THE INDIAN TRIBESOF NORTH AMERICA

Q-r jn J SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
' ' BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGYBULLETIN 145THE INDIAN TRIBESOF NORTH AMERICA
ByJOHN R. SWANTON
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION PRESSCITY OF WASHINGTON
Standard Book Number 87474-092-4Library of Congress catalog card number 52-61970Distributed in the United States and Canada byRandom House, Inc.Distributed in the United Kingdom and Europe byDavid & Charles (Publishers), Ltd., South Devon House,Newton Abbot, DevonOriginally published 1952Reprinted 1968, 1969Printed in the United States of America
CONTENTS PAGEIntroduction 1Maine 13New Hampshire 17Vermont 18Massachusetts 19Rhode Island 27Connecticut 29New York 33New Jersey 48Pennsylvania 55Delaware 57Maryland and the District of Columbia 57Virginia 61West Virginia 74North Carolina 74South Carolina 90Georgia 104Florida 120Alabama 153Mississippi 174Louisiana 196Arkansas 212Tennessee 215Kentucky 229Ohio 230Indiana 230Illinois 240Michigan 243Wisconsin 250Minnesota 260Iowa 265Missouri 269North Dakota 273South Dakota 278Nebraska 285Kansas 292Oklahoma 299Texas 307New Mexico 327Arizona 349Colorado 370Utah 372Nevada 375Wyoming 384V
VI BUEEATJ OP AMEKICAN ETHNOLOGY PAGEMontana 387Idaho 398Washington 412Oregon 451California 478Alaska 529Canada 544The West IndiesIndian tribes of Haiti 608Indian tribes of Cuba 610Indian tribes of Puerto Rico 611Indian tribes of Jamaica 611Mexico and Central America 611Bibliography 643Index 683
ILLUSTRATIONSMAPS PAGE1. Outline map of North America showing relative position of the four fol-lowing maps illustrating the locations of the Indian tribes of NorthAmerica 112. Northwestern North America (section 1 of map 1) 263. Northeastern North America (section 2 of map 1) 1064. Southwestern North America (section 3 of map 1) 1865. Southeastern North America (section 4 of map 1) 298
THE INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICABy John R. SwantonINTRODUCTIONFrom the date of its first appearance in 1891 the Powell map of
"Linguistic Families of American Indians North of Mexico" hasproved of the widest utility. It has been reissued several times andcopied into numerous publications. There has, however, been almostequal need of a map giving the location of the tribes under the severalfamilies.To one familiar from his readings in early American history withthe names and locations of our prominent eastern "tribes," such asthe Delaware, Iroquois, Cherokee, and Choctaw, the preparation of atribal map would seem to be simple, and it would indeed be so if allIndians had been grouped into bodies as clearly marked as thosementioned. But even in the eastern United States the term "tribe"is quickly found to have no uniform application. The Creeks were aconfederation of a few dominant tribes and a number of subordinatebodies, each formerly independent. The name "Delaware" is com-monly said to have covered three tribes or subtribes, but while two ofthese seem never to have been independent of each other, the third,the Munsee, is often treated as if it were entirely separate. The name"Powhatan" was applied to about 30 tribes or subtribes which hadbeen brought together by conquest only a few years before Virginiawas settled, and the term "Chippewa," or "Ojibwa," is used for amultitude of small bands with little claim to any sort of governmentalunity. In the case of the Iroquois, on the other hand, the tribe wasonly a part of the governmental unit, the Iroquois Confederation, orLonghouse.The northern Plains tribes present a certain coherence but farthersouth and west our difficulties multiply. An early explorer in Texasstates that in that region, by "nation" was to be understood only asingle town or perhaps a few neighboring villages, and in fact thenumber of tribal names reported from this section seems almostendless. In the governmental sense, each Pueblo community was atribe, and if we were to attempt a complete list we should have in thefirst place a large number of existing, or at least recently existing,1
2 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145
tribes, little and big, and a still greater number kno\vii only throughthe early writers or by tradition. In California, Kroeber (1925) statesthat there were no tribes in the strict sense of the term except amongthe Yokuts of the San Joaquin Valley and their immediate neighbors.Elsewhere in California, and in western Oregon and Washington aswell, tribe and town might be considered convertible terms. As thenumber of these was continually shifting, it would be impracticableto enter them in that capacity in a work of the present kind.North of the International Boundary, conditions are, if possible,worse, except in the southernmost section of Canada where lived tribessimilar to those in the eastern parts of the United States, such as theHuron, Chippewa, Assiniboin, and Blackfoot, though the Chippewa,as aheady mentioned, require a somewhat elastic extension of ourcommon concept of a tribe. On the north Pacific coast, however, theconditions noted in western Oregon and Washington are continued.We have numerous local groups associated into several major divisionson linguistic grounds alone. Still farther north and east, among theAlgonquians, Athapascans, and Eskimo, we are confronted with abewildering array of bands and local groups, usually confined to onetown and taking their name from it or from a certain territory overwhich its members hunted, and the numbers and names of these areuncertain even at the present time. Nothing remotely resemblingscientific accuracy is possible in placing these bands, if we aim atchronological uniformity, and we must either enter great Hnguisticgroups, embracing sometimes almost an entire stocK, or make anarbitrary selection of bands with the idea of including those whichwe esteem the most important.Northeastern Mexico and some parts of Central America may alsobe defined as band areas, but most of North America below the RioGrande was occupied by well-recognized tribal divisions.From all of the West Indies except Haiti, Cuba, and Puerto Riconothing like a complete list of tribes has survived, and even for thebest documented of these, Haiti, it is impossible to say how many ofthe caciquedoms mentioned should be given tribal status.A short study of the conditions above outlined shows that onlytwo alternatives are open in a work like the present. Either onemust, in effect, alter it to a town and band map, entering the mostminute recorded subdivisions and setting his results forth, not on onemap but on dozens, or he must be satisfied with a relatively conven-tional classification, having in view popular convenience rather thanscientific uniformity, and making the best gi-ouping he can of thosepeoples which did not have real tribal organizations. In the presentundertaking the latter plan has been followed, but clues to the morescientific study have been given by including lists of "subdivisions"
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 3and "villages," There is no profession that these lists are complete; aperfect presentation of them would demand an investigation forwhich there is as yet no opportunity. The rest of the accompanyingtext has been devoted to certain items of information likely to becalled for first by the general reader, including: the origin of the tribalname and a brief list of the more important synonyms, the linguisticconnections of the tribe?it has not seemed feasible to try to includethe physical and cidtural connections?its location, a brief sketch ofits history, its estimated and actual population at different periods(based mainly on Mooney's (1928) study and the reports of theUnited States and Canadian Indian Offices), and the "connection inwhich it has become noted," particularly the extent to which itsname has been perpetuated geographically or otherwise. I have alsoincluded references to the more important sources of information.Two works have been used as basal authorities. One, the Handbookof American Indians (Hodge, 1907, 1910), is general in scope and maybe assumed throughout except for the tribes of Mexico, CentralAmerica, and the West Indies. The other, Kroeber's Handbook ofthe Indians of California (1925), is the basal authority used in treatingthe Indian groups of that State. In the Gulf area I have utilized theresults of my own studies, published and unpublished.As far as possible each tribe, or group has been treated by itself,but in Washington, Oregon, California, and Alaska, to avoid needlessrepetition, the history of the tribes is considered as a whole. Thesection on Mexico, Central America, and the West Indies representsan afterthought. Both map and text material were drawn originallyfrom the "Indian Languages of Mexico and Central America"(Thomas and Swanton, 1911), and Dr. Lehmann's (1920) monumentalwork on"Zentral Amerikas," but they have been made over thoroughlyin the light of the classification and map of Dr. J. Alden Mason (1940)and Frederick Johnson (1940), and no attempt has been made totake up the history of the several tribes or indicate other authorities.A brief history of the present undertaking will perhaps enable thereader to obtain a better understanding of it, appreciate the difficultiesencountered in the compilation, and in consequence view its short-comings, of which as the compiler I am keenly aware, with due charity.It represents an evolution both in method of procedure and in theextent of territory covered. In the beginning I was governed by theolder tradition regarding map work of the kind, the idea of enteringa tribe in the place where it was first encountered by Wliites, but anattempt to carry .out this plan soon presented difficulties becauseneighboring tribes were often encountered a centmy or more apartand their relative positions may have changed utterly in the interval.There is no certainty, for instance, that the Indians outside of the
4 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145
narrow strip of territory opened to our vision by De Soto's army in1539-43 were in the same relative position when Carohna wassettled about 1670 and Louisiana in 1699. It is particularly to benoted that, while De Soto found eastern Arkansas full of towns, itwas almost deserted when Marquette and La Salle visited it in 1673and 1682, We also know that great alterations took place in theSt. Lawrence Valley between the voyages of Cartier in 1534-43 andChamplain's appearance there in 1603.In view of these difficulties, I gave up this plan and tried the deviceof putting each tribe in the region with which it was most closelyassociated historically. But with what region were the Shawnee,Cheyenne, Arapaho, Kiowa, Comanche, and some other tribes mostclosely associated? The Middle West or the Plains are rather toogeneral terms. Moreover, tribes acquired this close association withcertain sections at very different periods and, if this plan were carriedout, the map as a whole would be historically inaccurate. Thus theDelaware upon the whole were associated most closely with the valleyof the river which bears their name, but when the Foxes had reachedIowa and the Dakota had occupied South Dakota, where they are bestknown, the Delaware had removed many hundred miles from thisregion. The Abnaki were most closely associated with western Mainebut were uprooted in the middle of the eighteenth century and movedto Canada. The Huron are most closely connected historically withthe region of Lake Simcoe, Ontario, but they were driven from therein the middle of the seventeenth century, and a hundred years laterunder the name Wyandot they, or at least part of them, came to be
"closely associated" with Ohio. Thus we have here two associationsof the same tribe.For a time it seemed as if some of these inconsistencies were un-avoidable and that any attempt at chronological accuracy was outof the question. Such is indeed the case if we insist upon absolute,documented accuracy, because Alaska, western Canada, and thenorthwestern part of the United States were almost wholly unknownuntil the latter half of the eighteenth century and there is no authenticinformation regarding many tribes until the beginning of the nine-teenth when many eastern tribes, and some of those on the Plains,had been displaced or destroyed. But on experimenting along thisline I discovered that if we select the year 1650, or rather a few yearsprior to that date and assume a fairly static condition for 30 or 40years afterward, we can determine the location of most of the tribesof the eastern and southern United States and eastern Canada in afairly satisfactory manner, and this arrangement was finally decidedupon. Up to 1649 the Hurons were stiU in Ontario; the Erie, theNeutral Nation, and the Susquehanna had not been destroyed by the
SwANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 5Iroquois; and King Philip's War, which was to scatter the NewEngland Indians, did not break out until 1675. The Virginia Indianshad suffered very much as a result of their risings in 1622 and 1644but continued to occupy the same general territories in which thecolonists found them. By 1650 the Gulf region had been traversedby Spanish expeditions and Florida had been settled nearly a hundredyears, but there had been Uttle displacement of the aborigines evenin Florida, and between the accounts of the Spanish chroniclers andthe later narratives of Virginia traders, and the South CaroUna colo-nists after 1670 we are able to get a fair idea of the position of theprincipal Southeastern peoples at that date. Meantime the Frenchpenetrated into the Ohio Valley and as far south on the Mississippias the mouth of the Arkansas by 1673, and to the ocean by 1682,and they founded Louisiana in 1699. La SaUe's Texas colony, estab-lished in 1685, however unfortunate for himself and the other partici-pants in the venture, gives a more than fair view of the Indians ofthat great territory, soon supplemented by the reports of those whoaccompanied the later Spanish expeditions. Moreover, this data maybe checked in some measure by the much earher reports of Cabezade Vaca bearing on the years 1528 to 1536 and the chroniclers ofMoscoso's invasion of east Texas in 1542. Moving still farther west,we find that New Mexico had been occupied by Spaniards long beforethe date selected, that Coronado had crossed the southern Plains,and that travelers by sea and land had visited southern California.In the meantime eastern Canada had been penetrated by two Euro-pean nations from two directions?by the French along St. LawrenceRiver and the Great Lakes and by the English Hudson's Bay Com-pany through their posts on the body of water which gives them theirname. Moose Factory was founded in 1671, Fort Nelson in 1682,and Fort Churchill in 1688. From these as bases explorers and traderssoon worked their way far inland, and on the other hand the com-mandants collected considerable information from the natives them-selves regarding the regions from whence they came.As has been said, there was beyond a great tract of country whichremained unvisited by Europeans until well into the eighteenth cen-tury, but over much of this area there is no evidence of recent tribalmovements, and some movements are known sufficiently well to justifyan attempt to reconstruct the earlier conditions. Thus the migrationof Haida from the northern end of the Queen Charlotte Islands toPrince of Wales Island evidently occurred in recent times, not earlierthan the eighteenth century, and it is clear that they replaced theTlingit there since the names of their towns in the invaded country areall derived from Tlingit. Whether the movement of the Tsimshianto the coast of British Columbia and the, probably contemporary,
6 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bdll. 145
removal of a part of the Tlingit northward, happened before or after1650 we shall never know, but it seems to have taken place long be-fore the Haida emigration just mentioned. It was formerly believedthat mass migrations of impressive character took place in the Colum-bia River Valley about the beginning of the nineteenth century.This idea was perhaps set in motion by George Gibbs (1877) in speak-ing of the migrations of Klikitat Indians, and was suggested in someparticulars by Mooney (1928) but elaborated by James Teit (1928)and adopted and amplified by Berreman (1937). This involved theassumption that before that time both banks of Columbia River fromThe Dalles to the mouth of Snake River were in possession of Salishantribes, that south of them lay the Cayuse and Molala, and south ofthem again the ancestors of all of the Shahaptian peoples except theNez Perces; and that about the beginning of the nineteenth centurythe Shoshoneans of the interior moved northward, pushing the Sha-haptians ahead of them; and that these in turn, after disrupting theCayuse and Molala, expelled the Salishans from the valley of theColumbia in the region just indicated. More recent researches byRay, Murdock, Blyth, and Steward (1938) seem to indicate that thisis entirely erroneous and that, except for a displacement of the Mo-lala and a relatively recent expansion of Shahaptians toward thesouth at the expense of the Shoshoneans, the tribes and stocks seemto have occupied substantially the same areas in the earliest timesof which we have any record as they did when the reservations wereestablished. At any rate, supposition of stability in tribal locationmakes the work of the cartographer much simpler, and we will acceptthe tribal distribution shown by Ray in his paper published in 1938as being as near the probable situation in 1650 as can now be deter-mined. From the fact that he indicates the northern boundary ofShoshonean peoples in the eighteenth century, it is assmned that heregards the rest of his map as valid for that century.For the position of the interior Athapascan tribes before they wereattacked by the Cree, I am indebted to Dr. Diamond Jenness, formerlyChief of the Department of Anthropology of the National Museumof Canada, who was also kind enough to go over most of my Canadiansection and has made many valuable suggestions and amplifications.The scope of the work has also been expanded territorially as itprogressed. Originally it was intended merely as a convenient guideto the tribes of the several states of the American Union and Alaska,demand for such a work being considerable. But since the originallinguistic map of the Bureau had included the Dominion of Canadaand Greenland, it was later determined to make this of the same ex-tent. And finally, owing to the representations of a leading anthro-
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 7pologist, it was amplified to take in Mexico, Middle America, and theWest Indies.The method of treatment for Canada and Greenland has beenpractically identical with that for the United States, but it was thoughtbest to represent on the map not merely the tribes but the band divi-sions of the larger northern tribes, such as the Chippewa, Cree, Algon-kin, Montagnais, and several of the Athapascan groups, including theKutchin and K!hotana of the far Northwest and Alaska. Many ofthese band names are English and wholly modern, but it is highlyprobable that some of them correspond to more ancient divisionsand, since they have found a place in literature, the identification oftheir locations will be convenient. For the placing of those in theNortheast I am particularly indebted to the late anthropologists Dr.Frank G. Speck, of the University of Pennsylvania, and Dr. JohnM, Cooper, of the Catholic University of America.Objection has been made to entering the names of Eskimo tribes orbands on the map, since almost all refer simply to "people living atsuch-and-such a place," most of them had little permanence, and therewas an enormous number of them, the ones I have mentioned beingmerely a selection. On the other hand, it may be urged that somegroups, notably those in Alaska, had considerable continuity, thatmost of them probably owed their existence to certain natural foodsupplies which would tend to reproduce other tribes at the same spotseven though these were broken up, and that finally most of the tribeshere entered have obtained a place in Eskimo literature and it isconvenient to know where they lived even though they may havebeen no more important than other tribes not mentioned. Besides,if this were not done, the map would have little more value, so far asthe Eskimo country is concerned, than the linguistic map. In thetext I have indicated the relative lack of importance of the Eskimotribes by treating all under the one head "Eskimo," and their names,like the band names of the northern Indians just mentioned, are indifferent type. The West Greenland names are, of course, quitemodern but are thought to represent the principal bands of an earlierdate.As already stated, that portion of the map south of the territory ofthe United States is based on the map of Mexico and Central Americapublished by Dr. Thomas and myself (1911), on the work of Lehmann(1920) mentioned above, but particularly on the papers of Mason(1940) and Johnson (1940). Although European influence in thisregion goes back to the early part of the sixteenth century, relativelylittle tribal displacement had taken place by 1650. On the WestIndies, however, it was very different, and, if we were to note only thetribes extant there in 1650, little could be inserted. However, it
8 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bdll. 145has seemed best to submit to the anachronism here by giving thetribes in occupancy when Spaniards first came among them at the endof the fifteenth century and beginning of the sixteenth. In this partof the map I have followed Lehmann except in Jamaica and Haiti,but I have omitted several of his Jamaica names which seem to bemerely those of towns. The tribal distribution in Haiti is the resultof my studies of Peter Martyr's "De Orbo Novo," and I have increasedthe five "provinces" given by Las Casas (1875-76) because it seems tome that Marien in the northwest and Maguana in the center shouldhave independent status. Probably the caciquedoms here and inthe other islands were in a constant state of flux.In treating the linguistic stocks, considerable compromise has beenfound necessary. Since the publication of Powell's map (1891) theinvestigations of various students have rendered certain changesnecessary, but other proposed changes have not been accepted byall students, and some are violently opposed.The connection between Shahaptian, Waiilatpuan, and Lutuamian,first suggested by Hewitt (1897) and recently confirmed by Jacobs(1937), has made it necessary to put these three groups of languagesinto one stock which is here called Shapwailutan, a name made up ofthe first three syllables of the original stock names and in that formsuggested by Hewitt many years ago. The connection of Natchezwith the Muskhogean family, originally proposed by Brinton andconfirmed by me, has been recognized in the present classification.I have also placed the former Tonikan, Chitimachan, and Attacapanstocks under the stock name Tunican in accordance with the resultsof my own researches though the inclusion of the first mentioned isnot entirely beyond question. Dr. J. P. Harrington's studies (1910)have made the relationship between Kiowan and the Tanoan tonguesso evident that they have been placed in one family and given thename Kiowa-Tanoan. There no longer seems to be any excuse forkeeping the old Shoshonean, Piman, and Nahuatlan stocks apart,and I have followed Buschmann (1859) and Brinton (1891) in unitingthem as Uto-Aztecan. Kiowa-Tanoan is probably related to thisbut the fact has still to be demonstrated.In California we are confronted by some puzzling questions as torelationships, which have been made the basis of violent differences ofopinion. Some of our ethnologists have been very skeptical regardingthe Algonquian connection of Yurok and Wiyot but I let it stand as onKroeber's Handbook (1925) pending exact determination. On theother hand, the validity of the so-called Penutian stock seems to berecognized by all of those who have had the best opportunities to studythe languages composing it and is admitted here. The relationshipbetween some of the languages of the other great stock created by
SwANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 9Dixon and Kroeber (1919), the Hokan, is also allowed by other stu-dents. A doubt still remains whether all of the languages classifiedunder this head, even in the original and most conservative usage of theterm, should go with it. Or rather, it seems doubtful whether ourinformation is sufficient to justify the erection of this stock over againstthe Penutian. Mr. J. P. Harrington (personal information) is of theopinion that the distinction betweem Hokan and Penutian is artificialand that the languages of both groups and of various others not asyet brought together are probably related. But since the name Hokanhas received literary recognition, it seems best to continue it provision-ally for the forms of speech first placed in that category. Kroeber'sconfirmation of Brinton's suggestion regarding the Serian and Te-quistlatecan stocks has served to add them to the Hokan familythrough Yuman, and Sapir proposed extension to Subtiaba andCoahuilteco. I am favorably disposed toward very considerable ex-tensions of the present family boundaries but feel that more una-nimity of opinion is desirable before including the more radical sugges-tions in a general work of this kind. Personally, I am convinced thata very large part of the vocabulary and structure of the Siouan andMuskhogean languages has had a common origin and believe that itwill ultimately be found best to consider them as branches of onestock, but adequate proof has not yet been presented. The Tunicanstock also shares certain well-marked structural peculiarities withMuskhogean while having connections also with the ancient Texasstocks, but the meaning of this has yet to be determined. It is plainthat the structural parallelism between Athapascan and Tliiigit is notaccidental, and some striking similarities extend to Haida. Whetherthe somewhat similar parallelism between Salishan, Chimakuan, andWakashan means genetic relationship is another problem, but theanswers to these are not as yet sufficiently assured to incorporate anychanges from the older classification in this work. It is evident thata future map devoted to the distribution of languages in NorthAmerica must give something more tban stocks or supposed stocks.It must show the degree of relationship between languages as well in-side as outside of stock boundaries.No doubt the positions assigned to certain tribes in the present mapwill surprise many ethnologists. This will be particularly true of theplacing of some of those of the Plains like the Arapaho, Kiowa, KiowaApache, and Arikara. In fact, some of these locations are extremelyspeculative but they are governed by the necessity of harmonizingthem with the locations of other tribes at the time selected as standard,1650. In the case of certain tribes removed from their original seatsbefore 1650, or whose locations were learned only at a considerablylater time, the date of known occupancy is indicated in parentheses.
