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Journal of Ethnopharmacology 116 (2008) 469?482
Continuity and change in the Mediterranean medical tradition:
Ruta spp. (rutaceae) in Hippocratic medicine
and present practices
A. Pollio a, A. De Natale b, E. Appetiti c, G. Aliotta d, A. Touwaide c,?
a Dipartimento delle Scienze Biologiche, Sezione di Biologia Vegetale, University ?Federico II? of Naples,
Via Foria 223, 80139 Naples, Italy
b Dipartimento Ar.Bo.Pa.Ve, University ?Federico II? of Naples, Via Universita` 100, 80055 Portici (NA), Italy
c Department of Botany, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, PO Box 37012,
Washington, DC 20013-7012, USA
d Dipartimento di Scienze della Vita, Seconda Universita` di Napoli, Via Vivaldi, Caserta, Italy
Received 3 October 2007; received in revised form 20 December 2007; accepted 20 December 2007
Available online 3 January 2008
Abstract
Ethnopharmacological relevance: Ruta is a genus of Rutaceae family. It features mainly shrubby plants, native to the Mediterranean region and
present in traditional medicine of this region since Antiquity. The three most diffused species Ruta chalepensis L., Ruta graveolens L., and Ruta
montana (L.) L., are morphologically poorly differentiated and were probably interchangeably used during Antiquity.
Aim of the study: Hippocratic and contemporary medical applications of the Ruta genus in the Mediterranean were compared to check if they
result from a continuity of use from the ancient times to nowadays.
Results: Ruta spp. was mainly employed in medical preparations by Hippocratic physicians as an abortifacient and emmenagogue. In addition
to gynaecological conditions, in several treatises of the Corpus Hippocraticum Ruta spp. were also recommended as a specific remedy against
pulmonary diseases. Ruta spp. leaves and also roots and seeds, were administered for internal use by Hippocratic physicians after having been
soaked in wine or mixed with honey or its derivatives. Contemporary traditional uses of Ruta spp. have been assessed in detail in the whole
Mediterranean area.
Conclusion: Nowadays, Ruta spp. is used to treat different conditions but, as a general rule, the external uses are preferred as the toxicity of the
plant is widely acknowledged.
? 2008 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Corpus Hippocraticum; Ethnobotany; Traditional plant use; Medicinal plants
1. Introduction
In his recent synthesis on traditional uses of plants in Italy, the
ethnobotanist Paolo Maria Guarrera lists 100+ uses for the fol-
lowing species of Ruta: Ruta angustifolia Pers., Ruta chalepensis
L., Ruta corsica DC., and Ruta graveolens L. (Guarrera, 2006).
All these species are shrubs, whose bluish-green leaves emit a
powerful odour and have a bitter taste. Ruta spp. is among the
most-used genera in contemporary Italian traditional medicine,
economic botany, and folk life. Such possible intensive use is not
? Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 202 633 0967; fax: +1 202 633 0967.
E-mail address: touwaida@si.edu (A. Touwaide).
specific to Italy, but is also documented for other geographical
areas of the Mediterranean (Boulos, 1983; Aliotta et al., 1995;
San Miguel, 2003) and other continents (Penso, 1983). Signifi-
cantly, the Ruta genus (family Rutaceae) was already abundantly
used in the most ancient systematic record of medical practice of
the Mediterranean world, the so-called Corpus Hippocraticum,
that is, the collection of 62 treatises written between the 5th cen-
tury BCE and the 2nd century CE that were attributed at a certain
point of time to Hippocrates (b. 465 ? d. between 375 and 350
BCE). In this paper, we compare the Hippocratic and contempo-
rary medical applications of the Ruta genus in the Mediterranean
basin in order to verify possible similarities and, should they be
numerous and significant enough, to check if they result from a
continuity of use from the ancient times to nowadays.
0378-8741/$ ? see front matter ? 2008 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jep.2007.12.013
Author's personal copy
470 A. Pollio et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 116 (2008) 469?482
2. Materials and methods
Outlines of Ruta spp. in ancient literature
The first therapeutic indications of Ruta spp. (called pe?ganon;
see below for the discussion of the identification) in ancient
Greek medical literature can be found in nine Hippocratic trea-
tises, none of which is by Hippocrates himself. The treatises
are listed below (English and most commonly used Latin titles)
in their plausible chronological order with some information
on their origin and contents (Jouanna, 1992) and with refer-
ences to their original text (Greek) and translation (English or
French):
? Diseases III (De morbis III) (Hippocrates vol. VI, translator
Potter, 1988): this work contains the description of a certain
number of diseases ordered from head to toe (a capite ad
calcem). Data are from the so-called School of Cnidus and
are usually dated to the middle or end of the 5th century BCE.
? Diseases II (De morbis II) (Hippocrates vol. V, translator
Potter, 1988): the medical information in this treatise, similar
to that in Diseases III and arranged in the same way, probably
dates back to mid-5th century BCE, even though the work
itself might have been written later. It is generally believed
that the material at the origin of the work comes from the
so-called School of Cnidus.
? Nature of women (De natura muliebri) (Hippocrates vol. VII,
translator Littre?, 1851): as for the previous treatise, the infor-
mation contained in this work is of the mid-5th century BCE,
although the work itself was written sometime later. The title
does not correspond to the contents, but to a first section that
was added later. The main part of the work is made of descrip-
tions of diseases, mainly of the womb, as in the previous
two.
? Diseases of women I-II (De morbis mulierum I-II)
(Hippocrates vol. VIII, translator Littre?, 1853): this is a col-
lection of mid-5th century BCE data.
? Sterile women (De sterilitate mulierum) (Hippocrates vol.
VIII, translator Littre?, 1853): the data in this treatise are of
the same period and origin as those of the previous, that is,
mid-5th century and the supposed School of Cnidus. How-
ever, such data have been reorganized and rewritten (possibly
several times), perhaps in the 4th century. Both deal with the
diseases of women from menarche to pregnancy, childbirth
to sterility. They also include lists of remedies.
? Internal affections (De affectionibus interioribus)
(Hippocrates vol. VI, translator Potter, 1988): this work
probably comes from the so-called School of Cnidus and
might be attributed to the years 400-390 BCE. It is a series
of reports on clinical cases ordered without strict head to toe
regularity.
? Ulcers (De vulneribus) (Hippocrates vol. VIII, translator
Potter, 1995): a 5th/4th century BCE work, this treatise deals
with certain wounds, including ulcers. In the second part, it
lists medicines for their treatment.
? Regimen (Regimen) Hippocrates. et al. (1931)(Hippocrates
vol. IV, translator Jones, 1931): though similar in contents to
the Hippocratic treatises from the supposed School of Kos,
this is a rather independent work, traditionally dated to the
5th or the 4th century BCE.
? Affections (De affectionibus) (Hippocrates vol. V, translator
Potter, 1988): this work, which can probably be dated to the
380s BCE, somewhat resembles other Hippocratic treatises
from the Cnidian School, although it also differs substantially
from Cnidus teaching.
Data collected from these works were complemented by
means of additional medical and scientific literature, listed here
in chronological order:
? the Problems (Proble?mata) (Aristotle, books 1?21, translator
Hett, 1978): once attributed to Aristotle himself (384?322
BCE), they are now more correctly attributed to his school,
being notebooks in which the teachers and students of the
school wrote down both the scientific questions they were
interested in and the solutions each of them could bring over
time. This explains why some questions have been repeatedly
treated, sometimes in contradictory ways.
? De materia medica (in Greek peri ule?s iatrike?s, Greek text
by Wellmann, 1906?1914 and English translation by Beck,
2005) by Dioscorides (1st century CE). Often considered as
herbal, the work is in fact an encyclopaedia of the natural
products from the three reigns (vegetal, mineral, and animal)
used at Dioscorides? time, and known to him, for therapeutic
purposes.
? the Natural History (Naturalis Historia) of the encyclopaedist
Pliny (23/24-79 CE). In this all-encompassing work made of
38 books (each devoted to a specific topic), Pliny analysed
the medicinal uses of plants in books 20?27 (Jones, 1951,
1956).
Finally, medical and therapeutic elements need to be com-
plemented with botanical information. The main source on this
point is the work traditionally known as Historia plantarum, but
more correctly cited as Enquiry into plants (1916?1926), by the
so-called Father of Botany, Theophrastus (387?278 BCE), as
well as another work by the same author, De causis plantarum
(1976?1990).
As for data on contemporary uses of Ruta spp., they have been
collected from modern ethnobotanical literature mentioned in
the bibliographical list at the end of the article and summarized
in Table 2.
Data on the uses of medicinal plants in the Corpus Hippo-
craticum have been compiled on the basis of the original Greek
text by Alain Touwaide and databased by Emanuela Appetiti
(ACCESS database). This material has already permitted a first
analysis of the uses of plants in the Corpus Hippocraticum
(Aliotta et al., 2003). Additional work is underway by Alain
Touwaide. Traditional medical indications of Ruta spp. cur-
rently used for therapeutic purposes in Mediterranean area have
been collected from the literature listed below and databased by
Antonino De Natale (Table 2).
Author's personal copy
A. Pollio et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 116 (2008) 469?482 471
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Identi?cation of pe?ganon as Ruta spp. in ancient texts
An abundant literature has been devoted to the identifica-
tion of the plants mentioned in ancient literature according to
Linnean binomial nomenclature (Touwaide, 1997, 1998; for
the Corpus Hippocraticum more specifically, also see Moisan,
1990). The historian of medieval botany and herbalism Jerry
Stannard (1961) renewed the question by suggesting to combine
philological and phytogeographical data, and to complete these
data with the morphological information to be found in Enquiry
into plants by Theophrastus, which was written approximately
a century after the most ancient treatises of the Corpus Hippo-
craticum. More recently, an interdisciplinary research conducted
by a team associating philology, botany, and pharmacology
(Aliotta et al., 2003) concluded that many authors who have
worked on the topic since the early 19th century generally agree
on the identification of a large majority of the plants men-
tioned in the Corpus Hippocraticum. Such a conclusion has been
confirmed by Buenz et al. (2004), for whom the identification
of the plant-based prescriptions in the Corpus Hippocraticum
? supposedly totalling 257 items ? is uncertain for only 11
plants.
Post-Linnean authors are almost unanimous in considering
that the Greek phytonym pe?ganon corresponds to the ever-
green shrub Ruta graveolens L. (Andre?, 1985). The plant is not
described in any of the treatises of the Corpus Hippocraticum,
maybe because it was well known, as its high number of thera-
peutic uses suggest. The earliest botanical descriptions of it are
found in Theophrastus? Enquiry into plants (HP) and De causis
plantarum (CP). Ruta spp. is described sometimes as a typical
evergreen undershrub (HP 1.3.1 and 1.9.4) and sometimes as
a vegetable (CP 2.5.3, 6.14.7, 6.14.12, 6.20.1). As an under-
shrub it can assume a tree habit (HP 1.3.4), with dry wood (HP
6.7.3) and fleshy leaves (HP 1.10.4), which can degenerate (HP
1.9.4). Theophrastus also affirms that Ruta spp. was a cultivated
pot-herb (HP 7.4.1), although he is ambiguous about the exis-
tence of a wild and a cultivated species: while early in HP he
affirms that only one species of the plant was known (HP 7.4.1),
later on in the same treatise he affirms that the cultivated plant
differs somewhat from the wild one, this latter having ?leaves
and stalks smaller and rougher?, and being ?more pungent and
stronger in taste? (HP 7.6.1). Similarly in CP, when he anal-
yses the difference in fragrance in cultivated and wild species
of Ruta spp., he affirms that fragrance can become too pungent
in wild varieties (CP 6.20.1; the text is significant, defining the
wild variety as resembling the cultivated one, without clearly
distinguishing the characteristics of the wild species). He may
have grouped a variety of plants under the name pe?ganon as
is shown by his comment that ?various plants are called Ruta
spp.? (HP 1.10.4). Whatever the case, according to Theophras-
tus, Ruta spp. is propagated through a cutting from a branch
(HP 2.1.3 and 7.2.1) or from a detached sucker, as well as
from other parts (CP 1.4.2). Seed propagation is also possible,
although, according to Theophrastus, some deny it because it is
slow (HP 7.2.1). The plant dislikes dung (HP 7.5.1) and ben-
efits from saline water as is shown by the fact that it improves
when watered with it (CP 2.5.3). To paraphrase the Greek text,
ashes are applied to its roots to protect them from worms and
decomposition (CP 3.17.1), and the plant gets hard and dry, but,
when it has grown up again after being cut down, it is larger,
finer, and juicier (CP 3.19.2). When growing ?in a fig tree?,
it is of the best quality as fig juice feeds Ruta spp. and pro-
vides a remedy to Ruta spp. if necessary as it is hot (CP 5.6.10).
