of montane forest. D E Comments.— This species is not confirmed for southern Tanintharyi although a likely inhabitant at high elevations. Its type locality is Pla-pu, west of Mt. Muleyit in northern Tenasserim (now Mon State). It occurs spottedly in southern China and adjacent Laos, then Myanmar-Thailand Peninsula and southern Vietnam. Fig. 11 Foot morphology (ventral views) in gekkonids is variable with some genera characterized by narrow digits and lamellae, for example: (A) Cnemaspis, (B) Cyrtodactylus, and (C) Dixonius. Others have broader digital lamellae such as: (D) Hemidactylus frenatus and (E) Hemidactylus garnotii. 98 99 Key to the genera of geckos (Gekkonidae) 8. First digit of fore- and hindfoot rudimentary and lacking claw......... .......................................................... Hemiphyllodactylus typus 1. Digits narrow throughout entire length, visibly clawed, and 8’. First digit of fore- and hindfoot well developed and clawed distinctly angled at mid-length ….......................................................2 ………..……..……….9 1’. Digits broadened, slightly or greatly, with some ventral scales 9. Terminal portion of first digit raised and free of pad ……………..…… forming distinct digital pads with transversally elongate lamellae....3 Hemidactylus 2. Pupil round; each claw surrounded by two large scales, upper 9’. Terminal portion of first digit fused to pad …………………….……..………… and lower claw-scales nearly equal sized ……..……….. Cnemaspis Gehyra 2’. Pupil vertically elliptical; each claw surrounded by two large scales, upper claw-scale smaller (half or less) than lower claw-sca Cnemaspis punctatonuchalis Grismer, Sumontha, le……......................……. Cyrtodactylus Cota, Grismer, Wood, Pauwels and Kunya, 2010 3. Single, terminal pair of broad lamellae on each digit; claw Spotted-neck Rockgecko retractile between lamellae ………………………....Dixonius siamensis Adult SVL, females to 44 mm, males to 50 mm; tail length to ~60 mm; TrunkL/SVL ~44%, TailL/SVL ~120%, HindlL/SVL ??%, HeadL/ 3’. Digit pad not on end of digit; ultimate and penultimate phalanges SVL ~26%. Top of head with small scales, Suplab 8, Inflab 7–8; narrow and at least partially free of digital pad of second to fifth dorsally trunk with 24–27 longitudinal rows of keeled tubercles digit …….......………..………………..…. 4 and scattered patches of two to three elongate tubercles on side 4. Side of body with well-developed, ventrolateral skin fold between of trunk, smooth ventral scales; ForefLm ??, HindfLm 29–31; no fore- and hindlimbs.......................................................................5 precloacal pores. 4’. Side of body with small or no ventrolateral skin fold …………………..…………..…. 6 Dorsally background grayish tan, regularly spotted from nape to sacrum with alternate large spots of white (paired posteriorly) and 5. Hands and feet moderately webbed; tail distinctly flattened with paired black circular spots, tail banded in white and black; limbs with continuous edge………….…… Hemidactylus platyurus narrow bands of black; underside beige with some dark stipling. 5’. Webbing of hands and feet extending to near end of digital pads; tail moderately flattened and edged laterally with large, rounded Comments.— Diurnal forest floor and rockwall resident. Possible scale lappets ……...… Ptychozoon lionotum resident of southern Tanintharyi, presently known from adjacent Prachuap Khiri Khan Province, Thailand. 6. Terminal portions of forefoot’s second to fifth digits elevated above but fused with pads ..................................................................... 7 • Cnemaspis siamensis (Smith, 1925) 6’. Terminal portions of forefoot’s second to fifth digits elevated and Siamese Rockgecko free of pads .….….8 Adult SVL, females and males to 39 mm; TrunkL/SVL ~38%, TailL/ 7. Dorsal and lateral surface of trunk with tiny granular scales ............ SVL ~125%, HindlL/SVL 57–61%, HeadL/SVL ~30%. Top of head with ............................................................ Lepidodactylus lugubris small scales, Suplab 8–9, Inflab 6–8; dorsally trunk with 19–25 longitudinal rows of keeled tubercles and no scattered patches of 7’. Dorsal and lateral surface of trunk with moderate–sized granular tubercles on side of trunk, keeled ventral scales; ForefLm 23–25 , scales with large tubercle scales interspersed ……...………......……..……… HindfLm 24–26; no precloacal pores. Gekko gecko Dorsally background grayish to pinkish tan, double row of white spots, edged anteriorly by smaller black marks, limbs similarly white 100 101 and black marked, tail banded in white and black; limbs with narrow Comments.—Nocturnal, semiarboreal gecko of forested area, bands of black; underside tannish white with yellow chin and throat often in the buttresses of large dipterocarp trees; occurs in with three rows of thin black stripes, midline one always present. Myanmar-Thai peninsula. Comments.— Diurnal, lowland forest both in litter and beneath bark • Cyrtodactylus lenya Mulcahy, Myint Kyaw Thura & on trees and rocky outcrops. Now known from South Tanintharyi Zug, 2017 and adjacent peninsular Thailand. Lenya Banded Bent-toed Gecko Adult SVL, 73–74 mm, not sexually dimorphic; TrunkL/SVL 47%, • Cnemaspis sp TailL/SVL 120–125%, ForeaL/SVL 16%; CrusL/SVL 16%, HeadL/SVL South Tanintharyi Rockgecko 27%; HeadW.HeadL 61–67%. Top of head with small scales, Suplab Adult SVL, females and males to 39 mm; TrunkL/SVL ~38%, TailL/ 9, Inflab 7–10, one pair of enlarged postmentals; dorsally trunk with SVL 100–170%, HindlL/SVL 53–59%, HeadL/SVL ~30%. Top of head 15–19 longitudinal tubercle rows, 39–41 tubercles in parasagittal with small scales, Suplab 8–9, Inflab 6–8; dorsally trunk with 19–25 row, indistinct ventrolateral fold, 29 smooth ventral scales at longitudinal rows of keeled tubercles and no scattered patches of midbody; ForefLm 15–16, HindfLm 17–18; distinctly enlarged row tubercles on side of trunk, keeled ventral scales; ForefLm 13–16, precloacal and femoral scales, both without pores. Hind fLm 24 –26; few precloacal and femoral pores. Distinctly banded with two-toned bands of medium brown centers Dorsally background grayish olive overlain by small smudges of with dark brown edges on trunk; similarly colored nuchal band; white and black (lichenous like pattern), limbs similarly white and interspaces a lighter brown. black marked, tail banded in white and black; limbs with narrow bands of black; underside with white chin, dusky throat and white Comments.— Nocturnal and saxicolous in caves and crevices of chest and abdomen. karst outcrops; restricted to karst areas of Lenya National Park. Comments.— Diurnal, lowland forest both in litter and beneath • Cyrtodactylus oldhami (Theobald,1866) bark on trees and rocky outcrops. This new speices is a kandiana Oldham’s Bent-toed Gecko group member. Adult SVL, females 67–84 mm, males 55–70 mm, sexually dimorphic; TrunkL/SVL 43–46%, TailL/SVL 100–115%, ForeaL/SVL 14–16%; • Cyrtodactylus brevipalmatus (Smith, 1923) CrusL/SVL 16–19%, HeadL/SVL 25–32%; HeadW.HeadL 53–65%. Top Short-palmed Bent-toed Gecko of head with small scales, Suplab 9, Inflab 8–10, one pair of enlarged Adult SVL, females 68–74 mm, males 70–71 mm, not sexually postmentals; dorsally trunk with 17–23 longitudinal tubercle rows, dimorphic; TrunkL/SVL 45–50%, TailL/SVL 100–125%, ForeaL/SVL 37–46 tubercles in parasagittal row, indistinct ventrolateral fold, 13%; CrusL/SVL 15–17%, HeadL/SVL 24–26%; HeadW/HeadL 62– 24–34 smooth ventral scales at midbody; ForefLm 13–17, HindfLm 68%. Top of head with small scales, Suplab 8–10, Inflab 9–10, one 16–20; distinctly enlarged row precloacal and femoral scales, some pair of enlarged postmentals; dorsally trunk with 15–19 longitudinal males with pores, maximum of 8. rows of tubercles, 37–42 tubercles in parasagittal row, indistinct Dorsally medium brown ground color from snout onto tail; dark ventrolateral fold, 33–34 smooth ventral scales at midbody; brown white edged nuchal collar from behind eyes looping ForefLm 17–18, HindfLm 19 –20; distinctly enlarged row precloacal across anterior half of neck; followed by short dark-edged white and femoral scales, some males with pores, maximum of 20. longitudinal stripes (usually four) and in turn by white centered, dark brown edged rows of ocelli onto base of tail Dorsally uniform medium brown or greyish brown, lighter below; adult typically patternless, juveniles may have darker markings on the lighter brown background. 102 103 Comments.— Nocturnal, found in a variety of habitats, forest floor Principally rock-dwelling (saxicolous), nocturnal lizard occurring and vegetation along streams and trails; occurs in Myanmar-Thai mainly in forest on isolated rocky outcrops to karst ridges and peninsula. associated caves. • Cyrtodactylus payarhtanensis Mulcahy, Myint Kyaw Comments.— D. siamensis appears to be the most ecological Thura & Zug, 2017 tolerant member of the genus Dixonius and is moderately Tenasserim Mountain Bent-toed Gecko widespread in Southeast Asia. Other Dixonius species are mostly Adult SVL, females 74–83 mm, adult males 61–80 mm SVL; TrunkL/ confined to single karst ridges. SVL 44–49%, TailL/SVL 125–135%, ForeaL/SVL 14–16%; CrusL/SVL 17–21%, HeadL/SVL 27–30%; HeadW.HeadL 34–46%. Top of head Gehyra lacerata (Taylor,1962) with small scales, Suplab 9–10, Inflab 10–12, one pair of enlarged Kanchanaburi Stump-toed Gecko postmentals; dorsally trunk with 17–20 longitudinal tubercle rows, Adult SVL, females 40–55 mm, males 43–59 mm; tail length to 40–45 tubercles in parasagittal row, distinct ventrolateral fold, 38 mm; TrunkL/SVL ~45%, TailL/SVL ~69%, HindlL/SVL ~38%, 26–32 smooth ventral scales at midbody; ForefLm 16–20, HindfLm HeadL/SVL ~27%. Top of head with small scales, Suplab 12, 10th 12–13; distinctly enlarged row precloacal and femoral scales but or 10th & 11th beneath eye, 10–11 Inflab; ForefLm 7, HindfLm ?; 48 without pores. overlapping scales across venter, 18–20 precloacal scales in males. Scalation of small granular scales dorsally and laterally on head, Distinctly banded with irregular, medium brown bands on trunk and trunk and limbs, ventrally small flattened, imbricate scales, ~46–50 neck. scales transversely between poorly developed ventrolateral folds; subcaudal scales not enlarged in 4–6 transverse series. Thick, Comments.— Nocturnal and saxicolous in caves and crevices of somewhat flattened tail with inconspicuous segmentation. karst outcrops; restricted to karst areas of Lenya National Park. Overall medium-dark brown or brownish gray, venter lighter cream Dixonius siamensis (Boulenger, 1899) to yellowish white; numerous small gray spots from head to base of Siamese Leaf-toed Gecko tail, spotting mostly dorsal and dorsolaterally, and dorsally on limbs. Adult SVL, 45–53 mm; tail length 47–53 mm; TrunkL/SVL 45–49%, TailL/SVL 91–100%, HindlL/SVL 40–43%, HeadL/SVL 30–34%. Top Comments.— Nocturnal, principally on forest floor or low on base of head with small granular scales only; these form basic scale of large trees. Occurrence of G. lacerata has not yet been confirmed covering except for small, flat, imbricate scales of venter in 20–25 for Tanintharyi; known only from a few localities in southern transverse rows; single keeled tubercles in 9–12 rows cover the Thailand and Vietnam. dorsum from neck to base of tail; Suplab 7–8, Inflab 6–7, ForefLm 11, HindfLm 12–13. Males with 6–7 precloacal pores. • Gehyra mutilata (Wiegmann, 1834) Asian Stump-toed Gecko Dorsally and laterally ground color of pinkish gray from nape onto tail, Adult SVL, females to 54 mm, males 47–56 mm; TrunkL/SVL 39–48 sides of trunk and limbs, top of head grayish; dark brown irregular %, TailL/SVL 95–108%, HindlL/SVL 39–48%, HeadL/SVL 25–29%. transverse bars on snout, behind eyes to nape, thereafter bars Top of head with small scales, Suplab 7–9, Inflab 7–9, ForefLm 6–7, break into smaller marks scattered over trunk and dorsolaterally; HindfLm 7; enlarged ventral scales at midbody 26–34, continuous face with dark preoculars stripe and broader postocular one to ear series of precloacal–femoral pores 24–40; tail commonly lanceolate opening, underside immaculate and dusky white. with midventral row of enlarged scales. 104 105 Overall gray to tan lizard dorsally that can lighten or darken, Hemidactylus frenatus (Duméril and Bibron, 1836) unicolor or with white and dark marks; usually white preorbital and Indo-Pacific House Gecko postorbital stripe, latter often dark-edged below. Underside uniform Adult SVL, females 42–49 mm, males 48–59 mm; TrunkL/SVL 39– white to cream. 53%, TailL/SVL ~100%, HeadL/SVL 24–28 %, HeadW/HeadL 61–72%. Top of head with small granular scales and occasional small flat Comments.— Nocturnal and arboreal, principally resident of tubercles on parietal and temporal areas, Suplab 9–12, Inflab 7–10; human habitation, occasionally found in vegetation beside and near body similarly with small granular scales and also widely scattered human dwellings. Widespread through tropical Asia. flat, rounded tubercles, ventrally larger, flat overlapping scales; all Gekko gecko (Linnaeus, 1758) digit of fore- and hindfoot well-developed , each with oblong digital • pad, lamellae of pads rectangular, medially divided except for Tokay Gecko terminal one, ForefLm 7–9, HindfLm 8–11. Adult SVL, females 132–154 mm, males 150–166 mm; tail length 145–180 mm; TrunkL/SVL 41–48%, TailL/SVL 95–100%, HindlL/ An individual’s overall body color can change from light grey to SVL 41–48%, HeadL/SVL 27–30%. Top of head with small scales, medium brown, usually with darker stripes on face from nostril Suplab11–14, Inflab 10–12, body similarly with small granular scales through eye to ear, occasionally dark stripe from upper lip on to side with 12–14 longitudinal rows of enlarged, keeled conical tubercles of body for variable distances; underside light from whitish to beige. with 17–19 tubercles per row on trunk; ventral scales larger, smooth and overlapping in 25–34 transverse rows; all digits well-developed, Comments.— Strongly human commensal, uncommonly found on each with obovate digital pad of narrow transverse lamellae, ForefLm vegetation even that adjacent to human structures. This species’ 17–20, HindfLm 18–21 Dorsal ground color light blue to grayish blue standard name reflects its wide distribution throughout the tropics. with numerous orange markings, those on head slightly elongate, those on neck and trunk usually centered on tubercles; tail with Hemidactylus garnotii(Duméril and Bibron, 1835) closely spaced, greenish–white transverse bands. Fox Gecko An all female species. Adult SVL, 49–66 mm; TrunkL/SVL 39–46%, Comments.— Nocturnal, arboreal; forest to town. Diet includes TailL/SVL ~120%, HeadL/SVL 24–26 %, HeadW/HeadL 60–72%. Top of arthropods and small vertebrates. Widespread from Nepal through head with small granular scales and occasional small flat tubercles, southern China and southward into central Western Malaysia. Suplab 8–13, Inflab 7–10; body similarly with small granular scales, ventrally larger, flat overlapping scales; all digit of fore- and hindfoot Hemidactylus berdmorei (Blyth, 1853) well-developed, each with oblong digital pad, lamellae of pads rectangular, medially divided except for terminal one, ForefLm 8–13 Adult ~56 mm SVL, apparently a Hemidactylus bowringi group , HindfLm 10–15. member thus a gecko with uniform dorsal and lateral scalation of small equal-sized tubercles or granules; tail distinctly segmented An individual’s overall body color can change from light grey to with pair of small erect scales at posterolateral edge of each medium brown, usually with darker postorbital stripes on head; in segment. dark phase, trunk with 5 longitudinal rows of light spots; underside light from whitish to beige. Comments.— Presently known from a single specimen collected in 1853 at “Mergui.” The type specimen is partially rotted and in Comments.— Strongly human commensal, uncommonly found on several piece, thus it cannot be fully characterized. vegetation even that adjacent to human structures; occurs broadly in tropical Asia to Oceania Pacific. 106 107 Hemidactylus platyurus (Schneider, 1792) The specific name “tenkatei” was recently resurrected for Southeast Asian geckos formerly called Hemidactylus brookii. The latter name Asian Flat-tailed Gecko was incorrectly applied to the Spiny Geckos and represent a nomen Adult SVL, 47–58 mm; TrunkL/SVL 40–51%, TailL/SVL 100–105%, dubium (uncertain name) because the origin of the type specimens HeadL/SVL 23–25 %, HeadW/HeadL 63–74%. Top of head with small, equal-sized granular scales, Suplab 8–13, Inflab 8–11; body also is questionable. Because of the nomenclatural name change, this uniformly covered with small equal-sized granular scales, ventrally gecko likely has the wide tropical Asian distribution of the former H. larger, flat overlapping scales; distinct ventrolateral fold on each brookii, but this assumption has not been confirmed. side, fold with slightly enlarged scales; all digit of fore- and hindfoot well-developed, each with oblong digital pad, lamellae of pads Hemiphyllodactylus typus (Bleeker, 1860) rectangular, medially divided except for terminal one, ForefLm 7–9, Indo-Pacific Slender Gecko HindfLm 6–9. Adult SVL, females 29–46 mm, unisexual (all-female species); TrunkL/SVL 40–65%, TailL/SVL ~75%, HindlL/SVL 33–36%, HeadL/ An individual’s overall body color can change from light grey to SVL 18–24 %.; HeadW/HeadL 51–77%; EyeD/HeadL 20–32%. Top of medium brown, usually with beige stripe between darker stripes on head with small granular scales, Suplab 9–14, Inflab 7–13; first digit face from nostril through eye to ear, occasionally dark stripe on to of fore- and hindfoot rudimentary with or without tiny claw, digits side of body from shoulder to hips; underside light from whitish to 2 through 5 on fore- and hindfoot with expanded digital pads with beige. U-shaped lamellae, typically 3–3–3–4 on forefoot and 3–4–4–4 on Comments hindfoot..— Strongly human commensal, uncommonly found on vegetation even that adjacent to human structures. Widespread but of spottedly presence through out tropical Asia including the Body color light to medium brown head onto tail, darker brown Greater and Lesser Sundas. broken reticulation on neck to sacrum, usually with cream to orangish tan transverse band on base of tail. Hemidactylus tenkatei (Lidth de Jeude, 1895) Comments.— Arboreal and nocturnal, occasionally found on Southeast Asian Spiny Gecko human building but predominantly a secretive dweller of human- Adult SVL, females 45–62 mm, males 50–65 mm; TrunkL/SVL 35– disturbed habitats. Hemiphyllodactylus typus is a common alien 48%, TailL/SVL ~102%, HeadL/SVL 22–24%, HeadW/HeadL 57–72%.. species, although not yet reported from southern Tanintharyi. Other Top of head with small granular scales, Suplab 8–11, Inflab 8–10; Hemiphyllodactylus species occur to the north and south of the body similarly with small granular scales and 14–16 longitudinal isthmus area of the peninsula. Unlike H. typus, these native species rows of enlarged, slightly keeled conical tubercles, ventrally larger, are not human commensal and likely to be found in the forest. flat overlapping scales; all digit of fore- and hindfoot well-developed, each with oblong digital pad, lamellae of pads rectangular, medially • Ptychozoon lionotum Annandale, 1905 divided except for terminal one, ForefLm 6–8, HindfLm 7–8. Smooth-backed Flying Gecko An individual’s overall body color can change from light grey to Adult SVL, females ?? mm, males 84–93 mm; tail length 52–95 mm; medium brown, usually with broad whitish stripe on face from TrunkL/SVL ~46–52%, TailL/SVL ~60–98%, HindlL/SVL 52%, HeadL/ nostril through eye to ear, occasionally dark stripe from upper lip on SVL 26%. Top of head with small scales, Suplab 13 with 9th & 10th to side of body for variable distances; underside light from whitish beneath center of eye, Inflab 11, ForefLm 17, HindfLm 17, dorsally to beige. trunk with smooth, flat, abutting circular scales, ventrally 15 larger, slightly overlapping scales across midbody. 13 enlarged precloacal Comments.— Strongly human commensal, uncommonly found on scales with non–secreting pores. vegetation even adjacent to human structures. Skin flaps projecting from cheeks, edging anterior and posterior edges of forelimbs, posteriorly on thigh and anteriorly on knee, 108 109 broad skin flap from axilla to inguina; tail flattened and edged with Dorsal ground color light gray head to tail and limbs, dorsum scalloping from base to tip. with three irregular-shaped and bicolored (dark gray and black) chevrons, top of head with large irregular-shaped dark mark, Dorsal ground color medium brown head to tail and limbs, usually preorbital dark transverse bar; face with dark preorbital and dorsolaterally and patagium grayish brown; top of head immaculate, postorbital stripes latter extending rearward and joining first trunk face uniform brown, white upper and lower lips, dark brown stripe chevron; underside creamy white with black speckling on chest and from eye to ear opening; dorsally trunk and limbs with faint dark abdomen. brown mottling; underside uniform creamy white. Comments.— Nocturnal and arboreal forest gecko. Recently Comments.— Nocturnal and arboreal forest gecko, preferentially described (known only from 4 individuals) from Kaeng Krachan selects large trees and usually rests several meters above the National Park, Phetchaburi Province, Thailand and likely a resident ground; occurs broadly for southern Myanmar through Southeast of high montane forest of southern Tanintharyi. Asia. Ptychozoon kaengkrachanense Sumontha, Pauwels, Kunya, Limkikhitaksorn, Ruksue, Taokratok, Ansermet & Chanhome 2012 Kaeng Krachan Flying Gecko Adult SVL, females 78–80 mm, males 78–86 mm; tail length 66–80 mm; TrunkL/SVL ~42–44%, TailL/SVL ~100%, HindlL/SVL ??