10 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bdli,. 145The present work was well under way before it was learned thatsomething similar was being undertaken by Professor Kroeber, andKroeber's work has since appeared (1939) as "Cultural and NaturalAreas of Native North America." This magnificent publication willundoubtedly continue to occupy a place all by itself f6r a long timebut it is evidently intended mainly for the universitv student, thoughits usefulness will by no means be confined to such students, and inother particulars the purposes of that study were quite distinct fromthose which the present writer has entertained.
"It aims," says Prof. Kroeber, "first, to review the environmentalrelations of the native cultures of North America. Its second purposeis to examine the historic relations of the culture areas, or geographicalunits of cultures." My own compilation has no such ambitiouspurposes. It is merely intended to inform the general reader whatIndian tribes occupied the territory of his State and to add enoughdata to indicate the place they occupied among the tribal groups ofthe continent and the part they played in the early period of ourhistory and the history of the States immediately to the north andsouth of us. It attempts to be rather a gazetteer of present knowledgethan a guide to the attainment of more knowledge.The preparation of this manuscript extended over several yearsand some new material was added indeed until my retirement fromactive membership on the staff of the Bureau of American Ethnologyin 1944. It is admittedly defective in the use of material publishedduring the years since that date.In the synonymy only those forms have been given which differso much from the popular designation of the tribe as to make identifi-cation difficult.Although I have usually leaned very largely on Mooney's popula-tion figures (1928) in my over-aU estimates, my own for the South-eastern tribes, as shown by those on map 3 of Bulletin 137 (Swanton,1946), would generally be considerably smaller.The work has been done from the point of view of the UnitedStates, and therefore the Chippewa have been treated under Minne-sota, the Huron under Ohio, and the Assiniboin under Montana,although their centers were rather north of the International Boundary.On the maps the boundary lines between modern political nationsand states are indicated by long dashes; those between linguisticstocks or major divisions of that type by short dashes and divisionsbetween smaller tribal or group bodies by dots.^
I Note: This has not been consistently carried through on the maps.? J. E. S.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 11
Map 1.?Outline map of North America showing relative position of the fourfollowing maps illustrating the locations of the Indian tribes of North America:Section 1, Northwestern North America (map 2, facing p. 26); section 2,Northeastern North America (map 3, facing p. 106) ; section 3, SouthwesternNorth America (map 4, facing p. 186) ; section 4, Southeastern North America(map 5, facing p, 298).

MAINEAbnaki. Properly Wabanaki, "those living at the sunrise," "thoseliving at the east," "easterners." Also called:Alnanbal, own name, meaning "Indians," or "men."Aquannaque, Wabanaki as pronounced by Huron.Bashabas, name given them from a principal chief.Cannon-gageh-ronnons, name given by Mohawk.Moassones, from a name applied to their country; perhaps from PenobscotMaweshenook, "berry place."Narankamigdok epitsik arenanbak, "villages of the Narankamigdog,"said to be a collective name for all the Abnaki villages.Natio Luporum, "Wolf Nation."Natsdgana, name given by Caughnawaga Iroquois.Onagungees, Onnogonges, Anagonges, or Owenagunges, name given bythe Iroquois.Skacewanilom, name given by the Iroquois.Tarrateens, name given by the tribes of southern New England.Connections.?The Abnaki belonged to the Algonquian linguisticfamily, their closest connections being with their neighbors to theeast and west. Indeed their name has very commonly been extendedto include the Malecite, Penobscot, and Pennacook, and even theMicmac, though on the other hand the Sokoki have sometimes beenleft out.Location.?The main body was in western Maine, in the valleysof the Kennebec, Androscoggin, and Saco Rivers and on the neighbor-ing coast, overlapping also into Carroll County, N. H. A singletribe, the Missiassik, was in northwestern Vermont, representingprobably a late intrusion. (See also New Hampshire and Vermont.)SubdivisionsAmaseconti, on Sandy River, Franklin County.Arosaguntacook, on the lower course of Androscoggin River.Missiassik, in the valley of Missisquoi River, Franklin County, Vt.Norridgewock, on Kennebec River.Ossipee, on Ossipee River and Lake in Maine and New Hampshire.Pequawket, on Lovell's Pond and the headwaters of Saco River, Maine andNew Hampshire.Rocameca, on the upper course of Androscoggin River.Sokoki, on Saco River and in the adjacent parts of Cumberland and York Counties.Wawenoc, on the seacoast of Sagadahoc, Lincoln, and Knox Counties.VillagesAmaseconti; there were two villages of this tribe, at Farmington Falls and NewSharon, respectively.Aquadocta, westward of Saco.Arosaguntacook town, probably near Lewiston. 13
14 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Boll. 145Cobbosseecontee, a town or band on the stream of that name, which emptiesinto the Kennebec River at Gardiner.Ebenecook, at Ebenecook Harbor, Southport Island.Kennebec, between Augusta and Winslow.Ketangheanycke, near the mouth of Kennebec River.Masherosqueck, near the coast and not certainly Abnaki.Mecadacut, on the coast between Penobscot and Kennebec Rivers.Missiassik, belonging to the Missiassik tribe, on Lake Champlain at the mouthof Missisquoi River, Vt.Moratiggon, probably on the Maine or New Hampshire coast and possibly notAbnaki.Moshoquen, on or near the coast.Muscongus, on the coast and probably near Muscongus Island.Negusset, about the site of Woolwich.Ossaghrage, Iroquois name of an Abnaki village.Ossipee, probably on Ossipee Lake.Ouwerage, probably on Ossipee Lake.Pasharanack, probably on the coast.Pauhuntanuc, probably on the coast.Pemaquid, near Pemaquid, Lincoln County.Pequawket town, about Fryeburg.Pocopassum, probably on the coast.Sabino, at the mouth of the Kennebec River, possibly on the west side.Sagadahoc, at the mouth of the Kennebec River.Satquin, on the coast southwest of the Kennebec River.Segotago, probably identical with Sagadahoc.Sowocatuck, perhaps the chief village of the Sokoki, Saco River.Taconnet, at the falls of the Kennebec near Waterville.Unyjaware, Iroquois name for an Abnaki village.Wacoogo, probably on or near the coast.History.?The Abnaki and their neighbors claim to have immigratedinto their historic seats from the southwest. Aside from possibleNorse visitants in 1000-1010, John Cabot, during his second voyagein 1498, probably brought the first white men within sight of Abnakiterritory, but he seems to have had no dealings with the people.From that time on, Breton, Basque, Norman, and English fishermenconstantly visited the coast. In 1604 Champlain passed along itfrom north to south and visited several Abnaki bands, and in 1605Waymouth penetrated the Wawenoc country. In 1607-08 came anabortive attempt on the part of the Plymouth Company to make apermanent settlement at the mouth of the Kennebec River, but it isprobable that English fishermen were on Monhegan Island almostcontinuously after that date. Pemaquid was also occupied at anearly period. The Abnaki were soon afterward missionized fromCanada and became attached to the French interest. For a timethey were successful in driving the English colonists away but laterthey suffered several severe defeats?particularly the capture ofNorridgewock in 1724 and the defeat of the Pequawket in 1725
?
were much reduced in numbers, and finally withdrew to Canada where
SWANXON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 15they were settled at B^cancour and Silleiy, and later at St. Francis,along with other refugee tribes from the south.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates this at 3,000 in 1600, includ-ing the Penobscot and Passamaquoddy. The St. Francis Indians,including remnants of other New England tribes, numbered 395 in1903, and 280 in 1924.Connection in which they have become noted.?The activities of themissionary Rasles, compilation by him of the Abnald dictionary, thedestruction of Norridgewock, and the defeat of the Pequawket onLovell Pond, as mentioned above, have made the Abnaki famous.Malecite. They extended into the northeastern part of the State ofMaine from Canada (q. v.).Passamaquoddy. Signifying "Those who pursue the pollock," butstrictly "pollock-plenty-place" (Eckstorm). Also called:Machias Tribe, applied to some living on Machias River.Quoddy, abbreviation of Passamaquoddy.St. Croix Indians, from one of the rivers they inhabited.Scotuks, from the name of the Schoodic Lakes.Unchechauge or Unquechauge.Connections.?The Passamaquoddy belong to the Algonquian lin-guistic family, their closest connections being the Malecite, and theirmore remote relatives the Abnaki, Penobscot, and Pennacook.Location.?On Passamaquoddy Bay, St. CroLx River, and theSchoodic Lakes. (See also Canada.)VillagesGunasquamekook, on the site of St. Andrews, N. B.Imnarkuan, on the site of Pembroke, Washington County.Sebaik, at Pleasant Point, Passamaquoddy Bay, near Perry, Washington County.Other towns were on Lewis Island and at Calais, in Maine, and on the NewBrunswick side of St. Croix River.History.?The early history of the Passamaquoddy was identicalwith that of the Malecite (q. v.). When the territory of the 13colonies was separated from English rule, the greater part of thistribe was left on the south side of the boundary. They enjoy, jointlywith the Penobscot, the privilege of having a representative in theMaine State legislature, though he speaks only on matters of concernto the two tribes.Population.?The population of the Passamaquoddy was estimatedat about 150 in 1726, 130 in 1804, 379 in 1825, 400-500 in 1859; andwas enumerated as 386 in 1910. In 1930, 435 Indians were returnedfrom Washington County, and practically all of these must havebelonged to this tribe.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Passamaquoddyhave given their name to Passamaquoddy Bay, which forms part of
16 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145the eastern boundary of the State of Maine and are the easternmostbody of Indians in the United States.Pennacook. The Accominta and Newichawanoc of the extremesouthwestern part of the State belonged to this tribe. (See NewHampshire.)Penobscot. Meaning "the rocky place," or "the descending ledgeplace" (Eckstorm), referring to the falls between Oldtown andBangor. Also called:Pentagouet, from the name of their principal village near Castine.Connections.?The Penobscot belonged to the Algonquian linguisticstock, their nearest connections being the Abnaki, Passamaquoddy,Malecite, and Pennacook, with whom they were frequently clasicedunder the name of the fu"st mentioned.Location.?On both sides of Penobscot Bay and in the entire drain-age area of Penobscot River. SubdivisionsA body of Penobscot on Moosehead Lake were known as "Moosehead LakeIndians," but their separation from the rest was probably temporary.VillagesAgguncia, said to have been a small settlement near Brewer, Penobscot County,from which the fabulous city of "Norumbega" derived its name.Asnela, a settlement on an island of the same name in Penobscot Bay.Catawamtek, at Rockland.Kenduskeag, at Bangor, near the site of the Penobscot Exchange Hotel.Mattawamkeag, about Mattawamkeag Point, Penobscot County.Meecombe, on the lower course of Penobscot River.Negas, in Penobscot County.Olamon, on an island in Penobscot River near Greenbush.Oldtown, the present village on an island of the same name.Passadumkeag, on an island in Penobscot River near the present Passadumkeag.Pentagouet, at or near Castine.Precaute, on the southeast coast of Maine; it may have been a Passamaquoddytown.Segocket, near the mouth of Penobscot River.Wabigganus, probably near the mouth of the Penobscot River.History.?Native tradition brings the Penobscot from the South-west. They were encountered by French and Enghsh fishermen andexplorers early in the sixteenth century, and one of their to\vns cameto have a European reputation as a city of fabulous size and impor-tance under the name of Norumbega. In the seventeenth centurytheir chief, known to the Whites as Bashaba, seems to have extendedhis authority, probably his moral authority only, over the tribes tothe westward as far as the Merrimac. The Penobscot were visitedby Champlain in 1604 and by numerous later explorers. They assistedthe French against the English until 1749, when they made peace
SwANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 17and in consequence did not remove to Canada with the Abnaki.They have remained in their old country to the present day, theirprincipal settlement being on Oldtovvn Island. Conjointly with thePassamaquoddy, they have a representative at the sessions of theMaine State legislature privileged to speak on tribal affairs only.Population.?The followmg are early estimates of the Penobscotpopulation: 650 in 1726, 1,000 in 1736, 700 in 1753, 400 in 1759, 700in 1765, 350 in 1786. According to the United States Census of 1910,there were 266, including 13 scattered outside of the State of Maine.The census of 1930 returned 301 Indians from Penobscot County,practically all belonging to this tribe.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Penobscot havegiven their name to a bay, a river, and a county in the State of Maine, toa post village in Hancock County, and a branch post office in Detroit.The title of the chief above mentioned, Bashaba or Bessebes, becamethe center of a myth among the Whites in which he was elevated tothe dignity of a local king or emperor. The widely quoted myth ofNorumbega should also be mentioned in this comiection. This tribeand the Passamaquoddy constitute the only bodies of Indians of anysize remaining in New England.NEW HAMPSHIREAbnaki. Parts of Grafton County were occupied by the Ossipee andPequawket bands, affiliated wdth the Sokoki of the Abnaki tribe.(See Maine.)Pennacook. Gerard (Hodge, 1910) says the name is ''cognate withAbnaki pendkuk, or pena^'kuk, 'at the botton of the hill or higliland,' "but Speck says simply "down hill." Also called:Merrimac, from the river of that name.Nechegansett, name given by Gookin (1792).Owaragees, Iroquois name (fide Golden (1747)).Connections.?The Pennacook belonged to the Algonquian linguisticstock, their nearest relatives being the Abnaki, with whom they werefrequently classed, and the Penobscot, Passamaquoddy, and Malecite.Location.?In southern and central New Hampshire, northeasternMassachusetts, and the southernmost part of Maine. (See alsoMaine, Massachusetts, and Vermont.)Siihdivisions and VillagesAccominta, at or near the site of York, Maine.Agawam, at Ipswich, Mass.Amoskeag, at Amoskeag Falls on the Merrimack River,Coosuc, a division along Gonnecticut River between Upper and Lower Ammo-noosuc Rivers, the principal village apparently near the mouth of the latter.
18 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Boll. 145Nashua, a division along the upper course of Nashua River, the village being nearLeominster, Mass.Naumkeag, at Salem, Mass.Newichawanoc, a division on upper Piscataqua River and Salmon Falls River inMaine and New Hampshire, the principal village being near Berwick, Maine.Pennacook, a division on both banks of Merrimack River above and below Concord,the village of the same name being on the site of Concord.Pentucket, at Haverhill, Mass.Piscataqua, on Piscataqua River near Dover.Souhegan, a division on Souhegan River, Hillsborough County, with the villageof the same name probably near Amherst, formerly called Souhegan.Squamscot, on Exeter River near Exeter, Rockingham County.Wachuset, a division on the upper Nashua River, Mass., the village of the samename being located probably near Princeton.Wamesit, a division on the south bank of Merrimack River below the mouth ofConcord River, Mass., the village of the same name being near Lowell.Weshacum, at Weshacum Ponds, near Sterling, Mass.Winnecowet, in Rockingham County.Winnipesaukee, around the lake of the same name.History.?The early history of the Pennacook was like that of theAbnaki except that they were earlier affected by the English settle-ments on Massachusetts Bay. In King Philip's War (1675-76) theNashua and Wachuset tribes joined the hostiles, but the greater partof the Pennacook, under Wannalancet, remained on friendly termsuntil the treacherous seizure of about 200 of their number by Waldronin 1676. They then abandoned their country and the greater partremoved to Canada, where they ultimately joined the Abnaki and otherIndians of St. Francis. The remainder were finally settled at Scati-cook, Rensselaer County, N. Y.Population.?The number of Pennacook is estimated by Mooney(1928) at 2,000 in 1600 and 1,250 ui 1676. The remnant is includedamong the 280 St. Francis Indians returned in 1924.Connection in which they have become noted.?The town of Penacookand Lake Penacook, Merrimack County, are named after the Penna-cook, as well as a branch station of the Concord Post Office, and theirname also appears in Whittier's poem "The Bridal of Pennacook."VERMONTAbnaki. An Abnaki band known as the Missiassik was at one timesettled on Missisquoi River in Franklin County. (See Maine.)Mahican. Bands of the Mahican hunted in the southwestern andwestern parts of the State and made temporary settlements fromtime to time. One Mahican village (Winooskeek) is thought tohave been located at the mouth of Winooski River. (See NewYork.)
SwANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 19Pennacook. The eastern margins of Vermont were occupied by thePennacook, who must have hunted considerably within its borders.(See New Hampshire.)Pocomtuc. The northernmost bands of the Pocomtuc extendedinto the southern parts of the State. (See Massachusetts.)MASSACHUSETTSMahican. The Mahican extended over most of Berkshire County,where they were represented mainly by the Housatonic or Stock-bridge Indians, (See New York.)Massachuset. Meaning "at the range of hills," by which is meantthe hills of Milton.Connections.?The Massachuset belonged to the Algonquian lin-guistic stock, their tongue being an 7i-dialect, and formed one groupwith the Narraganset, Niantic (East and West), and Wampanoag, andprobably the Nauset.Location.?In the region of Massachusetts Bay between Salem onthe north and Marshfield and Brockton on the south. Later theyclaimed lands beyond Brockton as far as the Great Cedar Swamp,territories formerly under the control of the Wampanoag.SubdivisionsJohnson (1881) says that there were "three kingdoms or sagamoreships havingunder them seven dukedoms or petty sagamores." Some of these undoubtedlycorrespond to the divisions recently worked out by Speck (1928) by means of pro-vincial documents. He identifies six main divisions, two of them further subdi-vided, all called by the names of their chiefs, as follows:(1) Band of Chickataubut (including the later bands of Wampatuck and someother of his heirs and a district and band earlier controlled by Obatinnewat orObtakiest), all of the Massachuset territory south of Charles River and west ofthe neighborhood of Ponkapog Pond.(2) Band of Nanepashemet, all the Massachuset territory north of CharlesRiver. Nanepashemet's domain was afterward divided among his three sons:Winnepurkit, owning about Deer Island and in Boston Harbor; Wonohaquaham,owning about Chelsea and Saugus; and Montowampate, owning about Lynnand Marblehead.(3) Band of Manatahqua, about Nahant and Swampscott.(4) Band of Cato, a tract 5 miles square east of Concord River.(5) Band of Nahaton, around Natick.(6) Band of Cutshamakin, Cutshamequin, or Kutchamakin, about Dorchester,Sudbury, and Milton. VillagesConohasset, about Cohasset.Cowate, "Praying Indians," at the Falls of Charles River.Magaehnak, probably "Praying Indians," 6 miles from Sudbury.Massachuset, location uncertain.Mishawum, at Charlestown.Mystic, at Medford.
