S M I T H S O N I A N S T U D I E S I N A I R A N D S P A C E ? N U M B E R 1 Astronaut Observations from the Apollo-Soyuz Mission Farouk El-Ba\ SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION PRESS City of Washington 1977 A B S T R A C T EI-Baz, Farouk. Astronaut Observations from the Apollo-Soyuz Mission. Smithso? nian Studies in Air and Space, number 1, 400 pages, 280 figures, 11 tables, 1977.? During the Gemini, Apollo, and Skylab flights, orbiting astronauts collected valua? ble information by means of observations and photography of Earth. Strengthened by the experience gained on these flights, the Earth Observations and Photography Experiment was carried out as one of the American objectives of the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project in July 1975. The main goal of the experiment was to utilize the special capabilities of trained observers (namely, the American astronauts of the joint mis? sion) in visually studying and photographing specific Earth features and dynamic phenomena. These special capabilities include the sensitivity of the human eye to subtle color variations (e.g., to desert sands or sea water), and the speed with which the eye-brain interaction results in interpretation of the scene and recognition of important features. This latter capability allows instantaneous selection of important sites for photographic documentation at any moment, which in turn, enhances the quality of photographic data from space platforms. Another goal of the experiment was to establish the role of human observers in future space programs, particularly the Space Shuttle. This book contains a detailed account of the experiment objectives, training of astronauts, preparation of aids for their use, and the results of experiment perform? ance. These details serve as a historical-archival record and as a guide for conducting similar projects in the future. The scientific objectives of the experiment included the collection of data in support of ongoing research in the fields of geology (particularly desert studies), oceanography, hydrology, meteorology, and environmental science. A summary of significant results is given; however, detailed scientific analyses are currently being performed by a number of investigators in various fields in the United States and abroad and their results will be published later, as a special publication of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. OFFICIAL PUBLICATION DATE is handstamped in a limited number of initial copies and is recorded in the Institution's annual report, Smithsonian Year. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data El-Baz, Farouk Astronaut observations from the Apollo-Soyuz mission. (Smithsonian studies in air and space ; no. 1) Bibliography: p. Includes index. . 1. Earth?Observations. 2. Earth?Photographs from space 3. Astronauts. I. Title. 11. beries. QB631.E48 551 77-608094 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, D.C. 20402 Stock Number 047-005-00013-2 Contents Page Foreword, by Michael Collins vi Acknowledgments vii Introduction 1 Scientific Objectives 2 Historical Background 2 Detailed Objectives 10 Geology 10 Desert Colors and Landforms 12 Fracture Patterns and Earthquake Zones 12 Growth of River Deltas 12 Mineral Alteration Zones 12 Plumes of Active Volcanoes 12 Circular Features of Impact Origin 12 Oceanography 13 Ocean Currents and Their Boundaries 13 Internal Waves in the Oceans 13 Ocean Eddies and Gyres 13 Upwellings and Bow Waves 15 River Sediments 15 Hydrology 15 Snow Cover Mapping 15 Closed-Basin Water Circulation 16 River Sinuosity in South America 16 Icebergs and the Edge of Antarctica 16 Meteorology 16 Cloud Features 16 Storm Centers 16 Environmental Science 16 Natural Pollution 19 Pollution by Human Activities 19 Visual Acuity 19 Lake Bonneville Racetrack 19 Glaciers and Firn Lines 19 Nazca Markings 19 Pyramids of Giza 19 Bioluminescence 19 Astronaut Training 20 Classroom Instruction 20 Summary of Individual Sessions 23 Ground Motion Simulations 26 Training Flights 27 Designing the Flyovers 28 Preparing the Flyover Booklets 30 Briefing and Debriefing the Crew i.*****. 30 f V i NUV 0 I 2005 / SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE Page Description and Results of Training Exercises 30 Houston to Los Angeles Flyover 30 California Flyover 31 Gulf Coast Flyover 37 Gulf-Florida Flyover 37 East Coast Flyover 38 Southwestern United States Flyover 39 Northwestern United States Flyover 42 Conclusions 42 Flight Planning 43 Site Selection 43 Visual Observation Aids 46 Flight Plan 46 "Earth Observations Book" 46 Orbital Chart 49 World Map Package 49 Color Wheel 49 Ground Scale 54 Enlarging Telescope 54 Photographic Equipment 56 Hasselblad Cameras 56 Nikon Camera 58 Motion Picture Camera 58 Television Camera 58 Films and Filters 59 Mission Operations 60 Mission Profile 60 Experiment Support Activities 64 Mission Support 64 Science Support Team 64 Realtime Activities 65 Concurrent Investigations 72 Aircraft Flights 72 Land Investigations 73 Ocean Surveys 73 Summary of Results 76 Scientific Findings 76 Geology 76 Desert Colors 76 Dune Patterns 77 Levantine Rift 83 Volcanoes and Volcanic Plumes 83 Astroblemes 89 Oceanography 89 Internal Ocean Waves 91 Outflow of the Orinoco River 92 Hydrology 95 Snow Cover Mapping 95 Major Lake Changes 97 NUMBER 1 Page Irrigation Patterns 98 Meteorology 100 Environmental Science 100 Red Tide 100 Oil Slicks 102 Visual Acuity 105 Lake Bonneville Racetrack 105 Glaciers and Firn Lines 105 Nazca Markings 106 Pyramids of Giza 107 Bioluminescence 108 Conclusions 108 Experiment Performance 109 Apollo Crew Comments 116 Viewing from Low Orbit 116 Preflight Training 117 Observation Techniques and Procedures 117 Observation Aids and Photographic Equipment 118 Technological Developments for the Future 119 Scientific Objectives for the Shuttle Era 119 Recommendations for the Space Shuttle 120 Platform Design 120 Scientific Objectives 120 Astronaut Training 121 Flight Planning 121 Mission Operations 122 Data Analysis 122 Literature Cited 123 Abbreviations and Acronyms 126 Glossary 127 Appendix 1: Verbal Comments (with index) 131 Appendix 2: "Manual of Training Flights" 223 Appendix 3: "Earth Observations Book" 309 Foreword It gives me great pleasure to introduce this new monographic series, Smithsonian Studies in Air and Space, which will deal with the history of, and advances in, air and space flight and planetary exploration. An earlier series, Smithsonian Annals of Flight, although successful since its inception in 1964, was the product of the National Air Museum before "Space" was added to its name, and thus did not reflect the expanding horizons that the space age has opened to research. This new series of the National Air and Space Museum joins other series publications, begun several years ago, of the National Museum of History and Technology and the National Museum of Natural History. Smithsonian Studies in Air and Space will present volumes of archival value as well as scientific research papers and monographs that review the state-of-the-art. The overriding theme will be that the publications of this series, based on scholarly research, will provide a better understanding of past accom? plishments and a possible guide to future ventures in air and space exploration. I am pleased to introduce the first volume in this series a short time after the opening of the new National Air and Space Museum in July 1976. The present monograph and future volumes will be dedicated by the museum staff and contribut? ing colleagues from other institutions of learning to the "increase and diffusion of knowledge" in the dynamic, ever expanding fields of air and space. This first volume is an outgrowth of the "Earth Observations and Photography Experiment," which was successfully performed during the Apollo-Soyuz mission in July 1975. The astronauts' view from orbit turned out to be not only beautiful but also extremely useful. The author, Dr. Farouk El-Baz, was Principal Investigator of this experiment. His responsibilities included the selection of sites for observation and photography and the integration of the experiment's requirements into the flight plan. In addition, he pre? pared my former colleagues, astronauts Thomas P. Stafford, Vance D. Brand, and D. K. Slayton, for the flight by means of an extensive scientific training program. The elaborate preparation paid off, and Dr. El-Baz is now coordinating a scientific data analysis program involving several government agencies and academic and re? search organizations in the United States and abroad. I hope that this book and future volumes in Smithsonian Studies in Air and Space will serve as a useful source of knowledge and that these publications will inspire future generations to continue exploring the unknown. MICHAEL COLLINS Director National Air and Space Museum VI Acknowledgments This book was inspired by the highly successful American Earth Observations and Photography Experiment. The high priority assigned to this experiment could not have been achieved without the generous support of Capt. Chester M. Lee, ASTP Program Director. Chet did this with a deep appreciation of what was accomplished in this field during the Apollo lunar flights. His continued support of the experi? ment and his interest in its results through the present data analysis phase are deeply appreciated. Staff members of the Apollo-Soyuz Program Offices at both NASA Headquarters in Washington, D.C., and the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center (JSC) in Houston, Texas, also lent support to the experiment. Dr. Glynn Lunney, the ASTP Program Manager, was especially understanding of what he must have felt were seemingly unending film requirements. Implementation of the tasks was greatly helped by S. N. Hardee, the Experiment Monitor; Dr. Thomas Giuli, the Program Scientist; and their staff at the Planetary and Earth Sciences Division, JSC. Drs. Joseph Allen of NASA and Gordon Swann of the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) participated in the very early planning phases of the experiment. Their efforts and their help are acknowledged. Helpful comments during the same early phase were received from former Apollo astronauts Col. David Scott and Col. Alfred Worden. The author is indebted to the co-investigators and experiment "team members" for their help and support throughout the planning phases of the mission. The following co-investigators gave much time and thought to the experiment: James C. Barnes, Environmental Research and Technology, Inc.; Peter G. Black, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) ; Carol S. Breed, Museum of Northern Arizona and the USGS; William J. Campbell, University of Puget Sound; Robert Dietz, NOAA; George A. Maul, NOAA; Edwin D. McKee, USGS; William R. Muehlberger, University of Texas at Austin; P. R. Pisharoty, Indian Space Research Organization; Leon T. Silver, California Institute of Technology; Robert E. Stevenson, Scripps Institute of Oceanography; and Charles Yentsch, Bigelow Laboratory. I would like to particularly mention that many have given their time above and beyond the call of duty, including Ms. Carol Breed and Drs. George Maul, William Muehlberger, Leon Silver, and Robert Stevenson. The latter was responsible for the coordination of most ocean investigations by United States and foreign naval research vessels. I am also indebted to all those who participated in giving background lectures to the astronauts; classroom instruction was very neces? sary to prepare the crew for the task. Delia Mitchell, research assistant, Smithsonian Institution, helped me throughout the experiment planning phases and during the mission operations. She assisted in the selection of observation sites and integration of the requirements in the flight plan. Ms. Mitchell also assisted me in the preparation of this book by collecting the necessary materials and preparing the figures. She helped in compiling the verbal comments for Appendix 1; Jane Murphy Abdel Rahman of my staff worked with her in the editing of the various transcripts. My research assistant Susan McLafferty was very helpful in planning and imple- SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE menting the crew training program and the preparation of its summary. She also prepared all the manuals of the training flights (flyovers), reproduced here as Appendix 2 after being redrafted by Ann Gifford. Dr. Robert Wolfe, also of my staff, assisted James Regan of JSC in the preparation of the color wheel. He also worked on the ground motion simulation films, which were made by Mr. John W. Massey at the Special Projects Office, George C. Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Alabama. My thanks and appreciation to Ron Weitenhagen of the Crew Training and Procedures Division, JSC, for his influence in implementing the experiment re? quirements. Ron was also very helpful in the preparation of the Earth Observations Book that was used by the astronauts (Appendix 3) . He was assisted in this task by Robert Mocata. Joseph McKinney was influential in the rapid publication of these products by the Defense Mapping Agency's Aerospace Center at St. Louis, Missouri. Larry Schimmerman of the same organization kindly advised me on the selection and accuracy testing of the Hasselblad mapping camera system. In matters dealing with flight planning, that is, the selection of proper spacecraft attitudes and viewing conditions, and the assignment of the observation targets to specific astronauts during certain segments of time, I am grateful for the efforts of Tom Holloway, Chuck Stough, Elvin Pippert, and their staff at the Flight Opera? tions Directorate of JSC. James Taylor and his staff of the same Directorate were very helpful in the selection and testing of photographic equipment. Mr. Taylor also provided the necessary information to describe the cameras in this book. Noel Lamar and Harold Lockwood of the Photographic Technology Laboratory, JSC, contributed their expertise to the selection of film, filters, and exposure settings to satisfy all the photographic requirements. They also provided the necessary information to summarize the task in this book. Richard Underwood indexed the photographs as soon as the film was developed at JSC. Support of mission operations by Gerry Griffith, Don Incerto, Chuck Nash, and Alta Walker is acknowledged. A. Sanderson made the necessary interpretations of weather data to institute flight plan changes because of cloud cover. In addition, the Smithsonian Institution's Center for Short-Lived Phenomena, under the super? vision of Dr. Robert Citron, alerted us to the locations of volcanic eruptions and oil spills that occurred during the mission. The success of the experiment is due first and foremost to the interest, perse? verance, and dedication of the Apollo astronauts, Gen. Thomas P. Stafford, Vance D. Brand, and Donald K. (Deke) Slayton. Their contributions to our under? standing of the Earth will greatly affect the course of orbital observations in the future. Astronauts of the "backup crew" are usually the forgotten ones; not in the case of the Apollo-Soyuz mission. Capt. Alan Bean, Capt. Ron Evans, and Col. Jack Lousma heavily participated in all phases of this experiment and helped improve it. Al Bean in particular, constantly "interrogated" me for more information and specific details, and questioned every onboard aid. This resulted in a far better plan than was initially conceived. My thanks to him for his interest and enthusiasm. The support crew of Comdr. Richard H. Truly, Lt. Col. Robert F Overmyer, Comdr. Robert L. Crippen, and Lt. Col. Karol J. (Bo) Bobko was also effective. Truly, in particular, showed much enthusiasm for the experiment. I have gained much from the crews of Apollo missions 13 through 17 and Skylab 4, particularly an understanding of the capabilities and limitations of the astronaut as an observer. Astronauts Gerald Carr and William Pogue of Skylab 4 made many NUMBER useful recommendations for the performance of the Earth Observations and Photog? raphy Experiment on ASTP. Elbridge O. Hurlbut, the Smithsonian Institution's Contracts Officer, ably handled all contractual aspects under S.I. contract 174160. The experiment was performed under NASA contract NAS9-13831. Sources of photographs and sketches are acknowledged in the legends of the figures, and also in the introductory paragraphs to the appendixes. Donna Hennen, my secretary, typed numerous versions of the manuscript. Her careful attention, perseverance, and conscientiousness are acknowledged. Julienne M. Goodrich and Julie E. Murphy proofed the manuscript. The following in? dividuals reviewed the manuscript and made helpful comments: Vance D. Brand, Patricia El-Baz, Thomas R. Giuli, Delia A. Mitchell, Alan C. Warner, Albert L. Ruffin, Jr., and John Whitelaw. The excellent editing by Joan Horn of the Smith? sonian Institution Press greatly improved the manuscript. Last but not least I wish to thank my wife, Patricia, and my four daughters, Monira, Soraya, Karima, and Fairouz. Instead of my spending weekends and nights with them, I was either traveling or working at my desk at home. Their understand? ing and support are deeply appreciated. ASTRONAUT OBSERVATIONS FROM THE APOLLO-SOYUZ MISSION Farouk El-Ba\ Introduction Despite achieving great advances in international space cooperation, the highly successful Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) marked the end of an era in American spaceflight. It was the last flight of an Apollo spacecraft and will be the final American manned space activity until the Space Shuttle begins routine flights in the 1980s. As such, the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project, which was launched on 15 July 1975, provided the last opportunity in this decade for American astronauts to systematically observe and photograph the Earth from space. The Apollo-Soyuz astronauts agreed with all others who have flown in space that the Earth is very beautiful. Whether it is seen from the vicinity of the Moon or from an Earth orbit, the Earth appears so breathtaking that astronauts can neither forget it nor adequately describe it. As astronomers see Mars as a red planet, the astronauts see Earth as a blue one; ocean water covers nearly three-fourths of the globe. In spite of this generalization, Earth displays to orbiting astronauts an unending array of beautiful colors and cloud patterns. Variations in patterns of land and sea unfold like a map of the world that has suddenly come alive. To observe the Earth in wonder or to contemplate its beauty is all an untrained observer can do. How? ever, during the Mercury, Gemini, and early Apollo flights, it was quickly realized that orbiting astronauts could expertly photograph significant features. An additional fact was more slowly recognized; the Farouk El-Baz, Research Director, Center for Earth and Planetary Studies, National Air and Space Museum, Smith? sonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 20560. astronauts, because they could see more than expected, were able to make visual observations that increased the information value of their photographs. As the Apollo missions progressed, it became feasible to undertake a program to test the observational capabilities of astronauts. This program paid hand? somely and provided us with a plethora of scientific information that was otherwise not available. The task of observing was then called "visual observations from lunar orbit." The Principal Investigator's responsibili? ties for this task included training astronauts to per? form the work and selecting sites for observation and photography. When the Skylab program (1973-1974) began, astronaut observations from Earth orbit were estab? lished as an objective. A training program was im? plemented for the three Skylab crews. However, the best results were obtained on the last of the three manned missions (Skylab 4 ) . Observations made by the Skylab crews added a new dimension to Earth resources investigations. Based on previous experience, a proposal was sub? mitted to the National Aeronautics and Space Ad? ministration (NASA) to conduct an "earth observa? tion and photography" experiment on the Apollo- Soyuz mission. The proposal was accepted and planning activities began nearly a year-and-a-half before the mission. The magnitude of the job proved to be much more than foreseen, for the simple reason that interest was voiced by many more scientists from more fields of specialization than expected. Further? more, this interest was not limited to investigators from the United States, and solutions to Earth science problems were sought for many parts of the world. Scientific Objectives Historical Background Photographs of the Earth, used chiefly for land surveys and geological mapping, are usually obtained from airplanes. During the past decade, however, earth scientists have recognized the contribution of space photography to scientific investigations. For the purpose of photographing Earth, orbiting space? craft have three advantages over airplanes: (1) a spacecraft travels at higher altitudes (several hundred kilometers) and can, therefore, view a larger area and depict broader features; (2) since spacecraft travel above the atmosphere, they avoid gusts of wind and air pockets that make aircraft relatively unsteady; and (3) a spacecraft follows an orbit around the Earth with a precision that increases the value of the photographs. During the United States' first manned space flights, several types of imaging systems were successfully used to photograph the Earth from orbit. Some of the first truly orbital photographs were taken with 70 mm Hasselblad cameras during Project Mercury. Accord? ing to Cameron (1965) the scope and sophistication of scientific experiments on these missions was restricted by the limited space and weight capacity of the Mercury spacecraft (about one-fourth the weight of the Apollo command module). An informal surface observations and photography experiment was conducted on the four manned orbital missions, Mercury 6 through 9. The most valuable pictures were obtained on Mercury 9 by astronaut Gordon Cooper, who also made several unusual ob? servations. From an altitude of over 160 km, Cooper reported seeing individual buildings on the Tibetan plateau, the wake of a boat on a large river, and even the smoke of a steam locomotive moving along its track. Photographs and visual observations on Project Mercury generated considerable interest among the scientific community and encouraged plans for more formal experiments on future missions. During the ten manned Gemini missions, a number of valuable pictures were taken as part of the Synoptic Terrain Experiment (Lowman and Tiedemann, 1971). These included photographs of unmapped geological structures such as a volcanic field in northern Mexico. Strikingly beautiful photographs of the Sahara Desert in North Africa were also ob? tained (Figure 1), providing a regional view of one of the most remote and inaccessible areas in the world. Three types of cameras were used on Gemini: the Hasselblad 500C, the Maurer Space Camera, and the Hasselblad Super Wide Angle Camera. By the end of the Gemini program, over 1000 color photo? graphs were available for study. Visual acuity tests were performed during Gemini missions 5 and 7. Orbiting astronauts were asked to observe white markers (50 to 200 m long) laid out in patterns on the ground near Laredo, Texas, and Carnarvon, Australia. The astronauts were successful in observing and describing these patterns, proving that the human eye could detect more than the avail? able cameras. Orbiting astronauts sometimes had dif? ficulty interpreting the view, however. For example, astronaut James McDivitt was not able to recognize familiar landmarks during the flight of Gemini 4. He was unable to locate El Paso, Texas, although he had flown over it hundreds of times as a pilot. Similarly, as he approached the delta of the Nile River (Figure 2) , he momentarily thought that the dark bluish tri? angle was an immense field of lava (Lowman, 1966: 645). This indicates the importance of pre-mission training. Although the Apollo program was dedicated to lunar exploration, Earth photographs were taken on the Apollo 7 and 9 Earth orbital missions. The Multi- spectral Terrain Photography Experiment on Apollo 9 provided the first orbital photographs of the Earth's surface in three spectral bands; green, red, and infra? red (Kaltenbach, 1970). For this experiment, four Hasselblad cameras, each with a different film/filter combination, were mounted on the command module's hatch window. Photographs were taken simultaneously at fixed intervals so that the same scene would appear in all four multispectral pictures. A wide variety of terrain in the southern United States and northern Mexico was photographed (Figure 3) . The pictures taken on Apollo 9 helped establish the value of multi- spectral orbital photography and paved the way for the development of imaging systems for the Earth Resources Technology Satellite (ERTS; now called NUMBER 1 3 Landsat) and the Skylab missions. Because of the success of astronaut observations and photography from Earth orbit, similar tasks were per? formed during the Apollo lunar flights. The potential value of astronaut observations was recognized after the first circumlunar flight, Apollo 8. After observing lunar surface color, the crew of that mission stated that "regional variations in lunar surface colors are in FICURE 1.?This Gemini photograph of the Sahara Desert shows the vast, circular, Marzuq Sand Sea of Libya. Al Haruj al Aswad, a Quaternary volcanic field, appears as a dark mass between the yellowish sand sea and the blue Mediterranean. (NASA photograph S66-54525) SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE FIGURE 2.?A Gemini photograph of the triangular-shaped Nile Delta with the Mediterranean Sea to the left and the Sinai Peninsula toward the top. During the flight of Gemini 4, astro? naut James McDivitt momentarily identified the dark blue-green triangle as an immense field of lava. (NASA photograph S65-34776) NUMBER 1 shades of gray, possibly with faint brownish hues similar to the color of dirty beach sand" (Anders, Lovell, and Borman, 1969:1). On Apollo 10, the astronauts also paid some atten? tion to lunar colors and reported "definite brown tones on the gray lunar surface features, except near the sunrise and sunset terminators . . . the mare surface was generally brown, highland areas were tan, and the bright halos and rays around some craters were a chalky white like gypsum" (Stafford, Cernan, FIGURE 3.?An Apollo 9 color infrared photograph of the Imperial Valley of California, the Colorado River, and the Algodones sand dunes. The Salton Sea is just visible at the center left of the photograph. In this view, healthy vegetation appears red. (NASA photograph AS9- 26A-3698) SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE FIGURE 4.?Stereoscopic view of the northwest sector of the 70-km diameter crater King on the lunar far side. The black rocks near the center of the photographs were first observed by astronaut John Young on Apollo 10; the nature of these rocks remains an enigma. The elevated peaks at the bottom of the stereo pair are part of the central mountains within the crater floor. Beyond the white and black rocks of the crater's northern rim is a relatively smooth deposit of either impact or volcanic origin. (NASA photograph AS10-30-4351 and 4352) and Young, 1971:1). On the same mission astronaut John Young discovered and photographed what seemed to be black rocks within a crater (King) on the lunar farside (El-Baz, 1969). To this day, these rocks continue to be a matter of scientific curipsity (Figure 4) . The first attempt to test the observational capabili? ties of astronauts began with the training of the Moon- bound astronauts of Apollo 13. Because this mission was aborted, however, the crew of Apollo 14 was the first to perform visual observations from lunar orbit, with encouraging results (El-Baz and Roosa, 1972). FIGURE 5.?Photograph of the southeastern part of the Serenitatis basin on the Moon's near side. The photograph is taken obliquely, looking westward from a 100-km lunar orbit. The arrow shows the direction of flight and indicates the Apollo 17 landing point. The astronauts landed in the dark, blue-gray unit that is surrounded by mountains over 2 km high. (After Evans and El-Baz, 1973:28-24) The systematic acquisition of scientifically relevant visual observation data from lunar orbit began with Apollo mission 15. A program was developed to train astronauts for the task, then considered a detailed test objective. The author was Principal Investigator for this activity on Apollo 15 and the succeeding two missions. Detailed descriptions of the accomplishments were published in the mission reports of Apollo 15 (El-Baz and Worden, 1972) ; Apollo 16 (Mattingly, El-Baz, and Laidley, 1972) ; and Apollo 17 (Evans and El-Baz, 1973). On Apollo 15 it was realized that "man must be trained to be a good observer, and the task of look? ing must be planned before flight and conducted sys- 8 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE tematically. Otherwise, man will look but he may not see" (El-Baz, Worden, and Brand, 1972:103). Another valuable result of the Apollo 15 mission was the observation of cinder cones in the Taurus-Littrow area (Figure 5) . This was partly responsible for the selection of the area for the Apollo 17 landing. Analysis of Apollo 17 samples confirmed the existence of volcanic glass, probably resulting from pyroclastic volcanic eruptions (El-Baz, 1975:511). Apollo 16 orbital observations resulted in the recog? nition that the lunar light-colored plains must be of varying, rather than uniform, ages. Also observed were "high-lava" marks at the boundaries of lunar maria, suggesting that lavas rose to higher levels on the Moon than their present levels (Mattingly and El-Baz, 1973:55). By the time Apollo 17 circled the Moon, orbital observation techniques had nearly been perfected, and a handsome amount of scientific information was gathered. Among the significant results was the recog? nition of numerous subtle colors that characterize lunar surface units (Figure 6) . All recognized colors were indicative of both the composition and age of observed materials (Schmitt, 1974; Lucchitta and Schmitt, 1974). One exciting find, made by two astronauts on the surface, of orange soil on the rim of crater Shorty (Figure 7) was investigated during the mission by their orbiting crewmate. This resulted in the first discovery of orange-tinted, volcanic mate? rials on the rims of other lunar craters elsewhere on the Moon (Figure 8) . The exercise proved beyond doubt, the value of concurrent investigations on the surface and from orbit (El-Baz and Evans, 1973), a process that later was to be successfully used dur? ing the Apollo-Soyuz mission. After the Apollo lunar program was terminated, the Sklab program began. Skylab provided the first opportunity since Apollo 9 to pursue a systematic study of the Earth from orbit. In support of this objective, an extensive remote sensing investigation, the Earth Resources Experiment Program (EREP), was carried out. The EREP facility onboard Skylab included six instruments that sensed the visible, infra? red and microwave regions of the electromagnetic spec- FIGURE 6.?Sharp color boundary between two mare (vol? canic rock, basalt) units in southern Mare Serenitatis. The darker, blue-gray unit in the bottom half of the photograph is older than the lighter, tan-gray unit north of it. Observable color differences of this type have been used to substantiate a relative-age scheme for the Moon's surface units. (NASA photographs AS17-150-23069) ?. 4 v ."?'"''?" FIGURE 7.?A view of the area on the rim of crater Shorty showing the highly publicized orange soil that the Apollo 17 crewmen found at the Taurus-Littrow site. The tripod-like object serves as a reference to establish local sun illumination angle, scale of photograph, and lunar surface color. This orange-tinted soil was also observed from lunar orbit during the same mission. (NASA photograph AS17-137-20990) NUMBER 1 FIGURE 8.?Orange-tinted soil was observed from lunar orbit in the Sulpicius Gallus region, over 600 km west of the Apollo 17 landing site. This photograph shows two craters similar in size (500 m diameter), one exhibiting a light- colored ejecta and the upper one orange-tinted ejecta. The difference is due to the fact that orange materials occur in the dark unit but not in the light-colored hills. (After Evans and El-Baz, 1973:28-23) trum. These included: (1) a multispectral array of six cameras each with a film/filter combination sensitive to a specific spectral band; (2) a high resolution Earth terrain camera; (3) an infrared spectrometer; (4) a multispectral scanner; (5) a microwave radi- ometer/scatterometer and altimeter; and (6) an L-Band radiometer. Handheld 70 and 35 mm cameras were also used by the Skylab astronauts to acquire photographs. At the end of the program, thousands of pictures of land, ocean, and weather features had been taken (NASA, 1974a). A visual observations program for the Earth was also performed for the first time on Skylab 4. This program combined pre-mission crew training with helpful onboard aids, such as maps and photographs, to obtain photographic and observational data of specific Earth features. Because of the long duration of that particular mission (84 days), it was possible to conduct repeated observations of the same area (Figure 9) . Observations on Skylab 4 and their docu? mentation with photographs proved to be a very worthwhile effort and resulted in significant findings (Kaltenbach, et al., 1974). "\ BHL >"'JSI BL % . t t td m?, ' -VO FIGURE 9.?Skylab 4 photographs of California showing San Francisco area, the Sacramento Valley, and the Sierra Nevadas. These two photographs, taken on different days and under different viewing conditions, reveal a number of interesting features: snow caps the Sierra Nevadas (above) and a low sun angle enhances faults and fractures. After the snow had melted (below) a higher sun angle emphasizes color while topography is subdued. (NASA photographs, (top) SL4-138-3843, (bottom) SL4-142-4532) 10 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE Detailed Objectives The aforementioned experiences of the United States' manned space flights proved that scientifically interesting features on the Earth and Moon could easily be studied from orbital altitudes. Space photo? graphs and astronaut observations have provided scientists with a new way of exploring and studying the Earth and have become basic tools in Earth re? sources investigations. As previously stated, one of the most obvious char? acteristics of orbital photographs is their large areal coverage. A single orbital photograph permits direct study of large structures, such as the San Andreas Fault system in California, and of broad distributions, such as snow-cover patterns in mountainous regions. Orbital photographs can also provide coverage of remote and inaccessible parts of the globe, like the Sahara Desert or the Pacific Ocean, where size makes conventional surveys impractical. Space pictures are particularly suited to a number of applications, in? cluding updating and correcting maps, monitoring Earth resources, studying dynamic geologic processes, and surveying ocean features. The Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) was ap? proved as a joint US/USSR venture in 1972. During the same year, the first of a series of satellites, then known as the Earth Resources Technology Satellite (ERTS) , was launched. The second in the series, now known as Landsat, established its orbit half a year prior to the flight of Apollo-Soyuz. These satel? lites can provide repetitive coverage of the entire globe every 18 days. The sensors on board the satel? lites generate images that are exceedingly useful in land and resource surveys, and particularly in studies of seasonal or annual variations (Williams and Carder, 1976). For this reason, the photographic objectives of the Apollo-Soyuz mission were limited to the documentation of astronaut visual observations, and the acquisition of oblique and high-resolution vertical color photographs that could not be obtained by the Landsat systems. On ASTP, the Earth Observations and Photography Experiment (designated MA-136 by NASA) pro? vided the first opportunity in two years to reexamine selected Earth features studied in the Skylab 4 visual observations program. Human observers possess several unique capabilities, including the extensive dynamic range and color sensitivity of the eye, and the speed with which the eye-brain system can interpret what is seen and distinguish what is significant. In fact, human observers in space can often see more color and textural variations than will be recorded on the best available photographic film. Therefore, the main objective of the Earth Observations and Photography Experiment was to use these unique capabilities of a trained observer to identify, describe, and photograph scientifically interesting features on the Earth's surface. Early in the planning phase, a team of experts was assembled to assist in the planning and execution of the ASTP Earth Observations and Photography Ex? periment. The team membership comprised 42 in? dividuals (Table 1), including myself as Principal Investigator (PI) and twelve co-investigators (CI ) . Many of the team members had participated in the Skylab 4 visual observations program and, thus, were familiar with the considerations involved in planning the experiment. The responsibilities of this group of experts included: (1) suggesting problems in the various disciplines that could best be solved with the help of orbital observations and photography; (2) participating in crew training with the aim of famil? iarizing the astronauts with the types of Earth features they would observe and photograph; (3) supporting realtime mission operations; and (4) analyzing the results of the experiment. Because of the short duration of the ASTP mission (only 9 days), the detailed objectives had to be speci? fied ahead of time. It was not practical to expect the astronauts to select investigation sites in realtime. Nor was it possible to conduct lengthy discussions between the astronauts and the Mission Control Cen? ter at Houston, Texas, as was previously done on Skylab 4. The crew had to follow specific instructions to observe each of the sites that were selected for detailed investigation. These sites were chosen on the basis of their value to ongoing research in the fields of geology, oceanography, hydrology, meteorology, and environmental science. GEOLOGY Features of interest to geologists were given the highest priority among the experiment objectives because most geological features are static and, there? fore, can be more reliably specified before the mission; hence, they are easier to recognize and locate from orbital altitudes. Another reason was that since color and texture are important factors in studying geo? logical features, the human eye can deal better with NUMBER 11 TABLE 1.?Earth observations team (from El-Baz and Mitchell, 1976) Name Apel, J. R. Barnes, J. C. 1 Black, P. G. Borstad, G. Breed, C. S.1 Brill, N. S. Campbell, W. J. Citron, R. Cousteau, J. Dietz, R.1 Dunkelman, L. ? El-Baz, F. Ewing, G. Holz, R. K. Hovis, W. A. Junghans, R. C. Kaltenbach, J. L. Lenoir, W. B. MacLeod, N. H. Maul, G. A.1 McEwen, M. C. McKee, E. D.1 McLafferty, S. Mitchell, D. A. Muehlberger, W. R. Murphy, J. A. Nagler, K. M. Odell, D. K. Pirie, D. M. Pisharoty, P. R. Pitts, D. E. Ramseier, R. 0. Sherman, J. W. Silver, L. T.1 Stevenson, R. E. Suliman, F. M. Swann, G. A. Vonder Haar, S. P. Wilmarth, V. R. Wolfe, R. Yentsch, C.1 Youssef, M. Discipline 0c eanography Snow mapping Meteorology Oceanography Deserts Red tide Hydrology Short-lived phenomena Sea farming Marine geology Atmosphere General 0c eanography Demography Oceanography Environment Skylab results Skylab results Deserts and agriculture Oceanography Skylab results Deserts General General Geology General Weather patterns Oceanography Oceanography Hydrology Color science Hydrology Meteorology Geology Oceanography Deserts Geology Oceanography Skylab results General Red tide Deserts Affiliation NOAA Environmental Research and Technology, Inc. NOAA Bellairs Research Institute, McGill University, Canada Museum of North Arizona and USGS Commonwealth of Massachusetts University of Puget Sound Smithsonian Institution Cousteau Society NOAA University of Arizona and GSFC Smithsonian Institution Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute University of Texas at Austin GSFC NOAA JSC JSC American University NOAA JSC USGS Smithsonian Institution Smithsonian Institution University of Texas at Austin Smithsonian Institution NOAA University of Miami Army Corps of Engineers, California ISRO University of Houston Department of the Environment, Canada NOAA California Institute of Technology Scripps Institute of Oceanography College of Education, Qatar USGS University of Southern California JSC Smithsonian Institution Bigelow Laboratory, Maine Ain Shams University, Egypt Co-Investigator "Principal Invest igator 12 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE them than can photographic film. Following are the specific geological features selected as objectives of the Apollo-Soyuz observations. Desert Colors and Landforms VARIATIONS IN THE COLOR OF DESERT SANDS.? Norris (1969) and others have indicated that desert sands become redder with time as the sand grains are coated with iron oxides. Several regions were studied to explore the possibility of establishing a color/age relationship within deserts of North Africa, the Ara? bian Peninsula, Australia, China, and the south? western United States. SAND MOVEMENT AND RESULTING LANDFORMS.? Sand movement and its effect on the desertification of land was studied. Emphasis was placed on the drought-stricken areas of sub-Saharan Africa. Dune shapes were studied as possible terrestrial analogs to wind-blown features on Mars (El-Baz, 1976). VEGETATION VERSUS MOVING SANDS.?Patterns of vegetation in desert areas were studied in the Lake Chad region and also in Algeria where a "Great Barrier" of trees was planted preventing shifting sands from encroaching on fertile soils. FEATURES OF THE WESTERN DESERT OF EGYPT.? This desert was selected for detailed investigation be? cause "the free interplay of sand and wind has been allowed to continue for a vast period of time, and here, if anywhere, it should be possible in the future to discover the laws of sand movement, and the growth of dunes" (Bagnold, 1933:121). Also the area was selected because groundtruth data would be pro? vided by a team of Egyptian geologists. Fracture Patterns and Earthquake Zones SAN ANDREAS FAULT SYSTEM.?As one of the most interesting systems of continental crustal fracturing, information was gathered on parts of the San Andreas Fault and its subsidiary fracture systems in southern California. Included in this effort were attempts to locate traces of older faults and rock units, difficult to recognize in ground investigations, in the foothill metamorphic range of the Sierra Nevadas. RED SEA AND LEVANTINE RIFTS.?Structures were studied and photographed along the Red Sea Rift starting with the Afar Triangle in eastern Africa. Of particular interest was its northern extension known as the Levantine Rift. This extends over 700 km from the Gulf of Aqaba northward into Turkey. CENTRAL AMERICAN STRUCTURES.?Several fault lines were investigated in Central America. Among these were faults in Guatemala and Mexico, which have been the sites of recent earthquakes. ANATOLIAN AND ALPINE FAULTS.?Similar investi? gations were conducted of the Anatolian Fault in the Caucasus Mountains region and the Alpine Fault of New Zealand. Information was collected on these fracture systems for a better understanding of the tec? tonic patterns of the Earth's crust. Growth of River Deltas Photographs of river deltas were required to com? pare with others taken a decade ago. Comparison of these photographs would help determine the rate of growth of the river deltas in question. Establishing the rate of growth is economically important since ancient deltaic sediments are often a site of gas and oil accumulations. Photographic targets included deltas of rivers, such as the Mississippi, Nile, Niger, Danube, and Zambezi. Mineral Alteration Zones As a test of the ability of a trained observer to search for mineral deposits from orbit, several mining localities were selected for observation. These included the Lake Superior mining district and the Bingham copper mine in the United States, the Sudbury mining area of Canada, and the El Teniente mining district in the Chilean Andes. Plumes of Active Volcanoes The distribution of volcanic ash and dust is a matter of great interest to volcanologists. Plumes emanating from volcanoes can be observed clearly from Earth orbit. The Apollo-Soyuz astronauts were alerted to the possibility of observing and photograph? ing plumes from Kilauea, Vesuvius, and Mt. Baker volcanoes. Circular Features of Impact Origin The final objective of geological interest was the search for circular structures that may be ancient meteoritic impact scars or astroblemes (Dietz, 1961). Photographs of astroblemes increase our knowledge NUMBER 1 13 of the interaction of the Earth and meteoritic bodies, and aid in the location of new areas for possible eco? nomic exploitation. (The Sudbury astrobleme in Canada supports a one-billion-dollar per year nickel mining industry.) Particular attention was given to little-known circular structures in Brazil. OCEANOGRAPHY Ocean features were also given considerable atten? tion on the Apollo-Soyuz mission. Skylab observations and, to a lesser degree, some Landsat imagery indi? cated that the ocean surface displays a plethora of features. Many of these, such as ocean currents and eddies, are important to the shipping and fishing in? dustries. The ocean observations listed below were made in support of investigations by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the U.S. Navy, and a few private research orga? nizations. Ocean Currents and Their Boundaries G U L F STREAM OF THE NORTHERN ATLANTIC.?The Gulf Stream was one object of study from the Apollo- Soyuz orbit. Of interest were its start at the western Caribbean Sea, the Gulf Loop Current and its con? tinuation as the Florida Current, the main part of the Gulf Stream off the east coast of the United States, and the confluence of the Gulf Stream with the Labrador Current in the Northern Atlantic. The Gulf Stream was recognized by the difference in color from the surrounding water due .to its higher temperature. FALKLAND CURRENT OF THE SOUTHERN ATLANTIC. ?The Falkland Current was observed and photo? graphed on Skylab mission 4 (Figure 10). It was obvious to the eye and also on film because of a greenish color due to a high concentration of plankton. The current was selected for additional observations because of its significance to both the shipping and fishing industries. Of interest were its boundaries off the coast of southern South America and its conflu? ence with the Brazil Current farther north. CURRENTS OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN.?Several cur? rents that ring the Pacific Ocean were the object of study on the ASTP mission. These included the Hum- boldt Current off South America, currents off the islands of New Zealand, the Kuroshio Current off the Japanese islands, and the California Current off the southwestern United States. CURRENTS NEAR AFRICA.?The Guinea Current was also selected for observation on the Apollo-Soyuz mission. The Arabian Sea, where no specific currents were previously observed, was selected for observation to look for any visible current boundaries. Internal Waves in the Oceans Internal waves are interesting features that have puzzled oceanographers since they were first recog? nized in Landsat images (Apel and Charnell, 1974). They are not related to surface waves, but occur deep within the ocean. These waves extend for hundreds of kilometers. They are believed to occur at temperature or density discontinuities between water layers, and characteristically have a wavelength of a few kilo? meters. They appear to be visible from above due to the accumulation of scum lines atop their crests. Areas selected for internal wave investigations included the Mediterranean Sea, the Atlantic Ocean west of Spain, the waters between the two islands of New Zealand, and the waters of the Gulf of California. Ocean Eddies and Gyres EDDIES.?An eddy is usually a circular mass of water that is either colder or warmer than the sur? rounding waters. Location and characteristics of eddies are important to fishing and to studies of sound propagation through waters (and thus for submarine navigation, hiding, and detection). A semi? permanent, 200 km wide eddy off the east coast of Australia was the subject of investigation during the Apollo-Soyuz mission. This study was in support of a joint research program by Australia, New Zealand, and the United States (thus the nickname ANZUS Eddy). Smaller eddies were sought in the Caribbean Sea, the Coral Sea, and the Mediterranean Sea. Eddies that were first observed on Skylab 4, were visible either because of a different water color or because clouds usually encircle them, both due to a difference in water temperature (Figure 11) GYRES.?These are small bodies of water that usually spin off a fast moving current. Gyres were observed off the California coast, in the Gulf of Mexico, off the Gulf Stream, and in the Mediter? ranean Sea. 14 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE FIGURE 10.?The Falkland Current off the coast of Argentina was easily observed by Skylab 4 crewmen because of the vividly colored plankton blooms. These blooms often occur along current boundaries where water upwelling brings nutrients up from the ocean depths. (NASA photographs, (left) SL4-138-3843, (right) SL4-142-4534) NUMBER 1 15 FIGURE 11.?Skylab photograph of a cold-water eddy in the Atlantic Ocean east of the Bahamas. Convective cumulus clouds encircle the eddy and make it easily observable. (NASA photograph SL2-81-225) Upwellings and Bow Waves Around several islands in the Pacific Ocean two phenomean were previously observed. The first is that colder water rising from the ocean depths brings nutrients and often appears darker than the sur? rounding water. The other phenomenon is that of bow waves that indicate the direction of water motion where no current boundaries are visible. Islands selected for observing water upwellings and bow waves include the Galapagos, the Azores, and the islands off the California coast. River Sediments Major rivers discharge sediments in varying quan? tities into the oceans. The water of one river in par? ticular, the Orinoco, which drains parts of northern South America, is usually saturated with humic com? pounds. The observation program on the ASTP mission included investigation of the color, texture, nature, and extent of the yellow-tinted water near the mouth of the Orinoco River. HYDROLOGY Problems of interest to hydrologists include several that could be investigated from Earth orbit. Among these problems are the extent of snow cover and the nature of snow melt patterns; the circulation of water within closed basins; river sinuosity and drainage patterns; and the quality and distribution of icebergs that break off the Arctic and Antarctic ice packs. The following items were considered for observations and photography on the Apollo-Soyuz mission. Snow Cover Mapping T H E HIMALAYAS.?The Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) participated in the Earth Ob? servations and Photography Experiment by request? ing the acquisition of data on the amount of snow 16 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE cover in the northwestern Himalayas. The informa? tion was required to estimate water runoff during the summer for both flood control and water use in irrigation. T H E CASCADES.?Information was sought on the amount and extent of snow cover on the Cascade Mountains in the northwestern United States. The information was necessary to conclude studies related to the utility of snow cover as the source of fresh water in that region. O T H E R MOUNTAINOUS REGIONS.?To allow com? parative studies, snow cover was observed and photo? graphed in the regions of the Wasatch, Alps, and Caucasus mountains. Attempts were also made to photograph the edge of Antarctica and, if possible, to study large icebergs that break off from the Antarctic ice pack. METEOROLOGY In support of ongoing investigations of the atmos? phere of the Earth and its weather patterns, meteoro? logical objectives were considered for the Apollo- Soyuz mission. Two items of interest to meteorologists were emphasized: cloud features and tropical storms. Photography of the very bright clouds was inten? tionally underexposed to increase contrast and make cloud textures more visible. Closed-Basin Water Circulation Utah's Great Salt Lake was selected for study of water circulation, or lack of it, within a closed basin. The construction of a railroad causeway in 1956 virtually divided the lake into two bodies (Figure 12). The northern half of the lake received no fresh water and its increased salinity resulted in the growth of an algae that tinted the water with a reddish color. Drainage from the nearby Wasatch range drastically increased the water level fluctuations in the southern half. The circulation of water within the lake, which might be indicated by sediment plumes, was an object of study on ASTP. River Sinuosity in South America The sinuosity of major rivers in central South America and the patterns of their tributaries was selected for visual study on the Apollo-Soyuz mission because of importance in predicting future river courses. Also photographs were requested of a region recently chosen as a site for constructing a dam along the course of the Parana River. Icebergs and the Edge of Antarctica Icebergs have received considerable attention in the past few years as a possible source of fresh water if "towed" to arid regions (Campbell, et al., 1974). This is rather significant when one considers the fact that 88 percent of the fresh water on Earth is frozen at the North and South Poles. Information was obtained on the size, number, and characteristics of icebergs, particularly in the Southern Hemisphere. Cloud Features Although clouds can be a nuisance when they inhibit observation of what is beneath them, they display interesting patterns that shed some light on the nature of the Earth's atmosphere, hydrosphere, and even lithosphere. Of special interest were: (1) Benard cells that form over the open ocean; (2) Von Karman vortices that occur over isolated topographic highs on land and particularly over islands in the ocean; (3) cloud waves over mountainous regions that indicate wind direction and velocity; and (4) convective cloud features that are usually associated with thunderstorms. Storm Centers Causes for the development, circulation, and dis? sipation of tropical storms (hurricanes in the Atlantic and typhoons in the Pacific) are not yet fully under? stood by meteorologists. The Skylab 4 crew provided the first photographs indicating that storm centers are not cylindrical but conical in shape; the base of the cone being at the top of the cloud mass (Figure 13). Additional observations and stereo photographs were required for use in the construction of com? puterized models of severe storm development and dissipation. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE Environmental scientists concern themselves with changes in our surroundings. These changes can be natural (such as sediments in rivers, or red tide blooms in coastal sea waters) or man-made (such as pollution from chemical industries and oil spills). NUMBER 1 17 FIGURE 12.?Utah's Great Salt Lake showing the difference in color between its northern and southern halves, which are separated by a railroad causeway. Most of the fresh water drained from the Wasatch Mountains on the east side of the lake reaches the southern but not the northern half. The increased salinity in the northern half encourages the accumulation of a red-tinted algae, giving it a distinct color. (NASA photograph SL3-116-1996) 18 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE FIGURE 13.?Near-vertical Skylab photograph of Hurricane Ellen taken on 21 September 1973. This photograph provided the first evidence that the eye of a tropical storm is conical with the diameter of the eye much larger at the top of the storm than at the bottom. (NASA photograph SL3-122-2602) NUMBER 1 19 Natural Pollution RED TIDE.?The term "red tide" describes the reddish tint in coastal waters resulting from the pres? ence of a microscopic dinoflagellate, particularly the poisonous variety (Yentsch, 1974). This organism contaminates fish and shellfish, and affects the respira? tory system of humans that ingest it. Therefore, it constitutes a major health hazard, particularly off the coast of New England. Investigations of red tide were conducted primarily in support of research at the Bigelow Laboratory, Boothbay Harbor, Maine. Similar work was conducted in cooperation with the Depart? ment of Public Health of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. Observations of possible red tide in? festations were also made off the west coast of Florida and near California. SEDIMENT PLUMES.?Rivers unload their sediments in bays, channels, and sounds. Sediment boundaries and dissipation rates were studied in Puget Sound, the Chesapeake Bay, and the English Channel. Pollution by Human Activities INDUSTRIAL AND HUMAN WASTES.?Effects of chemical pollution are very obvious from orbital al? titudes. Astronauts are usually able to locate and trace these effects to the source of pollution plumes in the water or in the atmosphere (such as gas fires in oil fields). Water pollution was investigated in the Potomac River and in the Boston and London Harbors. O I L SLICKS.?The International Maritime Com? mission cooperated in reporting oil slicks in the northern Atlantic along major shipping routes. Local, small oil spills were also described and photographed on the Apollo-Soyuz mission. beds are extremely flat, the areas is used for testing and racing automobiles, with a single track being favored. The astronauts were requested to locate this track against the Lake's bright background as a test of their ability to discern linear patterns from orbit. Glaciers and Firn Lines Another test of the eye's sensitivity to a bright scene was that of glaciers in snow-covered areas. Glacier ice, since it is denser, is less reflective than snow. If glaciers were recognized the astronauts used an enlarging telescope to see if they could detect the firn line separating exposed ice from snow-covered ice of the same glacier. Nazca Markings The markings left by ancient inhabitants of the Peruvian coastal plain were also the object of visual acuity tests. These Nazca lines were interpreted by some to have been constructed for use by "ancient astronauts" (see Mclntyre, 1975). If so, "modern astronauts" should be able to recognize these mark? ings (as will be discussed later they did not, although the viewing conditions were not very favorable). Pyramids of Giza The three Great Pyramids of Giza, southwest of Cairo, are the largest buildings of ancient man. They have never been seen from Earth orbit, most probably because the reflectivity of their materials is nearly identical to that of surrounding rocky plains. With this in mind, and with hints as to where to look, the ASTP astronauts were asked to find these structures. VISUAL ACUITY To determine the limits of visual acuity of orbiting astronauts, the following targets were selected for visual observation under varying conditions. Lake Bonneville Racetrack Utah's Lake Bonneville is a dry lake that is covered by highly reflective salt deposits. Because the salt Bioluminescence Certain biota, including microscopic organisms and a type of jellyfish, luminesce in the dark. High con? centrations of these biota exist in the Red Sea and the Persian (Arabian) Gulf. The astronauts were requested to attempt observing patterns of bio? luminescence during nighttime in the two sites. This was a test of the sensitivity of the human eye to a faint glow on the Earth's surface. Astronaut Training As stated before, the experience gained during previous space missions showed that astronauts did significantly better in Earth observations when they were thoroughly familiar with the details of the specific tasks. Therefore, to insure the scientific rele? vance of astronaut observations, an extensive train? ing program was initiated one year before the mission. Crew training was divided into two separate but complementary parts consisting of classroom lectures and aircraft flights or "flyover" exercises. Classroom Instruction Before the ASTP training program started, the American members of the Apollo-Soyuz crew attended the Skylab 4 visual observation debriefings. The debriefings were held from 12 through 20 March 1974 and covered observations of oceanographic, atmospheric, and terrain features and phenomena. These debriefings proved very helpful in familiarizing the ASTP crew with the scope of Earth observations from orbit and allowing them to make their own judgments on the relative merits of observations in each of the various scientific fields. For example, following the Skylab 4 debriefings, the ASTP crew indicated that studies of vegetation patterns and cultural features ought to be given lower priorities on their mission. The crew recognized that studies in both fields are best made through the use of repeti? tive gathering of data by unmanned satellites, such as Landsat. Due to the short duration of the ASTP mission (and the resulting limited ground coverage), all observation tasks had to be scheduled in the Flight Plan, leaving relatively little potential for selecting "targets-of-opportunity" in realtime. For this reason, it was important to familiarize the astronauts with the details of the observation tasks and to train them to be good observers. The objectives of the classroom instruction program were as follows: (1) to review visual observations programs conducted on previous Earth orbital missions, particularly Skylab 4; (2) to instruct the crew on background information and basic theory in the fields of investigation: geology (including desert study), oceanography, hydrology, meteorology, and environmental science; (3) to familiarize the astronauts with the scientific termi? nology used in each of these fields so that they would be able to enhance the content of their communica? tions during the mission; (4) to discuss details of observation sites and their importance to ongoing investigations in the earth sciences; (5) to familiarize the astronauts with the mission groundtracks and the use of landmarks to minimize the time required for site recognition; (6) to explain the scientific and operational requirements for each observation site and photographic target. These objectives were dis? cussed in detail with the crew and a mutually ac? ceptable schedule was set up (Table 2). This schedule divided the allocated classroom training time into two parts, one for each half of the training year. During the first six months of classroom instruc? tion, the first three objectives listed above were ac? complished, namely, Skylab 4 results, background information, and terminology familiarization. Experi? ment team members who briefed the crew were familiar with manned space missions in general and with astronaut training in particular. To assure the continuity of the briefings and to make a complete record of what the crew learned, either I or one of my staff attended the briefings. To reinforce knowledge gained from these train? ing sessions, a training booklet was prepared for the astronauts. This "Earth Observations Training Book" was issued for internal NASA distribution on 22 April 1975. Its contents were based on the classroom train? ing sessions and were assembled by Robert Wolfe, Smithsonian Institution, and Ron Weitenhagen, John? son Space Center, Houston. The booklet contained sections dealing with background information on four fields of study: geology (fault systems and drain? age patterns) ; deserts (arid lands, sand seas, and dune types) ; oceanography (coastal and open ocean) ; and hydrology (snow cover and glaciers). In addition to the definition of terms and explanation of theories, the training booklet included numerous illustrations and orbital photographs of the Earth (Figure 14). During the second half of the year, classroom train? ing was dedicated to the study of specific targets. 20 NUMBER 1 21 TABLE 2.?Classroom training sessions (from El-Baz and Mitchell, 1976) Date 5 Aug ?4 16 Aug 74 10 Oct 74 18 Oct 7 6 Nov 15 Nov 3 Dec 20 Dec 7 Jan 31 Jan 5 Mar 18 Mar 74 74 74 74 75 75 75 75 19 Mar 75 1 Apr 75 9 Apr 75 20 May 75 2 Jun 20 Jun 8 Jul 13 Jul 75 75 75 75 Subject Plan for Earth observations and photography Global tectonics and astro? blemes Background, terminology, and Skylab 4 results (oceano? graphy) Snow and ice Southwest U. S. tectonics Site selection procedures Ocean currents and eddies Sites for observation African rift system and Central America Deserts and sand dune patterns Cloud features and tropical storms Groundtracks and sites Onboard site book Visual observation sites Ocean observation tasks Groundtracks and sites Groundtracks and sites Review of observation tasks Review of observation tasks Review of observation tasks Review of observation tasks Review of observation tasks Lecturer El-Baz, F. Dietz, R. Vonder Haar, Barnes, J. C Campbell, Raraseier, Silver, L. T El-Baz, F. Maul, G. A. Stevenson, R Ewlng, G. Muehlberger, McKee, E. D. Breed, C. Black, P. G. El-Baz, F. El-Baz, F. El-Baz, F. Oceanography El-Baz, F. El-Baz, F. El-Baz, F. El-Baz, F. El-Baz, F. El-Baz, F. El-Baz, F. S. P- i W. J., and R. 0. E., and W. R. and S. team The first three months of this period included dis? cussion of sites by several team members. However, the crew preferred that the last three months of the training program be devoted only to briefings by the author. This made it possible for the crew to "stabi? lize" the terminology, and to discuss only the observa? tion tasks that were included in the flight plan. The first 18 sessions were held in Building 4 of the Johnson Space Center (JSC) in Houston, Texas. The 19th session was held while the crew was quarantined at JSC (Figure 15), and the final review session was conducted at the Kennedy Space Center (KSC) in Cape Canaveral, Florida, two days before launch. The training sessions were usually attended by both the prime and backup crews. Some of the support crew members who would later serve as capsule communicators (Capcom) attended a number of the sessions, particularly the reviews of observation tasks. It was necessary to familiarize the Capcom with the experiment objectives and scientific terminology; the Capcom served as the only link between the scientists and the astronauts during the mission. One session was normally given in the morning with either the prime or the backup crew in attendance and a second was given in the afternoon for the other crew mem? bers. Each session had an average length of two and one-half to three hours. Because of the nature of their job, the astronauts were used to briefings. They were most attentive when the briefings were rather informal and when there was an exchange of comments and questions between briefer and crew. At the beginning of the program, some crew members questioned the value of Earth observations on such a short duration mission and were skeptical of their ability to make significant con- 22 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE RED SEA *ifcOTC 42 NILE RIVER COLORADO RIVER MISSISSIPPI RIVER FIGURE 14.?Three types of river deltas. When a river flows into a standing body of water, it loses its energy by friction. The suspended material carried by the river is deposited to form a delta. The coarser material settles first in dipping layers or beds and builds the delta seaward. Finer material is carried further and deposited in thin, horizontal beds. (From the "Earth Observations Training Book") NUMBER 1 23 FIGURE. 15.?The three American ASTP prime crew astronauts during an Earth observations briefing by the author (wearing face mask). They are (left to right) Apollo Commander Thomas P. Stafford, Command Module Pilot Vance D. Brand, and Docking Module Pilot D. K. (Deke) Slayton. The briefing was held while the astronauts were quarantined in Building 5, JSC, and thus the face mask. (NASA press release photograph S-75-28230; photo courtesy of A. R. Patnesky, JSC photographer) tributions to satellite imagery. Thus, it was important for the briefers to explain the reasons for doing research in their fields of study and to relate how the crew could make specific contributions to this research. A summary was prepared after each of the ses? sions that dealt with background information and terminology familiarization. These summaries were mailed to each of the crew within a week to serve as memory-joggers and a permanent record. They also were distributed to crew members who were not able to attend a particular session. SUMMARY OF INDIVIDUAL SESSIONS The author gave the first lecture to the crew to introduce the Earth Observations and Photography 24 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE Experiment. Examples of Skylab photographs were shown to illustrate the five fields of study planned for the experiment. The lecture was followed by a dis? cussion of an astronaut's ability to perform visual observations and photography. A plan for crew train? ing was presented that called for about 60 hours of classroom training, in addition to at least two flyover exercises. The second training session included a two-hour lecture on global tectonics and a one-hour lecture on astroblemes. Both were given by Dr. Robert Dietz of NOAA. The global tectonics lecture covered the theories of continental drift and plate tectonics. It was stated that the Earth's crust is made up of dis? crete, rigid blocks that move relative to each other and to the Earth's spin axis. The products of plate motion (transform faults, subduction zones, and sea floor spreading) were also discussed. It was stressed that the ability of the human eye to trace similar rocks, colors, and structures across different conti? nents, and to observe rift zones from Earth orbit would further enhance the study of plate tectonics. The last hour of the session was devoted to astro? blemes and meteorite craters. The discussion included many known and several possible examples of astro? blemes, such as the 1.7 billion year old Sudbury structure of Canada. Dietz also noted that most known astroblemes would be visible from orbit, and that a trained observer would have an opportunity to dis? cover unknown locations. The topic of the third lecture was "background terminology and Skylab 4 results in oceanography." The lecture was given by Stephen VonderHaar of the University of Southern California. He first discussed examples of ocean features in Skylab 4 photographs; specifically, sediment patterns in the Gulf of Cali? fornia, and plankton blooms, eddies, and internal waves around New Zealand. The background and terminology briefing was divided into two segments: coastal zones and the open ocean. The discussion of coastal zones covered the topics of sediment patterns, surface waves, and types of coastlines. It was em? phasized that coastal processes have a direct impact on navigation, fishing, pollution, and coastal living conditions. The phenomena of upwelling, ocean cur? rents, and cold water eddies were explained during the discussion of the open ocean. Snow and ice were the topics of the fourth session. Mr. James Barnes of Environmental Research and Technology, Inc., Lexington, Massachusetts, dis? cussed the importance of snow and ice in affecting the albedo of the Earth (which influences changes in both short range.weather and long range climatology) and acting as a hydrological reservoir that, when released, affects conditions of flooding, irrigation, and hydroelectric power. The synoptic view gained from Earth orbit and the astronaut's ability to distinguish clouds from snow cover would greatly aid in deter? mining the extent of snow cover and snow melt patterns. These factors have direct impact on the knowledge of how much, when, and where water is released from snow. Dr. William Campbell of USGS, Tacoma, Wash? ington, briefed the crew on glaciers and icebergs (Figure 16). Using the Southern Cascades Glacier as an example, he explained how glaciers form and move, and how to distinguish glacier ice and snow from Earth orbit. He stated that a team of five scientists planned to provide groundtruth on the Southern Cascades Glacier during the ASTP mission. Data were to be collected to correlate with orbital photographs of the glacier and provide a frame of reference for distinguishing glaciers in remote areas of the world. Dr. Campbell also covered the study of floating icebergs near the polar regions. Ice, which is the most common "rock" on Earth, is also the least used natural resource. He discussed the economics of "towing" floating icebergs from Antarctica for use as fresh water supplies. For example, an iceberg 4 X 10 km would lose 20 percent of its mass in the 7000 km long trip from Antarctica to Australia. It would cost 0.001 dollars per meter width for delivery. Sightings of large icebergs on the ASTP mission were, therefore, expected to provide much needed information on size, abundance, and distribution of tabular icebergs. Finally, Dr. Rene Ramseier of the Canadian Depart? ment of Environment discussed the need for photog? raphy of the ice sheet and ice pack of Antarctica, especially near the ice edge. During the fifth training session, Dr. Leon Silver of the California Institute of Technology discussed the tectonic setting of the southwestern United States. His briefing included the major fault systems of Southern California and Baja California, as well as the geologic problem of desert varnish in the Mojave Desert. He emphasized that no "great discoveries" were expected, but that little bits of data would be integrated with current knowledge in order to augment the constructive growth of models of plate NUMBER 1 25 FIGURE 16.?Alpine glaciers on Mt. Olympus in Washington State. The approximate limit of firn lines is easily distinguished as a color boundary. (Photograph Washington 1-B, USGS Professional Paper 590) tectonics. For practical applications during the train? ing flight over California, Dr. Silver also discussed how faults may be recognized by the presence of a scarp, or by differences in color, vegetation, or rock and soil on either side of a lineament. During the remainder of the session, I discussed with the crew the rationale of site selection, the onboard orbital charts, and the problem of selecting colors for the color wheel. Ocean currents were the topic of the second session in oceanography. Dr. George Maul of NOAA dis? cussed the dynamics of the Gulf Stream, internal waves, the Coriolis Force, and the Pacific Equatorial Zone. Dr. Robert Stevenson of the Office of Naval Research's Scripps Institute briefed the crew on the significance of sun glitter or sunglint and the utility of water color in recognizing boundaries in the ocean. He discussed using sediment, plankton, and ice as current tracers; and distinguishing clouds that form around cold water eddies from Benard cells. For the purpose of ocean observations during training flights, Dr. Stevenson also discussed the interactions of ocean currents along the coast of Southern California. The seventh training session, given by Dr. William Muehlberger of the University of Texas at Austin, covered the tectonic setting of two areas: the African 26 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE Rift zone and the fracture systems of Central America. East Africa is significant to the theory of plate tectonics in that it is one of two places in the world where rifting can be observed on land. His detailed discus? sion of this area included the down-dropped, lake- filled valleys of the southern zone; the Afar Triangle, which is an area of spreading and crustal buildup in three directions; the sense of movement of the Arabian subplate; and the extension of the Red Sea Rift north of the Sea of Galilee. Central America represents a complex tectonic setting, which, as Dr. Muehlberger discussed, includes the line of volcanoes that parallel the offshore trench along the Pacific coast; the north- south valley on the Istmo de Tehuantepec, and the east-west trending line of volcanoes west of that valley; and the Bartlett Fault running from the east end of Cuba across the Caribbean Sea and through Guate? mala. Deserts and sand dunes were the topics of the eighth training session. Dr. Edwin McKee of the USGS in Denver, Colorado, discussed the processes of dune formation and the resulting internal struc? ture of dunes. Carol Breed of the Museum of Northern Arizona, now with the USGS, briefed the crew on the geographical locations of world deserts and on a classification scheme of dune types based on the number of slip faces. Observations during the ASTP mission were to include changes in type, size, spacing, and color of dunes within dune fields, character of interdune areas, any barriers such as lakes or moun? tains, and color comparison between individual deserts. The final session of the general background and terminology series was on meteorology. Dr. Peter Black of the Pennsylvania State University (now with NOAA) briefed the crew on the structure of hurri? canes and tropical storms, and the requirement to obtain photographs of scientific value. The need for stereophotography was emphasized for the purpose of viewing features in three dimensions. The ability to map the topography of a storm would allow meteorologists to improve theories and build better computer models of how storms form and dissipate. Because the short duration of the ASTP mission meant a limited number of passes over each site, the remaining eleven sessions were used to train the crew members on how to recognize the sites on first approach. This was accomplished by careful review of the groundtracks and through use of maps and displays of previously obtained photographs of these sites. During the first three sessions I discussed the groundtracks, the selected sites, and the "Earth Ob? servations Book" (Appendix 3). During the fourth session, Drs. Maul and Stevenson joined in discussing the ocean observation tasks with the crew. Alex Maelenhoff of the Office of Naval Research, Scripps Institute, was also present and reviewed the broad aspects of plate tectonics and emphasized the need for photography of the Himalayan and Atlas moun? tain ranges. The remaining seven sessions were devoted to re? views of observation tasks. During most of these ses? sions, the crew was divided into three groups?Apollo commanders (AC), command module pilots (CP) , and docking module pilots (DP)?to allow discussion of individual tasks. These review sessions recapitulated the specific observation requirements, elucidated the language of questions in the "Earth Observations Book" that was to be carried onboard the spacecraft, and increased the astronauts' knowledge of the sites and their surroundings. The ASTP classroom training program was very successful. Its scope satisfied both the crew and Principal Investigator. At the end of the training pro? gram it was possible for any crew member to dis? cuss all the important questions relative to a site assigned to him without referring to any of the on? board aids. This made it easier for the astronauts to perform their tasks during the mission when there was little time to read the instructions or to check the maps. GROUND MOTION SIMULATIONS Every astronaut who has orbited the Earth has always been amazed by the speed at which the scenery goes by. They are amazed regardless of how much training they receive and how many postmission crew debriefings they attend. We at? tempted to prepare the Apollo-Soyuz crew by making films of the Earth's surface to simulate the exact motion of ground scenes on their flight. This was done in cooperation with Mr. John Massey, Concept Verification and Test of the Special Projects Office, George C. Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Alabama. The films simulated the appearance of the Earth from orbit, using as a base either photographs or maps, with the approximate velocities and view? ing angles of seven ASTP orbital revolutions. The 16 mm films were shipped to Houston, but unfortu- NUMBER 1 27 nately, the crew never did get to review or use them due to lack of time. These films might have proved useful to the crew, particulary since during the flight, they had difficulty recognizing some targets due to the ASTP's low (fast) orbit. Training Flights The most realistic simulation training is from high? speed, high-altitude aircraft. Astronauts have access to such aircraft and use them in connection with other aspects of their pre-mission training to round out their total training effort. Aircraft training flights, known simply as "flyovers," are the best way of providing an astronaut with ex? perience in making meaningful observations. During the Apollo program, astronaut training for visual ob? servations from lunar orbit included a few flyover exercises in both low-flying and high-altitude aircraft. These were undertaken by the command module pilots, particularly of the last three Apollo missions (El-Baz and Worden, 1972; Mattingly, El-Baz, and Laidley, 1972; Evans and El-Baz, 1973). The flyovers significantly increased both the knowledge of the astronauts and their confidence in their own abilities as "scientific observers." The task of performing Earth observations on Sky? lab 4 was accomplished without the benefit of flyover exercises. This was because the observations program was implemented only a short period before the mis? sion and, thus, the Skylab astronauts received only classroom training. However, self-taught, on-the-job training was accomplished during the first two or three weeks of the 84 day mission. A program of training flights was established mid- TABLE 3.?Flyover exercises (see Table 5 for explanation of site numbers) (from El-Baz and Mitchell, 1976) Flyover Houston to Los Angeles California Gulf Coast Florida East Coast Southwestern United States Northwestern United States Observation targets Texas coastal plain Karst topography Basin and range topography Volcanic features Sonora and Mohave deser ts (site 2A) San Andreas Fault system (site 2A) San Andreas Fault (site 2A) Garlock Fault (site 2A) Desert varnished hills (site 2A) Sand dunes in the Algodones Desert Ocean features in waters off California (site 2A) Coastal sediments Mississippi River Delta Gulf Loop Current (site 5A) Red tide off the western coast of Florida (site 5E) Gulf Stream (site 5B) Red tide (site 5E) Gulf Stream (site 5B) Sediment and pollution in Chesapeake Bay (site 5G) Internal waves Sand dunes on Cape Cod Red tide off Massachusetts and Maine (site 5F) Dune patterns at White Sands and Great Sand Dunes National Monuments Circular s t ructures in the San Juan Mountains Copper mines Fault systems in northern California (site 2 l / 3 SCALE HGA: REACQ, NARROW URINE DUMP. Pg S / l - 2 8 9E -1 : | * -I - X 98 EARTH OBS (VISUAL OBS) EARTH 08S (MAPPING) EAT PERIOD X M I S S I O N ASTP E D I T I O N FINAL P U B L I C A T I O N D A T E MAY 1 5 , 1975 P A G E 4 . 3 - 9 FIGURE 31.?Example of the ASTP flight plan. For description of entries refer to the text. 48 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE TABLE 6.?Planned assignments of experiment tasks to Apollo astronauts (see Table 4 for mapping passes, Table 5 for visual observations targets, and abbreviations list for crew members) (from El-Baz and Mitchell, 1976) Revolu- 15 17 39 40 42 45 46 64 71 72 73 74 78 79 88 90 104 106 107 108 123 124 134 135 Mapping passes No. Ml M2, M3 M4 M5 M6 M7 M8, M9 M10 Mil Crew- member AC DP DP DP AC DP AC CP DP Visual observation targets No. 5A, 5B, 5C 12A, 1, 3A, 2A, 10A, 10B, 10C, 9A, 9B 8A, 3A, 9H, 91, 50, 5A, 5B, 5F, 2E, 4D 11C, 11B, 3A 9C, 9D, 9E, 9F, 12, 8A, 9H, 91, 3A, 9K, 9L 7B, 7C, 6A, 6B 3C, 4A 11A, 11B, 3A 8B, 8C, 8D, 8E, 50, 5A, 5B, 5G, 7A, 7D, 7E 3B, 2B, 2E, 4D 2C, 2D 3C, 4B 11D 4A, 4C, 4D 7F, ?G, 6A, 6B, 3B, 5A, 5G, 5F, 4C, 10D, 9J 5C 9G 9J 3A, 5F, 9M, 6A, 5C 10E 9K, 9L 5C, 6A, 9P 9N, 9P %, 90, 9P Crew- member DP CP DP DP DP DP CP CP CP DP AC AC DP DP AC DP AC CP CP CP DP CP AC CP """Listed i n o rde r of miss ion performance. DP-* CP-D Rev. 71 M7 i ?MAPPING CAMERA CONFIGURATION: CM5/BLACK/60/CT04-BRKT, IVL 10 (f5.6.1/125). 84FR ?USE VOICE RECORDER FOR VOICE COMMENTS |]_*9C START ("8:'2:00) I I I I'l I I'l 1 1 i H - r - > _ *MAPPING EXP CHG A: ( f5 .6 .1 /250 ) AT 118:16:00 - 0 9D -an - ? 9 F ?fi MAPPING EXP CHG B: ( f 5 .6 .1 /125 ) AT 118:24:00 9G M7 STOP (118:26:00) LEAVE BLACK HOC IN WINDOW FIGURE 32.?Example of the experiment time line from the ASTP "Earth Observations Book." For description of entries refer to the text. Figure 32 gives the t ime line for exper iment activi? ties on revolution 71 . I t includes all the information needed to operate the m a p p i n g camera?if you read NASA-ese, t ha t is! Visual observation targets are listed, a l though specific details on observational and photographic tasks are given in the second section of the book. O n the revolution 71 time line, all starred comments refer to the m a p p i n g pass, M 7 , which was the responsibility of the D P , Deke Slayton. T h e mapp ing camera configuration is given as : C M 5 / B L A C K / 60 / C T 0 4 - B R K T , I V L 10 (f5.6, 1 /125) , 84FR. This told Slayton the following: CM5 Use spacecraft (side) window number 5 BLACK Use the black-painted (mapping) camera 60 Attach the 60 mm lens to said camera CT04 Attach film magazine labeled CT04 to camera BRKT Camera should be attached to a bracket-mount NUMBER 1 49 IVL 10 Automatic intervalometer should be set at 10 seconds f5.6 Lens should be set at f/stop 5.6 1/125 Shutter speed is to be 1/125 of a second 84FR The camera will use 84 frames on this pass The time to activate the mapping camera is given as "M7 START." If all goes well the mapping camera would then continue to take pictures auto? matically every 10 seconds, until turned off at the time marked "M7 STOP." If the camera settings need to be adjusted during the pass, the time of change and the new exposure settings are indicated. Information in the second section of the "Earth Observations Book" pertains to specific visual obser? vation targets and is arranged according to site num? bers. For each site, a summary page with a map dis? played the revolution groundtracks of all visual ob? servation passes over that site. These groundtracks are vertical projections onto the Earth's surface of the spacecraft's flight path. For example, on revolu? tion 71, all the visual observation targets were in "Site 9: Africa and Europe." The summary page for Site 9 (Figure 33) shows the revolution 71 ground- track (solid lines) and the location of visual observa? tion targets (broken lines). It also shows the center line of viewing from spacecraft window 3, in the mapping attitude. (While the spacecraft is in Earth observation attitude, the center line of the same window, CM3, would be identical to the revolution groundtrack (Figure 30). One of the visual observation targets on revolution 71 was "9E: Oweinat Mountain" (Figure 34). This mountain is located in the extreme southwestern corner of Egypt in a remote and almost inaccessible desert region. To help the crew locate the target, the revolution 71 groundtrack was plotted on an oblique Skylab photograph (SL3-115-1887) of the area. Observational and photographic tasks were listed at the bottom of the page. In this case, the crew was asked to obtain photographs and to look for struc? tural features and oxidation zones on the mountain. The handheld camera data are given in the same format as the mapping camera data described above. The next visual observations target, 9F, is also indi? cated so that the astronaut does not have to refer back to his flight plan or summary timeline to figure out what comes next. As the mission progressed, many notations had to be added to the original art of the book (Appendix 3) , particularly of those features that were not familiar to the crew. Therefore, the illustrations represent an evolutionary progression of notations superimposed on the original visual aids. The last section of the "Earth Observations Book" served as a reference. It included maps of the dis? tribution of volcanoes, ocean currents, the anticipated July cloud cover, etc.; and diagrams of various Earth features such as drainage patterns, ocean phenomena, dune types, and faults. Although it was never used during the mission, it was practical to include this data as a memory jogger. ORBITAL CHART On previous missions, astronauts carried a map of the world with a transparent overlay of one orbital track that could be moved to any specific revolution position. For the Apollo-Soyuz mission, I recom? mended a map with all orbital tracks indicated. The orbital chart was thus prepared and showed the sun? lit parts of each revolution (Figure 35). Revolution numbers were placed on the corresponding tracks. This chart was useful during pre-mission training and during the flight. WORLD M A P PACKAGE A package of world maps was also included in the flight data file. The package consisted of seventeen 1:10,000,000 scale geographical maps. These maps were photo-reduced from the "Global Navigation Charts" published by the Defense Mapping Agency. The Skylab 4 crew had found such a package very useful during their long duration mission. The ASTP crew, however, never used the maps; as a matter of fact, they did not even come across the package in flight, as it was "buried" beneath the rest of the items in the flight data file. COLOR W H E E L As previously stated, the human eye is more sensi? tive to subtle color variations than any commercially manufactured film. Under laboratory conditions, the eye is estimated to be able to distinguish 7.5 million color surfaces, a precision that is two to three times better than most photoelectric spectrophotometers (Committee on Colorimetry, 1963:129). This capa? bility has many important applications. For example, in oceanography, measurements of water color are 50 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE SITE 9: AFRICA AND EUROPE FIGURE 33.?Example of "site" pages of the ASTP "Earth Observations Book." The mission groundtracks in daylight are shown in solid red lines. The line-of-sight of command module window 3 in the spacecraft mapping attitude is plotted in dashed lines. Black lines indicate revolution groundtracks during nighttime with the corresponding revolution number in the margin. Circled letters indicate the approximate locations of specific observation targets. NUMBER 1 51 9E OWEINAT MOUNTAIN ?KS^E % &ILP KeOiC PLRTC?U Jfa O U C I N AT : M O U N T A I N 71 1 . OBTAIN 3 STEREO PHOTOGRAPHS OF OWEINAT MOUNTAIN AND ADJACENT DUNEFIELDS. 2 . CAN YOU RESOLVE ANY STRUCTURES IN THE MOUNTAIN? 3. ARE THERE ANY COLOR OXIDATION ZONES ON THE MOUNTAIN? REV 7 1 : C M 3 / S I L V E R / 2 5 0 / C X 1 2 ( f l l , 1 / 5 0 0 ) 3FR,[NEXT SITE: 9F] FIGURE 34.?Example of "target" pages of the ASTP "Earth Observations Book." The revolu? tion groundtrack is shown in a solid red line; the dashed red line indicates the projection of the center point of command module window 3 on the ground. Instructions and specific questions are listed beneath the photograph in the order of their importance. Below the questions are the data for camera operation, which are described in the text. 52 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE FIGURE 35.?Orbital chart carried by the astronauts to facilitate identification of geographic position. The daylight parts of the mission groundtracks covered 16 zones. Areas in between were not overflown by the Apollo-Soyuz mission. Revolution numbers are indicated on each track. The circled areas mark the coverage of ground tracking stations. NUMBER 1 53 54 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE important in identifying distinct ocean currents, ed? dies, and areas of biological productivity (Jerlov and Nielsen, 1974:87). Also, in desert regions, a study of color variations could supply information on sand sources and the relative ages of sand seas (El-Baz and Mitchell, 1976:10-12). An important objective of the Earth Observations and Photography Experiment was to quantify desert and water colors observed by the crew. This was achieved through the use of a two-sided color wheel composed of carefully selected Munsell colors (Table 7). Numerous versions of the color wheel were used by the crew on flyover exercises to obtain data on land and water colors. Actually, the colors of the wheel were selected on the basis of experience gained during the flyovers. The color wheel was fabricated at JSC, primarily by Mr. James Regan, in a "doughnut" shape with a 20.3 cm (8 in) diameter and a 12.7 cm (5 in) cen? tral hole (Figure 36). It was constructed of 3 mm (Yz in) thick aluminum with double rows of Munsell standard color chips fastened to both sides. Each color chip was identified with a row identifier ("A" or "B") and a numeral which identified its position in the row. A total of 108 different color chips were fastened onto the wheel. The doughnut configuration allowed the crew members to conveniently hold the device and to rotate it until the proper color in either row A or B matched the scene on the Earth's surface. GROUND SCALE It is difficult from orbital altitudes, and even from airplane heights, to estimate the size of observed objects, particularly where no familiar landmarks ex? ist. A linear scale was designed, particularly with the help of Capt. Alan Bean (backup AC), to help the astronauts estimate object sizes and ground distances. The scale was manufactured at JSC and was tempo? rarily fastened to the wall with velcro for handheld use at arms' length. ENLARGING TELESCOPE To assist the crew in locating small-sized targets, 20-power binoculars were originally included as visual observation aids. However, after the crew tested these binoculars and other enlarging devices during flyover exercises, they preferred to use a 20 to 45-power zoom spotting telescope device with a 20-power wide angle eyepiece (Figure 37). This monocular, which was referred to as the "spotting scope," was believed to provide a more convenient means of locating targets and checking the eye's resolution. During postmission FIGURE 36.?Both sides of the color wheel used by the Apollo-Soyuz astronauts to determine (a) desert and (b) ocean colors. Color chips were selected from Munsell colors (Table 7). NUMBER 1 55 TABLE 7.?Munsell designations for the ASTP color wheel (Figure 36). Each color designation indicates hue, value, and chroma in the form H V / C ; hue is divided into 10 groups (red, yellow-red, yellow, green-yellow, green, blue-green, blue, purple-blue, purple, and red-purple); each color is further subdivided by use of numerals (2.5, 5, 7.5, and 10); value is specified on a numerical scale from 1 (black) to 10 (white); chroma is indicated numerically from 0 to 12 (from El-Baz and Mitchell, 1976) Color w h e e l n o . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 D e s e r t A 2 .5R 6 /6 2 .5R 5/8 5R 4 /10 5R 5/8 5R 6 /6 7.5R 6 /6 7.5R 5 /8 7.5R 4 /10 10R 4 /8 10R 5/6 10R 6 /4 2.5YR 7/6 2.5YR 6 /8 2.5YR 6/10 5YR 5 /8 5YR 6/6 7.5YR 6/6 7.5YR 5 /8 10YR 5 /5 10YR 6/6 10YR 7/4 2.5Y 8/6 2.5Y 8/4 7.5YR 8/4 2.5YR 8/4 7.5R 8/4 2 .5R 8/4 co lo r s B 2.5R 7/8 2 .5R 6/10 5R 5/12 5R 6/10 5R 7/8 7.5R 6 /8 7.5R 6/10 7.5R 5/12 10R 5/10 10R 6 /8 10R 7/6 2.5YR 8/8 2 .5YR 7/10 2.5YR 6/12 5YR 6/10 5YR 7/8 7.5YR 7/8 7.5YR 6/10 10YR 6/10 10YR 7/8 10YR 8/6 2.5Y 8 . 5 / 6 2.5Y 7/4 7.5YR 11' 2.5YR 7/4 7.5R 7/4 2 .5R 7/4 Color whee l n o . 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 Ocean c o l o r s A 10BG 4 /4 10BG 5/4 10BG 6/4 2 .5B 6/6 2 .5B 5/6 2 .5B 4/6 5B 4/4 5B 5/4 5B 6/4 7.5B 6/6 7.5B 5/6 7.5B 4/6 10B 4 /8 10B 5/6 10B 6/6 2 .5PB 5/6 2 .5PB 4/6 2 .5PB 3/6 5PB 3/8 5PB 4 /8 5PB 5/6 7 .5PB 5/8 7 .5PB 4/10 7 .5PB 3/10 5P 2 . 5 / 4 5RP 2 . 5 / 4 5R 2 . 5 / 4 B 10BG 5/6 10BG 6/6 10BG 7 /6 2 .5B 7 /8 2 .5B 6/8 2 .5B 5/8 5B 5/6 5B 6 /6 5B 7/6 7 .5B 7 /8 7 .5B 6/8 7 .5B 5/8 10B 5/10 10B 5/8 10B 6/8 2 .5PB 6/8 2 .5PB 5/8 2.5PB 4 /8 5PB 4 /10 5PB 5/10 5PB 6/8 7.5PB 6/10 7 .5PB 5/12 7.5PB 4/12 5P 3 /10 5RP 3 /6 5R 3 /4 56 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE FIGURE 37.?The 20-power enlarging telescope used by the ASTP crew to spot small observation targets. (Courtesy of J. A. Taylor) evaluation, the astronauts indicated that the useful? ness of the spotting scope was curtailed by the speed with which a target passed outside their field of view. Photographic Equipment The Apollo-Soyuz photographs of observation and mapping sites were taken with two 70 mm Hasselblad camera systems, a 35 mm Nikon camera, a 16 mm motion picture camera, and a television camera. De? tailed information on these camera systems is given in a JSC publication (NASA, 1973). Following is a description of the photographic equipment as it re? lates to the experiment. HASSELBLAD CAMERAS Two Hasselblad 70 mm camera systems were re? quired to allow both automatic vertical strip photog? raphy and astronaut-selected oblique photography simultaneously. Each camera was equipped with its own accessories of film magazines, lenses and filters (Figure 38). To distinguish between the two cam? eras, acronyms had to be invented by NASA: HDC for the Hasselblad data camera (used mainly for automatic vertical photography) ; and HRC for the Hasselblad reflex camera (equipped with a single lens reflex mechanism and usually handheld by the astro? nauts for selected-target photography). Because the HDC was equipped with a "reseau" plate (a glass plate, placed firmly against the film, with an array of 25 crosses to improve the geometric accuracy and facilitate construction of controlled photomosaics and photomaps), it was also referred to as "Hasselblad Reseau Camera" or HRC. Confusion of terminology ensued and the astronauts were frus? trated. Since one camera was painted black (HDC) and the other was coated with silver-colored paint (HRC) , to avoid confusion, they were simply known as the "black camera" and "silver camera," respec? tively. The black camera was equipped with 60 and 100 mm interchangeable lenses. The choice between these depended on the required ground coverage and/or photographic resolution (Figure 39). The camera used film magazines that included approximately 150 exposures. Nominally, it was mounted on a bracket that was fastened to the frame of spacecraft window 3. An intervalometer was used to actuate the camera every ten seconds for the 60 mm lens and every 6.25 seconds for the 100 mm lens. This provided stereo? scopic coverage with at least 60 percent overlap of successive frames. Clicks of the film shutter were telemetered to the ground via the PCM cable to allow it to register the exact time of picture taking. This was necessary since the camera was used mainly to support photographic mapping objectives. In general, photographs taken with the black cam? era are excellent, with the exceptions of a few short segments of unplanned photography that were out of focus, and one mapping pass over the northeastern United States on which the wrong lens was used. Photographs of the 60 visual observation targets were made using the silver camera. This Hasselblad system consisted of a camera body with reflex viewing NUMBER 1 57 FIGURE 38.?Hasselblad cameras used by the ASTP crew: a, data or "black" camera used for vertical, stereo-strip photography; b, reflex or "silver" camera with a single lens reflex mechanism and usually handheld, used to photograph observation targets. (Courtesy of J. A. Taylor.) 58 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE FIGURE 39.?Sketch showing the vertical ground coverage of the 250, 100, 60, and 50 mm lenses in relation to Florida. capability, a prism viewfinder, a 50 mm lens, a 250 mm lens, and 13 film magazines of approximately 70 exposures each. The single lens reflex mechanism allowed the astronaut to see what he was photograph? ing and to precisely aim the camera at his target. Naturally, frame footprint (ground coverage) de? pended on the degree of obliquity, or how far the target was from the subspacecraft point (Figure 40). The crew reported that light loss through the 250 mm lens made it difficult to locate the target and to center it within a frame; however, all photographs taken with that lens were excellent. NIKON CAMERA The 35 mm camera used on the ASTP flight was a modification of a commercially available Nikon camera. It incorporated reflex viewing and through- the-lens light metering (exposure control) with motor? ized film advance. This camera was basically used for the interior photography, that is, astronauts tak? ing pictures of each other during the joint phase of the mission. When, however, the film for the Hassel? blad cameras nearly ran out, the astronauts utilized the Nikon camera (with its 35 mm lens) to take pic? tures of features on Earth. MOTION PICTURE CAMERA A Maurer 16 mm camera, dubbed by NASA "the data acquisition camera" or DAC, was used to take sequential film of land and sea to ascertain color variations. Of particular significance was photography of the Western Sahara of North Africa, taken to provide a record of color zone transitions in the larg? est sand sea in the world. For this sequence, the DAC was handheld in window 3 and operated at 2 m (6 ft) per second for 11 minutes. TELEVISION CAMERA A color television video system was used on Apollo- Soyuz mainly for public broadcasts of mission ac? tivities. The camera was also used for the acquisition, in realtime, of images of Earth features. In addition, the video tape recorder (VTR) , was used to record television images for later playback, particularly dur? ing the daylight portion of revolution 124 over the Pacific Ocean. These color television images of the Earth provide new data on poorly studied areas or regions that are too vast for conventional surveys. The images may also give scientists an astronaut's perspective of target acquisition and tracking, and when re-formatted may possibly be used in stereo- graphic and radiometric analyses. An added feature of these images is their adaptability for use in geog? raphy courses and for training of the Shuttle crews. FIGURE 40.?Sketch showing the ground coverage of the 50 mm lens at various degrees of obliquity, or tilt angles from the normal to the subvehicle point. NUMBER 1 59 FILMS AND FILTERS The Hasselblad cameras constituted the most im? portant photographic system used on the ASTP mis? sion, basically because of the relatively large (70 mm) film format. Therefore, it was necessary to select the proper films and test them for adequacy. Seventeen magazines of color film were used in? cluding Kodak SO-242 high definition aerial film for the black camera (mapping sites) ; and Kodak SO-368 Ektachrome MS for the silver camera (ob? servation targets). Two magazines of Kodak 2443 color infrared aerochrome were also used with the silver camera to facilitate identification of features such as volcanic rocks and red tide blooms. The required exposure for each site was calculated along with the system modulation transfer function ( M T F ) . This "system function" is the product of the indi? vidual MTF's of the film and the lens (used at a specific aperture), plus an MTF due to image mo? tion, calculated at the shutter speed required for each film. While Kodak SO-242 is far superior to SO-368 and 2443 in resolution, it is over two stops slower in film speed. This low sensitivity necessitates the use of large apertures and/or slow shutter speeds. Evalua? tion of these calculations was used in establishing the following guidelines for the use of each lens: 50 and 60 mm lenses: The high definition film (SO-242) is superior to the moderate resolution films (SO-368 and 2443) at a shutter speed of 1/125 of a second or faster. 100 mm lens: The high definition film is superior to the moderate resolution films at a shutter speed of 1/250 of a second or faster. 250 mm lens: Image motion dominates system performance and the high definition film is unaccept? able. Every effort was made to use the 250 mm lens at 1/500 second when the light level permitted. On the basis of these criteria, SO-242 was generally used for mapping passes and SO-368 for visual ob? servations targets. The color infrared film was used for selected targets in which vegetation or lithologic discrimination was required. Photography of the Earth from very high altitudes necessitates considerations of the effects of the atmos? phere on light traveling through it from the subject to the camera. These effects are well known, and numerous approaches to correcting them through the use of a filter have been demonstrated. The net ef? fect is a predominance of shorter wavelength radia? tion, which causes a blue veiling in uncorrected color photographs. Of the three films selected, Kodak SO-242 was especially manufactured with a yellow filter over- coated on the film. Due to the false color rendering of the 2443 aerochrome infrared film, it was neces? sary to utilize a blue-blocking filter with an approxi? mate cutoff of 510 nanometers. Specific emulsions can benefit in terms of the interlayer sensitivities by selecting filters with cutoffs over a rather narrow range of 490 to 540 nanometers. A 520 nanometer filter was available in the approved flight hardware inventory, and sufficient film with various emulsion coatings was available to select an emulsion that exhibited the desired sensitometric properties when used with the 520 nanometer cutoff filter. Selection of a 2A (420 nanometers) filter for use with the SO-368 film created some initial difficulties as the 2A or equivalent short-wavelength blocking filters for the Hasselblad camera were not in the approved flight hardware inventory. Procurement of the proper filters and checkout for approval as flight hardware presented a difficult scheduling problem. An alternative to a lens filter was proposed which would produce the same photographic effect in the imagery. The alternative was to "coat" a filter di? rectly on the film to be used. This proposal was accepted, thereby alleviating the filter scheduling dif? ficulties, reducing the number of onboard items re? quired to support the experiment, and simplifying the procedures required for the astronauts to conduct the experiment. The procured film was designated QX-807 emulsion 1-32 by Eastman Kodak. Addi? tional information concerning this approach can be found in a report by NASA (1975a). Mission Operations Mission Profile The Apollo-Soyuz mission was the first manned space flight conducted jointly by two nations. The three primary objectives of this joint American- Soviet venture were to develop and test systems for manned spacecraft rendezvous and docking that would be suitable for use as a standard international system; to demonstrate the capability of crew trans? fer between two different spacecraft; and to conduct a series of science and applications experiments (Har- dee, 1976:2-1). Because of the different pressures and compositions of the Apollo and Soyuz spacecraft atmospheres (5 to 14.7 pounds per square inch, respectively), a cylin? drical "docking module" (DM) was built. This tunnel-like body was basically an airlock that per? mitted the crews to transfer between the two space? craft. It had docking facilities on each end, permitting it to join the Apollo and the Soyuz (Figure 41). The Apollo spacecraft was similar in most respects to those that were used on the Skylab missions. For the Apollo command/service module (CSM) some modifications were made to fit mission needs. Addi? tional controls for the docking system and special DM umbilicals were added, together with experi? mental packages and their controls. Also, the steerable high-gain antenna that was used for deep space communications during the Apollo lunar missions, but was not needed for Skylab, was reinstalled for the Apollo-Soyuz CSM. The antenna locked onto a com? munications satellite, known as the "applications technology satellite" (ATS-6) , placed in synchronous orbit over the east coast of Africa. The combination of ground stations and ATS-6 provided communica? tions (including scientific data telemetry) with the Mission Control Center at Houston, Texas, for an average of 63 percent of each spacecraft revolution. On 15 July 1975 at 12:20 Greenwich mean time (GMT) the Soyuz spacecraft was launched into Earth orbit in a northeasterly direction from the Baykonur launch complex in the Kazakh Soviet So? cialist Republic. Seven and one-half hours later, the Apollo was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Launch Complex 39B (Figures 42, 43). The Apollo CSM separated from the Saturn S-IVB stage one hour and 14 minutes after lift-off and began proceedings for extraction of the DM from APOLLO DOCKING MODULE SOYUZ Service Module (SM) Command Module (CM) Orbi ta l Module (OM) Descent Vehicle (DVJ FIGURE 41.?Schematic of the Apollo and Soyuz spacecraft in the docked configuration. 