%, HeadL/ SVL 25–26%. Top of head with small scales, Suplab 8–10, Inflab 8–9, ForefLm 18, HindfLm 15–17, dorsally trunk with smooth, flat, abutting circular scales, ventrally 24 large, slightly overlapping scales across midbody. 13–17 precloacal pores in males, none in females. Skin flaps projecting from cheeks, edging anterior and posterior Fig.12 Schematic whole body of Tachydromis sexlineata. edges of forelimbs, posteriorly on thigh and anteriorly on knee, broad skin flap from axilla to inguina; tail flattened and edged with scalloping from base to tip. 110 111 Lacertidae A C Lacertids are a small family with about 240 species occurring from southernmost Africa and northernmost Europe throughout Euroasia to Japan and tropical Asia. Most are relatively slender lizards with long tails and body lengths ranging from ~50 mm to ~22 cm SVL. Their greatest diversity is in the western half of their B European and African occurrences. For tropical Asia, there is a D single genus, Takydromus, with about twenty species and in most localities a single species. Most lacertids reproduce with eggs (oviparous) but a few species are live-bearers (viviparous). • Takydromus sexlineatus (Daudin, 1802) Six-lined Long-tailed Lizard E F Slender, long-tailed lizards, adult SVL to ~45 mm; tail length to ~ 170mm; TrunkL/SVL 46–52 %, TailL/SVL ~370%, HindlL/SVL 46– 52%, HeadL/SVL 22–26%. Scalation unlike any other Tanintharyi lizard species, top of head with plate-like scales, temporal scales strongly keeled, body scales in four longitudinal series of enlarged single keeled scales at midbody, dorsolaterally longitudinal strip of tiny, granular scales, lateral scales becoming larger, platelike and Fig.13 Head scales, dorsal and lateral views of scincid head scale morphology. Lateral view (A) and dorsal view (B) of the head of a Eutropis; each with scales keeled ventrolaterally merging into moderate sized and strongly identified. Dorsal view of a Lipinia (C) lacking supranasal scales and a Eutropis (D) keeled ventral scales of 6–7 transverse rows. Suplab 6, 4th largest with supranasal scales. Lateral view of lower eyelid with single large transparent and beneath eye, Inflab 6, ForefLm 20–21, HindfLm 25–28. Only window (E) and with a transparent window of several medium-sized transparent scales. precloacal pores present, 3 on each side separated by two large keeled scales medially. Top of head and center of back bronzy to olive brown, broad white supralabial stripe from temporal area onto base of tail, below preceding stripe broad dark brown lateral stripe from loreal region to anterior trunk, laterally trunk grades from brown to immaculate white venter. Comments.— Lives in open areas, often seen atop high grass or weedy vegetation into which it dives to avoid capture. Our sample of southern Burmese T. sexlineatus is small but suggestive that those in eastern Indochina and southern China represent a different species. In Myanmar, T. sexlineatus is known from Kachin, Sagaing, Chin, Magway, Mandalay, Rakhine, and Tanintharyi. 112 113 Scincidae overlap; distinctly keeled from neck onto tail ……....….....… Eutropis 6’. Limbs well developed but short, barely or do not overlap when adpressed to trunk; no keeled scales on neck, weak to moderately Skinks (family Scincidae) are the most speciose group of lizards with keeled scales from anterior trunk and posteriorly ……………...………… more than 1600 species worldwide. Skinks occur on all continents Dasia olivacea except Antarctic. Africa, Australia, and tropical Asia each area is a center of diversification. Reproductively skinks lay eggs or are live- 7. Moderately slender skink with long neck and sharply pointed snout; bearers. In size they range from species of ~30 mm SVL to 35 cm bright yellow stripe from tip of snout to tail tip ………………………....…. SVL; most, however, are in the range of 75–150 mm SVL. They vary Lipinia vittigera widely in morphology from stout, heavy-bodied and strong limbed 7’. Moderately slender to robust-bodied skink; head blunt conical, species to slender, elongate-bodied with small or no limbs. ear opening moderate to large and tympanum below surface of Key to the genera of skinks head; no bright stripe middorsally .…….... 8 8. Stout, moderate-length trunk; limbs well developed, when 1. Body elongate cylindrical, diameter (thickness) equal from neck adpressed fore and hindlimbs touch or overlap...... Sphenomorphus to base of tail; tail narrowing only at midlength......…………...…2 8’. Stout, elongate trunk; limbs well developed, when adpressed 1’. Body variable shape and thickness from head to base of tail; tail begins to taper immediately behind vent .....……....…………… 3 fore and hindlimbs do not overlap …………….………… Scincella 2. Body strongly elongate; limbs absent; no supranasal scales ….. Dasia olivacea (Gray, 1839) Isopachys anguinoides Olive Treeskink 2’. Body elongate; limbs exceptionally small and widely separated Adult SVL, females to ~110 mm, males 68–115 mm; tail length when adpressed to side of trunk; no supranasal scale above nasal ~110–180 mm; TrunkL/SVL ~46–48%, TailL/SVL ~160–180%, HindlL/ scale and behind rostral scale ............................................................. SVL ~36–40%, HeadL/SVL ~20–24%. Snout with small supranasal Lygosoma siamensis scales not in contact medially, Suplab 7, 5th largest and beneath 3. Dorsally body with smooth scales on neck becoming eye but separated by row of suboculars, Inflab 6; eyelid scaly with progressively stronger and larger keeled posteriorly; typanum (ear- transparent window of 3–4 large rectangular scales; Dorsals 41–46, drum) on surface of head ..…………… Tropidophorus dorsal scales smooth on neck becoming tricarinate on trunk to base of tail; Midbody 26–30; ForefLm 14–16, HindfLm 17–21. 3’. Dorsally body with smooth or keeled scales from neck to sacrum; tympanum in exposed pit or ear-opening covered with scales ........... Dorsal ground color variable from shiny light bronzy tan to olive ........................................................... 4 brown, head unicolor, from parietal onto neck black (dark brown) 4. Supranasals present, one medially to each nasal scale single-scaled black spots, neck to sacrum narrow transverse narrow ……………….………………... 5 bands of single-scaled white spots with occasional abutting black scales; face and temporal unicolor; venter uniform shiny bluish 4’. No supranasals present; frontonasal contacts posteromedial white. edge of rostral .......….. 7 5. Scales on dorsum and sides of trunk strongly to moderately Comments.— Diurnal and arboreal of lowland tropical forest; keeled; limbs well developed …................................................... 6 occurs broadly from southern Myanmar, Southeast Asia to 5’. Scales on trunk smooth, lacking keels throughout length of Philippine Islands. trunk or at least on neck; limbs well developed, although short Eutropis macularia (Blyth, 1853) ………..…..…………... Lygosoma bowringi 6. Limbs well developed, when adpressed fore- and hindlimbs 114 115 Side-spotted Sunskink and midmontane forest, especially tolerant of disturbed habitats Adult SVL, females 52–62 mm, males 47–58 mm; tail length 77– even agricultural and urban areas; occurs widely in tropical Asia. ~110 mm; TrunkL/SVL 44–55%, TailL/SVL 130–180%, HindlL/SVL 38– Preceding descriptive data from Tanintharyi specimens and a 43%, HeadL/SVL 20–22%. Snout with small supranasal scale above Myanmar sample (n = 20) of Zug, 2006, unpublished. nasal, Suplab 7, 5th largest and beneath eye, Inflab 7–8; eyelid scaly with transparent disc of 4–5 rectangular scales; Dorsals 34–36, Isopachys anguinoides (Boulenger, 1914) dorsal scales with 3 or 5 strong keels, mostly 5 keels; Midbody 28– Thai Snakeskink 34; ForefLm 10–12, HindfLm 14–16. Adult SVL to 67 mm, total length to 122 mm, tail length approximately equal SVL; TailL/SVL ~100%, limbless skink; HeadL/SVL 9–10%, Dorsal ground color uniform shiny brown bordered on each side by head elongated cone–shape with rounded snout. Snout without white to cream dorsolateral stripe from upper lip to shoulder and supranasal scale above nasal, Suplab 5–6, 1st largest and 3rd faded thereafter, usually broad dark brown lateral stripe below; beneath eye, Inflab 4–6; single ocular scale covers eye; 95–118 underside from chin to base of tail immaculate (unicolor) shiny smooth ventral scales from chin to vent; Midbody 22–26. white except for reddish orange infralabials, chin, and throat of reproductively active males. Dorsal ground color grayish brown from head to tip of tail; dorsolateral dark brown stripe on each side from neck to near tail Comments.— Diurnal and terrestrial to semiarboreal in lowland tip, stipe usually broken into series of short long longitudinal bars and midmontane forest, especially tolerant of disturbed forest.This or dashes; underside uniform grayish brown. skink occurs broadly although spottedly throughout tropical Asia and is likely multiple species under a single name. Comments.— Fossorial beneath debris of lowland forest and agriculturaly disturbed areas. This limbless skink of northern • Eutropis multifasciata (Kuhl, 1820) Penisular Thailand has not yet been vouchered from adjacent Common Sunskink Tanintharyi. Adult SVL, females 93–120 mm, males 92–127 mm; tail length ~176– 240 mm; TrunkL/SVL 46–52%, TailL/SVL ~190–210%, HindlL/SVL 39– Lipinia vittigera (Boulenger, 1894) 47%, HeadL/SVL 18–22%. Snout with small supranasal scale above Malayan Yellow-tailed Lipinia nasal, Suplab 7 rarely 8, 5th largest and beneath eye but separated Adult SVL, females 35–44 mm, males 34–44 mm SVL; tail length by row of tiny suboculars, Inflab 6–8; eyelid scaly; Dorsals 44–48, to ~66 mm; TrunkL/SVL ~44–48%, TailL/SVL ~150%, HindlL/SVL dorsal scales with predominantly 3 keels; Midbody 29–32; ForefLm ~38–40%, HeadL/SVL ~18–20%. Snout without supranasal scales, 12–17l, 16–18 on fourth toe. Suplab 7, 5th & 6th and beneath eye, Inflab 7; eyelid with large oblong window; Dorsals 48–50, dorsal scales smooth; Midbody 28; Dorsal ground color variable from shiny light bronzy tan to brown, ForefLm 9–10, HindfLm 20–23. sometimes medium gray, dorsum unicolor or with scattered black marks; dorsolaterally diffusely marked coppery tan to orangish tan Dorsal color dominated by broad middorsal yellow stripe from tip of stripe; laterally trunk ranges from medium brown through orangish snout to tip of tail, stripe gradually becomes orange from midbody red to nearly black, often with white spots below; limbs usually onward, bordered laterally by black from snout to sacrum, laterally match dorsum color; face with no special markings; underside color light brown to gray with midlateral black to dark brown stripe from also variable, although uniform, commonly cream to grayish white. eye to anterior trunk lower neck and entire underside from chin to base of tail immaculate white. Comments.— Diurnal and terrestrial to semiarboreal in lowland Comments.— Diurnal and semiarboreal in lowland to midmontane 116 117 forest of Southeast Asia to Sumatra and Borneo. entire underside from chin to base of tail beige, uniform or thinly striped in brown. • Lygosoma bowringii (Günther, 1864) Comments.— Presumably diurnal; lives under the surface debris Bowring’s Suppleskink of lowland forest. Widespread from southwestern China through Adult SVL ~50–57 mm; tail length 48–56 mm; TrunkL/SVL 53–57%, Southeast Asia to Borneo and southwestern Philippines, TailL/SVL ~90–120%, HindlL/SVL 25–32%, HeadL/SVL 16–18%. Snout with supranasal scales in contact medially, Suplab 7, 5th largest and • Scincella melanosticta (Boulenger, 1887) beneath eye but separated by row of suboculars, Inflab 6–7; eyelid Black-spotted Smoothskink scaly with transparent disc of 3–4 large rectangular scale; Dorsals Adult SVL, females 41–53 mm, males 43–55 mm; tail length to 92 52–58, dorsal scales smooth; Midbody 24–28; ForefLm 9–10, mm; TrunkL/SVL 45–46%, TailL/SVL to 160%, HindlL/SVL 37–38%, HindfLm 13–14. HeadL/SVL ??%. Stout trunk with well-developed limbs that barely touch. Snout without supranasal scale above nasal, Suplab 7–8, Dorsal ground color shiny medium brown to brown, from head 5th & 6th beneath eye but separated by row of suboculars, Inflab to tail; narrow dorsolateral stripe from behind eye to hindlimb, 6–7; eyelid with large transparent disc; Dorsals 63–64, dorsal scales remainder of lateral surface light tan speckled with black; adult smooth; Midbody 36–38; ForefLm 10–11, HindfLm 18–19. males with salmon to orange from inguina to entire lateral and ventral surface of tail; venter from chin onto tail beige to cream, Dorsal ground color variable from shiny light bronzy tan to dark usually immaculate. brown, head usually unmarked; dorsum with multiple narrow dark brown smudges from neck to sacrum, produced by dark margins of Comments.— Diurnal and terrestrial in leaf litter of lowland forests each dorsal scale; face dark brown continuing on side of neck and and debris around gardens and villages. Preceding descriptive data usually as series of dark marks on trunk and, upper lip commonly exclusively from Tanintharyi specimens and very similar to a small barred; lower neck and entire underside from chin to base of tail sample (n = 7) of Vietnamese individual, suggesting morphological beige, uniform or thinly striped in brown. uniformity across 1000 km of varying habitat; however, other evidence suggest that L. bowringii is a species complex spread Comments.— Diurnal; lives under the surface debris of lowland across tropical Asia. forests from Myanmar to Vietnam. Lygosoma quadrupes (Linnaeus, 1766) • Scincella reevesii (Gray, 1838) Short-limbed Suppleskink Short-limbed Smoothskink Adult SVL, females to 68 mm, males to 78 mm; tail length 55–82 Adult SVL, females 40–43 mm, males 37–41 mm; tail length to 56 mm; TrunkL/SVL ~78%, TailL/SVL ~100%, HindlL/SVL ~8–10%, HeadL/ mm; TrunkL/SVL 52–55%, TailL/SVL 110–150%, HindlL/SVL 28–35%, SVL ~11%. Long attenuated skink with small and widely separated HeadL/SVL 18–23%. Long attenuated skink with small and widely limbs. Snout without supranasal scale above nasal, Suplab 6–7, 5th separated limbs. Snout without supranasal scales, Suplab 8–9, 5th largest and beneath eye but separated by row of suboculars, Inflab & 6th beneath eye but separated by row of suboculars, Inflab 6–8; 6–7; eyelid scaly; Dorsals 109–121, dorsal scales smooth; Midbody eyelid with large transparent disc; Dorsals 63–72, dorsal scales 24–28; ForefLm 4–6, HindfLm 4–7. smooth; Midbody 28–34; ForefLm 9–11, HindfLm 12–18. Dorsal ground color variable from shiny light bronzy tan to dark Dorsal ground color shiny light bronzy tan, dorsally head spotted brown, head usually darker than trunk; lighter background dorsum with irregular-shaped dark marks that continue on trunk and with multiple narrow dark brown stripes from neck to sacrum, tail; face with dark brown preocular stripe and postocular stripe produced by dark margins of each dorsal scale; top of head and continuing laterally on trunk and tail, usually broken posteriorly; face dark brown, upper lip (commonly barred), lower neck and upper and lower lips brown and white barred; ventrolateral trunk 118 119 lightens with dark smudge marks and venter uniform shiny white tail; broad dark brown lateral stripe from face (pre- and postocular from chin onto tail. stripes continuous with neck stripe) onto tail; upper and lower lips cream to yellowish tan, continuous with longitudinal stripe edging Comments.— Diurnal living and foraging under the surface debris the dark lateral band of neck, trunk and tail; entire underside from of lowland forests from South China through Southeast Asia. chin to base of tail light beige and immaculate. • Sphenomorphus indicus (Gray, 1853) Comments.— Diurnal and terrestrial in primary and secondary Indian Forestskink forest, forages largely on surface debris and climbs atop logs and Adult SVL, females 68–89 mm, males 72–83 mm; tail length 119–137 rocks. The population in the Myeik Archipelago averages larger than mm; TrunkL/SVL 50–53%, TailL/SVL 142–185%, HindlL/SVL 40–45%, the mainland montane population, e.g., archipelago females 74–77 HeadL/SVL 18–19%. Snout without supranasal scale above nasal, mm SVL. Sphenomorphus maculatus is widespread, occurring rear of rostral flat, Suplab 7–8, 5th & 6th largest and beneath eye, from western China to and through Southeast Asia. Inflab 7–8; eyelid scaly with transparent window of 4 rectangular scales; Dorsals 64–68, dorsal scales smooth; Midbody 34–36; Sphenomorphus tersus (Smith, 1916) ForefLm 11–13, HindfLm 17–18. Peninsular Reddish Forestskink Adult SVL to 96 mm; tail length to 170 mm, TailL/SVL ~170–190%,. Dorsal ground color shiny bronzy brown on dorsum from head onto Snout without supranasal scale above nasal, Suplab 6–7, 4th or tail; broad dark brown lateral stripe from face (pre- and postocular 5th&6th beneath eye, Inflab 7–8; eyelid scaly; Dorsals 70–81, dorsal stripes continuous with neck stripe) onto tail, lower edge of dark scales smooth; Midbody 34–40; ForefLm 11, HindfLm 18–21. brown grades into lighter brown then tannish white; lateral trunk dark brown often with rufous tint; upper and lower lips light tan and Dorsal ground color shiny reddish brown with numerous indistinct continuous in color with ventrolateral surface of neck, trunk and transverse brown marks on neck, trunk and tail. Entire underside tail; entire underside from chin to base of tail tannish white. from chin to base of tail light beige and immaculate. Comments.— Diurnal and terrestrial in primary and secondary Comments.— Diurnal and terrestrial in lowland forest of Peninsular forest, forages largely on surface debris and climbs atop logs and Thailand, usually near streams. Suspected resident of southern rocks. Sphenomorphus indicus appears to be much less common Tanintharyi but not confirmed. than S. maculatus, and many of its distributional records in Myanmar are actually mis-identified S. maculatus. Although a likely inhabitant Tropidophorus berdmorei (Blyth, 1853) of Tanintharyi forest, we have not confirmed its presence. Berdmore’s Waterskink Adult SVL 63–85 mm; tail length 92–104 mm; TrunkL/SVL 46–50%, • Sphenomorphus maculatus (Blyth, 1853) TailL/SVL 110–146%, HindlL/SVL 34–37%, HeadL/SVL 34–36%. Snout Asian Spotted Forestskink without supranasal scale above nasal, Suplab 6, 4th largest and Adult SVL, females 55–64 mm, males 61–65 mm; tail length beneath eye, Inflab 4–5; eyelid with transparent window of 4 large 100–120 mm; TrunkL/SVL 45–50%, TailL/SVL 164–195%, HindlL/ scales; Dorsals 47–50, dorsal scales with single keels; Midbody 30– SVL 46–58%, HeadL/SVL 18–21%. Snout without supranasal scale 32; ForefLm 11–12, HindfLm 18–19. above nasal, rear of rostral concave, Suplab 7–8, 5th largest and beneath eye, Inflab 7; eyelid scaly with transparent window of 5–7 Dorsal ground color medium brown with transverse cream bands rectangular scales; Dorsals 71–75, dorsal scales smooth; Midbody edged anteriorly in black from neck unto tail; entire underside from 38–44; ForefLm 11–12, HindfLm 16–22. chin to tail beige and immaculate. Comments.— Diurnal, semiaquatic lizard of forest streams; occurs Dorsal ground color shiny bronzy brown on dorsum from head onto 120 121 broadly in southern China to Peninsular Malaysia. A B Tropidophorus robinsoni Smith, 1919 Robinson’s Waterskink Adult SVL, 60–78 mm; tail length 80–95 mm; TailL/SVL 92–158%, HindlL/SVL 32–34%, HeadL/SVL 17–20%. Snout without supranasal Fig. 14 Snouts of varanid lizards showing position of nares. (A) Naris closer to the scale above nasal, single frontonasal, Suplab 6, 4th largest beneath eye than to tip of snout in V. nebulosi. (B) Naris closer to tip of snout than to eye but separated from eye by large rectangular subocular scale, Inflab in V. salvator. 5; eyelid scaly; head scales smooth, trunk scales variousl keeled, usually weakly to moderately tricarinate, Dorsals ~50, Midbody 32– 34; ForefLm ??, HindfLm 17–18. Key to species of Varanidae Dark background with light, dark-edged nape band, single 1. Dorsal neck scales enlarged, knoblike and several times larger preaxillary band and three trunk bands. Underside light, speckled than dorsal head scales ..……………………...… Varanus rudicollis with small black spots. 1’. Dorsal neck scales not enlarged, subequal to dorsal head scales Comments.— Diurnal, semiaquatic lizard of forest streams. This and adjacent trunk scales ................................................................... 2 species remains unvouchered for South Tanintharyi; it occurs in 2. Nostril much closer to tip of snout than to eye ………………..……... central Peninsular Thailand. Varanus salvator 2’. Nostril much closer to eye than tip of snout ...................................... .. Varanus nebulosus Varanidae Varanus nebulosus (Gray, 1831) Varanids are the largest lizards with the Komodo Monitor (Dragon) Clouded Monitor reaching total lengths of more than 2 m and weights of 200 kg. Most Adult SVL to ~90 cm; tail length to 160 cm; TrunkL/SVL ~36–40%, species are considerably smaller with SVL less than 1 m; however, TailL/SVL ~150%. Top of head and neck with small scales. Midbody the Papuan Monitor also attains lengths greater than 2 m although scales 149–163, HindfLm 18–24; subcaudal scales dorsally double more than half of its total length is tail, and it is a slender monitor. row keeled, lateral and caudal scales smooth. Monitors occur throughout Africa, Asia to and into Australia. With the exception of three fruit-eating Philippine species, all are Dorsally dusky olive with numerous yellow scales, head nearly carnivorous eating a variety of vertebrate and invertebrate prey. All uniform dusky olive. reproduce by egg-laying. Comments.