The fragrance of the plant is analysed in some detail in CP.
It is defined as dry, pungent, and astringent, and considered to
occur not in the fruit, but in the other parts of the plant (CP
6.14.7). Such fragrance becomes worse when dryness goes too
far, and is too pungent and harsh (CP 6.14.12). In such case, it
is as pungent and untempered as to become disagreeable (CP
6.16.7).
In the Problems from Aristotle?s school, Ruta spp. is mainly
mentioned as a cultivated and edible plant, often associated with
figs and eaten at the beginning of meals, since it was thought
valuable against evil-eye (Aristotle, books 1-21, translator Hett,
1978).
Dioscorides in De Materia Medica (3.45) does not add any
new element to Theophrastus? description. However, he more
clearly affirms the existence of a wild species which he considers
harsher than the cultivated species and unfit to eat, just like the
species growing in mountains. Also he explicitly mentions that
the cultivated species growing close to fig trees is more edible.
Pliny gives some information in Naturalis Historia, partic-
ularly on the cultivation of Ruta spp. For him, indeed, it is
sown in spring and after the autumn equinox (19.156), grows
both from seeds and cuttings (19.121), and blossoms in a bunch
(19.100).
In spite of this good general correspondence between the
characteristics of Ruta spp. in Theophrastus and those of Ruta
graveolens L., it cannot be excluded that other members of
the genus Ruta could have been collected and used by Hip-
pocratic physicians time for the same medicinal purposes as
Ruta graveolens L. The centre of diversity for Ruta spp. cov-
ers indeed the entire Mediterranean area, with some species
endemic only to Corsica and the Canary Islands, and others with
a larger distribution not necessarily limited to the Mediterranean
area but extending to Africa, Asia, and the American conti-
nent. The species with the widest diffusion are Ruta chalepensis
L. (including Ruta angustifolia Pers.) and Ruta graveolens
L., the latter also being frequently cultivated. Ruta montana
(L.) L. is also widespread in the Mediterranean area, mainly
in dry and rocky habitats (Tutin et al., 1968). The taxonomy
of Ruta spp. is based on the floral morphology, and species
limits are not currently well known, but are the object of a
continuing study of species boundaries and biogeographic pat-
terns (Salvo and Conti, in press). Ruta graveolens L., Ruta
chalepensis L. (included the variety angustifolia) and Ruta mon-
tana (L.) L. might have been confused (or associated) by the
physicians of the Corpus Hippocraticum, particularly because
the flower of the three species is neither described nor men-
tioned as a descriptor in ancient medical texts, and all three
species have partially overlapping geographical distribution pat-
terns.
Author's personal copy
472 A. Pollio et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 116 (2008) 469?482
Ta
ble
1
Ru
e(p
e?g
an
on
)in
Hi
pp
oc
rat
ic
tre
ati
ses
M
ed
ici
na
lu
se
s
Pr
ep
ara
tio
n
Ot
he
rp
lan
ts
in
the
sa
m
e
m
ed
ici
ne
Ide
nti
fic
ati
on
of
the
pla
nts
Hi
pp
oc
rat
ic
tre
ati
se
Ab
ort
ive
(po
tion
)
(a)
Ru
e,
m
int
ha
,
an
dk
or
ian
no
nw
ith
po
w
de
red
ked
ros
or
ku
pa
rit
tos
w
oo
d,
dru
nk
en
in
w
ine
.(b
)H
yd
rom
el
m
ixt
ure
of
ro
ots
of
ru
e
an
d
lap
ath
on
,
w
ith
as
he
sa
nd
shr
im
ps
m
ac
er
ate
di
nw
ine
(a1
)M
int
ha
;(a
2)k
or
ian
no
n;
(a3
)ke
dro
s;
(a4
)ku
pa
rit
tos
.
(b)
La
pa
tho
n
(a1
)M
en
tha
sp.
,M
en
tha
sp
ica
ta
L.;
(a2
)C
ori
an
dru
m
sa
tiv
um
L.;
(a3
)
Ju
nip
eru
so
xy
ce
dru
sL
.s
.l.;
(a4
)C
up
res
su
s
se
m
pe
rvi
ren
s
L.
(b)
Ru
me
x
co
ng
lom
era
tu
sM
urr
ay,
Ru
ta
pa
tie
nti
aL
.
Mo
rb.
m
ul.
,
I,7
8
Mo
rb.
m
ul.
,
I,9
1
An
gin
a(t
hro
at)
Le
av
es
of
ru
e,
m
int
ha
,
or
iga
no
n,
se
lin
on
an
dt
hu
mb
ra,
m
ac
er
ate
dw
ith
nit
ron
(so
da)
in
m
eli
kra
to
n
(ho
ney
an
dw
ate
r)a
nd
dil
ute
dw
ith
w
ate
r
an
dv
ine
ga
r(e
xte
rn
al
us
e:
ga
rgl
es)
(1)
Mi
nth
a;
(2)
or
iga
no
n;
(3)
se
lin
on
;(4
)
thu
mb
ra
(1)
Me
nth
as
p.,
Me
nth
as
pic
ata
L.;
(2)
Or
iga
nu
m
sp.
,O
rig
an
um
vu
lga
re
L.
s.
l.,
Or
iga
nu
m
vu
lga
re
L.
su
bsp
.v
iri
du
lum
(M
arti
n-D
ono
s)N
ym
an
;(3
)
Ap
ium
gr
av
eo
len
sL
.,P
etr
os
eli
nu
m
cr
isp
um
(M
ill.)
A.
W.
Hi
ll;
(4)
Sa
tur
eja
thy
mb
ra
L.,
Th
ym
bra
sp
ica
ta
L.
Mo
rb.
,
II,
26
Co
nc
ep
tio
n(t
oh
elp
to
co
nc
eiv
e)
Af
ter
an
em
eti
cp
oti
on
,le
ave
s
of
ru
e
ar
e
ke
pt
in
the
no
se
an
di
nt
he
ea
rs
w
hil
et
he
w
om
an
sle
ep
s
Mo
rb.
m
ul.
,
I,7
5
De
liv
er
yo
fp
lac
en
ta
Po
tio
no
fr
ue
in
bla
ck
sw
ee
tw
ine
,o
rr
ue
m
ixe
dw
ith
ho
ne
y
Mo
rb.
m
ul.
,
I,4
5
De
liv
er
yo
fp
lac
en
ta
To
ea
tc
oo
ke
d k
ram
be?
w
ith
ru
e
an
dl
ino
zo?s
tis
(1)
Kr
am
be?
;(2
)li
no
zo?s
tis
(1)
Br
as
sic
ac
re
tic
aL
am
.,B
ra
ss
ica
ole
rac
ea
L.;
(2)
Me
rcu
ria
lis
an
nu
a
L.
Mo
rb.
m
ul.
,
I,4
5
Di
et
(to
dry
the
bo
dy
)
Ru
ei
si
nc
lud
ed
am
on
gt
he
foo
ds
tha
t?
dry
the
bo
dy
?
Aff.
,
43
Em
me
na
go
gu
e(p
otio
n)
Po
tio
no
fk
rit
he?
str
aw
m
ac
er
ate
di
nw
ate
r,
w
ith
oil
,p
ow
de
red
ru
e
an
d
kra
m
be?
lea
ve
s
(1)
Kr
ith
e?;
(2)
kra
m
be?
(1)
Ho
rde
um
dis
tic
ho
nL
.,H
ord
eu
m
vu
lga
re
L.;
(2)
Br
as
sic
ac
re
tic
aL
am
.,
Br
as
sic
ao
ler
ac
ea
L.
Na
t.m
ul.
,
59
Gy
ne
co
log
ic
aff
ect
ion
Fu
mi
ga
tio
nw
ith
co
m
pre
sse
sm
ad
eo
fp
ow
de
red
as
ph
alt
fro
m
Za
ky
nth
os
isl
an
d,
ha
re?
s
ha
ir,
ru
e,
dry
ko
ria
nn
on
Ko
ria
nn
on
Co
ria
nd
rum
sa
tiv
um
L.
Mo
rb.
m
ul.
,
II,
20
6
Gy
ne
co
log
ic
aff
ect
ion
Pe
ssa
ry
m
ad
eo
fk
ram
be?
an
dr
ue
Kr
am
be?
Br
as
sic
ac
re
tic
aL
am
.,B
ra
ss
ica
ole
rac
ea
L.
Mo
rb.
m
ul.
,
I,7
4N
at.
m
ul.
,
10
9
Hy
ste
ria
(gy
nec
olo
gic
ala
ffe
cti
on
)
M
ixt
ure
of
su
lfu
r,k
ard
am
o?m
on
,
ru
e
an
dk
um
ino
na
ith
iop
iko
n
in
w
ine
(1)
Ka
rda
mo?
m
on
;(2
)ku
mi
no
na
ith
iop
iko
n
(1)
Ele
tta
ria
ca
rda
mo
mu
m
(L.
)M
ato
n;
(2)
Cu
mi
nu
m
cy
mi
nu
m
L.
Na
t.m
ul.
,
68
Infl
am
ma
tio
na
ro
un
dw
ou
nd
s(p
oul
tice
,
ex
ter
na
lu
se
)
Ma
lac
he?
lea
ve
s
po
un
de
di
nw
ine
,w
ith
lea
ve
s
of
ru
e
an
do
rig
an
on
ch
lo?r
e?
m
ixe
dw
ith
lin
see
ds
ro
as
ted
an
dp
ow
de
red
(1)
Ma
lac
he?
;(2
)or
iga
no
nc
hlo?
r e?
;(3
)li
no
n
(1)
Ma
lva
pu
sil
la
Sm
.a
nd
/or
Ma
lva
syl
ves
tri
sL
.;(2
)O
rig
an
um
vu
lga
re
L.
su
bsp
.v
iri
du
lum
(M
arti
n-D
ono
s)N
ym
an
;(3
)L
inu
m
us
ita
tis
sim
um
L.
Vu
ln.
,1
1
M
en
str
ua
lfl
ow
s
(me
tror
rha
gia
)
Se
ed
so
fs
eli
no
n,
kn
ide?
,
m
e?ko?
n
w
ith
ba
rle
yfl
ou
r,e
lai
ag
all
,n
ut
ga
ll,
er
us
im
on
,
gle?
ch
o?n
,
m
ixe
dl
eg
um
es,
or
iga
no
n,
an
dr
ue
in
w
ate
r
(1)
Se
lin
on
;(2
)kn
ide?
;(3
)m
e?ko?
n;
(4)
ela
ia;
(5)
er
us
im
on
;(6
)gl
e?c
ho?
n;
(7)
or
iga
no
n
(1)
Ap
ium
gr
av
eo
len
sL
.,P
etr
os
eli
nu
m
cr
isp
um
(M
ill.)
A.
W.
Hi
ll;
(2)
Ur
tic
ad
ioi
ca
L.,
Ur
tic
au
re
ns
L.,
Ur
tic
ap
ilu
life
raL
.;(3
)Pa
pa
ve
r
so
m
nife
rum
L.
or
no
tid
en
tifi
ed
;(4
)O
lea
eu
ro
pa
ea
L.;
(5)
Sis
ym
bri
um
of?
cin
ale
(L.
)S
co
p.;
Sis
ym
bri
um
po
lyc
era
tiu
m
L.;
(6)
Me
nth
ap
ule
giu
m
L.;
(7)
Or
iga
nu
m
sp.
,O
rig
an
um
vu
lga
re
L.
s.
l.,
Or
iga
nu
m
vu
lga
re
L.
su
bsp
.
vir
idu
lum
(M
arti
n-D
ono
s)N
ym
an
Mo
rb.
m
ul.