60 NUMBER 1 61 the launch vehicle. After the D M was extracted, a misrouted pyrotechnic connector cable hindered the removal of the docking probe until a corrective pro? cedure was successfully used to remove the probe. During this "pre-joint phase" several science experi? ments were conducted, including portions of the Earth Observations and Photography Experiment. On 17 July 1975, after the Apollo circularization and rendezvous maneuvers were completed, the first docking was performed. During the following two days the Apollo remained docked with the Soyuz for joint operations; there were four crew transfers. Joint activities included television tours of both space? craft and views of parts of the United States and the Soviet Union, a press conference and commemorative ceremonies, and scientific experiments. The Earth Observations and Photography Experi? ment was not considered one of the joint endeavors. FIGURE 42.?The Soviet Soyuz space vehicle (left), carrying cosmonauts Aleksey A. Leonov and Valeriy N. Kubasov, at time of launch from the Baykonour Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan (NASA press release photograph S?75?33375); and Apollo Saturn-I launch (right) on 15 July 1975 from the John F. Kennedy Space Center, Cape Canaveral, Florida. (NASA press release photograph S-75-28550) 62 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE TABLE 8.?Apollo-Soyuz mission events and scientific data (from El-Baz and Mitchell, 1976) D*yTlght/dart ATS-6 coverage Sleep periods Mission event 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 Soyuz lifl-oH Experiments; Soft X-ray observation Extreme ultraviolet survey Interstellar helium glow Artificial solar eclipse Crystal activation Stratospheric aerosol measurement Ultraviolet absorption Dcppler tracking Geodynamics Earth observations and photography Microbial eichange Cellular immune response Polymorphonuclear leukocyte response Light (lash Bios tack Zone-forming fungi Kil l i f ish hatching and orientation Multipurpose electric furnace Surface-tension-induced convection Monotectic and syntectic alloys Interlace markings in crystals Processing ot magnets Crystal growth from the vapor phase Halide euledic growth Multiple materials melting Eleclrophoresis technology Eleclrophoresis (German) Crystal growth Science demon si rat ions Apollo lirt-oti A A C S M J S D Z B separation Apollo phasing maneuver Terminal phase maneuver 1 Terminal phase initiation '? Midcourse correction, '' Terminal phase j maneuver 2 Init ial ; greetings First crew (ranster - Furnace preparation Preparation. GET Daylight'dark ATS-6 COver?qe Sleep oeriocs Mission event E ?-Furnace preparation Furnace preparation _ . .. Shutdown Shutdown .Terminate Preparation- ' rf to hmd v? GET Daylight/carl ATS-6 coverage SIMP periods Mission event Experiments: Soft X-ray observation Extreme ultraviolet survey Interstellar helium glow Artificial solar eclipse Crystal activation Stratospheric aerosol measurement Ultraviolet absorption Ooppler tracking Geodynamics Earth observations and photography Microbial exchange Cellular immune response Polymorphonuclear leukocyte response Light flash Bios Lack Zone-forming fungi Killifish hatching and orientation Multipurpose electric furnace Surface-lension-induced convedion Monotectic and syntectic alloys Inlerface markings in crystals Processing of magnets Crystal growth from the vapor phase Halide eutedic growth Multiple materials melting Eledrophoresis technology Eledrophoresis (German! Crystal growth Science demonstrations GET 118 120 122 124 126 128 130 132 134 136 138 DM-1 maneuver **? * DM-;? maneuver Selup Shutdown .Shutdown .Terminate 176 180 184 July 22 July 23 64 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE FIGURE 43.?The Apollo spacecraft (left) and the Soyuz spacecraft (right) as photographed by each other after undocking in Earth-orbit. The wing-like extensions of the Soyuz are two solar-power panels. The Apollo command and service module is pointing the docking module towards Earth. However, many of the targets selected for observations and photography were to be overflown, under favor? able conditions, only during the joint phase. The way to remedy the situation was to indicate in the flight plan activities related to the experiment prior to and after the joint phase as "Earth Obs"; during the joint phase, the same activities were labeled "Orbital Science." It is interesting to note that during a later Soviet Earth orbital flight of Soyuz 22 in September 1976, emphasis was placed on "Earth re? sources photography" (Aviation Week, 1976). Almost 44 hours after the first docking, Apollo undocked from the Soyuz and served as a sun- occulting body for the Artificial Solar Eclipse Experi? ment. A second docking test was performed to exer? cise the docking system in a different mode of opera? tion. Final undocking occurred at 15:20 GMT on 19 July (Figure 43). Forty-three hours after this last undocking, the Soyuz began its descent and touched down safely in Kazakhstan on 21 July at 10:51 GMT. The Apollo remained in orbit for four additional days. On 24 July, after a flight of 217 hours and 28 minutes, the Apollo command module splashed down in the Pacific Ocean only 1.3 km from the target point. Recovery operations were performed by the U.S.S. New Orleans. A detailed outline of major mission events and scientific data collection periods is given in Table 8 (from Hardee, 1976). Experiment Support Activities MISSION SUPPORT Science Support Team One of the responsibilities of the Principal Investi? gator (PI) for each experiment is to provide scientific expertise during the mission. During the Earth Ob- NUMBER 1 65 servations and Photography Experiment, the astro? nauts required answers regarding their observations from specialists. The PI served as the liaison. Further? more, since weather conditions could not be forecast in advance of the mission, necessary adjustments during the flight had to be initiated and approved by the PI. As will be discussed below, several research parties were to conduct investigations (in the air, on land, and at sea) concurrent with crew observations. This also required the exchange, through the PI, of data from the astronauts to the research parties and vice versa. A science support team was established prior to the mission. This team included, in addition to myself, two geologists (W. Muehlberger and C. Breed) ; two oceanographers (R. Stevenson and G. Maul) ; three members of my staff and one research associate, all of whom are also geologists (R. Wolfe, D. Mitchell, S. McLafferty, and A. Walker) ; and four NASA personnel from JSC (G. Griffith, R. Weitenhagen, D. Incerto, and C. Nash). This large number of people was necessary in order to provide technical support on a 24-hour-per-day basis. Even while astro? nauts slept, planning for the next day's activities required science support team participation. All team members had been briefed on the rules of mission operations. Many had also participated in mission simulations or "sims." Sims are usually conducted in a realistic fashion, including dealing with malfunctions, changing the flight plan, and fol? lowing every conceivable alternate procedure and plan. As a matter of fact the tremendous success of NASA's flights is attributable in large part to these sims, where the simulation supervisor (affectionately called "sim-soup") attempts to go over every phase of the mission again and again. These simulations were quite thorough. They even included "fake" observations by the astronauts. The purpose of these was to test the system, crew, flight controllers, and science team alike. The sims were conducted on location at the MCC in Houston, Texas. This center includes the mission operations control room (MOCR) and a host of other support rooms on the second floor of JSC building 30. The simula? tions that involved the Earth Observations and Pho? tography Experiment were held during the four months that preceded July 1975: 4 March (Rev 15, 16, 17), 3 April (Rev 72, 73, 74), 16 May (Rev 64), 23 May (Rev 106, 107, 108), 4-6 June (Rev 90, 91, 104, 106, 107, 108), and 24 June (Rev 15, 16, 17). Realtime Activities During the mission, the science support team operated in one of the support rooms adjacent to the MOCR that was dubbed "Earth Obs SSR" for the Earth observations and photography science support room. In communications during the flight the opera? tion was simply referred to as "Vis Obs," for "Visual Observations." These communications fol? lowed a rigid flow; as for everything else, NASA had a flow chart of who was to talk to whom, formally or informally (Figure 44). The "buck" stopped at "Flight," that is, whoever was serving at the console of the Flight Director at the MOCR. Flight was also the only person to talk directly to the Capcom (or capsule communicator, an astronaut usually from the support crew), who in turn was the only one to talk to the orbiting astronauts. The layout of the science support room (Figure 45) included a console with two positions (one for the PI and one for a representative from JSC's Flight Operations Directorate), a televisor and a nearby large wall for display of maps and photographs, two mission status desk positions ("land desk" and "ocean desk"), and a general file area with a telephone link to ground support investigations. Figure 46 illustrates the working conditions of the science support room. The flight operations position was occupied by JSC personnel (G. Griffith, R. Weitenhagen, or D. In? certo), who kept an experiment log. In that log all events, comments, and changes that affected the per? formance of the experiment were kept. Figure 47 shows that a significant change was made in the spacecraft's visual observations attitude. The new at? titude allowed the astronauts to see the ground be? neath them while they were right-side-up, rather than in the uncomfortable upside-down position that had been selected. The other console position served as a 24-hour-per- day "command post" for the Principal Investigator or his representative. If the author was not serving at this position, Dr. Robert Wolfe, or another team member had to be there. My schedule at the console looked like this: Wednesday 16 July Thursday 17 July Friday 18 July Saturday 19 July Sunday 20 July Monday 21 July Tuesday 22 July Wednesday 23 July Thursday 24 July 12 noon to 8pm 7am to 5pm 12 midnight to 3pm 12 noon to 9pm 3am to 8pm 4am to 1pm 5 am to 4pm 3pm to 8pm 6am to 2pm 66 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE AIR-TO-GROUND COMMUNICATIONS 1 EXPERIMENT OFFICER r EXPERIMENT OFFICER 1 FLIGHT ? FORMAL INFORMAL L 7^ SCIENCE ROOM P 1 SUPPORT ROOM FLIGHT PLANNER h FLIGHT PLANNING PROJECT SCIENTIST FIGURE 44.?Flow chart indicating the lines of communications during the Apollo-Soyuz mission. Smoll Table (b) 0 ^ Land Desk Ocean Desk ? ? ? Science Directorate NASA Hdqtrs- ,Japs Recorder Mission Status ? Color TV Telephone Typewri tor ? Weather & general file M FIGURE 45.?Layout of the science support room of the Earth Observations and Photography Experiment at the Mission Control Center, Houston (a = Principal Investi? gator's position, b = Flight operations position, c = co- investigators for land observations, d = co-investigators for ocean observations, e = JSC's science and applications and NASA headquarters' representatives, f = mission sta? tus desk, g = weather files and secretarial support). During these periods, the most significant mission activities were performed. In addition to these times, other responsibilities included daily PI meetings, daily report preparation and submission, planning meetings, press briefings, and preparation of a summary mis? sion report at the end of the mission. The science press briefings were always lively and interesting. Science reporters who covered the Apollo- Soyuz mission were knowledgeable and had the expe? rience of many space missions to present a challenge to the Pis. On occasion, however, the reporting did concentrate on anomalies and controversies. The science support room console was equipped with plugs for listening devices to monitor relevant conversations at the Mission Control Center. Unfor? tunately,, there were usually three to six "relevant" conversations at any one time, for example, conversa? tions related to the flight plan, spacecraft attitude, weather conditions, experiments status, astronaut ob? servations. The trick was to be able to pick only a few words from each conversation to keep up to date with what was going on, and to mentally filter out all the rest. It was also possible to push a button on the con? sole's panel to activate the "talk-back" capability in order to take part in the conversations. A special "science conference loop" was established at my re? quest to allow talking directly to both Flight and the Capcom. With this, however, came written instruc? tions that PI utilization of the loop would be restricted to amplification of instructions, clarification of proce? dures or techniques, initiating time critical instruc? tions or queries, or for responding to crew originated queries relating to MA-136 observations or tech? niques. Furthermore, discussion and coordination of MA-136 activities which might result in changes to documented procedures or to the flight plan will be conducted over the normal voice loops used for these purposes. In instances where talking through these "loops" was cumbersome and too time consuming for an urgent task, it was possible to pick up a badge that allowed one to enter the MOCR and talk to Flight or the Capcom "face-to-face." It all worked out very well?a tribute to the flexibility of the system. One of the most important activities of the Princi? pal Investigator was the initiation of "mission notes." These notes were necessary to send instructions to the astronauts. They were prepared in quadruplicate. One copy was kept for the experiment log mentioned NUMBER 1 67 FIGURE 46.?Activities in the science support room: a, seated at the console are (left to right) F. El-Baz, R. Weitenhagen, and G. Griffith, talking to members of the temporary mission support staff; b, W. Muehlberger (left) discusses an observation target with F El-Baz at the televisor table; c, science support team members during the "nighttime shift" of the Apollo- Soyuz mission operations; d. F El-Baz points to the location of an upcoming visual observa? tion activity while discussing applicable weather condition with A. N. Sanderson; e, the map and photo display being updated by Susan W. McLafTerty, while C. Nash looks on; /, Delia A. Mitchell at the mission status desk, recording visual observation comments in realtime. (Courtesy of A. R. Patnesky, NASA photographer) 68 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE /?? S I T E ACO LOS 127:10 127:40 129:00 130:08 130:12 130:30 130:46 F L I C H ! C V E H I S H ISTORY B O I E F I H C WEATHER 00 SHOWS AN IMPROVEMENT FOR SITE 4A ON REV 78. MOST OF THE CLOUDS NOW ARE OFF THE COAST. USING REV 76 TRAO.DIGITALS AX 42 MIN WEST i t 22 SEC LATE PUT DISPLAY IN LOG GAVE EXP. BRIEFING ON REV 78 AND 79 USING WEATHER 00 . REV 78 ATTITUDE IS NOMINAL FOR VIS OBS. CREW COMMENTED - BASED ON CLOUD FEATURES PACIFIC IS FULL OF EDDIES HAWAII IS OVERCAST g DP - DUE TO CLOUDS TOO FAR NORTH FOR THIS PASS. CM3 ATTITUDE GOOD FOR ACQUIRING BUT SITE GOES BY SO FAST ( 5 SEC) FOR TAKING DATA. HOWEVER, DOES NOT WANT TO RECOMMEND A CHANGE AT THIS TIME. CREW IS RECOMMENDING CM3 TO BE POINTED AT NADIR AND NEXT PASS REV 7 9 . THEY WILL RUN THE PASS AT APPROXIMATELY 30? PITCH DOWN. PI CONCURS WITH CREW RECOMMENDATION OF PITCH DOWN 30. FAO WILL COMPUTE ANGLES FOR 30* FOR REV 79 VIS OBS PASS. CREW GIVEN UPDATES FOR VIS OBS PASS REV 79 ATTITUDE CHANGE. ISC FOIB I FLIGHT DIRECTOR'S HISSIO FIGURE 47.?Example page of the log book in which were recorded all events that significantly affected the conduct of the Earth Observations and Photography Experiment during the Apollo-Soyuz mission. above. Three copies were placed in a metal con? tainer, which was transported through an elaborate air-pressurized pipe system to appear in front of the Flight Director, the Capsule Communicator, and the Flight Planner. Mission notes were written in a clear, concise language to make it easy for the Capcom to read the instructions to the astronauts. (Capcom would do so only after Flight's approval which came after the Flight Planner gave his blessings). The Capcom was supposed to give precise instructions to the astro? nauts based on these notes. If he did not, confusion developed as in the following example. During the mission, Dr. Charles Yentsch, an ex? periment Co-Investigator, reported to us from his ship at sea that he noted a red color (usually attributed to red tide blooms) in the area of Boothbay Harbor, Maine. Since an opportunity presented itself to sched? ule additional photography of the area in realtime, we sent on the following Mission Note (El-Baz, n.d.a.) : "Revolution 105/106; New Item: New Eng? land Red Tide; GET 173:09 to 173:13: Photograph New England Coastline from Boston to New Bruns? wick: CM3/Silver/50 (f9.5, 1/500) Frame interval 6 seconds." We also added the following explanatory sentence: "Our support ship at sea reported red tide discoloration at Damariscotta River in Boothbay (Site 5F) ." Instead of reading the instructions that called for continuous photography of the coastline from Boston to New Brunswick, the following conversation oc? curred between the Capcom Robert Crippen, and astronaut Slayton (from unedited mission transcript, NASA 1975b: 843-844): CRIPPEN: Incidentally, Deke, on our upcoming pass across the States, we are going to have an opportunity to look at the red tide. And I was going to get you some informa? tion about that whenever it's convenient for you to copy it. SLAYTON: Okay. Stand by for it. CRIPPEN : What might be convenient for you, Deke, is if you can just get out your Earth Obs book on target 5 Foxtrot,1 and I can just relate it to you on there. SLAYTON : Okay. Fine. Just a second?Okay. Go ahead. CRIPPEN : Okay. To describe to you where the ship spotted it if you're looking at 5 Foxtrot, right above where we've got the word "Boothbay" written in, you can see there's a river that looks like it's flowing?flowing south there that comes out. Well, it was right at the mouth of that river that the red tide was spotted. SLAYTON: Okay. Got you. CRIPPEN: Okay. And our recommendation on the camera is? Well, for the window, it should be visible out of CM?3. Want you to use the silver camera, of course. And use 50, with an f-stop of 9'/2 and a speed of 1/500. SLAYTON : Okay. Got that. CRIPPEN: Frame intervals should be about 6 seconds? every 6. And we should be passing over that, if you want to note it, at about 173:09 to 13. And we'll? can give you a call just before that if you'd like a reminder. SLAYTON : Okay. 173 : 09. And you want to shoot a mapping strip through there, essentially, huh? CRIPPEN : Negative. You can go ahead and just use it and take a shot about every 6 seconds or as you see fit. SLAYTON : Okay. Since Slayton did not know where the Damaris? cotta River was, he waited to see red-colored water 1 It is common practice in communications to verbally clarify the alphabet by expanding the letter into a word, e.g., "5F" becomes "5 Foxtrot." NUMBER I 69 to start his photography. It turned out that he waited too long and photographed the Bay of Fundy of Canada instead; thus information on New England was not obtained. The example illustrates the need for direct communications between the PI and the orbiting astronauts to diminish the possibility of giving them incorrect or incomplete instructions. A visit to the science support room by French oceanographer Capt. Jacques Cousteau resulted in the generation of numerous mission notes. Capt. Cousteau had talked to Brand and Slayton on an earlier occa? sion concerning his idea of "sea farming." Because of time considerations he was able to supply us with his list of specific sites only during the mission. These "sea farming sites" are coastal areas of high produc? tivity, which he considers suitable for fish farms (Figure 48). His campaign to save these regions from pollution has been gaining recognition. Therefore, it was necessary to obtain data on the characteristics of these regions. Several of the sites were scheduled in realtime to acquire the necessary data. The televisor was used to explain new activities or changes to the flight plan to the mission operations personnel, particularly Flight and Capcom. A televi? sion camera with zoom capability was mounted on a properly lit table for televised transmission of charts and other material within the Mission Control Cen? ter. Televised images could be seen by anyone who selected channel 78. The experiment team provided a way of making available to Mission Control depictions of the indi? vidual groundtracks of all revolutions during which the Earth Observations and Photography Experiment was conducted. The ingenious device was a 12.7 cm (5 in) film-reel on which were rolled strips of a 1:22,000,000 scale map. The strips straddled the groundtrack of the mission revolutions in sequence. With this device and the use of the television camera it was possible to televise the position of the astro? nauts and what they were looking at throughout the mission. The televisor was extensively used for weather briefings. Changes in weather patterns and particu? larly cloud cover were monitored at Houston through the use of data from NOAA's synchronous meteoro? logical satellite (SMS). The satellite was geostation? ary, since it had a geosynchronous orbit at 36,000 km altitude. An example of the satellite's photography is given in Figure 49. The weather experts supplied information as to the location of cloud cover based on the best available data. The percent of cloud cover (0-3/10, 4-7/10, 8-10/10) was plotted on 1:40,000,000-scale charts. The forecast was usually given several hours ahead FIGURE 48.?Locations of sites that are considered by French oceanographer Captain Jacques Cousteau to be adequate for fish farming (1 = Alexander Archipelago, 2 = Strait of Georgia, 3 = southern coast of Chile, 4 ? south coast of Newfoundland, 5 = southern coast of Cuba, 6 = Gulf of Honduras, 7 = coastal waters of Scotland, 8 = Adriatic Sea, 9 = Gulf of Gabes, 10 = Red Sea, 11 = Persian (Arabian) Gulf, 12 = northwest coast of Madagascar). 70 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE 9t&,Y** A w V t\ Pfe,?.i2^j 1 i f \m 1 - - ?#a ?'ja FIGURE 49.?Image acquired by the Synchronous Meteorological Satellite (SMS) showing weather conditions over the North American continent. Image resolution is about 3.2 km. (NOAA photograph SMS-1 Pic. 52, 5/28/74) of the time of an Earth observations activity, and the most recent SMS images were received on a facsimile machine that did not provide high resolution data. This limited capability proved to be a handicap. There are several advantages to having realtime SMS sectorized images at the usual 30 minute intervals on a high resolution recording device. If an observa? tion site is seen to be cloud-covered, the flight plan can be modified accordingly. In addition to weather briefings, the television setup was also used to display photographs and data from ground support investigations for the informa? tion of mission support personnel. At one time when the crew indicated that they were using more film than anticipated and feared that they would run out of film before the mission was over, we jestingly tele? vised the reply shown in Figure 50. It generated a few cheers from the challenge-seeking NASA engi? neers. The mission status position in the science support room (Figure 45) was where all air-to-ground con- HOW SOON CAN WE GET THIS UP WITH MORE FILM? FIGURE 50.?Artist's conception of the Space Shuttle orbiter vehicle. The picture and message beneath were televised from Houston's Mission Control Center. MA136 - Earth Observation and Photography Rev 57 (GET 95:42-96:28): TV transmission of undocking provided a tour of North African and Asian deserts covering the Central Sahara in Africa to the Gobi Desert of China. Algerian Tifernine Dunes, Irrarene Dunes and Erg Oriental (Great Eastern Erg) appeared much redder than the lighter- colored desert to the south, in Mali and southern Algeria, and toward the north in Tunisia. Pass continued over the Mediterranean past Sicily to the Black Sea. Although over the South Altantic Ocean no significant deep ocean features were observed, between Sicily and Italy, a distinct oceanic feature was observed, probably caused by wind shadowing changing the albedo of the surface. Cloud cover over USSR, clearing over Mongolia. Several lakes were visible. Last part of pass over the Gobi Desert east of the Hai Ho (river) and west of the Hwan Ho (Yellow River). End of pass at the cloud cover over the Alashan and Holanshan Mountains at eastern edge of the Alashan Desert. Rev 64: Mapping pass - M6 Australia Vis. Obs. 11C Simpson Desert 11B Coral Sea 3A Cloud Features Weather: 11C - 0-3/10 over Simpson Desert From 144?E to about 147?E along groundtrack, a patch of 4-7/10 and 8-10/10. 11B - 0-3/10 along coast and Great Barrier Reef. 4-7/10 over Coral Sea. 3A: 8-10/10. Crew Remarks: At 107:42 Brand reported that he was in the middle of the Earth Obs pass. Although the spacecraft might have been a few degrees off groundtrack because of the incomplete P52 maneuver, it is believed that the pass was accomplished as planned. The NASA B57 plane flew the New England pass today. It started with the northernmost site off the coast of Maine. The weather was clear, but the pilot reported some haze. They flew both lines as per flight plan. The flight over Cape Cod was also completed. The two flight lines were divided into four lines. The weather was clear. There was some cloudiness over Buzzards Bay. The plane also overflew one of the two Long Island passes, that was cut short by 40 miles because of cloudiness. Pilot reported that they estimated that they obtained 75% of requested data in clear weather. The B57 will fly the Florida Pass tomorrow per flight plan. FIGURE 51.?Example of the mission daily reports concerning the Earth Observations and Photography Experiment. This report covered experiment-related activities during 19 July 1975. 72 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACF versations relating to the experiment were recorded on tape. (These tape recordings were later checked against the mission transcripts from two sources to compile the edited transcripts in Appendix 1.) The status of experiment performance was also kept on a chronological basis. In addition to participating in the aforementioned activities, the Co-Investigators had the responsibility of contributing to the daily report (Figure 51) and monitoring the groundtruth investigations. These con? current support activities will be described below. The CIs also received and screened the daily reports that arrived from the Smithsonian Institution's Center for Short-Lived Phenomena, which provided information on transient phenomena developing on the Earth's surface. The center used its network of more than 3000 correspondents in 148 countries to prepare the daily reports on short-lived events occurring during the mission and to transmit information on events observed by the astronauts. Significant reports in? cluded those on an oil spill off the Florida Keys; volcanic eruptions in New Zealand, Costa Rica, and Hawaii; and earthquakes in Mexico and the Philip? pines. CONCURRENT INVESTIGATIONS Prior to and during the flight of Apollo-Soyuz, numerous investigations were conducted in support of the Earth Observations and Photography Experi? ment. This simultaneous groundtruth data collection program was the largest ever conducted in support of a manned space mission. Data collection was to complement the postmission interpretation of orbital observations and photography, and possibly to affect the conduct of the experiment in realtime. Data were collected through aircraft flights, land investigations, and ocean surveys in many parts of the world (Fig? ure 52). Aircraft Flights ENGLAND (sites 6A and 6B) .?The Royal Air Force flew missions on three days over ocean waters off southern Ireland and England to support observa? tions and photography of the English Channel. Ex? pendable bathythermographs (XBT) were dropped from the planes to provide data on water temperature as a function of depth. N E W ZEALAND (site 1).?The Royal New Zealand Air Force flew P-3 airplanes along the revolution 17 groundtrack starting from East Cape, New Zealand, then north-northeast over the Pacific Ocean to obtain photographic data and to plot cloud types and heights. A New Zealand Navy research vessel made a transit along the same line and acquired ocean- ographic data, including water temperatures and sound velocity measurements. UNITED STATES (sites 2A, 4A, 4B, 5B, 5E, 5F).? Several high-altitude flights were conducted over the United States with WB-57 aircraft based at JSC, Houston, and U-2 aircraft based at the NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, California. Photo? graphs were taken using a metric RC-10 camera and a multispectral Vinten System A camera. Photo? graphic sensor data are provided in Table 9. Photo- ?-? i\Cascades Ranged/ X Englis ' er / ^ 3 Q Channel^ ?&- New England .Mediterranean Sea Himalayas. FIGURE 52.?Locations of support efforts of the ASTP Earth Observations and Photography Experiment. (After El-Baz and Mitchell, 1976: 10-48) O aircraft support ? oceanography support A ground support NUMBER 1 73 TABLE 9.?Aircraft photographic sensor data (from El-Baz and Mitchell, 1976) Sensor type Vinten Vinten Vinten Vinten RC-10 Lens focal length, cm (in.) 4.45 (1.75) 4.45 (1.75) 4.45 (1.75) 4.45 (1.75) 15.24 (S) Film type Panatomic-X, 3400 Panatomic-X, 3400 Infrared Aerographic, 2424 Aerochrome Infrared, 2443 Aerial color, SO-242 Filtration Schott GG 475 and Schott BG 18 Schott OG 570 and Schott BG 38 Schott RG 645 and Corning 9830 Wratten 12 2.2AV Spectral band, nanometer 475 to 575 580 to 680 690 to 760 510 to 900 400 to 700 Percent of overlap 60 60 60 60 60 graphic coverage was acquired over the East Coast (coastal areas of New York, Massachusetts, and Maine) ; Florida (coastal areas) ; the northwestern United States (Washington, Idaho, and Oregon) ; and the southwestern United States (from Kingman, Arizona, to Santa Maria, California). These photo? graphs are very useful in providing an intermediate scale between spacecraft and ground investigations (Figures 53, 54) . Land Investigations CENTRAL AMERICA (site 5D).?Prior to the mis? sion, geologists from the University of Texas at Austin conducted photogeologic investigations of the tectonic setting of the Yucatan Peninsula, particularly the Bartlett Fault system. This system was the site of recent earthquakes in Guatemala. EGYPT (sites 9E and 9F).?Following the mission, geologists from the Ain Shams University, Cairo, conducted field surveys in parts of the area covered by the mapping camera on revolution 71, including the Abu Rawash region and Baharia Oases. Ground investigations included studies of desert erosion pat? terns and sand grain transportation. The major ob? jective was to use the geological data in verifying color zoning and other features recorded on the ASTP film. INDIA (site 10D).?Hydrologists of the Indian Space Research Organization made surveys of the amount of snow cover and the drainage patterns of the northwestern Himalayas. These studies were per? formed to acquire necessary data for water use and flood control. UNITED STATES (site 2A).?Geologists from the California Institute of Technology conducted field surveys that are related to astronaut observation of southern California. Emphasis was placed on fracture patterns that are related to the San Andreas Fault system, and the process of desert varnish in the Mo- jave Desert. Ocean Surveys ANZUS EDDY (site 11D).?The Australian ship Bombard, stationed in the Tasman Sea, surveyed the warm water ANZUS (Australia-New Zealand-United States) Eddy. Oceanographic data indicated that the nearly circular eddy was 145 to 160 kilometers in diameter with surface temperatures 2? warmer than the surrounding water. Ship personnel also reported a cumulus cloud formation over the center of the eddy and a number of trawlers fishing for tuna within the eddy. CARIBBEAN SEA (site 7G).?To support crew obser? vations and photography of the extent of organic acid outflow from the Orinoco River, the Bellairs Research Institute of McGill University, Montreal, sponsored three cruises from the island of Barbados on 21, 22, and 23 July. Observations and measurements were made of sea state, water color, sea surface tempera? ture, salinity, chlorophyll content, cloud cover, and wind speed and direction. GULF OF MEXICO (site 5A).?The National Oce? anic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) re? search vessel Virginia Key made a transect of the Gulf of Mexico from Miami to the Yucatan Penin- FIGURE 53.?Mosaic of two Apollo-Soyuz photos showing Los Angeles, the San Gabriel Moun? tains, the San Andreas Fault, and the Mojave Desert. The marked-off area shows the coverage of Figure 54. (NASA photographs AST-14-881 and AST-14-882) FIGURE 54.?Aerial photograph taken from an altitude of 20,000 meters by a U-2 aircraft based at the NASA Ames Research Center. This photo was taken during the ASTP mission to provide an intermediate scale between spacecraft and ground investigations. (NASA/JSC 239-16-0040) NUMBER 1 75 sula and obtained data on the location of the Gulf Loop Current. In addition, an ocean research vessel made measurements in the Gulf Stream north of Jacksonville, Florida, on the distribution, size, and velocities of eddies. The ship also released four drift? ing buoys that had transmitters to the Nimbus-F satellite. The buoys were positioned about once a day throughout the mission and provided data on current direction and velocity. Approximately 20 NOAA ships were also stationed around the Mississippi River delta. N E W ENGLAND (site 5F).?In New England, two Bigelow Laboratory research vessels, the Bigelow and the Challenge, made a traverse of the Gulf of Maine from Portland to the Bay of Fundy and also south? ward to Cape Cod. Data were obtained on the size, shape, and location of red water patches due to toxic phytoplankton and included measurements of sea sur? face temperatures, salinity, chlorophyll content, and water color. In addition to the red tide observations off the coast of Maine, support ships and sampling stations of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts ac? quired water color, salinity, and biological content data. A high chlorophyll content in the coastal waters off New England was reported and was possibly the result of abnormally heavy rains carrying an increased amount of biota into the sea. STRAIT OF GIBRALTAR (sites 9J and 9K).?The U.S. Navy research vessel Kane obtained oceanographic data along a line paralleling the revolution 73 ground- track from the Canary Islands to Spain. These data were obtained to support crew observations of a current boundary extending north and south off the western coast of Portugal. The Navy also flew a P-3 aircraft along this line dropping XBTs. East of the strait in the Mediterranean Sea, the carrier U.S.S. Kennedy obtained oceanographic and meterological data. Summary of Results This book was completed about one year after the Apollo-Soyuz mission; however, the scientific value of the Earth Observations and Photography Experiment have not yet been completely realized. A data analy? sis program involving some twenty research groups is under way. These groups are affiliated with several government agencies, academic institutions, and re? search organizations in the United States and abroad. The "Summary Science Report" is being prepared for publication by NASA as volume 2, special publi? cation SP-412. Scientific Findings GEOLOGY Desert Colors Deserts occupy nearly one-sixth of the Earth's land masses; however, detailed descriptions of most desert regions are lacking because size, remoteness, and in? accessibility make conventional surveys impractical and costly. Photographs acquired on the ASTP have added to existing data from Earth-orbiting space? craft. These photographs include new information relating to both desert colors and dune patterns in several regions (Figure 55). Synoptic photography and astronaut observations provide valuable information on desert color. Desert surfaces and sand dunes often contain iron compounds which, due to weathering, oxidize into red-colored oxides (Norris, 1969). Therefore, photographs of color zoning within a desert where all the sand is derived from the same source can be used to deter? mine relative ages of the exposed material; the redder the surface, the more oxides it contains, and the older it is. This property was studied particularly in the Sa? hara Desert of North Africa, where, in addition to visual observations and color wheel readings, the ASTP data included two vertical stereo mapping strips over Algeria and Egypt (Figure 55), a motion pic? ture film of color zone transitions in Algeria obtained with the 16 mm camera, and numerous handheld photographs. Of particular interest is the photography of the Western Desert of Egypt and the Great Sand Sea of the Libyan Desert. In the "silica glass" region, itagonian FIGURE 55.?Desert regions where observational and photographic data were acquired on the Apollo-Soyuz mission. Stereoscopic photostrips were obtained of the Simpson Desert (Australia), western and eastern Sahara Desert (North Africa), and the Arabian Desert. (After El-Baz, 1976:238) 76 NUMBER 1 77 FIGURE 56.?Vertical photograph taken with the Hasselblad camera as part of a mapping strip of stereo photography on ASTP. The displayed area is part of the Western Desert of Egypt. A sharp color change marks the boundary between the younger, yellow sands of the Great Sand Sea to the north, and the older, orange-red desert surface associated with the Gilf El-Kebir Plateau. The photograph covers an area of 195 km on the side. (NASA photograph AST-16-1246) these color photographs clearly delineate the boundary between the younger, yellow sands of the Great Sand Sea and the relatively older, reddish plains of the Nubian Sandstone (Figure 56). In the western Sahara, the crew noted the redden? ing in a large expanse of the Algerian Desert from the Hoggar Mountains to the dunes of the Grand Erg Oriental (comments by astronaut Slayton in El-Baz, n.d.b.:22): We are now coming to the very dark, barren-looking hills with red areas interspersed between them and some very red sand to the north. In fact, it looks almost like a massive parabolic shape, black hills with red sands behind them to the north. North of that is an area with dunes a little better defined; they look like sand domes. And farther to the north we see the linear sand dune pattern. This sequence of redder and older sands accumu? lating inland and away from the younger sands nearer to the coastline is duplicated in the Namib Desert of southwestern Africa (McKee and Breed, 1974: 9-3) . Reddening of sand as it moves away from the source is exemplified in the Simpson Desert of Aus? tralia. Apollo-Soyuz photographs of the Lake Blanche area show the lake as the sand source for closely spaced linear dunes. The color of the linear dunes is clearly zoned with darker (redder) colors away from the lake (Figure 57). The above indicates that in some cases desert color can be used as a relative-age indicator. The ASTP data are being analyzed to construct a relative-age scheme for the photographed deserts. Groundtruth data are also being collected in the Western Desert of Egypt to verify the patterns in orbital photographs. This relative-age scheme, together with studies of sand dune patterns, will help establish directions of desert growth particularly in the drought-stricken areas of northern Africa. Dune Patterns The Apollo-Soyuz astronauts photographed numer? ous desert sand patterns that are reminiscent of wind? blown features on Mars (Figure 58). For example, 78 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE FIGURE 57.?ASTP photograph of Lake Blanche (45 km in length) in southeastern Australia showing linear dunes emanating from the dry lake. The fine, subparallel dunes north of the lake show zones of color: brighter (more tan) near the sand source, and darker (more red) away fom the lake. (NASA photograph AST-16-1133) NUMBER 1 FIGURE 58.?Dune patterns on Earth and Mars: a, sand streaks in the Oweinat and Arkenu mountain region near the southwestern corner of Egypt?arrow points to Hagar El-Garda volcanic cone (ASTP photograph 2-127); b, streaks emanating from craters in the Hesperia Planum region of Mars, 23?S, 241?W (Mariner 9 photograph 4155-84); c, sand ridges in the Western Desert of Egypt, southwest of Alexandria (ASTP photograph 16-1255); d, dark and bright streaks on the slope of Syrtis Major Planitia on Mars, 11?N, 283?W (Mariner 9 photograph 4186-69). 80 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE photographs of the area of Oweinat and Arkenu mountains near the southwestern corner of Egypt clearly display the relationship between regional sand movement and topography (Figures 34, 58a). The pattern of bright sand streaks is controlled by the large basement ring complexes that form the moun? tains. The sand streaks trend from northeast to south? west. When compared to the north-to-south trending linear dunes of the aforementioned Great Sand Sea, the pattern of sand distribution in this part of the Sahara confirms the hypothesis (Bagnold, 1941:234) of a prevailing wind direction of clockwise rotation centered near Kufra Oasis in southeastern Libya. In the same area, the smallest elevation appears to act as a barrier to sand deposition; for example, the small volcanic cone marked by an arrow in Fig? ure 58a. The cone must have acted as a barrier to the southwest shifting sands to produce a sand-free dark shadow in the lee of the cone. Arvidson and Mutch (1974) describe a similar setting in the Pina- cate volcanic field of Mexico, where sand has been blown from the south against and around but not behind the cone. This pattern of a shadow zone was also produced in wind tunnel simulations by Greeley, et al. (1974) who concluded that some Martian dark streaks are surfaces that have been swept free of windblown particles. Light and dark colored streaks on Mars were pho? tographed by Mariner 9 (McCauley, et a l , 1972; Sagan, et al., 1973; McCauley, 1973; Hartmann and Raper, 1974). These streaks (Figure 58b) appear to be "the result of deposition by strong winds, whose patterns are disturbed by craters and other topo? graphic irregularities" (Hartmann and Raper, 1974: 44). The similarity between terrestrial and Martian streaks in this case appears to result from disturbance of the wind regime by circular mountains in the case of Earth and by high crater rims in the case of Mars. Sand streaks emanating from dry lakes were also photographed in Angola (NASA photograph AST- 14-883) and Australia (NASA photograph AST-19- 1548). In these cases, the dry lakes, rather than mountains or volcanic cones, must have served as the wind-disturbing topographic irregularity (El-Baz, 1976). In addition to broad wind streaks, the ASTP astronauts photographed linear sand dunes in numer? ous deserts whose patterns are also similar to features on Mars (Figure 58c, d). Based on their bright color, the growth of linear features in the northern part of the Western Desert of Egypt (Figure 58c) appears to be from north to south. During aircraft flights over these same features, the author observed small sand "starlets" on top and sand domes at the end of some ridges. This observation was recently checked on a field trip during which the morphology of the dunes was examined and sand samples were taken for detailed study. The field check indicated that the irregularities on top of dunes are not due to the presence of sand starlets, but due to changing dune slipfaces by varying wind directions (Figure 59). However, the occurrence of star dunes atop linear dunes was described by the ASTP crew while ob? serving the Gobi Desert of China (El-Baz, 1976). In addition to positive sand accumulation in the Sahara Desert, wind-etched semiparallel grooves oc? cur. The ASTP mission photographed such grooves near the east edge of the Hoggar Mountain in Algeria (NASA photograph numbers AST-2-124 through 9-552). These grooves, which probably origi? nated as joints widened by wind erosion, have coun? terparts on Mars. For example, McCauley (1974) described an occurrence at 5?N, 146?W in the relatively smooth uncratered plains of southern Ama- zonis, where he ascribed the pattern to control by bedrock fractures. The ASTP mission also photographed an unusual and little studied dune field in the northern part of the Monte-Patagonian Desert of Argentina (Figure 60). The dune field lies east of San Juan in a de? pression bounded by mountains on three sides. It is approximately 55 X 35 km in size. It displays a fish- scale pattern composed of numerous irregular crescen? tic dunes and linear sand ridges. These ridges are probably caused by the elongation of the horns of crescentic dunes. The overall pattern is that of two sets of discontinuous and parallel lines trending ap? proximately N70?W and N30?W, respectively. Super? posed on the larger features are finer, linear dunes FIGURE 59.?Crest of a barchanoid dune, northeast of Baharia Oasis in the Western Desert of Egypt. Crests of barchan dunes are usually smooth, exhibiting a sharp line between the gentle slope of the windward side and the steep slope of the dune's slip face. The barchanoid dunes in this region show an unusual pattern. Here a 2-3 m segment of the crest displays grooves that form an angle of about 45? with the main direction of the crest. This pattern may be caused by multidirectional winds. (Photograph by the author) 9H ? ? 82 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE V> to n JR.; FIGURE 60.?Two little-known dune fields photographed by the Apollo-Soyuz astronauts in the Monte-Patagonian Desert of Argentina. The larger of the two dune fields is 55 X 35 km and exhibits sharp boundaries with the alluvial fan at the base of the surrounding mountains. The major dune pattern is crescentic, with a superposed secondary linear pattern. (NASA photograph AST-27-2340) NUMBER 83 whose trends generally follow the trends of the larger ones. This dune field is currently under investigation by a field party belonging to the National Geological Service of Argentina. The pattern of this dune field is nearly duplicated by another field that is enclosed within a crater in the Hellespontus region of Mars (Figure 61). The Mars dunes have been described by Cutts and Smith (1973:4142) as a "series of prominent subparallel ridges 1-3 km apart and trending N15?W to N35CW . . . . Ridges of this system are crossed by narrow apparently sharper-crested ridges trending N30?E." The Hellespontus dune field has been compared to other terrestrial dune fields by Breed (1976). Its simi? larities to the Argentine dune field photographed by ASTP, however, are more convincing. The fact that the dune field in Argentina is surrounded by moun? tains on three sides makes the analogy even more interesting. Furthermore, as in the case of the dune field on Mars, it displays sharp boundaries with the surrounding terrain. FIGURE 61.?Mariner 9 photograph of a suspected dune field (55 X 35 km) within a crater in the Hellespontus region of Mars. (After Cutts and Smith, 1973:4140) Levantine Rift The Apollo-Soyuz astronauts observed and photo? graphed some areas of major continental crustal frac? turing. Of particular interest is the Red Sea-Levan? tine Rift zone, a pattern of fractures between eastern Africa and Asia Minor. Major fractures of the zone south of the Sea of Galilee are well known from both ground mapping (Dubertret, 1953; Freund, et al., 1970; Baker, 1970; McKenzie, 1970; Neev, 1975) and Skylab orbital photography (Muehlberger, et al., 1974). The ASTP astronauts were asked to provide information regarding the northern extension of the Levantine Rift by studying all fracture patterns from the Sea of Galilee northward (Figures 62-65). The astronauts observed during the mission that the major fracture line of the Dead Sea/Sea of Galilee forks into three major faults: "one makes a bend and goes along (northward) parallel to the Mediterranean coast; two goes to the northeast and seems to be obscured and ends in a lot of jumbled country; and three could be traced clear up to the river (Eu? phrates) eastward" (comments by astronaut Brand in NASA, 1975b). This fan-shaped complex of faults is shown in Figure 63. The Apollo-Soyuz observations and photo? graphs of the area support the interpretations that fault number 1 continues in a north-northeast direc? tion to the central part of Turkey near the town of Lice (the site of recent earthquakes) and that there is a strong northeast to east component of the frac? ture pattern resulting in the fan-shape. This pattern may lend support to the possibility that the Arabian crustal subplate rotates counterclockwise in a north? easterly direction. This plate, moving at an estimated rate of 6 cm per year (Bird, Toksoz, and Sleep, 1975: 4415) may be pivoting at the point of convergence of the fan-shaped fractures just northwest of the Go? lan Heights (Figures 63, 64) . Volcanoes and Volcanic Plumes The Apollo-Soyuz astronauts obtained excellent photographs of several areas that display volcanic structures and also observed an eruption of the Mt. Etna volcano. Among the studied volcanic structures are those that make up the Galapagos Islands. These islands, which straddle the equator in the eastern Pacific Ocean, are shield volcanoes with central caldera de- 84 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE FIGURE 62.?Oblique view of the southern part of the Levantine Rift looking southward at the Sinai Peninsula and the Red Sea. (NASA photograph AST-9-560) NUMBER 1 85 FIGURE 63.?ASTP photograph of the middle part of the Levantine Rift zone. Some of the fault lines are emphasized by black lines. Among these are major faults that form a fan- shaped pattern. Fault number 1 continues in a north-northeast direction to the central part of Turkey, and fault number 2 continues eastward to the Euphrates River valley in Syria. (NASA photograph AST-9-564) 86 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE FIGURE 64.?A high resolution (250 mm lens) view of the area near the junction of the fan- shaped faults shown in Figure 63. Note the large number of small-scale lineaments. (NASA photograph AST-2-141) pressions. The volcanoes are characterized by ring- injection lava dikes rather than radial-injection as in the case of Hawaii (Macdonald, 1972:309). Figure 66 exemplifies one of several near-vertical photographs of the Galapagos volcanoes taken on 24 July 1975. The islands appear wreathed in clouds and six volcanic craters project above the clouds. According to Dietz and McHone (1976:7), the two islands of Isla Isabela and Isla Fernandina offer an unusual opportunity for volcanic surveillance by spacecraft, because they lie in a remote and uninhab? ited region of the world. The volcanoes are of the alkalic-plume type with their magmas originating below the asthenosphere. Eastward drift of the Nazca crustal plate over the Galapagos "hot spot" largely confines recent volcanic activity to these two islands, Isabela and Fernandina. Another volcanic area photographed by the Apollo- Soyuz astronauts is the Transverse Volcanic Zone, which dominates the geologic structure of central NUMBER 1 fi7 FIGURE 65.?Stereoscopic view of the northern extension of the Levantine Rift in Syria. (NASA photographs AST-16-1267 and AST-16-1268) FIGURE 66.?Near-vertical photograph of volcanoes on Isla Fernandina (left center) and Isla Isabela (island with three volcanoes) of the Galapagos chain. The unusual cloud pat? terns are related to the orographic effects of the islands intercepting the southeast trade winds. (NASA photograph AST-10-579) SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE Mexico. This zone trends in an east-west direction, in contrast to the north-south trend of structures be? longing to the "Ring of Fire" near the margin of the Pacific Ocean. The ASTP crew captured on film a remarkable view of the eastern end of this zone revealing a number of volcanic features east of Pue? blo, Mexico (Figure 67). Among the features revealed in this photograph are extensive lava flows, rhyolite domes, maars, diatremes, vitric ash rings and volcanic collapse features (Dietz and McHone, 1976:8). In the central part of the photograph a dry playa is present, a remnant of an extensive lake that existed when the Spanish Con? quistadors arrived in North America. One structure appearing in Figure 67, Tepexitl Crater, was recently visited (prior to the Apollo-Soyuz mission) by Dr. Robert Dietz, one of the experiment? er's Co-Investigators. The visit was inspired by the suggestion that the feature is a possible meteorite impact site (Maupome, 1974:81). The field investi? gation demonstrated that the crater is a rhyolitic ash ring formed by a volcanic explosion. According to Dietz and McHone (1976:9), . . . the ASTP photograph is detailed enough to firmly support the volcanic nature of the crater, thus making the field investigation unnecessary. Although a Landsat image of the same region was available and was used in connection with the field study, the details of the image were far inferior to the ASTP photograph, illustrating the value of FIGURE 67.?Volcanic features east of Puebla, Mexico. Among the features revealed in this photograph are lava flows, domes, craters, ash rings, and volcanic collapse features. (NASA photograph AST-24-2003) NUMBER 1 89 supplementing electronically transmitted space imagery with true photography. On 24 July 1975, the Apollo-Soyuz astronauts photographed the 3240 m Mt. Etna in eruption. The volcano was emitting a cloud of ash that appears to have been visible for at least 200 km eastward (Fig? ure 68) ; nearby cumulus clouds appear to have been generated by the action of volcanic ash particles becoming condensation nuclei (Dietz and McHone, 1976:5). Mt. Etna, a basaltic shield volcano 30 km across at its base, is the most active in Europe; more than 75 eruptions have been recorded since Roman times. Its lava flows and ash falls have caused damage to urban areas and crops on numerous occasions. Vol? canic ash layers are frequently found in sediment core samples of the floor of the Mediterranean Sea; the layers are ash deposits from volcanoes such as Mt. Etna. It is interesting to compare the Mt. Etna volcanic plume with that observed at Sakurajima Volcano of Japan by the Skylab 4 crew (Friedman, Frank, and Heiken, 1974:8-2:8-5) . The Mt. Etna plume ap? pears somewhat more coherent, diffuses more regu? larly, and displays no evidence of a changing wind direction at higher altitudes. According to Dietz and McHone (1976:6), the Mt. Etna plume does not appear to break through the tropopause and carry ash into the stratosphere; hence the area of ash fall? out remains limited. The usually inferred pattern of an ash fall-out in an elliptical pattern, however, ap? pears to be an oversimplification of what actually happens. Astroblemes The term "astroblemes" refers to old circular features of impact origin (Dietz, 1961, p. 51). These features are of interest in comparative planetology since they constitute terrestrial analogues of impact craters on the Moon, Mars, and Mercury. The ASTP mission photographed two circular structures, one in Libya (Figure 69) and the other, previously unknown, in Brazil. The Libyan structure (at about 24?N, 24?E) lies near the Kufra Oasis and was named "the Oasis structure" by French, Under? wood, and Fisk (1974:1425). The diameter, includ? ing the outer ring of the structure, is given as 11.5 km by French, Underwood, and Fisk (1974:1425) although a study based on Landsat images by Dietz and McHone (1976:5) suggests an overall diameter of 17 km. This last figure appears to agree with the findings of ASTP where a large outer ring is barely visible. The circular structure photographed in Brazil is 4 km in diameter and occurs at approximately 8?S, 47 ?W, only 45 km north-northeast of the Serra da Cangalha astrobleme (Dietz and French, 1973:561). This newly discovered structure appears to be similar in geomorphic form and structural style to Serra da Cangalha, and the two could be twin impact events. Field investigations of the newly discovered feature are presently under way. Results of these detailed investigations are planned to appear in NASA's Sum? mary Science Report, to be published later by NASA. From the Apollo-Soyuz photographs, however, Dietz and McHone (1976:3) believe that the circular feature confirms a domal structure for the entire ring with only a vague indication of a surrounding annular ring syncline. They believe that the dome consists of three formations: (1) a small central dome of resistant light-colored rock, possibly sandstone, with a central depressed dimple; (2) an annular ring of soft, topographically low, dark rock, possibly shale, eroded by a stream that breaches the outer ring along the northwest quadrant; and (3) an outer ring of resistant light rock that has been highly modified by agricultural activity, such as small-area farming and extensive grazing. Although topographically high, the outer ring has only moderate relief. OCEANOGRAPHY The Apollo-Soyuz astronauts collected a plethora of information in support of studies of the world oceans (Figure 70). Also, as stated above, research vessels obtained numerous data on sea surface tem? peratures, salinity, water color, current directions, and types of cloud cover and cloud heights. Some of the Apollo-Soyuz data deal with ocean currents, such as the Humboldt Current off the western coast of South America, and the Yucatan Current, particularly its exit between Cozumel Island and the Yucatan Peninsula. Other data pertain to both the warm- and cold-water eddies. Excellent photographs were obtained of cold-water eddies in the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea. The astro? nauts were able to identify these features and to photograph them because of the semicircular cloud 90 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE FIGURE 68.?Photograph taken on 24 July 1975 showing Mt. Etna (right center) on the island of Sicily in eruption. The volcano was emitting a cloud of ash that appears to have been visible for at least 200 km eastward. (NASA photograph AST-13-835) NUMBER 1 91 FIGURE 69.?Two oasis astroblemes (arrows) near Kufra Oasis in southeastern Libya. The main ring of the structure to the south is 17 km in diameter. (NASA protograph AST- 16-1244) patterns that delineate eddy boundaries. Eddies are important ocean features for several reasons: they act as mechanisms of energy dissipation, as productive fisheries, and as hiding places for submarines because of their effect on sound waves. The usefulness of some of the collected data is somewhat limited by the lack of information on their exact geographic locations. Much effort is being expended to specify the location of the photographed sites. Use is made of weather satellite (SMS) images in matching cloud patterns with Apollo-Soyuz photo? graphs. For this reason, the review of significant oceanographic findings will be limited to a brief sum? mary of internal ocean waves and the outflow of the Orinoco River. Internal Ocean Waves Internal waves are little-understood ocean features similar to surface waves but orders-of-magnitude larger, and they occur within the ocean. They are manifest at the surface by the accumulation of scum (slicks) above the wave crests. Because scum lines are their only manifestation from orbital altitudes, sun? glint facilitates their observation; however, it was not known how and under what conditions they be? come visible. The first orbital observation of scum lines associated with internal waves was accomplished in 1973 near FIGURE 70.?Locations of major Apollo-Soyuz observation sites in the world oceans (1 = Coral Sea, 2 = Tasman Sea, 3 = South Pacific, 4 = Gulf of California, 5 = Gulf of Mexico, 6 = Caribbean Sea, 7 = northeast U.S. coast, 8 = Mediterranean Sea, 9 = Gulf of Guinea, 10 = Red Sea, 11 = Persian (Arabian) Gulf, 12 = Arabian Sea). 