— Forest species, although will forage in disturbed habitats. Diurnal and largely terrestrial, although climbs to escape; generalized diet including invertebrates and vertebrates. Mostly restricted to dense forest habitats of eastern Myanmar to Vietnam and southward into Western Malaysia. Varanus rudicollis Gray, 1845 122 123 Roughneck Monitor Snakes Adult SVL to 59 cm; tail length to 87 cm; TrunkL/SVL ~44–48%, TailL/ SVL 130–160%. Top of head with small scales, neck scales enlarged Everyone recognizes a snake, and most people immediately identify in 10–12 longitudinal rows. Midbody scales 139–169, HindfLm 17– it as venomous. Yet for most countries, the snake fauna is largely 23; subcaudal scales keeled, dorsal and lateral caudal scales also composed of non-venomous species. This latter statement is true keeled. for Myanmar and Tanintharyi. Most snakes are totally limbless, and Dorsal ground color black to dark gray, anteriorly with yellowish the few snakes with limb remnants (Pythonidae, Typhlopidae in wash, posterior trunk with transverse dark band and yellow spots. Myanmar) have only scaly spurs or flaps on each side of the vent. Because snakes are limbless, prey capture and consumption require Comments.— Forest species, primary and secondary, also biting and swallowing the prey whole. To accommodate large prey, mangrove swamps; occurring from peninsular Myanmar and the skin and digestive tube is very elastic in order to stretch over Thailand to Sumatra and Borneo . Diurnal and largely terrestrial, the prey. The skull joints are also extremely flexible, except those although climbs to escape; generalized diet including ants and components protecting the brain and sensory organs. To permit a termites. wide gape, the front ends of the mandibles (lower jaw) are attach to Varanus salvator (Laurenti, 1768) one another by a stretchable ligament, allowing the left and right mandibles to separate. Asian Water Monitor Adult SVL females to 76 cm, males to 104 cm; tail length 88–120 Myanmar has a high diversity of snakes. In Tanintharyi, snakes are mm; TrunkL/SVL ~44–48%, TailL/SVL 158. Top of head and neck with represented by 12 families and more than 40 species. Of these small scales. Midbody scales181–163, HindfLm 30–32; subcaudal species, only 8 species are dangerously venomous. scales keeled, dorsal and lateral caudal scales smooth. A Fig.15 Head scalation of a colubrid snakes. Dorsally olive to olive brown with transverse bands with yellow (A) Dorsal view; black–centered ocelli from base of neck onto base of tail. (B) Ventral view; (C) Lateral view; each with scales Comments.— Habitat generalist surviving in human habitats identified. to forested areas. Semiaquatic, usually near water, streams to B C Chin and throat scales of a canals. Widespread and visible from eastern India to Indochina Calliophis (D) with a and southward into Greater and Lesser Sundas. This widespread mental groove and a Pareas (E) lacking a “species” is actually a complex of multiple species with adult size mental groove. and other biological aspects differing among populations. D E 124 125 Common Terms Used in Snake Descriptions Nuchal collar. Band of contrasting color immediately behind head on anterior portion of neck, often descending to mid lateral area or curving Measurements anterior toward jaw articulation. SVL. Snout-vent length. Ocellus. Spot with contrasting colored center to thick Tail length. Distance from vent to tip of tail. band of color encircling center; center can be light or dark. Total length Head width, transverse distance from left to right Body length from the tip of snout to the Reticulate. Netlike pattern of contrasting color. tip of tail. outer edge of jaw articulation. Speckled. Tiny marks scattered across surface of contrasting color. Spot. More or less round mark of contrasting color Morphology to background; tiny to large. Dorsals. An abbreviation for dorsal trunk scales. Stripe. Longitudinal line of contrasting color; can be narrow or broad, can occur dorsally or Precloacal. The single scale or pair of ventral scales ventrally. immediate anterior to the vent (= cloacal opening). Subcaudals. Scales on underside of tail; can be single or A B paired. Ventrals. An abbreviation for ventral trunk scales. Coloration Band. Transverse stripe (narrow or broad) of C D contrasting color to background color; band may be partial, i.e., ending at the dorsal and ventral scale contact, or complete/entire, i.e., totally encircling the body, then usually labelled ring. Bar. Transverse stripe (narrow or broad) of contrasting color to background color; typically less than half body width. Blotch. Irregular patch of color; usually solid; edges Fig.16 Body scalation of tropical Asian snakes. (A) Dorsal scales at midbody of a colubrid snake with numbers to show one method of counting dorsal scales. (B) usually smooth but can be irregular. Midbody scales of a Dendrelaphis, ventral scales on far left. (C) Midbody scales of a Cerberus. (D) Ventrolateral view of the caudal end of Cylindrophis, highlighting Mark. Nearly equivalent to blotch, although typically the short tail and subcaudal scales, and last ventral scale and paired precloacal refers to smaller patches of irregular shape of scales shaded. solid color. 126 127 Key to the Families of South Tanintharyi Snakes 6’. No enlarged tubular teeth at the front of upper jaw, although may have enlarged groove teeth at rear of upper jaw (maxilla) ................... 1. Body entirely encircled with smooth shiny scales, 28 or fewer .......................................................8 scale rows; mid-ventral scale subequal to middorsal scales; 7. Fangs immovably fixed (upright) in front of mouth, fangs short; head covered with large shiny scales; eye small, beneath scales head oblong to obovate, slightly larger than neck; head scales as pigment spots; tail short, often ending with sharp pointed moderately large, no loreal scale between nostril (naris) and eye scales……………...………..… Typhlopidae ……………. Elapidae 1’. Dorsal trunk scales usually smaller than ventral ones; ventral 7’. Fangs large and hinged; head large, triangular and sharply larger scales usually transversely rectangular; head scales variable, than neck; head scales variable, in some species top of head with small to large plates; eyes prominent although small in some plate-like scales and others subequal to dorsal scales; loreal area species…….....………………….. 2 with heat-sensory pit or with several scales between nostril (naris) 2. Tail compressed (laterally flatten) and fin-like, posterior of body and eye …...................................... Viperidae also compressed; ventral scales narrow, occasionally little different 8. Ventrals modest sized, no more than 3X width of ventrolateral in size from adjacent dorsal body scales…………...… Hydrophiinae- dorsal scales; pair of enlarged postparietal scales; parietal and Elapidae postparietal scales paired and each separated on midline by large 2’. Tail not laterally flatten; tapering cylindrical from short (= head interparietal scale ...................[Xenopeltis unicolor] Xenopeltidae length) to long (quarter to third of body length). ….……………… 3 8’. Ventrals large, more than 4X width of ventrolateral dorsal scales; 3. Dorsal, lateral and ventral scales on head and body granular and no postparietal scales; paired large parietal scales .....…………… 9 spiny …….......................... [Acrochordus granulatus] Acrochordidae 9. Nostrils snorkel-like and opening on top of snout and opening 3’. Dorsal and lateral scales on head small to large but not granular; upward ........................................................................ Homalopsidae dorsal body scales smooth or keeled and arranged in diagonal rows on body..……………………………. 4 9’. Nostrils not snorkel-like, usually opening laterally ………… ………… ……………..10 4. Tail short, equal to or less than head length; ventral scales only slightly larger than adjacent dorsal scales; vestige of hindlimb on 10. Chin-anterior throat lacks mental groove …………..………..........…….…. each side of vent as a cloacal spurs ………... [Cylindrophis burmanus] Pareatidae Cylindrophiidae 10’. Chin-anterior throat with mental groove ……...…….… Colubridae 4’. Tail medium to long, distinctly longer than head; ventral scale & Lamprophiidae usually twice as large or larger than dorsal scales and transversely rectangular ……………………………….. 5 5. Dorsal scales in more than 32 scales at midbody; vestige of hindlimb on each side of vent as a cloacal spur ….……… Pythonidae 5’. Dorsal scales in less than 32 scales at midbody; no vestige of hindlimb on each side of vent …......................................................... 6 6. Enlarged tubular teeth (fangs) at the front of the upper jaw …………….…………… 7 128 129 Acrochordidae Colubridae & Lamprophiidae The Wartsnakes are a small group of three uniquely scaled These two look-alike families were only recently, about twenty years species. The entire body and head are encased in a skin of small ago, recognized as distinct phylogentic lineages (clades) and the denticulate scales, about 80−160 rows of scales at midbody and lamprophiids formally elevated to familial rank. The lamprophiids narrow midventral keel of spiny scales from throat onto tail. The are mainly African snakes with only two genera (Psammophis, skin is loose and somewhat baggy (flexible). This feature allows Psammodynastes) occurring in South Asia. There are no external these fish-eating snakes to grab their prey and quickly ensare it. traits to distinguish snakes from the two families. Colubrids are The loose skin and spiny scales ensure a non-slip grip allowing the much more widespread occurring worldwide including Africa. snake to quickly position the fish for swallowing it. Wartsnakes are They include a broad diversity of body forms and sizes, also non- totally aquatic and reach body lengths of over two meters. They are fanged and rear-fanged genera. The toxins (venoms) of the rear- largely coastal denizens living in brackish habitats from western fanged species are usually not lethal to humans, although some India to Southeast Asia and southward through the Sunda Islands humans may react to a rear-fanged snakes bite with an allergenic- to New Guinea and northern Australia. like response. Venoms in snakes have been tailored by evolution to be lethal to their principal prey not as a defensive mechanism, Acrochordus granulatus (Synder, 1799) although can also serve that purpose. Little Filesnake or Wartsnake Adult total lengths ~700–1050 mm, tail length ~230–345 mm; TailL/ Key to genera of Colubridae & Lamprophiidae TotL 32–34%. Head blunt ovate in dorsal outline with closely spaced, valvular nostrils on end of snout pointed 45° upward, head barely 1. Pupil horizontal and keyhole shaped; head long and narrow with distinct from neck-trunk, eyes medium-sized with round pupil, sharp snout …............................................................……. Ahaetulla three rows of 12–13 supralabials well separated from eye by rows 1’. Pupil round to vertical elliptical; head elongate or short with blunt of granular scales. Dorsals small denticulate and in 78–110 rows at snout…........... 2 midbody; no enlarged ventrals or subcaudals. 2. Ventral and subcaudal scales each with strong lateral keels; middorsal scales of trunk enlarged, twice or more larger than Ground color dorsally and ventrally medium to dark brown banded adjacent dorsal .........………………………….…… 3 with numerous moderately narrow bands of tan to white from neck onto tail; underside pattern continuous with dorsum. 2’. Ventral and subcaudal scales not keeled laterally, usually smooth transition from dorsal to ventral scales ………………………..…..……………… 4 Comments.— A coastal species not reported as yet from South 3. Dorsal scales in 17 rows at midbody………………....... Chrysopelea Tanintharyi although a likely resident; occurs from Bangladesh to ornata Hainan through Islands Asia to coast of Australia. 3’. Dorsal scales in 13 or 15 rows at midbody ………………….....………… Dendrelaphis 4. Rostral scale enlarged, extending upward and somewhat spade- shaped; rostral clearly visible from above ……………… Oligodon 4’. Rostral normal sized, forming a smooth curved snout; not or barely visible from above .................................................................… 5 5. Pupil of eye vertically elongate .……… 6 5’. Pupil of eye round.....………………… 9 130 131 14. Internasals narrow anteriorly, nearly triangular in shape ………….… Xenochrophis 6. Pupil strongly elliptical; head large, triangular and sharply 14’. Internasals moderately broad anteriorly, more rectangular in defined by narrow neck; vertebral row of dorsal scales enlarged ... shape.....…………… 15 ..................................................................... Boiga 15. Single anterior temporal scale …………...……………. Amphiesma 6’. Pupil ovoid elliptical; head modest sized, if triangular shaped, stolata ventrals 155 or more…......................................................................7 15’. Pair of anterior temporal scales ………… …….……………....................... 7. Head moderately triangular; ventrals less than 182; maximum Rhabdophis adult total length to 60 cm…..……. Psammodynastes pulverulentus 7’. Head obovate to oblong, flattened, and slightly larger than neck; ventrals more than 150............................................................... 8 Colubridae — Colubrinae 8. Head flattened, snout not tilted downward; middorsal scales in Ahaetulla mycterizans (Linnaeus, 1758) 13 or 15 rows …............................................................... Dryocalamus Malayan Vinesnake Slender, attenuated body, adult total lengths ~700–1050 mm, tail 8’. Head flattened, snout depressed, bent downward from eyes length ~230–345 mm; TailL/TotL 32–34%. Head elongate ovate in forward; middorsal scales in 15 to 17 rows …..………. Lycodon dorsal outline with pointed snout, distinct from neck-trunk, eyes 9. All dorsal scales smooth; large eyes ..................………………..…………… large with horizontal pupil, Suplab 9, 4th & 5th or 4th, 5th &6th touch eye, Inflab 8–9. Dorsals smooth, anterior 15, midbody 15, posterior …… Ptyas 13, vertebral row enlarged; ventrals 186–207, paired subcaudals 9’. All or some dorsal scales keeled, moderately to strongly 115–156, precloacal single. .……………..........……. 10 10. All dorsal scales moderately to strongly keeled, except in some Dorsal ground color light to medium green, trunk banded with instance ventral-most row smooth ……..….………[Natricinae] 14 irregular dark green bars; narrow white stripe ventrolaterally from neck to base of tail; underside light green. 10’. Dorsal scales variable, some or all scale smooth, others with areas of weak keeling ....................................................................... 11 Comments.— Lowland to mid montane forests of peninsular 11. Dorsal scales smooth except for lightly keeled on middorsal or Thailand south into Java and Sumatra. Diurnal, arboreal on outer vertebral row ….. 13 edges of branches of shrubs and trees, from near ground level to near tree top. 11’. Dorsal scales variable, smooth anterior and weakly keeled posterior .…..……….. 12 Ahaetulla nasuta (Lacépède, 1789) 12. Single loreal in front of eye; eyes moderate sized ………...… Long-nosed Vinesnake Coelognathus radiatus Slender, attenuated body, adult total lengths ~700–1090 mm, tail 12’. Two to four loreals in front of eye; eyes large ................................. length ~230–345 mm; TailL/TotL 29–37%. Head elongate ovate in dorsal outline with elongate snout appendage, distinct from neck- .................... Ptyas trunk, eyes large with horizontal pupil, Suplab 9, 4th, 5th & 6th touch 13. Dorsal scales lightly keeled along the dorsal midline smooth eye, Inflab 8–9. Dorsals smooth, anterior 15, midbody 15, posterior elsewhere; middorsal scales in 25 rows; more than 260 ventrals 13, vertebral row enlarged; ventrals 135–207, paired subcaudals ..…………………...……… Elaphe taeniura 129–180, precloacal paired. 13’. Dorsal scales smooth or lightly keeled along the dorsal Dorsal ground color bright green, occasionally olive brown, trunk midline; middorsal scales in 23 to 25 rows; fewer than 260 ventrals with yellow ventrolateral stripe at intersection of dorsal and ventral …………….…… Gonyosoma oxycephalum scales; underside pale green. 132 133 Comments.— Widespread in thick bushy vegetation from urban vertebrates, mainly frogs and lizards. landscapes, agricultural fields to edges of forest. Diurnal and arboreal, preying on variety of small vertebrates. Occurs broadly Boiga cynodon (Boie, 1827) from western India into Indochina although not yet confirm for Dog-toothed Catsnake South Tanintharyi. Slender and long-bodied, adult total lengths to ~2.8 m, tail length to ~61–100 mm; TailL/TotL 20–24% [especially long tail]. Head elongate Ahaetulla prasina (Boie, 1827) ovate in dorsal outline, distinct from neck-trunk, eyes large with Asian Vinesnake vertical elliptical pupils, Suplab 8–11, 4th & 5th or 4th, 5th &6th Slender, attenuated body, adult total lengths ~620–1200 mm, tail touch eye, Inflab 11–15. Dorsals smooth, anterior 19–25, midbody length to ~690 mm; TailL/TotL 56–58%. Head elongate ovate in 19–25, posterior 13, 15; ventrals 254–289, paired subcaudals 125– dorsal outline, distinct from neck-trunk, eyes large with horizontal 165, precloacal single. pupils, Suplab 9, 4th, 5th &6th touch eye, Inflab 9. Dorsals smooth, anterior 15, midbody 15, posterior 11; ventrals 194–235, paired Variable coloration, dorsal ground color brownish olive, tan, reddish subcaudals 151–187, precloacal paired. brown to grayish green, trunk alternately banded with narrow diffuse dark or distinct dark brown bars; head same color as trunk, Dorsal ground color variable, commonly shades of green, also usually light-colored postorbital stripe disappearing on neck; upper brown to bright yellow; dark, near vertical slashes of dark brown or lip light colored to white, underside light colored and unicolor. black on sides of trunk; underside lighter shade of same color as dorsally. Comments.— Nocturnal and arboreal species, found broadly in forest and forest edge in Thailand, less well known in Myanmar Comments.— Thick brushy vegetation, usually at edges of forest or although B. cynodon is reported from Bangladesh through in open-canopy forest. Diurnal and arboreal, preying mainly on birds Southeast Asia to Borneo and Philippines. and lizards. Occurs from India through southern China southward through Greater Sundas to Philippines. Boiga dendrophilia (Boie, 1827) Mangrove Catsnake Boiga cyanea (Duméril, Bibron & Duméril, 1854) Long, robust-bodied, adult total lengths ~1200–2500 mm, tail Green Catsnake length ~300–625 mm; TailL/TotL 24–25%. Head elongate ovate in Slender-bodied, adult total lengths ~800–1860 mm, tail length dorsal outline, distinct from neck-trunk, eyes large with vertical ~190–440 mm; TailL/TotL ~23−25%. Head elongate ovate in dorsal elliptical pupils, Suplab 8, 3rd, 4th & 5th touch eye, Inflab 10–12. outline, distinct from neck-trunk, eyes large with vertical elliptical Dorsals smooth, vertebral row enlarged, anterior 21, midbody 21, pupils, Suplab 8–9, 3rd, 4th & 5th, 4th & 5th or 4th, 5th &6th touch 23, posterior 13–17; ventrals 202–245, paired subcaudals 80–110, eye, Inflab 10–12. Dorsals smooth, vertebral row enlarged, anterior precloacal single. 23, 21, midbody 21, posterior 17, 15; ventrals 231–258, paired subcaudals 118–158, precloacal single. Dorsal ground color black, trunk banded in subequal-sized yellow bars from neck onto tail; upper lip and throat yellow, underside grey Dorsal ground color uniform green dorsally; chin bluish white; to dusky white. underside uniform greenish white; also with green head and light rufous trunk and tail. Comments.—Mainly lowland forest species often near streams. Nocturnal species, forages on ground and in trees; eats a variety of Comments.— Lowland to mid montane forest species occurring prey from fish to birds and mammals. Occurs broadly in Southeast broadly from northern India to China and Southeast Asia. Diurnal Asia, Greater and Lesser Sundas, and Philippines. and arboreal species often near streams. Catholic diet of small 134 135 Boiga drapiezii (Boie, 1827) Chrysopelea ornata (Shaw, 1802) White-spotted Catsnake Ornate Flying Snake Slender and long-bodied, adult total lengths ~1300–2100 mm, tail Slender-bodied, adult total lengths ~400–1400 mm, tail length length 380–460 mm; TailL/TotL ~22%. Head elongate ovate in dorsal ~220–390 mm; TailL/TotL 27–28%. Head elongate ovate in dorsal outline, distinct from neck-trunk, eyes large with round pupils, outline, distinct from neck-trunk, eyes large with vertical elliptical Suplab 8–9, 5th & 6th touch eye, Inflab 9–10. Dorsals smooth, pupils, Suplab 8, 4th & 5th or 3rd, 4th & 5th touch eye, Inflab 10– anterior 17, midbody 17, posterior 13; ventrals 213–234 with lateral 11. Dorsals smooth, vertebral row enlarged, anterior 19, midbody keel on each side, paired subcaudals 110–138, precloacal paired. 19, posterior 13, 15; ventrals 250–287, paired subcaudals 112–178, precloacal single. Dorsal ground color yellowish green to green, scale margins black creating boldly banded pattern; top of head black with three green Dorsal ground color variable from green through olive grey to tan, to yellow transverse bars, black postorbital stripe ending on anterior trunk alternately banded in subequal-sized light and dark bars; neck; underside pale green with black spot laterally on each ventral upper lip and throat yellow, underside whitish anterior becoming scale. greenish posteriorly, black or pale ventrolateral stripe usually present. Comments.