,
II,
11
3
Pe
rip
ne
um
on
ia
(po
tion
)
Ak
ale?
fe?,
ar
on
m
eg
a,
da
uk
os
,n
ap
u,
ru
e,
an
ds
il?o
nju
ice
,
m
ixe
di
n
ho
ne
ya
nd
vin
eg
ar
an
dd
iss
olv
ed
in
w
ate
r
(1)
Ak
ale?
fe?;
(2)
ar
on
m
eg
a;
(3)
da
uk
os
;(4
)
na
pu
;(5
)si
l?o
n
(1)
Ur
tic
ad
ioi
ca
L.,
Ur
tic
au
re
ns
L.;
(2)
Ar
um
ita
lic
um
M
ill.
s.
l.,
Ar
um
m
ac
ula
tum
L.;
(3)
Ath
am
an
ta
cr
ete
ns
is
L.,
Ma
lab
ail
aa
ur
ea
(Si
bth
.et
Sm
.)
Bo
iss
.;(4
)B
ra
ss
ica
nig
ra
(L.
)W
.
D.
J.K
oc
h,
Sin
ap
is
alb
aL
.s
.l.;
(5)
un
kn
ow
n
(Fe
ru
la
tin
git
an
aL
.?)
Mo
rb.
III
,1
5
Ph
thi
sis
(7,
19
6,
17
)
Ru
e,
m
int
ha
,
ko
ria
nn
on
,
fre
sh
m
e?ko?
n,
o?k
im
on
,
fak
os
,
juic
eof
ro
e?
glu
kei
e?
an
dr
oe?
oin
o?d
e?s
m
ac
er
ate
di
na
m
ixt
ure
of
bla
ck
sw
ee
tw
ine
an
dw
ate
ra
nd
m
ixe
dw
ith
or
ob
os
flo
ur,
po
ult
ice
of
kri
the?
an
dg
rat
ed
go
at?
s
ch
ees
e
(1)
Se
lin
on
;(2
)an
e?th
on
;(3
)m
int
ha
;(4
)
ko
ria
nn
on
;(5
)m
e?ko?
n;
(6)
o?k
im
on
;(7
)fa
kos
;
(8)
ro
e?
glu
kei
e?
an
dr
oe?
oin
o?d
e?s
;(9
)or
ob
os;
(10
)kr
ith
e?
(1)
Ap
ium
gr
av
eo
len
sL
.,P
etr
os
eli
nu
m
cr
isp
um
(M
ill.)
A.
W.
Hi
ll;
(2)
An
eth
um
gr
av
eo
len
sL
.;(3
)M
en
tha
sp.
,M
en
tha
sp
ica
ta
L.;
(4)
Co
ria
nd
rum
sa
tiv
um
L.;
(5)
Pa
pa
ve
rs
om
nife
rum
L.
or
no
tid
en
tifi
ed
;(6
)O
cim
um
ba
sil
icu
m
L.;
(7)
Le
ns
cu
lin
ari
sM
ed
ik.
;(8
)P
un
ica
gr
an
at
um
L.;
(9)
Vic
ia
er
vil
ia
(L.
)W
illd
.;(1
0)H
ord
eu
m
dis
tic
ho
nL
.,H
ord
eu
m
vu
lga
re
L.
Aff.
int
.,1
2
Ph
thi
sis
(lar
ynx
)
Ru
ei
sa
m
on
gt
he
few
po
t-h
erb
sin
clu
de
di
nt
his
ali
me
nta
ry
re
gim
en
Mo
rb.
,
II,
50
Ple
uri
sy
(pe
ripn
eum
oni
e)
Ru
e,
thu
mb
ra,
ele
lis
fak
on
,
or
iga
no
ni
nw
ine
(1)
Ele
lis
fak
on
;(2
)or
iga
no
n;
(3)
thu
mb
ra
(1)
Sa
lvi
as
p.
pl.
;(2
)O
rig
an
um
sp.
,O
rig
an
um
vu
lga
re
L.
s.
l.,
Or
iga
nu
m
vu
lga
re
L.
su
bsp
.v
iri
du
lum
(M
arti
n-D
ono
s)N
ym
an
;(3
)Sa
tur
eja
thy
mb
ra
L.,
Th
ym
bra
sp
ica
ta
L.
Mo
rb.
,
II,
47
Po
st
pa
rtu
m
aff
ect
ion
Po
tio
no
fp
ow
de
red
se
ed
so
fk
re?t
hm
on
,
se
se
lia
nd
ru
e,
in
w
ine
(1)
Kr
e?th
mo
n;
(2)
se
se
li
(1)
Cr
ith
mu
m
m
ar
itim
um
L.;
(2)
Mo
lop
osp
erm
um
pe
lep
on
ne
sia
cu
m
(L.
)
Ko
ch
,T
or
dy
liu
m
of?
cin
ale
L.
Mo
rb.
m
ul.
,
I,7
8
Po
st
pa
rtu
m
aff
ect
ion
Ru
ei
nw
ine
is
qu
ote
da
m
on
go
the
rr
em
ed
ies
for
thi
sa
ffe
cti
on
Ste
r.,
23
4
Po
st-
pa
rtu
m
fev
er
So
up
of
ru
e
flo
ur
Mo
rb.
m
ul.
,
I,3
5
Pr
eg
na
nc
y(p
rob
lem
s)
Su
lfu
r,r
ue
,k
ard
am
o?m
on
,
an
dk
um
ino
na
ith
iop
iko
n
po
w
de
red
an
d
dis
sol
ve
di
nw
ine
(1)
Ka
rda
mo?
m
on
;(2
)ku
mi
no
na
ith
iop
iko
n
(1)
Ele
tta
ria
ca
rda
mo
mu
m
(L.
)M
ato
n;
(2)
Cu
mi
nu
m
cy
mi
nu
m
L.
Mo
rb.
m
ul.
,
I,3
4
Pu
lm
on
ary
ap
op
lex
y
Ele
lis
fak
on
,
thu
mb
ra,
or
iga
no
n,
up
eri
ko
na
nd
ru
e
m
ixe
dw
ith
ba
rle
y
flo
ur
in
sw
ee
tw
ine
(1)
Ele
lis
fak
on
;(2
)or
iga
no
n;
(3)
thu
mb
ra;
(4)
up
eri
ko
n
(1)
Sa
lvi
as
p.
pl.
;(2
)O
rig
an
um
sp.
,O
rig
an
um
vu
lga
re
L.
s.
l.,
Or
iga
nu
m
vu
lga
re
L.
su
bsp
.v
iri
du
lum
(M
arti
n-D
ono
s)N
ym
an
;(3
)Sa
tur
eja
thy
mb
ra
L.,
Th
ym
bra
sp
ica
ta
L.;
(4)
Hy
pe
ric
um
co
ris
L.,
Hy
pe
ric
um
em
pe
tri
foli
um
W
illd
.,H
yp
eri
cu
m
tri
qu
etr
ifol
ium
Tu
rr
a
Mo
rb.
,
II,
64
Sp
lee
na
ffe
cti
on
s
Di
et
Aff.
int
.,3
0
Author's personal copy
A. Pollio et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 116 (2008) 469?482 473
Ta
bl
e
1
(C
on
tin
ue
d)
M
ed
ic
in
al
u
se
s
Pr
ep
ar
at
io
n
O
th
er
pl
an
ts
in
th
e
sa
m
e
m
ed
ic
in
e
Id
en
tifi
ca
tio
n
o
ft
he
pl
an
ts
H
ip
po
cr
at
ic
tr
ea
tis
e
U
te
rin
er
u
si
pe
la
s(
infl
am
ma
tio
n)
Le
av
es
o
fa
kt
e?
bo
ile
d
w
ith
ru
e
(or
o
ri
ga
no
n
o
r
th
um
br
a
)
(1)
Ak
te?
(2.
o
ri
ga
no
n
o
r
3.
th
um
br
a
)
(1)
Sa
m
bu
cu
s
eb
u
lu
sL
.,
Sa
m
bu
cu
s
n
ig
ra
L.
;(
2.
O
rig
an
um
sp
.,
O
rig
an
um
vu
lg
ar
e
L.
s.
l.,
O
rig
an
um
vu
lg
ar
e
L.
su
bs
p.
vi
ri
du
lu
m
(M
art
in-
Do
no
s)
N
ym
an
;3
.S
at
ur
eja
th
ym
br
a
L.
,T
hy
m
br
a
sp
ic
at
a
L.
)
M
or
b.
m
u
l.,
II
,1
74
bi
s
U
te
rin
e
af
fe
ct
io
ns
R
ue
le
av
es
an
d
se
ed
sa
re
in
cl
ud
ed
in
po
tio
ns
u
se
fu
la
ga
in
st
u
te
rin
e
af
fe
ct
io
ns
Na
t.
m
u
l.,
32
U
te
rin
e
su
ffo
ca
tio
n
Ag
no
sa
n
d
gl
uk
us
id
e?
se
ed
s,
o
r
a
br
o
to
no
n
o
r
pa
na
ke
s,
a
m
m
o?
n
ia
ko
n
,
ru
e,
jui
ce
o
fm
e?k
o?
n
io
n
u
pn
o?
tik
o
n
,
al
li
n
w
in
e
w
at
er
o
fr
u
e
(m
ac
era
tio
n)
is
qu
ot
ed
am
o
n
g
o
th
er
re
m
ed
ie
sf
or
th
is
af
fe
ct
io
n
(1)
Ag
no
s;
(2)
gl
uk
us
id
e?;
(3)
a
br
o
to
no
n;
(4)
pa
na
ke
s;
(5)
a
m
m
o?
n
ia
ko
n
;(
6)
m
e?k
o?
n
(1)
Vi
te
x
a
gn
us
-c
as
tu
sL
.;
(2)
Pa
eo
n
ia
o
f?c
ina
lis
L.
;(
3)
Ar
te
m
isi
a
a
rb
or
es
ce
n
s
L.
;(
4)
O
po
pa
na
x
ch
iro
n
iu
m
(L
.)K
o
ch
,E
ch
in
op
ho
ra
te
nu
ifo
lia
L.
,F
er
u
la
go
ca
m
pe
st
ri
s(
Be
sse
r)
G
re
c.
;(
5)
Fe
ru
la
o
ri
en
ta
lis
L.
;D
or
em
a
a
m
m
o
n
ia
cu
m
D
.D
on
;(
6)
Pa
pa
ve
rs
o
m
n
ife
ru
m
L.
o
r
n
o
ti
de
nt
ifi
ed
M
or
b.
m
u
l.,
II
,2
01
U
te
ru
sh
ar
de
ni
ng
Ca
ta
pl
as
m
at
a
m
ad
e
w
ith
a
de
co
ct
io
n
o
fb
ar
le
y
o
r
w
he
at
flo
ur
w
ith
ru
e
M
or
b.
m
u
l.,
II
,1
61
U
te
ru
ss
hi
fti
ng
Fu
m
ig
at
io
n
o
fk
up
ei
ro
s,
ka
la
m
os
;s
ch
oi
no
sm
u
re
ps
ik
e?;
ka
rd
am
o?
m
o
n
;
ku
m
in
on
a
ith
io
pi
ko
n
;a
n
n
e?s
o
n
;u
pe
ri
ko
n
;m
a
ra
th
on
an
d
dr
ie
d
ru
e
in
w
hi
te
,v
er
y
o
do
ro
us
an
d
as
tr
in
ge
nt
w
in
e
(1)
Ku
pe
iro
s;
(2)
ka
la
m
os
;(
3)
sc
ho
in
os
m
u
re
ps
ik
e?;
(4)
ka
rd
am
o?
m
o
n
;(
5)
ku
m
in
on
a
ith
io
pi
ko
n
;(
6)
a
n
n
e?s
o
n
;(
7)
u
pe
ri
ko
n
;(
8)
m
a
ra
th
on
(1)
Cy
pe
ru
sl
on
gu
sL
.,
Cy
pe
ru
sr
o
tu
nd
us
L.
;(2
)(
un
ce
rta
in)
Ac
or
us
ca
la
m
us
L.
;(
3)
An
dr
o
po
go
n
sc
ho
en
an
th
us
L.
,C
ym
bo
po
go
n
n
a
rd
us
(L
.)R
en
dl
e;
(4)
El
et
ta
ria
ca
rd
am
om
um
(L
.)M
at
on
;(
5)
Cu
m
in
um
cy
m
in
um
L.