20 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bdll. 145Nahapassumkeck, in the northern part of Plymouth County, probably on thecoast.Natick, "Praying Indians," near the present Natick.Neponset, on Neponset River about Stoughton.Nonantum, on Nonantum hill, in Newton.Pequimmit, "Praying Indians," near Stoughton.Pocapawmet, on the south shore of Massachusetts Bay.Punkapog, "Praying Indians," near Stoughton.Sagoquas, south of Cohasset.Saugus, near Lynn.Seccasaw, in the northern part of Plymouth County.Titicut, "Praying Indians," possibly Wampanoag, in Middleborough town.Topeent, on the north coast of Plymouth County.Totant, at or near Boston.Totlieet, on the north coast of Plymouth County.Wessagusset, near Weymouth.Winnisimmet, at Chelsea.Wonasquam, near Annisquam, Essex County, perhaps a later outvillage.History.?The Massachuset were visited by several voyagers, be-ginning at least as far back as the time of John Cabot but were firstparticularly noted by Captain John Smith, who coasted their terri-tory in 1614. In 1617 they were much reduced by a pestilence andabout the same time they were depleted by wars with their north-eastern neighbors. The Puritans settled in their country in 1629,and mission work was soon begun among them, and was pursuedwith particular zeal b}'' John Eliot. The converts were gathered intoseparate villages, where they gradually declined in numbers andpresently disappeared as distinct bodies, though a few descendants ofthe Punkapog town people are still living in Canton, Mattapan, andMansfield.Population.?The number of Massachuset is estimated by Mooney(1928) to have been 3,000 in 1600. In 1631 it was reduced to about500, and soon considerably below that figure by smallpox.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Massachuset gavetheir name to Massachusetts Bay and through that to the presentCommonwealth of Massachusetts. The Massachuset are also notedas the tribe in which the famous apostle to the Indians, John Eliot,labored, through whom a large part of them were gathered into vil-lages of "Praying Indians." The "Eliot Bible" and other works byhim have preserved a knowledge of the Massachuset language to ourown day. Crispus Attucks, who was killed in the Boston massacreand is generally regarded as the first victim of the American Revolu-tion, was of mixed Negro-Massachuset ancestry. The marriage ofWinnepurkit, a Massachuset chief whose lands were about BostonHarbor, to the daughter of Passaconavv^ay, chief sachem of thePennacook, was made by Whittier the subject of a poem, "TheBridal of Pennacook."
SwANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 21Nauset. Meaning unknown. Also called:Cape Indians, from their situation.Connections.?(See under discussion of the IVIassachuset.)Location.?All of Cape Cod except the extreme western end.SubdivisionaSpeck (1928) has identified the following: lyanough, Wiananno, or Hyannis(centering about Barnstable); Manomoy, or Monomoy (about Chatham);Nauset (from Eastham to Truro). VillagesAquetnet, at Skauton Neck, Sandwich, Barnstable County.Ashimut or Ashimuit, at a large spring near the junction of Falmouth, Mashpee,and Sandwich Townships, Barnstable County.Coatuit, near Osterville, Barnstable County.Codtaumut or Cataumut, in Mashpee Township.Cummaquid, at Cummaquid Harbor.Manamoyik, near Chatham.Mashpee, on the coast of Mashpee Township.Mattakees or Mattakeset, in Barnstable and Yarmouth Townships.Meeshawn, in Provincetown or Truro Township.Nauset, near Eastham.Nemskaket, on or near Nemskaket Creek.Nobsqussit or Nobscusset, near Dennis.Pamet, near Truro.Pawpoesit, near Barnstable.Pispogutt or Pispoqutt, in the western part of Barnstable County, near Buz-zards Bay.Poponesset, near Poponesset Bay.Potanumaquut, on Pleasant Bay near Harwich.Punonaknit, at Billingsgate near Wellfleet.Satuit, on Cotuit River near Mashpee.Sawkatuket or Satucket, in Brewster or Harwich.Skauton, near Sandwich, probably on Buzzards Bay,Sokones or Succonesset, near Falmouth.Wakoquet, or Waquoit, near Waquoit or Weequakit, in Barnstable Township.Wessquobs or Weesquobs, near Pocasset.Many of these contained Wampanoag Indians and some Indians of othertribes.History.?Yrom. the exposed position of the Nauset on Cape Codtheir territory came under the observation of many of the earliestexplorers, but actual contact with the people was not so simple amatter. In 1606 Champlain had an encounter with them. In 1614Hunt carried off 7 Nauset Indians and 20 Patuxet of the Wampanoagtribe whom he sold into slavery. They seem to have escaped the greatNew England pestilence of 1617. Although they behaved in a hostilemanner toward the Pilgrims at their first landing in 1620, they soonbecame firm friends and even rendered some assistance against KingPhilip (1675-76). Most of them had been Christianized before this
22 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Boll. 145time and collected into churches. In 1710 many died of fever, but thenumber of Indians in Nauset territory was increased by additionsfrom other tribes driven from their proper territories, so that thepopulation of the principal Indian settlement at Mashpee has notfallen below 200 down to the present day, though a great deal ofmixture with other races has taken place.Population.?The number of the Nauset was estimated by Mooney(1928) at 1,200 in 1600. In 1621 they were believed to number 500;in 1674, 462 were reported in the various inhabited centers on CapeCod, containing Nauset, Wampanoag, and other Indians. In 1698,515 Indians were reported from Mashpee, mainly Nauset and Wam-panoag. In 1767, 292 were reported at the same place and thenumber has varied between 200 and 300 down to 1930. The UnitedStates Census of 1910 reported 206 Indians of this band, all but 5 inMassachusetts, Speck (1928) estimates that there were 230 in 1920,all of whom were mixed-bloods. The census of 1930 returned only38 Indians from Barnstable County and 54 from Massachusetts, butit may be incomplete.Connection in which they have become noted.?As already remarked,it was in the Nauset territory and in considerable measure throughtheir blood that the Massachusetts aborigines maintained theirexistence longest. Nauset Beach, Nauset Harbor, and Nauset Lightperpetuate the name.Nipmuc. From Nipmaug, "fresh water fishing place."Connections.?The Nipmuc belonged to the Algonquian linguisticfamily, their language being an Z-dialect. Their nearest relativeswere the other tribes of Massachusetts and the tribes of Rhode Island,Connecticut, and the Hudson River VaUey.Location.?The Nipmuc occupied the central plateau of Massachu-setts, particularly the southern part of Worcester County, but theyextended into northern Rhode Island and Connecticut. (See alsoConnecticut and Rhode Island.)Subdivisions and VillagesAcoomemeck, location uncertain.Attawaugan, near Attawaugan in the town of Killingly, Conn.Chabanakongkomun, near Dudley.Chachaubunkkakowok, location uncertain.Coweset, in northern Rhode Island west of Blackstone River.Hassanamesit, at Grafton.Magunkaquog, at Hopkinton.Manchaug, near Oxford.Manexit, near Thompson, Conn.Mashapaug, at Mashapaug Pond in the town of Union, Conn.Medfield, at Medfield, native name unknown.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OP NORTH AMERICA 23Menemesseg, near New Braintree.Metewemesick, near Sturbridge.Missogkonnog, location uncertain.Muskataquid, location uncertain.Nashobah, near Magog Pond, in Littleton.Nichewaug, about Nichewaug, near Petersham.Okommakamesit, near Marlborough.Pakachoog, near Worcester, probably in Millbury.Quabaug, near Brookfield.Quadick, near the present Quadick Reservoir, Thompson County, Conn.Quantisset, on Thompson Hill, near Thompson, Conn.Quinebaug, on Quinebaug River near Quinebaug Station, town of Thompson,Conn.Quinetusset, near Thompson in northeast corner of Connecticut.Segunesit, in northeastern Connecticut.Tatumasket, west of Mendon, in the southern part of Worcester County.Wabaquasset, about 6 miles from Quinebaug River, south of Woodstock, Conn.,sometimes regarded as an independent tribe.Wacuntug, on the west side of Blackstone River, near Uxbridge.Wenimesset, at New Braintree.History.?There was no coherence among the people bearing thename of Nipmuc and some of them were from time to time attachedto the more powerful tribes in their neighborhood, such as the Massa-chuset, Wampanoag, Narraganset, and Mohegan. The Whitesfirst met them after Plymouth and the Massachusetts Bay were settled.In 1674 there were seven villages of Christian Indians among theNipmuc but in 1675 practically all took part with King Philip againstthe colonists and at its close fled to Canada or to the tribes on HudsonRiver.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates that there were 500 inde-pendent Nipmuc in 1600. If we consider as Nipmuc the Indians re-turned from Worcester County, Mass., and Windham and TollandCounties, Conn., in 1910, there were then 81.Pennacook. The following bands of Pennacook lived in the north-eastern part of Massachusetts: Agawam, Nashua, Naumkeag,Pentucket, Wachuset, Wamesit, and Weshacum. (See NewHampshire.)Pocomtuc. Meaning unknown.Connections.?The Pocomtuc belonged to the Algonquian linguisticfamily, and spoke an r-dialect, their nearest relatives probably beingthe Wappinger.Location.?The Pocomtuc home was in the present counties ofFranklin, Hampshire, and Hampden, Mass., and in the neighboringparts of Connecticut and Vermont.
24 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Boll. 145Subdivisions and VillagesAgawam, aVjout Springfield, their principal village of the same name being onLong Hill.Mayawaug, near W. Suffield, town of Suffield, Conn.Nameroke, in the town of Enfield, east of Thompsonville, Conn.Nonotuc, a division and village about Northampton.Pocomtuc, a division in Deerfield River Valley and the adjacent parts of theConnecticut River Valley, the principal town of the same name being nearDeerfield. (See also Vermont.)Scitico, near the place of that name in the eastern part of the town ol Enfield,Conn.Squawkeag, on both sides of Connecticut River in the northern part of FranklinCounty, their principal village, of the same name, being near Northfield.History.?The fort of the Pocomtuc proper, on Fort Hill nearDeerfield, was destroyed by the Mohawk in 1666. The Pocomtuccombined with the Narraganset and Tunxis in attacks on the Moheganchief, Uncas, and later joined the hostile Indians under King Philip.At the close of the war they fled to Scaticook on the Hudson, wheresome of them remained until 1754, going then to St. Francis, Canada.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates that there were 1,200Pocomtuc in 1600. If we count as Pocomtuc the Indians returnedfrom Hampden and Hampshu-e Counties in 1910, there were then 23left, but they may have been of qaite other origin.Wampanoag. The name has the same meaning as Abnaki, "easternpeople." Also called:Massasoits, from the name of their famous chief.Philip's Indians, from King Philip.Connections.?The Wampanoag belonged to the Algonquian lin-guistic stock, speaking an n-dialect like the neighboring Massachuset,Narranganset, Niantic (East and West), and the Nauset.Location.?The Wampanoag occupied Rhode Island east of Narra-gansett Bay; Bristol County, Mass.; the southern part of PlymouthCounty, below Marshfield and Brockton; and the extreme westernpart of Barnstable. The Indians of Martha's Vineyard should also beadded to them, and it wiU be convenient to treat under the same headthose of Nantucket and the Saconnet, or Sakonnet, of Sakonnet Point,R. I., whose connection was more remote. They controlled RhodeIsland in Narragansett Bay until the Narraganset tribe conquered itfrom them. (See also Rhode Island.)SubdivisionsSpeck (1928) gives the following mainland subdivisions:(1) Band of Massasoit, in a territory called Sowwams on the east side of Narra-gansett Bay; the western part of Bristol County, Mass.; all of BristolCounty, R. I.; and the eastern part of Providence County, R. I.(2) Band of Annawon, about Squannaconk swamps in Rehoboth Township.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 25
(3) Band of Weetamoe, a chieftainess, their territory being called Pocasset, insoutheastern Rhode Island, about Tiverton and adjacent parts of BristolCounty, Mass.(4) Band of Corbitant or Caunbatant, about Swansea.(5) Band of Tispaquin or Tuspaquin, lands called Assawampset, about Assa-wampset Pond*.(6) Band of Tyasks or Tyashk, about Rochester and Acushnet.(7) Band of Totoson, in a territory centering about Mattapoisett and Rochester.(8) Band of Coneconam or Cawnacome, in a territory known as Manomet,extending from Manomet to Woods Hole.(9) Band of Piowant or Plant, between Assonet Bay and Taunton River.There were several vacant tracts not occupied by any of the above. In 1861there were bands of Wampanoag at Herring Pond, Dartmouth, MamatakesettPond, Tumpum Pond, and Watuppa Pond.Speck (1928) gives the following bands on Martha's Vineyard, but the classi-fication applies to a time when Indians from various parts of the mainland hadbegun to settle there:(1) Band of Nohtooksaet who came from Massachusetts Bay, about Gay Head.(2) Band of Mankutquet (including the bands of Wannamanhut who came fromnear Boston (Christian town) and Toohtoowee, on the north shore ofChilmark), in the western part of Martha's Vineyard excluding the pre-ceding.(3) Band of Tewanticut (including the bands of Cheesehahchamuk, aboutHomes' Hole; Wampamag, of Sanchakankachet; and Tom Tyler, aboutEdgartown), in the eastern section of Martha's Vineyard.(4) Band of Pahkepunnasso, on the island of Chappaquiddick.There were two bands on Nantucket, the names of which are unknown, and wemust also add the Sakonnet, on Sakonnet Point, R. I., and the Indians of theEHzabeth Islands. VillagesMainland: Mainland?ContinuedAcushnet, about Acushnet. Mattapoiset, near Mattapoiset, Plym-Agawam, about Wareham. outh County.Assameekg, probably near Dart- Munponset, location unknown.mouth. Namasket, about Middleboro.Assawompset, in Middleborough Nasnocomacack, on the coast andTownship. probably a few miles north ofAssonet, conjectural village near the Plymouth.present Assonet. Nukkehkummees, near Dartmouth.Coaxet, near Little Compton, R. I. Pachade, near Middleboro.Cohannet, about Fowling Pond near Patuxet, at Plymouth.Taunton. Pocasset, near Tiverton, R. I.Comassakumkanit or Herring Pond, Pokanoket, on Bristol Peninsula, R. I.Herring Pond, Plymouth County. Quittaub, in the southwestern part ofCooxissett, probably in Plymouth Plymouth County.oun y.
. ^, , ^ , , Saltwater Pond, in Plymouth County.Cowsumpsit, m Rhode Island.Jones' River, in Kingston Township. Shawonet, near Somerset.Kitteaumut, near Monument Pond, Wauchimoqut, probably near See-Plymouth County. konk.Loquasquscit, near Pawtucket, R. I. Wawayontat, on Weweantitt RiverMattakeset, near Duxbury. near Wareham.
26 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Martha's Vineyard: Nantucket?ContinuedChaubaqueduck, on the main island Quays, a district and probably village,or on Chappaquiddick Island. Sasacacheh, a district and probablyGay Head, at Gay Head, village.Nashamoiess, in the southeastern Shaukimmo, a district and probablypart of the island. village, south of Nantucket Harbor,Nashanekammuck, at Chilmark, Siasconsit, a district and probablyNunnepoag, location uncertain, village, including the site of theOhkonkemme, near Tisbury, present Siasconset,Sanchecantacket, near Edgartown. Squam, a district and probably village.Seconchqut, location uncertain, r,^ ? . , , ?T-T ^ , , Talhanio, location uncertain,Nantucket:Miacomit, location uncertain, Tetaukimmo, a district and probablyPodpis, a district and probably village.village, Toikiming, location uncertain.History.?With many older writers on the Norse voyages to America,Mount Hope Bay, in the territory of the Wampanoag, was a favoritesite for the supposed Icelandic colony (ca, 1000-1010), but the theoryis now less popular. In 1602 Gosnold touched at Martha's Vineyardand was kindly treated by the natives. Soon after the Pilgrims hadestablished themselves at Plymouth in 1620 they made a treaty offriendship with the Wampanoag head chief, Massasoit, who playeda great part in the early history of the colony. He died in 1662 andwas succeeded by two sons in succession, the second of whom, Meta-comet or Metacom, is the King Philip of history. Observing thesteady influx of White colonists into Indian lands. King Phihp organ-ized a native confederacy against them and a bloody war followed(1675-76), in which King Phihp was killed and the power of thetribes of southern New England finally destroyed. The Wampanoagsurvivors settled with the Sakonnet, who had remained neutral,and formed towns with the Nauset in the western part of BarnstableCounty, In 1763 they suffered severely from an epidemic, but anumber of bands have preserved their autonomy, in a much mixedcondition, to the present day. The Indians of Martha's Vineyardand Nantucket, like the Sakonnet, had refused to join the confederacyand consequently maintained their numbers relatively intact for alonger period. They continued to dechne, however, and in 1764 two-thirds of the Nantucket Indians were destroyed by a fever. Two orthree mixed-bloods were left in 1809, and in 1855 Abram Quary, thelast of these, died. The Indians of Martha's Vineyard, on the otherhand, received considerable accessions from the mainland and havemaintained themselves down to our day though, like the mainlandIndians, much mixed with other tribes and other races.Population.?Of Wampanoag proper Mooney (1928) estimated thatthere were 2,400 in 1600. They probably suffered severely in the




SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 27
epidemic of 1617, but in 1630 they are said to have had about 30villages. In 1700 the Sakonnet Indians, including most of theWampanoag remnants, were estimated at 400. In 1861 a partialcensus gives 258, and we may suppose that the total was about 300.Martha's Vineyard: The estimates of the Indian population ofMartha's Vinej'^ard vary greatly. Mooney (1928) estimated thenumber of Indians at 1,500 in 1600, perhaps taken from an estimateof 1642, which gives the same figure, while a later writer places theirnumber as "not less than 3,000" (Hare, 1932, p. 44). An estimatemade in 1698 gave 1,000. In 1764, 313 were returned; in 1807, 360,only about 40 of whom were full-bloods. In 1861, 393 were returned,but in 1910 only 147. Nantucket: Mooney estimates the Indianpopulation of Nantucket to have been 1,500 in 1600 and Mayhew(Speck, 1928) gives the same number in 1642. Hare (1932, p. 44)also estimates the Indian population to have been 1,500. In 1763there were 358; in 1790, 20; in 1809, 2 or 3. An informant of Dr.Speck gives the total number of Indians in Barnstable, Plymouth,and Bristol Counties in 1928 as 450.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Wampanoagmade their mark in history chiefly through the activities of theirchiefs, Massasoit and King Philip, One of the two largest bodies ofIndians in southern New England to maintain their identity down tothe present day were the Wampanoag of Martha's Vineyard.RHODE ISLANDNarraganset. Their name means "people of the small point."Connections.?The Narraganset belonged to the Algonquian lin-guistic family and spoke an n- dialect like the neighboring Massa-chuset, Wampanoag, and probably the Niantic (East and West)and the Nauset.Location.?The Narraganset occupied the greater part of RhodeIsland west of Narragansett Bay, between Providence and PawcatuckRivers. At one time they dominated the Coweset (see Nipmuc)north of them and the Eastern Niantic, and they drove the Wampa-noag from the island which gives its name to the State of Rhode Islandand the Pequot from some territory they held in the west. (See alsoMassachusetts and Connecticut.)SuhdiviiionsThere are said to have been eight chiefs over as many territorial divisions, allunder one head chief. VillagesChaubatick, probably within a few miles of Providence.Maushapogue, in Providence County.
28 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Mittaubscut, on Pawtuxet River, 7 or 8 miles above its mouth.Narraganset, above the site of Kingston.Pawchauquet, in western Rhode Island.Shawomet, near Warwick.History.?The Narraganset traced their origin to the Southwest.They escaped the great pestilence of 1617 and were in. fact increasedin numbers by bands of refugees. In 1633 the Narraganset lost 700in a smallpox epidemic. In 1636 Roger Williams settled among themand through their favor was enabled to lay the foundations of thepresent State of Rhode Island. They remained on good terms withthe Whites until King Philip's war (1675-76), into which they threwtheir whole strength. In the celebrated swamp fight at Kingstonthey lost nearly 1,000 killed and captured, and the remnants of thetribe were soon forced to abandon the country. Some probablyjoined the Mahican and Abnaki or even got as far as Canada andnever returned to their own people, but others obtained permission tocome back and were settled among the Eastern Niantic who had takenno part in the contest. From that time on the combined tribes wereknown as Narraganset. In 1788 many of these united with theBrotherton Indians in New York, and a few have gone to live with theMohegan in Connecticut. The remainder are near Charlestown,R.I.Population.?The Narraganset are estimated by Mooney (1928) tohave numbered 4,000 in 1600, including the Eastern Niantic, and wereperhaps as numerous in 1675. Along with the Eastern Niantic, theyhad a total population of about 140 in 1812, and 80 in 1832, while thecensus of 1910 returned 16. The same year, however, 284 Indiansall told were returned from Rhode Island, and in 1930, 130.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Narraganset werefamed as the most powerful tribe of southern New England and becamenoted also on account of Roger Williams' dealings with them and hisreport regarding them. Narragansett Bay, the Town of Narragansettin Washington County, and Narragansett Pier, the well-knownsummer resort, were named after them.Niantic, Eastern. The word Niantic signifies, according to Trumbull(1818) "at a point of land on a (tidal) river or estuary."Connections.?The Eastern and the Western Niantic were parts ofone original tribe split in two perhaps by the Pequot; the nearestrelatives of both were probably tlie Narraganset.Location.?The western coast of Rhode Island and neighboringcoast of Connecticut. VillageWekapaug, on the great pond near Charlestown.
SwANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 29
History.?As has just been stated, the Eastern Niantic were closelyconnected with the Narraganset, but they refused to join them inKing Philip's war and at its close the remnants of the Narragansetwere settled among them. Their subsequent history has been givenunder Narraganset.Population.?(See Narraganset.)Connection in which they have become noted.?Niantic, in the town ofWesterly, Washington County, R. I., perpetuates the name. (SeeNiantic, Western, under Connecticut.)Nipmuc. The Coweset and some other bands of Nipmuc extendedinto the northwestern part of the State but most of these wereunder the domination of the Narraganset. (See Massachusetts.)Pequot. - The Pequot originally occupied some lands in the westernpart of Rhode Island of which the Narraganset dispossessed them.(See Connecticut.)Wampanoag. The Wampanoag occupied the mainland sections ofRhode Island east of Narragansett Bay and Providence River.At one period they also held the island which gives this State itsname but they were driven from it by the Narraganset. (SeeMassachusetts.) CONNECTICUTMahican. The northwestern corner of Litchfield County was occu-pied by the Wawyachtonoc, a tribe of the Mahican Confederacy ofthe upper Hudson, though their main seats were in Columbia andDutchess Counties, N. Y. (See New York.)Mohegan. The name means "wolf." They are not to be confusedwith the Mahican. Also called:River Indians.Seaside People.Unkus [Uncas] Indians, from the name of their chief.Upland Indians.Connections.?The Mohegan belonged to the Algonquian linguisticstock and spoke a y-dialect closely related to Pequot.Location.?The Mohegan originally occupied most of the upper val-ley of the Thames and its branches. Later they claimed authorityover some of the Nipmuc and the Connecticut River tribes, and in theold Pequot territory. (See also New York.)VillagesAshowat, between Amston and Federal.Catantaquck, near the head of Pachaug River.Checapscaddock, southeast of the mouth of Shetucket River in the town ofPreston.Kitemaug, on the west wide of Thames River between Uncasville and Massapeag.Mamaquaog, on Natchaug River northeast of Willimantic.
30 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Mashantackack, near Palmertown, town of Montville.Massapeag, at the place now so-called on the west side of Thames River.Mohegan, at the present town of Mohegan on the west side of Thames River.Moosup, at the present Moosup in the town of Plainfield.Nawhesetuck, on Fenton River north of Willimantic.Pachaug, at the present Pachaug in the town of Griswold.Paugwonk, near Gardiner Lake in the town of Salem.Pautexet, near the present Jewett City in the town of Griswold.Pigscomsuck, on the right bank of Quinebaug River near the present line betweenNew London and Windham Counties.Poquechanneeg, near Lebanon.Poquetanock, near Trading Cove, town of Preston.Shantuck, on the west side of Thames River just north of Mohegan.Showtucket or Shetucket, near Lisbon in the fork of the Shetucket and QuinebaugRivers.Wauregan, on the east side of Quinebaug River in the town of Plainfield.Willimantic, on the site of the present city of Willimantic.Yantic, at the present Yantic on Yantic River.History.?The Mohegan were probably a branch of the Mahican.Originally under Sassacus, chief of the Pequot, they afterward becameindependent and upon the destruction of the Pequot in 1637, Uncas,the Mohegan chief, became ruler also of the remaining Pequot andset up pretensions to territory north and west beyond his originalborders. At the end of King Philip's War, the Mohegan were theonly important tribe remaining in southern New England, but asthe White settlements advanced they were reduced progressively bothin territory and in numbers. Many joined the Scaticook, and in 1788a still larger body united with the Brotherton in New York, where theyformed the largest single element in the new settlement. The restcontinued in their old town at Mohegan, where a remnant of mixed-bloods still survives.Population.?The number of Mohegan were estimated by Mooney(1928) at 2,200 in 1600; in 1643, including the remnant of the Pequotand perhaps other tribes, at between 2,000 and 2,500. In 1705they numbered 750; in 1774, 206 were reported; in 1804, 84; in 1809,69; in 1825, 300; in 1832, about 350; in 1910, 22.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Mohegan becamecelebrated on account of the services rendered the Whites by Uncas.Today their name is perpetuated in Mohegan, on Thames River, andthe name of their chief in Uncasville on the same stream. There isa post village of this name in McDowell County, W. Va., and aMohegan Lake in Westchester County, N. Y., but this is namedafter the Mahican.Niantic, Western. Regarding the name, see Niantic, Eastern, underRhode Island.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 31Connections.?These were the same as for the Eastern Niantic.(See Rhode Island.)Location.?On the seacoast from Niantic Bay to Connecticut River.VillagesNiantic or Nehantucket, near the present town of Niantic. There was anothernear Old Lyme.History.?Originally the Western Niantic are thought to have con-stituted one tribe with the Eastern Niantic and to have been cut apartfrom them by the Pequot. They were nearly destroyed in thePequot war and at its close (1637) were placed under the control ofthe Mohegan. About 1788 many joined the Brotherton Indians.A small village of Niantic was reported as existing near Danbury in1809, but this perhaps contained remnants of the tribes of westernConnecticut, although Speck (1928) found several Indians of mixedNiantic-Mohegan descent living with the Mohegan remnant, de-scendants of a pure-blood Niantic woman from the mouth of NianticRiver.Population. The Western Niantic population was estimated byMooney (1928) at 600 in 1600; there were about 100 in 1638; 85 in1761.Connection in which they have become noted.?The name of the West-ern Niantic is perpetuated in Niantic village, Niantic River, andNiantic Bay, in New London County. Post villages in MaconCounty, 111., and Montgomery County, Pa., bear the name Niantic.Nipmuc. Some bands of this tribe extended into the northeasternpart of the State. (See Massachusetts.)Pequot. The name means, according to Trumbull (1818), "de-stroyers." Also called:Sickenames, in a Dutch deed quoted by Ruttenber (1872).Connections.?The Pequot belonged to the Algonquian linguisticstock, and spoke a ^/-dialect closely related to Mohegan.Location.?The Pequot occupied the coast of New London Countyfrom Niantic River nearly to the Rhode Island State line. Untildriven out by the Narraganset, they extended into Rhode Islandas far as Wecapaug River. (See also Rhode Island.)VillagesAsupsuck, in the interior of the town of Stonington.Aukumbumsk or Awcumbuck, in the center of the Pequot country near GalesFerry.Aushpook, at Stonington.Cosattuck, probably near Stonington.Cuppanaugunnit, probably in New London County.Mangunckakuck, probably on Thames River below Mohegan.
32 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bdll. 145Maushantuxet, at Ledyard.Mystic, near West Mystic on the west side of Mystic River.Monhunganuck, near Beach Pond in the town of Voluntown.Nameaug, near New London.Noank, at the present place of that name.Oneco, at the place of that name in the town of SterUng.Paupattokshick, on the lower course of Thames River.Pawcatuck, probably on the river of the same name, Washington County, R. I.Pequotauk, near New London.Poquonock, inland from Poquonock Bridge.'Sauquonckackock, on the west side of Thames River below Mohegan.Shenecosset, near Midway in the town of Groton.Tatuppequauog, on the Thames River below Mohegan.Weinshauks, near Groton.Wequetequock, on the east side of the river of the same name.History.?The Pequot and the Mohegan are supposed to havebeen invaders from the direction of Hudson River. At the periodof first White contact, the Pequot were warlike and greatly dreadedby their neighbors. They and the Mohegan were jointly ruled bySassacus until the revolt of Uncas, the Mohegan chief. (SeeMohegan.) About 1635 the Narraganset drove them from a cornerof the present Rhode Island which they had previously held, and2 years later the murder of a trader who had treated some Indiansharshly involved the Pequot in war with the Whites. At that timetheir chief controlled 26 subordinate chiefs, claimed authority overaU Connecticut east of Connecticut River, and on the coast as farwest as New Haven or Guilford, as well as all of Long Island exceptthe extreme western end. Through the influence of Roger Williams,the English secured the assistance or neutrality of the surroundingtribes. Next they surprised and destroyed the principal Pequotfort near Mystic River along with 600 Indians of all agesand both sexes, and this disaster crippled the tribe so much that,after a few desperate attempts at further resistance, they determinedto separate into small parties and abandon the country (1637).Sassacus and a considerable body of followers were intercepted nearFairfield while trying to escape to the Mohawk and almost all werekilled or captured. Those who surrendered were divided amongthe Mohegan, Narraganset, and Niantic, and their territory passedunder the authority of Uncas. Their Indian overlords treated themso harshly, however, that they were taken out of their hands bythe colonists in 1655 and settled in two villages near Mystic River,where some of their descendants still live. Numbers removed toother places?Long Island, New Haven, the Nipmuc country, andelsewhere?while many were kept as slaves among the English inNew England or sent to the West Indies.
SwA.NTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 33Population.?The Pequot population was estimated by MooneyC1928) at 2,200 in 1600; in 1637, immediately after the Pequot war,there were said to be 1,950, but the figure is probably too high.In 1674 the Pequot in their old territory numbered about 1,500; in1762, 140. In 1832 there were said to be about 40 mixed-bloods,but the census of 1910 gave 66, of whom 49 were in Connecticut and17 in Massachusetts.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Pequot areremembered principally on account of the bitter and, to them,disastrous war related above. The name is borne by a post villagein Crow Wing County, Minn.Wappinger. The valley of Connecticut River was the home of anumber of bands which might be called Mattabesec after the nameof the most important of them, and this in turn was a part of theWappinger. (See New York.)NEW YORKDelaware. Bands of two of the main divisions of the DelawareIndians, the Munsee and Unami, extended into parts of NewYork State, including the island of Manhattan. (See New Jersey.)Erie. The Erie occupied parts of Chautauqua and CattaraugusCounties. (See Ohio.)Iroquois. From Algonkin Iri?akhoiw, "real adders," with the Frenchsuffix -ois. Also called:Ongwano?sionni', their own name, meaning "We are of the extendedlodge," whence comes the popular designation, "People of the long-house."Canton Indians.Confederate Indians.Five Nations, from the five constituent tribes.Mat-che-naw-to-waig, Ottawa name, meaning "bad snakes."Mingwe, Delaware name.Nadowa, name given by the northwestern Algonquians and meaning
"adders."Six Nations, name given after the Tuscarora had joined them.Connections.?The Iroquois belonged to the Iroquoian linguisticstock, their nearest relations being the Tuscarora, Neutral Nation,Huron, Erie, and Susquehanna.Location.?In the upper and central part of the Mohawk Valleyand the lake region of central New York. After obtaining guns fromthe Dutch, the Iroquois acquired a dominating influence among theIndians from Maine to the Mississippi and between the Ottawa andCumberland Rivers. (See also Indiana, Kansas, Ohio, Oklahoma,Pennsjdvania, Wisconsin, and Canada.)
34 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145SubdivisionsThere were five tribes, as follows: Cayuga, about Cayuga Lake; Mohawk, inthe upper valley of Mohawk River; Oneida, about Oneida Lake; Onondaga, inOnondaga County and the neighboring section; Seneca, between Lake Senecaand Genesee River. Later there were added to these, for the most part not onterms of perfect equality, the Tuscarora from North Carolina, some Delaware,Tutelo, Saponi, Nanticoke, Conoy, New England Indians, and other fragmentsof tribes, besides entire towns from the Huron, Erie, Andaste, and other conqueredpeoples. VillagesCayuga:Chondote, on the east side of Cayuga Lake a few miles south of Cayuga.Gandasetaigon, near Port Hope, Ont.Ganogeh, at Canoga.Gayagaanhe, near the east shore of Cayuga Lake 3}^ miles south of UnionSprings.Gewauga, at Union Springs, town of Springport.Goiogouen, on the east side of Cayuga Lake on Great Gully Brook, about 4miles south of the present Union Springs, and 4 leagues from the town ofTiohero.Kawauka, (?), Kente, on Quinte Bay, Lake Ontario, Ont.Neodakheat, at Ithaca.Oneniote, at Oneida on Cayuga Lake.Onnontare, probably east of Seneca River and at Bluff Point, near Fox Ridge,Cayuga County.Owego, on the right bank of Owego Creek, about 2 miles from the SusquehannaRiver, in Tioga County.Skannayutenate, on the west side of Cayuga Lake, northeast of Canoga,Seneca County.Tiohero, 4 leagues from Goiogouen.Mohawk
:
Canajoharie, on the east bank of Otsquago Creek nearly opposite Fort Plain.Canastigaone, on the north side of Mohawk River just above Cohoes Falls.Canienga, near the bank of Mohawk River.Caughnawaga, on Mohawk River near the site of Auriesville.Chuchtononeda, on the south side of Mohawk River?named from a band.Kanagaro, on the north side of Mohawk River in Montgomery County orHerkimer County.Kowogoconnughariegugharie, (?)
.
Nowadaga, at Danube, Herkimer County.Onoalagona, at Schenectady.Osquake, at Fort Plain and on Osquake Creek, Montgomery County.Saratoga, about Saratoga and Stillwater.Schaunactada, at and south of Albany.Schoharie, near Schoharie.Teatontaloga, on the north side of Mohawk River and probably near the mouthof Schoharie Creek in Montgomery County.Tewanondadon, in the peninsula formed by the outlet of Otsego Lake andShenivas Creek.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 35Oneida:Awegen.Cahunghage, on the south side of Oneida Lake.Canowdowsa, near junction of Lackawanna and Susquehanna Rivers.Chittenango, on Chittenango Creek, Madison County.Cowassalon, on creek of same name in Madison County.Ganadoga, near Oneida Castle, Oneida County.Hostayuntwa, at Camden.Oneida, name of several of the main towns of the tribe, in the valleys of OneidaCreek and Upper Oriskany Creek.Opolopong, on the east branch of Susquehanna, about 30 miles above Shamokinand 10 miles below Wyoming, Pa.Oriska, near Oriskany in Oneida County.Ossewingo, a few miles above Chenango, Broome County.Ostogeron, probably above Toskokogie on the Chenango River.Schoherage, probably on the west branch of Chenango River (?) below Tuskokogie.Sevege, a short distance above Owego on the west side of the east branch ofthe Susquehanna River.Solocka, about 60 miles above Shamokin, on a creek issuing from the GreatSwamp north of the Cashuetunk Mountains, Pa.Tegasoke, on Fish Creek in Oneida County.Teseroken, (?).Teiosweken, (?).Tkanetota, (?).Onondaga:Ahaouet, (?).Deseroken, traditional.Gadoquat, at Brewerton, Onondaga County.Gannentaha, a mission on Onondaga Lake about 5 leagues from Onondaga.Gistwiahna, at Onondaga Valley.Onondaga, the principal town of the tribe, which occupied several distinct sites,the earliest known probably 2 miles west of Cazenovia and east of WestLimestone Creek, Madison County.Onondaghara, on Onondaga River 3 miles east of Onondaga Hollow.Onondahgegahgeh, west of Lower Ebenezer, Erie County.Onontatacet, on Seneca River.Otiahanague, at the mouth of Salmon River, Oswego County.Teionontatases, (?).Tgasunto, (?).Touenho, south of Brewerton, at the west end of Lake Oneida.Tueadasso, near Jamesville.Seneca:Buckaloon, on the north side of Allegheny River near the present Irvine,Warren County, Pa.Canadasaga, near Geneva.Canandaigua, near Canandaigua.Caneadea, at Caneadea.Catherine's Town, near Catherine.Cattaraugus, on a branch of Cattaraugus Creek.Chemung, probably near Chemung.Cheronderoga, (?).
36 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Chinklacamoose, probably mainly Delaware but frequented by Seneca, on thesite of Clearfield, Pa.Chinoshahgeh, near Victor.Condawhaw, at North Hector.Connewango, 2 villages, one at Warren, Pa., and one on the left bank of Alle-gheny River above the site of Tionesta, Pa.Dayoitgao, on Genesee River near Fort Morris.Deonundagae, on Livingston River west of Genesee River.Deyodeshot, about 2 miles southeast of East Avon, on the site of Keinthe.Deyohnegano, 2 villages: one near Caledonia; one on Allegheny Reservation,Cattaraugus County.Deyonongdadagana, on the west bank of Genesee River near Cuylerville.Dyosyowan, on Buffalo Creek, Erie County, Pa.Gaandowanang, on Genesee River near Cuylerville.Gadaho, at Castle.Gahato, probably Seneca, in Chemung County.Gahayanduk, location unknown.Ganagweh, near Palmyra.Ganawagus, on Genesee River near Avon.Ganeasos, (?).Ganedontwan, at Moscow.Ganos, at Cuba, Allegany County.Ganosgagong, at Dansville.Gaonsagaon, (?).Gaousge, probably Seneca, on Niagara River.Gaskosada, on Cayuga Creek w^est of Lancaster.Gathtsegwarohare, (?).Geneseo, near Geneseo.Gistaquat, (?).Goshgoshunk, mainly Munsee and Unami, 3 villages on Allegheny River in theupper part of Venango County, Pa.Hickorytown, mainly Munsee and Unami, probably about East Hickory orWest Hickory, Forest County, Pa.Honeoye, on Honeoye Creek, near Honeoye Lake.Joneadih, on Allegheny River nearly opposite Salamanca.Kanagaro, 2 villages, one on Boughton Hill, directly south of Victor, N. Y.;one with several different locations from 1}^ to 4 miles south from the first,and southeast from Victor, on the east side of Mud Creek.Kanaghsaws, about 1 mile northeast of Conesus Center.Kannassarago, between Oneida and Onondaga.Kashong, on Kashong Creek at its entrance into Lake Seneca.Kaskonchiagon, (?).Kaygen, on the south bank of Chemung River below Kanestio River.Keinthe, on the north shore of Lake Ontario, later transferred to Bay of Quinte.Lawunkhannek, mainly Delaware, on Allegheny River above Franklin, VenangoCounty, Pa.Mahusquechikoken, with Munsee and other tribes, on Allegheny River about20 miles above Venango, Pa.Middle Town, 3 miles above the site of Chemung.New Chemung, at or near the site of Chemung.Newtown, on Chemung River near Elmira.Oatka, at Scottsville, on the west bank of Genesee River.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 37Old Chemung, about 3 miles below New Chemung.Onnahee, on the east side of Fall Brook, in the western part of lot 20, town ofHopewell, Ontario County.Onoghsadago, near Conewango (?).Onondarka, north of Karaghyadirha on Guy Johnson's map of 1771.Owaiski, near Wiscoy on the west bank of Genesee River, Allegheny County.Sheshequin, about 6 miles below Tioga Point, Bradford County, Pa.Skahasegao, at Lima, Livingston County.Skoiyase, at Waterloo.Sonojowauga, at Mount Morris, Livingston County.Tekisedaneyout, in Erie County.Tioniongarunte, (?).Tonawanda, on Tonawanda Creek, Niagara County.Totiakton, on Honeoye outlet not far from Honeoye Fails in Monroe County.Venango, at Franklin, at the mouth of French Creek, Venango County, Pa.Yorkjough, about 12 miles from Honeoye and 6 from New Genesee, probablyin Livingston County.Yoroonwago, on upper Allegheny River near the present Corydon, WarrenCounty, Pa. Iroquoian villages of unspecified tribeAdjouquay, (?).Anpuaqun, (?).Aratumquat, (?).Cahunghage, on the south side of Oneida Lake.Caughnawaga, on Sault St. Louis, Quebec Province, Canada.Chemegaide, (?).Churamuk, on the east side of Susquehanna River, 18 miles above Owego.Codocararen, (?).Cokanuk, (?).Conaquanosshan, (?),Conihunta, 14 miles below Unadilla.Connosomothdian, (?).Conoytown, of mixed Conoy and Iroquois, on Susquehanna River between Bain-bridge and Sunbury, Pa.Coreorgonel, of mixed Tutelo and Iroquois, on the west side of Cayuga Lake inletand on the border of the Great Swamp 3 miles from the south end of CayugaLake.Cowawago, (?).Cussewago, principally Seneca, on the site of the present Waterford, Erie County,Pa.Ganadoga, near Toronto, Ontario, Canada.Ganagarahhare, at Venango, Crawford County, Pa.Ganeraske, at the mouth of Trent River, Ontario, Canada.Ganneious, at the site of Napanee, Ontario, Canada.Glasswanoge, (?).Indian Point, at Lisbon, N. Y.Janundat, on Sandusky Bay, Erie County, Ohio.Jedakne, Iroquois or Delaware, on the west branch of Susquehanna River, prob-ably at Dewart, Northumberland County, Pa.Johnstown, location not given.