— Lowland primary and secondary forest. Diurnal, principally arboreal although ascending to ground to search or Comments.— Lowland to mid montane forest species of southern follow prey, mainly lizards. Occurs broadly from India to southern Southeast Asia and Greater Sunda. Nocturnal and arboreal species China and Souteast Asia. preying on small vertebrates. Coelognathus radiatus (Schlegel, 1837) Boiga multomaculata (Boie, 1827) Copper-headed Trinket Snake Many-spotted Catsnake Slender and long-bodied, adult total lengths to ~1870 mm, tail Long, moderately robust, adult total lengths ~800–2000 mm, tail length to ~380 mm; TailL/TotL 19–22%. Head elongate ovate in length 150–380 mm; TailL/TotL 18–20%. Head elongate ovate in dorsal outline, distinct from neck-trunk, eyes large with vertical dorsal outline, distinct from neck-trunk, eyes large with round pupil, elliptical pupils, Suplab 7–9, 3rd, 4th & 5th touch eye, Inflab 9–11. Suplab 9, 3rd, 4th & 5th or 4th, 5th & 6th touch eye, Inflab 10. Dorsals Dorsals smooth, vertebral row enlarged, anterior 17, 19, 21, midbody smooth except for five lightly keeled rows middorsally, anterior 19, 17, 19, posterior 13, 15; ventrals 186–245, paired subcaudals 72–120, midbody 19, posterior 17; ventrals 222–250, subcaudals 82–108, precloacal single. precloacal single. Dorsal ground color light to medium brown, with series of paired Dorsal ground color beige through light brown to coppery brown, white-edged reddish brown spots on head to tail, with smaller three sequential patterns: head uniform beige with two narrow brown spots ventrolaterally alternating with larger dorsal spots; postocular dark stripes and narrow dark nape stripe, anterior trunk head with pair of dorsal narrow brown bars between eyes, broad uniform above with several broad brown blotches ventrolateral, brown postoribital stripe and white lips; underside greyish brown middle half of trunk with four longitudinal black stripes dorsolateral speckled with small dark brown spots. broadest, ventrolateral narrower, at midbody or rearward trunk become largely unicolor light brown. Underside uniform yellowish Comments.— Lowland to mid montane forests, usually open gray to grayish white. canopy, to scruby forest and bamboo stands. Nocturnal and arboreal. Comments.— Open habitat resident, grassland to open forest. Diurnal terrestrial; prey rodents, frogs and birds. Found from northern India and Nepal through to southern China and southward into Greater Sundas. 136 137 Dendrelaphis caudolineolatus Dendrelaphis haasi Van Rooijen and Vogel, 2008 (Gray in Gray & Hardwicke, 1834) Malay Long-tailed Bronzeback Striped Bronzeback Slender-bodied, adult total lengths females to 1450 mm, tail length Slender-bodied, adult total lengths females 785–945 mm, males ~200–450 mm; TailL/TotL 30–33%. Head elongate ovate in dorsal 525–990 mm, tail length 190–355 mm; TailL/TotL 36–38%. Head outline, distinct from neck-trunk, eyes large with round pupil, elongate ovate in dorsal outline, distinct from neck-trunk, eyes Suplab 9, 5th & 6th touch eye, Inflab 9. Dorsals smooth, vertebral large with round pupil, Suplab 8–10, 4th & 5th, 4th, 5th &6th, or row enlarged, anterior 15, midbody 15, 13, posterior 13; ventrals 171– 5th &6th touch eye, Inflab 9–10. Dorsals smooth, vertebral row 188, subcaudals 84–113, precloacal paired. enlarged, anterior 15, midbody 15, posterior 9, 11; ventrals 161–173, paired subcaudals 126–153, precloacal paired. Dorsal ground color medium to dark brown, anteriorly head and neck copper becoming darker on trunk to about midbody, Dorsally ground color coppery on head becoming brownish; becoming lighter and distinctly coppery to near tip of tail, dorsal ventrolaterally bright white from upper and lower lips posteriorly, and dorsolateral scales dark edged; beginning laterally on neck loreal area usually dark, narrow postorbital stripe to temporal white stripe edged in black above and below (bottom edge widest); area then broad black blotches laterally on anterior part of trunk, underside greenish white to yellowish beige; tail with narrow, sometimes forming dark lateral stripe above ventrolateral white midventral black stripe from vent to tip. area on most of trunk; underside yellow on chin and throat thereafter yellowish white to pale green, largely immaculate. Comments.— Lowland to mid montane forest; recently vouchered for South Tanintharyi; also from southern Peninsular Thailand to Comments.— Mainly primary lowland to midmontane forest; Sumatra and Borneo. Diurnal and arboreal. recently vouchered for South Tanintharyi, mainly occurs south of Isthmus of Kra. Diurnal and arboreal. Dendrelaphis cyanochloris (Wall, 1921) Blue Bronzeback Dendrelaphis nigroserratus Vogel, van Rooijen and Slender-bodied, adult total lengths ~426–1235 mm, tail length Hauser, 2012 ~136–395; TailL/TotL 28–35%. Head elongate, ovate in dorsal Sawtoothed-necked Bronzeback outline, distinct from neck-trunk, eyes large with round pupil, Suplab 9, 5th & 6th touch eye, Inflab 10. Dorsals smooth, vertebral Slender-bodied, adult total lengths 428–1210 mm, tail length row enlarged, anterior 15 (16), midbody 15, posterior 11; ventrals ~150–350; TailL/TotL 30–31%. Head elongate ovate in dorsal outline, 186–206, subcaudals 128–156, precloacal usually single. distinct from neck-trunk, eyes large with round pupil, Suplab 7–10, 4th, 5th & 6th touch eye, Inflab 9–10. Dorsals smooth, vertebral row Middorsal enlarged scales copper to bronze, lateral scales variously enlarged, anterior 17, midbody 15, posterior 11; ventrals 197–204, colored in blue, entirely blue or with blue centers; top of head paired subcaudals 148–152, precloacal paired. uniform copper, horizontal dark pre- and postorbital stripe extends from naris onto anterior neck; upper and lower lips and chin yellow Middorsal ground color coppery tan anteriorly becoming brownish continous with yellow of entire underside. and encompassing entire trunk posteriorly on final half or two- thirds of trunk; broad black postorbital stripe, sometimes serrated Comments.— Lowland primary and secondary growth; also a above and below, extending onto anterior trunk, then breaking into fence–row species in cultivated landscapes; vouchered for South series of broad dark diagonal bars to mid-trunk, thereafter merging Tanintharyi. Diurnal and arboreal. Lives in eastern India through with brown ground color; underside yellow on chin and throat southern Myanmar and Thailand to West Malaysia. thereafter whitish to pale green, largely immaculate. 138 139 Comments.— Midmontane forest, generally requiring little Comments.— Arboreal and diurnal in forest, searches for prey on disturbed woodlands; not yet vouchered for South Tanintharyi, outer edges of leafy boughs; not confirmed for South Tanintharyi. recorded from Tak Province, Thailand. Diurnal and arboreal. Principally a montane species from upper Myanmar and adjacent China to Vietnam. Dendrelaphis pictus (Gmelin in Linneaus, 1789) Painted Bronzeback Dryocalamus davisonii (Blanford, 1878) Slender-bodied, adult total lengths ~600–1425 mm, tail length 135– Blanford’s Bridlesnake 425; TailL/TotL 30–38%. Head elongate, elongate ovate in dorsal Slender-bodied, adult total lengths ~360–920 mm, tail length ~88– outline, distinct from neck-trunk, eyes large with round pupil, Suplab 212 mm; TailL/TotL 22–24%. Head ovate in dorsal outline, flattened, 8–9, 5th & 6th touch eye, Inflab 9–15. Dorsals smooth, vertebral row distinct from neck-trunk, eyes large with vertical elliptical pupils, enlarged, anterior 15 (13), midbody 15 (13), posterior 11 (rarely 9, 13); Suplab 7, 3rd & 4th touch eye, Inflab 8. Dorsals smooth, anterior ventrals 160–176, paired subcaudals 125–144, precloacal paired. 17, midbody 13, posterior 13; ventrals 233–265, paired subcaudals 85–112, precloacal single. Dorsal ground color bronzy brown to olive brown, trunk with yellow to cream ventrolateral stripe edged above and below in dark brown, Dorsal ground color white from head onto tail, snout to between dark preorbital and postorbital stripe continuous with dorsal dark eyes black; black oblong spots or bands from neck to middle of border of lateral stripe; underside ivory to yellowish white. trunk, occasionally dividing middorsally into smaller paired spots onto tail; upper lips and throat yellow white, ventrolaterally and Comments.— Occurs broadly in lowlands to mid-montane open- underside creamy white. canopied forests to fence rows and gardens. Widespread through southern Asia, it is moderately abundant to the north in the Dawei Comments.— Predominantly forest species from lowlands to mid- area and photo voucher confirms its presence in South Tanintharyi. mountain of Thailand and Indochina; not yet confirmed for South Diurnal and arboreal snake commonly found on outer portions of Tanintharyi. Nocturnal and terrestrial, preys mainly on lizards. branches. The standard name is occasionally presented as “bridal,” a misinterpretation of bridle that refers to the white head markings Dendrelaphis subocularis (Boulenger, 1888) that mimic the narrow leather bands of a horse’s bridle. Mountain Bronzeback Slender-bodied, adult total lengths 460–840 mm, tail length 120– Dryocalamus subannulatus (Duméril, Bibron and 235 mm; TailL/TotL 26–28%. Head elongate ovate in dorsal outline, Duméril, 1854) distinct from neck-trunk, eyes large with round pupil, Suplab 8–9, Malayan Bridlesnake enlarged 5th touches eye, Inflab 11. Dorsals smooth, vertebral row Slender-bodied, adult total lengths ~360–600 mm, tail length ~90– enlarged, anterior 15, midbody 15, posterior 11; ventrals ~150–175, 150 mm; TailL/TotL 24–26%. Head ovate in dorsal outline, flattened, paired subcaudals 74–105, precloacal paired. distinct from neck-trunk, eyes large with vertical elliptical pupils, Suplab 7, 3rd & 4th touch eye, Inflab 8. Dorsals smooth, anterior Dorsal ground bronzy brown, top of head immaculate and bright 15, midbody 15, posterior 15; ventrals 217–244, paired subcaudals bronze, trunk patterned with most dorsal scales narrowly edged in 88–112, precloacal single. dark brown; dark brown postorbital stripe ending anteriorly on neck, ventrolateral (upper lip) cream stripe from tip of snout to tail, stripe Dorsal ground color pale gray to light brown from snout onto tail, on lips and chin often yellow becoming cream to white on neck or black nearly square blotches from nape posteriorly; nape blotch disappearing anteriorly on neck; venter cream to white anteriorly, with middorsal extension forward between eyes; by midbody dorsal grayish posteriorly and distinctly darker on tail. blotches break middorsally into pairs of small blotches; underside unicolor white to pale yellow. 140 141 Comments.— Lowland forests and readily moves into disturbed posterior 17 (15); ventrals 230–263, paired subcaudals 120–157, habitats. Principally nocturnal and terrestrial; preys on small precloacal paired. vertebrates. Occurs from Peninsular Thailand and Myanmar to Borneo and thus far vouchered only from the Myeik Archpelago. Dorsal ground color green to yellowish brown with reddish orange tail; head green with black preorbital-postorbital stripe; underside Elaphe taeniura (Cope 1861) greenish yellow. Black-tailed or Cave Racer Large, moderately slender, adult total lengths ~900 mm to 3 m, Comments.— Variety of lowland to mid-montane treed habitats tail length 170–560 mm, TailL/TotL ~19–20%. Head elongate ovate from forest to garden, occurring throughout Southeast Asia in dorsal outline, distinct from neck-trunk, eyes large with round and Greater Sundas. Diurnal and arboreal, prey mainly birds and pupils, Suplab 8–10, 4th & 5th or 5th & 6th touch eye, Inflab 10– mammals. 13. Dorsals smooth except for weakly keeled middorsal 5 rows, anterior 23, 25, midbody 23, 25, posterior 19, 17; ventrals 225–260, • Lycodon effraensis Cantor, 1847 subcaudals 84–112, precloacal paired. Brown Wolfsnake Small, slender-bodied, adult total lengths ~700–800 mm, tail length Dorsal ground color variable shades of brown, uniform anteriorly 170–292 mm; TailL/TotL ~24%. Head elongate ovate in dorsal outline, on neck, then broad dorsolateral stripe on trunk continuing to tail flattened, distinct from neck-trunk, eyes small with vertical pupils, or disappearing by midbody and replaced by lateral–ventrolateral Suplab 9, 3rd, 4th & 5th touch eye, Inflab 10, preocular and loreal white black bordered spots; middorsally most of trunk retains present. Dorsals smooth or weakly keeled, anterior 17, midbody neck and head color; head brown uniform above, usually white lip 17, posterior 15; ventrals 215–233, subcaudals 72–100, precloacal bordered by narrow or broad dark brown to black postorbital stripe, single. occasionally narrow transverse nuchal dark stripe; underside uniform yellowish tan to cream. Dorsal ground color reddish to medium brown, trunk anteriorly with 8 large tan to cream bands widely spaced or unicolor; underside Comments.— Occurs broadly from lowland forest and disturbed white to light brown, narrowed beneath each dark bands. Head habitats and throughout much of temperate and tropical eastern brown, often with cream canthal stripe extending above eye and Asia. Diurnal-nocturnal species, often searching for prey on ground enlarging to temporal patch. and in trees. Occurs broadly in temperate and tropical Asia. There are multiple color patterned forms of this species with distinct Comments.— Lowland forests and disturbed habitats of Thai- and restricted geographic distributions. Several subspecies are Malaysia Peninsula to Borneo. Diurnal and nocturnal, usually recognized and the form occurring in SouthTanintharyi is Elaphe terrestrial. taeniura rileyi. Additionally the generic status is unsettled with some authors using Orthriophis and other using Elaphe; herein we • Lycodon subcinctus Boie, 1827 follow the Reptile Database. White-banded Wolfsnake Medium slender-bodied, adult total lengths ~392–442 mm, tail Gonyosoma oxycephalum (Boie, 1827) length 89–109 mm; TailL/TotL 23–25%. Head elongate ovate in Red-tailed Green Ratsnake or Mangrove Ratsnake dorsal outline and moderately depressed, distinct from neck-trunk, Moderate-bodied, adult total lengths to 2.1 m, tail length to 500 mm; eyes moderate with vertical elliptical pupils, only one loreal present, TailL/TotL 23–26%. Head elongate ovate in dorsal outline, distinct Suplab 9, 4th & 5th beneath eye, Inflab 9–10. Dorsals smooth, from neck-trunk, eyes large with round pupil, Suplab 9–11, 5th & anterior 17, midbody 17, posterior 15; ventrals 184–199, paired 6th, 6th &7th, or 7th & 8th touch eye, Inflab 11–14. Dorsals smooth subcaudals 68–72, precloacal usually paired. or lightly keeled, anterior 25 (23, 27), midbody mostly 25 (23, 27), Dorsal ground color medium to dark brown with widely spaced narrow, diffusely white bands (6–11) on anterior third of trunk, also 142 143 broader diffuse white nuchal band; head lighter brown than body, from Thai-Malaysia peninsula to Borneo. Diurnal and terrestrial- upper and lower lip light brownish white merging ventrally with low arboreal, usually near water and excellent swimmer; diet same colored venter. predominantly anurans. Comments.— Lowland to montane forests from southern China Ptyas korros (Schlegel, 1837) to Greater Sundas. Nocturnal and both terrestrial and arboreal in Dark-eyed Ratsnake searching for small vertebrate prey. Moderate-bodied, adult total lengths~1–2.2 m, tail length ~170–750 mm; TailL/TotL 32–39%. Head elongate ovate in dorsal outline, Oreocryptophis porphyraceus(Cantor,1839) distinct from neck-trunk, eyes large with round pupils, Suplab 7–8, Black-banded Trinket Snake 3rd & 4th or 4th & 5th touch eye, Inflab 10. Dorsals smooth anteriorly, Moderate-bodied, adult total lengths ~560 mm–1200 mm, tail weakly keeled posteriorly, anterior 15, midbody 15, posterior 13; length ~110–216 mm; TailL/TotL 16–19%. Head elongate ovate in ventrals 160–187, subcaudals 122–147, precloacal paired. dorsal outline, distinct from neck-trunk, eyes large with round pupils, Suplab 7–8, 4th & 5th or 5th & 6th touch eye, Inflab 8–11. Dorsal ground color shades of brown lighter anteriorly becoming Dorsals smooth, weakly keeled middorsally, anterior 19, midbody 19, darker to almost black posteriorly; head uniform brown; underside posterior 17; ventrals 179–217, paired subcaudals 52–80, precloacal tan to ivory. paired. Comments.— Inhabits lowland and montane forests of Southeast Dorsal ground color bluish gray to dark grayish brown with Asia to Borneo. Diurnal and predominantly terrestrial. middorsal tan stripe, stripe best developed on rear half of trunk; top of head same color as trunk, black postorbital stripe, upper lip Ptyas mucosa (Linnaeus, 1754) white; underside white to cream. Oriental Ratsnake Moderate-bodied, adult total lengths ~1–2.5 m, tail length ~240– Comments.— Occurs broadly in montane forest from northern 625 mm; TailL/TotL 24–26%. Head elongate ovate in dorsal outline, India though southern China southward to Singapore. Diurnal and distinct from neck-trunk, eyes large with round pupils, Suplab 8, 4th terrestrial species preying largely on rodents. & 5th touch eye, Inflab 9–10. Dorsals smooth, anterior 17, midbody 17, posterior 13 (14); ventrals 187–213, paired subcaudals 95–146, Ptyas fusca (Günther, 1858) precloacal paired. White-bellied Ratsnake Moderately Slender-bodied, adult total lengths ~1.0–2.9 m, tail Dorsal ground color olive brown, head and trunk uniform, posteriorly length ~170–1000 mm; TailL/TotL 33–34%. Head elongate ovate trunk lightens and occasionally develops narrow dark bands; in dorsal outline, distinct from neck-trunk, eyes large with round underside uniform cream, subcaudals with black spots. pupils, Suplab 7–8, 5th & 6th touch eye, Inflab 10. Dorsals smooth, anterior 16, midbody 16, posterior 12; ventrals 189–198, paired Comments.— Preferentially a forest species but adapts to subcaudals 158–165, precloacal paired. disturbed and agricultural landscapes with brushy habitats. Diurnal and largely terrestrial. Occurs broadly from Iran to southern China Dorsal ground color shades of brown, occasionally narrow reddish and Southeast Asia. brown middorsal stripe; head uniform brown above with white to cream upper lip; underside creamy white to light yellow. Comments.— Inhabitant of lowland to mid-montane forests to agricultural areas with thick vegetation, typically near water; 144 145 Colubridae — Natricinae Rhabdophis subminiatus (Schlegel, 1837) Rhabdophis chrysargos (Schlegel, 1837) Red-necked Keelback Moderate-bodied, adult total lengths ~580–1300 mm, tail length Speckled-bellied Keelback ~150–340 mm; TailL/TotL 24–31%. Head ovate in dorsal outline, Moderate-bodied, adult total lengths to 720 mm, tail length to 188 distinct from neck-trunk, eyes large with round pupil, Suplab 8, 3rd, mm; TailL/TotL 25–28%. Head elongate ovate in dorsal outline, 4th & 5th touch eye, Inflab 9–10. Dorsals strongly keeled, anterior distinct from neck-trunk, eyes medium with round pupils, supralabial 19, midbody 19, posterior 17; ventrals 137–184, paired subcaudals 9, 3rd, 4th & 5th touch eye, Inflab 11. Dorsals keeled (outermost scale 56–97, precloacal paired. row strongly keeled), anterior 19, midbody 19, posterior 17; ventrals 139–176, paired subcaudals 60–100, precloacal paired. Dorsal ground color olive to brownish gray, trunk strongly marked with dark blotches, often with lighter centers, creating irregular Dorsal ground color olive to grayish brown, trunk with numerous, checkerboard pattern at least anteriorly, no or indistinct nuchal widely spaced transverse dark bars, each tipped ventrally with collar, although rear of head and neck area often a rufous red; head orange; V-shaped, narrow cream nuchal collars in juveniles; upper with broad cream postorbital stripe; underside white to cream. lip and throat yellow, underside pale yellow with each ventral scale black edged. Comments.— Lowland to mid montane streams and bodies of water; occurs widely in disturbed habitats including paddies and Comments.— Occurs in lowland and mid-montane forests, usually urban slues and ponds. Diurnal and noctural, subaquatic, eating adjacent to smaller streams; tolerates modest habitat alteration; mostly frogs and fish. Broad Asian distribution from Nepal and southern Southeast Asia to Borneo. Mainly diurnal, subaquatic to northern India to southern China and southward to Greater Sundas. terrestrial and preys on fish and frogs. Xenochrophis flavipunctatus (Hallowell, 1861) Rhabdophis nigrocinctus (Blyth, 1856) Gold-spotted Keelback Banded Green Keelback Slender-bodied, adult total lengths ~600–940 mm, tail length Moderate-bodied, adult total lengths ~635–880 mm, tail length 160–245; TailL/TotL 28–35%. Head elongate ovate in dorsal outline, 165–255 mm; TailL/TotL 22–29%. Head elongate ovate in dorsal distinct from neck-trunk, eyes moderate with round pupils, Suplab outline, distinct from neck-trunk, eyes medium with round pupils, 9 (rarely 8 or 10) 4th or 4th & 5th touching eye, Inflab 9–11. Dorsals, Suplab 8–9, 3rd, 4th or 5th, 4th, 5th & 6th touch eye, Inflab 10–11. anterior 19, midbody 19, posterior 17; ventrals 120–143, paired Dorsals keeled, anterior 19, midbody 19, 17, posterior 17; ventrals subcaudals 60–91, precloacal paired. 150–168, paired subcaudals 72–96, precloacal paired. Dorsal ground color olive brown to medium brown with regular Dorsal ground color medium to light green, trunk banded with dark markings anteriorly disappearing on posterior third of trunk; widely spaced narrow, transverse black bars; head boldly marked, distinct black-edged creamy yellow nuchal collar; underside white unicolor olive above, broad black postorbital blotch and black to cream with each ventral scale edged in black on anterior edge, subocular bar separated by white area, also usually a black nuchal hence venter barred; collar. Underside grayish anteriorly with faint dark-edged ventrals increasing darker from midbody onward, subcaudal darker than Comments.