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TEACHERS CORNER: FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY RESOURCESby Marilyn R. London
˜ ˜ ˜Why are bones so fascinating? What can welearn from them? Research on bones–bothhuman and non-human–has been popular forcenturies. Both artists and scientists have long recognizedthat bones represent the remains of  a living organism. Forexample, in Shakespeare’s Hamlet, the Prince of  Denmarkholds the skull of a court jester in his hands and recalls thelife of  the man: “Alas, poor Yorick! I knew him, Horatio, aman of infinite jest, of most excellent fancy” (Hamlet ActV, Scene 1). Hamlet knew the jester during life, but theanthropologist who studies bones must reconstruct the lifeof the unknown individual based on scientific analysis ofthe remains.Anthropology in the United States is usually di-vided into four basic subfields. These are cultural or socialanthropology, archaeology, linguistics, and physical anthro-pology. Anthropologists in the United States are trained inall four subfields in undergraduate school and then go onto specialize in graduate school. Almost all forensic an-thropologists have archaeological field experience, whichis very much like crime scene investigation. In both cases,the investigator must document everything with notes andillustrations and write a report. There is only one chance todo the investigation correctly; once the archaeological siteor the crime scene has been disrupted, it will never lookthe same.Physical anthropology includes human anatomy, popu-lation biology, genetics, growth and development, humanevolution, non-human primate behavior, human variation,and human biology. Some physical anthropologists focustheir studies on how all of these topics affect the humanskeleton. One of  the applications of  skeletal biology isforensic anthropology. Many students have heard this termon television shows and in movies, and they want to con-sider this profession as a career.Forensic anthropology is the application of  an-thropology to the processes of  law. The forensic anthro-pologist creates a “biological profile”—age, sex, stature,ancestry, trauma, and pathological conditions—that can helpverify the person’s identity or lead to a positive identifica-tion through medical or other records. The bones record
events (disease, trauma) in an individual’s life. The forensicanthropologist always works as part of a team that in-cludes other forensic scientists such as forensic entomolo-gists and forensic psychiatrists, and does not determine thecause of death; that role belongs to the medical examineror coroner.
ActivityActivities that introduce the student to the scientific methodof  investigation can be developed using anthropology. Oncethe student has mastered this approach, it can be appliedto any science.Anthropologists need to be familiar with normal varia-tion within a population in order to identify age, sex, andancestry of  an individual. To introduce the importance ofusing the correct sample size, recording accurate data, andtaking variation into account, a few measurements can betaken on the students and analyzed with simple statistics.Stature and arm span (fingertip to fingertip) are two ofthe easiest measurements to take, but any standard mea-surements can be used. Each student should be measured,and the results recorded. Simple statistics (mean, mode,median, standard deviation) can be computed for the classas a whole, for males and females separately, and for ran-domly selected groups. Have the students compare the re-sults when smaller groups are used for the analysis. In ad-dition, pairs of measurements can be plotted against eachother to see if there is positive, negative, or no correlationbetween them. Once again, smaller groups can be com-pared to the class as a whole. (An interactive website onstatistical analysis can be found at home.clara.net/sisa/)
Web Resourceswww.eskeletons.org/ (The e-Skeletons Project, which compareshuman bones to non-human primates)
www.nabt.org/sup/resources/ (National Association of  BiologyTeachers)
www.galeschools.com/sci_try/bones.htm(Thomson Gale Publishers educational site)
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F a l c o n . j m u . e d u / ~ r a m s e y i l /vertebrates.htm (Internet School LibraryMedia Center information on vertebratesin general)
www.csuchico.edu/anth/Module/skull.html (An interactive guide to the hu-man skull developed by California StateUniversity, Chico)
w w w. e a r t h l i f e . n e t / m a m m a l s /skeleton.html  (Earthlife Web Productionssite on mammal skeletons and biomechan-ics)
www.uic.edu/classes/orla/orla312/correlated_images_skulls.htm (Universityof Illinois at Chicago site with illustrationson dental development)
http://www.bartleby.com/107/ (Gray’s Anatomy online)
www.kidzone.ws/science/egg.htm. (KidsZone Fun Factsfor Kids)
Cast ResourcesAnatomical Chart Company4711GolfSuite 650Skokie, IL 60076Phone: (847) 679-4700Fax: (847) 674-0211http://anatomical.com/Anatomical charts and casts
University of PennsylvaniaCasting ProgramUniversity of  PA University MuseumUniversity of Pennsylvania33rd & Spruce Sts.Philadelphia, PA  19104-6398www.sas.upenn.edu/~jmongeemail: jmonge@sas.upenn.eduCatalogues of fossil reproductions are searchable online
France CastingDiane L. France, Ph.D.1713 Willox Ct. Unit AFort Collins, CO  80524(970) 221-4044Fax: (970) 482-4766info@francecasts.comwww.francecasts.com
Casts of human cranial and postcranial bones, with features dem-onstrating age, sex, trauma, and pathological conditions. Also aprimate series including gibbon and siamang crania, not com-monly available. Some stone tool reproductions and animal bonecasts are available.
Career Informationwww.aafs.org/ (American Academy of  Forensic Sciences)
www.physanth.org/ (American Association of  Physical Anthro-pologists)
www.csuch.co.edu/anth/ABFA/ (American Board of  ForensicAnthropology)
Omohundro, John T. 2002. Careers in Anthropology. 2nd ed. MayfieldPublishing Company.
Ryan, Alan S. (ed.). 2002. A Guide to Careers in Physical Anthropol-
ogy. Bergin & Garvey.