38 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bdll. 145Jonondes, location unknown.Juaniata, on Duncan Island in Susquehanna River, near the mouth of the Juniata.Juraken, 2 villages, one on the right bank of the Susquehanna at Sunbury, Pa.,the other on the left bank of the east branch of the Susquehanna.Kahendohon, location unknown.Kanaghsaws, about 1 mile northwest of Conesus Center, N. Y.Kannawalohalla, at Elmira, N. Y.Kanesadageh, a town of the Turtle Clan mentioned in the Iroquois Book of Rites.Karaken, location unknown.Karhationni, location unknown.Karhawenradonh, location unknown.Kayehkwarageh, location unknown.Kickenapawling, mixed Delaware (?) and Iroquois, 5 miles north of the presentStoyestown, Pa., at the fork of Quemahoning and Stony Creeks.Kittanning, mixed Iroquois, Delaware, and Caughnawaga, about the presentKittanning, Armstrong County, Pa.Kuskuski, mixed Delaware and Iroquois, on Beaver Creek, near Newcastle, Pa.La Montague, on a hill on Montreal Island, Quebec Province, Canada.La Prairie, at La Prairie, Quebec, Canada.Logstown, Shawnee, Delaware, and Iroquois, on the right bank of the Ohio River,14 miles below Pittsburgh.Loyalhannon, on Loyalhanna Creek, Pa.Manckatawangum, near Barton, Bradford Count}', Pa.Matchasaung, on the left bank of the east branch of the Susquehanna River, about13 miles above Wyoming, Pa.Mingo Town, near Steubenville, Ohio.Mohanet, probably Iroquois, on the east branch of the Susquehanna River, Pa.Nescopeck, mixed Iroquois, Shawnee, and Delaware, formerly at the mouth ofNescopeck River, Luzerne County, Pa.Newtown, 4 towns: one, probably of the Seneca, on Chemung River near Elmira,N. Y. ; one, probably of Iroquois and Delaware, on the north bank of LickingRiver, near Zanesville, Ohio; one, probably of Iroquois and Delaware, onMuskingum River near Newtown, Ohio; and one, probably of Iroquois andDelaware, on the west side of Wills Creek, near Cambridge, Ohio.Newtychanning, on the west bank of the Susquehanna River and the north sideof Sugar Creek, near North Towanda, Pa.Ohrekionni, (?).Oka, mixed Iroquois, Nipissing and Algonkin, on Lake of the Two Mountains,near Montreal, Quebec, Canada.Onaweron, location unknown.Onkwe lyede, location unknown.Opolopong, on the east branch of the Susquehanna River about 30 miles aboveShamokin and 10 miles below Wyoming, Pa.Oskawaserenhon, location unknown.Ostonwackin, Delaware and Iroquois, at the mouth of Loyalstock Creek on thewest branch of the Susquehanna River, at Montoursville, Pa.Oswegatchie, at Ogdensburg, N. Y.Otsiningo, on Chenango River, Broome County, N. Y.Otskwirakeron, location unknown.Ousagwentera, "beyond Fort Frontenac."Pluggy's Town, a band of marauding Indians, chiefly Mingo, at Delaware, Ohio,Runonvea, near Big Flats, Chemung County, N. Y.
SwANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OP NORTH AMERICA 39Saint Regis, on the south bank of the St. Lawrence River at the internationalboundary and on both sides.Sault au Recollet, near the mouth of the Ottawa River, Two Mountains County,Quebec, Canada.Sawcunk, mixed Delaware, Shawnee, and Mingo, on the north bank of the OhioRiver near the mouth of Beaver Creek and the present town of Beaver, Pa.Schohorage, on the west bank of the Susquehanna River, a short distance abovethe Indian town of Oquaga, Pa.Sconassi, on the west side of the Susquehanna River below the west branch,probably in Union County, Pa.Scoutash's Town, Mingo or Shawnee, near Lewistown, Logan County, Ohio.Seneca Town, Mingo, on the east side of Sandusky River in Seneca County, Ohio.Sevege, a short distance above Owego on the west side of the east branch ofSusquehanna River, N. Y.Sewickley, a Shawnee town occupied in later years by a few Mingo and Delaware,on the north side of Allegheny River about 12 miles above Pittsburgh, nearSpringdale, Pa.Shamokin, Delaware, Shawnee, and Iroquois, a short distance from the forks ofthe Susquehanna and on the northeast branch.Shenango, 3 towns: one, on the north bank of the Ohio River a short distancebelow the present Economy, Pa.; one, at the junction of the Conewangoand Allegheny Rivers; and one, some distance up the Big Beaver near Kuskuski(see above).Sheshequin, Iroquois and Delaware, about 8 miles below Tioga Point, Pa.Sittawingo, in Armstrong County,* Pa.Skenandowa, at Vernon Center, Oneida County, Pa.Solocka, about 60 miles above Shamokin on a creek issuing from the Great Swampnorth of the Cashuetunk Mountains, Pa.Swahadowri, (?).Taiaiagon, near Toronto, Ontario, Canada.Tioga, at Athens, Pa.Tohoguses Town, at junction of Plum and Crooked Creeks, Armstrong County, Pa.Tonihata, on an island in the St. Lawrence River supposed to be Grenadier Island,Leeds County, Ontario, Canada.TuUihas, mixed Delaware, Mahican, and Caughnawaga, on the west branch ofthe Muskingum River, Ohio, above the forks.Tuskokogie, just above Schoherage (q. v.) on Chenango River (?).Unadilla, near Unadilla, Otsego County.Wakerhon, (?).Wauteghe, on upper Susquehanna River between Teatontaloga and Oquaga.Youcham, (?).History.?In Cartier's time the five Iroquois tribes seem to havebeen independent and in a state of constant mutual warfare. At alater period, not before 1570 according to Hewitt (1907), they wereinduced by two remarkable men, Dekanawida and Hiawatha, to forma federal union. While the immediate object of the league was tobring about peace between these and other neighboring tribes, thestrength which the federal body acquired and the fact that they weresoon equipped with guns by the Dutch at Albany incited them toundertake extensive wars and to build up a rude sort of empire.
40 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145The related Tuscarora of North Carolina joined them in successivemigrations, the greater part between 1712 and 1722, and the remainderin 1802. In the French-English wars they took the part of the Englishand were a very considerable factor in their final victory. Later allbut the Oneida and part of the Tuscarora sided against the Americancolonists and as a result their principal towns were laid waste bySullivan in 1779. The Mohawk and Cayuga, with other Iroquoiantribes in the British interest, were given a reservation on Grand River,Ontario. The remainder received reservations in New York exceptthe Oneida, who were settled near Green Bay, Wis. The so-calledSeneca of Oklahoma consist of remnants from all of the Iroquoistribes, the Conestoga, Hurons, and perhaps others, which Hewitt{in Hodge, 1910) thinks were gathered around the Erie and perhapsthe Conestoga as a nucleus.Population.?In 1600 the Iroquois are estimated by Mooney (1928)to have numbered 5,500; in 1677 and 1685 their numbers were placedat about 16,000; in 1689 they were estimated at about 12,850; in1774, 10,000 to 12,500; in 1904 they numbered about 16,100, of whom10,418 were in Canada; in 1923 there were 8,696 in the United Statesand 11,355 in Canada; total, 20,051. By the census of 1910 therewere reported in the United States 2,907 Seneca, 2,436 Oneida, 365Onondaga, 368 Mohawk, 81 Cayuga, 1,219 St. Regis, and 61 unspeci-fied, a total of 7,437, besides 400 Tuscarora. In 1930 the figure,including Tuscarora, was 6,866. In 1937, 3,241 Oneida were hvingin Wisconsin and 732 "Seneca" in Oldahoma.Connection in which they have become noted.?The group of tribesknown as the Iroquois is famous from the fact that it had attained thehighest form of governmental organization reached by any people northof the valley of Mexico. It is also noted, largely in consequence of theabove fact, for the dominating position to which it attained among theIndian tribes of northeastern North America, and for its long contin-ued alliance with the English in their wars with the French. Hia-watha, the name of one of the founders of the confederation, wasadopted by Longfellow as that of his hero in the poem of the name,though the story centers about another people, the Chippewa. LewisH. Morgan (1851) based his theories regarding the rfature of primitivesociety, which have played a very important part in ethnology andsociology, on studies of Iroquois organization. The name Iroquoishas been given to a branch of the Kankakee River, 111., to an IllinoisCounty and a village in the same, and to villages in South Dakotaand Ontario. The names of each of the five constituent tribes havealso been widely used.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 41Mahican. The name means "wolf." This tribe is not to be con-fused with the Mohegan of Connecticut (q. v.), though the namesare mere varieties of the same word. Also called:Akochakanefi, meaning "Those who speak a strange tongue." (Iroquoisname.)Canoe Indians, so called by Whites.Hikanagi or Nhfkana, Shawnee name.Loups, so called by the French.Orunges, given by Chauvignerie (1736), in Schoolcraft (1851-57, vol. 3,p. 554).River Indians, Dutch name.Uragees, given by Golden, 1747.Connections.?The Mahican belonged to the Algonquian linguisticfamily, and spoke an r-dialect, their closest connections being withthe southern New England Indians to the east.Location.?On both banks of the upper Hudson from Catskill Creekto Lake Champlain and eastward to include the valley of theHousatonic. (See also Connecticut, Massachusetts, Vermont, andWisconsin.) SubdivisionsMahican proper, in the northern part of the territory.Mechkentowoon, on the west bank of Hudson River above Catskill Creek.Wawyachtonoc, in Dutchess and Columbia Counties and eastward to theHousatonic River in Connecticut.Westenhuck (or Housatonic?), near Great Barrington, Mass.Wiekagjoc, on the eastern bank of the Hudson River near Hudson.VillagesAepjin, at or near Schodac.Kaunaumeek, in New York about halfway between Albany and Stockbridge,Mass.Kenunckpacook, on the east side of Housatonic River a little above Scaticook.Maringoman's Castle, on Murderer's Creek, at Bloominggrove, Ulster County.Monemius, on Haver Island, in Hudson River near Cohoes Falls, Albany County,Nepaug, on Nepaug River, town of New Hartford, Litchfield County, Conn.Peantani, at Bantam Lake, Litchfield County, Conn.Potic, west of Athens, Greene County.Scaticook, 3 villages in Dutchess and Rensselaer Counties, and in LitchfieldCounty, Conn., the last on Housatonic River near the junction with Ten MileRiver.Wequadnack, near Sharon, Litchfield County, Conn.Wiatiac, near Salisbury, Litchfield County, Conn.Wiltmeet, on Esopus Creek, probably near Kingston,Winooskeek, on Lake Champlain, probably at the mouth of Winooski River, Vt.Wyantenuc, in Litchfield County. Conn.History.?The traditional point of origin of the Mahican was inthe West. They were found in occupancy of the territory outlinedabove by the Dutch, and were then at war with the Mohawk who, in
42 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 1451664, compelled them to move their capital from Schodac near Albanyto the present Stockbridge. They gradually sold their territory andin 1721 a band was on Kankakee River, Ind., while in 1730, alarge body settled close to the Delaware and Munsee near Wyoming,Pa., afterward becoming merged with those tribes. In 1736 those inthe Housatonic Valley were gathered into a mission at Stockbridgeand were ever afterward known as Stockbridge Indians. In 1756 alarge body of Mahican and Wappinger, along with Nanticoke andother people, settled in Broome and Tioga Counties under Iroquoisprotection. In 1788 another body of Indians drawn from New York,Connecticut, and Rhode Island, including Mahican, settled near theStockbridges at Marshall, N. Y. The Stockbridge and BrothertonIndians later removed to Wisconsin, where they were probably joinedby part at least of the band last mentioned. A few Mahican re-mained about their old home on Hudson River for some years afterthe Revolution but disappeared unnoticed.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates that there were about 3,000Mahican in 1600; the Stockbridges among the Iroquois numbered300 in 1796, and 606 in 1923, including some Munsee. The census of1910 gave 533 Stockbridges and 172 Brotherton. The census of 1930indicated about 813.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Mahican tribehas probably attained more fame from its appearance in the title ofCooper's novel. "The Last of the Mohegans," than from any cir-cumstance directly connected with its history. There is a villagecalled Mohegan in the northern part of Westchester County, N. Y.,and another, known as Mohican in Ashland County, Ohio, whilean affluent of the Muskingum also bears the same name.Mohegan. (See Connecticut.)Montauk. Meaning "uncertain."Connections.?The Montauk belonged to the Algonquian linguisticfamily and spoke an r-dialect like that of the Wappinger.Location.?In the eastern and central parts of Long Island.SubdivisionsCorchaug, in Riverhead and Southold Townships.Manhasset, on Shelter Island.Massapequa, in the southern part of Oyster Bay and Huntington Townships.Matinecock, in the townships of Flushing, North Hempstead, the northern partof Oyster Bay and Huntington, and the western part of Smithtown.Merric, in the eastern part of Hempstead Township.Montauk proper, in Southampton Township.Nesaquake, in the eastern part of Smithtown and the territory east of it.Patchogue, on the southern coast from Patchogue to Westhampton.Rockaway, in Newtown, Jamaica, and Hempstead Townships.
SwANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 43Secatogue, in Islip Township.Setauket, on the north shore from Stony Brook to Wading River.Shinnecock, on the coast from Shinnecock Bay to Montauk Point.VillagesAquebogue, on a creek entering the north side of Great Peconic Bay.Ashamomuck, on the site of a White town of the same name in SufiFolk County.Cutchogue, at Cutchogue in Suffolk County.Massapequa, probably at Fort Neck.Mattituck, on the site of the present Mattituck, Suffolk County.Merric, on the site of Merricks, Queens County.Montauk, above Fort Pond, Suffolk County.Nesaquake, at the present Nissequague, about Smithtown, Suffolk County.Patchogue, near the present Patchogue, Suffolk County.Rechquaakie, near the present Rockaway.There were also villages at Flushing, Glen Cove, Cold Spring, Huntington,Cow Harbor, Fireplace, Mastic, Moriches, Westhampton, and on Hog Island inRockaway Bay.History.?The Montauk were in some sense made tributary to thePequot, until the latter were destroyed, when they were subjectedto a series of attacks by the Narraganset and took refuge, about 1759,with the Whites at Easthampton. They had, meanwhile, lost thegreater part of their numbers by pestUence and, about 1788, mostof those that were left went to live with the Brotherton Indians inNew York. A very few remained on the island, whose mixed-blooddescendants are still officially recognized as a tribe by the State ofNew York, principally under the name Shinnecock.Population.?Including Canarsee, the Montauk are estimated byMooney (1928) at 6,000 in 1600. In 1658-59 an estimate gives about500; in 1788, 162 were enumerated; in 1829, 30 were left on LongIsland; in 1910, 167 "Shinnecock," 29 "Montauk," and 1 "Possepa-tuck." In 1923, 250 were returned, including 30 Montauk, 200Shinnecock, and 20 Poospatock (Patchoag).Connection in which they have become noted.?The name of theMontauk is perpetuated in that of the easternmost point of land onLong Island, a post village in the same county, and one in DentCounty, Mo. They were among those tribes most active in themanufacture of siwan or wampum.Neutrals. So called by the French because they remained neutralduring the later wars between the Iroquois and Huron. Also called:Hatiwa?ta-runh, by Tuscarora, meaning "Their speech is awry"; inform it is close to the names applied by the other Iroquois tribes andmore often quoted as Attiwandaronk.Connections.?The Neutrals belonged to the Iroquoian linguisticstock; their position within this is uncertain.
44 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Location.?In the southern part of the province of Ontario, thewesternmost part of New York, in northeastern Ohio, and in south-eastern Michigan. (See also Indiana, Michigan, Ohio, and Canada.)SubdivisionsIt seems impossible to separate these from the names of the villages, exceptperhaps in the cases of the Aondironon (in Ontario bordering Huron territory),and the Ongniaahra (see below). VillagesThere were 28, but only the names of the following have been preserved:Kandoucho, in Ontario near the Huron country, i. e., in the northern part ofNeutral territory.Khioetoa, apparently a short distance east of Sandwich, Ontario.Ongniaahra, probably on the site of Youngstown, N.Y.Ounontisaston, not far from Niagara River.Teotongniaton, in Ontario.History.?Shortly after the destruction of the Huron, the Neutralsbecame involved in hostilities with the Iroquois and were themselvesdestroyed in 1650-51, most of them evidently being incorporatedwith their conquerors, though an independent body is mentioned aswintering near Detroit in 1653.Population.?The Neutrals were estimated by Mooney (1928) tonumber 10,000 in 1600; in 1653 the independent remnant included800. They were probably incorporated finally with the Iroquoisand Wyandot.Connection in which they have become noted.?The chief claim of theNeutrals to permanent fame is the fact that the name of one of theirsubdivisions, the Ongniaahra, became fixed, in the form Niagara, tothe world-famous cataract between New York and Ontario.Saponi. Some years after leaving Fort Christanna, Va., the Saponisettled among the Iroquois and were formally adopted by the Cay-uga tribe in 1753. (See Virginia.)Tuscarora. After their defeat in the Tuscarora War, 1712-13, bandsof this tribe began moving north and in course of time the majoritysettled in New York so that the Iroquois came to be known after-wards as the "Six Nations" instead of the "Five Nations." (SeeNorth Carolina.)Tutelo. The Tutelo accompanied the Saponi from Virginia andwere adopted by the Cayuga at the same time. (See Virginia.)Wappinger. From the same root as Abnaki and Wampanoag, andmeaning "Easterners"Connections.?The Wappinger belonged to the Algonquian linguisticfamily and spoke an r-dialect, their nearest allies being the Mahican,the Montauk, and next the New England tribes.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 45Location.?The east bank of the Hudson Kiver from ManhattanIsland to Poughkeepsie and the territory eastward to the lowerConnecticut Valley. (See also Connecticut.)Subdivisions or "Sachemships"Hammonasset, west of the Connecticut River, Conn., at its mouth.Kitchawank, in the northern part of Westchester County beyond Croton Riverand between Hudsoo River and the Connecticut.Massaco, in the present towns of Simsbury and Canton on Farmington River, Conn.Menunkatuck, in the present town of Guilford, Conn.Nochpeem, in the southern part of Dutchess County, N. Y.Paugusset, in the eastern part of Fairfield County and the western edge of NewHaven County, Conn.Podunk, in the eastern part of Hartford County, Conn., east of Connecticut River.Poquonock, in the towns of Windsor, Windsor Locks, and Bloomfield, HartfordCounty, Conn.Quinnipiac, in the central part of New Haven County, Conn.Sicaog, in Hartford and West Hartford, Conn.Sintsink, between Hudson, Croton, and Pocantico Rivers.Siwanoy, in Westchester County and part of Fairfield County, Conn., betweenthe Bronx and Five Mile River.Tankiteke, mainly in Fairfield County, Conn., between Five Mile River andFairfield and extending inland to Danbury and even into Putnam and DutchessCounties, N. Y.Tunxis, in the southwestern part of Hartford County, Conn.Wanguuk, on both sides of Connecticut River from the Hartford city line toabout the southern line of the town of Haddam.Wappinger proper, about Poughkeepsie in Dutchess County, N. Y.Wecquaesgeek, between the Hudson, Bronx, and Pocantico Rivers.VillagesAlipconk, in the Weckquasgeek sachemdom, on the site of Tarrytown, N. Y.Appaquag, on the Hockanum River east of Hartford, Conn., in the Podunksachemdom.Aspetuck, near the present Aspetuck in Fairfield County, Conn., in the Tankitekesachemdom,Canopus, in Canopus Hollow, Putnam County.Capage, near Beacon Falls on Naugatuck River, Conn., in the Paugusset sachem-dom.Cassacuhque, near Mianus in the town of Greenwich, Conn., Siwanoy sachemdom.Cockaponset, near Haddam in Middlesex County, Conn., in the Wangunk sachem-dom.Coginchaug, near Durham, Conn., in the Wangunk sachemdom.Cossonnacock, near the line between the towns of Haddam and Lyme, Conn.,in the Wangunk sachemdom.Cupheag, given as the'probable name of a town at Stratford, Conn., but this wasperhaps Pisquheege.Hockanum, at the mouth of Hockanum River, Hartford County, Conn., in thePodunk sachemdom.Keskistkonk, probably on Hudson River, south of the highlands, in PutnamCounty, in the Nochpeem sachemdom.