— Occurs in a broad array of aquatic habitats, posterior ventrals. from roadside ditches and paddies to large rivers and lakes; predominantly nocturnal when searching for prey usually at water’s Comments.— Midmontane forest streamside. Mainly diurnal, edge. Presently know in Myanmar only from lower Sittaung River subaquatic to terrestrial and preys on fish and frogs. Occurring drainage; expected but not confirmed in South Tanintharyi. from Myanmar, adjacent China through Thailand and Indochina. 146 147 Xenochrophis piscator (Schneider, 1799) occurrence confirmed for Upper Tenasserim (= Mon Region) and northern Tanintharyi. Checkered Keelback Slender-bodied, adult females ~725–1050 mm, males ~460–800 mm Xenochrophis trianguligerus (Boie, 1827) total lengths, tail length 180–240 mm, 140–240 mm, respectively; TailL/TotL 25–30%, 28–33%, respectively. Head elongate ovate in Red-sided Keelback dorsal outline, distinct from neck-trunk, eyes moderate with round Slender-bodied, adult total lengths ~600–1350 mm, tail length pupils, Suplab 9 (rarely 8 or 10) 4th & 5th (rarely 4th or 5th) touching ~150–340 mm; TailL/TotL 24–26%. Head elongate ovate in dorsal eye, Inflab, 10 (rarely 9 or 11). Dorsals, anterior 19, midbody 19, outline, distinct from neck-trunk, eyes medium with round pupil, posterior 17; ventrals 128–154, paired subcaudals 68–96, precloacal Suplab 9, 4th, 5th & 6th touch eye, Inflab 10. Dorsals keeled, anterior paired. 19, midbody 19 (17), posterior 15; ventrals 132–150, subcaudals 62– 105, precloacal paired. Dorsal ground color olive brown, trunk alternately banded in subequal-sized light and dark bars; upper lip and throat yellow, Dorsal ground color dark brown, largely overlain by lateral series underside white, nearly immaculate; broad black postorbital of black inverted triangles bordered above with red, bright pattern covering entire temporal area, becoming irregularly saw-toothed fades with maturity becoming unicolor gray to grayish brown; head on neck. uniform ground color, upper lip whitish; underside cream. Comments.— Lives in a broad array of aquatic habitats, Comments.— Largely lowland species in variety of aquatic habitats from roadside ditches and paddies to large rivers and lakes; from paddies and ponds to forested streams from Southeast predominantly nocturnal when searching for prey usually at water’s Asia to Greater Sunda Islands. Active both during day and night, edge. Widespread in Myanmar and broadly in mainland South Asia semiaquatic. from Pakistan to Taiwan. Cylindrophiidae Xenochrophis punctulatus (Günther, 1858) Pipesnakes form a small family of two genera, the monotypic Black and White Keelback Anomochilus and Cylindrophis currently with 13 species. They Slender-bodied, adult~400–630 mm total lengths, tail lengths 104– are Asian snakes with species in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. All 160; TailL/TotL 25–34%. pipesnakes are thick-bodied, cylindrical snakes with smooth shiny scales, blunt heads, and moderately short tails. This body form is Head elongate ovate in dorsal outline, distinct from neck-trunk, an adaptation to burying in friable, preferably moist soils. They eat eyes large, Suplab 9, 4th & 5th touch eye, Inflab 9–10. Dorsals a variety of invertebrate and vertebrate prey. All species are live- smoooth, anterior 17, midbody 17, posterior 17; ventrals 132–152, bearers with litters of two to twelve neonates. paired subcaudals 70–83, precloacal paired. Cylindrophis burmanus Smith, 1943 Dorsal ground color olive brown to medium brown with regular dark markings anteriorly disappearing on posterior third of trunk; Burmese Pipesnake distinct black-edged creamy yellow nuchal collar; underside white Slender-bodied, adult total lengths ~218–330 mm, tail length 2–10 to cream with each ventral scale edged in black on anterior edge, mm; TailL/TotL 2–3%. Head short, shortened ovate in dorsal outline, hence venter barred; not distinct from neck-trunk, eye moderate with round pupil, 3rd supralabial touches eye. Dorsals, anterior 17 or 19, midbody 19, Comments.— Found in marshy habitats, semiaquatic to terrestrial; posterior 16 or 17; ventrals 201–225 same size as adjacent dorsal seems to be diurnal and nocturnal. Known from Lower Burma, scales, subcaudals 5–7, precloacal paired. mainly Ayeryarwady Delta to lower Sittaung River drainage; 148 149 Dorsal ground color dark purplish brown, trunk with widely spaced, Bungarus candidus (Linnaeus, 1758) narrow transverse bands of white; head uniformly dark as trunk, Malayan Krait underside as trunk with narrow, light bands; tail with red to orange Moderate-bodied, adult total lengths to 1.4 m, tail short and conical underneath. length to ~190 mm; TailL/TotL 12–15%. Head elongate ovate in dorsal outline, distinct from neck-trunk, eyes moderate with round pupils, Comments.— Various forest habitats with moist floor detritus of Suplab 7, 3rd & 4th touch eye, Inflab 6–7. Dorsals smooth, anterior Myanmar. Subterranean (fossorial), likely active both during day 17, midbody 15, posterior 15; ventrals 195–235, single subcaudals and night. 37–58, precloacal single. Elapidae Dorsal ground color black to blue-black, banded in subequal- sized white bands; upper lip and throat white to yellowish white; underside white. The elapids are a diverse group of venomous species with a worldwide distribution: coralsnakes in the Americas, cobras Comments.— Lowland to mid montane forest and moderately throughout Africa and Asia, the diverse elapids of Australia, and disturbed forest. Terrestrial and nocturnal, preys on snakes and the seasnakes and seakraits of the Indopacific. All are venomous lizards. This krait has not been reported from Myanmar, including with permanent erect maxillary fangs in the front of the mouth. southern Tanintharyi, although it occurs widely in provinces of The venom, as in viperids, is a complex mix of toxins and stablizers, Thailand bordering Myanmar. adapted (evolved) for the species’ main prey items. As a generality, venoms evolve for the rapid immobilization of prey, both to prevent Bungarus fasciatus (Schneider, 1801) the loss of the prey and also to prevent the struggling prey from injurying the snake. The elapids reproduce by ovi- and viviparity. Banded Krait Moderate-bodied, adult total lengths ~650 mm–2.1 m, tail length Key to genera of Elapidae ~64–190 mm; TailL/TotL 7–10%. Head broad ovate in dorsal outline, distinct from neck-trunk, eyes moderate with round pupils, Suplab 1. Body distinctly triangular in cross-section at midbody; 7, 3rd & 4th touch eye, Inflab 6–7. Dorsals smooth, anterior 17, middorsal (vertebral) row of scales enlarged, 1.5 to 2X width of midbody 15, posterior 15; ventrals 200–234, single subcaudals 23– adjacent parasagittal scales; subcaudal scales in single row 40, precloacal single. …….....…..……………….….Bungarus Dorsal ground color various shades of yellow with black transverse 1’. Body rounded in cross-section at midbody; middorsal row of bars (~20–30) on trunk, not encroaching on white underside; head scales equal-sized to adjacent parasagittal scales; subcaudal black with yellow lips. scales in double row or partially single …………….2 2. Internasal scale not touching nostril; neck not expansible Comments.— Diverse habitats from paddies to forest species. ……………….......Calliophis Terrestrial and nocturnal. This krait is widespread in main Myanmar, 2’. Internasal scale borders (touches) nostril; neck expansible although not vouchered in Tanintharyi. It lives largely in disturbed areas from garden and rural agriculture areas into disturbed forest (hood) …………………....3 and tree plantations, feeding broadly on amphibians and reptiles to 3. Single pair of enlarged postparietal(nuchal) scales small mammals. ……..……………........ Ophiophagus 3’. No enlarged postparietal scales ….. Naja 150 151 Calliophis bivirgatus (Boie, 1827) Naja kaouthia Lesson, 1831 Blue Malayan Coralsnake Monocled Cobra Long and slender, adult total lengths ~950–1850 mm, tail length Moderate-bodied, adult total lengths ~950 mm–2.3 m, tail length ~140–260 mm; TailL/TotL 12–14%. Head elongate ovate in dorsal ~140–400 mm; TailL/TotL 15–17%. Head broad ovate in dorsal outline, barely distinct from neck-trunk, eyes medium with round outline, distinct from neck-trunk, eyes medium with round pupils, pupils, Suplab 6, 3rd & 4th touch eye, Inflab 5. Dorsals smooth, Suplab 7–8, 3rd, 4th & 5th or 4th & 5th touch eye, Inflab 8. Dorsals anterior 13, midbody 13, posterior 13; ventrals 242–304, paired smooth, anterior 26–32, midbody 19–21, posterior 13–15; ventrals subcaudals 34–53, precloacal single. 161–182, paired subcaudals 49–58, precloacal single. Dorsal ground color black from neck onto tail narrowing into stripe, Dorsal ground color variable, from beige to dark gray, largely ventrolateral mid blue stripe from behind neck to vent and bordered uniform dorsally, spread hood with dark-edged circle (sometimes below by black stripe; underside and laterally and ventrally on tail U-shaped) often with dark circular spot in center; underside, chin red to bright salmon. Dorsally to ventrally the head and anterior and throat light, body usually darker matching color of back. neck red to bright salmon. Comments.— Occurs broadly from open forest into agricultural Comments.— Occurs in forest and forest edges from Thai-Malaysia areas, including paddies and often near human habitation. peninsulat to Borneo. Terrestrial and nocturnal. Terrestrial and crepuscular–nocturnal; prey diverse from fish and frogs to mammals. Calliophis maculiceps (Günther, 1858) Ophiophagus hannah (Cantor, 1836) Small Spotted Coralsnake Slender-bodied, adult total lengths ~450–1300 mm, tail length King Cobra ~52–142 mm; TailL/TotL ~11–12%. Head short, blunt ovate in dorsal Robust-bodied, adult total lengths ~1–4 m, tail length ~170–680 outline, barely distinct from neck-trunk, eyes small with round mm; TailL/TotL 17–19%. Head broad ovate in dorsal outline, distinct pupils, Suplab 7, 3rd & 4th touch eye, Inflab 6–7. Dorsals smooth, from neck-trunk, eyes medium with round pupils, Suplab 7, 3rd & anterior 13, midbody 13, posterior 13; ventrals 174–203, paired 4th touch eye, Inflab 7. Dorsals smooth, anterior 17–21, midbody 15, subcaudals 21–31, precloacal paired posterior 15; ventrals 241–266, subcaudals 74–106 single anteriorly . and paired posteriorly, precloacal single. Dorsal ground color (trunk) medium brown though rufous brown to dusky red on trunk often with widely spaced narrow black Dorsal ground color variable from olive to brown or dark gray, transverse bar edged in white or no bars nearly uniform; Head and typically alternating broad bands of dark and light color (especially anteriormost neck black above and dorsolaterally, occasionally with in juveniles and young adults); underside creamy white to light gray broad white parietal blotch; underside pale blue to gray with some anteriorly, darker posteriorly. dark spots. Comments.— Predominantly a forest species, tropical evergreen Comments.— Lowland to midmontane forests of Southeast Asia. to open-canopied dry forest with heavy understory. Diurnal species, Terrestrial, mainly nocturnal species; preys mainly on lizards and mostly terrestrial; prey snakes and monitor lizards. small snakes. Not vouchered as yet for Tanintharyi. 152 153 Homalopsidae Enhydris enhydris (Schneider, 1799) Rainbow Mudsnake The homalopsid snakes have a variety of common names, but Moderate-bodied, adult total lengths ~360–882 mm, tail length owing to the habitats of many species occurring on soft, mud- ~60–148 mm; TailL/TotL 16–18%. Head elongate ovate in dorsal bottom habitats, Mudsnakes has become a standard name for the outline and slightly depressed, distinct from neck-trunk, eyes family. They are totally aquatic snakes with a number of adaptations moderate with round pupils, Suplab 7–8, 4th touch eye, Inflab 9–10. associated with this lifestyle, such as eyes shifted dorsally and Dorsals smooth, anterior 23, 25, 27, midbody 21. 23, posterior 17, 19, valvular nostrils. They are also rear-fanged, and some species 21; ventrals >153–174, paired subcaudals 57–83, precloacal paired. regularly attempt to bite when captured. No human deaths have been reported but they should be handled carefully. Dorsal ground color brownish gray to medium brown, trunk with longitudinal stripes of light and dark; upper lip and throat yellow, Most genera and species are coastal inhabitants of tidal streams, dark pre- and postorbital stripes from snout to end of head. mangrove forest, and esturaries. They feed on a variety of marine creatures. Fish and crustaceans being main prey and some species Comments.— Lowland marshes, sloughs, slues, heavy vegetated are specialists on particular group of prey, such as Fordonia ponds and lakes, and paddies. Abundant in Lower Myanmar, but not leucobalia, the Crab-eating Mudsnake. The following key identifies yet reported for South Tanintharyi. E. plumbea may also occur. It has all genera that we expect to encounter in South Tanintharyi, 19 midbody scale rows and light underside with row of black spots although only Homalopsis semizonata has been found by our on midline. surveys. • Homalopsis semizonata (Blyth, 1855) Key to genera of Homalopsidae Burmese Masked Mudsnake Moderately robust body, adult total lengths ~500–728 mm, tail 1. Nasal scales in contact on midline of snout ...................................... length ~115–166 mm; TailL/TotL 23%. Robust head, blunt ovate in ................................2 dorsal outline, distinct from neck-trunk, eyes moderate with round 1’. Nasal scales not in contact on midline of snout, separated by one pupil, Suplab 12–15, none touch eye separated by suboculars, or two internasal scales …...................................................... 4 Inflab 15–16. Dorsals lightly keeled, anterior 40–44, midbody 39– 2. Dorsal trunk scales smooth and shiny ................................................ 44, posterior 30–36; ventrals 153–165, paired subcaudals 69–90, ............... Enhydris precloacal paired. 2’. Dorsal scales keeled .………………… 3 Dorsal ground color tan with broad dark brown bands (~22–23) on trunk from nape to base of tail, bands continue to tip of tail; top of 3. Scales on posterior half of head small, not plate like ………….…. head tan, dusky anterior lighter posteriorly, rostral dark brown, dark Cerberus rhynchops brown postorbital stripe extending posteriorly into first dark band, 3’. Scales on top of head plate-like; distinct pair of parietal plates labials tan to white, underside white with small dark brown marks (scales) on posterior surface of head…………………… Homalopsis laterally on ventrals. 4. Loreal scale absent; midbody dorsal scale in rows of 23, 25, or 27 Comments.— Freshwater streams of lowlands to mid montane ........................................................................ Fordonia leucobalea forests to ponds and drainage ditches in disturbed habitats. Aquatic, nocturnal species preys mainly on fish. 4’. Loreal scale present; midbody dorsal scale in rows of 19 or 21.....… Cantoria violacea 154 155 Lamprophiidae — Pseudaspidinae Aplopeltura boa (Boie, 1828) Psammodynastes pulverulentus (Boie, 1827) Blunt-headed Slug-eating Snake Slender and very attentuate body, adult total lengths ~530–834 mm, Asian Common Mockviper tail length ~220–265 mm; TailL/TotL 32–36%. Head blunt triangular Slender-bodied, adult total lengths ~340–540 mm, female SVL in dorsal outline and thick in lateral view, strikingly distinct from thin 253–436 mm, males 222–471 mm,; TailL/TotL 13–22%. Head neck and body; eyes large with round pupils, occasionally vertically triangular in dorsal outline, narrow neck gradually thickening to elliptical; Suplab 8–10, none touch eye separated by several rows moderate robust, although cylindrical trunk; eyes large, vertical of suboculars, Inflab 11. Dorsals smooth, middorsal row enlarged, elliptical pupil; Suplab 6–9, 3rd, 4th & 5th contact eye, Inflab 6–9. anterior 13, midbody 13, posterior 13; ventrals 148–191, paired Dorsals smooth, anterior 17, midbody 17, posterior 15 or 17; ventrals subcaudals 88–127, precloacal single. 139–180, paired subcaudals 44–76, precloacal single. Dorsal ground color variable, usually dark grey or brown with broad Dorsal ground color variable ranging from light to dark brown, dark bands separated narrower interspaces; head distinctive with occasionally rufous brown, trunk usually with dark-edged light broad white upper and lower lips cleft below eye by large dark blotches dorsally on trunk; top of head with bicolor Y-mark blotch, top of head usually unicolor and contrasting color to dorsal continuous with dark nape stripe, upper lip usually dark and throat trunk color. Underside light, white to tan, regularly immaculate dusky, underside dusky anterior lightening posteriorly. along center line with ventrolateral markings. Comments.— Lowland to mid montane forest species, widespread Forest inhabitant, usually low in the understory vegation. Arboreal throughout tropical Asia. Predominantly terrestrial, preys and nocturnal. predominantly on frogs and lizards. Pareidae Comments.— Literature reports an occurrence for Myanmar; we have been unable to confirm this record. Thai records are from the Isthmus of Kra and southward. The pareids or Asian Slug-eating Snakes are tropical Asian snakes found from eastern India to southwestern China southward into the Pareas carinatus (Boie, 1828) Greater Sundas. There are three genera but only Pareas occurs in Myanmar. All pareids have a long slender body capped by a large Keeled Slug-eating Snake head. They feed on slugs and snails. They can extract a snail from Slender and very attentuate body, adult total lengths ~430–522 its shell by shoving the lower jaw beneath the snail’s body and shell, mm, tail length ~90–108 mm; TailL/TotL 21–22%. Head blunt biting and holding the body of the snail, and then with a rachet-like triangular in dorsal outline, strikingly distinct from thin neck and movement pull the snail from the shell, when the snail’s muscles body; eyes large with vertically elliptical pupil, Suplab 7–8, none tire and relax, the pulling movement tears the body from the shell. touch eye separated by several rows of suboculars, Inflab 8–9. All pareids reproduce by oviparity. Dorsals lightly keeled except for smooth ventrolateral rows, anterior 15, midbody 15, posterior 15; ventrals 158–206, paired subcaudals Key to genera of Pareidae 53–99, precloacal single. 1. Body scales smooth, in 13 rows at midbody ….…............……… Dorsal ground color variable, shades of brown from grayish through Aplopeltura boa yellowish to rufous, anteriorly trunk with narrow diffuse dark bars; head usually with narrow dark postorbital stripe onto neck, upper 1’. Body scales smooth or keeled, in 15 rows at midbody lip and throat usually lighter than remainder of head and unicolor, ……………………….... Pareas underside lighter than dorsum, often same shade of brown, immaculate or with lateral longitudinal row of dark spots. 156 157 Comments.— Lowland to mid montane evergreen forest; nocturnal Comments.— Mid montane evergreen forest; nocturnal and and low arboreal; diet of slugs and snails. low arboreal; diet of slugs and snails. Pareas macularis and P. margaritophorus were long recognized as separate species then Pareas macularis (Theobald, 1868) recently considered briefly as a single species. They occur within the White-spotted Keeled Slug-eating Snake same mountain range and forest habitat, although apparently not Slender and very attentuate body, adult total lengths ~300–550 at the same locations. P. margaritophorus has not been vouchered mm, tail length ~70–125 mm; TailL/TotL ~23%. Head blunt triangular for Tanintharyi or anywhere else in Myanmar. P. macularis occurs in dorsal outline, strikingly distinct from thin neck and body; eyes both in Myanmar and Thailand. large with vertically elliptical pupil, Suplab 7, 4th or none touch eye separated by suboculars, Inflab 8. Middorsal rows (7–13) keeled and Pythonidae smooth scales below, anterior 15, midbody 15, posterior 15 (rarely 13); ventrals ~146–165, subcaudals ~32–56, precloacal single. Pythons are mostly large (adults greater than 1 m total length), heavy bodied snakes of Africa, tropical Asia, and Australia. All are Dorsal ground color light to dark grey, trunk banded in irregular dark constrictors, grabbing their prey with a mouth lined with long, bars, occasionally anterior trunk with broad cream to yellow band; sharp recurved teeth, and immediately coiling around the prey. upper and lower lips white with black flecking, underside cream to The constricted prey is not suffocated, rather the tightening of the white with black speckling. snake’ body coils restricts blood flow and compresses the heart thereby preventing blood flow; this action starves the prey’s brain Comments.— Mid montane evergreen forest; nocturnal and low of oxygenated blood and results in a faster death than suffocation. arboreal; diet of slugs and snails. P. macularis and P. margaritophorus Myanmar has potentially four species: two Short-tailed Pythons have overlapping ranges in the mountains of Southeast Asia but and two giants, Reticulated and Burmese Pythons. All pythons appear not to co-occur in the same locations. P. macularis has not reproduce by laying eggs. been vouchered for South Tanintharyi. A B Pareas margaritophorus (Jan, 1866) White-spotted Smooth Slug-eating Snake Slender and very attentuate body, adult total lengths ~270–500 mm, tail length ~50–95 mm; TailL/TotL ~19–20%. Head blunt triangular in dorsal outline, strikingly distinct from thin neck and body; eyes large with vertically elliptical pupil, Suplab 7, 4th or none touch Fig. 17 Head color pattern in two Asian pythons. (A) Python bivittatus has large, eye separated by suboculars, Inflab 8. Dorsals smooth, anterior 15, bold head markings. (B) Malayopython reticulatus has slender stripes, middorsal midbody 15, posterior 15 (rarely 13); ventrals 136–159, subcaudals and postorbital. 