;(
6)
Pi
m
pi
ne
lla
a
n
is
um
L.
;(
7)
H
yp
er
ic
um
co
ri
sL
.,
H
yp
er
ic
um
em
pe
tr
ifo
liu
m
W
ill
d.
,H
yp
er
ic
um
tr
iq
ue
tr
ifo
liu
m
Tu
rr
a;
(8)
Fo
en
ic
ul
um
vu
lg
ar
e
M
ill
.
M
or
b.
m
u
l.,
II
,1
33
3.2. Therapeutic uses of Ruta spp. in the Corpus
Hippocraticum
3.2.1. Therapeutic indications
The several therapeutic uses of pe?ganon in the Hippocratic
treatises listed above are presented in Table 1 and can be sum-
marized as follows. Ruta spp. was prescribed to treat pulmonary
diseases (Morb. III, 15 and Morb. II 47 and 64), included phthi-
sis (Aff. Int.,12; Morb. II, 50), which might correspond at least in
part to modern tuberculosis (Stannard, 1961). Ruta spp. draughts
were also used as a gargle against throat angina (Morb II, 26),
and to reduce a swelling of the spleen, which might be one of the
symptoms of malaria (Aff. Int., 30). Ruta spp. is also included
among the herbs employed externally to cure wounds (Vuln.,
11).
The major number of therapeutic uses of Ruta spp. is in the
field of gynaecology. Ruta spp. was mainly used for the treatment
of various ailments of the womb, which are not necessarily well
identified. Usteria, for example, which does not correspond by
any means to the process described by this term in modern neu-
ropsychiatry, was considered to be a move of the uterus within
the female body. In so doing, it could disturb respiration, pro-
voking the so-called uterine suffocation, as well as other vital
functions. It seems reasonable to consider that the term was a
generic one to designate any kind of uterine condition (Potter,
1990). Ruta spp. was also prescribed for menses disturbance,
be it their regulation, amenorrhea or excess. It was administered
both as an abortive and to help conception. It was prescribed
to treat all the possible disturbances during pregnancy, dur-
ing the delivery, to expel the placenta, and against puerperal
fever.
The use of Ruta spp. for different, and sometimes oppo-
site, gynaecological conditions might result from the fact that
the Corpus Hippocraticum is a collection of treatises from dif-
ferent times, locations, and also methodological approaches to
pharmacological treatment of disease. There were mainly two
ways to treat disease: by administering medicines counteract-
ing disease mechanisms according to the principle contraria
contrariis (principle of contrary) or by imitating disease mech-
anisms according to similia similibus (principle of similarity).
In both cases, medicines were credited with the role of restoring
the right balance of the physiological components of the body,
which, in the specific case of the Hippocratic system(s) were
the four humours: blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile. As
Ruta spp. was credited with hot and dry properties, it could be
used either to treat inflammations (heat against heat; principle
of similarity) or to reduce any excess of fluids in the body (heat
against moisture and cold; principle of contrary).
It might be worth mentioning that the name pe?ganon has
been interpreted by philologists as deriving from a Greek root
of which the verb pe?gnumi is another derivative (Andre?, 1985).
Yet the root and, hence, the verb derived from it, mean to ?ow
or to make ?ow, something that might refer to the use of Ruta
spp. as an abortifacient. If so, the very name of the plant might
have been produced on the basis of its use according to the
principle of contrary (contraria contrariis). The heat with which
Ruta spp. was credited was applied to provoke an elimination
Author's personal copy
474 A. Pollio et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 116 (2008) 469?482
Ta
ble
2
M
od
ern
ph
yto
the
rap
eu
tic
us
es
of
Ru
ta
spp
.in
the
M
ed
ite
rra
ne
an
ar
ea
(co
unt
ries
ar
e
in
alp
ha
be
tic
al
or
de
r)
Co
un
try
M
ed
ici
na
lu
se
s
Pr
ep
ara
tio
n
Sp
eci
es
Pa
rt(s
)us
ed
Lit
era
tur
e
Al
ge
ria
An
ti-h
elm
int
ic;
cir
cu
lat
ory
sys
tem
aff
ect
ion
;d
ige
stiv
e;
m
en
tal
dis
ord
ers
;
po
iso
nin
g
No
tin
dic
ate
d
R.
c.
W
ho
le
pla
nt
M
ED
US
A
Ab
ort
ive
;g
en
ita
ls
yst
em
dis
ord
ers
(em
m
en
ag
og
ue
)
No
tin
dic
ate
d
R.
g.
Tr
ott
er,
19
15
An
ti-h
elm
int
ic,
dig
est
ive
,
ge
ne
ral
m
ala
ise
,m
en
tal
dis
ord
ers
,p
ain
kil
ler
(an
tis
pa
sm
od
ic,
he
ad
ac
he
s,r
ub
e?a
nt)
No
tin
dic
ate
d
R.
m
.
Le
av
es
,y
ou
ng
lea
ve
s,
flo
w
er
tip
s,fl
ow
er
bu
ds
M
ED
US
A
Bu
lga
ria
Ab
ort
ive
;a
nti
-in
fla
mm
ato
ry;
an
ti-h
elm
int
ic;
se
da
tiv
e
M
ac
era
tio
n
R.
g.
Ae
ria
lp
art
s
Le
po
rat
tia
nd
Iva
nc
he
va
(20
03)
Cy
pru
s
An
ti-h
elm
int
ic
(he
lm
int
hia
sis
);d
iar
rho
ea;
dro
psy
;e
ye
aff
ect
ion
(sw
oll
en
an
d
in?
am
ed
eye
);i
nse
ct
bit
e;
he
ad
ach
e;
m
en
tal
dis
ord
ers
;p
ain
kil
ler
(int
est
ine
ac
he
,
tee
th);
po
iso
nin
g(a
nt
ido
te);
re
spi
rat
ory
sys
tem
aff
ect
ion
s(c
ou
gh
sa
nd
co
ld);
ski
na
ffe
cti
on
(pa
ron
yc
hia
,
rin
gw
or
m,
sc
ab
ies
);s
na
ke
bit
e.
Ra
re
us
es
:
pla
gu
e;
pro
fila
cti
ci
nc
ho
ler
a;
ton
ic
Ex
ter
na
l;i
nte
rna
l
R.
c.
Le
av
es
,r
oo
t,s
ee
d,
tip
of
sho
ot
La
rdo
s(2
006
)
Inju
ries
an
dw
ou
nd
s,m
en
tal
dis
ord
ers
No
tin
dic
ate
d
R.
c.
Le
afy
ste
ms
,s
tem
s
M
ED
US
A
Gr
eec
e
(1)
Ab
ort
ive
;(2
)an
tis
ep
tic
;(3
)pa
in
kil
ler
(he
ad
ac
he
);(
4)p
reg
na
nc
y/b
irth
;
ski
na
ffe
cti
on
(5.
ec
ze
m
a,
6.
dis
ord
ers
)
(1)
Pla
nt
juic
e;(
2)a
nd
(3)
po
w
de
red
lea
ve
s
an
dfl
ow
er
s
in
str
on
gv
ine
ga
ro
n
the
he
ad
to
cu
re
he
ad
ach
e;
(4)
an
d(5
)in
fus
ion
m
ixe
dw
ith
re
dw
ine
;(6
)
po
w
de
red
lea
ve
s
an
dfl
ow
er
s
in
ra
ki
an
da
lco
ho
lto
ru
bt
he
bo
dy
cu
re
s
flu
R.
c.
lea
ve
s,
flo
w
er
tip
s
M
ED
US
A
Ab
ort
ive
;g
en
ito
-ur
ina
ry
sys
tem
dis
ord
ers
(pr
os
ta
te);
m
en
tal
dis
ord
ers
(an
ti-
co
nv
uls
ive
);p
ois
on
ing
,se
da
tiv
e.
Ra
re
us
es
:o
be
sit
y
Inf
usi
on
R.
g.
Ae
ria
lp
art
s
Ha
nli
do
ue
ta
l.(2
004
)
Isr
ae
l
Se
da
tiv
e
(pa
cify
ing
ch
ild
ren
)
No
tin
dic
ate
d
R.
Br
an
ch
es
Le
v
an
dA
ma
r(2
000
)
Ge
nit
o-u
rin
ary
sys
tem
dis
ord
ers
;m
en
tal
dis
ord
ers
(ne
rv
ou
s
pa
in);
pa
in
kil
ler
(dis
ord
ers
m
us
cu
lar
-
ske
let
al
sys
tem
);r
es
pir
ato
ry
sys
tem
aff
ect
ion
s.R
are
us
es
:s
yst
em
dis
ord
ers
;se
ns
or
yd
iso
rde
rs
No
tin
dic
ate
d
R.
c.
Le
av
es
M
ED
US
A
(1)
Ea
ra
ffe
cti
on
;(2
)ey
e
aff
ect
ion
;(3
)m
en
tal
dis
ord
ers
(ne
rv
ou
s
sys
tem
);(
4)
pa
in
kil
ler
(ar
thr
itic
pa
ins
,
ba
ck
ac
he
);(
5)p
ois
on
ing
,(6
)sk
in
aff
ect
ion
(1)
,(2
),(
4)a
nd
(6)
lea
ve
sa
nd
ste
ms
ar
e
pu
tin
gla
ss
bo
ttle
.B
ott
le
ist
he
nfi
lle
d
w
ith
oli
ve
oil
,p
ut
in
su
nn
yl
oc
ati
on
for
15
da
ys
an
dt
he
na
pp
lie
de
xte
rn
all
yt
o
aff
ect
ed
ar
ea
s;
(3)
an
d(5
)an
inf
usi
on
is
pre
pa
red
fro
m
10
0g
in
1l
of
w
ate
r
an
dt
ak
en
int
ern
all
y,
15
?2
0c
c,
1?
2t
im
es/
da
y
R.
c.
Le
av
es
,s
tem
s
Sa
id
et
al.
(20
02)
Ita
ly
Pa
in-
kil
ler
Po
ult
ice
pre
pa
red
w
ith
All
ium
sa
tiv
um
L.,
Ru
ta
sp.
,M
en
tha
spp
.,A
rte
mi
sia
spp
.o
n
the
w
ris
t
R.
W
ho
le
pla
nt
Ci
rel
li(
185
3),
Jam
ali
o(1
918
)
Ra
re
us
es
:t
ert
ian
an
dq
ua
rta
nf
erv
er
Ru
ta
sp.
,M
en
tha
spp
.,A
rte
mi
sia
spp
.ju
ice
dru
nk
en
(po
tion
)
Inju
ries
an
dw
ou
nd
s;s
kin
aff
ect
ion
s(b
ur
ns
,s
or
es
)
Ho
ne
yc
om
bw
ax
,o
liv
e
oil
,R
uta
sp.
,v
er
gin
an
im
al
fat
R.
De
M
art
ino
(19
59)
An
ti-h
elm
int
ic
Ru
ta
sp.
an
di
nc
en
se
co
ok
ed
in
oil
an
dt
op
ica
lly
ap
pli
ed
R.
W
ho
le
pla
nt
Na
rdi
(19
78)
,
Jam
ali
o(1
918
)
(1)
Ab
ort
ive
;(2
)in
juri
esa
nd
w
ou
nd
s(h
ea
lc
ut
s);
(3)
to
re
lie
ve
sc
iat
ic
pa
ins
(1)
Inf
usi
on
;(2
)an
d(3
)ca
tap
las
ma
ta
R.
c.
Le
av
es
Ga
lta
nd
Ga
lt(
197
8)
(1)
An
ti-h
elm
int
ic,
(2)
inju
ries
an
dw
ou
nd
s(l
en
itiv
ea
nd
re
so
lve
nt
for
tu
me
fac
tion
s,h
ae
ma
tom
as
an
db
rui
ses
),(
3)p
ain
kil
ler
(rh
eu
ma
tic
pa
ins
).
Ra
re
us
es
:r
en
al
lith
ias
is
an
ds
tin
kin
gu
rin
e
(1a
)S
qu
eez
ef
res
hm
ate
ria
la
nd
tak
e
juic
eor
all
y;
(1b
).s
m
ell
fre
sh
pla
nt;
(2)
fre
sh
or
dry
,
pre
pa
re
de
co
cti
on
an
du
se
liq
uid
for
co
m
pre
sse
s;
(3)
fre
sh,
m
as
h
an
da
pp
ly
to
an
us
fre
sh,
pre
pa
re
de
co
cti
on
an
dt
ak
e
or
all
y
R.
c.