92 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE the New York Bight and the east and west coasts of Africa (Apel and Charnell, 1974:1309). Apel, et al. (1975:865) used Landsat imagery to measure internal wave lengths, wave pocket velocity, and bottom topography reflection effects on the waves. The same authors also detected internal waves on Landsat imagery in the middle of the Pacific Ocean (40?N, 160?W) at great depths. The Apollo-Soyuz astronauts were asked to look for internal waves in both the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Emphasis was placed on the coastal waters of western Spain, in which the U.S. Navy research teams were interested in locating internal waves. The waves occur at temperature or density discontinuities between water layers, and characteristically have wavelengths of several kilometers. Apollo Commander Thomas Stafford, who was charged with the task of observing the Strait of Gibraltar, first found it difficult to distinguish any surface features on the water surface (Figure 71), but they appeared at a given sun illumination angle and viewing direction (comments by T. P. Stafford in NASA, 1975c: 22) : FIGURE 71.?Oblique view looking eastward of the Strait of Gibraltar. The land mass on the left is part of Spain, and on the right, part of Morocco. The blue waters of the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea appear homog? eneous and featureless. (NASA photograph AST-27-2362) I was looking for all these things and suddenly they popped out within a second right there. Just suddenly when the sun angle changed, everything was there. The waves and the boundary were all there and we just snapped a series on them. Before that, there was nothing but just solid blue water. Then they just suddenly popped. You have to be ready and the sun angle has to be just right. It's there for just a short period of time and then it's gone. The photographs of the region clearly display the internal waves (Figure 72). The area in which they exist is very deep, although there are sea mounts that are within 40 m (20 fathoms) of the ocean surface. These mounts probably influence the waves. How? ever, the internal wave mechanism west of Spain may be due to the density differential caused by the denser, more saline Mediterranean waters that flow under the less dense Atlantic waters. The process of flow may be expedited by the decrease of fresh water intake to the Mediterranean following the construc? tion of the High Dam on the Nile River, south of Aswan, Egypt. Internal waves were also observed and photo? graphed by the Apollo-Soyuz crew west of Thailand (Figure 73). Again, the sun angle illumination and viewing directions were significant. Detailed study of the conditions under which these features were de? tected on the Apollo-Soyuz mission will help in the planning of internal wave observations on future space missions. Outflow of the Orinoco River Waters of the Orinoco River carry a large amount of organic materials (including humic acids) into the Atlantic Ocean. This outflow was clearly visible near the Orinoco River delta from the Apollo-Soyuz orbit (Figure 74). The yellow-tinted waters of the Orinoco seem to extend to the area of Barbados Island and beyond. Dr. Garry Borstad of the Bellairs Research Institute of McGill University conducted three ocean surveys during the mission in the vicinity of Barbados. The cruises, which were performed on 21, 22, and 23 July included measuring the following: (1) sea state (wave height, sea swell direction, and percent white caps) ; (2) Forel Scale color (Forel in a standard scale for water color measurement) ; (3) chlorophyll concentra? tion (bucket samples); (4) phycobilin (pigments that occur in the cells of algae) concentration; (5) tem? perature (bucket sample and bathythermograph or NUMBER 1 93 V- V fr^ XM FIGURE 72.?Photograph of internal waves observed by astronaut Tom Stafford off Atlantic coast of Spain. The internal waves, which may be caused by a density differential, became visible only near sunglint and for a short period of time. (NASA photograph AST-27-2367) BT; an instrument for obtaining a permanent, graphi? cal record of water temperature versus depth as it is lowered and raised in the ocean) to 150 m while cruising; (6) salinity of the water; (7) cloud cover, distribution, and type; (8) plankton cell numbers (bucket samples); (9) water depth (utilizing an echo sounder); and (10) wind speed and direction. Dr. Borstad reported that the cruises were approximately 25-30 km long with samples taken at half or one kilometer intervals. The transects were performed west of the groundtrack of revolution. 104 during which the observations were made from orbit. The traces of the cruises are shown in Figure 75. During the cruises, 250 drift bottles were released, FIGURE 73.?Internal waves observed and photographed by the ASTP crew in the Andaman Sea west of Thailand. (NASA photograph AST-7-427) FIGURE 74.?The deep-brown, muddy water of the Orinoco River at ift mouth is laden with sediments and humic compounds. As it flows northward into the Atlantic Ocean the water becomes yellowish green. The color was observed by the Apollo-Soyuz crew as far north as Barbados Island. (NASA photograph AST-21-1685) NUMBER 1 95 o . ? : " f July 2 3 B ( ' ? ? M ^6 0 * ? o B J u l y 2 2 Y Surface bucket s a m p l e - ? Bucket s a m p l e . FOREL; O + Phytoplankton sample Barbados / LS c 1 1 1 0 5 10 km K h l a ] . S S ; T ? S E C C H I . B T I o 7 5 m ? CphycobilinJ 1 1 July 21 ? ? ? A ??o FIGURE 75.?Tracks of three ocean surveys conducted by a vessel of the Bellairs Research Institute of McGill University on 21, 22, and 23 July in the vicinity of the island of Barbados. (Courtesy of Dr. Gary Borstad) equally spaced along the tracks. Dr. Borstad stated (1975, pers. comm.) that he "had been talking to skippers of merchant vessels plying the Barbados/ Trinidad routes and will ask them to watch for the boundary of the 'green water', as they call it. They tell me it usually is seen about half way from Trinidad to Grenada." Preliminary results of these surveys include the following observations (Borstad, 1975, pers. comm.) : 1. The weather was fine and the seas calm with no white caps on 21 and 22 July. On 23 July the seas were higher. The wind was easterly at 17 to 21 km (11 to 13 mi) per hour. On 22 July the sky was clear (0-1 cloud cover) with few scattered cumulus clouds. 2. There was a definite change in color of the sea south of Barbados from Forel II off the west coast to Forel IV-V beginning about 16 km south of the island. There may have been a reduction of Secchi (a white disc, 20 cm to 2 m in diameter, which is used to determine penetration of light) depth in this re? gion, but the correlation between higher Forel num? bers and lower Secchi transparency was not good. 3. Bathythermograph (BT) profiles were taken to 75 or 100 m on alternate stations. For the most part, the isothermal (equal temperature) layer was 20-25 m thick, with some changes. 4. From drift bottle returns, the residual current was to the northwest at approximately 29 km per day. Bottles released south of Barbados apparently passed St. Lucia to the south. (Data from BT profiles will be used in conjunction with data on drift of bottles to establish current patterns.) 5. Phytoplankton members were low in the surface (bucket) samples. Oscillatoria cell numbers were higher in the lee of Barbados Island than elsewhere. During the mission, astronaut Thomas Stafford re? ported that he could see discolored water from the Orinoco River much farther north than Barbados Island. He reported seeing that "muddy" color up to 170:06 GET, which corresponds to about 19?N, 51 ?W, at a distance of almost 1540 km (830 nm) from the mouth of the river. This is much farther north than expected. The understanding of the biochemical changes in? troduced by the outflow of the highly colored river water into the Atlantic is important. Also, informa? tion is sought on how fresh water and ocean water mix. The photographs obtained by the Apollo-Soyuz crew are now being investigated in light of the knowl? edge gained from the aforementioned ocean surveys. In addition, the photographs are being quantitatively measured, by the use of a densitometer, to assess the concentration and degree of mixing of the discolored water. HYDROLOGY Snow Cover Mapping The Earth's snow cover is a resource that directly or indirectly affects most of the world's population. To illustrate the importance of snow cover, the Com? mittee on Polar Research stated in a 1970 report (Barnes, 1974a: 1) : Snow forms a transient, sedimentary veneer on much of the Earth's land surfaces. The diverse economic effects of this snow layer are incalculable. It is a major and renewable hydrologic reservoir; in many areas of North America more than half of the utilized water is derived from melted winter snow. Flood damage from spring snow melt is a recurring 96 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE hazard in many river basins. The obstacles and hazards to ground transportation alone are formidable. . . . Snow in? fluences a broad area of geophysical phenomena simply by its presence or absence. On a large scale the winter snow cover stores water, modifies surface albedo, insulates the ground, and modifies plant and animal habitats. . . . A large- scale snow cover interacts with large-scale weather phe? nomena. The sharp increase in surface reflectivity (albedo) which accompanies snow deposition completely alters the radiation regime at the Earth's surface. A change in surface albedo and emissivity over widespread areas of the continents modifies both local and large-scale weather patterns. Despite the economic and scientific implications of snow cover studies, existing data collection methods often cannot provide either the desired areal coverage or observational frequency (Barnes, 1974a:2). Except in limited areas where aerial surveys are used, the significant parameters are usually measured at ground stations or at widely scattered snow survey courses. Remote sensing from Earth-orbiting satellites now provides observations of snow that have not previously been available, and offers promise for eventually pro? viding a more cost-effective means for snowpack monitoring. In fact, it was pointed out by Barnes (1974a:2) that "as long ago as 1960, snow could be detected in eastern Canada in the initial pictures taken by the first weather satellite, T I R O S - 1 . Snow, therefore, can perhaps be considered as the very first water resource to be observed from space." Since the time of the first T IROS pictures, an increasing use has been made of remote sensing from satellites to map snow extent. Of direct application were data from Landsat and the Skylab Earth Re? sources Experiment Package (EREP) . One result of using these data was the recognition of certain prob? lems in mapping snow from space. According to Barnes (1974a: 8-9) , these include the difficulties in distinguishing between snow and cloud, which may have nearly identical reflectivity, detecting snow in heavily forested areas and within mountain shadows, and estimating snow depth. To help solve some of these problems, visual ob? servations from Earth orbit by trained astronauts were first attempted on Skylab 4 with encouraging results (Barnes, 1974b: 15-1). Additional observations were planned on ASTP, particularly of the Cascade Moun- FIGURE 76.?ASTP photograph of the snow-covered Rocky Mountains in Alberta and British Columbia, Canada. (NASA photograph AST-19-1570) NUMBER 1 97 tains in the northwestern United States, the Andes Mountains in South America, and the Himalaya Mountains in northern India. The Himalayan ob? servations could not be made because of excessive cloud cover; however, excellent data were obtained of the Olympic and Cascade Mountains in Washing? ton and the Canadian Rockies in Alberta (Figure 76). The Apollo-Soyuz observations and photographs are being utilized to map snow extent and determine snowline elevation; to map observed changes in ap? parent snow cover extent; and to compare the ASTP photographs with those of Skylab, Landsat and other data for establishing seasonal variations of snow cover. Major Lake Changes During the ASTP mission, excellent photographs were acquired of some of the world's major lakes, including Lake Chad, the Great Salt Lake, Lake Eyre (Australia), and the Caspian Sea. These photographs are being compared with previous Earth orbital data to document changes in lake size and water color, especially on Lake Chad in the Sahel region of Africa (Figure 77). Lake Chad, once one of Africa's largest lakes, lies in the Sahel region between the savanna land to the south and the sandy desert to the north. To the northeast, it is bounded by fossile dunes, and to the south, tropical rivers flow into the lake bringing sedi? ment and fresh water. The rapid decrease in lake size has been attributed to three factors: the influx of sand from the Sahara, the accumulation of sedi? ments deposited by inflowing rivers to the south, and the evaporation of surface waters. The possibility that Lake Chad might eventually dry up presents a prob? lem since the southern part of the lake is biologically productive and rich in fish. Apollo-Soyuz photographs will be compared to Skylab data to determine the rate of change to Lake Chad's size in the past few years. FIGURE 77.?Lake Chad is the dark green area in the middle of this oblique photograph by the Apollo-Soyuz crew. Various factors, including the influx of sand from the Sahara Desert, have contributed to a significant decrease in the lake's size. Note the emergent dunes within older and larger boundaries. (NASA photograph AST-9-550) FIGURE 78.?ASTP photograph of circular irrigation patterns near Kufra Oasis, Libya. (NASA photograph AST-16-1244) Irrigation Patterns As stated before, no attempt was made on the Apollo-Soyuz mission to study irrigation and vegeta? tion patterns. These patterns are best monitored by long-duration and repetitive-coverage satellites such as Landsat. One special example deserves mention however; that is, the pattern displayed near Kufra Oasis in southeastern Libya (Figure 78). The photograph reveals remarkable circular pat? terns which are strung together to seemingly cremate a giant animal, or an insect complete with antennae but lacking the full complement of six legs as re? quired for a class of arthropods. Dr. Robert Dietz (1976, pers. comm.) stated that "doubtless some fu? ture parascientific archeologist will find reason to compare this figure to the markings on the Nazca Plain of Peru and infer that there must have been astronauts flying in the 20th Century, A.D." It is interesting to note that the development of these circular features could be traced in time through the use of Landsat imagery. Figure 79 shows succes? sive stages of circle-addition, and illustrates the utility FIGURE 79.?Two Landsat images showing addition of irri? gation fields at Kufra: a, taken in 1973 (ERTS E?1187? 08250-702); b, taken in 1975 (ERTS E-2129-08131-701). These photos illustrate the utility of repetitive coverage. FIGURE 80. Photograph of Kufra area showing the circular patterns caused by huge rotating sprinklers 560 m in radius. (Photo courtesy of Derek Bayes, Aspect Picture Library Ltd, Surrey, England) 100 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE of repetitive coverage of the same area over a year's time. Of all the features observed on the Apollo-Soyuz mission, these patterns are perhaps the most curious and unusual to anyone who does not know what they indicate. They certainly imply the existence of an intelligent tool-maker on Earth. They are, of course, vegetation patterns (Figure 80) wrought by huge rotating sprinklers 560 m in radius (Allan, 1976:98). This method of irrigation is known as center-pivot irrigation (Splinter, 1976) and has been used in many arid and semi-arid regions, including the southwestern United States. METEOROLOGY Meteorological investigations included the study of cloud features and tropical storms. Photographs of cloud features showed Benard cells, Von Karman vortices, mountain waves (rotor clouds), atmospheric bow waves in the lee of islands, and cumulonimbus buildups (Figure 81). The crew also obtained photo? graphs of a developing tropical storm in the Carib? bean Sea that "doesn't seem to cover so much area, but it does have a rather swirling ' V appearance. I don't see an eye, but I can see where an eye would be" (comments by astronaut Vance Brand in NASA, 1975b:1051). Photographs and visual observations will help meteorologists develop computer models of hurri? canes and tropical storms. Stereo photographs of a dissipating storm were also taken and will be used in making a three-dimensional stereoscopic model of the storm to help decipher its topography. The stereo? scopic model in turn will affect theoretical models of storm development and dissipation. Excellent photographs of thunderstorms and con? vective cloud patterns were also acquired and will be used in studies of severe storm development. Figure 82 shows convective turrets overshooting a thunderstorm anvil near Jerevan, Soviet Armenia. . . . The photograph was taken looking southeastward with the sunset terminator in the background. West is to the right and east is to the left. The anvil is about 200 km long and about 50 km wide at its western end. Shading of the anvil top indicates that it is dome-shaped with the overshooting turrets protruding above the dome. The strong anvil outflow toward the west opposing the strong westerly flow over the anvil top apparently is responsible for the shear-induced Kelvin-Helmholtz waves which emanate from each of the turrets in the westerly and northwesterly direction. These waves are similar to the waves observed in hurricane and typhoon circular convective clouds by Arnold (1975, unpublished) and Black (1975, unpub? lished) using DMSP and Skylab imagery, respectively [Black, 1975, cover]. Photographs of unusual, large-scale, intersecting cloud streaks were obtained by the Apollo-Soyuz crew. During postmission debriefings, the crew re? ported that these features were too large to be con? trails and had a wedge-shaped appearance (Figure 83) : SLAYTON : We saw an awful lot of contrails over the North Atlantic and it's nothing like that. They just don't get that big. BRAND: Contrails were lines; these are wedges practically. When the crew was asked: "Do you remember from Skylab, when they took a picture and they thought it was the hot air coming from a ship going through a very low scattered deck about like that, and there was a plume going across the apparent trend of the clouds. Do you think that maybe that was this same thing?" Vance Brand's answer (in NASA, 1975c: 103) was: "It's a possibility, I suppose, but at the time it looked natural." ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE Red Tide Attempts were made to visually locate and docu? ment on film color variations in coastal waters that may be due to red tide blooms. Experts believe that these color variations can be used to determine changes in concentration of marine phytoplankton (minute floating plants) populations, especially the red tide dinoflagellate, e.g., Gonyaulax (Figure 84). In addition, the color may reflect the presence of suspended sediments, dissolved solids, and other water pollutants. In the United States, red tide occurs in the coastal waters of Maine, Massachusetts, Florida, and Cali? fornia resulting in health and economic problems. A variety of red tide is toxic to fish, and decomposi? tion of fish can deplete the water of much of its oxygen. Toxic particles produced by the organism can cause human eye and respiratory irritations. (At times of heavy red tide infestations, every "iron lung" in New England is occupied by people who have respiratory problems.) The toxin also affects shell? fish, which may store it in their bodies. As a result, NUMBER 1 101 FIGURE 81.?Variety of cloud features observed by the ASTP crew: a, Benard cells over the Tasman Sea (NASA photograph AST-22-1754); b, mountain waves (rotor clouds) over New Zealand (NASA photograph AST-1-16) ; c, atmospheric bow waves over the San Nicolas Island, west of California (NASA photograph AST-14-878); d, cumulonimbus near Baja, California (NASA photograph AST-9-545) 102 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE FIGURE 82.?Thunderstorms near Jerevan, Soviet Armenia (NASA photograph AST-2-95). shellfish beds often have been closed for several months by local health authorities. A red tide out? break in the spring and summer of 1971 was esti? mated to have cost Florida $20 million or more, primarily in lost tourist business when dead fish were reported littering Florida beaches. Accurate analyses of various kinds of water colora? tion in the ocean depend on data collections made by different means. For this reason spacecraft observa? tions from ASTP were simultaneously supported by aircraft flights, open ocean water surveys, and sam? pling of the water at the shorelines. In New England, two research vessels of Bigelow Laboratory made a traverse of the Gulf of Maine from Portland to the Bay of Fundy and another tran? sect, southward to Cape Cod. Data were obtained on the size, shape, and location of red water patches due to the toxic phytoplankton and included measure? ments of sea surface temperature, salinity, chlorophyll content, and water color. A zone of discolored water was located near the mouth of the Damariscotta River in Maine. The toxic level was low and much of the reddish coloration was attributed to sediments brought to the ocean from inland rivers. In addition to the red tide observations off the coast of Maine, support ships and sampling stations of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts acquired water color, salinity, and bio-content data. An un? usually high chlorophyll content in the coastal waters off New England was reported. This was probably the result of abnormally heavy rains carrying an in? creased amount of biota into the sea. High altitude metric and multispectral photography was also acquired during the mission over Cape Cod, Cape Ann, and Long Island. The photographs show the greenish color of the coastal waters (Figure 85). The data is being compiled and analyzed for the ASTP Summary Science Report. Oil Slicks Attempts were made to observe oil slicks in the North Atlantic ship routes, but none were located due mainly to much cloud cover. An interesting story developed during the mission, however, illustrating the significance of aircraft support photography in special cases. During the flight we had been alerted by the NUMBER 1 103 FIGURE 83.?The ASTP crew obtained this photograph of unique wedge-shaped linear clouds over the Pacific Ocean west of Southern California. (NASA photograph AST-1-4-2) 104 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE FIGURE 84.?Scanning electron micrograph of Gonyaulax, a toxic dinoflagellate about 35 microns in size. (Courtesy of Alfred and Laura] Loeblich, Harvard Biological Laboratory, Cambridge, Mass.) Smithsonian's Center for Short-Lived Phenomena to an oil spill off the east coast of Florida. The astro? nauts were asked to photograph it if possible, but cloud cover prevented them from locating the slick. In the meantime, the NASA WB-57 plane photo? graphed the area from an altitude of 18,400 m (60,300 ft) using a 6-inch Zeiss mapping camera with S O - 397 color sensitive film and a 2A filter. Simultaneous photographs using black-and-white and infrared film also recorded the spill. The NASA plane actually photographed the slick on two separate days while filming ocean currents. Figure 86a, taken the after? noon of 20 July, shows the oil shimmering in the sun like a silver ribbon with a corduroy pattern. Figure 866, taken 23 July, shows the slick much closer to the Keys. Four months later, the master of an oil tanker was / v. ' ^ ~ ? ^ * ??::??- ' ~ ? W Y j / ? n n ? T ' ? < ? 01 B?.* ^ " w 1 _ / i :- 1 \ "A ^ _ . i m / > / J 7 FIGURE 85.?Two photographs of Cape Cod taken in July 1975, showing the greenish color of coastal waters, probably the result of abnormally heavy rains, carrying an increased amount of biota into the sea: a, from an altitude of 20,000 m by WB-57 aircraft based at JSC; b, NASA photograph AST-1-064. NUMBER 1 105 FIGURE 86.?A large, highly reflective crude oil slick is visible as a silver ribbon with a cor? duroy pattern. This slick was first reported on the evening of 20 July. At that time an esti? mated 152,000 to 228,000 liters of oil were in the water, a, The slick is about 5 km offshore (NASA JSC 315 July 1975, 19-054); b, two days later the slick has moved closer to the Keys (NASA JSC 315 July 1975, 26-061). charged with violating the 1974 Federal Water Pollu? tion Act by discharging 19,000 liters (5,000 gallons) of oil within 80 km (50 mi) of the United States coastline on 17 July 1975. To help in the ensuing investigation, the aircraft photographs were sent to Rear Admiral Austin Wagner, commander of the Coast Guard's 7th Dis? trict, Miami, Florida. Detailed study of the photo? graphs will shed further light on the extent of the discharge. The direction and pattern of the spread oil may help in establishing the conditions at the start of the spill. VISUAL ACUITY Of the five features that were selected for visual acuity tests on the Apollo-Soyuz mission, the astro? nauts were able to see the Lake Bonneville racetrack, glaciers and firn lines in Canada, and the Pyramids of Giza. They were not able to clearly discern the Nazca Plain markings or bioluminescence in the Red Sea. It must be stated, however, that the condition under which these features were observed varied significantly, as discussed below. Lake Bonneville Racetrack During the postmission debriefings (NASA, 1975c: 11-12), astronaut Vance Brand indicated that he was able to see the racetrack at Lake Bonneville because he knew exactly where to look: First of all, the picture I had pointed out the area, and I compared that picture to the ground, and I saw what looked like a fairly wide linear scratch or stripe on the ground. Right at this point, after all this time and without the benefit of that same picture, I can't tell you where it is. . . . At the time, I did see it. Glaciers and Firn Lines Visual observations of glaciers were performed under favorable conditions over the Canadian Rockies. 106 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE FIGURE 87.?Enlargement of an ASTP photograph of the Nile Delta. The Great Pyramids of Giza (arrow) are visible as three dark spots. (NASA photograph AST-1-49) T h e crew was also successful in distinguishing firn lines a n d remarked tha t this was a function of both texture and color. T h e following conversation occurred dur ing the postmission debriefings (NASA, 1975c: 1 5 ) : BRAND: The best case, I believe, was in the Alberta-British Columbia area. I very easily saw a firn line on one big glacier up there. EL-BAZ: How did you make the distinction? Why do you think you were able to see that? Because of color or texture? BRAND: Texture and color and even shininess, you might say. Surface texture, I guess. EL-BAZ: The ice being more gray? SLAYTON: Kind of a gray compared to pure white. STAFFORD: Yes, it goes from white to gray. And the firn line wasn't just a straight line; it was kind of jagged. It wasn't a clear line. SLAYTON: But I thought I could see texture down below it also, that sort of looked like flow patterns going parallel with the glaciers. Nazca Markings W i t h o u t the aid of an enlarging telescope, the Apollo-Soyuz as t ronauts were not able to see the Nazca Plain markings in the Peruvian Desert . This , however, may be due to cloud cover on revolution 74, and to unfavorable spacecraft a t t i tude on revolu? tion 104 as discussed in the postmission debriefing (NASA, 1975c: 1 3 - 1 4 ) : EL-BAZ: All right, we had also something over the intri? cate patterns of the Nazca Plains. Tom, you got pictures and I don't know whether you saw anything or not. STAFFORD: The first time the clouds went all the way to the mountains and we got nothing. This slide [not illus? trated] was taken on the second pass. I can't say that I saw them. I remember this little bay in here and Vance was helping me lead in. I saw this little bay up here and I thought I saw a white streak in here, but I snapped the picture and I couldn't really say that that was it. I thought I saw something but I sure wouldn't say that was positive. BRAND: I didn't see anything. STAFFORD: And so, I couldn't say that I saw them. No. Now whether it was a white field or something in that area, I just don't know. BRAND: This is one case where being upside down hurt us. The identification problem was very hard here. STAFFORD: Can you see them on that photograph? EL-BAZ: I couldn't, really. I know where they are, but I have not enlarged this or looked at it in detail. But this is exactly where you would expect them. This is that region. NUMBER 1 107 Pyramids of Giza Early in the mission and while occupied by other things, Vance Brand and Deke Slayton looked out of the spacecraft window during revolution 56 (Figure 87) and exclaimed (NASA 1975d:253): BRAND: Boy, there's Cairo. SLAYTON: There it is. Boy! Oh, great! . . . We got everything we want. Say, that stuff is pretty . . . right there. BRAND: See the Pyramids? SLAYTON: Yeah! (laughter) BRAND: My God! I think I did. I've got to get a map though. . . . Houston, Apollo. Occasionally, we get some very good viewing because of attitude, weather, etc. We just now got a couple of visual observations, things that we haven't been able to get as well before. For example, saw the Levantine Rift and Egypt. I think I might have seen the pyramids. And now I've got to see a picture or a layout of how the pyramids are laid out when we get back, but I saw two specks that might have been pyramids. CAPCOM : Say again what the specks might have been. BRAND: We think they're the pyramids of Egypt, and that happens to be a visual observation (target). Later in the mission, when the sun illumination angle was increased, it appeared that although Cairo's features were clearly visible (Figure 88), the Pyra? mids of Giza were no longer visible. BRAND: Okay, Nile Delta. From the view we had today, we could not resolve the pyramids. I could see where they are. Looked like the ground was disturbed in the area where they are. But I'll have to admit that I was a little confused. There was one light area, which was dis? turbed, where they could be. There was another area of dark spottiness where they could have been. I'm not sure which place it was. I got three stereo photographs of Cairo. FIGURE 88.?An ASTP photograph of the region surrounding Cairo, Egypt. Note the clarity of the city's features, particularly major roads. The ASTP astronauts were able to clearly see the road leading to the airport, northeast of the city. (NASA photograph AST-2-137) 108 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE The situation of sun elevation effects was discussed during the postmission debriefings as follows (NASA, 1975c:12-13): EL-BAZ: Okay. Very good. Next slide please [Figure 87]. We had the pyramids of Egypt as one of the targets of eye resolution because they are built from material the same color as the surrounding area, but there will be a textural difference because the pyramids are built with large stones. BRAND: I don't believe now that I saw them. I had the benefit of two passes. The first pass, I saw two little dots that I thought possibly were pyramids. At that point, I wished I had a map of the pyramids on the ground so I could see what they're supposed to look like. I think probably what I saw were fields or something like that. So, I would say, no I didn't see them. EL-BAZ : Okay. In one group of photographs, we can iden? tify the pyramids and there is another batch that we can? not. So the sun angle may have a great deal to do with it. And this is the picture that you can see them on if you enlarge it very much. You can only see two big ones and a third tiny one. SLAYTON : With a low sun angle, you might have a rea? sonable chance of seeing them. BRAND: I think you should be able to see them, because we saw things in that size range. Bioluminescence In relation to the observation of bioluminescence, the crew failed to see much, probably because target acquisition time was scheduled on revolution 91 earlier than it should have been (NASA, 1975b: 722) : SLAYTON: Okay, we just passed site 9P, and unfortunately, I'm afraid the old Greek gods are getting to us today on the Earth Obs, Crip [astronaut Crippen]. I'm supposed to be over the Red Sea, which I'm sure we are, looking for bioluminescence. But unfortunately, what wasn't fac? tored in here is that we're still in sunlight and I got the sunshine nice and bright right in the window. I'll hang in here until it sets and see if I can see anything, but I'm not optimistic. Okay, Crip. Wherever we are, I've got a series of very bright lights down here. A pair to the right, a pair directly under the nose, and a set of three ahead of me. Looks like they're under a bit of cloud, but they're superbright. Must be gas fires, maybe. In addition to this, there was some cloud cover and moonlight as indicated during the postmission debriefing (NASA, 1975c:98-99): STEVENSON: I have one more question, which is really for the whole crew. We were hoping you were going to see some bioluminescence. I remember on that one pass when Deke said, "Hey, somebody goofed up; it's still daylight here." SLAYTON: We were in daylight; the ground was in dark. But once we got the spacecraft into the darkness, there was a cloud cover, I'd have to guess. I could see oil fires burning up through there, but it was obvious from that that there was somewhere between five and eight-tenths cloud cover and I couldn't even tell where water was, to say nothing about where bioluminescence might have been. STEVENSON : So you never had any during the whole flight? SLAYTON : No, sir. If it had been clear as a bell down there and it, in fact, existed, our odds of seeing it were pretty poor, I think, because we'd just come out of that bright sunglint and suddenly you're in the dark and no dark- adaptation time at all. BRAND: If you ever try that again, you'd really want to have a long dark-adaptation time, and you'd want to think about moonlight and things like that, too. The moonlight has quite a big effect on what you can see. STEVENSON: YOU had a good moon? BRAND: Yes. CONCLUSIONS For the successful performance of Earth observa? tion tasks, the observer must be well prepared and adequately trained. The exercise must be pursued systematically; otherwise, significant features and phenomena may be overlooked. An observer in orbit can make on-the-scene interpretations that signifi? cantly contribute to solving the problems in question; for example, the explanation of the tectonic setting of the Levantine Rift area. A trained observer is also essential to the study of features and phenomena characterized by transient visibility, such as internal waves, which are only visible under very restricted conditions. In addition, a trained observer is essential for exploring the unknown since he can scan an entire region and select targets for photography, such as the previously unknown circular feature in Brazil. The visual acuity tests performed on ASTP proved that the astronauts could see beyond the limits of theoretical eye resolution, corroborating such reports by Gordon Cooper on Mercury 9 and others. Astronauts in orbit can help design instruments or film to be used on unmanned probes. An example is the use of the color wheel to establish the actual range of visible colors of deserts and oceans. Earth observa? tions and photography require a flexible platform where viewing angles and interior lighting conditions can be controlled. The design of instrumentation should allow control of imaging systems by the observer. Space observations and photographs provide ex? cellent tools to study the global distribution of the NUMBER 1 109 generally inaccessible desert env i ronment of the E a r t h . F r o m the informat ion learned abou t deserts on this mission, it is concluded tha t m u c h more can yet be obtained from orbital surveys in this field. Desert study mus t also inc lude m a t h e m a t i c a l model ing a n d exper imenta l work on d u n e s t ruc ture a n d sand move? ment . Th i s is i m p o r t a n t for unde r s t and ing the na tu re of terrestrial dunes a n d similar features on Mars . Finally, the uti l ization of orbi tal observations of all types of features can be increased if s imultaneous investigations a re conduc ted from the air, on land, or at sea. Experiment Performance D a t a pe r ta in ing to the E a r t h Observations and Photography Expe r imen t include 10 tapes of verbal comments m a d e du r ing the mission, one magazine of 16 m m mot ion pic ture film, 41 reels of video tape also on 16 m m film, a n d nearly 1400 pho tographs taken with the 70 m m Hasselblad cameras a n d the 35 m m Nikon camera . (Al though over 1900 photo? graphs were taken wi th the Hasselblad and Nikon cameras, about 500 of t hem are useless, being too oblique, underexposed, overexposed, or out of focus.) A total of 11 m a p p i n g passes and 60 visual obser? vation sites were scheduled. On ly one m a p p i n g was canceled (on revolut ion 15 /16) because of problems in the flight plan. Approximate ly 20 percent of the 100 p lanned visual observations of the 60 sites were not performed because of bad weather , m a k i n g the overall da t a acquisi t ion measure of the exper iment approximately 80 percent . S u m m a r y results of the photographic m a p p i n g sites and visual observation targets are given in Tables 10 a n d 11, respectively. T o assist in mak ing or thophotomaps , pho tograph ic support da t a were ob ta ined for the following p a r a m ? eters : ALPHA. Angle between the camera optical axis and the projection of the local vertical (principal point) into the plane formed by the vector from the principal point to the sun and local East. ALTITUDE RATE. Time rate-of-change of the spacecraft altitude (inertial) with respect to the principal point. COORDINATE TRANSFORMATION MATRICES. Geographic co? ordinate system to camera coordinate system transformation matrix, and local horizontal coordinate system to camera coordinate system transformation matrix. EMISSION ANGLE. Angle between the camera optical axis and the local vertical at the principal point. GEOGRAPHIC DIRECTION COSINES. Direction cosines for a vector from the vehicle to the principal point in the geo? graphic coordinate system. HEADING ANGLE. Angle, measured positive clockwise in the local horizontal plane, from local North to the projection of the camera x-axis into the local horizontal plane. HORIZONTAL VELOCITY. Component of the spacecraft's velocity vector (inertial) which is colinear with the local horizontal plane. NORTH DEVIATION ANGLE. Angle, measured positive clock? wise in the camera x, y plane, from the camera x-axis to the projection of local North into the camera x, y plane. PHASE ANGLE. Angle between the camera optical axis and the vector from the sun to the principal point. PHI, OMEGA, KAPPA. Angles that rotate the camera coor? dinate system into the local horizontal coordinate system, where: phi is the primary right-hand rotation about the camera y-axis, omega is the secondary right-hand rotation about the intermediate x-axis, and kappa is the final right- hand rotation about the local vertical axis. PHOTOGRAPH FOOTPRINT. Latitude and longitude of the field-of-view corner point projections onto the Earth's geoid. PRINCIPAL POINT. Latitude and longitude of the inter? section of the camera optical axis with the Earth's geoid. SCALE FACTOR. Constant which relates film dimensions to surface dimensions. SUBSOLAR POINT. Latitude and longitude of the inter? section of the vector from the Earth's center of mass to the sun with the Earth's geoid. SUN AZIMUTH AT THE PRINCIPAL POINT. Angle, measured positive clockwise, from local North to the projection of the vector from the principal point to the sun into the local horizontal plane. SUN ELEVATION AT THE PRINCIPAL POINT. The acute angle, between the vector from the principal point to the sun and the local horizontal plane at the principal point. SWING ANGLE. The acute angle, between the camera y- axis and the projection of the local vertical into the camera x,y plane. TILT ANGLE. The acute angle, between the camera op? tical axis and the local vertical. TILT AZIMUTH. Angle, measured clockwise, between local North and the projection of the camera optical axis into the local horizontal plane. X-TILT. Angle from the local horizontal plane to the camera's y-axis (lateral tilt). Y-TILT. Angle from the local horizontal plane to the camera's x-axis (longitudinal tilt). T h e availabili ty of these d a t a has allowed the con? struction of semicontrolled p h o t o m a p s of several regions. T h e Defense M a p p i n g Agency's ( D M A ) Aerospace Cen te r a t St. Louis, Missouri , has p r o ? duced and distr ibuted m a p s (which are necessary for the da t a analysis p rog ram) for Los Angeles, Cal i ? fornia, the Levant ine Rift in Syria and Turkey , south? eastern Angloa a n d Zaire , the Weste rn Deser t of Egypt , a n d the Simpson Desert of Austral ia . 110 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE TABLE 10.?Photographic mapping results (from El-Baz and Mitchell, 1976) Mapping pass M4 Himalaya Mountains M5 Arabian Desert M6 Australia Ml Gulf Stream M2 New Zealand M3 Southern California M7 African drought Description Shoreline processes at Zambezi River Delta margin Sediment plumes in Somali Current Ocean currents in Arabian Sea Flood plains of the Indus River Drainage patterns of foothills of Himalayas Photography of snow cover Afar Triangle Structures on border of Red Sea rift Dune patterns in Ar-Rub Al-Khali Coastal processes at Doha, Qatar Playas in the Lake Eyre region Dune patterns in Simpson Desert Great Barrier Reef Eddies in the Coral Sea Fracture pattern of a micro- crustal plate that includes the Yucatan Peninsula Eddies and currents in the Yucatan Channel Red tide off western coast of Florida Eddies and gyres of Gulf Stream Photography of Alpine Fault Internal waves Plankton blooms Eddies in South Pacific Ocean water color Red tide off coast of California Subsystems of San Andreas Fault Desert colors and processes in the Mohave Desert Guinea Current Lake Chad region, vegetation and land use patterns Desert colors in northeastern Africa Sand dune patterns and their rela? tion to vegetation and wind Nile River Delta Levantine Rift: structures of Golan Heights and southern Turkey Remarks Excellent photography was acquired over the Indian Ocean and Arabian Sea; however, most of India (and particularly the Himalayas) was completely cloud covered. Scattered clouds covered the western part of the Afar Triangle, but the weather was clear from eastern Afar to Qatar and good photog? raphy was acquired. The weather was good all along the revolution 64 groundtrack, and excellent photographs of Australia and the Coral Sea were obtained. Mapping camera photography was canceled on revolution 15/16 because of Flight Plan problems. Alpine Fault photography was not successful because of cloud cover; however, all other objectives were achieved. The ocean part of the mapping strip was partly cloudy; excellent photography was obtained of the land part . Photography of the Guinea Current was not suc? cessful because of cloud cover; however, the weather was clear from Lake Chad to the Levantine Rift and excellent photographs were obtained. NUMBER 1 111 TABLE 10.?Continued Mapping pass M8 Falkland Current M9 Sahara M10 Northern California Mil New England Description Continental-shelf waters Falkland Current and its relation? ship to fisheries Niger River Delta: dune patterns and land use of the Inland Delta for comparison with Skylab data on the Sahel Desert color and relation to age Desert dunes and their relation to topography, moisture, and vegetation Coastal processes at Tripoli Eddies in waters between Tripoli and Sicily Ocean water color Red tide occurrences Subsystems of San Andreas Fault Metamorphic foothills of Sierra Nevadas Mexican volcanoes Sediment patterns in Gulf of Mexico waters Eddies and gyres in Gulf of Mexico Mississippi River Delta Potomac River pollution Red tide occurrences off coast of Massachusetts and Maine Remarks The spacecraft attitude for this pass was not nominal and resulted in oblique photograph> with the horizon occupying much of the frames. South of the Niger River Delta, cloud cover ob? scured much of the terrain, but the weather was clear north of the delta. Photographs of the Sahara are slightly overexposed, but those over the land-water interface at Tripoli are excellent. Photographs of northern California are good, although some frames are slightly over? exposed. Mapping pass photography on revolution 135/136 is out of focus, probably because the 80-mm lens (used for the electrophoresis experiment) was substituted for the 60-mm lens. 112 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE TABLE 11.?Visual observation results (from El-Baz and Mitchell, 1976) Target designation 1 New Zealand 2A Southern California 2B Baja California 2C California Current 2D Great Salt Lake 2E Guadalajara 3A Cloud features 3B Tropical storms 3C Hawaii 3D Kuroshio Current 4A Snow peaks 4B Puget Sound 4C Superior iron Description Alpine Fault photographs Internal waves between North and South Islands Plankton blooms Pacific water color Current boundaries Red tide off coast Gran Desierto color Desert varnished hills Pacific water color P^hia Concepcion Fault Internal waves in Gulf of California Gray rock exposures Pacific water color Faults west of San Andreas Foothill metamorphic range Bonneville track Color boundaries and sediment plumes in lake Bingham copper mine Snow cover on the Wasatch Range Major fault lines Big Bend structures Photographs of convective clouds Storm centers Texture of storms Upwellings, bow waves, island wakes Kilauea Volcano Ocean current boundary Plankton blooms Snow-peaked mountains Glaciers and firn lines Suspended sediments Gyres Glaciers and firn lines Color oxidation zones Remarks The Alpine Fault was cloud covered, but visual observations of ocean waters northeast of New Zealand were recorded. The color wheel was used, and the crew reported that the ocean color was close to 47-B. Cloud cover obscured much of the ocean, but interesting cloud waves were observed in the lee of the Channel Islands. A color wheel reading of 16-A was given to the Gran Desierto. Oblique photographs were obtained over the Baja peninsula, but there were no crew comments. There was some cloud cover over the ocean, but a color reading of 47-B was taken for the coastal waters just offshore from San Francisco. Excellent photographs of the Great Salt Lake were acquired. In addition, the crew re? ported that the Bonneville track could be easily detected. No visual observations were made or photographs taken of the Guadalajara area; however, good photography was obtained of a part of the Mex? ican volcanic belt southeast of Guadalajara. A number of excellent photographs were obtained including Benard cells, atmospheric bow waves, rotor clouds, and severe thunderstorms. Good data were acquired on both developing and dissipating tropical storms. No photographs were taken of the Hawaiian islands, but excellent data were obtained of eddies and currents southeast of the islands. Some photography was acquired in the South China Sea. Excellent photographs were obtained of glaciers and snow-peaked mountains in both the Cas? cade and Canadian Rocky Mountains. Valuable photographic and verbal data were ob? tained of sediments and gyres in the Puget Sound. No photographs were taken but visual observa? tion comments were made on color oxidation zones in the Superior region. NUMBER 1 113 Table 11.?Continued Target designation 4D Sudbury nickel 5A Gulf of Mexico 5B Gulf Stream 5C Labrador Current 5D Central American structures 5E Florida red tide 5F New England red tide 5G Chesapeake Bay 6A Oil slicks 6B London 7A Humboldt Current 7B Nazca Plain 7C Internal waves 7D Peruvian desert 7E Orinoco River Delta 7F Galapagos Islands Description Color oxidation zones Eddies in Yucatan Channel Florida Current Gulf Loop Current Internal waves in Gulf Ocean current boundary Internal waves Confluence with Labrador extension Ocean current boundary Confluence with Gulf Stream Bartlett Fault extension Graben valley structures Red tide location Color and shape of bloom Red tide location Color and shape of bloom Sediment gyres Pollution in Potomac River Oil slick extent Color and location Sediments and boundaries in English Channel London Harbor area Ocean current boundary Gyres in water Nazca Plain markings Peruvian desert landforms Photographs of internal wnves Dune fields Nazca Plain markings Photographs of delta Water color near Barbados Upwellings Bow waves Island wakes Internal waves Remarks Photography of the Sudbury area was unsuccess? ful because of cloud cover. Excellent data were obtained, including photog? raphy of eddies in the Yucatan Channel and current boundaries in the Gulf of Mexico. This target was canceled on revolution 15/16 because of Flight Plan problems. The ocean northeast of Newfoundland was cloud covered and no photographs were taken. Central America was usually cloud covered and visual observations of fault structures could not be made. The crew reported cloud cover over the Florida peninsula during every visual observation pass. Boothbay Harbor in Maine was always cloud covered. but excellent photographs of coastal waters of Massachusetts and Canada were taken. Valuable photographic and verbal data were ob? tained of sediment gyres and pollution plumes in the Chesapeake Bay. No oil slicks were observed in the North Atlan? tic, but some photographs of slicks were acquired over the Persian Gulf and the Medi? terranean Sea. England was usually cloud covered, but some photographs were taken along the coasts of England and France. Photography of the Humboldt Current was successful. Some photography was obtained of the Nazca region, but the crew could not definitely con? firm visual sightings of the Nazca Plain markings. Excellent photographs were taken of internal waves off Thailand and west of Spain. Valuable photographic data of dune fields in the Peruvian desert were acquired. Photographic and verbal data of the Orinoco River Delta included excellent photography of ocean waters between the delta and Barbados as well as visual observations of the extent of "brown water" outflow from the delta. Excellent photography was acquired of the vol? canic calderas on the Galapagos and of the complex atmospheric wave patterns surround? ing the islands. 