46 BUREAIi OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bdll. 145Kitchiwank, about the mouth of Croton River, N. Y., in the Kitchiwank sachem-dom.Machamodus, on Sahnon River in Middlesex County, Conn., in the Wangunksachemdom.Massaco, near Simsbury on Farmington River, Conn., in the Massaco sachemdom.Mattabesec, on the site of Middletown, Conn., in the Wangunk sachemdom.Mattacomacok, near Rainbow in the town of Windsor, Conn., in the Wangunksachemdom.Mattianock, at the mouth of Farmington River in the Poquonock sachemdom.Menunketuck, at Guilford, Conn., in the Menunketuck sachemdom.Meshapock, near Middlebury, C6nn., in the Paugussett sachemdom.Mioonktuck, near New Haven, Conn,, in the Quinnipiac sachemdom.Namaroake, on Connecticut River in the town of East Windsor, Conn., in thePodunk sachemdom.Naubuc, near Glastonbury, Conn., in the Podunk sachemdom.Naugatuck, near Naugatuck, Conn., in the Paugussett sachemdom.Newashe, at the mouth of Scantic River, in the Podunk sachemdom.Nochpeem, in the southern part of Dutchess County.Noroaton, at the mouth of Noroton River, in the Siwanoy sachemdom.Norwauke, at Norwalk, Conn., in the Siwanoy sachemdom.Ossingsing, at the site of Ossining, N. Y.Pahquioke, near Danbury, Conn., in the Tankiteke sachemdom.Pashesauke, on Lyndes Neck at the mouth of the Connecticut River in theHammonassett sachemdom.Pasquasheck, probably on the bank of Hudson River in Dutchess County.Pataquasak, near Essex Post Office, Conn., in the Hammonassett sachemdom.Pattaquonk, near Chester, Conn., in the Hammonassett sachemdom.Paugusset, on the bank of Housatonic River about 1 mile above Derby, Conn.,in the Paugusset sachemdom.Pauquaunuch, in Stratford Township, Fairfield County, Paugusset sachemdom,apparently the same town as Pisquheege.Pequabuck, near Bristol, Conn., in the Tunxis sachemdom.Pisquheege, near Stratford, Fairfield County, in the Paugusset sachemdom,Pocilaug, on Long Island Sound near Westbrook, Conn., in the Hammonassettsachemdom.Pocowset, on Connecticut River opposite Middletown, Conn., in the Wangunksachemdom.Podunk, at the mouth of Podunk River, Conn., in the Podunk sachemdom.Pomeraug, near Woodbury, Conn., in the Paugussett sachemdom.Poningo, near Rye, N. Y., in the Siwanoy sachemdom,Poquannuc, near Poquonock in Hartford County, Conn,, in the Poquonocksachemdom.Potatuck, the name of one or two towns on or near Potatuck River, in the townof Newtown, Fairfield County, Conn., in the Paugusset sachemdom.Pyquag, near Wethersfield, Conn., in the Wangunk sachemdom.Quinnipiac, on Quinnipiac River north of New Haven, Conn,, in the Quinnipiacsachemdom,Ramapo, near Ridgefield, Conn., in the Tankiteke sachemdom,Sackhoes, on the site of Peekskill, N. Y., in the Kitchawank sachemdom.Saugatuck, at the mouth of Saugatuck River, Conn., in the Tankiteke sachemdom.Scanticook, on Scantic River near its junction with Broad Brook, Hartford Coun-ty, Conn., in the Podunk sachemdom.Senasqua, at the mouth of Croton River, in the Kitchawank sachemdom.
SwANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 47Sbippan, near Stamford, Conn., in the Siwanoy sachemdom.Sioascauk, near Greenwich, Conn., in the Siwanoy sachemdom.Squantuck, on the Housatonic River, above Derby, Conn., in the Paugussettsachemdom.Suckiauk, near W. Hartford, Conn., in the Sicaog sachemdom.Titicus, near Titicus in the town of Ridgefield, Conn., in the Tankiteke sachem-dom.Totoket, near Totoket in the town of N. Branford, New Haven County, Conn.,in the Quinnipiac sachemdom.Tunxis, in the bend of Farmington River near Farmington, Conn., in the Tunxissachemdom.Turkey Hill, near Derby, Conn., in the Paugussett sachemdom, perhaps givenunder another name.Unkawa, between Danbury and Bethel, Conn., in the Tankiteke sachemdom.Weantinock, near Fairfield, Conn., in the Tankiteke sachemdom.Wecquaesgeek, at Dobbs Ferry, in the Wecquaesgeek sachemdom.Weataug, near Weatogue in the town of Simsbury, Conn., in the Massaco sachem-dom.Wepowaug, near Milford, Conn., in the Paugusset sachemdom.Werawaug, near Danbury, Conn., in the Tankiteke sachemdom.Woodtick, near Woodtick in the town of Wolcott, New Haven County, Conn.,in the Tunxis sachemdom.Woronock, near Milford, Conn., in the Paugusset sachemdom, evidently anothername for Wepowaug.History.?The Wappinger were found by Henry Hudson in 1609 inoccupancy of the lands above mentioned. The Connecticut bandsgradually sold their territory and joined the Indians at Scaticook andStockbridge. The western bands suffered heavily in war with theDutch, 1640-45, but continued to occupy a tract along the coastin Westchester County until 1756, when most of those who wereleft joined the Nanticoke at Chenango, Broome County, N. Y.,and were finally merged, along with them, into the Delaware. Somejoined the Moravian and Stockbridge Indians while a few were stillliving in Dutchess County in 1774, and a few mixed-bloods live now onHousatonic River below Kent. These belong to the old Scaticooksettlement founded by a Pequot Indian named Mauwehu or Mahwee,and settled mainly by individuals of the Paugusset, Unkawa, andPotatuck towns of the Paugusset sachemdom.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates the population of the NewYork divisions of Wappinger at about 3,000 in 1600, and places thatof the various Connecticut bands at 1,750, a total of 4,750. The warwith the Dutch is said to have cost the western bands 1,600, but wehave no estimates of their population at a later date, except as partsof the Stockbridge, Brotherton, and Iroquois Indians, and a fewmixed-bloods at Scaticook, Conn., a few miles below Kent.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Wappinger bandswere among those particularly engaged in the manufacture of siwan
48 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145
or wampum. They occupied much of the mainland territory of thepresent Greater New York but not Manhattan Island. WappingersFalls in Dutchess County, N. Y., preserves the name.Wenrohronon. Probably meaning "The people or tribe of the placeof floating scum," fromthe famous oil spring of the town of Cuba,Allegany County.Connections.?The Wenrohronon belonged to the Iroquoian linguisticstock. Their closest affiliations were probably with the NeutralNation, which part of them finally joined, and with the Erie, whobounded them on the west.Location.?Probably originally, as indicated in the explanation oftheir name, about the oil spring at Cuba, N. Y. (See also Penn-sylvania.)History.?The Wenrohronon maintained themselves for a long timein the above territory, thanks to an alliance with the Neutral Nation,but when the protection of the latter was withdrawn, they left theircountry in 1639 and took refuge among the Hurons and the mainbody of the Neutrals, whose fate they shared.Population.?Before their decline Hewitt {in Hodge, 1910) estimatesthe Wenrohronon at between 1,200 and 2,000. Those who soughtrefuge with the Hurons in 1639 numbered more than 600.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Wenrohronon arenoted merely on account of their association with the oil spring abovementioned. NEW JERSEYDelaware. The name is derived from that of Delaware River, whichin turn, was named for Lord Delaware, second governor of Virginia.Also called:Abnaki or Wabanaki, "Easterners," from their position relative to manyother Algonquian tribes. (See Abnaki under Maine, Wampanoag underMassachusetts, and Wappinger under New York.)A-ko-tca-ka'ng", "One who stammers in his speech," the Mohawk name.The Oneida and Tuscarora names were similar.Anakwan'kl, Cherokee name, an attempt at Wabanaki.Lenni Lenape (their own name), meaning "true men," or "standard men,"Loup, "wolf," so called by the French.Mochomes, "grandfather," name given by those Algonquian tribes whichclaimed descent from them.Nar-wah-ro, Wichita name.Renni Renape, a form of Lenni Lenape.Tca-kS,'n6?, shortened form of Mohawk name given above. (The namesin the languages of the other four Iroquois tribes are about the same).Connections.?The Delaware belonged to the Algonquian linguis-tic stock, their closest relatives being the Nanticoke, Conoy, andPowhatan Indians to the south and the Mahican, Wappinger, and
SwAXTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 49
southern New England Indians on the north. The dialect of thenorthernmost of their major divisions, the Munsee, differed consid-erably from that of the southern groups.Location.?The Delaware occupied all of the State of New Jersey,the western end of Long Island, all of Staten and Manhattan Islandsand neighboring parts of the mainland, along with other portions ofNew York west of the Hudson, and parts of eastern Pennsylvania,and northern Delaware. (See also Delaware, Illinois, Indiana,Kansas, Marjdand and the District of Columbia, Missouri, NewYork, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Oklahoma, and the Munsee under Kansas,Oklahoma, and Wisconsin.) SubdivisionsThere were three major divisions or subtribes, the Munsee in northern NewJersey and adjacent portions of New York west of the Hudson, the Unalachtigoin northern Delaware, southeastern Pennsylvania, and southern New Jersey,and the Unami in the intermediate territory, extending to the western end ofLong Island. Each comprised a great many minor divisions which it is notalways easy to classify under the three main heads. As Munsee may probablybe reckoned the following:Catskill, on Catskill Creek, Greene County, N. Y.Mamekoting, in Mamakating Valley, west of the Shawangunk Mountains, N. Y.Minisink, on the headwaters of Delaware River in the southwestern part of Ulsterand Orange Counties, N. Y., and the adjacent parts of New Jersey and Penn-sylvania.Waranawonkong, in the country watered by the Esopus, Wallkill, and Shawan-gunk Creeks, mainly in Ulster County, N. Y.Wawarsink, centered about the junction of Wawarsing and Rondout Creeks,Ulster County, N. Y.We may class as Unami the following:Aquackanonk, on Passaic River, N. J., and lands back from it including thetract called Dundee in Passsaic.Assunpink, on Stony Creek near Trenton.Axion, on the eastern bank of Delaware River between Rancocas Creek andTrenton.Calcefar, in the interior of New Jersey between Rancocas Creek and Trenton.Canarsee, in Kings County, Long Island, on the southern end of ManhattanIsland, and the eastern end of Staten Island, N. Y.Gachwechnagechga, on Lehigh River, Pa.Hackensack, in the valleys of Hackensack and Passaic Rivers.Haverstraw, on the western bank of the lower Hudson, in Rockland County, N. Y.Meletecunk, in Monmouth County.Mosilian, on the eastern bank of Delaware River about Trenton.Navasink, on the highlands of Navesink, claiming the land from Barnegat to theRaritan.Pompton, on Pompton Creek.Raritan, in the valley of Raritan River and on the left bank of Delaware Riveras far down as the falls at Trenton.Reckgawawanc, on the upper part of Manhattan Island and the adjacent main-land of New York west of the Bronx.
50 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Tappan, on the western bank of Hudson River in Rockland County, N. Y., andBergen County.Waoranec, near Esopus Creek, Ulster County, N. Y.The following may be considered as Unalachtigo, though I am in some doubtabout the Neshamini:Amimenipaty, at site of a large pigment plant of the Du Pont Company at Edge-moor, Del.Asomoche, on the eastern bank of Delaware River between Salem and Camden.Chikohoki, at site of Crane Brook Church, on west side of Delaware River nearits junction with the Christanna River.Eriwonec, about Old Man's Creek in Salem or Gloucester County.Hopokohacking, on site now occupied by Wilmington, Del.Kahansuk, about Low Creek, Cumberland County.Manta, about Salem Creek.Memankitonna, on the present site of Claymont, Del., on Naaman's Creek,Nantuxet, in Pennsylvania and Delaware.Naraticon, in southern New Jersey, probably on Raccoon Creek.Neshamini, on Neshaminy Creek, Bucks County, Pa.Okahoki, on Ridley and Crum Creeks, Delaware County, Pa.Passayonk, on Schuylkill River, Pa., and along the western bank of DelawareRiver, perhaps extending into Delaware.Shackamaxon, on the site of Kensington, Philadelphia, Pa.Siconesse, on the eastern bank of Delaware River a short distance above Salem.Tirans, on the northern shore of Delaware Bay about Cape May or in CumberlandCounty.Yacomanshaghking, on a small stream about the present Camden.VillagesIt will not be practicable to separate the villages belonging to the three greatdivisions in all cases. The following are entered in the Handbook of AmericanIndians (Hodge, 1907, 1910)
:
Achsinnink, Unalachtigo village on Hocking River, Ohio, about 1770.Ahasimus, probably Unami, in northern New Jersey.Alamingo, a village, probably Delaware, on Susquehanna River.AUaquippa, possible name of a settlement at the mouth of the YoughioghenyRiver, Pa., in 1755.Anderson's Town, on the south side of White River about Anderson, Ind.Au Glaize, on a southeastern branch of Maumee River, Ohio.Bald Eagle's Nest, on the right bank of Bald Eagle Creek near Milesburg, Pa.Beaversville, near the junction of Buggy Creek and Canadian River, Okla.Beavertown, on the east side of the extreme eastern head branch of HockingRiver near Beavertown, Ohio.Black Hawk, probably Delaware, about Mount Auburn, Shelby County, Ind.Black Leg's Village, probably Delaware, on the north bank of Conemaugh Riverin the southeastern part of Armstrong County, Pa.Buckstown, probably Delaware, on the southeast side of White River, about 3miles east of Anderson, Ind.Bulletts Town, probably Delaware, in Coshocton County, Ohio, on MuskingumRiver about halfway between Walhonding River and Tomstown.Cashiehtunk, probably Munsee, on Delaware River near the point where it ismet by the New Jersey State line.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 51Catawaweshink, probably Delaware, on or near Susquehanna River, near BigIsland, Pa.Chikohoki, a Manta village on the site of Burlington, Burlington County, N. J.Chilohocki, probably Delaware, on Miami River, Ohio.Chinklacamoose, probably Delaware, on the site of Clearfield, Pa.Clistowacka, near Bethlehem, Pa.Communipavv, village of the Hackensack, at Communipaw.Conemaugh, probably Delaware, about Conemaugh, Pa.Coshocton, on the site of Coshocton, Ohio.Crossweeksung, in Burlington County, probably about Crosswicks.Custaloga's Town, Unalachtigo, two villages, one near French Creek, oppositeFranklin, Pa., the other on Walhonding River, near Killbucks Creek in Coshoc-ton County, Ohio.Edgpiiliik, in western New Jersey.Eriwonec, about Old Man's Creek in Salem or Gloucester County.Frankstown, probably Delaware, about Frankstown, Pa.Friedenshiitten, a Moravian mission town on Susquehanna River a few milesbelow Wyalusing, probably in Wyoming County, Pa.Friedensstadt, in Beaver County, Pa., probably near Darlington.Gekelemukpechuenk, in Ohio, and perhaps identical with White Ej^es' Town.Gnadenhiitten, three Moravian Mission villages, one on the north side of Mahon-ing Creek near its junction with the Lehigh about the present Lehighton; asecond on the site of Weissport, Carbon County, Pa. ; and a third on the Mus-kingum River near the present Gnadenhutten, Ohio. (Brinton (1885) saysthere were two more towns of the same name.)Goshgoshunk, with perhaps some Seneca, on Allegheny River about the upperpart of Venango County, Pa.Grapevine Town, perhaps Delaware, 8 miles up Captina River, Belmont County,Ohio.Greentown, on the Black Fork of Mohican River near the boundary of Richlandand Ashland Counties, Ohio.Gweghkongh, probably Unami, in northern New Jersey, near Staten Island, oron the neighboring New York mainland.Hespatingh, probably Unami, apparently in northern New Jersey, and perhapsnear Bergen or Union Hill.Hickorytown, probably about East Hickory or West Hickory, Pa.Hockhocken, on Hocking River, Ohio.Hogstown, between Venango and Buffalo Creek, Pa., perhaps identical withKuskuski.Jacobs Cabins, probably Delaware, on Youghiogheny River, perhaps near JacobsCreek, Fayette County, Pa.Jeromestown, near Jeromesville, Ohio.Kalbauvane, probably Delaware, on the headwaters of the west branch of Susque-hanna River, Pa.Kanestio, Delaware and other Indians, on the upper Susquehanna River, nearKanestio Creek in Steuben County, N. Y.Kanhangton, about the mouth of Chemung River in the northern part of BradfordCounty, Pa.Katamoonchink, perhaps the name of a Delaware village near West Whiteland,Chester County, Pa.Kickenapawling, probably Delaware and Iroquois, at the junction of StonyCreek with Conemaugh River, approximately on the site of Johnstown, Pa.