Ae
ria
lp
art
s
Am
ico
an
dS
orc
e(1
997
)
Di
ge
sti
ve
;p
ain
kil
ler
(an
ti-
rhe
um
ati
c)
(1)
Po
ult
ice
,e
xte
rn
al
us
e;
(2)
inf
usi
on
R.
c.
Ro
ots
,b
ran
ch
es
Ba
lle
ro
et
al.
(19
94)
Ita
ly
(1)
An
ti-h
elm
int
ic;
(2)
dig
est
ive
(1a
)D
ec
oc
tio
nu
se
dt
op
rep
are
cly
ste
res
;(1
b)c
ru
she
dp
lan
tfo
rc
ata
pla
sm
ata
(ex
ter
na
lu
se
);(
1c)
ex
ter
na
la
pp
lic
ati
on
of
Ru
ta
ch
ale
pe
nsi
sL
.le
ave
s
an
d
All
ium
sa
tiv
um
L.
bu
lbi
ls;
(2)
lea
ve
s
ch
ew
ed
R.
c.
Le
av
es
Ch
iov
en
da
-B
en
si(
196
0)
An
ti-h
elm
int
ic
De
co
cti
on
w
ith
m
ilk
R.
c.
Le
av
es
Ca
tan
zar
o(1
970
)
An
ti-h
elm
int
ic.
Ra
re
us
es
:in
sec
tb
ite
s
De
co
cti
on
(so
me
tim
esw
ith
All
ium
sa
tiv
um
L.)
ex
ter
na
la
pp
lic
ati
on
R.
c.
Ae
ria
lp
art
sl
eav
es
Gu
arr
era
et
al.
(20
05b
)
Re
pe
lle
nt
an
di
nse
cti
cid
e(r
em
ov
e
m
os
qu
ito
sa
nd
ot
he
rin
sec
ts)
Inf
usi
on
of
lea
ve
s
pic
ke
di
ns
pri
ng
w
as
ru
bb
ed
vig
oro
usl
yo
n
to
the
ski
n
R.
c.
Le
av
es
Gu
arr
era
(19
99)
An
ti-i
nfl
am
ma
tor
y;
an
tis
ep
tic
Th
eh
eal
er
ch
ew
s
on
fre
sh
lea
ve
s,
the
nb
rea
the
so
n
the
ey
es
of
pa
tie
nt
aff
ect
ed
by
co
nju
nct
ivit
is
or
oth
er
ey
e
inf
ect
ion
s
R.
c.
Le
av
es
Pa
lm
ese
et
al.
(20
01)
Di
ge
sti
ve
;a
pe
rie
nt
Inf
usi
on
,a
ro
m
ati
sed
gra
pp
a
R.
c.
Ae
ria
lp
art
s
Pie
ron
i(2
000
)
(1)
An
ti-h
elm
int
ic
(he
lm
int
hia
sis
);(
2)p
ain
kil
ler
(too
tha
ch
e,
pa
in
re
lie
ve
r)
(1)
Le
av
es
de
co
cti
on
;(2
)di
rec
ta
pp
lic
ati
on
R.
g.
1.
Le
av
es
,2
.b
ran
ch
es
Ba
lle
ro
et
al.
(20
01)
(1)
An
ti-h
elm
int
ic
(for
ch
ild
ren
);p
ain
kil
ler
(2.
int
est
ine
ac
he
,
3.
sto
ma
ch
ac
he
)
(1a
)Ju
ice
of
Ru
ta
gr
av
eo
len
sL
.a
nd
Me
nth
as
pp
.;(1
b)l
eav
es
in
sa
lad
so
r
so
up
;(2
)ca
tap
las
ma
ta
(ex
ter
na
lu
se
);(
3)d
eco
cti
on
R.
g.
Le
av
es
Ba
nd
ini
(19
61)
(1)
An
ti-h
elm
int
ic;
(2)
pa
in
kil
ler
(an
ti-
rhe
um
ati
c)
(1a
)C
ata
pla
sm
ata
(ex
ter
na
lu
se
)on
the
ab
do
me
n;
(1b
)de
co
cti
on
;(2
a)t
inc
tur
e
1:
dri
ed
lea
ve
s
of
Ru
ta
gr
av
eo
len
sL
.,a
nd
or
an
ge
,se
ed
so
fm
us
tar
dm
ac
er
ate
d
in
alc
oh
ol;
(2b
)ti
nc
tur
e2
:R
uta
gr
av
eo
len
sL
.le
ave
s,
m
us
tar
ds
ee
ds,
Ju
gla
ns
re
gia
L.
nu
ts
an
dd
rie
dl
eav
es
of
Ca
lam
int
ha
ne
pe
ta
(L.
)Sa
vi
s.
l.m
ac
er
ate
di
n
alc
oh
ol
R.
g.
W
ho
le
pla
nt,
lea
ve
s
Ba
rba
ga
llo
et
al.
(19
79)
Author's personal copy
A. Pollio et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 116 (2008) 469?482 475
Pa
in
kil
ler
(1.
an
alg
es
ic,
2.
an
ti-
rhe
um
ati
c,
3.
he
ad
-ac
he
);4
.re
spi
rat
ory
sys
tem
aff
ect
ion
s,5
.sk
in
aff
ect
ion
(sc
ab
ies
)
(1)
De
co
cti
on
or
fre
sh
juic
e;(
2)f
um
iga
tio
no
fd
eco
cti
on
,c
oo
ke
dw
ith
Ru
ta
gr
av
eo
len
sL
.a
nd
Sa
mb
uc
us
ebu
lus
L.;
(2)
an
d(4
)ol
eo
lite
to
ru
bt
he
pa
inf
ul
pa
rts
;(3
)ru
bb
ed
on
the
he
ad
;(5
)fr
ied
in
po
rk
fat
an
ds
ulf
ur
R.
g.
Le
av
es
,ti
ps
Ba
ron
e(1
963
)
Ra
re
us
es
:b
lad
de
ra
ffe
cti
on
s
De
co
cti
on
in
bla
ck
w
ine
,w
ith
Ru
ta
gr
av
eo
len
sL
.,M
en
tha
sp.
,R
ub
us
sp.
An
ti-i
nfl
am
ma
tor
y
Pla
nt
cr
us
he
da
nd
us
ed
to
pre
pa
re
ca
tap
las
ma
ta
(ex
ter
na
lu
se
)
R.
g.
Flo
w
er
s
Ca
va
ra
(19
54)
An
ti-h
elm
int
ic
Ca
tap
las
ma
ta
m
ad
ew
ith
Ru
ta
gr
av
eo
len
sL
.,M
en
tha
spp
.,A
rte
mi
sia
spp
.
co
ok
ed
in
vin
eg
ar.
po
ult
ice
pre
pa
red
w
ith
All
ium
sa
tiv
um
L.,
Ru
ta
gr
av
eo
len
s
L.,
Me
nth
as
pp
.,A
rte
mi
sia
spp
.(e
xte
rn
al
us
e)
R.
g.
flo
w
er
tip
s,l
eav
es
Ci
rel
li(
185
3)
Di
ge
sti
ve
;c
irc
ula
tor
ys
yst
em
aff
ect
ion
(hy
po
ten
siv
e)
M
ed
ica
ted
w
ine
an
dt
he
tin
ctu
re
R.
g.
W
ho
le
fre
sh
pla
nt
De
Fe
oe
ta
l.(1
992
b)
An
ti-h
elm
int
ic
(es
ch
aro
tic
,
ve
rm
ifug
e);
an
tis
ep
tic
(an
tip
utr
efa
ctiv
e);
dig
est
ive
;g
en
ita
lsy
ste
m
dis
ord
ers
(em
m
en
ot
ro
pic
);in
juri
esa
nd
w
ou
nd
s;p
ain
kil
ler
(ca
rie
s,
de
co
ng
es
ta
nt
an
da
nt
isp
as
mo
dic
for
inju
red
pa
rts
or
for
ar
thr
itic
pa
ins
,
to
ot
ha
ch
es)
De
co
cti
on
of
ae
ria
lp
art
s(i
nte
rna
lus
e),
em
m
en
otr
op
ic,
dig
est
ive
,
an
tip
utr
efa
cti
ve
.
Inf
usi
on
of
lea
ve
s
w
ith
top
so
fO
rig
an
um
vu
lga
re
L.
an
d
Me
nth
as
ua
ve
ole
ns
Eh
rh.
(ex
ter
na
lu
se
),v
er
m
ifu
ge
.D
ec
oc
tio
no
fle
ave
s
(ex
ter
na
lu
se
),d
eco
ng
est
an
ta
nd
an
tis
pa
sm
od
ic
for
inju
red
pa
rts
or
for
ar
thr
itic
pa
ins
.Ju
ice
of
fre
sh
pla
nt
(ex
ter
na
lu
se
),e
sc
ha
rot
ic.
Cr
ush
ed
lea
ve
s
w
ith
bu
lbs
of
All
ium
sa
tiv
um
L.
an
da
er
ial
pa
rts
of
Pe
tro
se
lin
um
cr
isp
um
(M
ill.)
A.
W.
Hi
ll(
ext
ern
al
us
e),
vu
lne
rar
y.
Cr
ush
ed
lea
ve
s
w
ith
co
ar
se
sa
lt
(ex
ter
na
lu
se
),to
oth
ach
es,
ca
rie
s.E
ati
ng
fre
sh
fru
it,
as
an
ti-r
he
um
ati
c
R.
g.
Ae
ria
lp
art
s,l
eav
es
De
Fe
oe
ta
l.(1
992
a)
(1)
Ab
ort
ive
;(2
)an
ti-h
elm
int
ic;
(3)
ap
eri
en
t;(
4)c
irc
ula
tor
ys
yst
em
aff
ect
ion
(pe
rip
he
ric
va
so
dil
ata
tor
);p
ain
kil
ler
(5.
an
ti-
rhe
um
ati
c,
6.
he
ad
ac
he
ac
co
m
pa
nie
db
yv
er
tig
o)e
xte
rn
all
y(7
.an
ti-
rhe
um
ati
c );
po
iso
nin
g(8
.
an
tip
ara
sit
ic,
9.
an
tid
ote
for
po
iso
nin
g);
ski
na
ffe
cti
on
ex
ter
na
lly
:(1
0.t
o
ha
lt
su
bc
uta
ne
ou
sb
lee
din
g,
11
.d
eco
ng
es
ta
nt
).R
are
us
es
:(1
2)m
ild
lax
ati
ve
;(1
3)
ton
ic
(1)
,(2
),(
4),
(7)
,(9
),(
10)
,(1
1)d
eco
cti
on
of
ae
ria
lp
art
;(3
),(
5),
(6)
,(1
2),
(13
)
inf
usi
on
of
ae
ria
lp
art
;(8
)po
w
de
red
dri
ed
lea
ve
s
R.
g.
Ae
ria
lp
art
s,l
eav
es
De
Fe
oa
nd
Se
na
tor
e(1
993
)
Pa
in
kil
ler
(an
ti-
rhe
um
ati
c)
Ol
eo
lite
(the
pla
nt
fri
ed
in
oli
ve
oil
an
dt
op
ica
lly
ap
pli
ed
)
R.
g.
En
tire
pla
nt
De
Na
tal
ea
nd
Po
llio
(20
07)
An
ti-h
elm
int
ic
Ea
ten
in
sa
lad
;c
he
w
ed
in
sm
all
qu
an
titi
es
w
ith
su
ga
ra
nd
ho
ne
y
R.
g.
Le
av
es
Gu
arr
era
et
al.