114 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE Table 11.?Continued Target designation 7G Caribbean Sea 8A Falkland Current 8B Chilean Andes 8C Dune field 8D Parana River 8E Circular structures 9A Afar Triangle 9B Arabian Peninsula 9C Guinea Current 9D Desert colors 9E Oweinat Mountain 9F Nile Delta 9G Levantine Rift 9H Niger River Delta Description Eddies Gulf Stream Ocean current boundary Plankton blooms Confluence with Brazil Current Color oxidation Structures and lineaments Dune field color Dune pattern and orientation Relation with topography Photographs of dam sites Photographs of two structures Ethiopian Plateau scarp Red Sea mountains Structures normal to Red Sea Desert color Dune types Coastline of Qatar Ocean current boundary Gyres in water N'Djamena photographs Desert colors Dune patterns Photographs of mountain Structures in mountain Color oxidation zones Observation of pyramids Photographs of Cairo Gulf of Suez structures Arcuate fault photographs Terminations of faults Dune generations Vegetation patterns Remarks A number of photographs were taken of the Caribbean waters and the islands of Cuba and Jamaica. The spacecraft attitude was not nominal for the revolution 72 pass, and the viewing angle out window 3 was very oblique. The Chilean Andes were cloud covered and only a few very high peaks were visible. Excellent photography was obtained of this little- known dune field and of a smaller unknown field to the east. The weather over Paraguay and Brazil was amazingly clear, and excellent data were acquired of potential dam sites on the Parana and Paraguay Rivers. Additional photographs were taken of the Amazon River. Excellent photography of one possible astrobleme was obtained. The Afar Triangle was mostly cloud covered. The infrared photography is out of focus. Infrared photography of the Arabian Peninsula is out of focus. Currents and gyres in the Gulf of Guinea could not be observed because of cloud cover. Excellent photography was obtained of the Lake Chad area and of desert colors and dune pat? terns in the Libyan Desert. Valuable data were obtained over the Oweinat Mountain, including excellent photography and verbal observations of structural features and color zonations. A number of photographs were acquired over the Nile Delta and included excellent near-vertical photography of the Cairo area. Excellent data were obtained on the arcuate ter? minations of the Levantine Rift. Photography of the Niger River Delta was not successful because of cloud cover. NUMBER 1 115 Table 11.?Continued Target designation 91 Algerian Desert 9J Tripoli 9K Strait of Gibraltar 9L Alps 9M Danube Delta 9N Anatolian Fault 90 Volcanics 9P Bioluminescence 10A Great Dike 10B Somali Current IOC Arabian Sea 10D Himalaya Mountains 10E Takla Makan Desert Description Desert colors Dune patterns Interdune areas Desert and vegetation relationship African coastline Eddies, gyres, current bound? aries, internal waves in Mediterranean Sea Coastline at Casablanca Atlas Mountains Ocean current boundaries Internal waves Snow cover Glaciers and firn lines Photographs of delta Sediment plumes in Black Sea Photographs of fault Snow cover on mountains Photographs of Vesuvius Dark-colored volcanic rocks Brightening of tracks or zones in the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, and Arabian Sea that may be due to biological factors (nighttime observation) Color of Great Dike and surrounding rock Zambezi River Delta Coastal sediment plumes Current boundaries Internal waves Ocean current boundaries Photographs of northwestern India Desert colors Dune patterns Remarks Good photography was taken of the Algerian Desert; observations of color zones and sand? storms were also made. Data for this target included good photography of the land-water interface at Tripoli and of current boundaries in the Mediterranean Sea. Excellent photography of the Strait of Gibraltar was acquired, and the crew was successful in observing internal waves and current bound? aries. Good photographic data were also acquired of central and southern Spain. Photographs of snow cover on the Alps were not obtained because of cloud cover The crew was successful in photographing the Danube Delta but reported that most of the area was very hazy Good low-Sun-angle photography was acquired of fault zones in Turkey , including excellent data east of Lice (epicenter of the recent earthquake). Excellent infrared photographs were taken of igneous terrain in Italy. The crew was not successful in observing bioluminescence in the Red Sea and remarked that they were still in sunglint. However, that was 2 min before the scheduled observa? tion and they were still over the Mediterra? nean Sea. Earlier in the mission, the mis sion clocks had been updated 2 min. and the crew was probably using the old ground- elapsed time (GET). Photography and visual observations of this tar? get were not successful. Infrared photography of the delta was out of focus, but observations were made of sedi? ment plumes and gyres along the coast. The crew was successful in observing a current boundary, but farther north, high cirrus clouds obscured much of the Arabian Sea. The Himalayas were cloud covered and photo? graphs were out of focus. The infrared photography of the Takla Makan was out of focus, but observations were made of what was probably a sandstorm over the desert. 116 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE Table 11.?Continued Target designation 11A Playas 1 IB Coral Sea 11C Simpson Desert 11D ANZUS Eddy 12A Icebergs Description Lake Eyre deposits Desert erosion and dune patterns Great Dividing Range Coastal sediment plumes Great Barrier Reef Water eddies Desert colors Dune fields Dune types ANZUS Eddy Photographs of bergs Berg rotation Edge of Antarctica Remarks Excellent data were acquired of playas in the Lake Eyre region and included an unusual photograph of the normally dry Lake Eyre with much water. Valuable photography was obtained of ocean fea? tures in the Coral Sea, and the crew was very successful in locating and describing eddies. They also observed the Great Barrier Reef and remarked that coastal sediments did not extend as far as the reef. Excellent photography was obtained that clearly illustrates the characteristic linear dune pat? terns and the red color of the Simpson Desert. Most of the area was cloud covered, but the crew did observe several eddies . one of which may have been the ANZUS Eddy. No icebergs were observed in the Southern Hemisphere; however, the crew did see sev? eral large bergs in the North Atlantic and attempted to photograph them. Apollo Crew Comments2 American manned space missions have developed from Mercury through Gemini, Apollo, Skylab, and ASTP. During this same period visual observations' objectives and techniques have changed as well. Mercury and Gemini were devoted mainly to Earth photography from orbits of low inclination. Apollo emphasized description and photography of the lunar surface and the Earth. Skylab involved description of Earth's oceans, deserts, weather, vegetation, ge? ological features, ice flows, snow cover, and cities from a higher inclination and altitude Earth orbit (450 km). Visual observations on ASTP were similar to Skylab's, except that objectives and techniques were keyed to the requirements of a relatively short mis? sion in a low Earth orbit (225 km). Since the nine- day ASTP mission was short, crossings of the visual observation sites were preplanned, and each location was observed only once or at most a few times. In low orbit there were only seconds to view each site, generally 15 or 20 seconds at most. In order to ac? complish visual observations objectives, it was neces- 2 This section, prepared by astronaut Vance Brand and reviewed and approved by his crewmates Tom Stafford and Deke Slayton, represents the views of the ASTP crew. sary not only to plan but to train for each of the sites to be encountered. When the space program resumes visual observa? tions at the beginning of the Shuttle era, there should be a change in direction. There should be both improvements in the viewing station and the initia? tion of major visual observations projects. The follow? ing are detailed comments on ASTP experience and recommendations for the future. VIEWING FROM L O W ORBIT Our crew enjoyed visual observations' runs and was fascinated by the beauty and the detail that could be seen on the Earth below. In orbit, the blue and white ocean areas contrasted with the black sky, and continents loomed up as light brown masses. Most cities were gray. At the 225-km altitude, it was possible to see ships wakes, icebergs, current bound? aries, the apparent manifestation of internal waves in the ocean, airplane contrails, thunderstorms, gas flares, lightning, eddies and gyres in the ocean, glacier firn lines, sand dunes, sediment patterns along coast? lines, and man-made features such as airports. Thunderstorms looked like large toadstools. At the same time we could see a sweeping panorama. For NUMBER 1 117 example, Italy really looked like a boot. Vegetation such as grass and trees effectively obscured the color of rock formations, but in the deserts where vegeta? tion was sparse, surface colors showed up well. It was easy to see many modern cities, such as Los Angeles and Chicago, but difficult to find a city built with rock from the local countryside, such as Jerusalem. In deserts it was easier to see linear dunes than star dunes. Ocean viewing was aided by sun? glint, and looking down-sun over ocean areas was generally nonproductive. Ocean wakes, currents, and internal waves were visible only momentarily when viewing conditions were just right. The human eye easily adjusted from viewing bright sunglint to view? ing darker land targets. Depending upon the complexity of the scene, some? times it was easy and at other times difficult to com? ment on what one was seeing. For example, it was difficult to describe a complex network of faults on land or a pattern of gyres in the ocean. One wanted to illustrate the scene by drawing a picture. Easier description tasks were to answer "yes" or "no" ques? tions and to explain simple features in terms of their size, shape, color, texture, and contrast. A unique human characteristic was the ability to describe large weather patterns covering a wide field of view that could not be captured on a single photograph. Two interesting sightings that the ASTP crew unexpectedly made are not well understood or veri? fied by ground studies at this time. The first, a vast pall of smoke or ashes, was sighted south of the Aleu? tian Island chain. The second phenomenon was circular cloud patterns sighted routinely over the Pacific Ocean. The patterns were not Benard cells but were random sized, randomly spaced rings or ring segments over the ocean. The rings varied from 15 to 50 km in diameter. Most rings of clouds had clear sky inside the cloud circle, but a few of the rings were filled in. It has been speculated that the cloud rings may indicate eddies of cold or warm water in the ocean. Several photographs were taken of typical groups. PREFLIGHT TRAINING Our training prior to the mission was excellent. The foundation training consisted of basic science courses including oceanography, meteorology, tectonic geology, snow cover, environmental problems, desert features, and hydrology. We soon moved on to an advanced course which consisted of planning, learn? ing how to identify sites, T-38 flyovers to improve observation techniques, equipment instruction, and time line simulations in mockups. Training accom? plished on the photographic equipment was more than sufficient. We probably should have concentrated on camera malfunction training earlier in the equip? ment course. Just prior to launch, training efforts emphasized trying to second-guess possible viewing poblems, last minute planning, and memorization of objectives to be accomplished over each site. OBSERVATION TECHNIQUES AND PROCEDURES At an altitude of 225 km (120 nm) and at orbital velocity, we sensed our speed over the Earth, could see great detail below us, but felt somewhat rushed in making visual observations. As a result, we felt more comfortable using three men as a team during visual observations. When approaching a site, the entire crew worked to be ahead of the time line (if possible) so that two men could assist the primary observer. It always helped to organize the visual ob? servations equipment well, to study charts, and to prebrief the upcoming run. We never desired to use binoculars or the spotting scope, because too much time was required to focus on and track an object on the ground and this left little or no time to look at it. Repeated visual observation passes were helpful because sometimes one could see something on a second pass that was missed on the first. Often, there was little time for debriefing as the flight plan kept the crew moving on briskly to the next event. Some data were lost as a result. The spacecraft attitude for viewing was heads down and nose forward along the orbital track. Before the flight all parties concerned believed that this would be a good viewing attitude, but being heads down turned out to be less than optimum for finding and identifying sites. Future observing crews should be oriented heads up, if possible. Imagine here on Earth how difficult it would be to drive down the highway in your car and identify objects along the side if you were sitting upside down. Early in the flight the spacecraft's attitude ..was such that the viewing windows faced slightly below the horizon. An improved attitude, adopted later in the mission, was to face the viewing windows downward so as to see 118 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE less of the sky above the forward horizon and more of the Earth directly beneath the spacecraft. Generally, there was time for a crewman to take pictures or to describe, but not to do both. If in doubt, it was best to take pictures rather than comment, because sometimes phenomena to be described were so complex that a picture was really needed for documentation. The visual observations film budget was keyed to fairly precise and predictable film usage over each site, but actual expenditure depended so much on viewing conditions that day-to-day budgeting was best performed by the crew during flight. In the future, film should be stowed in a cassette "supply" locker; there should be a cassette "used" locker and cassettes still should be color-coded by film type. Crews should be permitted to manage their own film budgets and to pull any film cassette of the right type (not necessarily in numerical order) from the film supply side of the locker. Before the mission it was decided to record the observer's comments and film information on the portable tape recorder and to back up this procedure by recording on the ship's tape recorder whenever possible. In addition, the last frame number of each photo series was to be noted in the "Earth Observa? tions Book." The procedure worked well from the crew's point of view as it was convenient to depend mainly on the portable tape recorder, but the scheme required observer self discipline and consistency. In a fast moving situation, one could easily forget to call out the last frame number after a series of photos. In the early part of a mission, a crew should (if possible) start with easy viewing sites, well spaced. Then, as on-the-job learning progresses, it could proceed to more difficult and closely spaced sites. It is helpful to use simple, short terminology when? ever possible. For example, instead of calling our two Hasselblad cameras by their letter designations, we simply called them the "Silver" and "Black" cameras. Surprisingly, such simplifications help, especially in air-to-ground communications. Moreover, if there is a procedural or hardware trap, someone will fall into it. For example, a crew? man inadvertently left the ETE spacer on the Hassel? blad for some out-the-window photos, which made them out-of-focus. There should have been a check? list verification that the spacer was removed or the spacer should have been an integral part of the lens for which it was required?better yet, there should have been no spacer. In the "heat of battle" there always is a chance that an error will be made if a procedural trajs exists. Equipment should be easy to handle, fool-proof, and as simple as the job allows. Equipment that is to be handheld and passed around ideally should be compact and free of power and timing cables. OBSERVATION AIDS AND PHOTOGRAPHIC EQUIPMENT The onboard cameras and viewing aids were ade? quate for the mission. The following are commend? able features and problems that the crew encountered while operating the equipment. For a description of any of the following items, refer to pages 46-59. The convenient orbital chart (Figure 35) developed by Dr. El-Baz was ideal for use on a short mission. Use? ful additions to the chart would be revolution num? bers at the end as well as the beginning of each revolution trace, and a representative, relative time scale to indicate minutes elapsed along a typical trajectory. The "Earth Observations Book," was complete and well suited for its purpose, but it was difficult to write on the pages in the book due to the finish of the paper. The battery-operated tape re? corder was conveniently small and generally reliable, but it was inadvisable to rewind the tape in weight? lessness because rewinding tended to snarl the tape. This problem should be corrected by installing weak springs to apply spring tension to the tape supply and takeup spools. An additional improvement would be to supply longer-life batteries for the tape recorder without increasing its overall size. The cardboard, handheld ground distance measuring device was handy and accurate to within a few kilometers and much used during the mission. Although suitable, the large packet of world maps was not used because it was stowed in a relatively inaccessible location and was difficult to pull out on short notice. In any case, the El-Baz orbital chart was suitable for most pur? poses. The color wheel used for determining the absolute color of surface features was inaccurate. Color shades on the color wheel changed as a func? tion of lighting within the crew cabin. The lighting problem should be corrected if a similar device is to be considered for future use. The 35 mm Nikon camera was useful for visual observations as well as for indoor photography; it was convenient because of its size, reflex feature, and rather compact and NUMBER I 119 reliable design. The Nikon was difficult to use with the 300 mm lens attached, however, because there was insufficient light collected in the reflex for aiming the camera. The 70 mm Hasselblad camera was acceptable except when using the 250 mm lens with the reflex attachment. In this case, the Hassel? blad suffered from the same light loss problem a^ the Nikon. In addition, the Hasselblad extension ring attachment for the ETE experiment and the orange filter for the infrared film were traps lying in wait for the unsuspecting crewman. The extension ring, if not removed, distorted out-the-window pictures and the orange filter darkened the view through the lens. The photo cue card was very useful, but Nikon Earth photography numbers were missing. The omis? sion was understandable since the camera was not cast in the role of an Earth observations camera until after launch. None of the above mentioned problems were "show stoppers," but they should be addressed if the same equipment is to be used for future missions. TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS FOR THE FUTURE The ideal Earth observations platform of the future would consist solely of an orbiting plexiglass sphere with an astronaut inside. A sphere concept being im? practical, the next best thing would be a viewing bubble or turret on a spacecraft with the observer sitting upright and looking forward and down. The bubble or turret should contain a sensor platform, which the observer would sit on and point with a sidearm controller. The astronaut would select and point the various cameras and sensors at objects of interest on the ground. Since this concept may not materialize in the early Space Shuttle era, the follow? ing developments are proposed to improve data- taking capability on early Shuttle missions: (1) an Earth-viewing T V camera with improved spatial and color resolution for transmitting interesting features in realtime; (2) a wide angle or pan camera for use in photographing extensive features, such as hurri? canes and for mapping; (3) cameras with automatic exposure meters suitable for out-the-window use (the automatic exposure meter should have a manual override for special applications such as cloud photog? raphy) ; (4) films with better color resolution and range, especially in the ocean colors of blues and greens (films still do not accurately record many of the colors that the eye can see); (5) a sighting de? vice worn on the crewman's head which could be used to accurately pinpoint the latitude and longitude of something being viewed (it would be necessary to merely sight at an object and depress a "mark" button to record the object's coordinates) ; and (6) a handheld optical color comparator about the size of a pair of binoculars. One half of the instrument should view the Earth and the other half should con? tain a uniformly lighted color screen, which could be varied to obtain ground /screen color comparisons. A device of this type is needed to accurately determine absolute colors of land and water surfaces. It should be noted that if binoculars or a spotting scope are carried on a future low Earth orbit mission, magnifica? tion should not exceed X10 and the field of view should be wide to minimize acquisition time. SCIENTIFIC OBJECTIVES FOR THE SHUTTLE ERA Man's capability to perform visual observations from orbit has been shown on Apollo, Skylab, and ASTP. During past missions, astronauts selected sites, positioned instruments at specific features, operated specialized equipment, and served as observers (with a wide field of view and good acuity and color per? ception). The first objective for the future should be to improve man's viewing platform and viewing instru? ments to take better advantage of his capabilities. The second objective for the future should be to organize visual observations to support extensive projects, as well as a multitude of limited scientific investigations. The large projects should utilize all available data including imagery from Landsat, manned mission photography, and visual observations. As a starting point, several projects could be accomplished in the relatively cloudless regions of the world: (1) Pro? viding a complete geological and surface mapping photo service for uncharted desert areas throughout the world. There are few good maps of many of these areas at present. (2) Determining the direction of movement of the Sahara Desert. The space pro? gram has performed some work in this area in the past, but there are no definitive and complete results. (3) Conducting search for probable ground-water resevoirs by analyzing space photography and imagery of desert areas. There is strong need for such projects. In the spring of 1976, the ASTP crew visited North Africa and was told that the Sahara Desert is "the great enigma" there. In trying to tame the Sahara, the 120 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE North Africans are looking for information to help them find water and to stop encroachment of the sands. Maps of high quality are needed to support these and other objectives. Desert projects have been emphasized here because desert areas are relatively free of obscuring clouds and well suited to monitoring from orbit. Ocean and weather projects should be organized as well. For example, a worldwide scientific study is needed to better understand the transfer of energy that occurs between the oceans and the atmosphere and the resulting effect on climate. Visual observations in the future should emphasize and contribute to such projects and, in addition, cater to a large diverse group of more limited scientific objectives. Recommendations for the Space Shuttle Results of the Earth Observations and Photography Experiment on ASTP confirm the ability of orbiting astronauts to increase our knowledge of the Earth. These results show that a trained astronaut can expertly describe observed features and phenomena, can discern and interpret what is seen, and can select photographic sites or modify planned activities. The ability to perform in this manner can be beneficial in complementing data-gathering by automated satellites. The Space Shuttle, scheduled to start operations in late 1979, will provide an excellent vehicle for similar Earth observations experiments. Earth observa? tions from the Shuttle should be given high priority, because of the potential scientific returns. This is particularly true since present plans call for several Shuttle flights each year. The following are this author's recommendations based on experience gained from the Apollo-Soyuz and previous manned missions. The recommenda? tions, both short- and long-term, should be considered in planning Earth observations on the Shuttle. PLATFORM DESIGN For Earth observations tasks, it is advisable to allocate the time of two crew members, one to per? form visual observations and the other to simultane? ously operate the cameras. A mechanism is necessary to let the orbiting astronauts know where they are at any given time. The transparent sliding orbital groundtrack (previously used with a map) is not practical; faster and more accurate means should be made available. At least one frame-camera (preferably large film format) and one television camera should be mounted and readied for photography on command. Camera automation alleviates many problems during the mis? sion. All cameras used in support of Earth observa? tions should be equipped with time and photo-data recording mechanisms. This will assure exact location data of photographed sites and will reduce the time normally spent on photo-documentation. A high quality optical (quartz) window should be installed to alleviate the problems of distortion and reduction of light transmission due to use of normal glass windows. If Earth observations are to be performed from the Shuttle's cockpit, enough space should be allocated for the operation. This would remedy the problem of the usual "Christmas tree" effect of accumulating camera equipment and visual observation aids around the observer. For the early Shuttle flights, the craft should be oriented to allow making the observations in a right-side-up position, and looking ahead of nadir. For the later Shuttle flights an Earth observations platform should be designed specifically for the task. The Skylab 4 crew recommended that an "Earth observatory" be designed as a transparent "bubble" within which an astronaut could sit and direct sensors at observation sites. During the Skylab 4 crew de? briefings, astronaut William Pogue suggested that the observatory might be thought of as a "Flash Gor? don type thing that could look out the side of the cargo bay in the Shuttle some way and feed the imagery back into another compartment." SCIENTIFIC OBJECTIVES Emphasis should be placed on the ability of trained observers to complement data gathered by other means. Astronauts are able to gather new data more successfully than automated sensors. The human eye can discern more subtle color differences, such as in desert sands or sea waters; dynamic phenomena or features that are visible under very limited conditions, such as internal ocean waves; and lineaments, which can indicate the tectonic setting of large areas of the crust. Because of the anticipated short duration of Shuttle missions (about seven days for the early flights), it will be best to concentrate on a few major objectives: NUMBER 1 121 one mission might concentrate on desert color and landforms, another on ocean features, and yet another on atmospheric phenomena. Minor objectives for these "specialized missions" may be considered based on scientific requirements and opportunity. / ASTRONAUT TRAINING CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION.?Training of the Shuttle crews should start about two years prior to the flights with briefings on the various fields of the Earth sci? ences. For this type of training, it would be practical to instruct several crews at the same time. Classroom instruction should continue for no less than six months and consist of one two-hour lecture every two weeks. Training sessions should include familiarization with sites of interest along the groundtracks. This "geography" training should be done by the use of maps, space photographs, and other images. Complete familiarity with the groundtracks, which is mission- specific, requires about six training sessions spaced over a three-month period. During the last three months before a given mission, all classroom training should be site-specific. This training may be completed during, but preferably after the groundtrack familiar? ization period. GROUND MOTION SIMULATIONS.?The Shuttle as? tronauts should study the motion picture films ob? tained during previous missions, particularly the ASTP 16 mm films and television reels. Films should also be made which simulate ground motion as seen from the Shuttle's orbit. These films would be an important complement to both classroom instruction and flyover exercises. FLYOVER EXERCISES.?At least six training flights should be undertaken by Shuttle crews. Preceded by briefings and followed by debriefings, the exercises should include overflying features and phenomena of the Earth's atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere. The "Manual of Training Flights" included in this book as Appendix 2 could be used for these exercises. For Shuttle crews that intend to conduct observa? tions in one or a few subjects only, special training flights could be undertaken. In these cases, supple? mentary flyover books may be prepared. Training flights should also include the handling of photo? graphic equipment and visual observation aids. This would teach the astronauts to compensate for fast image-motion while taking pictures and to become adept at obtaining stereo-photographs. FLIGHT PLANNING SITE SELECTION.?Selection of observation sites should be completed at least six months before the mission to allow time for flight planning, site-specific training, and the preparation of onboard aids. The sites should be referred to in the simplest possible form, either by a name (preferably two words) or a simple letter-number combination. This facilitates reference to the sites during both the training period and mission operations. Enough time should be allocated in the flight plan not only for discerning the target, but also for prepa? ration for and documentation of the observations. Although all tasks should be programmed in the flight plan, flexibility should be retained to allow for real? time changes. These changes may be necessitated by uncontrollable conditions or by crew preference and on-the-job recommendations. OBSERVATION AIDS.?Several observational aids would facilitate data gathering. A separate booklet, including all the necessary information to conduct the observations, in the format of the "Earth Obser? vations Book" used on ASTP (Appendix 3) has proven to be suitable. Although the world map pack? age is not mandatory to the successful performance of Earth observations from orbit, its usefulness could be increased by using Landsat imagery as a map base to give a better indication of topography and vegetation. A mechanism is necessary to obtain quantitative data on the color of observed features. Because of variable illumination, the color wheel designed for the ASTP mission and the Forel scale used on the Skylab 4 mission to determine ocean colors would not be practical for the Shuttle. It should be possible, however, to modify a low power monocular, or even a plain cylinder, by inserting miniature color wheels that are internally illuminated to overcome uncertain lighting. A ground scale, temporarily attached to the space? craft wall, to allow the astronauts to estimate sizes of features and distances on the ground by holding it at arms' length would also be helpful. Finally, binocu? lars, of magnification and an enlarging power depend? ent on altitude, to be used in observing small targets should be selected and carried onboard the Shuttle craft. PHOTOGRAPHIC EQUIPMENT.?Cameras to be used in documenting visual observations should have a single- 122 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE lens reflex mechanism to allow the astronauts to see the camera's field of view. Other cameras should be automated for easy start/stop operations. A television camera also should be used to convey data during the mission for realtime analysis and interpretation. MISSION OPERATIONS For the first Shuttle flights it is necessary for the Capcom to be familiar with the scientific objectives of Earth observations and with the details of the observation sites. This can be accomplished during classroom training. For later Shuttle missions the scientists themselves must be allowed to talk to the orbiting astronauts to significantly enhance task per? formance and increase scientific returns. It should also be possible for the scientists themselves to fly on the Shuttle and perform the observations. Concurrent investigations in the air, on land, and at sea should be encouraged. Interaction between an astronaut in orbit and a "groundtruth" data-collector can yield significant results. Verbal descriptions of observation sites must be recorded in realtime. An easy-to-operate tape recorder should be supplied to the crew for use while out of communications with the ground. Realtime weather forecasting is very important to Earth observations from orbit. A NOAA facility is needed to provide high-resolution SMS visible and/or infrared data at 30 minute intervals. The SMS data should be obtainable on a hemispheric scale as well as on one of many sectorized scales, depending on the needs of the investigation team. This type of weather support would be particularly significant when the SMS system provides world coverage, hope? fully before the Shuttle is operational. DATA ANALYSIS The conduct of a successful scientific analysis pro? gram requires the documentation of the data (verbal comments and photographs) and their presentation in a usable form. All photographs must be cataloged and voice tapes transcribed for the investigators. Data analysis should be considered as important as data collection. Support of postmission research is essential to the proper utilization and dissemination of the results. The NASA requirements for internal reports should be lessened to reduce the burden on investigators. Instead of investing in NASA publications, investiga? tors should be encouraged to publish their findings in the existing scientific media. 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Abbreviations and Acronyms AC Apollo commander LOS AFB Air Force Base LSI AG air-to-ground voice transmission MAG ANZUS Australia-New Zealand-United States MCC ASTP Apollo-Soyuz Test Project MILA ATS Applications Technology Satellite MOCR BP British Petroleum MPAD BRKT bracketmount (for cameras) MTF BT bathythermograph NASA CDT central daylight time NM CI co-investigator NOAA CM command module CP command module pilot OBS CRT cathode ray tube (TV) OM CSM command-and-service module OPS DAC data acquisition camera PAO DM docking module PCM DMA Defense Mapping Agency, St. Louis, Missouri PET DP docking module pilot PI DSE data storage equipment PTR DT dump tape RAF DV descent vehicle RCS EREP Earth Resources Experiment Package, Skylab REV ERTS Earth Resources Technology Satellite, now RMAG called "Landsat" SAA ETE Electrophoresis Technology Experiment SAM FR frame (film exposure) SIM GET ground elapsed time SM GMT Greenwich mean time SMS GSFC Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Mary- SSR land STDN HDC Hasselblad data camera (black) TIROS HRC Hasselblad reflex camera (silver) USGS IF or IR infrared (film) ISRO Indian Space Research Organization, India UV ITC intertropical convergence VHF IVL intervalometer (for camera) VIS JSC NASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, Hous- VORTAC ton, Texas VTR KSC NASA John F. Kennedy Space Center, Cape XBT Canaveral, Florida ZFF loss of signal Lunar Science Institute, Houston, Texas film magazine Mission Control Center, JSC Merrit Island, Florida mission operations control room, JSC Mission Planning and Analysis Division, JSC modulation transfer function National Aeronautics and Space Administration nautical miles National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra? tion observation orbital module operations public affairs office pulse code modulation phased elapsed time Principal Investigator personal tape recorder Royal Air Force (Great Britain) reaction control system spacecraft orbital revolution around the Earth Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists South Atlantic anomaly stratospheric aerosol measurement scientific instrument module service module Synchronous Meteorological Satellite science support room Spaceflight Tracking and Data Network Television Infrared Observation Satellite United States Geological Survey, Department of Interior ultraviolet absorption very high frequency visual VHF Omnirange/Tactical Air Navigation video tape recorder expendable bathythermograph zone-forming fungi Glossary ALBEDO. The reflective properties of materials; the ratio of the light reflected by a surface to that re? ceived by it. ALGAE. A major group of simple plants that usually live in water. APOLLO. NASA manned space flight project, 1968? 1975, which included twelve 3-man Earth-orbital or lunar-orbital and/or landing missions. ASTHENOSPHERE. A region of weakness tens of kilometers below the surface of the Earth, where plastic movements take place to permit isostatic adjustments. ASTROBLEME. A geologically ancient remnant of an impact by a meteor or a comet, usually a multi- ringed crater. BENARD CELLS. Standard convection cells formed over oceans when surface water temperatures are evenly distributed over large areas, winds are less than 15 knots per hour, and sufficient nuclei of water vapor condensation exist. BIOLUMINESCENCE. The emission of light by living organisms. BIOTA. The animal and plant life of a land region or of a water mass. BLOOM. The sudden development of masses of orga? nisms in bodies of fresh or marine water. BOW WAVES. Atmospheric bow waves are cloud forms occurring on the lee of an island; they are morphologically similar to waves produced by mov? ing ships and may be gravity-generated shock waves. CALDERA. A large basin-like depression formed by explosion or collapse following volcanic eruptions. CAPCOM. Capsule communicator; one who relays all communications between the Mission Control Cen? ter at Houston, Texas, and the astronauts in space. CHLOROPHYLL. The green coloring matter of plants that is essential to photosynthesis. COMMAND MODULE. The part of the Apollo space? craft in which the astronauts travel and from which the spacecraft is operated. CONVECTIVE CLOUDS. Clouds developing from con? vection, i.e., the vertical motion of atmospheric properties. CORIOLIS FORCE. The force which causes, as a re? sult of the Earth's rotation, a deflection of projec? tiles, winds, and water to the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemis? phere. CUMULUS CLOUDS. Clouds exhibiting great vertical development and characterized by dense individual elements in the form of puffs, mounds, or towers with flat bases and tops that often resemble a cauliflower. CUMULONIMBUS. A cloud that is indicative of thun? derstorm conditions, similar in appearance to cumulus clouds but exhibiting a fibrous texture on top; a thundercloud. CURRENT. Ocean water mass flowing in a certain direction. DELTA. A nearly flat plain of alluvial deposits, often triangular in shape, occurring at the mouth of a river. DINOFLAGELLATE. Member of an order of chiefly marine organisms characterized by a cellulose en? velope and flagella. DOCKING. The act of joining two spacecraft in orbit. DOCKING MODULE. The instrument allowing the Apollo and Soyuz spacecraft to dock. DRAINAGE. The streams and waterways by which a region is drained. DUNE. A hill or ridge of sand deposited by wind. EDDIES. Currents of air or water differing from a main current, especially those having a circular motion; small whirlpools. ELECTROPHORESIS. The movement of colloidal par? ticles through a fluid under the action of an elec? trical field. ERG. Arabic word for a desert region deeply covered with sand and occupied by dunes. ESCARPMENT. A long ridge or steep cliff commonly formed by faulting or erosion. FAULT. A fracture in the Earth's crust accompanied by a displacement along the plane of the break. FIRN LINE. The line marking the greatest retreat of snow cover on a glacier. FLIGHT PLAN. The detailed chronological listing of all activities to be performed by the astronauts during a mission. FLYOVER. A training exercise in which astronauts. 127 128 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE fly T-38 jets to practice observations from high altitudes. FOREL SCALE. Scale for determining water color; water color observed against a white disk (Secchi disk) is compared to the Forel colors. FOSSIL DUNE. A dune that was formed in the geo? logical past and has been preserved. GEMINI. NASA manned space flight project, 1965- 1966, which included ten 2-man Earth-orbital missions. GLACIER. Large body of ice slowly descending a slope or spreading outward on a land surface. GREAT SAND SEA. The large expanse of sand in Libya and Egypt; it is characterized by enormous and flat-topped whaleback dunes in the northern part, and by sharp-crested, linear seif dunes in the southern part. GROUNDTRUTH. Information derived from ground and ocean surveys to support interpretation of photography and other remotely sensed data. GULF STREAM. Strong, narrow ocean current origi? nating near the equator and following the eastern coast of North America. GYRE. Large circular flow of water found in major ocean basins. HUMIC. Relating to organic matter. HURRICANE. Tropical cyclone with winds from 120 to about 250 km per hour usually accompanied by rain, thunder, and lightning. HYDROSPHERE. The aqueous envelope of the Earth, including oceans, lakes, rivers, and streams. ICEBERG. Mass of land-ice broken from a glacier at the edge of a body of water, and exhibiting only a small portion of its surface above water when afloat. INTERNAL WAVES. Subsurface waves formed in fluids exhibiting vertical density gradients. KELP. Any of various large brown seaweeds of the orders Laminariales and Fucales. KILOMETER. Metric measurement equivalent to 0.62 miles or 1000 meters. LANDSAT. One of two unmanned, NASA, Earth- orbiting, remote-sensing satellites; formerly ERTS (Earth Resources Technology Satellite). LANGMUIR CIRCULATION. Water circulation with al? ternate left and right helical vortices, which have their axes in the direction of the wind. LEE. The side sheltered from the wind. LINEAMENT. Straight or gently curved features on the Earth's surfaces, usually the expression of fractures or faults. LITHOSPHERE. Solid part of the Earth's surface. MAAR. Volcanic crater produced by a violent explo? sion and often becoming a small lake. MARE. Dark, relatively smooth lunar plains com? posed of volcanic (basaltic) rock. MERCURY. NASA project, 1961 to 1963, including six one-man suborbital or orbital missions. NADIR. Point on the Earth vertically beneath a satellite. NANOMETER. One-millionth of a millimeter. NUBIAN SANDSTONE. Refers to almost horizontal beds of coarse- to fine-grained sandstones with occasional shale and quartzite beds; these beds are widely distributed over the southern parts of Egypt and northern Sudan (Nubia). PHYCOBILIN. Any of a class of pigments that are found in cells of algae, are active in photosynthesis, and are proteins combined with pyrrole derivatives related to the bile pigments. PHYTOPLANKTON. Plankton that is made up of plant life. PLANKTON. The floating or weakly swimming ani? mals and plant life of a body of water. PLATE TECTONICS. The branch of geology that ex? amines the movements and interrelationships of plates thought to make up the Earth's crust. PLATEAU. A usually extensive area of flat land raised above adjacent land on at least one side. PLUMES. Swirling sediment-laden bands in water, often found at the mouths of rivers. REALTIME. Time of the mission from launch to landing. RED TIDE. Sea water discolored by large numbers of dinoflagellates. REG. Gravel plain. RENDEZVOUS. The meeting of two or more space vehicles in outer space. RESEAU PLATE. Glass plate on which is etched an accurately measured grid; it is positioned immedi? ately in front of the film plane of a camera to improve geometric accuracy. REVOLUTION. The time it takes an orbiting satellite to pass over a specific point on the Earth and return to the same longitude. RIFT. Network of crustal fractures. SALINITY. Saltiness; refers to the amount of dis? solved salts in a body of water. SECCHI DISK. White disk used to obtain a rough measure of water transparency; the depth at which the disk is no longer visible from the surface is NUMBER 1 129 used to determine transparency. SEIF DUNE. An elongated sand dune ridge; longi? tudinal dune; derived from the Arabic word for sword. SILICA GLASS. A hard, brittle, noncrystalline sub? stance produced by fusion and usually consisting of silica (SiOa) and minor trace elements. The Libyan Desert silica glass occurs as lumps, chips, or frag? ments with colors ranging from greenish yellow to greenish black. It is found over an extensive area centered at about 25?25'N, 25?30'E. SINUOSITY. The quality or state of being winding, wavy, or serpentine; a measure of river meandering. SITE. Term used on the ASTP mission referring to any of 12 regions or features of the Earth. SKYLAB. NASA orbiting space laboratory in which three 3-men crews spent up to 84 days during 1972 conducting various research projects. SLIPFACE. The lee side of a dune where the slope approximates the angle of repose. SPACE SHUTTLE. Reusable spacecraft that is launched on a rocket and lands like a glider plane. First missions are scheduled for mid-1979. STEREO. Of or pertaining to the process by which the images of two adjacent photographs may be combined to produce a 3-dimensional effect. STRATOSPHERE. Layer of the Earth's atmosphere between the troposphere and the ionosphere. TARGET. Specific localities or features selected for photography and observation on the ASTP mission. TERMINATOR. Line dividing the illuminated and un- illuminated portions of a planet. TIME LINE. Graphical and chronological document of flight operations and crew activities. TROPICAL STORM. Tropical cyclone with winds of less intensity than comprise a hurricane. TROPOPAUSE. Upper limit of the troposphere. TROPOSPHERE. Layer of atmosphere next to the Earth's surface. TYPHOON. Tropical cyclone occurring in the vicinity of the Philippines or the China Sea. UPLIFT. A structurally raised area caused by up- thrusting crustal movements. UPWELLINGS. Areas in the sea where subsurface water moves vertically upward. VON KARMAN VORTICES. Swirling cloud patterns gen? erally found in the lee of islands and the lee of mountains. Appendix 1 Verbal Comments Compiled in this appendix are all of the verbal comments by the American astro? nauts that relate to the Earth Observations and Photography Experiment of the Apollo-Soyuz mission. The comments are arranged chronologically and are num? bered for use with the index. The numbers following each entry in the index reflect the comment (not page) number. Each comment number includes remarks that relate to the same subject. These comments were made either during the mission or immediately following it during crew debriefings. The realtime comments are transcribed from the air-to-ground (AG) voice trans? cription (NASA, 1975b) and the ASTP onboard voice transcription, "dump tapes" (DT) (NASA, 1975d). Near-realtime comments are edited from the transcript of comments (El-Baz, n.d.b.) taped by the astronauts on the Sony personal tape re? corder ( P T R ) . All comments are listed under the revolution during which they were recorded and are identified by one of the following notations: AG/31:06:43- | - ground elapsed time (GET) of air-to-ground conversa? tion in hours, minutes, seconds; + indicates comment made immediately after said time DT/94 :40 :33 GET of dump tape conversation Onboard Recording conversation taped on the PTR Throughout this appendix the revolution groundtracks where observations were made are plotted to show the general location of observation targets. At the end of the realtime and near-realtime comments, the technical crew debriefing, held 8 August 1975 (NASA, 1975e), and the visual observations debriefing, held on 12 August 1975 (NASA, 1975c), are given. 131 132 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE Revolutions 15/16 and 17/18 REALTIME COMMUNICATIONS REVOLUTION 15/16 A G / 3 1 : 0 6 : 4 3 + SLAYTON: I think we're right over the Cape [Kennedy]. CAPCOM : You're right. You're passing right over the launch site just about now. SLAYTON : Yeah, we can see it. We're in a good attitude here for Earth obs. REVOLUTION 17 2. AG/33 :11 :13+ CAPCOM : Apollo, Houston. For Deke [Slayton], assuming you're going to do this mapping pass coming up, when you have the times I've got an update on the time in the Earth Obs Book on mapping pass Mike 3 [Southern California]. The change is the stop time for mapping pass M3. The start time is okay, as is all the data for M2 [New Zealand]. The stop time for M3 should read 34:06:40. BRAND: Okay. 34:06, and you were cut out on the seconds. Please repeat seconds. CAPCOM: Roger. That's really the only change. It's 40 seconds. 3. Onboard Recording BRAND: Okay recorder, we're on pass number 12, looking down at the low overcast. No sign of icebergs or pack ice just yet. Beautiful low clouds. Cannot see the edge of Antarctica, but it's sort of hard to tell. I'll take a picture anyway. SLAYTON: That looks beautiful there. Just look at those clouds down there. Fantastic. BRAND: Okay recorder, took three pictures looking south toward Antarctica, just over clouds mainly. At the end, I'm on exposure 25, after three shots. 4. Onboard Recording BRAND: Coming up on next site. This will be site 1. Okay, here we are, coming up on New Zealand. New Zealand is clouded over; all you can see is the coastline. SLAYTON : Look at the snow down there. You see that on those hills? STAFFORD: It looks a lot closer than 100 miles [160 km], doesn't it? SLAYTON: Man, those snow-covered peaks now, you can't hardly tell them from the clouds, Vance. 5. Onboard Recording SLAYTON: I hear that water's rougher than hell when there's ice in it. There's all kind* of white packs in it. 6. Onboard Recording BRAND: Some of it's clouded over. I took quite a few pictures but there's too much cloud cover now. There's no chance of seeing the Alpine Fault. Stopped taking pictures. Counter number is 37. NUMBER 1 133 7. Onboard Recording BRAND: Boy, we're moving out. SLAYTON: Here comes the coastline again. BRAND: We're going to hit the next island in a minute. You see North Island yet, Tom? STAFFORD: We're right near the coastline. Right there, between the clouds. BRAND: North Island is under the clouds. STAFFORD: There's a bunch of plankton out there to the east. I can hardly see that from under it. SLAYTON : Yeah, sure, and you can see the tourists down there, Tom. BRAND: I'm not sure I see plankton. I see bottom. STAFFORD: Yeah. Only out here. Not there. BRAND: Oh, okay. There's a lot of pretty green bottom here. But I'm not sure I see plankton. I'll take a picture of what I see. 8. Onboard Recording BRAND: Of course, we couldn't see between the two islands, so there's no chance to look for anything in the form of internal waves. 9. Onboard Recording BRAND: I don't think it's the time of year for plankton. It looks too cold down there. STAFFORD: It's not there now. BRAND: Oh, I see something. Okay, I've got one shot of some scum on the water. But it went by so fast, it looked more like trash to me. But we'll see what it is later. It could be plankton. So much for New Zealand. SLAYTON : I'm glad we got a little Earth obs in there. STAFFORD: We got a real good one coming up at the end of this one. 10. Onboard Recording BRAND: Okay, recorder, the ocean northeast of New Zealand is closest to 47-B in color, very pretty light blue. 11. Onboard Recording BRAND : Next we'll be coming up on 3A, cloud features. And I'll just be taking pictures, and report later. 