32–56, precloacal single. Key to genera of Pythonidae Dorsal ground color light to dark grey or brown, trunk banded in irregular dark bars formed by black white-tipped scales, nuchal and 1. Long, moderately slender body; tail usually greater than 12% of neck usually with dark band; upper and lower lips white with black total length; 55–100 paired subcaudal scales ………….........………… 2 flecking, underside cream to white with dense black speckling and blotches. 1’. Short, stout, body; tail usually less than 10% of total length; 24–36 paired subcaudal scales ……..….....…… Python brongersmai 158 159 2. Supralabial scales do not contact eye; five sensory pits, rostral and two supralabial ones on each side …………….. Python bivittatus Comments.— An uncommon species in Myanmar, likely owing to its 2’. Seventh or eighth supralabial scale touches eye; four sensory persecution by humans. Once a habitat generalists, but now relies pits, two supralabial ones on each side …..… Malayopython on heavily vegetated habitats such as bamboo thickets or dense reticulatus scruby regrowth forests. None vouchered for South Tanitharyi. Nocturnal and terrestrial; eats mainly warm-blooded prey. Presently Malayopython reticulatus (Schneider, 1801) the Indian Rock Python (P. molorus) and the Burmese Python (P. Reticulated Python bivittatus) are recognized as separate species. The former, as the Moderately heavy body, adult total lengths ~2–9 m, tail length name implies, occurs mainly in India, the latter mainly in Myanmar 30–60 cm; TailL/TotL 13–16%. Head elongate triangular in dorsal and eastward. outline, distinct from neck-trunk, eyes large with elliptical pupils, supralabial 12–14, 7th (occasionally 6th or 8th) touches eye, two Python brongersmai Stull, 1938 supralabial pits on each side, Inflab 21–24. Dorsal scales smooth, South Asian Short–tailed Python anterior ~42–48, midbody 69–80, posterior ~34–40; ventrals 297– Short and stout, adult total lengths ~80–200 cm, tail length ~72–180 330, paired subcaudals 76–102, precloacal single. mm; TailL/SVL 7–12%. Head elongate triangular in dorsal outline, distinct from neck-trunk, eyes large with elliptical pupils, 5th & 6th Dorsal ground color beige to light brown with broad chain of beige- Suplab touch eye. Dorsal scales smooth, anterior 34–53, midbody centered, black and orange edged blotches from neck onto tail; 44–59, posterior 29–43; ventrals 160–178, paired subcaudals 22– head with thin, middorsal stripe and narrow postorbital stripes; 34, precloacal single. underside white. Dorsal ground color usually reddish to orangish brown, trunk Comments.— Lowland to mid montane evergreen forest of with various-sized and -shaped darker blotches, adjacent ones Southeast Asia through Sundas to Philippines; recorded in often coalesce; top of head with narrow dark stripe broadening Myanmar only from Tanintharyi. Nocturnal, mainly arboreal as posteriorly and fusing with first dorsal blotch; side of head with juveniles, terrestrial and semiaquatic as adults; preys mainly on broad dark postorbital stripe. birds and mammals. Comments.— Forests, palm-nut plantations and other agricultural Python bivittatus Kuhl, 1820 area with ground cover. Noctural and terrestrial; preys mainly Burmese Python on warm-blooded prey, particularly rodents. This python is not Moderately heavy body, adult total lengths ~2–6.5 m, tail length presently confirmed for southern Tanintharyi, although a survey of 240–780 mm; TailL/TotL 11–13%. Head elongate triangular in dorsal palm-nut harvesters reported its presence here. outline, distinct from neck-trunk, eyes large with elliptical pupils; row of small suborbital scales separate supralabials from eye; Typhlopidae rostral and two supralabial pits on each side. Dorsal scales smooth, anterior ~44–52, midbody 60–75, posterior ~38–48; ventrals 240– Presently only a single species, Brahminy Blindsnake, is confirmed 270, subcaudals 58–83 paired anteriorly, precloacal single. for South Tanintharyi. Another species occurs nearby in Thailand. Over the past several decades, Burmese blindsnakes have Dorsal ground color variable from light to dark brown, series of passed through a variety of generic names, from Typhlop through middorsal irregular–sized blotches usually with mid–brown centers Ramphotyphlops and now to Argyrophis and Indotyphlops. These dark and then white edged, similar but smaller blotches laterally and name changes reflect our improving knowledge of blind snake ventrolaterally; top of head with broad dark mark joining first dorsal phylogeny. blotch; side of head with dark preorbital stripe, broader postorbital stripe and a short dark suborbital bar; underside white. 160 161 Argyrophis diardii (Schlegel, 1839) Viperidae Mueller’s Blindsnake Uniform cylindrical-bodied, adult total lengths to 420 mm, short It is a contentious issue whether vipers should be placed in tails, TailL/SVL 2–3%. Head, slightly flattened, blunt oblong in dorsal three subfamilies or three families. We choose the former which outline, continuous with trunk, eye visible beneath ocular scale. recognizes the close relationship of the three viper lineages. All Dorsal and ventral scales subequal in size around body (~260–310 three lineages occur in Myanmar, but presently, we have confirmed rows from snout to vent) and in 24 to 26, rarely 28 rows around body only the presence of pitvipers in South Tanintharyi. The name along entire length from head to tail. pitviper refers to shared presence of paired infra-red sense organs in the snout of these snakes (Note that python and boas also have Dorsal ground color from brown to blackish brown, underside infra-red sense organs on their heads). Pitvipers occur in Southwest creamy white sharply delineated from dark dorsum; head lighter and South Asia, and the Americas. All reproduce by viviparity and than trunk dorsally. all share uniquely hinged maxillary bones, each maxilla with a large fang (hollow tooth). The hinged adaptation allows long fangs that Comments.— Found in forest to heavily vegetated habitats; fold down when the mouth closes and quick erection and deep subterrean (fossorial) in habits, feeding on soil arthropods. penetration of the fangs when the mouth opens and the prey is Indotyphlops braminus (Daudin, 1803) struck. Brahminy Blindsnake A B C Very slender, uniform cylindrical-bodied, adult total lengths ~100– 180 mm, short tails, TailL/SVL 2–3%. Head bluntly oblong in dorsal outline, continuous with trunk, eye visible beneath ocular scale. Dorsal and ventral scales subequal in size around body (~290–330 rows from snout to vent) and in 18 (rarely 15) rows around body D E F along entire length from head to tail. Dorsal ground color dark brown to black, somewhat lighter beneath although still dark; head also may be lighter. Fig.18 Diversity of scale patterns on heads of snakes. (A) Acrochordidae, Acrochordus. (B) Colubridae, Dendrelaphis. (C) Cylindrophiidae, Cylindrophis. (D) Comments.— Occurs broadly from urban gardens into dry and wet Elapidae, Ophiophagus. (E) Viperidae, Trimeresurus. (F) Xenopeltidae, Xenopeltis. forest, subterrean (fossorial) in habits. Indotyphlops braminus is an all-female species reproducing by parthenogenesis, laying 1–8 tiny Key to genera of Viperidae eggs. It is an Asian, likely Indian, species that now has a worldwide tropical distribution, owing to its unintentional transport in the root 1. Loreal area with deep infrared sensory pit on each masses of horticultural plants, hence its alternate name Flowerpot side…………….……………………. 2 Snake. 1’. Loreal area without pit, with sheath of scales …………………… Daboia siamensis 2. Anterior top of head with large plates; sensory pit does not contact supralabials; snout upturned in lateral view; dorsal scales are smooth…………. Calloselasma rhodostoma 162 163 2’. Top of head with small scales; sensory pit touches supralabials; snout not upturned; dorsal scales keeled ..…………… Trimeresurus Comments.— Open to closed-canopy forest species; there are no recent Tanintharyi records of this species. Arboreal, nocturnal Viperidae – Crotalinae species, often on branches close to the ground awaiting terrestrial Calloselasma rhodostoma (Kuhl, 1824) prey. Presently considered single widespread species from northern India to South China and Greater and Lesser Sunda Islands. Malayan Pitviper or Mocassin Moderately heavy-bodied, adult total lengths ~480–880 mm, tail Trimeresurus cf. popeiorum length ~50–125 mm; TailL/TotL females 11–12%, males 16–18%. Head triangular in dorsal outline with up-turned snout, distinct Southern Green Tree Pitviper from neck-trunk, eyes large with vertical elliptical pupil, Suplab Moderately slender body, adult total lengths females ~300–520 7–8, subocular beneath eye, Inflab 11. Dorsals smooth, anterior 23, mm, male 626 mm, tail lengths females 47–80 mm, male 131 mm; midbody 21, posterior 17; ventrals 148–167, paired subcaudals 38– TailL/TotL female 15–17%, male 21%. Head triangular in dorsal 55, precloacal paired. outline, distinct from neck-trunk, eyes large with vertical elliptical pupil, Suplab 10–11 separated from eye by subocular, Inflab 12–13. Dorsal ground color variable, from light to dark brown to rufous, Dorsals keeled, anterior 23, 21, midbody 21, posterior 15; ventrals trunk with dorsal series of light edged dark brown blotches; upper 165–171, paired subcaudals 57–72, precloacal single. and lower lips, chin, throat and entire underside white to cream, Dorsal ground color uniform green from head to tail base with trunk often dark speckled; narrow dorsolateral stripe from in front ventrolateral white stripe from labials to base of tail in females, of eye to end of head, broad dark rufous postorbital mark covering bicolor red and white in males; underside greenish white; eye red. entire temporal area. Comment.— Nocturnal, often found on branch low to ground in Nocturnal, terrestrial species of forested habitats, preying on both ambush posture, waiting for terrestrial prey. Occurs in evergreen warm- and cold-blooded prey. forest. Populations of this cryptic species occurs in southern Tanintharyi and adjacent Thailand. It has been listed previously as Comments.— This species is found broadly in Thailand, primarily in Trimeresurus fucatus, an extralimital species. Genetic data indicate dry forest habitats. Not vouchered for Tanintharyi. that Tanintharyi specimens are more closely related to T. nebularis, Cameron Highlands species of Peninsular Malaysia as opposed Trimeresurus albolabris Gray, 1842 to northern Myanmar T. popeiorum from northern Myanmar, White-lipped Tree Pitviper suggesting the Tanintharyi population represents a new species. Moderately slender-bodied, adult total lengths females ~600–900 mm, males~490–800 mm; tail length moderate, TailL/TotL females Trimeresurus purpureomaculatus 16–17%, males 19–22%. Head elongate triangular in dorsal outline, (Gray, Gray and Hardwicke, 1832) distinct from neck-trunk, eyes large with vertical elliptical pupil, Mangrove Pitviper Suplab 10–11 none touch eye, Inflab 11–12. Dorsals keeled, anterior Moderately stout-bodied, adult total lengths female to 900 mm, 21 (uncommonly 23), midbody 21, 19, posterior 15, 17; ventrals 155– males to 665 mm, TailL/TotL 14–20%. Head triangular in dorsal 176, paired subcaudals 48–72, precloacal single; tail prehensile. outline, distinct from neck-trunk, often appearing swollen dorsoventrally, eyes large with vertical elliptical pupils; Suplab 11–13 Dorsal ground color uniform medium green from head to base separated from eye by several rows of suboculars, Inflab 13–15. of tail; tail reddish brown; side of head and labials light green to Dorsals strongly keeled, anterior 24–28, midbody 25–27, posterior greenish white; underside greenish white with narrow ventrolateral 18–20; ventrals 160–183, paired subcaudals 56–76, precloacal white stripe from neck to vent single. 164 165 Dorsal ground color very variable from light olive to dark purplish It is a terrestrial species and common in drier habitats, often in brown, trunk may lack pattern or middorsally with tightly packed agricultural ones. It would likely survive in palm-oil plantation if dark blotches, sometimes ocelli-like, and smaller solid blotches accidentally introduced. ventrolaterally; almost always a ventrolateral row of white scales Xenopeltidae subequal-sized light and dark bars; upper lip and throat yellow, underside light olive to yellowish green, unmarked or with diffuse, Sunbeam snakes (xenopeltids) consist of two species, one small black marks. occurring in northern Vietnam and adjacent China and second widespread species occurring from Myanmar through Indochina Comments.— Predominantly coastal species occurring in and southward into the Sundas. These snakes are shallow-dwelling mangrove forest or gallery forest along tidal streams from fossorial snakes that hunt their small vertebrate prey within the Bangladesh to Singapore. Nocturnal and arboreal, preying on small forest floor litter. Their name derives from the smooth, shiny vertebrates. iridescence of their scales. Viperidae — Viperinae Xenopeltis unicolor Reinwardt in Boie, 1827 Daboia siamensis (Smith, 1917) Sunbeam Snake Cylindrical-bodied, adult total lengths ~600–1300 mm, tail length Eastern Russel’s Viper 56–75 mm; TailL/TotL 9–10%. Head elongate ovate in dorsal outline, Heavy-bodied, adult total lengths to 1600 mm, although usually flattened, and barely distinct from neck-trunk, eye medium–small less than 900 mm; TailL/TotL 16–18%. Head broad triangle in dorsal with round pupil, Suplab 8, 4th & 5th touch eye, Inflab 8. Smooth, outline, distinct from neck-trunk, eyes medium with elliptical pupils, shiny dorsals, anterior 15, midbody 15, posterior 15; ventrals 163– Suplab 10–12, some touch eye. Dorsals strongly keeled except 187, paired subcaudals 52–71, precloacal paired; ventral-most row ventral most row, anterior 25–29, midbody 27–33, posterior 21–23; of dorsal scales enlarged, about twice size of dorsal scales on the ventrals 153–180, paired subcaudals 41–64, precloacal paired. midline. Dorsal ground color tan to light brown, trunk with reddish brown Dorsal ground color uniform dark olive brown to violet brown, yet blotches narrowly edged with dark brown and white, series of larger iridescent, from snout to tail tip; upper and lower lip and underside blotches in middle of back, similar but smaller spots on sides; top chin to vent shiny cream to white, tail brown; enlarged ventral-most of head and temporal area with similar blotches, large diagonal dorsal scales with diffuse black smudge on anterior margin of each postorbital stripe and smaller suborbital bar; underside yellowish- one. white with black spots. Comments.— Occurs broadly in Myanmar forests and other heavily Comments.— This species has a more northerly distribution in vegetated habitats with heavy detritus cover in and under which Myanmar and Thailand, and is most unlikely to occur in Tanintharyi. X. unicolor lives and searches for prey, predominantly frogs and lizards although eats most small vertebrates encountered. South Asian species from Myanmar and Indochina into Greater Sunda Islands. 166 167 Testudines — Turtles Fig.19 Anatomical features of turtles. (A) Dorsal view of the carapace of a geoemydid turtle. (B) Ventral view of the plastron of the same turtle species. Each with scutes identified. Everyone recognizes a turtle because of its shell. The turtle shell is unique among vertebrate animals because the top shell (carapace) is formed in part by the trunk ribs and vertebral column. The ribs Common Terms Used in Turtle Descriptions extend laterally, rather than downward, from the vertebrae and encase both the pectoral and pelvic girdles, often even the upper Measurements ends of the fore- and hindlimbs within the shell. All turtles also have CL. Carapace length, straight-line distance from the a bottom shell (plastron) that encases the limbs and viscera. anterior end of carapace to posterior end; measured along the midline, hence end often ends in posterior Even though the shell imposes limitations on mobility, locomotion notch. is still quite efficient and especially so in the aquatic environment. The shell has also not been a hindrance to their evolutionary PL. Plastron length, straight-line distance from the anterior survival. Their shelled ancestors appeared in the late Triassic, about end of plastron to posterior end; measured along the 120 million years ago. Now they are threatened with extinction midline, hence end often ends in posterior notch. owing to human predation and alteration and elimination of their habitats. Their slow maturity, many species taking a decade or longer to attain sexual maturity, results in high juvenile mortality. Morphology Few individuals reach maturity and begin to reproduce; thus the Bridge. Bony connection between carapace and plastron. removal of adults quickly leads to the collapse of a population and local extinction. Carapace. Top shell; the bony or skeletal portion consists Fourteen species of freshwater and terrestrial turtles have been of several units: medial series of eight neural reported for Tanintharyi. That number is certainly less today owing plates, preceded by a nuchal bone and followed to local extinctions. Which species survive as small, isolated by a pygal bone, these latter two elements are populations is unknown. Unfortunately, these isolates are likely not fused to vertebrae; on each side of the neural doomed because when people discover a turtle in Asia, it is bound plates are costal plates, each fused to a rib. The for the pot or the market. neurals and costals are the major portion of shell and are bordered laterally by peripheral A B bones that encircle the shell linking left and right series of peripherals anteriorly by the nuchal and posteriorly by the pygal. Peripheral bones also join with the ends of the plastral bones (hyo- and hypoplastra) to form the bridge. Plastron. Bottom shell; it consists of nine elements, four paired and one single bone. From anterior to posterior the plastral bones are epiplastra (2, paired), entoplastron (1), hyoplastra (2), hypoplastra (2), and xiphiplastral (2). Scutes. The hard, horny epidermal covering of the carapace and plastron. 168 169 The carapace bears a similar set of epidermal units as the bony thick fleshy gular collar .......................................................…… 6 ones: cervical, single anteromedial scute, followed by a series of 6. Five well developed callosities on plastron, medial one on vertebrals running posterior over the neural bones to the pygal entoplastron; large tubercles on front edge of carapace .................. scute; pleural scutes cover the costal plates; and marginal scutes ...................................................... Amyda ornata from the external margin of the carapace over the peripheral bones. 6’. Four weakly developed callosities, none on entoplastron; small The plastron scutes are all paired and from anterior to posterion or no tubercles on front edge of carapace ………. Dogania subplana gular, humeral, pectoral, abdominal, femoral and anal scutes. The bridge is usually covered by edges of the pectoral and abdominal 7. Hindlimb columnar and elephant-like; four claws but no digits scutes; often with a small scute in the anterior notch (axillary scute) visible on hindfoot…………..…. [Testudinidae] ……… 16 and a posterior one (inguinal). 7’. Hindlimb not columnar, dorsoventrally compressed and similar Key to the Families and Species of Tanintharyi Turtles in shape to forelimb; usually five claws and digits visible on hindfoot …………….… [Geoemydidae] ……..8 1. Forelimbs modified as flippers; all digits fused and indistinct, 8. No bony bridge in adults, carapace and plastron joined by only 1–2 claws visible on forefoot ......................................................... ligamentous joint, hence no axillary or inguinal scutes between seaturtles [Cheloniidae, Dermochelyidae] carapace and plastron …………………..….………. 9 1’. Forelimbs not modified as flippers; all digits distinct, even if 8’. Bony bridge in juveniles and adults, at least on anterior half of joined by web, 3 or more claws visible on forefoot ....……………… 2 plastron-carapace junction; usually anterior axillary and posterior inguinal scutes in bridge area .………......…… 10 2. Surface of carapace and plastron lacking epidermal scutes; 9. Freely moveable transverse hinge between pectoral-abdominal snout protruding and snorkel-like ……………… [Trionychidae]…... 3 scutes; plastron can close shell completely; carapace typically 2’. Surface of shell with hard, epidermal scutes; snout usually not domed; head black with bright yellow stripes on side of head elongate and snorkel-like ....................................................... 7 ………………. Cuora amboinensis 3. Plastron with femoral flaps on posterior edge; carapace with 9’. Weakly flexible plastral hinge; plastron entirely dark or with many peripheral bones, at least in posterior margin, usually not visible in dark brown markings; carapace moderate height but not domed; living individuals ……..……. Lissemys scutata crown of head speckled with light to mid brown on dark brown to grey background .……….......