(20
05a
)
(1)
An
ti-h
elm
int
ic
(ch
ild
ren
);(
2)r
ep
ell
en
ta
nd
ins
ect
ici
de
(1a
)D
ec
oc
tio
no
fle
ave
s,
oft
en
w
ith
oli
ve
oil
an
dA
lliu
m
sa
tiv
um
L.;
(1b
)th
e
juic
eof
the
cr
us
he
dp
lan
tin
w
ate
ro
rle
afl
ets
on
bre
ad
;(1
c)c
ru
she
dp
lan
tw
as
hu
ng
ar
ou
nd
a
ch
ild
?sn
ec
ko
ra
m
ac
er
ati
on
of
the
pla
nt
in
an
ise
ed
liq
uid
inh
ale
d;
(1d
)cr
us
he
dp
lan
tru
bb
ed
on
the
sto
ma
ch
,te
mp
les
an
dp
alm
so
fth
e
ha
nd
s;(
1e)
pa
nc
ak
es
of
flo
ur,
w
ate
ra
nd
Ru
ta
gr
av
eo
len
sL
.;(1
f)m
ad
et
os
nif
f
the
lea
ve
s;
(2)
fre
sh
pla
nt;
de
co
cti
on
of
ae
ria
lp
art
ru
bb
ed
on
sc
alp
sa
ffli
cte
d
w
ith
lic
e
R.
g.
Le
av
es
,a
er
ial
pa
rts
Gu
arr
era
(19
99)
(1)
An
ti-h
elm
int
ic,
(2)
pa
in
kil
ler
(1)
De
co
cti
on
;(2
)m
ac
er
ate
di
no
liv
e
oil
,fi
lte
red
an
dr
ub
be
do
n
R.
g.
Le
av
es
Le
po
rat
tia
nd
Co
rra
di
(20
01)
(1)
An
ti-h
elm
int
ic;
(2)
ag
ain
st
int
est
ina
lp
ain
s;
(3)
to
he
al
the
?
m
al
d?a
rco
?
(1)
Co
ld
inf
usi
on
(cru
she
dw
ith
or
w
ith
ou
tA
lliu
m
sa
tiv
um
L.
bu
lbs
,a
fte
r
ha
vin
gr
em
ov
ed
the
int
ern
al
pa
rto
fth
eb
ulb
);(
2)c
ru
she
di
na
co
ld
inf
usi
on
;
(3)
ritu
al
ob
ject
R.
g.
ae
ria
lp
art
s
Pie
ron
ie
ta
l.(2
002
)
(1)
Sk
in
aff
ect
ion
(an
ti-
ac
ne
);(
2)t
oh
eal
m
us
cu
lar
pa
ins
,a
nd
as
an
ti-d
iap
ho
ret
ic
(1)
Po
ult
ice
m
ad
eb
yc
ru
shi
ng
the
lea
ve
sin
a
m
or
tar
;(2
)m
ac
er
ate
di
na
lco
ho
l,
in
ex
ter
na
la
pp
lic
ati
on
s
R.
g.
Le
av
es
Pie
ron
ie
ta
l.(2
004
a)
Pa
in
kil
ler
(mu
sc
ula
rp
ain
s)
Ol
eo
lite
(pla
nti
sf
rie
di
no
liv
e
oil
)in
top
ica
la
pp
lic
ati
on
;e
no
lite
R.
g.
Ae
ria
lp
art
s
Pie
ron
ie
ta
l.(2
004
b)
An
ti-h
elm
int
ic
Us
ed
ve
ry
spa
rel
yi
ns
ala
do
rc
he
w
ed
in
sm
all
qu
an
titi
es
w
ith
su
ga
ra
nd
ho
ne
y
R.
g.
Sm
all
lea
ve
s
Pie
ron
ie
ta
l.(2
005
)
Di
ge
sti
ve
;a
nti
-he
lm
int
ic;
pa
in
kil
ler
(mu
sc
ula
rp
ain
s)
No
tin
dic
ate
d
R.
g.
Ae
ria
lp
art
s
Pie
ron
ia
nd
Qu
ave
(20
05)
An
ti-i
nfl
am
ma
tor
y;
re
so
lut
ive
;p
ain
kil
ler
(ex
ter
na
la
na
lge
sic
)
Pla
nt
w
ar
m
ed
up
or
fri
ed
in
oli
ve
oil
or
be
ef
m
ar
ro
w
.
Oi
lth
en
m
as
sa
ge
d
ag
ain
st
m
us
cu
lar
pa
in,
in
ca
se
of
rhe
um
ati
sm
or
sc
iat
ica
.F
res
hl
eav
es
m
as
he
d
an
dm
ac
er
ate
d4
0h
in
alc
oh
ol
or
bo
ile
da
nd
us
ed
as
a
po
ult
ice
ag
ain
st
pa
ins
R.
g.
LE
AV
ES
Sc
he
rre
re
ta
l.,
20
04
(1)
An
ti-h
elm
int
ic;
(2)
an
ti-i
nfl
am
ma
tor
y;
(3)
inju
ries
an
dw
ou
nd
s;(
4)p
ain
kil
ler
(an
ti-
rhe
um
ati
c)
(1)
an
d(2
)de
co
cti
on
;(3
)po
ult
ice
on
w
ou
nd
s;(
4a)
m
as
sa
ge
s;
(4b
)ap
pli
ed
to
the
ab
do
me
n
R.
g.
Flo
w
er
tip
s,l
eav
es
Un
cin
iM
an
ga
ne
lli
an
dT
om
ei
(19
99)
Jor
da
n
Di
ge
sti
ve
(ind
ige
sti
on
);m
en
tal
dis
ord
ers
(ne
rv
os
ity
);p
ain
kil
ler
(ar
thr
itis
).
Ra
re
us
es
:g
en
era
lw
ea
kn
ess
No
tin
dic
ate
d
R.
c.
Sh
oo
ts
Ab
u-
Irm
ail
eh
an
dA
fifi
(20
03)
Int
ern
al
de
sea
se
(an
tid
iab
eti
c);
pa
in
kil
ler
(an
tis
pa
sm
od
ic);
sc
or
pio
nb
ite
;
su
do
rifi
c
No
tin
dic
ate
d
R.
c.
Le
av
es
Ab
ur
jai
et
al.
(20
07)
Lib
ya
Se
da
tiv
e
(loc
al
pa
cify
ing
ch
ild
ren
)
No
tin
dic
ate
d
R.
Br
an
ch
es
Le
v
an
dA
ma
r(2
002
)
To
nic
(for
ne
w
-bo
rn
ba
bie
s)
Po
tio
n
R.
Ae
ria
lp
art
s
Tr
ott
er
(19
15)
Pa
in
kil
ler
(an
ti-
rhe
um
ati
c)
Ol
eo
lite
R.
c.
Ch
iov
en
da
(19
37)
Inju
ries
an
dw
ou
nd
s(h
ae
ma
tom
as)
;pa
in
kil
ler
(rh
eu
ma
tic
pa
ins
)
Ol
eo
lite
R.c
.
Le
av
es
,s
ee
ds
Tr
ott
er
(19
15)
Author's personal copy
476 A. Pollio et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 116 (2008) 469?482
Ta
ble
2(
Co
nti
nu
ed
)
Co
un
try
M
ed
ici
na
lu
se
s
Pr
ep
ara
tio
n
Sp
eci
es
Pa
rt(s
)us
ed
Lit
era
tur
e
M
oro
cc
o
Ea
ra
ffe
cti
on
(pa
in)
To
pic
al
us
e
(wa
shi
ng
)
R.c
.
Le
av
es
El-
Hi
lal
ye
ta
l.(2
003
)
(1)
Ea
rin
fec
tio
n(p
ain
);(
2)d
iur
eti
c;
an
ti-h
elm
int
ic;
pa
in
kil
ler
(rh
eu
ma
tic
pa
ins
);(
3)h
ead
ach
e
(1)
M
ixe
dw
ith
oli
ve
oil
(top
icu
se
);(
2)i
nfu
sio
n;
(3)
liv
es
ap
pli
ed
ex
ter
na
lly
R.
m
.
Ae
ria
lp
art
s
M
erz
ou
ki
et
al.
(20
00)
Ge
nit
o-u
rin
ary
sys
tem
dis
ord
ers
;p
ois
on
ing
s;
m
en
tal
dis
ord
ers
;re
spi
rat
ory
sys
tem
dis
ord
ers
.R
are
us
es
:r
eli
gio
us
us
es
an
tife
rtil
ity
ag
en
ts
ab
ort
ifa
cie
nts
ritu
al
Oi
l,f
um
iga
tio
ns,
inf
usi
on
s,d
rin
ka
ble
de
co
cti
on
s,i
nje
ctio
ns,
so
m
eti
me
si
n
as
so
cia
tio
nw
ith
Ca
nn
ab
iss
at
iva
L.
R.
m
.
W
ho
le
pla
nt
M
ED
US
A
Ne
ar
Ea
st
Ci
rcu
lat
ory
sys
tem
aff
ect
ion
(ha
em
orr
ho
ids
);e
ye
aff
ect
ion
s;
ge
nit
o-u
rin
ary
sys
tem
dis
ord
ers
(se
xu
al
dis
ea
ses
);i
nju
ries
an
dw
ou
nd
s(w
ou
nd
s);
m
en
tal
dis
ord
ers
(ps
yc
hia
tri
c,
ep
ile
psy
);p
ain
kil
ler
(sto
ma
ch
,
int
est
ine
,
tee
th);
po
iso
nin
g(a
nim
als
bit
es
an
dp
ois
on
s);
ski
na
ffe
cti
on
s(b
ur
ns
,
dis
ea
ses
,
in?
am
ma
tion
s)
No
tin
dic
ate
d
R.
Le
v
(20
02)
Ra
re
us
es
:h
eat
,in
ter
na
ld
ise
ase
s
Pa
les
tin
e
Pa
in
kil
ler
(rh
eu
ma
tis
m,
ar
thr
itis
)
No
tin
dic
ate
d
R.
c.
Al
i-S
hta
ye
he
ta
l.(2
000
)
Po
rtu
ga
l
Int
ern
al
de
sea
se
(an
tih
yp
erc
ho
les
ter
ola
em
ic);
dia
rrh
oe
a;
ag
ain
st
int
est
ina
l
pa
ins
Inf
usi
on
R.
c.
Ae
ria
lp
art
s
No
va
is
et
al.
(20
04)
Ra
re
us
es
:a
nti
fun
ga
lin
pla
nts
Di
rec
tu
se
,T
op
ica
l
R.
c.
Ste
ms
Ag
ele
ta
nd
Va
lle`
s
(20
03)
An
ti-h
elm
int
ic.
Ra
re
us
es
:a
ga
ins
tb
loa
tin
g
Fr
esh
pla
nt
R.
c.
Ae
ria
lp
art
s
Bl
an
co
(19
96)
Se
da
tiv
e
Inf
usi
on
R.
c.
,R
.g
.
Ae
ria
lp
art
s
Bo
ne
te
ta
l.(1
999
)
(1)
An
tis
ep
tic
(an
tig
an
gre
no
us
);(
2)a
nti
sep
tic
(po
st-
lab
ou
r);
(3)
an
tis
ep
tic
(ey
e
infe
ctio
n),
inju
ries
an
dw
ou
nd
s(h
ae
ma
tom
as)
(1)
Em
bro
cat
ion
;(2
)en
em
a;
(3)
tis
an
e
R.
c.
Ae
ria
lp
art
s
Bo
ne
ta
nd
Va
lle
s(2
007
)
(1)
Ab
ort
ive
;(2
)ea
ra
ffe
cti
on
s;
(3)
ey
e
aff
ect
ion
s;
(4)
inju
ries
an
dw
ou
nd
s
(wo
un
ds)
;pa
in
kil
ler
(5.,
6.
int
est
ine
ac
he
,
m
en
str
ua
la
ch
e,
7.
sto
ma
ch
ac
he
).
Ra
re
us
es
:t
o
str
en
gth
en
the
ha
irs
(1)
De
co
cti
on
;(2
)fu
mi
ga
tio
n;
(3)
,(4)
,(7
)in
fus
ion
;(6
)ol
eo
lite
ru
bb
ed
on
the
ski
n;
(5)
ca
tap
las
ma
ta
loc
all
ya
pp
lie
d
R.
g.
(1)
,(2
),(
4),
(5)
,(6
)ae
ria
lp
art
s;
(7)
dri
ed
lea
ve
s;
(3)
flo
w
er
s
Fr
esq
ue
tF
eb
rer
et
al.
(20
01)
Sp
ain
(1)
An
tis
ep
tic
;(2
)ga
str
o-i
nte
sti
na
la
ffe
cti
on
(sto
ma
ch
ac
he
,
dia
rrh
oe
a,
dig
es
tiv
e);
(3)
ha
em
orr
ho
ids
;(4
)pa
in
kil
ler
;(5
)re
spi
rat
ory
sys
tem
aff
ect
ion
(so
re
thr
oa
t);
(6)
se
da
tiv
e.