12. Onboard Recording SLAYTON: Okay, this camera's all set to con? tinue. We may get something going here, yet. 13. Onboard Recording BRAND: We're coming up on Baja California. See it very clearly. We've got cloud cover, I'd say from about 70 miles off the Cali? fornia coast solid into the coast, except there's a clear spot over Catalina. Okay, it's a very consistent blue; interesting, you see a wake behind each island in the clouds out there. Because of clouds, it's impossible to see the ocean boundary. No red tide visible. 14. Onboard Recording BRAND: Color [wheel], I used to look at Gran Desierto, was kind of a 16-A, but it was hard to tell precisely, simply because to hold the color at all close to what I'm looking at in the window, the color chart had to be com? pletely in the shade, with the same veiy bright thing out the window being contrasted. Your eye adapted to the bright thing and all the color chart colors tended to look very dark and much the same because they were in the shadow. If you happen to have the sun shining in the window, so it's shining on the color chart just right, then you're in luck. 15. Onboard Recording BRAND: Coming up on 4C [Superior iron]. The difference between A, B, and C. Yes, there is, but let me discuss it in a minute, because we're coming up on Sudbury next. Let's talk about 4C for a minute. Looked at the three areas; areas B and C look some? what similar. I didn't see evidence of pit mines or anything. Was more or less dis? tinguished by a grayish, maybe purplish, color over the countryside. I don't know if that's due to vegetation or not. I did see, though, in the A region, there's nothing to distinguish until you saw the open pits, and the open pits are very reddish. Some of them are almost bright orangish red. 16. Onboard Recording BRAND: That's all for this pass. 5C [Labrador Current] was not done because we had to change attitude. REVOLUTION 18 17. Onboard Recording BRAND: Might add that just before starting this experiment activation, I had a visual obs pass over a lot of the Pacific and some of the U.S., as you know. I would say it was a partial success. We had quite a bit of cloud 134 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE cover, for example, completely over New Zealand. We were hoping to look at a fault zone there and look for some stuff on the water. There wasn't much to see around New Zealand. But at Los Angeles the water just offshore was cloudy, but it was very clear inland over the desert and so forth. REVOLUTION 19 18. AG/35 :59 :18+ STAFFORD: YOU might pass on to Farouk [PI] there's a tremendous difference down here in this orbit we're at now compared to what we used to fly in Gemini up at 140 to 185 miles [225 to 298 km] as far as observing features. CAPCOM: Roger. What kind of difference? STAFFORD: Well, as far as detail. CAPCOM: YOU can see a lot more from this orbit? STAFFORD : Oh, tremendously more. Also, looks like you're a lot closer too, comparatively speaking. Revolutions 25 and 26 REVOLUTION 25 19. AG/45 :37 :20+ SLAYTON: Are we just coming up on Africa, here? CAPCOM : That's affirmative. SLAYTON: Man, we're looking at some fan? tastic scenery here; weren't sure where we were. We can see fires, grass fires, and that sort of thing burning down here just like you can from 40,000 feet [12,192 m], Crip. They're all over the place. REVOLUTION 26 20. Onboard Recording BRAND: Okay, tape recorder, shots 50 through 53 were of the Cairo area. Stereo, three pic? tures, then a fourth one looking back, and finally, a last one at [Syria's] west coast. 21. AG/47:30:51 + STAFFORD: Houston, are we over Russia now? CAPCOM : That's affirm. As a matter of fact, while you were messing with the hatch, you just passed over the launch site. We saw a view of the Aral Sea and the coastline there. Reminded me of that airplane flight we took and now you're just about 52 de? grees right at the highest point in latitude and west of the launch site over there by several hundred miles. STAFFORD: Okay. They got a forest fire on top of a mountain out here that you can sure see at this point. BRAND: See a contrail, too. It looks like pretty rugged country, this part of the world right here, a lot of mountainous country. NUMBER 1 135 - c ? ?tLr \ 40 39 T 1 K_ r v0 Revolutions 39, 40, and 42 REVOLUTION 39 22. A G / 6 7 : 2 1 : 3 6 + CAPCOM: For that upcoming pass [Himalaya Mountains], I've got a new stop time for the camera, if somebody wants to note it down. SLAYTON : Please stand by just a minute. CAPCOM: Okay. The start time is the same. The stop time is now 68:04:10. And we're about 30 seconds from LOS. We'll have you again when you lock the ATS. And we should be able to get you at about 67:39. 23. AG/67 :41 :37+ SLAYTON: Okay, Crip. We prepared break? fast here, and I'm just coming up on the first Earth obs pass, and the mapping camera is running, and we're waiting to see some? thing. CAPCOM : Very good. Coming up on the tip of Africa, right now, looks like. SLAYTON: That's affirm. We're still over the water. 24. Onboard Recording SLAYTON: I can see sediment plumes coming out here on the African coast. I never did see the Great Dike. I think this is the Zam? besi Delta right here. The sediment plumes area in the delta seem to be coming out and down the coast to the south primarily. There are a few gyres spinning off, but I'd say the predominant flow is to the south. And we've got three frames there. We did have clear weather over South Africa, but I never saw anything that looked to me like the Great Dikes I've seen in the pictures. 25. Onboard Recording SLAYTON: We're coming up on the Arabian Sea, and it's prety well cloud covered. Pos? sibly a cold water gyre back there; let me shoot a couple of pictures. One thing, with this orange filter, you can't see except just pointing and shooting. It looks like an obvi? ous current boundary, based on the cloud coverage here, in the northern Arabian Sea. It's mostly cirrus, but I took three frames, so I could see some more [clouds] down below. 26. Onboard Recording SLAYTON : I got the mapping camera on and off, per schedule. And over all of India, es? sentially nothing but cloud cover, so I don't think we got much there, except some good meteorology stuff. 27. Onboard Recording SLAYTON: Now coming off the north side of the Himalayas here into the deserts region, and it is truly desert. There's a lot of lakes down there that are blue-green. 28. Onboard Recording SLAYTON: It's pretty well cloud covered in the whole area; the same thing as far as using the HDC over India, till we broke off the north side of the Himalayas. I shot the strip anyway, in case there might be some? thing there of value. 136 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE 29. Onboard Recording SLAYTON: And about the time we hit the Takla Makan Desert, the old tape recorder ran out of tape, and rather than rechange that out, I just looked. And as far as the dune patterns are concerned, it looked to me like there was a big sandstorm kind of laying over the whole area. It was very indistinct and hazy. If that was the ground I was looking at, I'd be hard put to define the dune patterns, other than to say it's kind of a large, rolling area. I'm more inclined to think it was an obstruction of vision. And we're coming off the northern end of the Takla Makan here. We were hoping to see some? thing new and different, and again it is totally cloud covered, and absolutely nothing to see except interesting cloud features. 30. Onboard Recording SLAYTON: SO, other than not being able to see, I think we've got something in the Zam? bezi Delta, there. We simply got nothing in South Africa, and not very much anywhere else. I'll give you a frame number: got to frame number 67 on the IR film. REVOLUTION 40 31. AG/69 :00 :32+ CAPCOM : On rev 40 for orbital science, the stop time is now 69:30:50. SLAYTON : 69:30:50. CAPCOM: Roger. That was the stop time for M5 [Arabian Desert] on rev 40. 32. Onboard Recording SLAYTON: We're coming up on the Afar Tri? angle here. This isn't our day for Earth obs. Everything, again is clouded over. 33. Onboard Recording SLAYTON : Here we are over the Empty Quar? ter. There are massive linear dunes. I can't see what's on them. And I don't have much luck with the color wheel because the wheel's in the shade, and what I'm looking at is in the sun, and I get absolutely no correlation at all. I hope that's not going to be true perpetually. REVOLUTION 42 34. Onboard Recording SLAYTON: Okay, we're in rev 42 pass. No luck at all on 8A [Falkland Current]; it was all cloud cover. 35. Onboard Recording SLAYTON : However, in 3A [cloud features] we've got some very interesting cells here? look like Benard cells, large-scale ones. I've got a couple of pictures, and I'll get some more. There's something screwy about the focus on this thing. No wonder we couldn't see anything through it. 36. AG/72 :23 :11+ SLAYTON: Hey, Bo. Can somebody there tell me quick where you got some more IR film stashed? IR film for the 70-millimeter silver camera. CAPCOM : You're saying you want the film location for the 70-millimeter camera? Deke, the IR film is located in [stowage area] A6. 37. Onboard Recording SLAYTON : We're coming across the Niger River Delta. I can definitely see how we already passed that. I can see the fossil dune patterns down here very neatly. Some cloud cover in the area, scattered to broken. 38. Onboard Recording SLAYTON : Looks like a big sandstorm blow? ing down here in the [Algerian] desert that's very hazy, and it's not a cloud cover. So it must be sand blowing. It was clear back there a little ways earlier. Coming up on the coast of the Mediterranean here and south of there very large dune patterns, primarily red interdune structure and darker dunes. 39. Onboard Recording SLAYTON : We're out over the Mediterranean now. Got a few shots of the coastline of Tripoli. Now I'm trying the water color wheel. I'm not having any luck with this color wheel to speak of. It looks like maybe a 36. We're coming up on Sicily and Italy, and I don't see any eddies. It's a completely homogeneous surface down there. REVOLUTION 56 40. DT/94:40:33 SLAYTON: See any [cloud] buildup? BRAND: You know, thunderstorms look a lot closer to you. Yeah. This one here? 41. DT/94:41:07 NUMBER 1 137 Revolutions 56 and 64 BRAND: That's what I said at first. That's one of my targets [Oweinat Mountain]. Look at them. Are they pipes or are they mountain tops? SLAYTON: They look volcanic to me. 42. D T / 9 4 : 4 1 : 0 7 + BRAND: We're going to come up on Cairo in a minute. Look at that country. SLAYTON : Beautiful. BRAND : There's Cairo. 43. DT/94:42:55 SLAYTON : Now here's the Red Sea right off to my left. . . . Unfortunately, Bo, we need about all we can get for visibility. 44. D T / 9 4 : 4 2 : 5 5 + BRAND : Boy, there's Cairo. SLAYTON: There it is. Boy! Oh, great! . . . We got everything we want. Say, that stuff's pretty . . . right there. BRAND : See the pyramids? SLAYTON: Yeah! [laughter] BRAND: My God! I think I did. I've got to get a map though. 45. D T / 9 4 : 4 3 : 2 6 + BRAND: Gosh, look at that! Look at that water. SLAYTON ; I know where we're supposed to be, but I'm not sure. We're going too fast. 46. D T / 9 4 : 4 3 : 2 6 + BRAND: We're going to get a good view of the Levantine Rift here. 47. DT/94:44:15 BRAND: Houston, look. We've got some fan? tastic viewing and picture-taking of Africa right now. 48. D T / 9 4 : 4 4 : 1 5 + SLAYTON: NO, we're in the Middle East right now. BRAND : I know. SLAYTON: Hey, that's Israel right down there. There's the Sea of Galilee . . . goddam. 49. AG/94 :48 :54+ CAPCOM: Command module, Houston. That out-the-window camera is really giving us a good view this afternoon. 50. AG/94:56:36 BRAND: Houston, Apollo. Ocassionally, we get some very good viewing because of attitude, weather, etc. We just now got a couple of visual observations, things that we haven't been able to get as well before. For example, saw the Levantine Rift and Egypt. I think I might have seen the pyramids. And now I've got to see a picture or a layout of how the pyramids are laid out when we get back, but I saw two specks that might have been pyramids. CAPCOM: Say again what the specks might have been. . BRAND: We think they're the pyramids of Egypt, and that happens to be a visual ob? servation [target]. 138 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE REVOLUTION 63 51. AG/105 :42 :35+ CAPCOM: Okay, Vance. This is on mapping pass M6 [Australia] and I've got a start and a stop time update for you. The start time is as follows: 107:41:30; stop time, 107: 53:30. BRAND : Rog. Rev 64, M6 mapping pass: start time, 107:41:30; stop time, 107:53:30. REVOLUTION 64 52. Onboard Recording BRAND: Rev 64 starting with the 11C over the Simpson Desert. You use the chart to define desert colors. As close as I could tell, I would say 6-A, although the desert is very reddish. It's awfully hard to compare with the color chart. The standard problem we have been having with the color chart is that you have to have it somehow in light so you can compare it with what's on the ground. It's very dark in the cabin compared to outside. It's not a very valid comparison, in general. 53. Onboard Recording BRAND: There were distinct dune fields. As a matter of fact, they were very interesting. They showed up as lines. They were linear dunes, as near as I could tell. For the most part, they were just kind of linear scratches. Looked to me like the type was attributable to wind direction and strength more than anything else. In the short time that we went over, I could not find any probable source. 54. Onboard Recording BRAND: Look at this atoll coming up here, Tom. I wonder what that might be. The Solomons? STAFFORD: I don't know, Vance. BRAND: Not atoll. I mean island. STAFFORD: It's very rarely you can see a bunch of atolls. 55. Onboard Recording BRAND : Very quickly we came upon Australia. Could not see any suspended sediments off the coast. I just obtained three stereo photo? graphs of the [Great] Barrier Reef. The [film] magazine is CXI2. Photos were 34, 35, and now it's on 36. I got a good clear view of the Barrier Reef. 56. Onboard Recording BRAND: NOW looking for water eddies in the Coral Sea. I have none to report yet, but I'm still looking. To finish up on the Coral Sea, found what appeared to be numerous eddies. They were cloud ring structures in various places in the Coral Sea and even across the whole southwest Pacific for that matter. I could pick these things out for some time, although there did seem to be more down in the area of the Coral Sea than farther up to the north. Continued taking several pic? tures of these eddies. After taking pictures, I was resting on frame 43. Took one more picture of an eddy in the central Pacific. 57. Onboard Recording BRAND: Frame counter is on 44 now. No sig? nificant cloud formations for that particular one to get so far. I did get two shots. I am now on 50 on CXI2 after getting two shots of mid-Pacific weather-tropical storms. Not tropical. Large thunderstorms. REVOLUTION 71 58. AG/118:10:51 + CAPCOM: And, for your information, the weather's looking good across there. You're probably going to have little problems with the Guinea Current due to clouds, but it looks great across the desert. 59. Onboard Recording BRAND: Tape recorder, the Guinea Current area is all fogged over this morning. That's 9C, visual observation [target]. 60. Onboard Recording BRAND : We'll press along to see what we have over mainland Africa?site 9D [desert colors]. Lake Chad was?the N'djamena area was covered by about 50 percent cloud cover, al? though Lake Chad itself was fairly open. Un? fortunately, therefore, I couldn't photograph N'djamena. 61. Onboard Recording BRAND: I got several shots of the desert just north of Lake Chad and the dunes were long streaks. Got a color comparison; it was NUMBER 1 139 Revolutions 71, 72, and 73 25-A, near as I could tell. I said the dunes were linear. As to the different colors, just a second. Tom, north of Lake Chad there, we were talking about the streak dunes. Did you see dunes on top of dunes there? I couldn't see anything but the streaks. Yeah, that's all I could see. 62. Onboard Recording BRAND: Okay, next, 9E. Got multiphotos of 64. Oweinat Mountain. I think the 9E photo? graph in our book [Appendix 3] is a good thing to refer to. The first two things you come upon on the ground track did look like vents. There was a lot of circular structure and it looked like black volcanic basaltic-like 65. material and then it might not have been, but that's what it looked like. Later you come to the associated black territory which is a little further down the groundtrack and that, to me, didn't look like vents but looked like the top of a mountain. It did not have cir? cular structure. I got a lot of pictures of it, so you can take a look at it and see what you think for yourself. Got some stereos too. Just seeing the vents, my guess would be that it's truly the top of a volcanic mountain with vents coming out of it in certain areas. 66. 63. Onboard Recording BRAND: Okay, Nile Delta. From the view we had today, we could not resolve the pyra? mids. I could see where they are. Looked like the ground was disturbed in the area where they are. But I'll have to admit that I was a little confused. There was one light area, which was disturbed, where they could be. There was another area of dark spotti- ness where they could have been. I'm not sure which place it was. I got three stereo photo? graphs of Cairo. Onboard Recording BRAND: I got some photographs, but they were not stereo, looking south along the Gulf of Suez. And that was a very tough angle to get. I did not have a good angle on it and that's why I couldn't get three stereos. AG/118:29 :44+ CAPCOM: HOW did the pass go, coming across Africa? BRAND: Man! It was swift. A lot to see. I had clouds up almost to Lake Chad, and then right over the Lake Chad area, I had scat? tered to broken. So it was poor for photog? raphy. But from then on, it was wide open. Got a lot of pictures. And of course, I got a good view of the Cairo area, Levantine Rift. We'll be talking into the tape recorder now. And as I said?have a lot of photos. Onboard Recording BRAND: Very quickly we came upon the Le? vantine Rift. That's an extremely interesting area that was easy to see. I guess my com? ments are as follows: The Levantine Rift 140 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE goes into the Sea of Galilee. Beyond that, it hits the Golan Heights and then you've got a very jumbled area, somewhat reminding me of jumbled areas that we've seen in other places where you have either three tectonic lines coming together or else a turn of a bend. The one thing I noticed was that if you look at the 9G [Levantine Rift, p. 372] map, the dotted line on the left up near the end of it makes a bend to the left and follows a new tectonic line or fault which goes along parallel to the Turkish coast. In other words, the one on the left, number 1, I guess you'd call it, goes up to the end of it on 9G and then makes a left turn and parallels the Turkish coast. [Number] 2 seems to be ob? scured and it just ends in a lot of jumbled country up somewhere slightly beyond where the number 2 is, and it seems to end right in this jumbled area. [Number] 3, I could trace up to a river which I'll have to see a map later. But I could trace the faults out, going rather eastward. You could see them kind of through the valley silt, clear up to a river which must be well inland in either Syria or Turkey. So the overall pattern of these 1, 2, and 3, is a fan; 3 going almost eastward, and 1 bending finally to the north, and 2 going to the northeast. The terminals are hard to define, but I've defined them as best I can. And I did get three stereo photos of the area around 1 and 2 in the Levantine Rift area. 67. AG/118:30:43 SLAYTON : As far as the mapping part is con? cerned, we're doing it out of window 5. And that window is obviously considerably colder than number 1. And we have a continual problem with that window fogging over on us. CAPCOM : Copy that. It's fogged up pretty good. SLAYTON: Well, I've got it wiped down. The problem is that it keeps fogging, and you just have to keep wiping it. REVOLUTION 72 68. Onboard Recording SLAYTON: Okay, for the old Earth obs, we are coming up on site 12A [icebergs]. Essen? tially see nothing but cloud cover and have taken some pictures of some cloud streaks that look very unusual, but certainly I don't see any icebergs underneath. 69. Onboard Recording SLAYTON: We're over the area where we should be seeing the Falkland Current and it's pretty well clouded over. In fact, I think probably that the cloud patterns I shot a couple pictures of may have been over the current. If that's typical of Gulf Stream oper? ations, it could be the same down here. And for the record, this rev 72 attitude out of window 3 is such that I'm not sure if there weren't cloud cover we'd be able to see either icebergs or the Falkland Current in any case. It's a very oblique viewing angle. 70. Onboard Recording SLAYTON: We're starting to shoot the 16- millimeter mapping pass over sites 9H [Niger River Delta], I [Algerian Desert], and J [Tripoli]. 71. Onboard Recording SLAYTON: The last time I came over here, at least, it's all cloud covered. We're just hitting the coastline at present. And we'll shoot away and maybe we'll get something underneath there that's worth keeping. We have some unusual cloud patterns here that should show up in the film, some low scattered cumulus and high wave patterns, high cirrus. We're coming up on site [9]I, and the cloud cover is beginning to disperse. Maybe we'll be able to see something here. It does look like a vegetated area down here. Very sparse, how? ever. Oh, and here at 119:46 looks like some fossil dunes with a lot of red sand in the inter- dune area, and really red sand surrounding the area. Well I believe this is the Niger River, by golly. I thought this was Lake Faguibine. That was the old fossil dune area in the Niger River, sure enough. 72. Onboard Recording SLAYTON: We're coming into the desert itself. And again, it looks very hazy down here to me. I don't know whether it's dust, sand in the air, or whether it's just a poorly defined landscape. And Tom agrees that it looks to him like a sandstorm too. That's really what NUMBER 1 141 we're seeing is sand in the air. We discov? ered a large expanse of fairly homogeneous sand desert. No obvious dune patterns. Oh, there's some really heavy clouds of sand blowing down there; some darker rock hills sticking out. We're now coming to the rocky volcanic hills of the northeast edge of the big sand desert. Some very red sand to the north. In fact, it looks almost like a massive parabolic sand dune, black with red sand behind it. And we're coming up on a large band of very black barren-looking hills with great red areas interspersed between them. Coloration looks volcanic, but there's some? thing about the patterns that makes that obvious. Okay, and at 119:50:00, we're com? ing up into a couple of areas where the dunes are now a little better defined; they look kind of like old domes. They're cer? tainly not stars and they're not linear here either. As we get farther into the north, there is a little linear pattern apparent, but it's mostly a bunch of dome appearances, very homogeneous. 73. Onboard Recording SLAYTON: Coming up on another very hazy area again. Ah, that's because we're right on the coastline. Coming up on the Libyan Des? ert, Tripoli. Coming into the Mediterranean, there's some very light colors along the coast? line. I think that's probably due to shoals rather than any current flow, it looks like to me anyway. And I believe that's the city of Tripoli down there. And after crossing the Mediterranean coast, ran into a very unusual cloud pattern in the Mediterranean, that I would say probably defines a large current. I started to say that cloud pattern probably defines a warmer water area. I'm coming up on the Greek coast here and I'll shoot a few of that until the mag runs out. Incidentally, we could see boats in the Mediterranean, due to their wakes, with no difficulty. REVOLUTION 73 74. Onboard Recording STAFFORD : We're in the visual obs on rev 7 3 - 74. The last pictures that I made were on [film magazine] CXI4. That's about 18, 19, 20, 21, the Volga River on over to the Aral Sea. 75. Onboard Recording STAFFORD: Film CX08, exposure number 25, 26, and 27 over the Atlantic Ocean. There's a current boundary out here some place. 76. Onboard Recording STAFFORD: Took a series of stereo photos of the islands off the coast of Africa, number 29, 30, and 31. Now, coming up to the Afri? can coast. I can see no wakes around the is? lands at this time, and no visible current. 77. Onboard Recording STAFFORD : Now coming up to Casablanca and [Strait of] Gibraltar. Observing at Casablanca, you can see where the current has chewed out the coast there. I see notches in the area and also there's this whole series of sand dunes running parallel to the coast in the Casablanca area. Is that the Mediterranean? If so, there are no internal waves east of the Mediterranean. See no current boundaries west of Gibraltar, there. BRAND : Now here comes Spain. SLAYTON: We had a beautiful pass over Gi? braltar yesterday. STAFFORD: Looking at a broad area of sedi? ment that's going into the waters out from Spain into the ocean. I can see a whole series of ships out east of Gibraltar?1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8?I can spot over 15 ships west of Gibral? tar in the Atlantic Ocean. BRAND: It's getting easy to see, isn't it? STAFFORD: Oh, yeah. You can see the ships, see their wakes? SLAYTON : Vision is good. STAFFORD: Oh, now I see these internal waves; there the bastards are. Right there. All those waves and the boundary off the coastline. The sun angle changed. There they are, all of them. I couldn't see them before due to the sun angle. Just got them, a whole series of them. 78. Onboard Recording STAFFORD: Here's the big rift leading up to Madrid. I shot a series of stereos of the great rift fault coming across to Spain. It's trun? cated right at the bottom by a smaller one. And the smaller one fans out at the end and disappears under the terrain. 142 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE 79. Onboard Recording STAFFORD: All right. We are coming up to the Pyrenees between France and Spain. BRAND: Hey, would you get a shot of Mar? seille? STAFFORD: Yeah, where is it, on the left? BRAND: Yeah, it's on the left, see that bay coming up there? STAFFORD : Yeah there's Marseille with plumes coming out in the water. I see it. We'll go right over it, Vance. See it? It's down where the Rhone River empties, isn't it Marseille? BRAND : Yeah. STAFFORD: That's it. Right now you can see where the Rhone River empties into the Mediterranean, the plumes out from it. Com? ing up to Marseille, get a series of stereos. Well, that was a good one, Vance. Got a beautiful one. Got Marseille completely. There it is. In fact, you can see the airfield. BRAND: Hey, do you see Isthmus, or do you see this bay down here? Would you take a picture of that bay? That big lake sort of thing down there. STAFFORD: The lake that's just inside from the ocean? BRAND: Yeah. Just inside from the ocean. STAFFORD: I got it. It's a stereo pair, Vance. Got it. That where you used to live? BRAND : Yeah. STAFFORD : That was an airfield that runs right into it, isn't there? The runways. 80. Onboard Recording STAFFORD: Better shoot . . . now. Okay, as we're coming on up to the Alps, it looks like we're going to have cloud cover here. 81. Onboard Recording STAFFORD: I could really see those internal waves from Gibraltar, though, right at the very last [minute] when the sun angle changed. That's fantastic out there. You couldn't see them at all from a different sun angle, though. 82. Onboard Recording STAFFORD: Okay, going into the Alps. BRAND: Coming up on Italy, south of us. STAFFORD: Okay, the Alps are just completely covered with clouds; it's just not worthwhile taking any pictures there at this time. So we'll scrub the Alps on this one. The last frame that I got on rev 73, on CX08, was 52. Okay, for a comment, the first parts of rev 72 weren't recorded, that was on CX08. The first shots on CX08 was the rev 72 visual obs. And that was only three or four shots. SLAYTON: It was all cloud cover and we didn't get anything. REVOLUTION 74 83. DT/122 :28 :30+ STAFFORD: Vance, you know we're upside down? If you're upside down, the Nazca Plain, should be on the right. It says to shoot it upside down. No, I'd rather have it right side up so the spacecraft is . . . . 84. DT/122 :29 :50+ STAFFORD: Starting with the Earth obs, revs 73 to 74. Coming up, there's a lot of clouds over the Pacific, and trying to look for the Nazca Plain markings. 85. DT/122:32:30 STAFFORD: I don't like this attitude for Earth obs. I'd rather [have] heads up and pitch down, like this. See? See if it fits; don't have enough room. Let me look at this. Can't get down there. 86. DT/122:34:06 STAFFORD: On the map, site 7 [Northern South America], rev 74, we're approaching the north coast of South America, Peruvian Desert, trying to find the Nazca Plain. The clouds go all the way up to the north of here, go all the way up to Acapulco. That's just the way a cloud system will be. We really should fire away. 87. DT/122:36:31 STAFFORD: Man, this attitude is fucked up, did you know it? It's really bad when you try to keep your head straight back like that and look right and left. I'm going to have to change this whole son of a bitch around. I want to use my headset here . . . . No, it's no problem to look ahead, just right and left. I've got to reverse this . . . first. I think if we put . . . in here, which we ought you can put those here. No, wait. You don't have enough room. Good heavens! Feeling bad NUMBER 1 143 Revolutions 74, 75, 75/76, and 76 about my chair . . . . Okay, it's acquisition time. 88. DT/122:38:33 STAFFORD: HOW do you read, Houston? Okay. Look. Get with Farouk. This attitude for vis? ual obs, there's no room to twist your head and look upside down, and the whole thing . . . you reverse this thing so we're heads up and pitch down . . . just makes everything about twice as easy. Can you hear me? Okay. We want to roll 180 degrees for vis obs. Not the mapping, but the vis obs. 89. DT/122 :38 :33+ STAFFORD: We got some clouds over. . . . It goes west and all cloud cover. Okay. The cloud cover is . . . the west coast of the Pacific Ocean . . . of the Nazca Plain, so no site 7B. 7C is also covered over. 90. AG/122:42 :59+ CAPCOM: I understood that you were having some kind of problem with your vis obs atti? tude in the window, and I'd like to get that again, if I could. STAFFORD: Look, I'm sure this was optimized because sometimes you do the vis obs at the mapping attitude. I'm now wings level. I've gotten a lot of cloud cover, of course, so I can't see much, so I'm not losing too much by talking to you. What we want to do is to, just the vis obs only, to roll to heads up. Because if we could sit down behind the couch, this attitude wouldn't be bad. But the trouble is there's not enough room to sit down behind the couch and look out where you're going. You can't get in there. You're too high. So we want to roll to heads up, pitch down, looking straight forward for the vis obs attitude when it's not associated with the mapping. Can you get Farouk and his troops tracking on that? CAPCOM: Okay, Tom. I think we understand that, and we'll take a look at it for the upcoming passes. STAFFORD: Yeah, this heads down; when you look out like that to get the view, you're straining yourself up against the instrument panel holding your feet in the struts against the tunnel, and everything in the book is left and right. Well, you can overcome that, but you just can't get the lead in. I tried sitting upside down on the couch, but the only way you can see it out is through the other side of the window. It's really a hell of an awk? ward situation. So we want to pitch down at least 30 or 40 degrees, nose down, and we'll take everything coming head on for the vis obs wings level. CAPCOM : Okay. If I'm understanding, you're talking about wings level, heads up, pitch down about 30 to 40 degrees. Is that correct? STAFFORD: Yeah, at least. Whatever it takes to get that window out good instead of this 144 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE heads down. The mapping passes we'll have to leave like they are. We understand that, but when he [El-Baz] includes mapping with vis obs, there's nothing we can do about that. But as far as just pure vis obs by itself, we want heads up, pitch down to a degree. He should be able to determine that. I'm going to say, oh, at least pitch down about 30 degrees or 40 degrees. CAPCOM : Okay. Fine, Tom. And just to make sure that we do understand that, we're talk? ing about with docking module forward. Is that correct? STAFFORD: Oh, yeah. Docking module for? ward, pitch down . . . . Looking out window 3. CAPCOM: Apollo, Houston, for the AC. Tom, when you get a moment there, you can talk a little bit, we'd like a few clarifications on that attitude that you were requesting. STAFFORD: Hang on. I got a target here. CAPCOM : Okay, Tom. One of the things we want to clarify?We're assuming that you want to be with your back to the couch. Is that correct? STAFFORD: Yeah, well, it gives your back? with my back to the couch now, looking forward. And again?you can do it, but it just seems easier if you're heads up on it looking down forward. Of course, I guess you don't get the high-gain antenna, so that's something to play off. CAPCOM : Have you got any real preference as to whether the objects are moving from the top of the window down, or from the bottom of the window up? STAFFORD: No, I don't think so. You talking retrograde? CAPCOM : That's affirm. STAFFORD: NO. I think it's easier when you get a lead into it coming forward. CAPCOM : I'm sorry. I didn't quite get all that. You said a lead into it, which you prefer coming from the top of the window down, then? STAFFORD: Well, like for right now, I've been coming from the top of the window down, as they're going forward here. Let's just go ahead and see what we've got here for a while. Sometime later on, as we get an op? portunity where it's not coupled into an an? tenna angle, we might just take a look at it and do it ourselves. CAPCOM: Okay. We'll go ahead and take a look at it. One of the things we are con? sidering was using some of the attitudes simi? lar to the mapping pass that we used for window 5 and only to set it up for window 3. But we'll look at it down here and get back so that we can give you a new one. REVOLUTION 75 91. AG/124:25 :59+ SLAYTON: Hey Dick [Truly]. Where are we right this minute? CAPCOM: Oh, you're [over the] North At? lantic. You're just off the coast of New? foundland, probably almost 1000 miles [1609 km]. SLAYTON : Must be right on the airways. I see a couple of contrails, and I can almost make out one airplane down there, going west. CAPCOM : It's probably a pretty good [sight]. Yeah, that'd be just about the primary route between the States and Europe. 92. Onboard Recording STAFFORD: Just to note, I shot a couple of cloud formations over Europe on [film maga? zine] CX14, exposure number 20, at 124:33. Okay, we're shooting some weather patterns over Europe, going on into Russia and shoot? ing stereo pairs of semicyclonic clouds and huge thunderstorms. REVOLUTION 75/76 93. AG/125:46:01 + STAFFORD: We're seeing the coast of Florida go past pretty fast. CAPCOM: Rog. You should be passing over actually the coast of Mexico there, and Florida should be coming up in just a few minutes. STAFFORD: Okay. We thought it was out by the tip there. CAPCOM : You just came over into the Gulf of Mexico. 94. AG/125 :46 :01+ BRAND : Hey, Crip. We can see you from here. NUMBER 1 145 CAPCOM: See Houston? BRAND: Can see the whole Gulf Coast there from Brownsville up around through Houston and around to New Orleans. Looks like a nice day from here. I'd say kind of high scattered [clouds]. 95. AG/125:48:31 SLAYTON: If you go to the Cape [Kennedy] tonight, Crip, you got some nice big ones right over Orlando, looks like. Watch out. CAPCOM: Big bumpers, huh? Well, I haven't got a chance to go flying through them anyhow. 96. AG/125:48:31 + BRAND: Funny thing, Crip. Looking at thun? derstorms down there, they don't look that much below us. We feel like we're really in 97. a low orbit. CAPCOM: I remember him making a similar comment, especially like at night when they were coming over and there was a lot of lightning and so forth going in them. I guess the appearance is that you're right with them. BRAND: Okay, you can see the three-dimen? sional quality of them very well; very big mushrooms. REVOLUTION 76 Onboard Recording BRAND: At approximately 127 hours and I picked them just because of the general in? terest . . . an interesting cloud pattern around. After that, we're on frame 48. Revolutions 77 and 78 REVOLUTION 77 98. Onboard Recording SLAYTON: We just shot a few frames on CXI4 ending with 55 of, I think, Salt Lake City; Fort Peck Reservoir; some clouds through the Midwest, hopefully Wisconsin and Michigan. REVOLUTION 78 99. Onboard Recording SLAYTON: Okay, we're coming up on pass 78 over sites 3C [Hawaii] and 4A [snow peaks]. We've got the 250 lens on, set at 7, whatever it's supposed to be, F 500, [film] magazine CX14, and we're starting at frame 57. I hope we've got enough film to shoot it all. 100. Onboard Recording SLAYTON: We just passed site 3C, and un? fortunately got nothing because there's cloud cover over the islands and, secondly we were off track from window 3 from what we thought was the island of Hawaii, which was our main target island. So we'd have been unable to do much on two counts. 146 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE 101. AG/130 :13 :04+ BRAND: Just for general interest, it looks like the Pacific is just full of eddies. Great big eddies. We see them a lot. And we think they're eddies because there are giant cloud- ringed areas that sort of make you think the water there is either hotter or colder than the rest. CAPCOM : Rog, Vance. Any estimate on size or diameter? BRAND: Well, we'll give you some. They're all many sizes. We'll try to give you some maxi- mums and minimums here shortly. 102. AG/130:13:48 CAPCOM : Also, we would be interested in some further comments regarding the attitude that you've got right now for this vis obs pass. I know Tom commented on it this morning, and we were looking at trying to do some? thing different. However, it doesn't appear to be too easy right now, and we were wondering if maybe it's just a matter of getting used to it a little bit. SLAYTON: Well, I'll tell you. We just passed Hawaii, and I got zero for two reasons. Number one, it's cloud covered over the island that we're looking for, and secondly, it was too far to the north. This attitude is probably not the greatest. But I hesitate to recommend a better one right at this point. CAPCOM: We're still looking at it. A little bit reluctant to come up with an attitude be? cause a different attitude that we haven't really wrung out like we have what we got. But if we're not getting the data with what we got, well, we'll press on and continue to look at it. SLAYTON : Well, this is a good attitude to acquire things ahead. You know, you see them coming up, which is good. The problem is we're really rotating along here, and once it [the target] gets into view where you can shoot it with a camera, you go by it in about 5 seconds. 103. Onboard Recording SLAYTON : Okay. We just passed site 4A [snow peaks] and site 4C [Superior iron], the Olym? pic Peninsula was clouded over, some clouds over the Cascades. We were almost right on top before I finally saw any snow-covered peaks, which I could differentiate from the clouds. Shot three quick shots, but I could not detect firn lines on any glaciers because I didn't see any glaciers. Vance thought he saw a firn line on a glacier. And I didn't see any volcanic activity anywhere; of course I'm not sure I was looking at Mount Baker either. 104. Onboard Recording SLAYTON : Since we're going to use this maga? zine anyway, we're continuing through, and we've got some pictures in western Montana, eastern Washington, and also in southern Canada. We shot a couple of pictures of a very large lake, which was we think maybe Lake Winnipeg, but we're not sure. And, of course, at this stage we're out of attitude for good Earth obs viewing. 105. Onboard Recording SLAYTON : The only other comment is that Vance has adjusted our pitch 10 degrees and we think another 20 would be advisable. And I think we'll just pass that onto the ground now while we've got them. 106. Onboard Recording SLAYTON : Okay, we finished the rev 78 Earth obs with frame 69 reading on the mag, so we're going to change to a new mag before we go any further in this world. REVOLUTION 78/79 107. AG/130:30 :49+ SLAYTON: Okay, Dick. We just finished an Earth obs pass here, and talked to Crip about the Hawaii one. We hit the Washington coastline, and we did get a few pictures of that area and partly accomplished our effort there. We've been doing a little experiment? ing since then. Vance has striked a 10 degree pitch down towards the horizon, and we think we can tolerate about another 20 to get us into better viewing attitude for Earth obs. The problem we've got here is that we're seeing way too much stuff above the horizon and out to the horizon, which is of no value to us at all. And when we get over the target, we don't even get above it, and it's already disappeared through the window. So, we're having a real tough time here with, this Earth obs and this attitude. NUMBER 1 147 CAPCOM: Okay, Deke. Copy. I did copy your conversation with Crip a while ago. I've been here for about the last hour. Now, do you mean a total of 20 or a total of 30? SLAYTON: We took 10, it didn't seem too much; it was just obviously an improvement. CAPCOM : Deke, Houston. The only confusion I have on what you said is that I thought you said that Vance had already tried about another 10 degrees down, and then you men? tioned the 20 degrees. And I was wondering if you thought that a total of 20 degrees further pitch down or a total of 30 degrees pitch down would be about as much as you could stand? SLAYTON: I'm talking a total of 30. We tried 10, and we're still looking at a lot of stuff above the horizon. So we think another 20 on top of that might be about right. CAPCOM: Okay. Why don't you let our guys think about that, Deke, and we'll get back to you? SLAYTON : Thank you. CAPCOM: We have another Earth obs pass coming up down here in just a minute, and if we can gin up a new number for you before this Ascension pass, maybe we can update this upcoming P20 [a spacecraft ma? neuver] and you can give that a whirl and let us know how it turns out. For your in? formation, it's printed in the flight plan, but we have no ATS coverage this pass and due to the attitude constraints. SLAYTON : Yes. We would have cranked in the 10-degree adjustment, but we only have 10 minutes of Hawaii to the West Coast and we didn't think that was enough to start experimenting. Revolutions 79, 80, and 81 REVOLUTION 79 108. Onboard Recording SLAYTON : We've got to get a picture of those. STAFFORD: It's just like off Gibraltar. Certain sun angles you couldn't see a damn thing. SLAYTON : Okay, we're coming up on rev 79 over Australia and, although it's not called for, we've got some beautiful internal waves right off the coastline here. And we're shoot? ing them, using [film] magazine CXI6, a new magazine, and we'll probably overuse our budget here. 109. Onboard Recording SLAYTON : We've got the new viewing attitude at this point. I should hope it gives us better capability to find things. And we're coming up to Lake Eyre area, looks just like the photograph we see here. That's great. Let me shoot a stereo series right here. 110. Onboard Recording SLAYTON: Here comes the old fossil ridges 148 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE [Simpson Desert]. Hey, those do look just like those in the doggone . . Nile [Niger River Delta]. BRAND: Where do you see them? SLAYTON : Right down here to your right, straight ahead of you, see right there. STAFFORD: GO ahead, Houston. And hey, this attitude is lots better. BRAND: Why do they call them fossil ridges? SLAYTON : Because they're real old emergent stuff, Vance. 111. Onboard Recording SLAYTON : Okay, those are real dark. I don't see any light stuff indicated on them. We're shooting at them. It looks very much like the Nile [Niger]?oh, man, that is amazing. STAFFORD: Oh, look at this! SLAYTON : Man, this is impressive stuff, isn't it? Yeah, there's no way you cannot shoot up some film on something like this, you know? It has that red desert down there. It's really red and it's got this dark erosion pat? tern running through it. STAFFORD: We're shooting pictures like mad, day and night. SLAYTON: Okay, passing over what looks like large stream beds. Looks like a red baseline with real black stuff in it. Real red sand. Did you see any dunes to speak of in that area? Just one dune patch. Very red. Very inter? esting mixture of dark reds and black mate? rial; the red seeming to be the base and the dark feeding through it. 112. Onboard Recording SLAYTON : The Great Dividing Range. Okay. Here comes the Great Dividing Range, and I'm going to shoot some pictures and we'll talk about it later. Coming up on the coast? line here; and the Great Dividing Range isn't all that obvious a range to me. There's some fairly rugged looking hills just off the coast? line. And I see a road . . . I think I got it on the film, but I guess I couldn't detect it as a real range. Must be very low hills. I got it on film anyway. 113. Onboard Recording SLAYTON : I just shot a couple pictures of an island off here with coral atolls all around it. It's just plenty too beautiful not to shoot. I guess we didn't have the tape recorder on when we talked about eddies over the Coral Sea. I could see one through window 3. Vance saw a couple through window 2 yes? terday, 10 kilometers in diameter. Already gone up through frame 24 here; we just plain didn't allow enough film for this. Okay. There's the Solomon Islands. I shot atoll pictures around. 114. Onboard Recording SLAYTON : I think we're coming up on Mar? shall here now. I just shot three frames here in area 3A [cloud features], a line of three very distinct buildups and two smaller ones. I don't know what you mean by interesting convective patterns, but they sure looked in? teresting to me, so I shot them. 115. Onboard Recording SLAYTON: Okay, here again I'm passing a very distinctive cloud line laying off across the water which probably marks the edge of a current or an eddy, it's so distinct. How? ever, it's not a convective cloud feature, I guess, and since we're short on film, well, I won't take any pictures of it. I hate to do this! REVOLUTION 80 116. AG/132:06:34 SLAYTON: And, Dick, as far as the last Earth obs is concerned, I think that attitude is much better than the previous one. We're going to keep running with it. CAPCOM: Okay, real good, Deke. We'll take that input and crank that into our planning for all the other pads that are coming up. I mean all the other passes that are coming up. SLAYTON : Things are still moving mighty fast, but it gives you a chance to look at them fast in nadir, which we could not do before. CAPCOM: Okay, well, why don't we try that approach for a while? And if you have any other suggestions, just give them to us, and we'll try to help you out. 117. AG/132 :06 :58+ SLAYTON : Well, we got to wish we had more film. It's very discouraging to have to stay within a film budget; there's so many inter? esting things to shoot. CAPCOM : Roger. Understand. Record them in NUMBER 1 149 your mind. SLAYTON: Unfortunately, we have no other choice. 118. AG/132 :27 :55+ CAPCOM: Hey, if Deke is listening, I had a comment on his comment about the film. STAFFORD: Dick, he's inventorying the film. We'll just wait a couple of minutes on it, and then we can talk to you, and you can talk to him. CAPCOM : Well, I tell you what, Tom, it wasn't that big a deal, and I can just pass it on to you. He was commenting about the frustra? tions of having to live within the film budget, when you saw so many things out the window on good passes that you'd like to record. I'd just wanted to remind you and make sure you hadn't forgotten, that there's four film magazines listed in the Earth Obs Book [Ap? pendix 3] under film budget on page [319]. There are four; they're listed as Hasselblad PAO magazines. They're your choice as to what to use them on. The numbers are CX06, 7, 8, and 9, located in [stowage area] B5. STAFFORD: We've already used those, [laugh? ter] CAPCOM : Roger. STAFFORD : One thing we do have as a reserve, and we are getting quite a bit of things on targets-of-opportunity, is the little Nikon. 119. AG/132:46 :53+ CAPCOM: And, Apollo, Houston. Vance, when you get a minute to listen, I had a comment to you about what you told us about the eddies that you saw out on the Pacific awhile ago. BRAND : Okay . . . go ahead. CAPCOM: Farouk is here and we were talking to him. The question that he had that you might notice on future passes over the Pacific, if you see the same thing, was the color and the texture of the ocean down between the clouds, and he's interested there mainly in the sea surface conditions and not just the clouds. 120. AG/132 :46 :53+ CAPCOM : I have some news sometime later on this evening that I'll have available if you'd like to hear it. There's one item in here that I thought I'd read to you. It says an earth? quake which struck an area of the western Pacific today prompted a tidal wave alert for parts of Hawaii but was later cancelled. The University of California Seismographic Labo? ratory at Berkeley reported an earthquake registering a 7.7 on the Richter Scale occur? ring at 7:50 am Pacific daylight time, and it was centered in the region of the Solomon Islands. For your information, the Solomons are about 2000 miles [3218 km] to the south? west of Hawaii. We did check with our re? covery weather people just a minute ago, and it turns out that they have not seen any tidal wave action as a result of the earthquake, either at Hawaii or at Kwajalein. BRAND: That is interesting. We've been flying repeatedly over that area, of course. I don't know if you can see something like that from up here or not. CAPCOM : You're not going to be flying over that direct area here in the next pass or so. I just thought you might be interested in that one. 121. AG/132:49 :16+ BRAND: Yeah, that is very interesting. After our last conversation, I took size measure? ments on a few of the eddies we've seen, and seems like a typical size is 10 to 15 kilometers in diameter. But we have seen some giant ones that would be tens of kilometers, so we'll try to look at them more closely in the future, though, and see what the sea state looks like. 122. AG/132:52 :35+ STAFFORD: Dick, where are we at now? Are we heading across Africa? CAPCOM : No, you're on ascending pass; you're just crossing the coast of southwestern Aus? tralia. And then you'll be, of course, crossing Indonesia. Then you'll get another long pass over the western Pacific. 123. AG/132:56:35 BRAND: Hey, we're going over the Simpson Desert right now. And it's just fantastic. It's got dunes in it. It looks like they are very long, and they look like road tracks, there are so many of them?like hundreds of paral? lel road tracks. And we'll comment on it in our usual fashion with the onboard tape recorder, but it's just plain spectacular! 150 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE 124. AG/132 :56 :35+ STAFFORD: Yeah, and the long red streaks are matching about color 10, I would say, on Farouk's [color] wheel. CAPCOM: Thanks a lot for the input; wish I could see it myself. Beano and I are whipping out our color chart and seeing what color it is ourselves. BRAND: This is one of those cases where there was light coming in the window, falling on the color chart. And that made it easy to use. Sometimes when it's in the shadow, it's hard. CAPCOM : Roger. Understand. Incidentally if you ever do have a question about the chart or any comment on it, we've got one here at the console that's just about identical to yours, I think. STAFFORD: And some of those long streaks, those long sand streaks, could have either gone between 9 and 10. CAPCOM : Okay, thanks, Tom. Could you dif? ferentiate 9 or 10-A or B? Are they dark or light? STAFFORD : Now that the sun gets on the wheel where I can see it, it was more like 9. Oh, I'm sorry. Okay. Be about like 9-A. 125. AG/133:03:44 STAFFORD: Okay, Dick. And right over this area, you can mark the GET's a whole series of eddies?maybe 15 to 18 kilometers in di? ameter, just clumps of them. We're using the Nikon to shoot it. REVOLUTION 81 126. AG/134:20 :54+ CAPCOM : Okay, and here's one last note, back again on the vis obs film. I think you already are quite aware of this, but I'm going to tell you anyway. There are three black camera magazines that, according to our records, be? cause of past cancellations in Earth obs, that have extra frames if you haven't already used them. They are CT05, CT06, and CX13. STAFFORD: We were more concerned, Dick, about the silver camera film. And we've [counted] that since the last time we talked to you, and we got about 5J/2 mags of that left. So we need four by our records. We're still in good shape, I think. CAPCOM: Okay; real fine. We won't worry about it. STAFFORD: Say Dick, one thing I want to do, too. We don't want to bring back one frame unexposed, so we're going to shoot up all that bank?a lot of it will be on outside?and just check, if there's anything that they've got in there that couldn't be used for outside using the light meters onboard the camera, over. CAPCOM : Tom, I'm not sure I understand the question, and I'd like to make sure I pass it on properly. I realize you are going to try to shoot it all up, but say again the question, please. STAFFORD: Okay. We're going to shoot up all that Nikon film, and a lot of it's going to be used for outside viewing. And I just won? dered if?you might check?no, nothing time critical?just check tomorrow for it. And we're going to be using the light meter on? board and the Nikon. CAPCOM: Yes, I understand now, and we'll get our camera people to take a look. And if they have any advice in the morning, we'll get it up to you. STAFFORD: We've got the camera here right now, for example, with the CI18 with ASA 500 film in it, which is for the crystal growth of the ZFF. And we're using that also for Earth obs whenever we see something inter? esting. 