52 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Kiktheswemud, probably Delaware, near Anderson, Ind., perhaps identical withBuckstown or Little Munsee Town.Killbuck's Town, on the east side of Killbuck Creek, about 10 miles south ofWooster, Ohio.Kishakoquilla, two towns successively occupied by a chief of the name, one aboutKishacoquillas, Mifflin County, Pa., the other on French Creek about 7 milesbelow Meadville, Crawford County, Pa.Kiskiminetas, on the south side of lower Kiskiminetas Creek, near its mouth,Westmoreland County, Pa.Kiskominitoes, on the north bank of Ohio River between the Hocking and SciotoRivers, Ohio.Kittanning, divided into several settlements and mixed with Iroquois andCaughnawaga, near Kittanning on Allegheny River, Armstrong County, Pa.Kohhokking, near "Painted Post" in Steuben County, N. Y., or Elmira, ChemungCounty, N. Y.Kuskuski, with Iroquois, on Beaver Creek, near Newcastle, in Lawrence County,Pa.Languntennenk, Moravian Delaware near Darlington, Beaver County, Pa.Lawunkhannek, Moravian Delaware on Allegheny River above Franklin, Ve-nango County, Pa.Lichtenau, Moravian Delaware on the east side of Muskingum River, 3 milesbelow Coshocton, Ohio.Little Munsee Town, Munsee, a few miles east of Anderson, Ind.Macharienkonck, Minisink, in the bend of Delaware River, Pike County, Pa.,opposite Port Jervis.Macocks, some distance north of Chikohoki, which was probably at Wilmington,Del., perhaps the village of the Okahoki in Pennsylvania.Mahoning, on the west bank of Mahoning River, perhaps between Warren andYoungstown, Ohio.Mechgachkamic, perhaps Unami, probably near Hackensack, N. J.Meggeckessou, on Delaware River at Trenton Falls, N. J.Meniolagomeka, on Aquanshicola Creek, Carbon County, Pa.Meochkonck, Minisink, on the upper Delaware River in southeastern New York.Minisink, Minisink, in Sussex County, N. J., near where the State line crossesDelaware River.Munceytown, Munsee, on Thames River northwest of Brantford, Ontario, Canada.Muskingum, probably Delaware, on the west bank of Muskingum River, Ohio.Nain, Moravian Indians, principally Delaware, near Bethlehem, Pa.Newcomerstown, village of Chief Newcomer, about the site of New Comerstown,Tuscarawas County, Ohio.Newtown, the name of three towns probably of the Delaware and Iroquois, oneon the north bank of Licking River, near the site of the present Zanesville,Ohio; a second about the site of Newtown, Ohio; and a third on the west sideof Wills Creek near the site of Cambridge, Ohio.Nj^ack, probably Canarsee, about the site of Fort Hamilton, Kings County,Long Island, afterward removed to Staten Island.Nyack, Unami probably, on the west bank of Hudson River about the presentNyack, N. Y.Ostonwackin, with Cayuga, Oneida, and other Indians, on the site of the presentMontoursville, Pa.Outaunink, Munsee, on the north bank of White River, opposite Muncie, Ind.Owl's Town, probably Delaware, on Mohican River, Coshocton County, Ohio.Pakadasank, probably Munsee, about the site of Crawford, Orange County, N. Y.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 53Papagonk, probably Munsee, in Ulster County, N. Y., also placed near Pepacton,Delaware County, N. Y.Passycotcung, on Chemung River, N. Y.Peckwes, Munsee or Shawnee, about 10 miles from Hackensack.Pematuning, probably Delaware, near Shenango, Pa.Pequottink, Moravian Delaware, on the east bank of Huron River, near Milan,Ohio.Playwickey, probably Unalachtigo, in Bucks County, Pa.Pohkopophunk, in eastern Pennsylvania, probably in Carbon County.Queenashawakee, on the upper Susquehanna River, Pa.Ramcock, Rancocas, in Burlington County.Raystown, (?).Remahenonc, perhaps Unami, near New York City.Roymount, near Cape May.Salem, Moravian Delaware, on the west bank of Tuscarawas River, l}i milesmiles southwest of Port Washington, Tuscarawas County, Ohio.Salt Lick, probably Delaware, on Mahoning River near Warren, Ohio.Sawcunk, with Shawnee and Mingo, near the mouth of Beaver Creek, about thesite of the present Beaver, Pa.Sawkin, on the east bank of Delaware River in New Jersey.Schepinaikonck, Minisink, perhaps in Orange County, N. Y.Schipston, probably Delaware, at the head of Juniata River, Pa.Schoenbrunn, Moravian Munsee, about 2 miles below the site of New Philadel-phia, Ohio.Seven Houses, near the ford of Beaver Creek just above its mouth, Beaver County,Pa.Shackamaxon, on the site of Kensington, Philadelphia, Pa.Shamokin, with Shawnee, Iroquois, and Tutelo, on north sides of SusquehannaRiver including the island at the site of Sunbury, Pa.Shannopin's Town, on Allegheny River about 2 miles above its junction with theMonongahela.Shenango, with other tribes, the name of several towns, one on the north bank ofOhio River a little below Economy, Pa.; one at the junction of Conewango andthe Allegheny; and one some distance up Big Beaver, near Kuskuski (q. v.).Sheshequin, with Iroquois, about 6 miles below Tioga Point, Bradford County, Pa.Soupnapka, on the east bank of Delaware River in New Jersey.Three Legs Town, named from a chief, on the east bank of Muskingum Rivera few miles south of the mouth of the Tuscarawas, Coshocton County, Ohio.Tioga, with Nanticoke, Mahican, Saponi, Tutelo, etc., on the site of Athens, Pa.Tom's Town, on Scioto River, a short distance below the present Chillicothe andnear the mouth of Paint Creek, Ohio.Tullihas, with Mahican and Caughnawaga, on the west branch of MuskingumRiver, Ohio, about 20 miles above the forks.Tuscarawas, with Wyandot, on Tuscarawas River, Ohio, near the mouth of BigSandy River.Venango, with Seneca, Shawnee, Wyandot, Ottawa, etc., at the site of Franklin,Venango County, Pa.Wechquetank, Moravian Delaware, about 8 miles beyond the Blue Ridge,northwest from Bethlehem, Pa., probably near the present Mauch Chunk.Wekeeponall, on the west bank of the Susquehanna River, about the mouth ofLoyalstock Creek in Lycoming County, Pa., probably identical with QueenEsther's Town.Walagamika, on the site of Nazareth, Lehigh County, Pa.
54 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bdli,. 145White-eyes Village, named from a chief, on the site of Duncan's Falls, 9 milesbelow Zanesville, Ohio.White Woman's Town, near the junction of Walhonding and Killbuck Rivers,about 7 miles northwest of the forks of the Muskingum River, in CoshoctonCounty, Ohio.Will's Town, on the east bank of Muskingum River at the mouth of Wills Creek,Muskingum County, Ohio.Woapikamikunk, in the valley of White River, Ind.Wyalusing, Munsee and Iroquois, on the site of Wyalusing, Bradford County, Pa.Wyoming, with Iroquois, Shawnee, Mahican, and Nanticoke; later entirelyDelaware and Munsee; principal settlement at the site of Wilkes-Barre, Pa.History.?The traditional history of the Delaware set forth in thefamous Walam Olum (see Brinton, 1882-85, vol. 5), gave them anorigin somewhere northwest of their later habitat. They were foundby the earliest white voyagers in the historic seats above given.The Dutch came into contact with the Unami and Munsee Delawarein 1609 and the Swedes with the Unalachtigo in 1637. Both weresucceeded by the English in 1664, but the most notable event inDelaware history took place in 1682 when these Indians held theirfirst council with William Penn at what is now Germantown, Phila-delphia. About 1720 the Iroquois assumed dominion over them andthey were gradually crowded west by the white colonists, reaching theAllegheny as early as 1724, and settling at Wyoming and other pointson the Susquehanna about 1742. In 1751, by invitation of the Huron,they began to form villages in eastern Ohio, and soon the greater part ofthem were on the Muskingum and other Ohio streams. Backed by theFrench and by other western tribes, they now freed themselves fromIroquois control and opposed the English settlers steadily until thetreaty of Greenville in 1795. Notable missionary work was doneamong them by the Moravians in the seventeenth and eighteenth cen-turies. About 1770 they received permission from the Miami andPiankashaw to settle between the Ohio and White Rivers, Ind. In1789, by permission of the Spanish government, a part moved toMissouri and later to Arkansas, along with a band of Shawnee, and by1820 they had found their way to Texas. By 1835 most of the bandshad been gathered on a reservation in Kansas, but in 1867 the greaterpart of these removed to the present Oklahoma, where some of themoccupied a corner of the Cherokee Nation. Others are with the Caddoand Wichita in southwestern Oklahoma, a few Munsee are with theStockbridges in Wisconsin, and some are scattered in other parts ofthe United States. In Ontario, Canada, are three bands?the Dela-wares of Grand River, near Hagersville; the Moravians of the Thames,near Bothwell; and the Munceys of the Thames, near Muncey
?
nearly all of whom are of the Munsee division.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates that there were 8,000Delaware in 1600 not including the Canarsee of Long Island; estimates
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 55made during the eighteenth century vary between 2,400 and 3,000;nineteenth-century estimates are much lower, and the United StatesCensus of 1910 returned 914 Delawares and 71 Munsee, or a total of985, to which must be added the bands in Canada, making perhaps1,600 all together. 140 Delaware were reported on the WichitaKeservation, Okla., in 1937.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Delaware arenoted as one of the very few tribes which have come to be known byan English term, and as one of the chief antagonists of the Whiteswhile the latter were forcing their way westward, but in later years asfurnishing the most reliable scouts in White employ. A different sortof fame has been attained by one of their early chiefs, Tamenend,whose name, in the form Tammany, was applied to a philanthropicsociety, a place of meeting, and a famous political organization.Delaware chiefs signed the famous treaty with Penn under the oakat Shackamaxon, and their tribes occupied Manhattan Island and theshores of New York Harbor at the arrival of the Dutch. The nameDelaware has been used for postoffices in Arkansas, Iowa, Kentucky,Missouri, New Jersey, Ohio, and Oklahoma, besides the State ofDelaware. Lenape is a post village in Leavenworth County, Kans.,and Lenapah in Nowata County, Okla.PENNSYLVANIADelaware. In early times this tribe occupied the eastern parts ofPennsylvania along Delaware River; later they were, for a time,on the Susquehanna and the headwaters of the Ohio. (See NewJersey.)Erie. The Erie extended over the extreme northwestern corner ofthe State. (See Ohio.)Honniasont. An Iroquois term meaning "Wearing something roimdthe neck." Also called:Black Minqua, the word "black" said to refer to "a black badge on theirbreast," while "Minqua" indicated their relationship to the WhiteMinqua, or Susquehanna (q. v.).Connections.?The Honniasont belonged to the Iroquoian hn-guistic family.Location.?On the upper Ohio and its branches in western Penn-sylvania and the neighboring parts of West Virginia and Ohio. (Seealso Ohio.)History.?The Honniasont appear first as a tribe which assisted theSusquehanna in war and traded with the Dutch, but a little laterthey are reported to have been destroyed by the Susquehanna andSeneca. The remnant seems to have settled among the Seneca, and
56 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145
a Minqua to%vn, probably occupied by their descendants, is mentionedfrom time to time among the latter and in the neighborhood of theirformer country.Population.?This is unknown, but as late as 1662 the Honniasontmust have been fairly numerous if the testimony of five Susquehannachiefs taken in that year is to be relied upon, which was to the effectthat they were then expecting 800 Honniasont warriors to join them.Iroquois. In very early times these Indians entered Pennsylvaniaonly as hunters and warriors, but at a later period they madenumerous settlements in the State. (See New York.)Saluda. A band of "Saluda" Indians from South Carolina moved toConestoga in the eighteenth century. They may have been Shawnee.(See South Carolina.)Saponi. The majority of the Saponi lived at Shamokin for a fewyears some time after 1740 but then continued on to join theIroquois. (See Virginia.)Shawnee. Bands of Shawnee were temporarily located at Conestoga,Sewickley, and other points in Pennsylvania. (See Tennessee.)Susquehanna. A shortened form of Susquehannock, meaning un-known.Akhrakouaehronon, given in Jesuit Relations, from a town name. SeeAtra'kwae'ronnons' below.Andasteor Conestoga, from Kanast6ge, "at the place of the immersed pole."Atra'kwae'ronnons, from the name of a town, and probably signifying "atthe place of the sun," or "at the south."Minqua, from an Algonquian word meaning "stealthy," "treacherous."White Minqua, to distinguish them from the Black Minqua. (See Hon-niasont above.)Connections.?The Susquehanna belonged to the Iroquoian lin-guistic stock.Location.?On the Susquehanna River in New York, Pennsylvania,and Maryland. SubdivisionsOriginally Susquehanna may have been the name of a confederacy of tribesrather than a single tribe. Hewitt (m- Hodge, 1910) suggests that the Wyoming(in the territory about the present Wyoming) may have been such a subtribe.The barely mentioned Wysox, on a small creek flowing into the Susquehanna atthe present Wysox, was perhaps another. Mention is made of the Turtle, Fox,and Wolf "families," evidently clans, and of the Ohongeeoquena, Unquehiett,Kaiquariegahaga, Usququhaga, and Seconondihago "nations," also perhaps clans.VillagesSmith (1884) mentions several, but Hewitt (in Hodge, 1910) is of the opinionthat the names really belong to independent tribes. Champlain says that therewere more than 20 villages, though the only one named is Carantouan, thoughtto have been on the site of the present Waverly, N. Y.
SwANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 57History.?When encountered by the English, French, and Dutchearly in the seventeenth century, the Susquehanna were a numerouspeople, but even then they were at war with the Iroquois by whomthey were conquered in 1676 and forced to settle near the Oneida inNew York. Later they were allowed to return to the SusquehannaRiver and reoccupy their ancient country, but they wasted awaysteadily and in 1763 the remnant, consisting of 20 persons, wasmassacred by Whites inflamed with accounts of Indian atrocities onthe far frontier.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates that the Susquehannanumbered 5,000 in 1600. In 1648 they are said to have had 550warriors.Connection in which they have become noted.?The name Susquehannais perpetuated in that of the Susquehanna River and in the namesof a county and a town. Conestoga is the designation of two places inLancaster County, Pa., and one in Chester County, and was givento a widely used type of wagon.Tuscarora. These Indians on their way to join the Iroquois bands ofNew York stopped from time to time in the Susquehanna VaUey.(See North Carolina.)Tutelo. Most of these Indians lived at Shamokin with the Saponiand accompanied them to the Iroquois Nation. (See Virginia.)Wenrohronon. This tribe occupied some parts of the State along thenorthwestern border. (See New York.)DELAWAREDelaware. The Unalachtigo division of the Delaware occupied allof the northern parts of this State when it was first visited byEuropeans. (See New Jersey.)Nanticoke. Bodies of Indians classed under this general head ex-tended into the southern and western sections. Unalachtigo andNanticoke are two forms of the same word though, as differenti-ated, they have been applied to distinct tribes. (See Maryland.)MARYLAND AND THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIAConey. Probably a synonym of Kanawha, but the meaning is un-known; also spelled Canawese, and Ganawese. Also called:Piscataway, from a village on Piscataway Creek where the Conoy chiefresided.Connections.?The Conoy belonged to the Algonquian linguisticstock and were probably intermediate between the Nanticoke andPowhatan Indians.
58 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Location.?Between the Potomac River and the western shore ofthe Chesapeake. SubdivisionsAcquintanacsuak, on the west bank of Patuxent River in St. Marys County.Conoy proper or Piscataway, in the southern part of Prince Georges County.Mattapanient, on Patuxent River, probably in St. Marys County.Moyawance, on the west bank of the Potomac River above the Conoy proper.Nacotchtank, on the eastern branch of the Potomac, in the District of Columbia.Pamacocack, about the mouth of Mattawoman Creek and the present Pomonkey,Charles County.Patuxent, in Calvert County.Potapaco, in the southern and central parts of Charles County.Secowocomoco, on Wicomico River in St. Marys and Charles Counties.VillagesThe principal settlement of each of the above subdivisions was generally knownby the same name. In addition we have the following:Catawissa, at Catawissa, Columbia County, Pa.Conejoholo, on the east bank of the Susquehanna on or near the site of Bain-bridge, Lancaster County, Pa.Conoytown, on Susquehanna River between Conejoholo and Shamokin (Sun-bury), Pa.Kittamaquindi, at the junction of Tinkers Creek with the Piscataway a fewmiles above the Potomac, Prince Georges County, the principal village of theConoy proper.History.?If the name of the Conoy is identical with that of Kana-wha River, as appears probable, they must have lived at some periodalong that stream. They were found by Smith and the Marylandcolonists in the location above given and missions were establishedamong them by the Jesuits on the first settlement of Maryland in1634. They decreased rapidly in numbers and were presently as-signed a tract of land on the Potomac, perhaps near the site of Wash-ington. In 1675 they were attacked by the Susquehanna Indianswho had been driven from their own territories by the Iroquois,retired up the Potomac River, and then to the Susquehanna, wherethey were finally assigned lands at Conejoholo near the Nanticokeand Conestoga. Some of tbem were living with these two tribes atConestoga in 1742. They gradually made their way northward,stopping successively at Harrisburg, Shamokin, Catawissa, and Wyo-ming, and in 1765 were in southern New York, at Owego, Chugnut,and Chenango, on the eastern branch of the Susquehanna. Theymoved west with the Mahican and Delaware and soon became knownonly as constituting a part of those tribes. They used the Turkeyas their signature at a council held in 1793.Population.?The number of Conoy was estimated by Mooney(1928) at 2,000 in 1600; in 1765 they numbered only about 150.Connection in which they have become noted.?The name Conoy is
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 59perpetuated by Conoy, 2 miles north of Falmouth, Lancaster County,Pa., and probably (see above) by the Great and Little KanawhaRivers, Kanawha County, Kanawha Ridge, and several places inWest Virginia, besides post villages in Hancock County, Iowa, andRed River County, Tex.Delaware. They probably occupied, or at least hunted over, someterritory in the extreme northeastern part of the State. (See NewJersey.)Nanticoke. From Nentego, a variant of Delaware Unechtgo, orUnalachtigo, "Tidewater people," the neighboring division ofDelaware being known by the same name. Also called:Doegs, Toags, or Taux, by some early writers, probably shortened fromTavvachgudns.Ganniataratich-rone, Mohawk name.Otaydchgo, Tawachgudns, Mahican and Delaware name, meaning "Bridgepeople."Skaniadaradighroonas, "Beyond-the-sea people," Iroquois name.Connections.?The Nanticoke belonged to the Algonquian Hnguisticfamily, their closest connections probably being with the UnalachtigoDelaware?as the name implies?and also with the Conoy.Location.?Although the Nanticoke are frequently more narrowlydelimited, it will be convenient to group under this head all of theIndians of the Eastern Shor6 of Maryland and southern Delaware.SubdivisionsAnnamessicks, in the southern part of Somerset County.Choptank, on Choptank River.Cuscarawaoc, at the head of Nanticoke River in Maryland and Delaware.Manokin, on Manokin River in the northern part of Somerset County.Nanticoke proper, on the lower course of Nanticoke River.Nause, in the southern end of the present Dorchester County.Ozinies, on the lower course of Chester River; they may have been part of oridentical with the Wicomese.Tocwogh, on Sassafras River, in Cecil and Kent Counties.Wicocomoco, on Wicocomoco River in Somerset and Wicocomoco Counties.Wicomese, in Queen Anne's County, VillagesAbabco, a subtribe or village of the Choptank on the south side of Choptank Riverin Dorchester County, near Secretary Creek.Askimimkansen, perhaps Nanticoke, on an upper eastern branch of PocomokeRiver, probably in Worcester County.Byengeahtein, probably in Dauphin or Lancaster County, Pa.Chenango, a mixed population on Chenango River about Binghamton, N. Y.Hutsawap, a village or subtribe of the Choptank, in Dorchester County.Locust Necktown, occupied by a band of Nanticoke proper known as Wiwash, onChoptank River, in Dorchester County.
60 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Matchcouchtin, consisting of Nanticoke proper, probably in Pennsylvania.Matcheattochousie, Nanticoke proper, probably in Pennsylvania.Natahquois, Nanticoke proper, probably on the eastern shore of Maryland oron the Susquehanna, Pennsylvania.Nause, belonging to the tribe of the same name, on the north bank of NanticokeRiver near its mouth.Pekoinoke, Nanticoke proper, still existing in Maryland in 1755.Pohemkomeati, on lower Susquehanna River, Pennsylvania.Teahquois, Nanticoke proper, probably on lower Susquehanna River, Pennsyl-vania.Tequassimo, a subtribe or village on the Choptank, on the southern shore ofChoptank River.Tocwogh, the principal village of the tribe of that name, said to be on the southside of Chester River in Queen Anne County, but, unless this is a later location,probably on the south side of Sassafras River in Kent County.Witichquaom, Nanticoke proper, near Susquehanna River in southern Pennsylvania.History.?Traditionally, the Nanticoke are supposed to have comefrom the west at about the same time as the Delaware, but they werefound in the location above given by the earliest white explorers andsettlers. They were at war with the Maryland colonists from 1642to 1678. In 1698 reservations were set aside for them. Soon after1722 the greater part of them began to move north, stopping for atime on the Susquehanna at its junction with the Juniata. In 1748the greater part of the tribe went farther up, and, after campingtemporarily at a number of places, settled under Iroquois protectionat Chenango, Chugnut, and Oswego. In 1753 part of these joined theIroquois in western New York, and they were still living ^vith them in1840, but the majority, in company with the remnants of the Maliicanand Wappinger, emigrated west about 1784 and joined the Delawarein Ohio and Indiana, with whom they soon became incorporated,disappearing as a distinct tribe. Yet a part did not leave their oldcountry. Some were living in Maryland in 1792 under the name ofWiwash, and some mixed-bloods still occupy a small territory onIndian River, Delaware. The Choptank, or a part of them, also re-mained in their old country on the south of Choptank River, DorchesterCounty, where a few of their descendants, their blood much mixedwith that of Negroes, were to be found in 1837. Some Wicocomocomust also have stayed about their ancient seats, since a few mongrelsare said to retain the name.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated a total Indian population onthe eastern shore of Maryland in 1600 of 2,700, including 700 Tocwoghand Ozinies, 400 Wicocomoco, and 1,600 Nanticoke and their moreimmediate neighbors. In 1722 they are said to have numbered about500 and in 1765 those who had emigrated to New York were supposedto count about 500 more. In 1792 the Nanticoke proper left in Mary-land were said to comprise only 30 persons, but in 1911 Speck (1915)estimated their descendants in southern Maryland at 700.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 61Connection in which they have become noted.?The name Nanticokeis perpetuated in that of Nanticoke River between Wicomico andDorchester Counties, and by the town of Nanticoke in the former.There are also places of the name in Broome County, N. Y., andLuzerne County, Pa.Powhatan. The Accohanoc Indians of the panhandle of Virginia,who extended over into Worcester County, were the only repre-sentatives of the Powhatan Indians in Maryland, though theConoy were closely related to them. (See Virginia.)Shawnee. Shawnee Indians settled temporarily in western Mary-land near the Potomac and in the northeastern part of the Stateon the Susquehanna. (See Tennessee.)Susquehanna. They lived along and near the Susquehanna River.(See Pennsylvania.) VIRGINIACherokee. This tribe claimed territory in the extreme southwesternpart of the State. If not actually occupied by them, it at leastformed part of their hunting territories. (See Tennessee.)Manahoac. Meaning "They are very merry," according to Tooker(1895), but this seems improbable. Also called:Mahocks, apparently a shortened form.Connections.?The Manahoac belonged to the Siouan linguisticfamily; their nearest connections were probably the Monacan,Moneton, and Tutelo.Location.?In northern Virginia between the falls of the rivers andthe mountains east and west and the Potomac and North AnnaRivers north and south. SubdivisionsSubtribes or tribes of the confederacy as far as known were the following:Hassinunga, on the headwaters of the Rappahannock River.Manahoac proper, according to Jefferson (1801), in StaflFord and SpottsylvaniaCounties.Ontponea, in Orange County.Shackaconia, on the south bank of the Rappahannock River in SpottsylvaniaCounty.Stegaraki, on the Rapidan River in Orange County.Tanxnitania, on the north side of the upper Rappahannock River in FauquierCounty.Pegninateo, in Culpeper County, at the head of the Rappahannock River.Whonkentia, in Fauquier County, near the head of the Rappahannock.VillagesMahaskahod, on the Rappahannock River, probably near Fredericksburg, isthe only town known by name.