…………… Cyclemys oldhamii 3’. Plastron without femoral flaps on posterior edge; carapace without peripheral bone........................................................................ 4 10. Entire triturating (crushing) surface of upper jaw (maxilla) 4. Carapace pattern with four dark-centered ocelli or parts of ocelli, narrow and without median, longitudinal ridge .......……………. 11 faded or absent in adults; large blunt tubercles on top of neck, 10’. Triturating surface of upper jaw broad, at least posteriorly and especially on posterior half...................................................................... usually with one or two medial longitudinal ridges; ridges typically Nilssonia formosa denticulate ……………..…………. 14 4’. Carapace pattern, uniform to variously mottled but without 11. Carapace smooth or slightly serrate posteriorly; anterior margin ocelli: no enlarged tubercles on neck ……....................................… 5 of carapace mostly smooth, variously curved ………………. 12 5. Snout short, shorter than diameter of orbit; head seemingly 11’. Carapace strongly serrate posteriorly; anterior margin of foreshortened by thick fleshy gular collar …...……..... Pelochelys carapace spiny or jagged in juveniles, smoothing in adults ................ cantorii ....................................…… Heosemys spinosa 5’. Snout long, equal or greater than orbital diameter; head without 12. Carapace domed, smoothly convex dorsally; side of head finely 170 171 mottled in green, yellow and red in juveniles and young adults, Geoemydidae becoming uniform grey in older adults; bridge uniformly yellow ……… Heosemys grandis The Asian pond turtles, geoemydids, occur through eastern Asia 12’. Carapace lightly to moderately domed, with weak to strong from Pakistan to Japan and southward from the Himalaysas to and middorsal keel and lateral keels present or absent; side of head through the Greater and Lesser Sunda Islands. A single terrestrial weakly to strongly striped or boldly patterned...... 13 and semiaquatic genus, Rhinoclemmys, occurs in the forest of 13. Side of head with large red spot behind ear and numerous black Central and northern South America. Southeast Asia is the center and yellow stripes on neck; carapace lightly domed, middorsal ridge of geoemydid diversity with 18 genera and more than 50 species. faint to absent; plastral scutes with large dark blotches ....................... This diversity includes fully terrestrial to fully aquatic (except for ..................................... [Emydidae] …..…Trachemys scripta egg-laying) species. Geoemydids range in size from small species of 15 cm carapace length to a giant species of 80 cm carapace 13’. Side of head with no large red-spot; other stripes few and often length. Most species are omnivores, a few with a preference for fragmented; carapace typically with distinct middorsal keel and plant matter. lateral ones variously developed ……......… 14 14. Triturating surface of upper jaw very broad throughout its Cuora amboinensis (Daudin, 1802) length, with strong medial ridge; carapace distinctly domed and Asian Boxturtle each pleural scute typically with light centered ocellus; plastron Adults, females 100–208 mm, males 100–206 mm CL, not sexually yellow and without marks .............................……… Morenia ocellata dimorphic; carapace shorten oblong in dorsal outline, strongly dome, rear margin smooth or lightly irregular; carapacial scutes 14’. Triturating surface of upper jaw moderate to very broad, at least smooth; plastron large covering most of underside, oblong in posteriorly; posterior edge of carapace smooth or lightly notched .. outline, transverse functional hinge in middle, rear margin smooth .................................................................. 15 and rounded. Head small, approximately length of first vertebral 15. Triturating surface of upper jaw narrower anteriorly and broader scute; broadly ovate to blunt conical in dorsal outline, dorsal posteriorly, no medial ridge; small black turtle with broad head; surface without enlarged plates, snout slightly protruding. Forefoot light to white area or spot on side of head above tympanum; each with five claws, fingers not joined by web; fore- and hindfeet near plastral scute with broad dark marks on a yellowish background equal sized. ………………... Siebenrockiella crassicollis Carapace dark brown to olive, uniformly colored or with narrow light 15’. Triturating surface of maxilla (upper jaw) usually with one middorsal stripe in 50% of individuals; plastron unicolor cream to light yellow; head dorsally uniform brown edged with yellow canthal medial ridge, occasionally two ridges; five claws on forefoot; stripe, face with yellow preorbital and postorbital stripe, upper lip carapace dorsally flattened with middorsal keel and often with yellow continuing to below tympanum; forelimbs and hindlimbs spines projecting from posterior edge of first three vertebral scutes without pattern. ………......................................…. Batagur affinis 16. Fifth, sixth and seventh marginal scutes touch second pleural Comments.— Semiaquatic turtle of wetlands from rice paddies to scute .................................................................. Indotestudo elongata forest streams and ponds. Occurring broadly from eastern India through tropical Asia to Philippine Islands. 16’. Only fifth and sixth marginal scutes touch second pleural scute …….....................................................……….. Manouria emys Cyclemys oldhamii (Gray, 1863) Oldham’s Leafturtle Adults, to 22—25 cm CL, sexually dimorphism uncertain; carapace oblong in dorsal outline, moderately dome, rear margin slightly serrate; carapacial scutes smooth; plastron large covering most 172 173 of underside, oblong in outline, slight anal notch. Head small, Heosemys spinosa (Gray, 1830) approximately length of first vertebral scute; broadly ovate to blunt Spiny Turtle conical in dorsal outline, dorsal surface without enlarged plates Adults, to 22 cm CL, sexually dimorphic in carapace shape elongate anteriorly, small irregular ones posteriorly, snout not distinct from oblong, moderately domed and dorsally flattened in males head. Forefoot with five claws, forefeet and hindfeet near equal- outline, broad oblong and moderately dome in females, both with sized. prominent middorsal keel; margin of carapace increasingly serrate from above forelimb to posterior end of carapace; serration often Carapace light to medium brown with indistinct radiating dark lines blunted with age; plastron large covering most of underside, broad on each costal scute; plastron cream to light brown with thin brown oblong in outline, deep anal notch on rear margin with. Head small, stripes radiating from corner of each scute; head dorsally reddish approximately length of first vertebral scute; broadly ovate to blunt brown without distinct markings; forelimbs and hindlimbs dark conical in dorsal outline, dorsal surface without enlarged plates, without pattern. snout not distinct from head. Forefoot with five claws, fore- and hindfeet near equal sized. Comments.— Semiaquatic turtle, in and adjacent to forest streams of Myanmar. C. dentata is stilled occasionally listed as a Burmese Carapace reddish to medium brown, each costal scute with species and reflects an older concept of Cyclemys diversity. radiating narrow line pattern; plastron yellow to cream with Current taxonomy recognizes C. dentata as a species of southern radiating line pattern on each scute; head uniform brown with Thailand (below Isthmus of Kra), Peninsular Malaysia, and the yellow to orange area behind tympanum; fore- and hindlimbs dark Greater Sundas. brown with orangish scales. Heosemys grandis (Gray, 1860) Comments.— Semiaquatic turtle of streams in tropical evergreen Giant Asian Pondturtle forest. Reported only for Tanintharyi and southward through Malay Adults, to 48 cm CL, sexually dimorphism uncertain; carapace Peninsula, Sumatra, and northern Borneo. broad oblong in dorsal outline, moderately dome although flattened dorsally with middorsal keel, rear margin smooth or lightly Malayemys macrocephala (Gray, 1859) irregular; carapacial scutes smooth; plastron large covering most Malayan Snail-eating Turtle of underside, oblong in outline, rear margin smooth and rounded. Adults, to 21 cm CL, sexually dimorphism uncertain; carapace broad Head small, approximately length of first vertebral scute; broadly oblong in dorsal outline, domed with three longitudinal keels, margin ovate to blunt conical in dorsal outline, dorsal surface without of shell smooth and lightly upturned on posterior third; carapacial enlarged plates, snout not distinct from head. Forefoot with 5 claws, scutes smooth; plastron large covering most of underside, oblong fingers not joined by web; hindfoot large and strongly webbed. in outline, rear margin smooth and rounded. Head modest, slightly longer than first vertebral scute; broadly ovate in dorsal outline, Carapace color, no pattern; plastron unicolor cream; head grayish dorsal surface smooth with small plates posteriorly, snout not green to brown, uniform or mottled with yellow to orange; forelimbs distinct from head. Forefoot with five claws; forefeet half webbed and hindlimbs without pattern. and hindfeet large and fully webbed. Comments.— Largely aquatic turtle living in variety of habitats Carapace medium brown with yellow margins; plastron cream to from marshes and swamps to small streams and shallow lakes. yellow with dark smudge-like marks on each scute; head brown Occurring from southeastern Myanmar to southern Cambodia and with numerous yellow stripe, canthal yellow stripe from snout onto Vietnam. neck, broken postorbital stripe above upper lip onto neck; fore- and hindlimbs dark brown with narrow yellow stripe on outer margin of each. 174 175 Comments.— Aquatic turtle of slow-moving water, streams to Comments.— Semiaquatic of slow moving water of paddies and paddies with soft bottoms; preferred prey are snails. Reported marshes. Occurring from Tanintharyi and southern mainland from Kayah southward, also occupies Chao Phraya River Basin to Thailand to Sumatra and western Borneo. southern Thailand. Emydidae Morenia ocellata (Duméril & Bibron, 1835) Burmese Eyed Turtle Tropical Asia has no native emydids. The only emydid in the Adults, to 20 cm CL, sexually dimorphic, males smaller; carapace Eastern Hemisphere is Emys, the European Pond Turtle, occurring broad oblong in dorsal outline, moderately dome, entire margin from the Caspian Sea westward through Europe and also in North smooth; carapacial scutes smooth except for each vertebral Africa. All others occur in the Americas with the greatest diversity with small median keel on posterior third of scute; plastron large in southeastern North America. Most emydids are semiaquatic covering most of underside, oblong in outline, rear margin with to aquatic species, although a few are totally terrestrial, such as broad shallow anal notch. Head small, approximately length of the American boxturtles, Terrapene. Emydids range in size from first vertebral scute; broadly ovate in dorsal outline, dorsal surface about 8 cm to ~45 cm carapace length. Externally they cannot be smooth with small plates posteriorly, snout not distinct from head. differeniated from Asian geoemydids. Forefoot with five claws; forefeet half webbed and hindfeet large and fully webbed. Trachemys scripta elegans (Weid, 1839) Red-eared Slider Carapace medium to dark brown, each costal scute with yellow- Adults, females 15–25 cm, males 10–20 cm CL, sexually dimorphic; edged dark centered ocellus; plastron unicolor cream; head brown carapace oblong in dorsal outline, moderately dome, rear margin with yellow canthal stripe from snout onto neck, yellow postorbital smooth or lightly irregular; carapacial scutes smooth to lightly stripe onto neck; fore- and hindlimbs brown without pattern. ridged; plastron large covering most of underside, oblong in outline, rear margin rounded with shallow notch. Head modest, larger than Comments.— Predominantly aquatic in diverse habitats from length of first vertebral scute; broadly ovate in dorsal outline, dorsal paddies into forest streams and lakes of lowlands of main and surface smooth, snout not distinct from head. Forefoot with five peninsular Myanmar. claws, fingers webbed; hindfoot large and strongly webbed. Siebenrockiella crassicollis (Gray, 1830) Carapace background olive brown to black with yellowing streak Black Marshturtle markings, no pattern; plastron cream to yellow with black smudge Adults, to 20 cm CL, sexually dimorphism uncertain; carapace broad marks on each scute; head black with broad red postorbital stripe oblong in dorsal outline, moderately dome with three longitudinal onto neck, smaller yellow lower postorbital strip; forelimbs and keels that disappear with age, rear margin lightly serrate; carapacial hindlimbs black with yellow stripes. scutes smooth; plastron large covering most of underside, oblong in outline, rear margin with broad, shallow anal notch. Head small, Comments.— This aquatic turtle is an alien or exotic species, and approximately length of first vertebral scute; broadly ovate in dorsal potentially one that will become an invasive species in Myanmar as outline, dorsal surface smooth with small plates posteriorly, snout it has done widely throughout the world, e.g., Japan, Europe. Sliders not distinct from head. Forefoot with five claws, fore- and hindfeet have been reported from a few of Tanintharyi’s Buddhist pools. equal sized. Carapace black, no pattern; plastron black to cream with large dark smudge-marks on each scute; head brown to black with irregular- shaped white spots above eye and on neck; fore- and hindlimbs dark without pattern. 176 177 Testudinidae broadly ovate to blunt conical in dorsal outline, dorsal surface without enlarged plates, snout not distinct from head. Forefoot with 4 claws, fingers not joined by web; elephantine hindfoot with stout Tortoises or testudinids occur worldwide, except for Australia; this claws but no visible toes. distribution even includes Madagascar and a few oceanic islands. All tortoises share a unique hindfoot morphology that matches Carapace brown, no pattern; plastron unicolor cream; head dorsally the hindfoot appearance of elephants. The hindfoot and crus uniform brown, face without preorbital stripe or postorbital stripe; are columnar and lack free or protruding toes. Forefeet are more forelimbs and hindlimbs without pattern. diverse among tortoise genera, although many species have broad forearms and forefeet with large sturdy toe nails for digging. Also Comments.— Terrestrial turtle of evergreen to bamboo forests. all tortoises are terrestrial, although a few such as Manouria emys It is Asia’s largest tortoise and occurs sporadically from western will forage in the shallow water of forest streams. All tortoises are Myanmar to Malay Peninsula, western Sumatra, and northern herbivores, eating a variety of plant matter; however, they do not Borneo. ignore a meat treat, such as carrion, which is easy for them to “catch.” They are slow methodical eaters. Trionychidae Indotestudo elongata (Blyth, 1863) Softshells are another turtle groups with high diversity in South Elongate Tortoise Asia with ~15 species in nine genera. This diversity is of turtle Adults, to 35 cm CL, sexually dimorphism uncertain; carapace morphology not species numbers, because most genera are elongate oblong in dorsal outline, strongly dome, rear margin monotypic, i.e., have a single species. Asia has two giant softshells, smooth; carapacial scutes regularly showing growth lamellae; Chitra and Pelochelys with shell lengths of over 1 m; most Asian plastron large covering most of underside, oblong in outline, rear softshells have shell lengths between 25 and 50 cm. All trionychids margin with broad anal notch. Head modest, approximately length are aquatic turtles with flatten shells with a thick leathery covering of first vertebral scute; blunt conical in dorsal outline, dorsal surface and well-developed fore- and hindlimbs. Keeping with their aquatic with two large prefrontal scales surrounded by smaller plates, lifestyles, they possess large hindlimbs with fully webbed hindfeet. snout not distinct from head. Forefoot with five claws; elephantine They use all four limbs in swimming and the large, webbed hindfeet hindfoot with stout claws but no visible toes. provide the main propulsion. Carapace ground color tan, often with large dark marks on scutes; Amyda cartilaginea (Boddaert, 1770) plastron cream with dark marks; head dorsally uniformly light Asian Softshell Turtle brown; forelimbs and hindlimbs dark with yellowish scales. Adults, to 80 cm CL, likely sexually dimorphic; carapace near round in dorsal outline, flattened, anterior margin with series of smooth Comments.—Living in a variety of forest from dry monsoonal to warts, rear margin smooth; both carapacial and plastral surface wet evergreen ones throughout tropical Asia. smooth and leathery; plastron large anteriorly, reduce posteriorly, Manouria emys (Schlegel and Müller, 1840) rear margin smooth with rounded anal notch. Head moderate sized, broad blunt conical in dorsal outline with protuberant snorkel-like Asian Giant Tortoise snout, dorsal surface without enlarged plates. Fore- and hindfeet Adults, to 60 mm CL, sexually dimorphism uncertain; carapace with three claws, fingers fully webbed; hindfoot large and strongly oblong in dorsal outline, moderately dome, rear margin smooth or webbed. lightly irregular; carapacial scutes smooth; plastron large covering most of underside, oblong in outline, rear margin smooth and rounded. Head small, approximately length of first vertebral scute; 178 179 Carapace greenish brown to olive, variably covered with small Carapace olive brown with narrow yellow border; plastron white; yellowish spots; plastron unicolor whitish; head olive with numerous head olive with with dark, irregular edged dark olive postorbital small yellow marks; forelimbs and hindlimbs dark, often with small stripe onto neck; fore- and hindlimbs light olive. light spots. Comments.— This aquatic species is of possible but unlikely Comments.— Fully aquatic, uncommonly bask and comes ashore occurrence in southern Tanintharyi. It occurs further north only to nest and lay eggs; occurs in larger streams and lakes. in peninsular Myanmar but as yet, no confirming records for Resident of Ayeyarwady drainage, north peninsular Myanmar and Tanintharyi. It has a widespread presence in ponds, paddies, and Thailand to Vietnam. slow streams of main Myanmar. Dogania subplana (Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1809) Crocodilia Malayan Softshell Turtle Adults, to 35 cm CL, sexually dimorphism uncertain; carapace near Crocodilians are air-breathing, aquatic stealth predators catching round in dorsal outline, flattened, anterior margin large smooth to their prey in the water or at water’s edge. They are heavily armored lightly corrugated, rear margin smooth; both carapacial and plastral above with bony plates (osteoderms) embedded in the dermal layer surface smooth and leathery; plastron large anteriorly, reduce of the skin. Osteoderms are fused to the skull and in two groups, posteriorly, rear margin smooth with no anal notch. Head moderate one on on the top of the neck (nuchal plate) and another extensive sized, broad blunt conical in dorsal outline with protuberant dorsal series over most of the trunk from the shoulders onto the snorkel-like snout, dorsal surface without enlarged plates. Fore- tail. As each plate consists of abutting osteoderms, they form a and hindfeet with three claws, fingers fully webbed; hindfoot large nearly impenetrable shield from above yet permitting a high degree and strongly webbed. of flexibility. The head is equally robust with an elongated snout with numerous large conical teeth. Eyes, nostrils, and ears are Carapace brown to dark olive, without pattern in adult; plastron positioned dorsally; a crocodilian can be largely submerged yet has white to pale grey; head grey with narrow dark preorbital stripe onto its sense functionally airborn. base of snout; fore- and hindlimbs uniformly dark grey to brown above, lighter below. For Tanintharyi, we have included three species, although we expect only a single species to occur in larger streams and coastal Comments.— Fully aquatic resident of clear, fast-flowing mountain waters. We have found no records of the False Gharial (Tomistoma) streams with gravel and rocky bottoms in forests. Occurring for Tanintharyi, and the Siamese Crocodile as a freshwater denizen throughout Malay Peninsula to Sumatra, Java, and Borneo. is unlikely to persist in the short coastal streams in this area of high and long human presence. The Saltwater Crocodile often Lissemys scutata (Peters, 1868) survives in the mangrove swamps and forests near humans. It is non-discriminating carnivore, hence a possible predator of unwary Burmese Flapshell Turtle humans. Adults, to 23 cm CL, sexually dimorphism uncertain; carapace near round in dorsal outline, flattened, anterior margin largely smooth, rear margin also smooth; both carapacial and plastral surface smooth and leathery; plastron large anteriorly, posteriorly covers abdomen and hindlimbs with large semicircular flap on each side of “regular” plastron, posterior margin smooth and rounded. Head moderate sized, broad blunt conical in dorsal outline with short protuberant snorkel-like snout, dorsal surface without enlarged plates. Fore- and hindfeet with three claws, fingers fully webbed; hindfoot large and strongly webbed. 