127. AG/134:29:18 STAFFORD: What terrain are we crossing over right now? CAPCOM : You're on an ascending pass at about 10 degrees south, and you're getting ready to cross the islands out in Indonesia. STAFFORD : Oh, okay. CAPCOM: And the pass after you cross all those islands chains out there, Tom, you're going to be out over the Pacific all the way out, and then you'll start a descending pass and cross over the western United States over Oregon, the State of Washington. And as a matter of fact, you're going to come fairly close to Houston on your descending pass coming down this way. NUMBER 1 151 Revolutions 87, 88, and 89 REVOLUTION 87 REVOLUTION 128. AG/143 :49 :08+ STAFFORD: Okay, Bo. I've got the Earth Obs Book here. CAPCOM: This is for rev 88, site 8D [Parana River]. Dam site 2 nearest the center of the window at 144:44:48. And that approxi? mately 15 degrees south of nadir. And on site 8E [circular structure] number 1 time, 144:49: 36, and that also is 20 degrees south of nadir. And structure number 2 time is 144:49:15, and that also is 20 degrees south of nadir. 129. AG/143:52:13 STAFFORD: Hey, Bo. Tell Farouk right now, wherever our position is, we're passing over some tremendous sand dunes [Gobi Desert]. They've got long ridge dunes, and on top of them are little bitty?are big stars. I mean, they are big babies. It's like in a nearly sedimentary basin. I don't know where we're at, but I just wanted to report that at this time. CAPCOM : Roger. And it looks like you're over North China. 130. AG/143:53:15 CAPCOM: And, Apollo, Houston. Just a little weather report. It's a little cloudy at the start, rather clear over South America. It should cloud up across the inner ITC, and then it should clear up again until you get up into Europe just south of the Alps. 131. D T / 1 4 4 : 3 1 : 1 3 + STAFFORD: Okay. This is rev 88. Starting the Earth obs at 144:30. Sites 8B [Chilean Andes], C [dune field], D [Parana River], and E [circular structures]. 132. DT/144 :34 :30+ BRAND: They got this dune field? STAFFORD: Here's this dune site at 144:28. What rev? BRAND: What rev? We're just starting 88. 133. AG/144:39:57+ STAFFORD: Okay, Bo. I'm starting this Earth obs pass. Okay, we're off a couple of minutes on the GET from what they've lined up, but I'll talk to you later. I'm busy now. BRAND: Just crossed over the Andes and the Amazon [River]. Amazingly clear day over the Amazon. CAPCOM: Great. Sounds like a pretty view. 134. DT/144 :40 :16+ SLAYTON : Here's the long river running north to south. It comes up around in here. What direction are we going in? STAFFORD: There's the river site. Okay. 44 [minutes] and 48 [seconds, GET]. SLAYTON : 44 and 48. STAFFORD: NO, that isn't it yet. SLAYTON: 44 and 48 . . . Look at that high? way down there. All I can see. . . . 152 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE Revolutions 90/91 and 91 REVOLUTION 89 135. AG/146:41:42 SLAYTON : Hey, Crip, would you say we were about over the Straits of Dover now? CAPCOM : That's affirmative. SLAYTON : Okay. Great. We got a picture of it, then. REVOLUTION 90 136. AG/148:13:10+ CAPCOM : Vance, were you the gent that re? quested some information regarding 35- millimeter film and how to use the Nikon for targets-of-opportunity ? BRAND: I think Tom asked that last night. He was essentially wondering if we needed a special?oh, sort of additions to the photo ops cue card on light settings, f-stops, etc., or if we could just use the light meter in the Nikon, as is? 137. AG/148:14:44+ CAPCOM: I think you had talked to Farouk, pre-mission, regarding some of Cousteau's sea-farming sites. And I was going to tell him where one was in the Adriatic Sea, so that he might be able to get it. We're going to be doing some vis obs, anyhow, so he might be able to get a shot of it. BRAND: Oh, hey! That 'd be nice. Glad to hear we can do something in that area. Deke'll?when he comes up, then he can copy the location. 138. AG/148:16:41 CAPCOM : Great. Really glad to hear that. We had a couple of items of interest, that you might be able to do something about, on this upcoming pass that you're going to have. One of them is that we've had a rather large oil slick, about 40 miles long [64 km] and 5 miles wide [8 km], reported about 50 miles east [80 km] of Key West. And we think that that probably should be visible from the num? ber 1 window in the command module, when you come across there on the next rev. SLAYTON : Okay. That's 50 west of Key West. CAPCOM : East. East of Key West. SLAYTON: Okay. 50 east. CAPCOM : Okay. And it's going to be available to you just about?oh, part of that red tide area, when you come across?about the same area, there. Just a little before it. 139. AG/148:17:15+ CAPCOM: Okay. The other one was that I think Vance had asked Farouk to look into talking with Captain Cousteau regarding some sea-farming sites. And we got some data back that one of them that he's consid? ering is on the eastern edge of the Adriatic Sea. And you're going to be coming across it. And it should be visible from number 3 NUMBER 1 153 window, on rev 91, at about 149:44 GET. And you can take a look at your book at target 9J [Tripoli] and at least get an idea of the area by the Adriatic. SLAYTON: Okay. Rev 91, 149:44, to 9J?and what was the window number? CAPCOM: Window number 3, the big one there. 140. AG/148:18:24+ CAPCOM : The other item was that?because Tom had talked to the ground yesterday, regarding use of the Nikon, since you guys were getting a little bit short on film there? for targets-of-opportunity. Basically, we're telling you that you need to use the photo cue card, but I've got some recommendations, if you want to copy them down. SLAYTON: Okay. Go ahead. CAPCOM: Recommend using the 300-milli? meter lens, although some of the problems we've had from Skylab indicates you might end up blurring a little bit, but we can try it. We recommend a shutter speed of 1/1000. And for your CI film?your interior film? use your exterior photo cue card, table Bravo, but increase each setting by one f-stop. For example, if it calls for f/8, we want you to use f/11. And for CS film, Charlie Sierra, we want you to use table B directly . . . . 141. AG/148:19:52 CAPCOM : Okay. And if you have a chance to record any of your photos on your voice record, we would appreciate it, also. STAFFORD: Okay, we've been doing that. CAPCOM: I thought you probably were. And that's all I was holding for you right now; let you get back to observing the world. REVOLUTION 90/91 142. Onboard Recording SLAYTON: Have rev 91. Coming up on site 5D [Central American structures]. And it's about a third cloud cover down there. I'm having trouble picking anything out, I'm afraid. Decided that spotting scope was of minimal value because we're moving a little too fast. Unless you can track, you're not going to get much. I'm looking for the exten? sion of the Bartlett [Fault] into the coastal plain which is just south of our orbit. And I see absolutely nothing. Should have some volcanoes to the south. There they are, and I'll shoot that. Okay, got a stereo set of what appears to be volcanic stuff. Got a new mag on it, it's an I F 0 2 with infrared filter. 143. Onboard Recording SLAYTON: And we're already past that site; we're on into site 5A [Gulf of Mexico]. I guess headed southward to the right?or to the left. I'm confused about this attitude. The south should be to the right. North should be to the left. It's got to be; we're traveling east. BRAND: We're traveling east. We're upside down. SLAYTON : Seems like to me it's got to be that way. I could be wrong; I've been wrong before. 144. Onboard Recording SLAYTON : We're looking for eddies in the Yucatan [Channel]. Coming in ahead of us. We got a lot of eddy pictures yesterday in the Pacific, but here's a fairly good one com? ing up. Looks like there's a series of eddies there. Relatively small. We'd have to try to get this thing centered to get a good stereo and maybe we can figure out exactly what it is in retrospect. They estimate it to be 12 kilometers across, and that seems to be typical of the other eddies we see. So, since we're short on film, I won't shoot up a whole bunch on that. We're also looking for in? ternal waves in the Gulf [of Mexico] waters, and see if we can see the Gulf Loop Current on this. Here's a very large eddy off here to the north. I don't see any evidence of the Gulf Loop Current. There are a number of eddies that seem to run about three times as large as the one Vance estimated the size of, and we got a fair amount of cloud cover, and it doesn't seem to be any particular pat? tern that would define a current. Now we're coming up on a solid overcast. You can't see anything. 145. Onboard Recording SLAYTON : We're about ready to come up over the Florida Peninsula. The whole west coast of Florida was under heavy clouds so we didn't see any evidences of red tide on this 154 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE pass. We're now crossing Florida, and in traveling on up the Florida Peninsula . . . . I believe I can see the Cape [Kennedy], here, to the left. See, we're traveling northeast, Vance. And, actually, to the left is east; to the right is west, is one way to look at this and we're traveling north. Right? REVOLUTION 91 146. Onboard Recording SLAYTON : We're coming up over the Chesa? peake Bay area here. And again, we got about 50 percent cloud cover. This is coming up over what I think is Norfolk, the James River, Cape Charles, Potomac [River], and all that stuff. And I got some pictures of that area. There is a lot of sediment; actually it's much like muddy water. I do see lots of mud, and there isn't anything out there on gyres, I guess. We're coming over Dover, Delaware. The Potomac is awful muddy and loaded with sediment, but I don't see any gyres. Well, let me try it right here. That was there at the Potomac. 147. Onboard Recording SLAYTON : Okay, great. We're right over Cape Cod at the present time; straight overhead. I've got to get a stereo pair of that. Man, that's great. One of the best things I've been able to see here so far. The rest of the coast? line from here on is completely clouded in. We're totally cloud covered over here north of Cape Cod. As far as Boothbay, in that area, haven't been able to see any bloom or anything else. Can't even see it. We're right on the coastline. And as far as the Cape Cod area is concerned, I haven't had enough time to . . . . BRAND: Look at that below you; just coming, see? SLAYTON : What is it, BRAND: I don't know. SLAYTON : Yeah, but that's not Cape Cod, that's Nova Scotia. We've already gone by. 148. Onboard Recording SLAYTON: Okay, looking across the Atlantic for oil slicks. Tape recorder off, here. 149. Onboard Recording SLAYTON : Okay, next site is 5C, the Labrador Current, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia. Look? ing for the confluence of the Labrador Cur? rent and the Gulf Stream. And we got so much cloud cover here that I think we're not going to see the confluence or nothing. There's some interesting cloud patterns down there. In fact, there's a beauty right there, and since I haven't seen anything else to shoot . . . . See that flow pattern coming over the tip of that island there? BRAND: Yeah. Cloud patterns may give a clue to the current. SLAYTON: Might give a clue, that's right. I'm going to shoot it. Okay, that was a stereo strip . . . see some cloud bow wave running around that island. I think we are over Newfoundland right now; should be. I think we're just departing the east coast of New? foundland. And I should be able to see the Labrador Current right up through here, if we're ever going to see it. 150. AG/149:37:01 BRAND: Just one question about the Adriatic that's going to come up here later on this visual obs. Understand which side of the Adriatic and both north and south and east and west way. CAPCOM : Okay. The word that we're getting, it's on the eastern edge of the Adriatic and, basically, it's the whole eastern edge along Italy there. BRAND: Eastern edge is not mentioned. CAPCOM : I'm sorry. Yes, on the opposite side along Yugoslavia, across through there. SLAYTON: What, specifically, are we looking for? CAPCOM : That's just an edge of the sea that is considered a high potential for sea-farming. SLAYTON : I see. 151. AG/149:39:07+ SLAYTON : Okay. And the Earth obs guys may be interested in knowing that we've just seen some icebergs here in the Labrador Current north of Newfoundland. CAPCOM: I copied about seeing some icebergs and I didn't get the rest of it. SLAYTON: Yeah. They're in what we think is the Labrador Current, north of Newfound? land. Whether they're bergs or ice cakes, I guess we'd be hard put to say, but they're very NUMBER 1 155 visible at least from this altitude. 152. AG/149:39:56+ SLAYTON: Crip, I forgot to tell you that we did not see the oil slicks you talked about, east of Key West. I think we're too far north for one thing; and secondly, there's a cloud cover all over the west coast of Florida and pretty much over the state. CAPCOM: Okay, I was afraid that was too much of an oblique angle for you to get a shot at it. We thought we'd take a look at it anyhow. It was reported to be a pretty good size. 153. AG/149:42:00+ SLAYTON : You might also pass on to Farouk that we have not seen any red tide west of Florida because of cloud cover, and the same up in the New England area. Cape Cod was clear and we got some good pictures there, but everything north of that, from our angle, was cloud covered and so we've seen nothing in those other sites. CAPCOM: Copy. Too bad. SLAYTON: We should have some beautiful coverage of Cape Cod, however. 154. AG/149:43:58 SLAYTON: And also for the Earth obs guys, the North Atlantic is also mostly cloud cov? ered. We see a lot of interesting cloud fea? tures and practically nine different current and eddy patterns, but we just didn't want to waste film on that. We have not seen any oil slicks. Lots of airplane contrails, however. STAFFORD: This Earth obs is nearly a two- man job, I'll clue you. 155. AG/149:48:08+ SLAYTON: I say, if you're still reading, we just went down the Adriatic coast there, and getting into problems. One, what we can see is cloud covered and we can't see very well on account of the oblique angle. It's clear, but it's such an oblique angle we weren't able to tell anything. 156. AG/149:53:21 SLAYTON: Okay, we just passed site 9P [bioluminescense] and unfortunately, I'm afraid the old Greek gods are getting to us today on the Earth obs, Crip. I'm supposed to be over the Red Sea, which I'm sure we are, looking for bioluminescence. But unfor? tunately, what wasn't factored in here is that we're still in sunglint and I got the sunshine nice and bright right in the window. I'll hang in here until it sets and see if I can see any? thing, but I'm not optimistic. 157. AG/149:54:12 SLAYTON : Okay, Crip. Wherever we are, I've got a series of very bright lights down here. A pair to the right, a pair directly under the nose, and a set of three ahead of me. Looks like they're under a bit of cloud, but they're superbright. Must be gas fires, maybe. CAPCOM: Probably. You're coming just about over the Suez area at this time. SLAYTON: I see. And it's clear off to the left, and we can see forest fires off there. But these probably are gas fires. 158. AG/150:15:07 BRAND: Be nice if you'd remind us, sometime in the future, when we're to come over the Adriatic area again in the daytime. We might have a little better viewing condition. CAPCOM : Okay. We'll look ahead in your flight plan there and see if we can pick out a good one for you, Vance. 159. DT/151:00:39+ STAFFORD: We're going across the Midwest. BRAND: We've gone too far. STAFFORD: We're on the Midwest . . . inter? state highway. See that interstate highway right down below? BRAND: It may even be Oklahoma. STAFFORD: Yeah, that's Oklahoma City. BRAND: I think it is. See that's the lake . . . . It looks like Oklahoma City. I think it is. [laughter] REVOLUTION 92 160. AG/151:21:09+ SLAYTON: Hey, Crip, I wonder if you could have your Earth obs guys do me a favor? CAPCOM : Try it. Go ahead. SLAYTON : Next time we got a pass through the middle of Wisconsin, then give me a little bit of warning. We came over there yesterday. I was evaluating the high power scope that messed up that day. I saw it in time, but sitting there with a 300-millimeter lens, so I didn't get much of it. 156 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE CAPCOM: It looked like we just had a pass over there this last rev around. We'll try to look at that for tomorrow and warn you. SLAYTON : Yeah. We got some pictures with a 300, but that's kind of a lousy lens for the kind of photography we're trying to take. REVOLUTION 97 161. AG/159:15:52+ CAPCOM: One thing that's kind of interesting ?that you guys might have an opportunity to look down tomorrow when you're in the right place and see?around Key West, an unbelievable oil slick, a hundred miles long [161 km] and up to 15 miles wide [24 km], was reported today in the Atlantic Ocean off the lower Florida Keys. The origin of the mass was not known. After incoming pilots reported sighting the huge oil patches in the water off the lower Keys, the Coast Guard sent up planes to investigate. They found the slick stretched from Marathon in the middle Keys to the Tortugas Islands about 65 miles [105 km] west of here, a distance of about 100 miles [161 km]. A Coast Guard spokes? man said the slick was formed of an estimated 40,000 to 60,000 gallons of what appeared to be crude oil. 162. AG/159:18:21 SLAYTON : Dick, I was just going to comment on that oil slick. We did have one pass where we might have had an opportunity to see it, but that whole area was cloud covered and at quite an oblique to us. If we get a better position tomorrow, you might give us a little lead time and maybe some pointing direc? tions. 163. AG/159:41:55+ BRAND: Just a kind of a little item for the visual observations people, in particular oceanographic. We've talked a lot with them about gyres and eddies and that sort of thing. And something that I saw yesterday that I didn't think to report until just now, although I did report on tape, I think, was the fact that just south of Hawaii, there was a line of circles, you might say, running east to west. And it looked like a line of circles?like a chain, you might say. And if you looked at one of those, and you could see them only because of the clouds, and it just made us wonder if maybe that was perhaps the boundary of a current. CAPCOM: Okay, Vance. I copied that, and we'll pass it to those guys and see what they think. BRAND: Must have been 100 miles long [161 km], or maybe 200 [322 km]. REVOLUTION 104 164. Onboard Recording STAFFORD : This Earth obs pass will be for rev 103, 104; targets 7A [Humboldt Current], D [Peruvian Desert], and F [Orinoco River Delta]. Okay. Approaching target 7A. BRAND: I can see the coast. I can see the coastline and I can see that little hook a little bit to the left. STAFFORD: Can you? Good. BRAND: I think. At least I can see something looks kind of like it. SLAYTON: I think the clouds get in right up to the edge. STAFFORD: There's the Peruvian Desert. There's the Peruvian Desert and there's dunes in it. That's what I got to shoot, too. In fact, we got crescents and some linear dunes right there. 165. Onboard Recording STAFFORD: Okay, can we see the hook on the coastline by Nazca? I think I see something there. I'm going to shoot it. Triangle, right? Straight line. Going so darn fast. Okay, there's crescent dunes and linear dunes. The first break we've had on any of those. Right? SLAYTON: Yeah, . . . clouds here. I'm sur? prised it's not more snow. BRAND: I couldn't see it there. STAFFORD: I saw one thing that might have been. I shot a picture of it. 166. Onboard Recording STAFFORD: The Humboldt Current, I got a straight line on the clouds that looked like the clouds were shifting, so I took a picture of the clouds offshore. 167. Onboard Recording STAFFORD: I got the Peruvian Desert in 7D. 168. Onboard Recording NUMBER 1 157 Revolutions 104, 105/106, 106/107, and 107 SLAYTON: That's the headwaters of the Amazon there. STAFFORD: I'll just shoot one here. Look at that, right over there. A tropical rain forest. BRAND: Kind of like around Houston I guess. Real flat and . . . . STAFFORD: We shot quite a few sequences of the Amazon and tributaries running into the Amazon. 169. Onboard Recording STAFFORD: NOW coming up to cloud cover as we approach the eastern coast. I'd like to get the Orinoco Delta. 170. AG/170:04:35+ BRAND: Just passing over the Orinoco River Delta. CAPCOM: I'm glad you pronounced that. I looked at it a while ago, and didn't want to try. BRAND: Oh, I'm not positive. Farouk's the final judge, I guess. 171. Onboard Recording STAFFORD: Up to 17 exposures on CX10. Targets 7A [Humboldt Current], D [Peruvian Desert], Amazon tributaries, and E [Orinoco River Delta], 172. Onboard Recording STAFFORD: What was the number on the Nikon? SLAYTON : 44. STAFFORD: 44 on the Nikon. And that was CI? SLAYTON : CI20. STAFFORD : CI20 on the Nikon. 173. AG/170:08:06 STAFFORD: Crip, I marked the spot at 10? 170:06:06 is when the muddy water from the Orinoco Delta suddenly stops; you got the blue water of the Atlantic, it goes out this far, over. CAPCOM : Copy that 170:06:06. STAFFORD: YOU can just give that to Farouk and it's on a trajectory, where the mud comes out this far into the Atlantic. CAPCOM: That stretches out a pretty good distance across there, then? STAFFORD : Roger. REVOLUTION 105 174. AG/171:45:13 CAPCOM : And a couple items for both Vance and Deke. I'm standing by with items for crossing the Adriatic, that sea-farming area we talked about a little bit yesterday. And, also, for Deke, I'm going to have a time for the crossing of Wisconsin. It'll probably be easier for me just to call those a little bit ahead of time?give you 10 or 15 minutes warning about it. Okay. We should be cross- 158 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE ing the Adriatic at about 173:26. Not sure of the attitude; the viewing is going to be much better than it was yesterday, though. For Deke, should be going across Wisconsin at about 174:40, somewhere on that order? 41. 175. AG/171:46:35+ CAPCOM: Incidentally, talking about the DAC film for entry, we've currently got CX05, which should be in F-2, scheduled for entry. We're assuming that's still available. BRAND: Okay, we'll have to get back with you on that, Crip. Right now, Tom's taking an inventory of the DAC film. 176. AG/171 :49 :13+ CAPCOM : Another little item I'm going to be coming to you a little bit later is that we got word that the red tide has been spotted off the East Coast there, and I'm going to give you a time and camera and so forth a little bit later to be picking that up. Incidentally, Deke, on our upcoming pass across the States, we are going to have an opportunity to look at the red tide. And I was going to get you some information about that whenever it's convenient for you to copy it. SLAYTON : Okay. Stand by for it. CAPCOM : What might be convenient for you, Deke, is if you can just get out your Earth Obs Book [Appendix 3] on target 5 Foxtrot, and I can just relate it to you on there. To describe to you where the ship spotted it if you're looking at 5 Foxtrot, right above where we've got the words "Boothbay" written in, you can see there's a river that looks like it's flowing south there that comes out. Well, it was right at the mouth of that river that the red tide was spotted. And our recommenda? tion on the camera is?well, for the window, it should be visible out of CM-3 . Want you to use the silver camera, of course. And use 50, with an f-stop of 9J^ and a speed of 1 /500. Frame intervals should be about 6 seconds?every 6. And we should be passing over that, if you want to note it, at about 173:09 to 13. And we can give you a call just before that if you'd like a reminder. SLAYTON: Okay. 173:09. And you want to shoot a mapping strip through there, essen? tially, huh? CAPCOM : Negative. You can go ahead and just use it and take a shot about every 6 seconds or as you see fit. 177. AG/173:06:22+ STAFFORD: Are we near Houston, right now? Over. CAPCOM: Well, you just crossed over into the Gulf of Mexico, coming across the coast of Mexico. Houston and the Texas coast should be coming up pretty shortly. 178. AG/173:06:22+ SLAYTON: Hey, Crip. Give me a reconfirma- tion on the window for the New England area. Looks to me like it's going to end up being window 5. We don't see anything out of anywhere else to speak of. CAPCOM: Okay. The one we'd been given earlier was out of 3, and we'll reverify that for you, Deke. SLAYTON : Maybe by the time we get up there, there, that'll be right. It's not right from here, anyway. REVOLUTION 105/106 179. AG/173:09:55+ CAPCOM : Regarding Deke's question on the red tide, we anticipate that's going to come visible first in window 5, come across window 3, and then through 1. And we thought 3 would be the best total viewing. 180. AG/173:09:55+ SLAYTON: Okay. We're over Cape Cod right now. I think we got her. CAPCOM: Very good. Outstanding. 181. AG/173:14:07 SLAYTON : We're having trouble telling sun? glint from red tide, however, in this area. CAPCOM : Appreciate the problem. 182. AG/173:14 :07+ SLAYTON : We got some pictures up through that area and we see some water that's obvi? ously sedimented up pretty good. And we're trying to differentiate if it's really red tide or red sediment. It's difficult for me to evaluate, frankly. CAPCOM : Very good. If you got the photos, we should be able to make a determination once we get them back. Thank you. SLAYTON: Rog. And the other complicating NUMBER 1 159 factor is that we got sunglint in here, which kind of drowns them out. 183. Onboard Recording SLAYTON : Per ground request we just shot a few frames here up through the New Eng? land area ending on magazine CX10 with frame 35. Trying to pick up the red tide around Boothbay, and we did see a lot of red coloration in the water there. However, some of it looked to me like it was coming out of the river mouths and is really river sediment. And I hesitate to term it red tide. We shot some pictures; maybe we can psych it out later. We also shot a few along the Con? necticut coast, and the Long Island Sound area, because based on the time, we thought we were there. Our timing was off about 3 minutes. And three or four "gee whiz" ones earlier over the Gulf of Mexico around the north Gulf Coast arc. REVOLUTION 106 184. Onboard Recording BRAND: Okay, tape recorder, just took a bunch of pictures of the Adriatic. Basically I started as soon as I got out of a cloud cover which is up near Venice. And took about three stereos around Ravenna. STAFFORD: Okay at 174:26 about 30, there's a tremendous [current?] BRAND: . . . starting about two-thirds of the way down the boot, almost to the heel. Much of the stereo is over the water, and finally the last photo on CX10 in this series is 45. 185. AG/174:36 :04+ CAPCOM: And might remind Deke again that this is his pass over Wisconsin, coming up at about 41 after the hour. 186. AG/174:36 :04+ STAFFORD: Roger. And we're right over the Rio Grande River now. Yeah, I wish the girls could see this site up here that we're seeing, Crip. We're right over El Paso. You can look down and see Biggs Air Force Base and the International Airport. Okay, Crip. Looks like we're approaching Amarillo now. 187. AG/174 :46 :10+ SLAYTON: Super fast up through the Mid? west there. CAPCOM: Came over pretty fast? SLAYTON: Kansas City, Madison, Milwaukee, Chicago, Detroit, and the whole business. CAPCOM : Rog. Was it pretty clear? SLAYTON: Could see the cows down there on the farm. 188. AG/174:47 :44+ BRAND: Incidentally, we did get to see the Adriatic. Got quite a few pictures of the lower half of Italy, from the boot up to?oh, I'd say about halfway up. But there was a cloud cover over Venice. REVOLUTION 106/107 189. AG/174:50:05 STAFFORD: Hey, Crip, we just had a big ice? berg out here in the North Atlantic, and it has a trailing wake behind it. CAPCOM : Copied. A large iceberg with a trail? ing wake, is that correct? STAFFORD: YOU see, it's like a, you know, like a bow wave on it. 190. AG/174:50:33 STAFFORD : I said, I wish they could enjoy this view we're having up here today, looking down at the Earth. CAPCOM: Rog. I imagine that's quite a sight. BRAND: Even seen Chicago a couple of times up here. 191. AG/174:51:43 CAPCOM : Incidentally, the flight plan calls for me to give you an update for the mapping pass you got on?mapping pass number 10? you've got on the next rev. And that time is nominal. We do not need to change that. 192. AG/174:51 :43+ BRAND: Okay. Before we go into that, Crip, we haven't seen any icebergs in the southern ocean. Been very hard to see the Antarctic area due to cloud cover. Haven't seen any stray icebergs down there. This is the first ice? berg we've seen. Might just mention that, up here north, it was traveling through what looked like a fog layer?and leaving a wake. Or else it was stationary, and the wind was blowing the fog a little bit and leaving a wake. No evidence of rotation, which is one of the questions they've asked about icebergs in general. 160 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE CAPCOM: Okay. Sure that we'd be happy to get that data. STAFFORD: It's a beautiful view the way the whole ground is just kind of grayish down below, just like a haze or fog. REVOLUTION 107 193. AG/175:16:39 STAFFORD: YOU said that the mapping pass M10 [Northern California] was nominal for times? CAPCOM : That's affirmative. Your time on M10 is nominal. 194. AG/175:49:08 CAPCOM: Apollo, Houston. Deke, regarding the camera conflict you mentioned, there is one?if we look in the pad for that?or in the time line in the book. We want to use, in this case, the silver camera for mapping, and we want to delete the targets that we've got called out for vis obs?at 2 Charlie [Cali? fornia Current] and 2 Delta [Great Salt Lake]. We do not want to do both. So we want to use the silver camera for mapping, and we go ahead and we can use the black one for the ETE. SLAYTON: I think we could do both, Crip, if they really want it. We'll try to work that in. CAPCOM : And, in case it wasn't clear on my last call regarding those vis obs sites, 2 Charlie and 2 Delta, those are visual only, and we don't have to use the camera. So that would relieve any camera conflict that we had. Silver camera for mapping, and the black one would be free for use with the ETE. 195. D T / 1 7 6 : 0 7 : 3 9 + BRAND: There yet? STAFFORD: Yeah. Here's the California coast. There's San Francisco [and] the Golden Gate. 196. DT/176:08:19 BRAND: And the color I can get from the Pacific Ocean is 47-B just offshore from San Francisco. No evidence of current boundaries yet. Little bit of cloud cover up to 2 miles [3 km] offshore. 197. DT/176:10:34 BRAND: Okay; the Bingham copper mine? looks to me like there's definitely an area of gray over there, or has a grayish cast. Now it could have been a false fault. All I can say is the area around the Bingham copper mine was once quite pronounced and very gray. REVOLUTION 110 198: AG/179:43 :30+ CAPCOM : One note from Farouk and that has to do with film usage. If you want us to get into the act on planning film usage, if you would let us?sometime, anytime you have the chance?if you'd go through the unused and partially used mags for both the silver and black cameras and tell us how many frames are available per mag, we'll be glad to help you. If you think you've got a handle on it, don't worry about that. SLAYTON: AS far as the film, pretty good in? ventory on that, but I think we know where we're at pretty much on that subject. So, thank you. 199. AG/180:24:30+ SLAYTON : I believe we've got everybody in position here for a good old Earth obs. REVOLUTION 112 200. AG/183:23:15 CAPCOM: You're on an ascending pass and looking at our big 10 by 20 [screen at Mission Control Center], looks like you're just about very shortly going to be crossing over Thai? land, North Vietnam, and China. You're going to cross the Korean Peninsula here in a few minutes and then top out up there by the Aleutians. STAFFORD: Okay, Deke just got some good targets-of-opportunity for Farouk there. 201. Onboard Recording SLAYTON : We were crossing somewhere in the Southeast Asia area right up apparently to? wards China, Korea, and out across the Pacific, and saw some beautiful outstanding waves off an island there, which we shot a few pictures of. 202. Onboard Recording SLAYTON: And we came right up across eastern China. Shot a couple there. And what I think is the mouth of the Yangtze. And NUMBER 1 161 Revolutions 110 and 112 the sediment plumes going way out into the sea and very visible, very pretty. And I think they showed pretty much how the current flows?rather, the coastal area or the area offshore. And that was on [film] magazine CX10, and we ended up on frame 69. REVOLUTION 119 203. AG/194:04:07+ CAPCOM: Well, did that match the strawberry you'd had earlier in the mission? STAFFORD: Yeah, that makes a beautiful view over the window here. CAPCOM : Rog. Helps out the vis obs stuff, too. STAFFORD: Right. Like looking at the world through rose-colored glasses. CAPCOM: YOU mentioned the color or the hues on the window there; we're going to ask you to try a little bit more of the red tide when we come over it today. I was going to give you an update on that a little bit later; think we might be able to get some photos of that area again. STAFFORD: Okay. They all look red today. REVOLUTION 120 204. AG/196:01:52 CAPCOM: The next time we come across the States, we are going to be back in a position to get the red tide, basically same area we talked about yesterday. And all we're going to do is just ask you to photograph a strip starting by Cape Cod going up the east coast, and if you can go ahead and do that up to about Nova Scotia, well, that's all we're after. And I can talk to you about it when we get there. SLAYTON: Sure. Hey, that's easy; we'll do her. I think that'll need a different lens. REVOLUTION 120/121 205. AG/196:50:20 CAPCOM : I had talked to Deke briefly awhile ago about coming up on the red tide, which we're going to do here about this time. And it's kind of close. They don't know whether you guys are going to be set up for it or try to get the photos or not. Whatever y'all wanted via data window 3. SLAYTON: Okay, how much time we got? CAPCOM : Oh, you're about 3 minutes away from an initiation of it. That's pretty quick. STAFFORD: Okay, use the 50 mm lens? And if they give me a couple of quick settings, we'll get a new mag and try it. CAPCOM : Recommend a 50 mm lens and f- stop of 6.7, speed 1/250. And recommend the orange filter, if you got time to get it on. 162 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE Revolutions 120/121 and 123 206. AG/196:51:39 STAFFORD: Okay, ready to go, Crip. CAPCOM: YOU should be coming up on it 210. shortly here. If you could just photograph coming up along Cape Cod here all the way to the bay there, coming in on Nova Scotia. 207. AG/196:51 :39+ STAFFORD: Roger, Crip. Check your windows again. I think window 3's looking at the sun right now. SLAYTON : Yeah, the only place I can see the ground at all is out of window 5 right this minute. CAPCOM : Okay, we had thought window 3 was going to be down. Whatever one you think looks best. 208. AG/196:53:00 STAFFORD: Crip, what time do you want us to start the sequence? 211. CAPCOM : You can go ahead and start it up on the upcoming 52 [spacecraft maneuver]. I told you orange filter awhile ago; that filter's only applicable if we've got an IF mag in. 209. AG/196:53 :53+ SLAYTON : Yeah, we read, Crip. I'll tell you the problem here; can see it out the bottom of window 3 coming right across Cape Cod, right up the coast there through Boston and the whole works. The problem is that we're so close on top of it that there's no way to get a camera in the window to shoot it. CAPCOM : Rog. Understand. AG/196:55:27 SLAYTON : And we're already by it. As far as visual's concerned, I didn't see anything any different there than yesterday. There's a lot of sediment all along the coastline there. And, I'd sure hestitate to call anything red tide in there that I've seen. It looks to me like it's all sediment coming out of those rivers because it's the same color as the flow out of the river. CAPCOM : Okay, that's a good comment. Some of the support ships that we've got out there that've been sampling have been reporting a high chlorophyll content in the water and they've been suspecting that's coming out due to heavy rains they've had up there. Onboard Recording SLAYTON : We had a realtime readout. This is the rev before we started suiting up for DM jet up over the New England red tide area. But, unfortunately, our flight path was right over the top of it, and window 5 was the only window you could see it through, and only by leaning way over and looking down at a very slant angle. Unable to get any photography of it. Did shoot a couple of long-range shots out of window 4. So we may have a little something there. NUMBER 1 163 REVOLUTION 123 212. AG/200:03:50 CAPCOM: Farouk was real impressed by some of the T V stuff that you got out of the window while we were doing docking scenes earlier. And we don't know if it's going to be possible?depends on how long it takes to get out of your suits, but you've got a vis obs pass upcoming at about 200:50-200:52, and if we can, we'd like to get the T V set . . . . And I could read that to you, or however you want to do it. And so we can have T V out the window when you're doing it. And that is kind of your option, whether you think it's possible. SLAYTON: Okay. We'll try her. Tell you, I think we've got all of our cameras stowed for entry right now, as a matter of fact . . . . When we cleaned out the DM this morning, we went through that whole exercise. We might be able to dig something out again in time. We'll work on it. 213. AG/200 :25 :54+ CAPCOM: Do you think you've got time to try to find a T V camera to put in the window? SLAYTON : Well, I'm going to try to take time to do it. If you can just tell me what you want, I'll do the best I can on it. CAPCOM: Okay. We're recommending that if you can find your cue card there. . . . The only modification to that camera does have to be in MASTER, not SLAVE as called for. We're also going to have to get the INTER- LEAVER POWER ON, down on 400, for the VTR. And we'll have to take the CM 2 TV STATION POWER to ON also. SLAYTON: Okay, got that. 214. AG/200 :26 :55+ CAPCOM: One item I might also tell you, since this target down there is of the ANZUS Eddy. We've had a ship spot it recently, and it's reported that there is a large cumulus cloud just about over the center of the eddy, and it's slightly southwest of where it's indicated in your book there. 215. AG/200 :33 :38+ BRAND: Okay, Crip. Looks like we're going to get the T V camera set up and I think we're proceeding very well. 216. AG/200:33 :38+ CAPCOM: Great. If you do, we're going to also not only look at that eddy area, but when you come across Hawaii, we're going to be looking at that one. I was going to give you some words at Orroral, Vance, re- regarding eddies. We've had a lot of them reported southwest of Hawaii, and we were going to get you to look at them and try to give us a size, number, and extent, and that kind of stuff. 217. Onboard Recording SLAYTON : We are getting prepared to come up on site 11D, the ANZUS Eddy. We have [film] magazine CX09 on at the present time. That's the same magazine we shot that last stuff with over New England. The settings are per flight plan. And we have the T V camera running in window 2. Okay; we are coming up on ANZUS Eddy here. We're coming down the coastline of Australia, according to the flight plan. Unfortunately, we're getting up where, I think, Sydney is, and it's totally cloud covered. I'm not seeing nothing, except clouds. 218. AG/200:53 :09+ SLAYTON: Okay, Crip. We're over where we think we ought to be, about Sydney, and we're in solid cloud cover here right now. CAPCOM : Yeah. Kind of hard to pick a cumu? lus cloud out amongst all the clouds then, huh? 219. AG/200:54:54 CAPCOM: Like to give you this quick blurb regarding the eddies I mentioned earlier south of Hawaii. It's known to have a series of eddies southwest of the islands due to the current flow being broken by the islands. And the size, and the number, and the extent of them are unknown. We'd like you to attempt to observe the orientation, the sizes, and how many you can see. You should have a chance to look at them on this upcoming pass across there at about 201:09. And we think it should be visible out of window 1. 220. AG/200:55:28 CAPCOM: We're also going to be, again, not beaming down this T V to Hawaii when we come across there. So we can look at it later. 164 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE We are 1 minute from LOS, and our next station contact will be at Hawaii in 14 minutes. 221. Onboarding Recording STAFFORD: I got a huge eddy over here on the right. SLAYTON: Did you just shoot something out there? STAFFORD : Yeah, I got a . . . SLAYTON : Shoot it with that camera. Shoot it with this one if you can. I don't see nothing from here, Tom. Go ahead and shoot it, the same way, about three of them if you see something. BRAND: Here's an eddy coming up straight ahead. SLAYTON: Yeah, it is. But I'm not going to be able to get it out this window. Get a couple of quickies, Tom, then pass yours back to me. We may be over one here right now. I think it might be! Let me have the camera quick. I think we might be over one here. It's a cloud pattern. STAFFORD: I think you're too far off. SLAYTON: Yeah, okay. We shot a few frames there up through 62. And I think the ANZUS Eddy is all cloud covered. But Tom shot a ring out the right window, and I shot a cloud pattern that could have defined an eddy, since they said it was a cloud-covered eddy. It was right directly in our flight path. And I doubt if it was the ANZUS Eddy. 222. Onboard Recording SLAYTON: We just shot a frame right over New Caledonia. It's a beautiful island with coral reefs all around it. We're coming up on the New Hebrides. 223. Onboard Recording BRAND: Believe I had 139 of an eddy on the roll CXI9. SLAYTON: Okay. We just got a picture of a pretty good eddy at 201:05 and 45 seconds, approximately. Magazine CX09, camera frame 65. I think I ran out of film on this. 224. AG/201:08 :55+ SLAYTON : We're cruising along here looking for eddies, and we shot a few pictures of some of the same kind we've been seeing right along. 225. AG/201:09:15 CAPCOM : Roger. Is the weather up there any better than it was down around Australia? SLAYTON : Yeah, it's pretty clear over most of this area, and scattered clouds that just outline the eddies. In fact, we've got a couple of super ones coming up on our right, right now at 201:07:25. 226. AG/201:09 :15+ SLAYTON : Are you guys getting T V of this, incidentally, Dick? CAPCOM: We're not getting it live, Deke. I think we are dumping it down to the Hawaii tracking station, and the station reports that they are receiving it. 227. AG/201:10:53 BRAND: This eddy Deke just called out's about 50 kilometers across. 228. AG/201:10 :53+ SLAYTON: Okay; a question for Farouk on the eddies. Do they want stereos of that? We're kind of getting a little short on film, but if they need stereos fine, we'll shoot it up. But if the stereo doesn't do much for them, we might as well save the film. CAPCOM : Let me check real quick. Hang on. 229. Onboard Recording BRAND: There's one coming up in the center. I think there's one over there. There's another one right beside it. This side. SLAYTON : Yeah. Actually, it's kind of a pair. There's three of them the way I see it. There's two of them in the center and one off to the left a little bit. I'm not going to get stereos on this thing. I don't think it's worth it. BRAND: Let me try these with the Hasselblad, Tom. I wish you could get them out your window. STAFFORD: I'm going to shoot them. BRAND: Okay, tape recorder. On the black camera, roll CXI9 was taken. 230. AG/201:12:45 CAPCOM: Deke, Houston. We did talk to Farouk in the backroom, and he says he would like some stereo photography of the eddies. SLAYTON : Okay. I've got a million eddies out here. 231. Onboard Recording BRAND: Taking three stereo pictures near NUMBER 1 165 Hawaii. Three pictures?rather, one stereo of eddies near Hawaii. 140 is the last frame. 232. AG/201 :12 :45+ CAPCOM: He gives the advice to pick out one good-looking site and get good stereo of that and not try to document the whole area, Deke. SLAYTON : Okay. 233. Onboard Recording SLAYTON: Now, here's the edge of a current, goddam it. Are there any eddies? BRAND: I'll get a stereo here. SLAYTON: Yeah. Get a stereo of the edge of this current. You can get it out your side. BRAND: And those are?What are they called? STAFFORD: G-Y-R-E. SLAYTON: Gyres. Gyres. STAFFORD: We're about out of film. You got any film there? SLAYTON : He says he wants to home in on the specific ones without just shooting a bunch of them, so I guess you wait. See that one, Vance, right under your nose. Shoot that one. Did you get it? It's a small one with a [cloud] up in the middle. It's a funny looking thing. BRAND: This sure as heck is the edge of the current. SLAYTON: Yeah, it is. And it looks to us, for Farouk's information, like we're almost run? ning parallel with a large ocean current here, The cloud banners on both sides and the clouds within it look a good deal like a Gulf Stream type current. BRAND : And it's running east to west. SLAYTON: I'll tell you, Tom, we're about out on this mag, and Vance has got an Earth obs coming up here in an hour or so. BRAND: Okay, tape recorder. On CXI9, I shot three more. It comes up to 143. It was a stereo group of three?of what appeared to me to be an ocean current running east to west, outlined by clouds upon the edge of the current. Located slightly south and probably 200 miles [322 km] east of Hawaii. 234. Onboard Recording SLAYTON: Okay. I ended up on frame 73 here on mag CX09 after going through that Pacific eddy pass. We're about out. I'll shoot a couple more just to finish the magazine. 235. Onboard Recording SLAYTON: Again, just for the record, we've been going to the color wheel to find some? thing that matches the Pacific Ocean, which seems to be very homogeneous. And the light? ing is never right in the cockpit to match what's outside. So you got to look out there and come back in. So maybe that's supposed to look, I think, like a 47-B. Vance likes a 43 a little better. BRAND: I didn't look closely. SLAYTON : Okay. Well, I wouldn't argue with you too much about 43 either, but 47 looks a little closer to me. You can look at that water out there, and you can see some of those colors. Well, they all look the same, to me. Let's pick the color that looks the closest to it. It may be the altitude, I don't know. It's awfully tough to get. I'd better pull the wheel back in and look at it. Wouldn't you, Tom? STAFFORD: It's darker at times. Like over there, it's darker to me than over here. SLAYTON: Is that right? STAFFORD: Yeah. Like I get about a 38 here. SLAYTON: Oh, you do, huh? STAFFORD: Yeah. And over here I would get more towards a 35 or 36. What do you get? SLAYTON: I get me a 37. I tried to hold it like that, and I didn't get nothing. I've got to look out the window and then come back in. BRAND: It looks like 37 here. STAFFORD: 48 is closer here, but over here 47 is closer. 236. Onboard Recording STAFFORD: Let's get this cockpit cleaned up here. SLAYTON: Okay. Let me get this magazine shot. BRAND: Yeah. We've got to reconfigure. We've got a lot to do in the next hour or so. STAFFORD: Okay. We ended the pass on CX09. There may be a couple of frames left. 237. Onboard Recording BRAND: We just ended up running over Seattle. And it was clear as a bell. Totally unexpectedly, since we decided we were sup? posed to stop looking at the ground and get on with eating and so forth. And I hope we got a few good shots of Puget Sound and the 166 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE city area there, at the right settings. I'm not sure we have. But it was on a new magazine. We just switched over to CX07, and we're reading frame 9 on it right now. So the first nine frames of that are of that area. We shot on into the mountains just to get a strip. 238. AG/201:34:46 STAFFORD: Yeah, hey, if this T V comes out? I was wondering, you know, we used so much film that you can budget to shoot. As far as what it looks like, you know, from space, looking down on the Earth? and most of the time, like Skylab, those guys very seldom had, you know, a local horizontal attitude. But if you put on a tape recorder, you got some good passes coming up, like the United States. Why don't we put it on TV, on the VTR, then you can dump it? I think it'd be pretty fantastic what you see. Over. Just something for you to think about. 239. AG/201:35:23 SLAYTON: Yeah, you know, just as a "for in? stance," we just came off this Pacific pass and kind of all climbed back in the cockpit, and all of a sudden looked out the window, and man, we're dead center over Seattle and the the most clear day I've ever seen there. And nothing running. The T V was running, but it didn't go anywhere, I don't think. Inci? dentally, I did scramble and get a camera and got a few shots of that area. But it wasn't planned very well. 240. AG/201:37:06 CAPCOM: Okay. Well, I tell you what. Your next couple of revs are going to pass right over that same general area again. So, as you come across it, you probably can get another chance. SLAYTON: Yeah, right. We noticed that. 241. AG/201:47:25 CAPCOM: Vance, when you get a chance, if you could get out the Earth Obs Book [Appendix 3] and look at site number 4, I've got a note here I wanted to pass up to you from Farouk about this upcoming Earth obs pass. I've also got a suggestion from Farouk that you ought to take just . . . for this TV out the window, ground T V for the VTR. If you've got a pencil, Deke, I can give you some on/off times for the VTR, which would get a daylight pass starting at Australia, going up to cover the area where the eddies are, and then turn it off over the clouds over the Pacific, and start it again over around Seattle, and then let it run to completion. If you see a better way to run it, or something out the window you'd rather take, anything would be fine with us. 242. AG/201:59 :49+ CAPCOM : Okay, Vance. I wanted to pass up a note to you from Farouk, and it might help if you were looking in the Earth Obs Book at the site 4 [snow peaks] page in there. It turns out that we have another candidate site for sea-farming from Captain Cousteau. And it's the body of water north of Puget Sound there. And if you look on that little map, it's generally that body of water to the west of Vancouver. And you'll be passing on rev 124 to the north of it. And when looking at site 4A, you'll be looking right down the Sound there, or right down the body of water looking at site 4A. It's the water that separates Canada from Vancouver Island, and it should be visible from command module window 1 at the same time as site 4A is visible. And if you have a chance, he'd like to get a color- wheel reading of that water and some photos, if you have the film to do it. The reason it's a good site for farming is that the current there runs adjacent to the coastline but does not run through that inland water there. So the water's fairly still, and the texture of it should be fairly smooth. Over. BRAND: IS that known as the Strait of Georgia? CAPCOM: I'm not sure it is the Strait of Georgia in that area . . . . Yes. That's affirma? tive, I'm told, Vance. That body of water there is the Strait of Georgia. BRAND: Okay, and more or less along the whole length of it, or would you suggest the south end more than the north, or what? CAPCOM: I think the whole length, because the water generally in there is still and doesn't have a current running through it. I think just about anywhere in there would be good. I think probably your best chance at getting a color-wheel reading, though, might be where you have a little more water down towards the south end. But, at any rate, there NUMBER 1 167 Revolutions 124/125, 126, and 127 won't be much time to look down there; and so, do the best you can. BRAND: SO photos, not necessarily stereo, but more or less to cover the Strait of Georgia series, and a color-wheel reading of the water there. REVOLUTION 124/125 243. Onboard Recording BRAND: We shot three shots of Australia and the Simpson Desert area. STAFFORD: Oh, look at the dunes down there! Did you see them? BRAND: Yeah. We're on 12 of CX07 after that. And I'm going to get three more shots of dunes in Australia. They're beautiful linear dunes. STAFFORD: Look at those dunes! Man, those are fantastic. 244. Onboard Recording SLAYTON: We're on rev 124. You're right up through the middle. You're just about over the Coral Sea and the tip of New Guinea [Zealand]. 245. Onboard Recording BRAND : Hey, look at that stuff coming up on? Let's try and get that. SLAYTON : Look at that stream kind of coming down. I think I got that the other day. But see it running off to your left there. 246. Onboard Recording BRAND: Okay. Let's see if we can get those shoals offshore now and the Great Barrier Reef. It's going to take a while to get to it. Okay, tape recorder. We just finished crossing Australia. We crossed the Great Barrier Reef. There's no evidence that sediments along the shore of Australia get out and get between the passages of the Great Barrier Reef. In every case that I've seen sediment, it always seems fairly close into shore. There's nothing from the shore going in between, suspended sediments. 247. Onboard Recording BRAND: I took one more shot of the central desert after the Simpson Desert. That put me one more. Then I took three stereo pairs of the Great Barrier Reef?three stereo se? quences, rather. I ended up on 20, CX07. 248. Onboard Recording BRAND : I got Wake and an island at 202:29: 20. Just general interest to show waterflow around the island. Look at that boundary there, too, near that island. STAFFORD: Maybe you ought to take one more. See if you can get the whole thing. Yeah, you can get it. Can you get it? SLAYTON : Yeah, I can get it. STAFFORD: See that whole thing? how the color of that water changes there? 