Ra
re
us
es
:(7
)he
ad
sw
im
mi
ng
(1)
lin
im
en
t;(
2),
(6)
,(7
)de
co
cti
on
;(3
)po
ma
de
;(4
)po
ult
ice
,lo
tio
n;
(5)
po
ult
ice
R.
c.
Ae
ria
lp
art
s
Ri
ga
te
ta
l.(2
007
)
(1)
Ab
ort
ive
;a
nti
-he
lm
int
ic
(2.
int
est
ina
lw
or
m
s
in
ch
ild
ren
,
3.
ve
rm
ifug
e);
(4)
ap
eri
en
t;c
irc
ula
tor
ys
yst
em
aff
ect
ion
(5.
ag
ain
st
rha
ga
de
s;6
.
va
ric
os
e
ve
ins
,h
ae
mo
rrh
oid
s);
(7)
dig
est
ive
;(8
)ea
ra
ffe
cti
on
s;
(9)
ey
e
aff
ect
ion
s;
(10
)
ge
nit
o-u
rin
ary
sys
tem
dis
ord
ers
(in?
am
ma
tion
ofm
ale
an
dfe
ma
leg
en
ita
lia
);
inju
ries
an
dw
ou
nd
s(1
1.u
lce
rs;
12
.w
ou
nd
s,s
w
ell
ing
s);
pa
in
kil
ler
(13
.
he
ad
ac
he
,
14
.a
nd
15
.rh
eu
ma
tis
ms
an
dp
ain
s,
7.
sto
ma
ch
ac
he
,
16
.
to
ot
ha
ch
e);
(17
)re
spi
rat
ory
sys
tem
aff
ect
ion
;s
kin
aff
ect
ion
(18
.ac
ne
,
19
.
bu
rn
ing
s;
20
.p
im
ple
s,n
ail
infe
ctio
ns;
21
.sk
in
pa
ra
sit
es,
lic
es;
22
.w
ar
ts,
ec
ze
m
a);
se
da
tiv
e
(23
.se
da
tiv
e,
24
.w
ea
nin
go
fba
bie
s)
(1)
co
nc
en
tra
ted
inf
usi
on
;(2
)in
fus
ion
alo
ne
or
w
ith
Me
nth
ax
pip
eri
ta
L.,
Th
ym
us
m
as
tic
hin
aL
.a
nd
Th
ym
us
zyg
is
L.;
(3)
ru
bb
ed
on
the
sto
ma
ch
,fr
esh
or
w
ith
oil
,b
rea
dd
ou
gh
;(4
)in
fus
ion
,a
lco
ho
lic
bev
er
ag
es;
(4)
,(5
),a
nd
(24
)
loc
al
ap
pli
cat
ion
on
the
bre
ast
;(6
)in
fus
ion
;(7
)m
ac
er
ate
di
na
lco
ho
lic
bev
er
ag
es.
Ol
eo
lite
ru
bb
ed
on
the
ski
n;
(8)
oil
fro
m
the
fri
ed
pla
nt
loc
all
y
ap
pli
ed
;(9
),(
10)
de
co
cti
on
;(1
1)i
nfu
sio
no
rd
eco
cti
on
als
ow
ith
oth
er
pla
nts
;
(12
)an
d(1
9)e
xte
rn
al
ap
pli
cat
ion
of
fre
sh
pla
nt
or
de
co
cti
on
s,o
ro
leo
lite
s;
(13
)po
ult
ice
w
ith
Alo
ysi
ac
itr
iod
ora
Pa
lau
,o
ra
tw
in
he
ld
in
the
ha
irs
,sn
iffi
ng
the
va
po
urs
of
the
bo
ile
dp
lan
t;(
14)
alc
oh
oli
ct
inc
tur
e,
or
the
pla
nt
fri
ed
in
lar
d,
ba
th
in
Ru
ta
sp.
de
co
cti
on
,a
pp
lic
ati
on
of
a
po
ult
ice
;(1
5)o
ile
xtr
ac
t
ru
bb
ed
on
the
ski
n;
(16
)pa
rto
fth
ep
lan
tc
he
w
ed
,m
ou
th
w
as
he
sw
ith
the
juic
e
of
the
pla
nt,
or
w
ith
inf
usi
on
or
de
co
cti
on
in
w
ate
ro
rw
ine
,o
ilf
rom
the
fri
ed
pla
nt
ru
bb
ed
on
the
tee
th
w
ith
a
co
tto
np
lug
,R
uta
sp.
,to
ge
the
rw
ith
Cr
oc
us
lon
gi?
oru
sR
af.
an
dA
lliu
m
sa
tiv
um
L.
he
ld
in
a
ba
ga
ro
un
dt
he
ne
ck
;
R.
c.
Fr
om
(1)
to
(14
)an
df
rom
(17
)
to
(31
)ae
ria
lp
art
s;
(15
)le
ave
s,
flo
ral
bu
ds;
(16
)sh
oo
ts,
ro
ots
Sa
nM
igu
el
(20
03)
R.
m
.
Ra
re
us
es
:(2
5)a
ga
ins
td
iar
rhe
a;
(26
)bl
oo
dt
on
ic;
(27
)de
liv
er
ya
id;
(28
)
de
liv
er
yo
fp
lac
en
ta;
(29
)fe
ve
rs
;(3
0)f
eve
rs
of
ch
ild
ren
;(3
1)t
os
tre
ng
the
nt
he
ha
irs
;(3
2)t
on
ic,
re
co
ns
titu
en
t
(17
)lo
cal
ap
pli
cat
ion
or
ea
ten
w
ith
ho
ne
y,
w
ine
or
m
ilk
;(1
8)w
ith
Th
ym
us
vu
lga
ris
L.
an
dR
os
ma
rin
us
of?
cin
alis
L.
m
ixe
di
na
lco
ho
la
nd
loc
all
y
ap
pli
ed
;(2
0)f
res
ho
rb
oil
ed
loc
all
ya
pp
lie
d;
(21
)lo
cal
ly
ap
pli
ed
;(2
2)r
ub
bin
g
of
the
pla
nt,
ap
pli
ed
w
ith
oil
;(2
3)i
nfu
sio
na
tlo
w
co
nc
en
tra
tio
n(2
5),
(26
),a
nd
(28
)in
fus
ion
;(2
7)i
nfu
sio
ni
ns
m
all
do
ses
or
ole
oli
te
ru
bb
ed
on
the
w
om
b;
(29
)in
fus
ion
or
de
co
cti
on
;(3
0)p
ou
ltic
ew
ith
Me
dic
ag
os
at
iva
L.,
sa
rdi
ne
s,
Ni
co
tia
na
ta
ba
cu
m
L.,
sn
ail
s,y
eas
ta
nd
vin
eg
ar
ap
pli
ed
to
fee
t;(
31)
loc
all
y
ap
pli
ed
;(3
2)i
nfu
sio
n,
w
ith
bo
ile
dw
ate
ro
rw
ith
ho
tc
ho
co
lat
e,
ru
bb
ed
on
ar
m
s
an
dl
eg
sw
ith
oil
,A
lliu
m
sa
tiv
um
L.
or
lar
d
R.
g.
Ab
ort
ive
,
cir
cu
lat
ory
sys
tem
aff
ect
ion
(va
so
re
gu
lat
or)
De
co
cti
on
R.
c.
Le
av
es
,fr
uit
s
Va?
zq
ue
ze
ta
l.(1
997
)
Author's personal copy
A. Pollio et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 116 (2008) 469?482 477
Tu
n
isi
a
A
bo
rti
v
e,
an
tis
ep
tic
(in
fec
tio
ns
/in
fes
tat
ion
s),
ea
r
af
fe
ct
io
ns
(ot
iti
s),
ge
ni
to
-u
rin
ar
y
sy
ste
m
di
so
rd
er
s,
pa
in
ki
lle
r(
m
u
sc
u
la
rd
iso
rd
er
s
?
sk
el
et
al
sy
st
em
,
rh
eu
m
at
ism
),s
ki
n
af
fe
ct
io
n
N
ot
in
di
ca
te
d
R.
c.
Le
av
es
M
ED
U
SA
Tu
rk
ey
Pa
in
ki
lle
r(
pa
in
in
st
om
ac
h)
M
as
he
d,
m
ix
ed
w
ith
a
bi
to
fv
irg
in
o
il
an
d
co
co
n
u
t;
ea
tt
he
fre
sh
ae
ria
lp
ar
ts
R.
g.
ae
ria
lp
ar
ts
U
zu
n
et
al
.(2
00
4)
(1)
Sk
in
af
fe
ct
io
n
(ps
or
ia
si
s).
Ra
re
u
se
s:
(2)
m
al
ar
ia
(1)
,(2
)m
ac
er
at
io
n
in
o
liv
e
o
il
R.
g.
(1)
Le
av
es
,
(2)
flo
w
er
s
K
u
ltu
r(
20
07
)
(1)
A
nt
i-h
el
m
in
tic
(fo
rb
ab
ie
s);
(2)
ap
er
ie
nt
;(
3)
di
ge
sti
v
e
(?a
tul
en
ce
o
f
ba
bi
es
);
(4)
ge
ni
ta
ls
ys
te
m
di
so
rd
er
s(
em
m
en
a
go
gu
e);
pa
in
ki
lle
r(
5.
pa
in
ki
lle
r,
6.
st
om
ac
h
a
ch
e);
(7)
se
da
tiv
e
(to
re
la
x
ba
bi
es
);
(8)
re
sp
ira
to
ry
sy
ste
m
af
fe
ct
io
ns
(co
u
gh
s);
(9)
st
om
ac
h
ac
he
(se
ve
re
pa
in
s);
sk
in
af
fe
ct
io
n
(10
.
a
ga
in
st
he
at
ra
sh
es
o
fb
ab
ie
s,
1.
an
d
11
.c
a
rm
in
at
iv
e,
3.
bo
ils
)
(1)
an
d
(14
)l
ea
v
es
bo
ile
d
in
o
liv
e
o
il
ex
po
se
d
to
su
n
fo
r2
?3
da
ys
an
d
ex
te
rn
al
u
se
;(
2),
(4)
an
d
(15
)i
nt
er
na
lu
se
:
te
a,
o
il
o
r
ta
bl
et
;e
x
te
rn
al
u
se
:
re
la
xa
nt
,t
o
cu
re
rh
eu
m
at
ic
pa
in
sa
n
d
st
om
ac
h
ac
he
s;
(3)
o
il
in
ex
te
rn
al
u
se
;(
5)
m
u
sh
(dr
ied
fo
od
stu
ff
m
ad
e
ch
ie
fly
o
fc
u
rd
sa
n
d
flo
ur
),m
ix
ed
an
d
co
o
ke
d
w
ith
dr
y
o
r
fre
sh
le
av
es
o
fR
ut
a
sp
.,
so
m
e
v
in
eg
ar
an
d
sa
lt;
(6)
sm
as
he
d
Ru
ta
sp
.l
ea
v
es
ea
te
n
in
sm
al
lq
ua
nt
iti
es
;(
7)
po
ul
tic
e:
le
av
es
o
fR
ut
a
sp
.r
o
as
te
d
in
o
liv
e
o
il
w
ith
so
m
e
flo
ur
;(
8)
an
d
(13
)o
in
tm
en
tm
ad
e
w
ith
Al
liu
m
sa
tiv
um
L.
,b
la
ck
cu
m
in
(N
ig
el
la
sp
.)s
ee
ds
po
un
de
d
m
ix
ed
w
ith
fre
sh
le
av
es
o
fR
ut
a
sp
.a
n
d
ro
as
te
d
in
o
liv
e
o
il;
(9)
in
fu
sio
n;
(10
)R
ut
a
sp
.l
ea
v
es
po
un
de
d
w
ith
Ni
ge
lla
se
ed
s,
n
u
tm
eg
(M
yr
is
tic
a
fra
gr
a
n
s
H
ou
tte
n.
)a
n
d
su
ga
r;
(11
)s
ee
(10
)
R.
c.
an
d
R.
g.