180 181 A B Common Terms Used in Crocodilian Descriptions Crocodilians. English word for all species of living and extinct species of the Crocodilia. Crocodile. Any or all species of the family Crocodylidae. All southern Tanintharyi C and Malayan crocodilians are crocodiles, because all are members of the Crocodylidae, even Tomistoma as it is in a subfamilial group of the Crocodylidae. Total length. Midline distance from tip of snout to tip of tail. Fig.20 Osteoderms on neck of crocodiles. (A) Crocodylus porosus. (B) Crocodylus siamensis. (C) Tomistoma schlegelii. Snout-vent length. Midline distance from snout to anterior end of its longitudinal vent. Head or skull length. Midline distance from tip of snout to posterior edge of parietal plate. Key to the Genera and Species of Tanintharyi Crocodilians 1. Dorsal trunk osteoderms in 20 to 21 transverse rows; lower jaw symphysis extends to level of 14th or 15th mandibular tooth; cervical shield (osteoderm shield) continuous with dorsal one ……...…….Tomistoma schlegelii 1’. Dorsal trunk osteoderms in 19 or fewer transverse rows; lower jaw symphysis extends no further than 8th mandibular tooth; nuchal and cervical shields (osteoderms) separate from dorsal one ..... [Crocodylinae] …........................................................................ 2 2. Snout with well-developed longitudinal ridge in front of each eye; no cervical shield between cervical shield and back of sku ll............................................. Crocodylus porosus 2’. Snout without longitudinal ridge in front of each eye; single row of nuchal osteoderms between cervical shield and back of skull …………...........……. Crocodylus siamensis 182 183 Crocodylidae Crocodylus siamensis Schneider, 1801 Crocodylus porosus Schneider, 1801 Siamese Crocodile Adults total length 1.5 to 3 m; commonly heavy bodied, head Saltwater Crocodile relativelty large with thick, smooth edged snout, large, elevated Adult total length to > 6 m, most individual 2–3 m; commonly heavy parietal ridge on each side of head behind eye. Two patches of bodied, head relatively large with thick snout, pair of low bony armor plates between back of head and trunk armor, first set canthal ridges from eye to midway on snout, large, elevated parietal (nuchal plates) immediately behind the skull. ridge on each side of head behind eye. Single set of armor plates (cervical plates) between back of head and trunk armor. Juveniles brightly marked, olive green to dusky green with distinct bands on blotches on tail; young adults retain the olive color and Juveniles brightly patterned, light olive to greenish gray with 4–5 become uniformly dark gray with increasing size. black bands on body and black blotches on tail; adults light gray to tan, becoming uniformly dark gray with increasing size. Siamese crocodiles are freshwater inhabitants, preferring rainforest streams and adjacent swamps. Comments.— Primarily a resident of brackish habitats, especially tidal streams in mangrove forest; also lives in freshwater rivers and Comments.— Although they formerly occurred widely in adjacent impoundments with heavy shore vegetation. peninsular Thailand, we have found no records of their occurrence in the rivers of South Tanintharyi. They are also predators of C. porosus was a common resident of the lower reaches of the vertebrates but not reported to be man-eaters. Tanintharyi and Lenya Rivers into the 1950s. Illegible harvesting then to the present have largely eliminated them and residents Tomistoma schlegelii (Müller, 1838) now enter the waters with little regard for their safety. Smaller resident populations may still exist in the Myeik Archipelago, but False Gharial confirmation is not presently available. Adult total length 2 to 5 m; slender as young adults becoming heavy bodied, head with long and slender snout, snout is 2/3 to ¾ Saltwater crocodiles are predators of vertebrates of all sizes, the length of entire head. Except for short patch of unarmored neck including humans, stealth predator approaching prey at water edge immediately behind the head, the cervical armor is continuous with underwater with a final revealing lunge with mouth wide open to the dorsal or trunk armor. catch the prey and drag it back into the water to drown. Juveniles dark reddish brown with dark brown spots and bars on trunk, tail light and dark banded; underside greyish white. Comments.— False Gharials are also fresh-water inhabitants of rainforest streams. Presently they have been exterminated from most of their former range with a few scattered populations in Peninsular Malaysia and Borneo. Although long narrow snouts with abundant long, sharp teeth are adaptations for catching fish, these crocodilians eat more broadly. 184 185 Acknowledgments Dan’s surveys with the field assistance of Myint Kaw Thura (Myanmar Environment Sustainable Conservation), Thaw Zin (contracted by FFI), Grant M. Connette and Katie J. LaJeunesse Connette (Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute), Professor Khin Swe Oo, and her students Chu Hay Man and others from Myeik University. The FFI sponsored surveys have broaden our knowledge of this area’s herpetofaunal diversity and the biology of the component species. These data have been summarized largely in internal reports to FFI-Myanmar although not exclusively so, e.g., Connette et al. (2017), Lee et al. (2015, 2017), Mulcahy et al. (2017, 2018), Zug et al. (2017). Dan’s travel to and from Myanmar was supported by the National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution (NMNH-SI) Grand Challenges Consortia Award (to Melissa Songer). Laboratory expensed were provided by NMNH-SI Global Genome Initiative (GGI). All of the laboratory and/ or computer work were conducted in and with the support of the Laboratory of Analytical Biology facilities of the National Museum of Natural History - Smithsonian. The collection and export of specimens was permitted by a memorandum of understanding between the Forest Department of the Ministry of Environmental Conservation and Forestry of the Republic of the Union of Myanmar and Fauna & Flora International. We offer a special thank you to Naing Lwin Htoo and Mark Grindley of FFI for their support in the production of this guide and to our in- house research collaborators, Aryeh Miller and Justin Lee, who have assisted in every phase of Tanintharyi collections processing and their review of an early draft of the Guide manuscript. We also thank the Amphibian & Reptiles Division’s collections management staff (Steve Gotte, Jeremy Jacobs, Ken Tighe, Rob Wilson, Addison Wynn) for their courtesous assistances and tolerance in all aspects of our Tanintharyi collections and research activities. 186 187 Sources of illustrations Figure / source text Our guide has used illustrations from a wide variety of sources. We thank all individuals and publication outlets for permission to use their illustrations. Plates-colored images. Plate 1: A. thinthinae, Daniel G. Mulcahy (DGM), photographer; D. melanostictus, Myanmar Herpetological Survey (MHS), photographers; P. asper, Mark Grindley, photographer; Ingerophrynus parvus, MHS. Plate 2: Fejervarya sp., Myint Kyaw Thura (MKT), photographer; Hoplobatrachus rugulosus, George R. Zug (GRZ), photographer; Limnonectes blythi, MHS; L.doriae, MKT. Plate 3: Ingerana tenasserimensis, MHS; Occidozyga lima, MHS; Occidozyga martensi, MHS; Leptobrachium smithi, GRZ. Plate 4: Kalophrynus interlineatus, DGM; Kaloula latisticta, DGM; Micryletta lineata, DGM; Microhyla fissipes, MHS. Plate 5: Amolops panhai, MHS; Odorrana hosii, MKT; Hylarana erythraea, DGM; Sylvirana nigrovittata, MHS. Plate 6: Chiromantis doriae MHS; Kurixalus bisacculus, MHS; Polypedates cf. leucomystax, MHS; Rhacophorus norhayatii, DGM. Plate 7: Acanthosaura crucigera, DGM; Bronchocela burmana, DGM; Calotes emma, DGM; Draco taeniopterus, MHS. Plate 8: Cyrtodactylus brevipalmatus, DGM; Cyrtodactylus lenya, DGM; Cyrtodactylus oldhami, DGM; Gekko gecko, DGM. Plate 9: Gehyra mutilata, GRZ; Hemidactylus frenatus, GRZ; Hemidactylus tenkatei, GRZ; Ptychozoon lionotum, MHS. Plate 10: Dasia olivacea, DGM; Eutropis macularia, MHS; Eutropis multifasciata, MHS; Lipinia vittigera, DGM. Plate 11: Lygosoma quadrupes, MHS; Scincella reevesi, GRZ; Sphenomorphus maculatus, GRZ; Tropidophorus berdmorei, MHS. Plate 12: Acrochordus granulatus, MHS; Ahaetulla mycterizans, DGM; Boiga cyanea, DGM; Boiga drapiezii, DGM. Plate 13: Chrysopelea ornata, DGM; Elaphe taeniura, DGM; Dendrelaphis caudolineata, DGM; Dendrelaphis cyanochloris, MHS. Plate 14: Dryocalamus subannulatus, DGM; Gonyosoma oxycephalum, DGM; Lycodon effraensis, DGM; Ptyas mucosus, GRZ. Plate 15: Xenochrophis trianguligerus, DGM; Rhabdophis nigrocinctus, GRZ; Rhabdophis subminiatus, GRZ; Xenochrophis piscator, GRZ. Plate 16: Bungarus fasciatus, GRZ; Naja kaouthi, GRZ; Ophiophagus hannah, MHS; Calliophis bivirgatus, DGM. Plate 17: Cerberus rhynchops, MHS; Enhydris enhydris, GRZ; Homalopsis semizonata, MHS; Psammodynastes pulverulentus, GRZ. Plate 18: Argyrotyphlops diardii, MHS; Indotyphlops braminus, GRZ; Cylindrophis burmanus, MHS; Xenopeltis unicolor, MHS. Plate 19: Daboia siamensis, MHS; Trimeresurus albolabris, MHS; Trimeresurus cf. popeiorum, DGM; Trimeresurus purpeomaculatus, MHS. 188 189 Tanintharyi Guide: Peninsula . . Taylor and Francis; D. E., Saint Girons, 1972. Mémoires du Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Série A, Zoologíe 74: 1-170. Sources Figures Fig. 16. A., Boulenger, 1890. The Fauna of British India, . . . Reptilia and Batrachia. London, Taylor and Francis. Figures. Fig. 18. D. E., Saint Girons, 1972. Mémoires du Muséum National Black & white line drawings derive from two sources: d’Histoire Naturelle, Série A, Zoologíe 74: 1-170. 20. A. B. Wermuth 1) previous published ones by other authors and & Mertens, 1961, Schildkröten, Krokodile Brückenechsen. Jena: 2) G. R. Zug research illustrations. The previously published ones are Gustav Fischer Verlag. usually modified and are identified by author, date, and publication GRZ research illustration. source. The research illustrations derive from GRZ’s research contracts with illustrators: Elénore Dixon-Roche, ED-R; Molly Dywer Fig. 1. A. TRK. Griffin, MDG; T. Britt Griswold, TBG; Esta L. Johnson, ELJ; Ted R. Kahn, Fig. 3. TRK. TRK; Kate Spencer, KS. Fig. 4. C. TRK. Fig. 5. A. B. TRK. Fig. 1. Map of South Tanintharyi. Outline from SimpleMappr.net, Fig. 6. A. B. C. MDG; D. G.Zug. modified by GRZ. Previously published illustrations. Fig. 7. A. B. C. D. E. MDG. Fig. 8. A. B. C. MDG. Fig. 2. B. D. E., Heyer et al., 1990, Arquivos de Zoologia 31: 231-410; C., Fig. 9. A. B. C. MDG. Atoda, 1950, Pacific Science 4: 202-207. Fig. 10. E. TBG. Fig. 11. B. TRK; D. E. ELJ. Fig. 4. A1–2., Boulenger, 1890. The Fauna of British India, . . . Reptilia Fig. 13. C. ELJ; E. TBG. and Batrachia. London, Taylor and Francis; B. Boring, 1934, Hong Fig. 16. B. C. D. TRK. Kong Naturalist 5: 8-22, 95-107. Fig. 17. A. B. TRK. Fig. 18. A. B. C. F. TRK. Fig. 10. A., Auffenberg & Rehman, 1993, Asian Herpetological Society Fig. 19. A. B. ED-R. 5: 14–30; B. C., Taylor, 1942, University of Kansas Science Bulletin 28: 91-112; D., Ota & Hikada, 1989. Journal of Herpetology 13: 35-39. Fig. 11. A., Das & Bauer, 2000. Russian Journal of Herpetology 7: 17-28; C., Mocquard, 1909, Synopsis des familles, genres . . . de Madagascar. Paris, Masson. Fig. 12. de Rooij, 1915. The Reptiles of the Indo-Australian Archipelago. I. Lacertilia, Chelonia, Emydosauria. Leiden, E. J. Brill. Fig. 13. A. B. D. F., Boulenger, 1890. The Fauna of British India, . . . Reptilia and Batrachia. London, Taylor and Francis. Fig. 14. A. B., Boulenger, 1890. The Fauna of British India, . . . Reptilia and Batrachia. London, Taylor and Francis. Fig. 15. A. B. C., Boulenger, 1912 A Vertebrate Fauna of the Malay 190 191 Index Standard Names SOUTH TANINTHARYI AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES Species arranged alphabetically by standard group name of each species. Amphibians – caecilians Kohtao Striped Caecilian 23 Peninsular Striped Caecilian 23 Amphibians - frogs Southern Bicolor-eyed Frog 41, 69 Bullfrog Asian Rugose Bullfrog 35, 68 Brown Bullfrog Painted Bullfrog 44 Tha San Dwarf Cascadefrog30 Penisular Copper-cheeked Frog 53 Crab-eating Frog 32 Fanged Frogs Blyth’s Fanged Frog 36, 68 Doria’s Fanged Frog 37, 68 Limborgh’s Fanged Frog 37 Millet’s Forestfrog 55 Grass Frog 33, 34, 36, 68 Narrow-mouth Frog Butler’s Narrow-mouth Frog 45 Oriental Ornate Narrow-mouth Frog 46 Heymons’ Narrow-mouth Frog 47 Manthay’s Narrow-mouth Frog 47 Spotted Narrow-mouth Frog 49 Tanintharyi Narrow-mouth Frog 48 Odorfrog Green Odorfrog 56, 71 Tenasserun Odorfrog 57 Paddyfrog Green Paddyfrog 54, 71 Puddlefrog Common Asian Puddlefrog 39, 69 Malayan Puddlefrog 40, 69 192 193 Tennaserim Pygmy Frog 38, 69 False Gharial 184 Striped Sticky Frog 43, 70 Reptiles – Lizards Toad Common Butterfly Lizard 97 Asian Giant Toad 29, 67 Burmese Green Crested Lizard 73 Black-spined Toad 28, 67 Small-headed False Mountain Lizard 98 Malayan Dwarf Toad 29, 67 Forest Lizard Malayan Stream Toad 27 Barred Forestlizard 73, 93 Thin Thin’s Stream Toad 28, 67 Moustached Forestlizard 94 Peninsular Torrentfrog Variable Forestlizard 98 Treefrog Flying Lizard Asian Black-webbed Treefrog 65 Barred Flying Lizard 73. 97 Concave-crowned Treefrog Blanford’s Flying Lizard 96 Dorsal-striped Treefrog 63, 72 Spotted Flying Lizard 96 Double-spotted Orange-webbed Gecko Treefrog 64 Lenya Banded Bent-toed Gecko 74, 103 Malayan Slender Treefrog61 Oldham’s Bent-toed Gecko 74, 103 Taylor’s Rough-armed Treefrog 60, 72 Short-palmed Bent-toed Gecko 74, 102 Wallace’s Orange-sided Treefrog 65, 72 Tenasserim Mountain Bent-toed Gecko 104 Wallace’s Treefrog 65, 72 Asian Flat-tailed Gecko 108 White-lipped Treefrog 62, 72 Smooth-backed Flying Gecko 75, 109 White-spotted Thigh Treefrog 62 Fox Gecko 107 Black-sided Woodfrog 57, 71 Indo-Pacific House Gecko 75 Siamese Leaf-toed Gecko 104 Reptiles – Turtles Siamese Rock Gecko 101 Asian Boxturtle 173 South Tanintharyi Rockgecko 102 Spotted-neck Rockgecko 101 Burmese Eyed Turtle 176 Indo-Pacific Slender Gecko 107, 109 Burmese Flapshell Turtle 179 Southeast Asian Spiny Gecko 75, 108 Oldham’s Leafturtle 173 Asian Stump-toed Gecko 75, 105 Kanchanabura Stump-toed Black Marshturtle 176 Gecko 105 Red-eared Slider 177 Tokay Gecko 74, 106 Malayan Snail-eating Turtle 175 Malayan Yellow-tailed Lipinia 76, 117 Six-lined Long-tailed Lizard 112 Softshell Turtle Masked Prickle-naped Lizard 73, 92 Asian Softshell Turtle 179 Malayan Softshell Turtle 180 Skink Asian Spotted Forestskink 77 Tortoise Indian Forestskink 120 Asian Giant Tortoise 174. 178 Peninsular Reddish Forestskink 121 Elongate Tortoise 179 Black-spotted Smoothskink 77, 119 Spiny Turtle 175 Short-limbed Smoothskink 118 Reptiles – Crocodiles Thai Snakeskink 117 Saltwater Crocodile 184 Side-spotted Sunskink 76, 116 Siamese Crocodile 185 Common Sunskink 76, 116 194 195 Bowing’s Suppleskink 77, 118 Speckled-bellied Keelback 146 Short-limbed Suppleskink 118 Krait Olive Treeskink 76, 115 Banded Krait 82, 151 Berdmore’s Waterskink 77, 12, Malayan Krait 151 Robinson’s Waterskink 122 Burmese Masked Snake 83, 145 Monitor Asian Common Mockviper 83, 156 Asian Water Monitor 124 Rainbow Mudsnake 83, 145 Clouded Monitor 123 Burmese Pipesnake 84, 149 Roughneck Monitor 124 Pitviper Reptile – Snakes Malayan Pitviper 164 Blindsnake Mangrove Pitviper 85, 164 Brahminy Blindsnake 84, 162 Southern Green Tree Pitviper 85, 164 Mueller’s Blindsnake 84, 162 White-lipped Tree Pitviper 85 Bridlesnake Python Blanford’s Bridlesnake 141 Burmese Python 160 Malayan Bridlesnake 141 Reticulated Python 160 Bronzeback South Asian Short-tailed Blue Bronzeback 79, 138 Python 161 Malayan Long-tailed Bronzeback 139 Ratsnake Mountain Bronzeback 140 Dark-eyed Ratsnake 145 Painted Bronzeback 140 Oriental Ratsnake 80, 145 Sawtoothed-necked Bronzeback 139 Red-tailed Green Ratsnake 80 Striped Bronzeback 79, 138 White-bellied Ratsnake 144 Catsnake Slug-eating Snake Asian Catsnake 78 Blunt-headed Slug-eating Snake 157 Dog-toothed Catsnake 135 Keeled Slug-eating Snake 157 Green Catsnake 134 White-spotted Keeled Slug-eating Snake 158 Mangrove Catsnake 135 White-spotted Smooth Slug-eating Snake 158 Many-spotted Catsnake 78, 136 Sunbeam Snake 84, 167 White-spotted Catsnake 136 Trinket Snake Cobra Black-banded Trinket Snake 144 King Cobra 82, 153 Copper-headed Trinket Snake 137 Monocled Cobra 82, 153 Vinesnake Coralsnake Asian Vinesnake 144 Blue Malayan Coralsnake 82, 152 Long-nosed Vinesnake 133 Small-spotted Coralsnake Malayan Vinesnake 78, 133 Little Filesnake 152 Eastern Russel’s Viper 85, 166 Ornate Flyingsnake 79 Keelback Banded Green Keelback 81, 146 Black and White Keelback 148 Checkered Keelback 81, 146 Gold-spotted Keelback 147 Red-necked Keelback 81, 147 Red-sided Keelback 81, 149 196 197 Index Scientific Names Crocodylus siamensis 182, 183, 184Cuora amboinensis 171, 173 SOUTH TANINTHARYI AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES Cyclemys oldhamii 171, 173 Cylindrophis burmanus 84, 128, 149 Cyrtodactylus brevipalmatus 74, 102 Acanthosaura crucigera 73, 92 Cyrtodactylus lenya 74, 102 Acrochordus granulatus 78, 128, 130 Cyrtodactylus oldhami 74, 103 Ahaetulla mycterizans 78, 133 Cyrtodactylus payarhtanensis 104 Ahaetulla nasuta 133 Daboia siamensis 85, 163, 166 Ahaetulla prasina 124 Dasia olivacea 76, 115 Alcalus tasanae 30 Dendrelaphis caudolineolatus 89, 136 Amolops panhai 51, 52, 71 Dendrelaphis cyanochloris 89, 136 Amyda cartilaginea 171, 179 Dendrelaphis haasi 137 Ansonia kraensis 27 Dendrelaphis nigroserratus 137 Ansonia thinthinae 28, 67 Dendrelaphis pictus 138 Aplopleltura boa 156, 157 Dendrelaphis subocularis 138 Argyrophis diardi 84, 162 Dixonius siamensis 100, 104 Batagur affinis 172 Dogania subplana 180 Boiga cyanea 78, 124 Draco blanfordii 96 Boiga cynodon 135 Draco maculatus 96 Boiga dendrophilia 135 Draco taeniopterus 73, 97 Boiga drapiezii 78, 136 Dryocalamus davisonii 139 Boiga multomaculata 136 Dryocalamus subannulatus 80, 139 Bronchocela burmana 73, 93 Duttaphrynus melanostictus 26, 28, 67 Bungarus candidus 151 Elaphe taeniura 89, 132, 142 Bungarus fasciatus 82, 152 Enhydris enhydris 83, 155 Calliophis bivirgata 82, 152 Eutropis macularia 76, 116 Calliophis maculiceps 152 Eutropis multifasciata 76, 116 Calloselasma rhodostoma 163, 164 Fejervarya cancrivora 32 Calotes emma 73, 93 Fejervarya “limnocharis” 32 Calotes mystaceus 94 Fejervarya cf. multistriata 32 Calotes “versicolor” 95 Fejervarya sp1 (Kotaki &al.2010- Cantoria violacea 154 hp2 Clade 21) 34, 68 Cerberus rhynchops 83, 154 Fejervarya sp2 (Kotaki &al.2010- Chalorana eschatia51, 53 hp3 Clade 11) 35 Chiromantis doriae 59, 72 Fordonia leucobalea 154 Chrysopelea ornata 79, 137 Gehyra lacerata 105 Clinotarsus Penelope 51, 54 Gehyra mutilate 75, 105 Cnemaspis punctatonuchalis 101 Gekko gecko 74, 106 Cnemaspis siamensis 101 Gonyosoma oxycephalum 80, 132, 142 Cnemaspis sp 102 Hemidactylus berdmorei 106 Coelognathus radiates 137 Hemidactylus bowringii Crocodylus porosus 182, 183, 184 198 199 Hemidactylus brookii 109 Microhyla mantheyi 47 Hemidactylus frenatus 75, 99, 107 Microhyla mukhlesuri 47 Hemidactylus garnotii 99, 107 Microhyla sp 47 Hemidactylus platyurus 100, 108 Micryletta inornata 43, 49 Hemidactylus tenkatei 75, 108 Micryletta sp 49, 70 Hemiphyllodactylus typus 101, 109 Naja kaouthia 82, 153 Heosemys grandis 172, 174 Nilssonia formosus 170 Heosemys spinose 171, 175 Occidozyga lima 39, 69 Homalopsis semizonata 83, 155 Occidozyga martensii1-3 40, 69 Hoplobatrachus rugulosus 35, 68 Occidozyga spD 40 Hylarana erythraea 52, 54, 71 Odorrana hosii 52, 56, 71 Ichthyophis kohtaoensis 23 Odorrana livida 52, 57 Ichthyophis supachaii 23 Ophiophagus hannah 82, 153 Indosylvirana millet 51, 55 Oreocryptophis porphyraceus 144 Indotestudo elongate 172, 178 Pareas carinatus 157 Indotyphlops braminus 84, 162 Pareas macularia 158 Ingerana tenasserimensis 38, 69 Pareas margaritophorus 158 Ingerophrynus parvus 26, 29, 67 Pelochelys cantori 170 Isopachys anguinoides 114, 117 Phrynoidis asper 26, 29, 67 Kalophrynus interlineatus 70 Polypedates discantus 61 Kaloula baleata Polypedates impresus mutus 63 Kaloula latidisca 44, 70 Polypedates cf. leucomystax 62, 72 Kaloula pulchra 44 Polypedates megacephalus 62 Kurixalus bisacculus 60, 72 Psammodynastes pulverulentus 83, 132, 156 Leiolepis belliana 96 Pseudocalotes microlepis 96 Leptobrachium smithii 41, 69 Ptyas fusca 144 Limnonectes blythii 36, 68 Ptyas korros 145 Limnonectes doriae 37, 68 Ptyas mucosa 80, 145 Limnonectes limborgii 37 Ptychozoon kaengkrachanense 110 Lipinia vittigera 76, 117 Ptychozoon lionotum 75, 100, 107 Lissemys scutata 170, 180 Python brongersmai 159, 161 Lycodon effraensis 80, 143 Python molurus bivittatus 159, 160 Lycodon subcinctus 143 Rhabdophis chrysargos 146 Lygosoma bowringii 77, 114, 118 Rhabdophis nigrocinctus 81, 146 Lygosoma quadrupes 118 Rhabdophis subminiatus 81, 147 Malayemys macrocephala 175 Rhacophorus bipunctatus 64 Malayopython reticulatus 159, 160 Rhacophorus kio 65 Manouria emys 172, 178 Rhacophorus nigropalmatus 65 Morenia ocellata 172, 176 Rhacophorus norhayatii 66, 72 Microhyla butleri 45 Scincella melanosticta 76 Microhyla fissipes 46, 70 Scincella reevesii 76, 119 Microhyla heymonsi 43, 47 Siebenrockiella crassicollis 172, 176 200 201 Sphenomorphus indicus 120 Sphenomorphus maculatus 77, 120 Sphenomorphus tersus 121 Sylvirana nigrovittata 51, 57, 71 Takydromus sexlineatus 111, 112 Tomistoma schlegelii 182, 183, 185 Trachemys scripta elegans 172, 177 Trimeresurus albolabris 85, 164 Trimeresurus sp. nov. (cf. popeiorum) 85, 165 Trimeresurus purpureomaculatus 85, 165 Tropidophorus berdmorei 77, 121 Tropidophorus robinsoni 122 Varanus nebulosus 123 Varanus rudicollis 123, 124 Varanus salvator 123, 124 Xenochrophis flavipunctatus 147 Xenochrophis piscator 81, 148 Xenochrophis punctulatus 147 Xenochrophis trianguligerus 81, 149 Xenopeltis unicolor 84, 129, 167 202 203