249. Onboard Recording 168 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE STAFFORD: Are you using the black one [camera], Deke? SLAYTON: No. I can't get anything out here, Tom. STAFFORD: Why don't you just toss me the black one. I'm getting some great views over here. SLAYTON : Really? I got a bad window. STAFFORD: Just slide it over. SLAYTON : This damn TV blocks this window pretty good. STAFFORD: That what? SLAYTON : This TV's got this window blocked so I can't do anything. 250. Onboard Recording BRAND: Just to let you know, when we go over the Seattle area, we're to get photographs of snow capped peaks, three stereo frames per target. Can you see glaciers and firn lines? Sediments?describe sediments in the waters of Puget Sound. Can you see gyres there? Can you see mountain glaciers and firn lines again? That's just to give you an idea of all the things that are of interest there. SLAYTON : Okay. We had some pretty good pictures on this last pass over there. You can take a look at it. BRAND: I've looked at it, and I've decided that if I see sediments, I can't describe them too well. And I've just got to take more pic? tures in the right light. 251. Onboard Recording BRAND: Stereo pair of thunderstorms over the mid-Pacific at 202:32:20. CX07, frames 23 and 24. SLAYTON: I'll give you another time there. 47, I guess it was. That's about 15 minutes. BRAND: Got another big thunderstorm in the mid-Pacific at 202:33:36. I forgot in what rev it is. 252. Onboard Recording BRAND: Rev 123-124. Just got an eddy in the Pacific at 202:38:00. In fact, I got it in sun? glint. Tried to show you the texture of it. I see a slight textural change in sun[glint], but it's so slight I can't hardly describe it. One other thing I've noticed is out of the gyre I just took a picture of, there were cumulus clouds emanating out of the side and sort of the interior of it. I found that with? I said gyre; I meant eddies, several eddies, several eddies in this area. 253. Onboard Recording BRAND: Great big storm in the middle of the Pacific here coming up at 202:38:10. SLAYTON : I missed the storm. I passed a bunch of thundershowers. BRAND: Look at that swell! Okay. Got the cen? ter of a tremendously large thunderstorm. I don't know, it might be 100 kilometers across. I can't even see the extent of it. It's more than that. I got a stereo pair of the center. Okay; counter is now reading 30 on CX10. 254. Onboard Recording BRAND: Got a picture of an island at 202:41: 10. A lot of good sunglint around it. Just an interesting, beautiful island with the sun? glint around it. You may be able to see some current pattern . . . . That's [frames] 32 and 33. 255. Onboard Recording BRAND : Typical, rather linear cloud pattern in the mid-Pacific oriented east and west. I see this quite a bit. Makes you think it might be associated with the water current. It flows east-west. These cloud patterns go for some? times hundreds of miles. 256. Onboard Recording SLAYTON : I just shot four pictures, sort of a panorama of a very large hurricane-type- looking structure. It's a real large circular cloud pattern. And that's on magazine CX19 on the black camera, ending at frame 150? about as close as I can read it. BRAND : Okay. Looks like it might be a "mega- eddy," huh? Deke's picture was taken at 202:48:45 above. 257. Onboard Recording BRAND: Took a picture at 202:52:45 of the Canadian Rockies. Snowy-area, stereo pair? beautiful. We were looking for glaciers; couldn't see any. We got more Canadian Rockies coming up here. God, aren't they beautiful? Can you see a glacier anywhere? STAFFORD : I was looking for one, but I didn't. BRAND: Okay. I see a glacier. I see a glacier. SLAYTON : I do too, now. There's the firn line. See that? STAFFORD : You can see the firn line real clear. BRAND : Yeah. We saw a firn line, and this was NUMBER 1 169 about 202:40?1 mean, 202:54:00. Over the Canadian Rockies we saw a big glacier. Just came down over a town, a big farming area. Suppose that's Banff? STAFFORD: No, that's Calgary right there. BRAND: This area that we shot the glacier of was just west of Calgary. Impressive. 258. AG/203:04:06 SLAYTON: For Farouk's info, we saw a super circulation pattern off the West Coast. Got a kind of panorama. It was so big you couldn't get it into two camera frames. I wouldn't have any idea of how big an area it covers, but it looks like a super big hurricane, except it wasn't all that dense. BRAND : It was sort of a ring of clouds, I guess you'd say, rather than a hurricane. When we got to Seattle, we were too far north of Seattle to see it. And there were clouds over Canada, but we did pick up some glaciers, see some firn lines on Canadian Rockies? glaciers. And Lake Superior was clouded over completely. 259. Onboard Recording STAFFORD: I'm all out of film. I'm going to kill this one. BRAND: Okay; 39 and 40 were a cloud pattern and thunderstorm out over the Atlantic just offshore from New York. Stereo pair. Near sunset. 260. Onboard Recording SLAYTON: We shot a series of Earth obs stuff along with Vance on the 35 millimeter, maga? zine CI15, ending with frame 32, I guess it is. Last few frames are a combination of a weather pattern with some thunderstorms. The sunset's shining on them and the Moon's in one corner of the frame. REVOLUTION 126 261. AG/204:53:41 + SLAYTON : Dick, if things are quiet down there, I can give you a quick film inventory. CAPCOM: Okay, Deke. Can you stand by just a second? We're getting ready to change dump modes, and I'm going to drop out. I'll call you when we're back up. SLAYTON: Okay; here it goes. We got about 320 frames of 35 millimeter left, 140 of 70 for the silver camera, and about 180 for the black over and above our mapping require? ment. We have one mapping pass left, which we figure it will take 90 frames. And we only have one mag of 16 left, and that's an in? terior. We've already talked to you about that one. And that is it. CAPCOM: Okay. Let me read them back: 320 frames of 35 millimeter left, 140 frames of the silver 70, 180 frames of the black camera over and above the mapping requirements, and one mag of 16 millimeter. 262. DT/205:58:47 STAFFORD: YOU suspect that's a cyclone? BRAND: Yeah. I'll bet from real up high it looks like a cyclone . . . . I'll bet it's that same thing we saw earlier. It looks like a possible hurricane . . . . We ought to find out?at this point, 205:56. STAFFORD: All right, Vance. Take a couple of it?about 100 miles [161 km] across, I think . . . . It's building up on the outer edges. The whole thing narrows? weather satellite in the Pacific. BRAND: I don't know, it appears to be a ty? phoon area? 263. AG/206:01:15 STAFFORD: Dick, we saw a huge weather cycle out in the Pacific at a GET of 205 plus 56. It's built up on the edges . . . . It tapers down in the center; it's got a really open center. But it looks? and it's circulating. You can see the whole circulation. It's probably 150 miles [241 km] in diameter. You might want to check it with Farouk and the weather people. CAPCOM: We got weather up in recovery to show us the satellite picture of the cloud for? mation that you saw. For your information there's a big low located right in the center of the circulating pattern, and on the eastern edge?the leading edge of the cloud pattern that's close to the western coast of the United States is a cold front. So the cloud charac? teristics? it just turns out that the cloud characteristics of the weather pattern look like a tropical storm, but, of course, that's not what it is. BRAND: Okay. Well, I'm glad it isn't. It's just that it would be in kind of an odd place for 170 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE 264. a tropical storm anyway, I guess. CAPCOM : Well, we do have a satellite picture of it, and it certainly looks like one, and it covers a tremendous area. BRAND: Yeah, we were impressed by the spiral arms on it. REVOLUTION 127 D T / 2 0 7 : 3 4 : 0 0 + SLAYTON : We just saw what we think is a possible volcano. I don't know . . . down there or not . . . 207:19:20? a very large kind of mushroom type thunderstorm-looking thing with a large stream of gray-brown smoke going downstream, mixed with white . . . volcano . . . horrendous oil fire . . . track that one for us? CAPCOM: We'll correlate that time and see if we can check it out. REVOLUTION 128 265. AG/208:04:11 CAPCOM: Incidentally, while I'm getting an answer for you guys, it turns out that that latitude and longitude when Deke reported the possible volcano, was directly over head the Aleutian Islands, and we're going to be checking it out over night. But that's more likely exactly what you saw. Revolutions 134 and 134/135 REVOLUTION 134 266. AG/217:28:11 SLAYTON : Crip, anybody got any word yet on our Aleutian volcano. CAPCOM: You get me completely at a blank here. Let me see if I can get an update on that. 267. Onboard Recording SLAYTON: DAC 7; we've got film left there, and we've searched through our film library and recovered all the open frames. And, un? fortunately, we couldn't find our tape re? corder so we haven't kept a very good log on 268. what we've shot. We did finish off a CT02 this morning with a few frames. And let me see if I can remember what we shot those of. Oh, yes, that was across South America? some stuff in the upper Amazon area and the Andes. And then I think we finished it off, with what I thought was the mouth of the Andes?the Amazon rather?big sediment flows up and down the coastline and so forth. Onboard Recording SLAYTON: We now have a mag CX13, which has about right now 80 frames left. I just shot about 10 off on that. And just before we went into darkness; and we're at 93:41 PET NUMBER 1 171 if that helps you backtrack. Just before we went into darkness, there was a big desert dune area, very large, super large crescent dunes. And from there to some fairly rugged mountainous terrain, which we shot a few pictures of, and I don't really know where that was. So that might help you a little. 269. AG/218 :06 :45+ CAPCOM: At about 94:36, we'd appreciate it if you could give us a colorwheel reading on what color the water looks to you at that particular point. And also, north of the Carib? bean Islands, just a couple of minutes later about 94:38, we expect you to pass over a developing tropical storm. It'll be about the latitude of Cape Kennedy, directly under the groundtrack scan. So if you could try to get some stereo photos. If you've got any film left, you can use the camera settings that are noted down for site 3 Bravo [tropical storms]. STAFFORD : Okay, real good. And at what time is it to look for the tropical storm? CAPCOM: About 94:38. STAFFORD : 36 for the color of water at 94:36 and 38 is the tropical storm? 270. AG/218:07 :15+ CAPCOM: That's affirm. And incidentally, the whole vis obs team would like to give you several "atta-boys" for the performance you guys have been doing on this vis obs stuff. You've been doing a super job, and they can't wait to hear your efforts recorded on the VTR and also to see the photos when you get back. STAFFORD: Okay, good. We're trying like mad. The only thing that's gotten to us? there's just been so many clouds up here that its gotten to us occasionally. Thank you, and tell "hi" to Farouk and all his team there. REVOLUTION 134/135 271. Onboard Recording STAFFORD: Okay, this pass is visual obs, rev 134/135. We'll be using color exterior CX07 to start with, and we'll start on frame A2-A2>. Okay, we shot the Galapagos Islands; we got stereos. You could see the swirls of clouds around in the calderas looking down on top of the volcanoes. However, due to the cloud covers, we could not see any internal waves around or any upwellings. 272. AG/218:50 :57+ STAFFORD: Okay, Crip. And we just shot the Galapagos. CAPCOM:Any turtles down there? STAFFORD: Only big ones. 273. Onboard Recording STAFFORD : As we come up to Central America, the problem is we have clouds all over the Pacific coming up to it. Oh, now we can get it. And over to the right is an active volcano?? supposed to be, Deke, that's your side. SLAYTON: North? STAFFORD: T O the north. BRAND: I'm going to map this. SLAYTON: Sure is funny; I didn't see any. 274. Onboard Recording SLAYTON : There is a lot of sediment and stuff down there . . . . STAFFORD: It's to the right. See, we crossed right across from here to the Atlantic Ocean. Beautiful, beautiful. Just what I was looking for. And Farouk, we got a boundary layer right off the east coast into the Atlantic. You got some internal waves and could even be some big upwellings right there. BRAND: Where do you see an upwelling? STAFFORD: I see it?I see an upwelling?I've got it right here, right off the coast. See it? See that baby? BRAND: Yes. There is a thing that looks like an upwelling. STAFFORD: Yep, it sure does look like a big upwelling. Right there, about 20 miles [32 km] off the shore. 275. Onboard Recording BRAND: And CX30, frames 87 through 91. 276. Onboard Recording STAFFORD: Hey, let's look at 35. In 1 minute we need a color of the water. 277. Onboard Recording BRAND: Okay, but I got a Central American stereo on there. Four shots. 278. Onboard Recording STAFFORD : This is the Caribbean. See, it comes right over Jamaica and Cuba on this pass. 279. Onboard Recording BRAND: CXI3. Ended up 91. 280. Onboard Recording SLAYTON: Okay, you want colors here? 172 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE STAFFORD: No. At 36. 281. Onboard Recording SLAYTON: I'm shooting on a magazine CX16, color exterior, 35 millimeter, and everything on this roll is going on this pass, which is pass?rev 134/135. 282. Onboard Recording STAFFORD: See if we can see the Gulf Stream down there. Okay. Let's look up here for the boundary between now and? in fact, in another couple of minutes we should see a big boundary. In fact, you guys could prob? ably pick it up better . . . . 283. Onboard Recording BRAND: 42 Alfa in the color is the closest. STAFFORD: 42 Alfa. 284. Onboard Recording BRAND: What's this? Jamaica? SLAYTON : Jamaica. 285. Onboard Recording STAFFORD : Oh, here's the Gulf Stream bound? ary. SLAYTON: No, no. That's just the shoals. STAFFORD: The shoals. The Gulf Stream boundary should have been back there some? place, but I couldn't see it. 286. Onboard Recording STAFFORD: Coming up over Jamaica. There's Kingston. Bauxite. Yeah, on the bauxite. SLAYTON: What? Is Cuba coming up then or [what]? STAFFORD: YOU can very easily see all the bauxite that's mining there, on Jamaica. 287. Onboard Recording SLAYTON : Cuba. STAFFORD : Fidel Land. SLAYTON : It isn't too big, is it? STAFFORD: What do we see around Cuba? All we got there are some internal waves off the coast. Off the southern coast. Look at those big things just suddenly popped up; see those internal waves? SLAYTON : Did you get them? BRAND: Yeah. I sure did. 288. Onboard Recording STAFFORD: Now we're going into the Carib? bean. Okay. I just couldn't see a Gulf Stream boundary down there at all or the Caribbean Current there. There's no differentiation in colors. 289. Onboard Recording SLAYTON: Oh, that is pretty. Then we're go? ing to hit Bermuda, I understand. Right over Bermuda. 290. Onboard Recording BRAND: Okay. I'm up to frame 105; that was all stereos over Cuba and beyond. And I also got the area where Tom reported internal waves. 291. Onboard Recording STAFFORD: Okay at 38 we?look out?Deke, look out for a tropical storm. This is?well hell, we're on top of it. BRAND : There it is. Okay, I'm going to get it. STAFFORD: And, Crip, we're on top of the tropical storm right now. SLAYTON: We're on top of some clouds. BRAND: I don't think it is a tropical storm. SLAYTON: It doesn't look any different to me than a whole bunch of clouds . . . . STAFFORD : We said a possible. BRAND: There's the eye right in front of you. If you call this an eye. Get the eye. Get pic? tures if you can. STAFFORD: See how it curls around to the left here and curls into it? SLAYTON : Maybe not. That looks to me like? It's hard to tell over here. I just don't think so. It could be. BRAND: Are we over the area where you re? ported there may be a tropical storm? CAPCOM: That's affirm. You should be just about in that position. BRAND: It doesn't seem to cover so much area, but it does have a rather swirling ap? pearance. I don't see an eye, but I can see where an eye would be. CAPCOM: Okay. I think that it's just develop? ing, yet. I don't even believe it's to the area where they're calling it a storm, yet. SLAYTON: It looks just like the bunches of thunderstorm patches we've seen around the Pacific area the last couple of days. BRAND: Tape recorder. A tropical storm was reported?and in the same rev, in the Carib? bean-Atlantic area just after passing Cuba. Got some more shots. I 'm up to frame, about 107, now. Had to get some short sequences of stereo over that storm. Could not see an eye. NTJMBER 1 173 292. Onboard Recording STAFFORD: Here's a boundary right in the Atlantic Ocean. And Farouk, we have a boundary of current from light blue to dark; where's the color wheel? BRAND: It's right up there above you. STAFFORD: It goes from 37 on the other side, to about a 41. The time is 95:35:45. And it went from forty?about 45, 46, down to 37. Down 1 point. Now we're covered by clouds. And on the silver Hasselblad, I've changed to CXI7. 293. Onboard Recording SLAYTON: That's right up through 24 on magazine CXI8 and the 35 through Central America, Cuba, Jamaica, and Bermuda. On 35-millimeter mag CX18 shot 1 through 24 over Central America, Cuba, Jamaica, and Bermuda. 294. AG/219:05 :56+ BRAND : Ireland really is green. CAPCOM : Really is what? BRAND: Said, Ireland really is green. CAPCOM: HOW'S the percentage that? Does most of the world look green up there? Or most of it?well, I know most of it's blue. BRAND : Not as green as it looks on the ground, generally. SLAYTON: But Ireland is really supergreen. We got a couple of pictures of that, and we're over the south end of England here, now. STAFFORD : Yeah, England?was looking great, except it just has these broken clouds all over it. That's the problem. Yeah, Crip, you can tell the BBC [British Broadcasting Company] and all our good friends in England "hello" for us. CAPCOM: I'm sure they'll appreciate that greeting. SLAYTON: We're sitting high over London at present. BRAND: Unfortunately, quite a bit of cloud cover over England. 295. Onboard Recording BRAND: In roll CX13, exposure 108 is com? ing over the coast of England, lot of cloud cover. 109 was the coast of Holland, lot of cloud cover, also. STAFFORD: You can see the Zuider Zee loud and clear. Wait a minute. Down in the center window, using C X I 7 , 1 got pictures of Rotter? dam and England was obscured. 296. Onboard Recording STAFFORD: Deke is using the Nikon in the right seat, using the color exterior. Vance is in the left, using CXI3 . 297. Onboard Recording STAFFORD: And Germany is pretty much socked in. But we're starting to get a break in the clouds. However, it looks a little hazy up ahead. Next data point will be the Danube Delta. We'll be shooting on frame 12 on CXI7. Okay. Coming up to the Danube Delta, there's tremendous sediment plumes there. SLAYTON: If that's the Danube coming down through there, which I think it is, that's the the delta running right out into there right in here. Man, that's really flooding out into the Black Sea; turning it brown. STAFFORD: Taking a series of stereo [photo? graphs] running right out into the Danube Delta. BRAND: I got some shots of the delta. SLAYTON: SO did I. Okay, Tom. We just crossed here. I need to get out of your way. I think we got mixed up back over here. It looks like the Danube's . . . water running right across the Black Sea. 298. Onboard Recording SLAYTON : You better get over here. STAFFORD: Yeah. Okay. Just let me [move] over here. BRAND: Got the camera? SLAYTON: That's Turkey. Either [window] 5 or 1 . . . . Better get there quick, because we're there. STAFFORD: The Caucasus. Okay. I'm over here, Deke. You want to take the center seat and shoot? You take the center seat and shoot like mad, because that's better. 299. Onboard Recording STAFFORD: We're still over the Black Sea. BRAND: Look at that circle of clouds on your side there, Tom. STAFFORD: Yeah. There's a tremendous circle of clouds on the north side of the Black Sea. BRAND: Probably be the south side. STAFFORD: Should be looking south or north. 300. Onboard Recording 174 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE SLAYTON: We're looking south . . . there's Turkey. Good ole Turkey. Well this is? it's just a big fault to me running right dead center down there. That is a fault. Did you get it out your window? That's a fault run? ning almost parallel to our flight path. Looks like a . . . fault. Right over Turkey. STAFFORD: YOU guys see the Caucasus yet? SLAYTON : I don't know, but there are moun? tains. But I don't know which ones they are, Tom. STAFFORD: They must be Caucasus. BRAND: Damn clouds again. SLAYTON: There's that little lake. That's got to be the Caucasus; we're right over them. Right there. BRAND: There's a peak right there beside that lake; it's a beauty. STAFFORD: Well, here's the Anatolian Fault clear down here . . . . Look at that right out there, Deke. Look straight ahead; you shoot her. SLAYTON: Oh yeah. That's not as impressive a fault as that other one we had. We got it. You guys should probably be opened up. I'm continually open on this . . . . STAFFORD: You've really got to open her up. 301. Onboard Recording SLAYTON: There's a goddam small patch of desert down there [Iran], with some weird looking dunes. That's a big sandstorm out there to the south. Look at the fires out there. 302. Onboard Recording STAFFORD: Okay. Finished on the Anatolian Fault, number 55 on CX17. That does it. Man that stuff was covered with clouds and haze. 303. Onboard Recording BRAND: Okay, tape recorder. Just took a long mapping stereo strip. First, I got just a few shots over the Danube Delta and ended up Danube Delta frame number 115. And then ended up at 95:04:45 PET on something, which you'll see the Anatolian Fault. 304. Onboard Recording SLAYTON: I shot up on again magazine CXI8, the 35 millimeter, through frames. God, I can never read those fucking frames. BRAND: We must have gotten out of Russia pretty fast. STAFFORD: We got up to 52, Deke. SLAYTON: 52. Okay. We shot those over Ire? land, England, Rotterdam, and down through the? Romania, the Black Sea, Danube Delta, and on into Turkey and a few faults down there. REVOLUTION 135/136 305. AG/219:35:33 CAPCOM: Okay. What we wanted to tell you was we got some ships collecting some data on this 5 Alfa [Gulf of Mexico], that you're going to be coming across next time, and we'd like you to attempt to get a color wheel reading of the coastal water that'll be visible . . . . out of CM3 and they'll be between the Mississippi Delta and the Gulf Coast around Mobile. Just in that general area there. 306. Onboard Recording SLAYTON : We're coming up on the final Earth obs pass here, rev 135/136. And we've got two things out of configuration coming into it. For the mapping camera, we've got the 80-millimeter lens on instead of the 60, be? cause we started the entry stowage and we haven't been able to find the 60. I've got the same problem with the orange filter for the 250. We have got the orange filter for the 50, so we'll just switch over to the 50 lens and shoot that with the IF film for the last two sites. 307. Onboard Recording SLAYTON: Got three frames out in the area 3A [cloud features] - 3B [tropical storms], rather. It's a circular area, I don't think it's a tropical disturbance, but it's got the char? acteristics of a small one, so I shot it anyway. 308. Onboard Recording SLAYTON: And it looks like coming up on 5B [Gulf Stream]-5A [Gulf of Mexico], rather, that it's getting a little clouded over. However, we'll break through there some? where. Okay. The whole West Coast is clouded over. STAFFORD: Here comes the coastline, Deke. SLAYTON: It may be getting a little clearer as we approach the coastline. Okay. We're crossing Mexico and the area looks pretty NUMBER 1 175 - C f "s l J i I I sp / ' - ? ^ , ^ r ~ ? r z z I I > H i 21 \ ^ ?' ?1 l y ^ i \ &l / i , AY 0KM 50 KM I NUMBER 1 253 0 OCEAN BOUNDARY CAN YOU SEE EVIDENCES OF OCEAN BOUNDARIES AT POINTS A AND B (DUE TO A LARGE SCALE EDDY)? POSSIBLE CLUES -CHANGE IN PURITY OF BLUE WATER -CHANGE IN REFLECTANCE PATTERN -OUTLINE OF CUMULUS CLOUD fcM**B*******BB*BB****l 254 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE 0 SHOAL AREA LOOK FOR SHOAL AREA AT REGION A. DESCRIBE THE COLOR OF THE WATER AROUND THIS REGION. ST. PETERSBURG -- '100K : - - : 5 0 K M ; ;-- :OKM : . NUMBER 1 255 ? RED TIDE A. AT A DISTANCE FROM THE SHORE, DESCRIBE THE TEXTURE OF THE WATER ALONG THE COAST. B. WHILE CLOSER TO THE COAST, DESCRIBE THE COLOR OF THE WATER. C. DO YOU SEE BROWNISH BANDS IN THE WATER? D. HOW BIG ARE THEY AND HOW DO THEY TREND? ! CHASSAHOWITZKA ?? : SWAMP:;-; SARASOTA ;::::KEY;;;:; ST. PETERSBURG r* 100 KM 50 KM OKM MMMMHtUMMMU - i M M i ^ ^ 256 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE 0 TAMPA BAY A. DO YOU SEE SEDIMENT IN THE TAMPA BAY? B. HOW FAR FROM THE BAY ENTRANCE DO YOU SEE THESE SEDIMENTS? OKM l^L ^ ^ ^ ^ y i ^ ^ ^ NUMBER 1 257 - * : ? i" ' .," .-..V,,V., . - - ?m ? ? >#*;??-? * ? 258 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE r 500 GO en . UJ *********** NUMBER 1 259 GULF-FLORIDA FLYOVER CAMERA SETTINGS A. ELLINGTON AFB TO PATRICK AFB Lens 250mm Shutter 1/125 B.PATRICK AFB TO MACDILL AFB~ Lens 50mm Shutter 1/125 C. MACDILL AFB TO ELLINGTON AFB Lens 250mm Shutter 1/125 820nm Aperture f 5.6 570nm Aperture f4 .0 720nm Aperture f 5.6 260 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE - 100 * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 1 NUMBER I 261 ? SEDIMENT PLUMES A. WHERE DO YOU SEE SEDIMENT PLUMES? B. WHICH DIRECTION DOES THE OFFSHORE CURRENT FLOW? C. DO YOU SEE A GYRE IN THE GULF? IF SO, MARK LOCATION ON MAP. WHITE LAKE GRAND LAKE CALCASIEU LAKE SABINE LAKE 262 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE ? MISSISSIPPI RIVER DELTA A. IN WHAT DIRECTION IS THE MISSISSIPPI DELTA GROWING? B. IS THE SEDIMENT BOUNDARY SHARP OR GRADATIONAL? C. CAN YOU FOLLOW SEDIMENT BANDS OUT TO SEA? f. m^ *j LEEVILLE -T. f ^m^ NUMBER 1 263 264 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE (?) TAMPA BAY A. CAN YOU SEE ANY RED TIDE? B. DO YOU SEE ANY COLOR BOUNDARIES? C. DO YOU SEE SEDIMENT IN THE TAMPA BAY? D. HOW FAR FROM THE BAY ENTRANCE DO YOU SEE THESE SEDIMENTS? i CHASSAHOWITZKA SWAMP SARASOTA; KEY ST. PETERSBURG ?=>?<=> 100 KM - ? 50 KM - - 0 K M NUMBER 1 265 0 CENTRAL FLORIDA A. DESCRIBE THE TEXTURE OF CENTRAL FLORIDA. B. HOW FAR CAN YOU FOLLOW THE TREND? C. WHAT DO YOU THINK CAUSES THIS PATTERN? KILOMETERS 266 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE W T T T f W W W f W W W r f f W f f W W W W W W W W W W ^ f ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ' ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ NUMBER 1 267 268 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE NUMBER 1 269 MACDILL AFB ? r ? wL * KEY WEST H KEY WEST TO MACDILL 0 TURBULENCE IN KEYS DESCRIBE THE TURBULENCE PATTERN THROUGH THE NORTH-SOUTH ELONGATED KEYS (ARROWS). ? RED TIDE A. DESCRIBE THE WATER COLOR OFF THE COAST. B. DO YOU SEE BROWNISH BANDS? C. HOW BIG, AND HOW DO THEY TREND? KEY WEST 50 _ l _ 100 KILOMETERS 270 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE EAST COAST FLYOVER ? 1 1 ? 1 1 ? ? ? i ? ? 1 1 1 1 1 1 ? 1 1 1 1 NUMBER 1 271 EAST COAST FLYOVER A. ELLINGTON AFB TO PATRICK AFB 8 2 0 n m SAME AS IN GULF-FLORIDA FLYOVER B.PATRICK AFB TO DOVER 750nm C. DOVER TO PEASE AFB 620nm D. PEASE AFB TO ANDREWS AFB (RETURN VIA CAPE MAY) 7 0 0 " m CAMERA SETTINGS FILM SO-242 SHUTTER SPEED AT 1/250 APERTURE Time 900-1030 1030-1430 1430-1530 1530-1700 Time 900-1030 1030-1430 1430-1700 50mm LENS 4.7 5.6 4.7 4.7 FILM SO-368 SHUTTER SPEED AT 1/500 250mm LENS 5.6 5.6 5.6 4.7 APERTURE 50/250mm LENS 6.7 8.0 6.7 272 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE B. PATRICK AFB TO DOVER r 500 NUMBER 1 273 PATRICK TO WILMINGTON ? GULF STREAM CAN YOU DISTINGUISH OCEAN CURRENT BOUNDARIES BY: -COLOR DIFFERENCE -TEXTURAL DIFFERENCE -SCUM LINE -CLOUD FRONT ? EDDIES DO YOU SEE A LARGE EDDY IN ONSLOW BAY? APPROXIMATE LOCATION OF GULF STREAM- PATRICK* AFB 1 \ WILMINGTON lllllli / / liisil iiiiili fipii S\ IIII! Ifflffllffllfflll ? I If / \i Spill o ? GLACIAL COAST-BOOTH BAY ? WATER COLORS PEASE AFB ? POLLUTION IN BOSTON AREA ? SAND DUNES OF CAPE COD ? DISCHARGE PLUME IN CAPE COD BAY ? INTERNAL WAVES, NANTUCKET ? INTERNAL WAVES, LONG ISLAND ? POLLUTION IN NEW YORK HARBOR L-O NUMBER 1 277 DOVER TO SUFFOLK ? POLLUTION IN NEW YORK HARBOR DO YOU SEE ANY POLLUTION PLUMES IN THE NEW YORK HARBOR AREA? ? INTERNAL WAVES, LONG ISLAND DO YOU SEE ANY INTERNAL WAVES IN AREA A? DESCRIBE: -LOCATION -ORIENTATION -NUMBER OF WAVES -SPACING BETWEEN WAVES r 200 100 o 1-0 DOVER 278 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE SUFFOLK TO NANTUCKET ? INTERNAL WAVES, NANTUCKET DO YOU SEE ANY INTERNAL WAVES IN AREA A ORB? DESCRIBE: -LOCATION -ORIENTATION -NUMBER OF WAVES -SPACING BETWEEN WAVES - Uf ? * ? ? ? - "?" \ ? - W .*Av, I 50 _ J KILOMETERS NUMBER 1 281 MAINE ? WATER COLORS USE COLOR CHART TO GET A READING OF THE WATER COLOR. 0 GLACIAL COAST-BOOTH BAY PHOTOGRAPH GLACIAL COAST LINE IN THE BOOTH BAY AREA. HPEASE AFB 50 L_ 100 1 i KILOMETERS 282 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE D PEASE AFB TO ANDREWS AFB * J 1-500 O PEASE AFB NANTUCKET: POTOMAC RIVER ' -O ANDREWS AFB NUMBER I 283 SOUTHWESTERN U.S. FLYOVER r 500 I ROCKY MOUNTAIN PIEDMONT II COLORADO RIVER PLATEAUS II UPPER GILA MOUNTAINS IV BASIN AND RANGE AREA V COAST RANGES VI CENTRAL VALLEY OF CALIFORNIA VII SIERRA NEVADA RANGE I - 0 284 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE SOUTHWESTERN U.S. FLYOVER A. ELLINGTON AFB TO BIGGS AFB? TRANSPORTATION ROUTE ONLY B. BIGGS AFB TO BUCKLEY AFB C. BUCKLEY AFB TO WILLIAMS AFB- D. WILLIAMS AFB TO LOS ANGELES? -600nm 610nm -575nm -700nm SAND DUNE TYPES STAR PARABOLIC NUMBER 1 285 -200 286 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE 200-1 1 5 0 - TRUTH OR CONSEQUENCES ?? CO 1 0 0 - 5 0 - 0 - 1 - 8 0 - 6 0 CO or - 4 0 o ?I E?1 DUNES - 2 0 SACRAMENTO ? MTS.;;;;;:: - o BIGGS TO TRUTH OR CONSEQUENCES ? DUNES-WHITE SANDS A. WHAT TYPE OF DUNES ARE AT 1 , 2 , AND 3? B. IS THE TRANSITION BETWEEN DUNE TYPES OF 1 AND 2 SHARP OR GRADATIONAL? C. USE CHARTTO DESCRIBE COLOR OF DUNES. NUMBER 1 287 TRUTH OR CONSEQUENCES- ALBUQUERQUE-ALAMOSA ? ? NACIMIENTO FAULT CAN YOU DISTINGUISH THE NACIMIENTO FAULT BY: -SCARP -COLOR DIFFERENCE -DRAINAGE DISPLACEMENT LOS ALAMOS VOLCANICS IN THE LOS ALAMOS VOLCANIC FIELD, CAN YOU DISTINGUISH: -CONCENTRIC FEATURES -RADIATING FEATURES -INDIVIDUAL FLOWS ALAMOSA i.- r % r - \t> TRUTH OR CONSEQUENCES 100 I 200 KILOMETERS 288 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE BUCKLEY AFB Tfw\ "'.*/'* r?15 KM - 10 KM - 5 KM L o KM ALAMOSA TO BUCKLEY ? DUNES-GREAT SANDS A. DESCRIBE THE RELATIONSHIP OF THE SAND PATCH TO THE MOUNTAINS AND THE VALLEY. B. DESCRIBE THE DUNE PATTERN OR PATTERNS WITHIN THE SAND PATCH. C. USE CHART TO DESCRIBE COLOR OF DUNES. NUMBER 1 289 ??P"* '%2 C. BUCKLEY AFB TO WILLIAMS AFB 290 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE ?M;*i> '> JTFOSSIL RIDGE BUCKLEY AFB BUCKLEY TO GUNNISON ? FOSSIL RIDGE A. DESCRIBE THE NUMBER, LENGTH,AND ORIENTATION OF SEGMENTS AT FOSSIL RIDGE. B. WHAT DO YOU THINK MADE THESE RIDGES? r 200 KM - 100 KM I- 0 KM NUMBER 1 291 r 5 0 GUNNISON TO TUBA CITY (I) ? SAN JUAN MTS. A. DESCRIBE ANY CIRCULAR STRUCTURES THAT YOU SEE. B. IF THESE FEATURES ARE NOT SNOW- COVERED, DESCRIBE THE COLORS ASSOCIATED WITH THEM. \ o t~ ? CM o o ? o 292 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE -60 9 ?40 O _ l *: ?20 V o ? -4- \ ? ? GUNNISON TO TUBA CITY (II) ? DUNES-COMB RIDGE A. WHAT TYPE OF DUNES DO YOU SEE AT 1 AND 2? B. ARE THE COLORS OF THE DUNES AND BEDROCK THE SAME? NUMBER 1 293 GUNNISON TO TUBA CITY (III) ? DUNES-KAIBITO PLATEAU A. WHAT TYPES OF DUNES CAN YOU SEE? B. DESCRIBE THE BOUNDARIES BETWEEN SAND AND CULTIVATED AREAS. C. USE COLOR CHART TO DESCRIBE COLOR OF DUNES. D. ARE THE COLORS OF THE DUNES AND BEDROCK THE SAME? . ;t- ? * > TUBA CITY r 100 I "?' CO o _ 1 5 50 L 0 294 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE PRESC0TT TUBA CITY r 200 ? - 100 L 0 TUBA CITY TO PRESCOTT 0 DUNES-MOENKOPI PLATEAU A. DESCRIBE TYPE, ORIENTATION AND SIZE OR LENGTH OF DUNES AT AREA A . B. WHAT IS THE RELATIONSHIP OF THE DUNES TO TOPOGRAPHY? ? LINEAR FEATURES-COCONINO PLATEAU DESCRIBE NUMBER AND LENGTH OF NORTH-SOUTH TRENDING LINEAR FEATURES ON THE COCONINO PLATEAU ( B ) . NUMBER 1 295 WILLIAMS AFB ^ r- 150 -100 PRESCOTT co O _J *: - 50 L 0 PRESCOTT TO WILLIAMS ? COPPER MINING-BIG BUG MTS. A. DESCRIBE COLORS OF ALTERED ZONE AT A . B. DESCRIBE ANY FAULTS OR STRUCTURAL FEATURES ASSOCIATED WITH THE ALTERED ZONE. 296 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE D. WILLIAMS AFB TO LOS ANGELES V %v 'PA"; Wm ? I N D I A N INTAGLIOS'/ ? . r .>.. (5) DUNES-GRAN DESIERTO LOS ANGELES i y V $ ?*iftf& "=f~ ??"'*?'.,*ffi a p JL*.?S t l * - - . ?At " " , >>* T*5?S.,* , :/? . > ' f j ?'" _ 1 ' 4 ?. ?*4^ * ? ? / 7 ? < * ? ? ? ' ? < * ? . ' ' - v / ' . PA'RKER. 0YUMA' ' ^ , - S W , V tASTA. . . . ? ?%,?r4 0: UJ I? UJ O _ j *: .^*?* FY> >-.? 7 ' . 4 Ik ?/-""' l '''?'? / ' - ? / ? - % t r i%\ 1 c ? ( 4 ) COPPER MINING-AJO 7 ? /?' " ? ' ? > ? ? ; ; ?-;>? r ( ? ) COPPER MINING-SIERRITA MTS. %. / ? A'*- * * ? I*- . ?' ? 1.1 ?,? ^ V ^ f * ? * a ' ,?,- 5iif"?>-h , WILLIAMS MB'jfa^S- ? S $ ? > * i . . v . ( ? ) COPPER MINING-BISBEE LIBBY. W? " ? > ; . 1 ;?i an # mc:K ? v'A ^~V?^- r 7 0 0 600 -500 -400 -300 -200 - 100 u 0 W1) COPPER MINING-LITTLE DRAGOON MTS. DOUGLAS NUMBER 1 297 f COCHISE o WILLIAMS AFB WILLIAMS TO COCHISE ? COPPER MINING-LITTLE DRAGOON MTS. A. CAN YOU SEE AN ALTERED ZONE AT THE NE SECTION OF THE LITTLE DRAGOON MTS. (A )? B. CAN YOU SEE ANY MINE TAILINGS? o ? o . o IT) 298 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE CO Lt UJ H UJ > o i ^ ! r60 [ i -40 ' 1 1 t | | P 1 -20 I - 0 COCHISE-DOUGLAS-LIBBY ? COPPER MINING-BISBEE A. DESCRIBE THE COLORS ASSOCIATED WITH THE OPEN PITS AT A . B. DESCRIBE THE COLOR OFTHE ROCK AT B . C. DESCRIBE ANY FAULTS OR OTHER STRUCTURAL FEATURES IN THE MINING AREA. J *- 0 NUMBER 1 299 CO LU r-250 -200 - 150 o 2 h 100 - 50 u 0 LIBBYTOYUMA(I) ? COPPER MINING-SIERRITA MTS. A. DESCRIBE THE COLOR AND LOCATIONS (WITH RESPECT TO MOUNTAINS, ETC.) OF MINE TAILINGS IN AREA A . B. CAN YOU SEE ANY ALTERED ROCK ZONES? 300 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE / 8, 0/5 / LIBBYTOYUMA(II) ? COPPER MINING-AJO A. DESCRIBE COLORS OF THE ZONE AROUND THE OPEN PIT AT AJO. B. DESCRIBE ANY FAULTS OR OTHER STRUCTURAL FEATURES IN THE AREA. ? DUNES-GRAN DESIERTO WHAT IS THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE PINACATES AND THE DUNE FIELD? WHAT TYPES OF DUNES CAN YOU SEE AT A AND B? USE CHART TO DESCRIBE COLOR OF DUNES. CAN YOU SEE THE INTERDUNE BEDROCK? / ? 100 KM i - 50 KM AJO "- 0KM YUMA o - o NUMBER 1 301 K r 8 0 60 - 4 0 -20 L 0 J a Hivt R rut.iAN RESEI o- r150 - I O C - 5 0 L 0 50 1ETERS YUMA TO PARKER ? INDIAN INTAGLIOS 100 CAN YOU RESOLVE THE INDIAN INTAGLIOS? IF SO, PHOTOGRAPH. 302 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE NORTHWESTERN U.S. FLYOVER r-500 CO CE o ?-0 NUMBER 1 303 KLAMATH FALLS A. LOS ANGELES TO KLAMATH FALLS 560nm | { (A 'Mffj Htv -x> ;?~~?& s&s g*8 *???! ?" s?\2 i LINDEN' 2 ) FOOTHILL RANGE OF SIERRA NEVADA _ lT?JtJo"oi 9 H 6 San Francit r500 400 -300 200 -100 L 0 m vSfr g?AVENAL OSES 1 >m%; ^ XSff j~Ku f(W i -m '^ms^K^s w??< ( l ) FAULTS WEST OF SAN ANDREAS & ! - % ? ^ \ c fe& seflfci" **?' ^ 1 ^ ^ ~ ? / ? ^ ^ _ ^ f * # -J^ 3C : , - r r t = ^ , --- ,. " ? j ! ? r SANTA BARBARA l l fe ig&i fe^ ' *^ :;;?f. tpt? :&. *a LOS ANGELES i ,r. HRC- DP Rev. 45/46 USE VOICE RECORDER FOR VOICE COMMENTS -5D -5A TV TOUR OF FLORIDA I U.S. EAST COAST ? 5F -BC CP Rev. 46 USE VOICE RECORDER FOR VOICE COMMENTS D - cp -? Rev. 64 tr ?a-rouj e*-Ac<_ e-TPS- l f * ^?) a SJ-OUJ 5 > L V ? ? o o i ir? F_l ? MAPPING CAMERA CONFIGURATION: CM5/BLACK/60/CT04-BRKT, IVL 10 ( f 5 . 6 , l / l M6 D U S E VOICE RECORDER FOR VOICE COMMENTS ? CONFIGURE OSE (HBR/RCD/FWD/CMD RESET) FOR ? M6 START (107:40:00) I ? ? D 3 A ? M6 STOP (107:52:00) ? CONFIGURE DSE (STOP/CMD RESET) ? LEAVE BLACK HDC IN WINDOW DP-* CP-D Rev. 71 M7 ? -8 ?i ?MAPPING CAMERA CONFIGURATION: CM5/BLACK/60/CT04-8RKT, IVL 10 (f5.6,1/125), DUSE VOICE RECORDER FOR VOICE COMMENTS h ? M7 START (118:12:00) ? 9C ? ? MAPPING EXP CHG A: (f5.6,1/250) AT 118:16:00 -D90 -?9E -D9F ?MAPPING EXP CHG B: ( f5 .6 ,1 /126) AT 118:24:00 - o 9 G ? M7 STOP (118:26:00) ?LEAVE BLACK HOC IN WINDOW 314 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE TIMELINE AND MAPPING PAD 1st and 2nd LAUNCH OPPORTUNITY AC-* DP-D Rev. 72 M8,M9 lr ? = : ? : ! ? VTOUJ BLftCfc CTtTT ?N R ? MAPPING CAMERA CONFIGURATION: CM5/BLACK/60/CX13-BRKT, IVL 10 (f8,1/125), 36FR a DAC CAMERA CONFIGURATION: CM3/DAC/25/CT01/6 fps (f8,1/125), 11 minutes ? (HAVE 100? LENS S CT05 MAG READY FOR CHANGE BEFORE M9) DUSE VOICE RECORDER FOR VOICE COMMENTS ?CONFIGURE DSE (HBR/RCD/FWD/CMD RESET) FOR IVL PULSE 12A, M8 START (119:25:00) ? M8 STOP (119:31:00) ? RECONFIGURE MAPPING CAMERA: CM5/BLACK/100/CT05-BRKT, IVL 6_ (f5.6.1/250). 110 FR ? OM9 i DAC START (119:43:00) ODAC: 9H.9I.9J ? MAPPING EXP CHG A: (f4,l/250) AT 119:62:00 ? DM9 6 DAC STOP (119:54:00)?, ? STOW BLACK HDC AND BRACKET Q STDuJ crm\ \N F Z FOR. USE? USfTEC A 5T0U) fcLfiCfc. C M S \n P i AC Rev. 73 ?Sfrou) SILVER C H I in pi USE VOICE RECORDER S R/T COMM FOR VOICE COMMENTS in- AC Rev. 74 AC USE VOICE RECORDER S R/T COMM FOR VOICE COMMENTS -7B _-&THIS PASS WILL STOP HERE ir ?h DURING NO ATS CASE ONLY, ir Rev. 74/75 ?frTHIS PASS WILL BE SCHEDULED!* ? IN NO ATS CASE ONLY. ? l?3A I 7F 3B ? 5D -7G USE VOICE RECORDER FOR VOICE COMMENTS DP Rev. 78 U3E VOICE RECORDER FOR VOICE COMMENTS 0-? NUMBER 1 315 TIMELINE AND MAPPING PAD 1st and 2nd LAUNCH OPPORTUNITY DP Rev. 79 USE VOICE RECORDER FOR VOICE COMMENTS ~M I ? " A AC Rev. 88 USE VOICE RECORDER 8 R/T COMM FOR VOICE COMMENTS !?? _&THIS PASS WILL STOP HERE* l*DURING NO ATS CASE ONLY.* 0 - DP Rev. 90/91 USE VOICE RECORDER 4 R/T COMM FOR VOICE COMMENTS -5A -5E -5G -5F .ATHIS PASS WILL STOP HERE* ^DURING NO ATS CASE ONLY. 6 - 9P ?sires O F O ^ A O A T U H I W AC Rev. 104 ?bTOuO POO Mf=Cn I N t = a USE VOICE RECORDER FOR VOICE COMMENTS CP Rev. 106/107 USE VOICE RECORDER 8 R/T COMM FOR VOICE COMMENTS -3B -2B -2E 316 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE TIMELINE AND MAPPING PAD 1st LAONCH OPPORTUNITY CP Rev. 107 M10 STOu) S1L.V6R C M S I N F l MAPPING CAMERA CONFIGURATION: CM5/SILVER/50/CX16-BRKT.IVL 10 ( f 4 ,1 /250 ) , 30FR USE VOICE RECORDER FOR VOICE COMMENTS CONFIGURE DSE (HBR/RCO/FWO/CMD RESET) FOR IVL PULSE MIO START (176:06:00) 5} -IK2 MIO STOP (176:11:00) CONFIGURE DSE (LBR/CMD RESET) RECORD LAST FR NO: PAGE 5 DP Rev. 123 USE VOICE RECORDER FOR VOICE COMMENTS -110 CP Rev. 124 USE VOICE RECORDER FOR VOICE COMMENTS it NUMBER 1 317 TIMELINE AND 1st LAUNCH MAPPING PAD OPPORTUNITY AC Rev. 134/135 PET . 94:20 ? (2)8:38 GET) C,TOIO svL-vjec c?\u> m p i USE VOICE RECORDER FOR VOICE COMMENTS & - ? CHANGE TO WINDOW CM5 - 9 N CHANGE TO WINDOW CM3 Mil 8? Rev. 135/136 *MAPPING CAMERA CONFIGURATION: CM5/BLACK/60/CT06-BRKT, IVL 10 (f5.6,1/125), 90FR o U S E VOICE RECORDER FOR VOICE COMMENTS PET H o(HAVE SILVER MAG IF02 AND ORANGE FILTER READY.FOR 96-00 ? CHANGE BEFORE 9L) 220-18 GETl-B-i *CONFIGURE DSE (HBR/RCD/FWD/CMD RESET) FOR IVL PULSE ? "" START (96:02:00 PET) I' ? 1 " l - ur ' -II *M,1 -I ? = 1 0 ? | : , 5 - ? o 5 G -?5F ? Mil STOP (96:17:00 PET) ?RECONFIGURE SILVER CAMERA: (CHANGE MAG TO IF02) (INSTALL ORANGE FILTER) |J?o9L * STOW BLACK HDC S BRACKET 318 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE VISUAL OBS FILM BUDGET (SILVER HRC) REV 15/16 REV 17/18 REV 39 REV 40 REV 42 REV 45/46 REV 46 REV 64 REV 71 REV 72 REV 73 REV 74 REV 78 REV 79 HASSELBLAD MAGAZINES?70 FR/MAG oo OO CL. OO UJ E: O OO ' _l 32 44 62 oo oo OO UJ E: ? u_ 9 30 9 CX11 (A6) MAG COUNTER Q 1 UJ 1 ZC 1 CD o o OO ' _J 9 39 48 CX12 (A6) oo oo ?a: OO UJ E: ? ? ' ; 1 1 J ! s 1 m r 1. DO YOU OBSERVE UPWELLINGS, BOW WAVES, OR ISLAND WAKES? OBTAIN 3 STEREO FRAMES PER TARGET. (KILAUEA IS AN ACTIVE VOLCANO) REV 78: CM3/SILVER/250/CX14(f6.7,l/500) 3FR,[NEXT SITE: 4A] REV 108: CM3/SILVER/250/CX16(f6.7,l/500) 3FR,[NEXT SITE: 4B] 334 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE 3D: KUROSHIO CURRENT FOR ALTERNATE PLAN 9B ONLY. 1. CAN YOU OBSERVE ANY MANIFESTATION OF THE KUROSHIO CURRENT? (LOOK FOR COLOR CHANGES, SCUM LINES, DETACHED MEANDERS, GYRES, ETC.) 2. OBTAIN 3 STEREO PHOTOGRAPHS OF ANY PLANKTON BLOOMS. REV 141: CM3/SILVER/50/CX17(f6.7,1/500) 3FR NUMBER 1 335 SITE 4: NORTHERN NORTH AMERICA 124 108 124 336 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE 4A: SNOW PEAKS 124 1. PHOTOGRAPH SHOW PEAKED MOUNTAINS; 3 STEREO FRAMES PER TARGET. 2. CAN YOU SEE GLACIERS AND FIRN LINES? (SCOPE MAY HELP) REV 78: CM3/SILVER/250/CX14(f8,l/500) 6FR,[RECORD LAST FR NO: PAGE 4] REV 124: CM3/SILVER/50/CX16(f8,1/500) 6FR,[NEXT SITE: 4C] NUMBER 1 337 4B: PUGET SOUND 108 1. DESCRIBE SUSPENDED SEDIMENTS IN THE WATERS OF PUGET SOUND. 2. CAN YOU SEE ANY GYRES THERE? USE SCOPE IF DESIRED. 3. CAN YOU SEE MOUNTAIN GLACIERS AND FIRN LINES? (SCOPE MAY HELP) PHOTOGRAPHS: 3 STEREO FRAMES PER TARGET. REV 108: CM3/SILVER/250/CX16(f8,1/250) 3FR,[RECORD LAST FR MO: PAGE 5] 338 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE 4C: SUPERIOR IRON 17 RBO S^ L M * X \ / & 4^ A> *?& / ? ? . X MWI.E ~ y ' ' y y y y y y y y y y y y y y R?* n 124 1. DESCRIBE COLOR OXIDATION ZONES OF IRON MINES IN THE LAKE SUPERIOR REGION. (USE COLOR WHEEL IF POSSIBLE) 2. IS THERE A DIFFERENCE IN COLOR BETWEEN AREAS A, B, AND C? 3. PHOTOGRAPH AREAS OF INTEREST; 3 STEREO FRAMES PER TARGET. REV 124: CM3/SILVER/50/CX16(f6.7,1/500) 6FR,[NEXT SITE: 4D] NUMBER 1 339 4D: SUDBURY NICKEL ? Sioux Lookoit 124. 106' 1 Bay ! / / \ _y . Cochrane Cleveland Fnrt Wnvne 1. DESCRIBE COLOR OXIDATION ZONES OF SUDBURY AREA; ARROW. ( USE COLOR WHEEL IF POSSIBLE) 2. COMPARE WITH COLOR OF LAKE SUPERIOR REGION (SITE 4C). REV 46: CM1/SILVER/50/CX11(f9.5,1/500) 3FR,[RECORD LAST FR NO: PAGE 4] REV 106: CM3/SILVER/250/CX15(f8,1/500) 3FR,[RECORD LAST FR MO: PAGE 5] REV 124: CM3/SILVER/50/CX16(f6.7,l/500) 3FR,[RECORD LAST FR NO: PAGE 5] 340 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE SITE 5: EASTERN NORTH AMERICA 4 % 17/18 135/136 90/91 15/16 45/46 NUMBER 1 341 5A: GULF OF MEXICO 135/136 REVS 15 AND 45: 90/91 15/16 45/46 1. CAN YOU SEE EDDIES AT THE YUCATAN CHANNEL? 2. IS THE FLORIDA CURRENT VISIBLE IN THE STRAITS OF FLORIDA? REVS 90 AND 135: 3. CAN YOU OBSERVE ANY PART OF THE GULF LOOP CURRENT? 4. DO YOU SEE INTERNAL WAVES IN THE GULF WATERS? PHOTOGRAPHS; 3 STEREO FRAMES PER TARGET. REV 15: CM3/SILVER/50/CX10(f8,1/500) 6FR,[NEXT SITE: 5B] REV 45: CM1/SILVER/50/CX11(f9.5,1/500) 6FR,[MEXT SITE: 5E] REV 90: CM3/SILVER/50/IF02/0RANGE FILTER(f6.7,l/500) 6FR,[NEXT SITE: 5E] REV 135: CM3/SILVER/250/CX17(f8,l/500) 6FR,[NEXT SITE: 5G] 342 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE 5B: GULF STREAM iR .v i s / ' f e 15/16 1. CAN YOU OBSERVE THE GULF STREAM BOUNDARY? (LOOK FOR COLOR CHANGES, SCUM LIMES, DETACHED MEANDERS, GYRES, ETC.) 2. DO YOU SEE ANY INTERNAL WAVES? USE SCOPE IF DESIRED. 3. CAN YOU LOCATE THE CONFLUENCE OF THE GULF STREAM AND LABRADOR EXTENSION? PHOTOGRAPHS: 3 STEREO FRAMES PER TARGET. REV 16: CM3/SILVER/-5U/CX10(f6.7,1/500) 6FR,[NEXT SITE: 5C] NUMBER 1 343 5C: LABRADOR CURRENT 17/18 | Rev 15/(4. 90/91 45/46 15/16 1. IS THE LABRADOR CURRENT VISIBLE? 2. CAN YOU LOCATE THE CONFLUENCE OF THE GULF STREAM AND THE LABRADOR CURRENTS? PHOTOGRAPHS: 3 STEREO FRAMES PER TARGET. REV 16: CM3/SILVER/50/CX10(f6.7,l/500) 3FR,[RECORD LAST FR NO: PAGE 4] REV 46: CM1/SILVER/50/CX11(f6.7,1/500) 3FR,[RECORD LAST FR NO: PAGE 4] REV 91: CM3/SILVER/50/IF02/0RAMGE FILTER(f6.7,l/250) 3FR,[NEXT SITE: 6A] 344 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE 5D: CENTRAL AMERICAN STRUCTURES 90/91 45/46 USE SCOPE 1. CAN YOU SEE THE EXTENSION OF THE BARTLETT FAULT INTO THE PACIFIC COASTAL PLAIN? 2. OBTAIN 3 STEREO FRAMES OF THE VALLEY INDICATED BY ARROW. PHOTOGRAPHS: 3 STEREO FRAMES PER TARGET. REV 45: CM1/SILVER/50/CX11(f9.5,1/500) 6FR,[MEXT SITE: 5A] REV 90: CM3/SILVER/50/IF02/0RANGE FILTER(f6.7,l/500) 6FR,[NEXT SITE: 5A] NUMBER 1 345 5E: FLORIDA RED TIDE Cape Kennedy 90/91 4 5 / 4 6 1. IS THERE ANY RED TIDE VISIBLE WEST OF FLORIDA? 2. SKETCH LOCATION AND SHAPE OF BLOOM, ESPECIALLY WEST OF TAMPA BAY. PHOTOGRAPHS: 3 STEREO FRAMES PER TARGET. REV 45: CMl/SILVER/50/CX11(f9.5, l /500) 3FR,[NEXT SITE: 5F] REV 90: CM3/SILVER/50/IF02/0RANGE FILTER( f6 .7 , l /500) 3FR,[NEXT SITE: 5G] 346 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE 5F: NEW ENGLAND RED TIDE 135/136 *r m \Cape Cod ?I y 90/91 {&? ,35/134, 1. IS THERE ANY RED TIDE VISIBLE OFF THE NEW ENGLAND COAST? 2. SKETCH LOCATION AND SHAPE OF BLOOM. 3. OBTAIN 3 STEREO FRAMES OF AREAS A, B, C AND D; AND EDGE OF CLOUDS OR FOG. REV 46: CM1/SILVER/50/CX11(f6.7,1/500) 12FR,[NEXT SITE: 5C] REV 91: CM3/SILVER/50/IF02/0RANGE FILTER(f6.7,1/250) 12FR,[NEXT SITE: 5C] REV 136: CM3/SILVER/250/CX17(f8,1/500) 12FR,[NEXT SITE: 6A] NUMBER 1 347 5G: CHESAPEAKE BAY t\ 4 - r - .A"~*? 135/136 90/91 1. DESCRIBE SUSPENDED SEDIMENT PLUMES OR GYRES IN THE BAY. 2. ARE THERE ANY POLLUTION PLUMES IN THE POTOMAC RIVER? PHOTOGRAPHS: 3 STEREO FRAMES PER TARGET. REV 91: CM3/SILVER/50/IF02/0RANGE FILTER(f6.7,l/500) GFR,[NEXT SITE: 5F] REV 136: CM3/SILVER/250/CX17(f8,1/500) 6FR,[NEXT SITE: 5F] 348 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE SITE 6: NORTHERN ATLANTIC 135/136 90/91 134/135 NUMBER 1 349 6A: OIL SLICKS (.Newfoundland M c I R E L A N D 7 / LONDON P0\ \\ 'London 1 \ \ ) ) { * \ ( SI ? I g 134/135 74 1. ARE SUSPENDED SEDIMENTS, EDDIES OR CURRENT BOUNDARIES VISIBLE IN THE ENGLISH CHANNEL? (USE SCOPE IF DESIRED) 2. OBTAIN 3 STEREO FRAMES OF LONDON HARBOR AREA. REV 74: CM3/SILVER/250/CX14(f8,1/250) 6FR,[RECORD LAST FR NO: PAGE 4] REV 134/135: CM3/SILVER/50/CX17(f6.7,l/500) 3FR,[NEXT SITE: 9M] NUMBER I 351 SITE 7: NORTHERN SOUTH AMERICA ? ' I ?# JS> 1 ^ . O I i -.* | Ivif ?>v0 ^ ID ?VU ?S ! * >V?P TO)?* *?? ?<#t L A?>? ..?; ? ? ? <*> ?X If X "??? f ' ? *?/ 134/135 104 74 352 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE 7A: HUMBOLDT CURRENT 104 1. CAN YOU OBSERVE THE HUMBOLDT CURRENT? 2. ARE THERE ANY GYRES? PHOTOGRAPHS: 3 STEREO FRAMES PER TARGET. REV 104: CM3/SILVER/50/CX15(f5.6,1/500) 3FR,[NEXT SITE: 7D] NUMBER 1 353 7B: NAZCA PLAIN 1. CAN YOU DISCERN THE NAZCA PLAIN MARKINGS? SCOPE MAY HELP. 2. IF NOT, OBTAIN 3 STEREO PHOTOGRAPHS OF PERUVIAN DESERT LANDFORMS. REV 74: CM3/SILVER/250/CX14(f9.5,l/500) 3FR,[NEXT SITE: 7C] 354 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE 7C: INTERNAL WAVES 1. DO YOU SEE INTERNAL WAVES OFF THE COAST? 2. PHOTOGRAPHS: 3 STEREO FRAMES PER TARGET. REV 74: CM3/SILVER/250/CX14(f8,1/250) 3FR,[NEXT SITE: 6A] NUMBER 1 355 7D: PERUVIAN DESERT 104 1. CAN YOU DISTINGUISH DUNE FIELDS IN THE PERUVIAN DESERT? 2. PHOTOGRAPH NAZCA PLAIN (SITE 7B). PHOTOGRAPHS: 3 STEREO FRAMES PER TARGET. REV 104: CM3/SILVER/50/CX15(f8,l/500) 3FR,[MEXT SITE: 7E] 356 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE 7E: ORINOCO RIVER DELTA Barbados CARIBBEAN ^ / j J N SEA ? ^-S 6 0 /Urinidad I / f J&/ K 1 / ^S/^&C ?N Iftil 104 1. OBTAIN 3 STEREO PHOTOGRAPHS OF THE ORINOCO RIVER DELTA. 2. OBTAIN 3 STEREO PHOTOGRAPHS OF WATER NEAR BARBADOS. 3. USE COLOR CHART TO IDENTIFY WATER COLORS BETWEEN COAST AMD BARBADOS. REV 104: CM3/SILVER/50/CX15(f8,1/500) 6FR,[RECORD LAST FR NO: PAGE 5] NUMBER 1 357 7F: GALAPAGOS ISLANDS 134/135 1. DESCRIBE UPWELLINGS, BOW WAVES, ISLAND WAKES, OR INTERNAL WAVES. (FERNANDINA IS AN ACTIVE VOLCANO) PHOTOGRAPHS: 3 STEREO FRAMES PER TARGET. REV 134: CM3/SILVER/50/CX17(f9.5,l/500) 3FR,[MEXT SITE: 7G] 358 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE 7G: CARIBBEAN SEA P A C I F I C O C E A N GaTi apagos Islands I347I3T 1. OBTAIN 3 STEREO PHOTOGRAPHS OF EDDIES IN THE CARIBBEAN SEA. 2. OBTAIN 3 STEREO PHOTOGRAPHS OF GULF STREAM BOUNDARIES. (IF CLOUDED, LOOK FOR TROPICAL STORM CENTERS [SITE 3B]) REV 134: CM3/SILVER/50/CX17(f9.5,l/500) 6FR,[NEXT SITE: 6A] NUMBER 1 359 SITE 8: SOUTHERN SOUTH AMERICA ) X o 360 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE 8A: FALKLAND CURRENT 1. CAN YOU LOCATE THE FALKLAND CURRENT? 2. OBTAIN 3 STEREO FRAMES OF PLANKTON BLOOM OCCURRENCES. 3. TRACE THE FALKLAND CURRENT TO AREA OF CONFLUENCE WITH BRAZIL CURRENT. MARK G.E.T. AND OBTAIN 3 STEREO PHOTOGRAPHS. REV 42: CM3/SILVER/50/CX11(f6.7,1/250) 6FR,[MEXT SITE: 3A] REV 72: CM3/SILVER/250/CX12(f6.7,1/125) 6FR,[NEXT SITE: 9H - DAC STRIP] [RECORD LRST FR MO: PftGE 4 ] NUMBER 361 8B: CHILEAN ANDES 1. CAN YOU SEE ANY COLOR OXIDATION ZONES SIMILAR TO THOSE IN GREAT LAKES REGION (SITES 4C AND 4D)? IF SO, MARK LOCATION. 2. PHOTOGRAPH MAJOR STRUCTURES OR LINEAMENTS. REV 88: CM3/SILVER/250/CX15(f6.7,1/250) 3FR,[MEXT SITE: 8C] 362 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE 8C: DUNE FIELD 1. USE COLOR CHART TO IDENTIFY COLOR OF DUNE FIELD. 2. WHAT IS THE DUNE PATTERN AND HOW ARE THE DUNES ORIENTED? 3. IS THERE ANY RELATION BETWEEN THE DUNE FIELD AND ADJACENT MOUNTAINS? PHOTOGRAPHS: 3 STEREO FRAMES PER TARGET. REV 88: CM3/SILVER/250/CX15(f6.7,1/250) 3FR,[NEXT SITE: 8D] NUMBER 1 363 8D: PARANA RIVER V^' SOUTH AMERICA r r r r r r r r 88 OBTAIN 3 STEREO FRAMES EACH OF DAM SITES 1, 2, AND 3. REV 88: CM3/SILVER/250/CX15(f6.7,l/500) 9FR,[NEXT SITE: 8E] 364 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE 8E: CIRCULAR STRUCTURES -tf ^y!) 1 yi ^ Ck/^ y*L r-T? ftftW&"ft"1J^ j 1 . \ ( j \A ^ J / ?f\^. / ?^ ?1 ,?^ ?7 . f ? 1. OBTAIN 3 STEREO PHOTOGRAPHS OF DANUBE DELTA. 2. CAN YOU SEE ANY SEDIMENT PLUMES IN THE BLACK SEA? REV 135: CM3/SILVER/50/CX17(f5.6,1/500) 3FR,[MEXT SITE: 9N, CHANGE TO CM5] NUMBER I 379 9N: ANATOLIAN FAULT CASPIAN SEA " , UR K E 1 ?%5..lr ? , T 1 1 ? X - / / L / V ^ 134/135 135 1. OBTAIN 6 STEREO PHOTOGRAPHS OF THE ANATOLIAN FAULT ZONE. (FRAME INTERVAL: 6 SECS) 2. CAN YOU SEE ANY SNOW COVER ON TOP OF THE PEAKS? REV 135: CM5/SILVER/50/CX17(f5.6, l /500) 6FR,[NEXT SITE: 9P] 380 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE 90: VOLCANICS 135/136 1. OBTAIN 3 STEREO PHOTOGRAPHS OF VESUVIUS AND OTHER DARK-COLORED VOLCANIC ROCKS. REJM36: CM3/SILVER/250/IF01/0RANGE FILTER(f5.6,1/125) 6FR,[NEXT SITE: 9P] NUMBER 1 381 9P: BIOLUMINESCENCE 135 MARK G.E.T. IF YOU SEE ANY FLICKERS OF LIGHT THAT MAY BE DUE TO BIOLUMINESCENCE IN: ? REV 91: CM3/RED SEA [RECORD LAST FR NO: PAGE 5] 2. REV 135: CM3/PERSIAN GULF AND ARABIAN SEA [RECORD LAST FR MO: PAGE 5] 3. REV 136: CM3/RED SEA AND GULF OF ADEN [RECORD LAST FR NO: PAGE 5] 382 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE SITE 10: AFRICA AND INDIA ? \ i y. . s, \ ?' 4 9. ??? ? W? ? .: '- ; ; / ? ? i NUMBER 1 383 10A: GREAT DIKE 1. COMPARE THE COLOR OF THE GREAT DIKE TO THAT OF THE SURROUNDING ROCK. 2. OBTAIN 3 STEREO PHOTOGRAPHS OF THE DIKE. REV 39: CM3/SILVER/50/IF01/0RANGE FILTER(f5.6,l/500) 3FR,[NEXT SITE: 10B] 384 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE 10B: SOMALI CURRENT AFRICA 1. OBTAIN 3 STEREO PHOTOGRAPHS OF ZAMBEZI RIVER DELTA. 2. OFF THE COAST OF AFRICA, CAN YOU SEE: SEDIMENT PLUMES? CURRENT BOUNDARIES? INTERNAL WAVES? REV 39: CM3/SILVER/50/IF01/0RANGE FILTER(f6.7,1/500) 3FR,[NEXT SITE: IOC] NUMBER 1 385 10C: ARABIAN SEA I N D I A 39 1. CAN YOU SEE CURRENT BOUNDARIES IN THE ARABIAN SEA? 2. OBTAIN 3 STEREO PHOTOGRAPHS OF INTERESTING FEATURES. REV 39: CM3/SILVER/50/IF01/0RANGE FILTER(f6.7,l/500) 3FR,[NEXT SITE: 10D] 386 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE 10D: HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS ALTAI^QUK^Arr^ ^ . ^ -._,_ ? -? \ OBTAIN 20 PHOTOGRAPHS THROUGH CENTER OF CM3 ALONG SOLID BLACK LINE. (FRAME INTERVAL: 10 SECS) REV 39: CM3/SILVER/50/IF01/0RANGE FILTER(f8,1/500) 20FR,[NEXT SITE: 10E] NUMBER 1 387 10E: TAKLA MAKAN DESERT T A K L A M A K A N DESERT 42 1. USE COLOR CHART TO DEFINE DESERT COLORS. 2. WHAT DUNE PATTERNS ARE PREDOMINANT AND DOES COLOR DEPEND ON DUNE PATTERNS? PHOTOGRAPHS; 3 STEREO FRAMES PER TARGET. REV 39: CM3/SILVER/50/IF01/0RANGE FILTER(f8,1/500) 3FR,[RECORD LAST FR NO: PAGE 4] 388 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE SITE 11: AUSTRALIA ? < * ? ^?- ' .-? ? y & .?^s? ? NUMBER 1 389 11 A: PLAYAS *? s ? A U S T R A L I A ?JH??ctVe] ;?, Lake F rome '*' ,*?: N r f f ? V, * , 1. STUDY THE LAKE EYRE REGION AND COMPARE TO THE NIGER RIVER FALSE DELTA (SITE 9H). 2. DESCRIBE AND OBTAIN 3 STEREO PHOTOGRAPHS OF DESERT EROSION AND DUNE PATTERNS. 3. OBTAIN 3 STEREO PHOTOGRAPHS OF MAJOR LINEAMENTS IN THE GREAT DIVIDING RANGE. REV 79: CM3/SILVER/50/CX14(f9.5,l/500) 6FR,[NEXT SITE: 11B] 390 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE 11B: CORAL SEA 79 64 1. ARE THERE ANY SUSPENDED SEDIMENTS OFF THE COAST? 2. OBTAIN 3 STEREO PHOTOGRAPHS OF THE BARRIER REEF. 3. DO YOU SEE ANY WATER EDDIES IN THE CORAL SEA? (CLOUD PATTERNS MAY BE USEFUL IN LOCATING EDDIES) REV 64: CM3/SILVER/250/CX12(f8,1/500) 6FR,[MEXT SITE: 3A] REV 79: CM3/SILVER/50/CX14(f8,1/500) 6FR,[NEXT SITE: 3A] NUMBER 1 391 11C: SIMPSON DESERT 1. USE COLOR CHART TO DEFINE DESERT COLORS. 2. ARE THERE ANY DISTINCT DUNE FIELDS? 3. IS COLOR RELATED TO DUNE TYPE, ORIENTATION OR PROBABLE SOURCE? REV 64: CM3/SILVER/250/CX12(f8,l/250) 3FR,[MEXT SITE: 11B] 392 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE 11D: ANZUS EDDY 123 1. CAN YOU OBSERVE ANY MANIFESTATIONS OF THE "ANZUS EDDY"? (LOOK FOR WATER COLOR, CLOUD PATTERNS OR SEA STATE) 2. OBTAIN 3 STEREO PHOTOGRAPHS OF AREA. REV 123: CM3/SILVER/50/CX16(f4.7,1/250) 6FR,[RECORD LAST FR NO: PAGE 5] NUMBER 1 393 SITE 12: ANTARCTICAN ICE 71/72 394 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE 12A: ICEBERGS 1. PHOTOGRAPH ICEBERGS AND ASSOCIATED SWARMS. 2. IS THERE ANY EVIDENCE OF BERG ROTATION? 3. IF YOU CAN SEE THE EDGE OF ANTARCTICA, OBTAIN 3 STEREO PHOTOGRAPHS. REV 17: CM3/SILVER/250/CX10(fG.7,1/250) 6FR,[NEXT SITE: 1] REV, .72: CM3/SILVER/250/CX12(f6.7,l/250) 6FR,[NEXT SITE: 8A] NUMBER 1 395 PLATE TECTONICS RIFTS, RIDGES & TRANSFORM FAULTS SUBDUCTION ZONES OCEAN FLOOR 396 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE BASIN & RANGE FAULTS TRANSFORM NORMAL (LEFT) LATERAL DRAINAGE PATTERNS ,v, DENDRITIC RADIAL ANNULAR TRELLIS RECTANGULAR NUMBER 1 397 VOLCANOES OCEAN CURRENTS 398 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE JULY CLOUD COVER JULY THUNDERSTORMS >10 DAYS TROPICAL STORMS NUMBER 1 399 OCEAN BIOCOLORS ZOOPLANKTON UPWELLING EDDY GYRE ?') / / 400 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE SAND SEAS DUNES LINEAR CRESCENTIC PARABOLIC ftU.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1977 0?232-501