ReferencesGeneralBass, W. M. 1995.  Human Osteology: A Laboratory and Field Manual
of  the Human Skeleton.  4th ed. Missouri Archaeological Society.
Boddington, A., A. N. Garland, and R. C. Janaway. 1987.  Death,
Decay, and Reconstruction: Approaches to Archaeology and Forensic Sci-
ence.  Manchester University Press.
Brothwell, D. R. Digging Up Bones. 1981.   3rd ed. Cornell UniversityPress.
Gordon, Kathleen D. 2004.  Stories Bones Tell. In Ruth OsterweisSelig, Marilyn R. London, and P. Ann Kaupp, eds., pp. 101-114.
Anthropology Explored, the Best of Smithsonian AnthroNotes. Re-vised and Expanded. Smithsonian Books.
Haglund, William D., and Marcella H. Sorg, eds. 1996.  Forensic
Taphonomy: The Postmortem Fate of  Human Remains. CRC Press.
Haglund, William D., and Marcella H. Sorg, eds. 2002 . Advances in
Forensic Taphonomy: Method, Theory, and Archaeological Perspectives.CRC Press.
Iscan, Mehmet Yasar, and K. A. R. Kennedy. 1989.  Reconstruction
of Life from the Skeleton. Alan Liss. (Includes a chapter on howoccupations can affect the skeleton.)
Krogman, Wilton Marion, and Mehmet Yasar Iscan. 1986.  The
Human Skeleton in Forensic Medicine. Charles C. Thomas.
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McGowan, Christopher. 1997.  Make your own Dinosaur out of
Chicken Bones: Foolproof  Instructions for Budding Paleontologists. Pe-rennial Books.
Odyssey. January 2004.  Special issue on Crime Scene Science. ACobblestone Publication (for young readers).
Olsen, Stanley J.  1973.  Mammal Remains from Archaeological Sites,Part 1: Southeastern and Southwestern United States. HarvardUniversity Press.
Ortner, Donald J. 2003.  Identification of  Pathological Conditions in
Human Skeletal Remains. Academic Press.
Prag, John, and Richard Neave. 1999.  Making Faces: Using Forensic
and Archaeological Evidence. British Museum Press. (On facial re-constructions)
Reichs, Kathleen J. 1998.  Forensic Osteology: Advances in the Identifi-
cation of Human Remains. 2nd  ed. Charles C. Thomas.
Steele, D. Gentry, and Claud A. Bramblett. 1988.  The Anatomy and
Biology of  the Human Skeleton. 1st ed. Texas A&M University Press.
Stewart, Thomas Dale. 1979.  Essentials of  Forensic Anthropology.Forward by Ellis R. Kerley. Charles C. Thomas.
Taylor, Karen. 2001.  Forensic Art and Illustration. CRC Press.
Ubelaker, Douglas H. 1999.  Human Skeletal Remains: Excavation,
Analysis, and Interpretation. 3rd ed. Taraxacum.
Case StudiesBenedict, Jeff. 2003.  No Bone Unturned: The Adventures of a Top
Smithsonian Forensic Scientist and the Legal Battle for America’s Oldest
Skeletons. 1st ed. HarperCollins.
Manhein, Mary H. 1999.  The Bone Lady: Life as a Forensic Anthro-
pologist. Louisiana State University Press.
Manhein, Mary H. 2005.  Trail of Bones: More Cases from the Files of
a Forensic Anthropologist. Louisiana State University Press.
Maples, William R. and Michael Browning. 1994.  Dead Men Do
Tell Tales: The Strange and Fascinating Cases of  a Forensic Anthropolo-
gist. Doubleday.
Rathbun, T. A., and J. E. Buikstra, eds.  1984.  Human Identifica-
tion: Case Studies in Forensic Anthropology. Charles C. Thomas.
Rhine, Stanley. 1998.  Bone Voyage: A Journey in Forensic Anthropol-
ogy. University of  New Mexico Press.
Ubelaker, Douglas H., and Henry Scammell. 1992.  Bones: A Foren-
sic Detective’s Casebook.  Harper-Collins.
Forensic Archaeology/RecoveryFrance, D. L., T.  J. Griffin, J. G. Swanburg, J. W. Lindmann, G. C.Davenport, V. Trammell, C. T. Armbrust, B. Kondratieff, A.Nelson, K. Castellano, and D. Hopkins. 1992.  A MultidisciplinaryApproach to the Detection of  Clandestine Graves. Journal of  Fo-
rensic Sciences 37: 1445-1458.
Haglund, William D., and D. T. Reay. 1993.  Problems of  Recov-ering Partial Human Remains at Different Times and Locations:Concerns for Death Investigators. Journal of  Forensic Sciences 38:69-80.
Mann, Robert W., and Thomas D. Holland. 2004.  America’s MIAs:Forensic Anthropology in Action. In Ruth Osterweis Selig,  MarilynR. London, and P. Ann Kaupp, eds., pp. 137-144. Anthropology
Explored, the Best of Smithsonian AnthroNotes. Revised and Ex-panded. Smithsonian Books.
Rowe, W. F. Psychic Detectives: A Critical Examination. Skeptical
Inquirer 17: 159-165.
Sweat, J. A., and M. W. Durm. Psychics: Do Police DepartmentsReally Use Them? Skeptical Inquirer 17: 148-158.
A comprehensive glossary on skeletal biology with termsused by osteologists in their analysis and reporting can beobtained by emailing the Smithsonian’s AnthropologyOutreach Office at anthroutreach@si.edu
Marilyn R. London is a physical anthropologist and con-tractor in the Department of Anthropology’s RepatriationOffice, National Museum of Natural History.