Le
av
es
,
se
ed
s
A
ka
lin
an
d
Er
tu
g?
(20
02
?2
00
3)
Ra
re
u
se
s:
(12
)p
al
pi
ta
tio
n
o
ft
he
he
ar
t;
(13
)c
ro
u
p;
(14
)o
n
ar
m
pi
ts;
(15
)
su
do
rifi
c
(12
)S
ee
ds
ea
te
n
Sp
ec
ie
s:
(R
.)R
ut
a
sp
p.
,(R
.c
.)R
ut
a
ch
al
ep
en
sis
L.
,(R
.g
.)R
ut
a
gr
a
ve
o
le
ns
L.
,(R
.m
.)R
ut
a
m
o
n
ta
na
(L
.)L
.
of supplementary humidity in the female body resulting from
child-bearing.
The uses of Ruta spp. in the Corpus Hippocraticum changed
significantly over time. If we do not take into consideration
the gynaecological indications, Ruta spp. seems indeed to have
mainly been used as a medicine against pulmonary and throat
irritations in the most ancient treatises. Later, there is still an
indication for a pulmonary disease (phthisis), but there are also
new ones: wounds and a swelling of the spleen. Also, the dietary
properties of Ruta spp. are formulated in an abstract and theo-
retical way (hot and dry). All this suggests not only a possible
expansion of the use of the plant, something that might sug-
gest therapeutic experiments, but also an attempt to express the
several uses of the plant by means of a theoretical property
(i.e. hot or dry) that might account for the several individual
applications.
3.2.2. Preparations
Ruta spp. was used entirely (the fresh plant) or in parts, espe-
cially the leaves, but also its seeds, and, less frequently, its roots
(Table 1). For internal use, Ruta spp. was administered after hav-
ing been soaked in wine or mixed with honey or its derivatives
(Table 1).
As for the excipients for internal administration, wine was
among the most used in Hippocratic pharmaco-therapy. Several
varieties are mentioned, ranging from re?tine?s (a resin-flavoured
wine) to black or white ones. It could be young or old, sweet
or dry, perfumed, mixed with water or pure. Wine use was not
limited to an excipient, as it was also credited with therapeutic
properties and was frequently prescribed in the cure of different
diseases and recommended as an anodyne? ? i.e. an analgesic ?
of very valuable efficacy.
Honey was another excipient. It was used pure or in such
derivatives as melikraton, a mixture of honey and water, and
oxugluku, a mixture of vinegar and honey. Just like wine, it was
an excipient and a therapeutic substance of its own, particu-
larly used for the treatment of respiratory and gynaecological
troubles, as well as for conditions of the skin and eyes (Byl,
1996).
Sometimes Hippocratic medicines were made of several
active substances. Ruta spp. was mixed with other herbs, the
most frequent of which were koriannon (Coriandrum sativum
L.), kardamo?mon (Elettaria cardamomum White et Maton) and
kuminon aithiopikon (Cuminum cyminum L.). All these species
are not native to the Greek mainland and arrived probably from
Near East. Laskaris (1996) has suggested that these plants are
related to ancient healing cults diffused in Crete. Other plants
mixed with Ruta spp. in Hippocratic prescriptions are mintha
(Mentha sp., Mentha spicata L.), o?kimon (Ocimum basilicum
L.), and origanon (Origanum sp., Origanum vulgare L. s.l., Ori-
ganum vulgare L. subsp. viridulum (Martin-Donos) Nyman). All
share with Ruta spp. the fact of having been credited with hot and
dry properties according to the system of the four qualities, four
elements of the world, and four humours. The combination of
these plants with Ruta spp. was probably justified by their com-
mon therapeutic action, and their mixture was perhaps aimed at
reinforcing such action.
Author's personal copy
478 A. Pollio et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 116 (2008) 469?482
Table 3
Comparison between hippocratic and modern therapeutic uses of rue
Author's personal copy
A. Pollio et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 116 (2008) 469?482 479
3.3. Contemporary traditional uses of Ruta spp.
Available documentation on contemporary traditional uses
of Ruta spp. in the Mediterranean basin varies from region to
region. For Spain and Italy, and, to a lesser extent, Turkey, a con-
spicuous corpus of ethnopharmacological data is documented,
whereas information is scanty and often vague for the rest of
contemporary Mediterranean world. However, some common
features in the therapeutic uses of Ruta spp. can be evidenced.
Leaves are the most frequently used part of the plant, but it
is also common to administer the entire aerial parts. Flowers
and roots only are used in few unrelated locations, while they
are used in association with the leaves for the same conditions
elsewhere. Use of seeds has been reported prevalently in Turkey
(Akalin and Ertug?, 2002?2003).
Therapeutic indications cover a wide range of medical con-
ditions affecting almost all parts of human body, even though in
many cases they are general and do not refer to any specific part
of the body. This is particularly evident for the countries with
no recent detailed ethnopharmacological study such as Algeria,
Morocco, and Tunisia. In addition, the indications for Eastern
Europe (Bulgaria, Cyprus, and Greece) are far from being pre-
cise in the current state of research. Focusing on Spain, Italy,
and Turkey, it is possible to have a clearer idea of the actual
medicinal uses of the plant, although the resulting picture is
not homogeneous. In Spain, Ruta spp. is mainly prescribed to
cure menstrual disorders and as abortifacients, and also against
digestive disorders (San Miguel, 2003). Anthielminthic and ver-
mifuge are by far the most common properties throughout Italy,
including Sicily and Sardinia. Anti-inflammatory and analgesic
properties are second to the previous. A survey carried out among
herbalists in 40 provinces of Turkey has revealed that the plant is
mainly prescribed as a laxative (Akalin and Ertug?, 2002?2003),
whereas field investigation evidenced that therapeutic indica-
tions vary from region to region, and include a wide array of
diseases (Table 2).
The most frequent type of preparation for internal use is infu-
sions and/or decoctions of Ruta spp. leaves, whereas for external
use direct application of fresh leaves or juice is the standard type
of administration. Oleolites made by frying Ruta spp. leaves in
olive oil are frequent in Spain and Italy. They are recommended
against rheumatisms. A similar preparation is used in Turkey to
prepare a cataplasm against severe cough and croup (Akalin and
Ertug?, 2002?2003).
Ruta spp. is frequently used with other herbs. Complex
recipes are rarely described. In Italy and Spain Ruta spp. is
most frequently associated with members of Origanum, Mentha,
Nepeta or Thymus genera, and also garlic (Allium sp. pl.). Of the
two cases of plants being mixed with Ruta spp. in Turkey, one
includes Nigella seeds (Akalin and Ertug?, 2002?2003). Nigella,
particularly Nigella sativa L., is frequently used in folk recipes
in the Near East against numerous conditions, mainly involving
the vascular and respiratory systems (Aliotta et al., 2003).
The comparison between the Corpus Hippocraticum and
modern Mediterranean ethnopharmacology (Table 3) evidences
differences not only in the uses, something that led the early-
20th century German pharmacognosist Rudolf Schmid (1919)
to omit Ruta spp. from among the plants of antiquity still used at
that time, but also, and perhaps more significantly, in the ways
of preparing medicines made of Ruta spp.
In the Corpus Hippocraticum, Ruta spp. was macerated in,
and administered with wine, or mixed with hydromel. In other
cases, Ruta spp. was pounded, mixed into wine, and immediately
drunk (Table 1). Although hot water extracts (both as decoctions
and infusions) were used by Hippocratic practitioners, there is
no mention of these preparations for Ruta spp. By contrast, both
infusions and decoctions represent the most diffused way of
preparing higher medicinal plants, including Ruta spp., in mod-
ern Mediterranean ethnopharmacognosy. It is well known that
the choice of a solvent influences the chemical composition of
the extract, both quantitatively and qualitatively. Although none
of the extractants is ideal, wine, considered as a diluted ethano-
lic solvent, should ensure high rates of extraction of non-polar
and polar substances, also at ambient temperature. On the other
hand, water extracts, which are carried out at high temperature
(>90 ?C), could damage thermo-labile compounds (Eloff, 1998).
Administering Ruta spp. leaves after maceration in wine might
ensure the preservation of the major chemical constituents of the
plant.
4. Conclusions
Ruta spp. has been constantly present in the Western thera-
peutic from Hippocratic medicine on. Not only did Dioscorides
and Galen (On the mixtures and properties of simple medicines)
mention it in their major works on materia medica, but also late
antique manuals of therapeutics such as the Medicines from Veg-
etables and Fruits by Gargilius Martialis (d. 260 CE) and the
Pseudo Apuleius, which was written sometimes in the 4th cen-
tury CE and circulated widely in the pre-1100 Western world,
devoted each a paragraph to the plant. The more typically West-
ern recipe book known as the Lorscher Book of Medicines, used
sometimes around 800 BC in the Abbey of Lorsch in Carolin-
gian Germany, included it in several prescriptions. In the Arabic
world, Ruta spp. is present in the major syntheses on materia
medica by al Biruni (973?1048 CE), al Ghafiqi (d. ca. 1160 CE)
and ibn al Baytar (ca. 1204?1248), as well as in other therapeutic
works as those of ibn Butlan (d. 1063 CE [?]) and his contem-
porary ibn Ridwan (ca 980?1060 CE). After the translation of
Arabic medicine into Latin from the late-11th to the 13th cen-
tury, Arabic pharmacological knowledge was available in the
West. Ruta spp. appeared in the many versions of the Tacuinum
Sanitatis, an adaptation of ibn Butlan?s work, as well as in the
so-called Circa Instans and Book on Simple Medicines from
the Salerno school, which were among the most diffused and
influential works on medicinal plants in the Late Middle Ages.
With the rediscovery of Greek scientific texts in the Renaissance,
the information to be found in Dioscorides? De materia medica
was again available and abundantly commented on, particularly
by Pietro Andrea Mattioli (1501?1577), whose repeated new
editions of his commented translation of Dioscorides? treatise
contributed to popularize the traditional Greek uses of plants,
including Ruta spp. New 16th-century herbals such as the His-
tory of Plants (1542) by Leonhart Fuchs (1501?1566), rooted
Author's personal copy
480 A. Pollio et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 116 (2008) 469?482
in ancient science, expanded on it, and integrated local uses of
plants into traditional knowledge, among others Ruta spp. At
the turn of the 19th?20th centuries, Georg Dragendorf included
it in his manual entitled Die Heilp?anzen der verschiedenen
Vo?lker und Zeiten. Ihre Anwendung, wesentlich Bestandtheile
und Geschichte. Ein Handbuch fu?r ?Azte, Apotheker, Botaniker
und Droguisten (Stuttgart, 1898), which was a sort of summary
of traditional uses.
The medicinal uses of Ruta species in the Corpus Hippo-
craticum were preserved at least in part over time. Nevertheless,
during the centuries, Ruta spp. was prevalently administered
against eye affections and different kinds of aches, and as an
antidote against poisons and venomous bites by various ani-
mals. Also, the plant got an increasingly growing symbolic
value. Thanks to its numerous little leaves, it was used to
sprinkle the Holy Water and to bless people in the Roman
rites of the Catholic Church. Known for this reason as Herb
of grace (Cleene and Lejeune, 2003), Ruta spp. was among
the first plants introduced by Europeans in the New World.
Heinrich et al. (2006) have suggested that this religious role
contributed to promote the therapeutic uses of Ruta spp. in
Latin America.
The ethnopharmacology of Ruta spp. in the Mediterranean
area does not seem to have been influenced by the symbology and
ritual uses of the plant. Ruta spp. was considered by Hippocratic
physicians as a remedy mainly suitable for women diseases and,
secondarily, as an effective pharmakon in the cure of pulmonary
affections. Although these indications have remained alive in
circum-Mediterranean countries through the centuries, there is
now a greater awareness of the potential toxicity of the plant.
Current recommended therapeutic indications of Ruta spp. are
no longer related to the gynaecological sphere, with the excep-
tion of the use as an abortifacient. Ruta spp. is still used internally
in the treatment of pulmonary diseases, and externally as an anti-
helmintic and antirheumatic (something that constitutes the most
frequent uses of the plant). Often it is treated at high tempera-
ture before being administered. These current indications seem
to suggest that a shift towards a safer application occurred at a
certain point in time. If so, this evolution might have been among
the factors that contributed to eliminate many of the Hippocratic
uses.
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