62 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145History.?Traditional evidence points to an early home of theManahoac people in the Ohio Valley. In 1608 John Smith discoveredthem in the location above given and learned that they were alUedwith the Monacan but at war with the Powhatan Indians and theIroquois (or perhaps rather the Susquehanna). After this theysuddenly vanish from history under a certainly recognizable name,but there is good reason to beUeve that they were one of those tribeswhich settled near the falls of the James River in 1654 or 1656 anddefeated a combined force of Whites and coast Indians who had beensent against them. They seem to have been forced out of their oldcountry by the Susquehanna. Probably they remained for a timein the neighborhood of the Monacan proper and were in fact theMahock encountered by Lederer (1912) in 1670 at a point on JamesRiver which Bushnell seems to have identified with the site of theold Massinacack town, the fact that a stream entering the James atthis point is called the Mohawk rendering his case rather strong.Perhaps the old inhabitants had withdrawn to the lower Monacantown, Mowhemencho. In 1700 the Stegaraki were located by Gov-ernor Spotswood of Virginia at Fort Christanna, and the Mepontsky,also placed there, may have been the Ontponea. We hear of theformer as late as 1723, and there is good reason to beheve that theyunited with the Tutelo and Saponi and followed their fortunes, andthat under these two names were included all remnants of theManahoac.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates that there were 1,500Manahoac in 1600 but this is probably rather too high, since theirnumbers and those of the Tutelo together seem to have been 600-700in 1654. However, it is possible that these figures cover only theManahoac, while Mooney's include part of the Saponi and Tutelo.Meherrin. Meaning unknown.Connections.?The Meherrin belonged to the Iroquoian linguisticfamily, their closest connections probably being the Nottaway.Location.?Along the river of the same name on the Virginia-NorthCarolina border.History.?The tribal name Meherrin first appears in the form"Maharineck" in the account of an expedition by Edward Blandeand others to North Carolina in 1650, and next in an Indian censustaken in 1669. Later they seem to have adopted a body of Conestogaor Susquehanna fleeing from Pennsylvania after their dispersal bythe Iroquois about 1675. This is the only way to account for thefact that they are all said to have been refugee Conestoga. Theywere living on Roanoke River in 1761 with the southern bands ofTuscarora and Saponi, and the Machapunga, and probably went
SwANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 63
north in the last Tuscarora removal in 1802. (For informationregarding another possible band of Mcherrin see "Nottaway.")Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates the Meherrin population at700 in 1600. In 1669 they are said to have had 50 bowmen, or approximately 180 souls. In 1755 they were said to be reduced to 7 or 8fighting men, but in 1761 they are reported to have had 20.Connection in which they have become noted.?Meherrin River, anaffluent of the Chowan, running through southern Virginia and north-eastern North Carolina, and a Virginia town perpetuate the nameof the Meherrin.Monacan. Possibly from an Algonquianword signifying "digging stick,"or ''spade," but more likely from their own language. Also called:Rahowacah, by Archer, 1607, in Smith (1884).Connections.?The Monacan belonged to the Siouan linguistic stock.Their nearest connections were the Manahoac, Tutelo, and Saponi.Location.?On the upper waters of James River above the falls atRichmond. Villages(Locations as determined by D. I. Bushnell, Jr.)Massinacack, on the right bank of James River about the mouth of MohawkCreek, and a mile or more south of Goochland.Mohemencho, later called Monacan Town, on the south bank of James Riverand probably covering some of "the level area bordering the stream in theextreme eastern part of the present Powhatan County, between BernardsCreek on the east and Jones Creek on the west."Rassawek, at the confluence of the James and Rivanna Rivers and probably
"on the right bank of the Rivanna, within the angle formed by the two streams."Two other towns are sometimes added but as they afterward appeared aswholly independent tribes, the Saponi and the Tutelo, it is probable that theirconnection with the Monacan was never very intimate. Thej" seem to havebeen classed as Monacan largely on the evidence furnished by Smith's map, inwhich they appear in the country of the "Monacans" but Smith's topography,as Bushnell has shown, was very much foreshortened toward the mountains andthe Saponi and Tutelo towns were farther away than he supposed. Again, whileMassinacack and Mohemencho are specifically referred to as Monacan townsand Smith calls Rassawek "the chiefe habitation" of the Monacan, there is nosuch characterization of either of the others.History.?Capt. John Smith learned of the Monacan in the courseof an exploratory trip which he made up James River in IMay 1607.The people themselves were visited by Captain Newport the yearfollowing, who discovered the two lower towns. The populationgradually declined and in 1699 some Huguenots took possession ofthe land of Mowhemencho. The greater part of the Monacan hadbeen driven away some years before this by Colonel Bornn (Byrd?).Those who escaped continued to camp in the region until after 1702,
64 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145
as we learn from a Swiss traveler named F. L. Michel (1916). It isprobable that the remnant finally united with their relatives theSaponi and Tutelo when they were at Fort Christanna and followedtheir fortunes, but we have no further information as to their fate.Population.?The number of the Monacan was estimated byMooney (1928) at 1,200 in 1600 including part of the Saponi andTutelo, but they can hardly have comprised over half as many. In1669 there were still about 100 true Monacan as they were creditedwith 30 bowmen.Connection in which they have become noted.?The name Monacan isperpetuated by a small place called Manakin on the north bank ofJames River, in Goochland County, Va.Nahyssan. A contraction of Monahassano or Monahassanugh,remembered in later times as Yesa?.Connections.?The Nahyssan belonged to the Siouan linguisticstock, their nearest relatives being the Tutelo, Saponi, and probablythe Monacan and Manahoac.Location.?The oldest kno\vn location of the Nahyssan has beenidentified by D. I. Bushnell, Jr. (1930), within very narrow limits as
"probably on the left bank of the James, about 1% miles up thestream from Wingina, in Nelson County."History.?In 1650 Blande and his companions noted a site, 12miles south-southwest of the present Petersburg, called "ManksNessoneicks" which was presumably occupied for a time by theNahyssan or a part of them, since "Manks" may be intended for
"Tanks," the Powhatan adjective signifying "little." In 1654 or1656 this tribe and the Manahoac appeared at the falls of JamesRiver having perhaps been driven from their former homes by theSusquehanna. They defeated a force of colonials and PowhatanIndians sent against them but did not advance further into thesettlements. In 1670 Lederer (1912) found two Indian towns onStaunton River, one of which he calls Sapon and the other Pintahae.Sapon was, of course, the town of the Saponi but it is believed thatPintahae was the town of the Nahyssan Indians, though Lederergives this name to both towns. Pintahae was probably the Hana-thaskie or Hanahaskie town of which Batts and Fallam (1912) speak ayear later. About 1675 the Nahyssan settled on an island below theOccaneechi at the junction of the Staunton and Dan Rivers. Before1701 all of the Siouan tribes who had settled in this neighborhoodmoved into North Carolina, and it is thought that the Nahyssan fol-lowed the Saponi and Tutelo to the headwaters of the Yadkin and thattheir subsequent fortunes were identical with those of these two. (SeeSaponi and Tutelo.)Population.? (See Saponi and Tutelo.)
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 65Nottaway. Meaning "adders," in the language of their Algonquianneighbors, a common designation for ahen tribes by peoples ofthat linguistic stock. Also called:Cheroenhaka, their own name, probably signifying "fork of a stream."Mangoak, Mengwe, another Algonquian term, signifying "stealthy,"
"treacherous."Connections.?The Nottaway belonged to the Iroquoian linguisticfamily, their closest connections probably being the Meherrin,Tuscarora, and Susquehanna.Location.?On the river of the same name in southeastern Virginia.History.?The Nottaway were found by the Virginia colonists inthe location given above. Though they were never prominent incolonial history, they kept up their organization long after the othertribes of the region were practically extinct. In 1825 they arementioned as living on a reservation in Southampton County andruled over by a "queen." The name of this tribe was also applied toa band of Indians which appeared on the northern frontiers of SouthCarolina between 1748 and 1754. They may have included thoseSusquehanna who are sometimes confounded with the Meherrin, andare more likely to have included Meherrin than true Nottawayalthough they retained the name of the latter (see Swanton, 1946).Population.?The number of Nottaway, exclusive of those lastmentioned, was estimated by Mooney (1928) at 1,500 in the year1600. In 1709 Lawson reported one town with 30 fighting men, butin 1827 Byrd estimated that there were 300 Nottaway in Virginia.In 1825, 47 were reported. The band that made its appearance onthe frontiers of South Carolina was said to number about 300.Connection in which they have become noted.?The name of the Notta-way is preserved by Nottoway River, Nottoway County, and two towns,one the county seat of the above, the other in Sussex county. Thereis a Nottawa in St. Joseph County, Mich.Occaneechi. Meaning unknown.The Botshenins, or Patshenins, a band associated with the Saponi andTutelo in Ontario, were perhaps identical with this tribe.Connections.?The Occaneechi belonged to the Siouan linguisticstock; their closest connections were probably the Tutelo and Saponi.Location.?On the middle and largest island in Roanoke River, justbelow the confluence of the Staunton and the Dan, near the site ofClarksville, Mecklenburg County, Va. (See also North Carolina.)History.?Edward Blande and his companions heard of them in1650. When first met by Lcderer in 1670 at the spot abovementioned, the Occaneechi were noted throughout the region astraders, and their language is said to have been the common speech
66 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145both of trade and religion over a considerable area (Lederer, 1912).Between 1670 and 1676 the Occaneechi had been joined by the Tuteloand Saponi, who settled upon two neighboring islands. In the latteryear the Conestoga sought refuge among them and were hospitablyreceived, but, attempting to dispossess their benefactors, they weredriven away. Later, harassed by the Iroquois and English, theOccaneechi fled south and in 1701 Lawson (1860) found them on theEno River, about the present Hillsboro, Orange County, N, C.Later still they united with the Tutelo and Saponi and followed theirfortunes, having, according to Byrd, taken the name of the Saponi.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates that there were 1,200Occaneechi in the year 1600, There is no later estimate, but in 1709this tribe along with the Shakori, Saponi, Tutelo, and Keyauweewere about 750.Connection in which they have become noted.-?The name Occaneechi isassociated particularly with the Occaneechi Trail or Trading Path,which extended southwest through North and South Carolina fromthe neighborhood of Petersburg, Va
.
Powhatan. Said by Gerard to signify "falls in a current of water,"and applied originally to one tribe but extended by the English toits chief Wahunsonacock, and through him to the body of tribeswhich came under his sway. Also called:Sachdagugh-roonaw, Iroquois name.Connections.?The Powhatan belonged to the Algonquian linguisticstock, their nearest relatives probably being the Algonquian tribes ofCarolina and the Conoy.Location.?In the tidewater section of Virginia from PotomacRiver to the divide between James River and Albemarle Sound, andthe territory of the present eastern shore of Virginia. (See alsoMaryland and District of Columbia.)SubdivisionsSubtribes constituting this group are as follows:Accohanoc, in Accomac and part of Northampton Counties, Va., and probablyextending slightly into Maryland.Accomac, in the southern part of Northampton County, Va.Appomattoc, in Chesterfield County.Arrohattoc, in Henrico County.Chesapeake, in Princess Anne County.Chickahominy, on Chickahominy River.Chiskiac, in York County.Cuttatawomen, in King George County.Kecoughtan, in Elizabeth City County.Mattapony on Mattapony River.Moraughtacund, in Lancaster and Richmond Counties.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 67Mummapacune, on York River.Nansemond, in Nansemond County.Nantaughtacund, in Essex and Caroline Counties.Onawmanient, in Westmoreland County.Pamunkey, in King William County.Paspahegh, in Charles City and James City Counties.Pataunck, on Pamunkey River.Piankatank, on Piankatank River.Pissasec, in King George and Westmoreland Counties.Potomac, in Stafford and King George Counties.Powhatan, in Henrico County.Rappahannock, in Richmond County.Secacawoni, in Northumberland County.Tauxenent, in Fairfax County.Warrasqueoc, in Isle of Wight County.Weanoc, in Charles City County.Werowocomoco, in Gloucester County.Wicocomoco, in Northumberland County.Youghtanund, on Pamunkey River. VillagesAccohanoc, on the river of the same name in Accomac or Northampton Counties.Accomac, according to Jefferson (1801), about Cheriton, on Cherrystone Inlet,Northampton County.Acconoc, between Chickahominy and Pamunkey Rivers, in New Kent County.Accoqueck, on Rappahannock River, above Secobec, in Caroline County.Accossuwinck, on Pamunkey River, King William County.Acquack, on the north bank of Rappahannock River, in Caroline County.Appamattoc, on the site of Bermuda Hundred, in Prince George County.Appocant, on the north bank of Chickahominy River, in New Kent County.Arrohattoc, in Henrico County on the James River, 12 miles below the falls atRichmond.Askakep, near Pamunkey River in New Kent County.Assaomeck, near Alexandria.Assuweska, on the north bank of the Rappahannock in King George County,Attamtuck, between the Chickahominy and Pamunkey Rivers in New KentCounty.Auboraesk, on the north bank of the Rappahannock in Richmond County.Aureuapeugh, on Rappahannock River in Essex County.Cantaunkack, on York River in Gloucester County.Capahowasic, about Cappahosic in Gloucester County.Cattachiptico, on Pamunkey River in King William County.Cawwontoll, on the north bank of the Rappahannock River in Richmond County.Chawopo, at the mouth of Chipoak Creek, Surry County.Checopissowo, on Rappahannock River above Tobacco Creek, in Caroline County.Chesakawon, above the mouth of Corotoman River, in Lancaster County.Chesapeake, according to Jefferson on Linnhaven River in Princess Anne County,a small stream flowing north into Chesapeake Bay.Chiconessex, about Wiseville, in Accomac County.Chincoteague, about Chincoteague Inlet, in Accomac County.Chiskiac, on the south side of York River, about 10 miles below the junction ofthe Mattapony and Pamunkey.
68 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Cinquack, near Smiths Point on the Potomac, in Northumberland County.Cinquoteck, in the fork of Mattapony and Pamunkey Rivers, in King WilliamCounty.Cuttatawomen, (1) on the Rappahannock River at Corotoman River in LancasterCounty; (2) about Lamb Creek on the Rappahannock, in King George County.Gangasco, near Eastville, in Northampton County.Kapawnich, on the north bank of the Rappahannock, about Corotoman River inLancaster County.Kerahocak, on the north bank of the Rappahannock River in King George County.Kiequotank, on the eastern shore of Accomac County, north of Metomkin.Kupkipcock, on Pamunkey River in King William County.Machapunga, (1) in Northampton County; (2) on Potomac River.Mamanahunt, on Chickahominy River, in Charles City County.Mamanassy, at the junction of Pamunkey and Mattapony Rivers in King andQueen County.Mangoraca, on the north bank of the Rappahannock in Richmond County.Mantoughquemec, on Nansemond River, in Nansemond County.Martoughquaunk, on Mattapony River in Caroline County.Massawoteck, on the north bank of Rappahannock River in King George County.Matchopick, on the north bank of the Rappahannock River in Richmond County.Matchut, on Pamunkey River, in New Kent County.Mathomauk, on the west bank of James River, in Isle of Wight County.Matomkin, about Metomkin Inlet in Accomac County.Mattacock, on the north bank of York River in Gloucester County.Mattacunt, on the south side of Potomac River in King George County.Mattanock, on the west side of Nansemond River, near its mouth, in NansemondCounty.Maysonec, on the north bank of the Chickahominy in New Kent County.Menacupunt, on Pamunkey River, in King William County.Menaskunt, on the north bank of Rappahannock River in Richmond County.Meyascosic, on the north side of James River in Charles City County.Mohominge, near the falls of James River, in Richmond County.Mokete, on Warrasqueoc Creek, in Isle of Wight County.Moraughtacund, near the mouth of Moratico River in Richmond County.Mouanast, on the north bank of Rappahannock River, in King George County.Mutchut, on the north bank of the Mattapony River in King and Queen County.Muttamussinsack, on the north bank of Rappahannock River in Caroline County.Myghtuckpassu, on the south bank of Mattapony River in King William County.Namassingakent, on the south bank of Potomac River in Fairfax County.Nameroughquena, on the south bank of the Potomac River in Alexandria County,opposite Washington, D. C.Nansemond, probably about Chuckatuck in Nansemond County.Nantapoyac, on the south bank of James River in Surry County.Nantaughtacund, on the south side of the Rappahannock River in either EssexCounty or Caroline County.Nawacaten, on the north bank of the Rappahannock River in Richmond County.Nawnautough, on the north bank of the Rappahannock River in RichmondCounty.Nechanicok, on the south bank of the Chickahominy in the lower part of HenricoCounty.Nepawtacum, on the north bank of the Rappahannock in Lancaster County.Onancock, near Onancock in Accomac County.Onawmanient, probably on Nominy Bay, in Westmoreland County.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 69Opiscopank, on the south bank of the Rappahannock River in Middlesex County.Oquomock, on the north bank of the Rappahannock River in Richmond County.Orapaks, in New Kent County, between the Chickahominy and Pamunkey Rivers.Ottachugh, on the north bank of the Rappahannock River in Lancaster County.Ozatawomen, on the south bank of the Potomac River in King George County.Ozenic, on Chickahominy River in New Kent County.Pamawauk, perhaps identical with Pamunkey.Pamuncoroy, on the south bank of Pamunkey River in New Kent County.Pamunkey, probably near West Point in King William County.Papiscone, on the north bank of the Rappahannock in King George County.Pasaugtacock, on the north bank of York River in King and Queen County.Paspahegh, (1) on the south bank of Chickahominy River in Charles City County;(2) on the north bank of James River in Charles City Countj'.Passaunkack, on the south bank of Mattapony River in the northwestern part ofKing William County.Pastanza, on or near Potomac River, possibly on Aquia Creek, in Stafford County.Pawcocomac, on the north bank of Rappahannock River at the mouth of the Coro-toman in Lancaster County.Peccarecamek, an Indian settlement reported on the southern Virginia border,perhaps mythical.Pemacocack, on the west bank of Potomac River in Prince William County about30 miles below Alexandria.Piankatank, on Piankatank River in Middlesex County.Pissacoac, on the north bank of Rappahannock River above Leedstown in West-moreland County.Poruptanck, on the north bank of York River in Gloucester County.Potaucac, in New Kent County between the Chickahominy and PamunkeyRivers.Potomac, about 55 miles in a straight line from Chesapeake Bay, on a peninsulain what is now Stafford County, formed by Potomac River and PotomacCreek.Powcomonet, on the north bank of Rappahannock River in Richmond County.Powhatan, on the north bank of James River at the falls on ground now formingan eastern suburb of Richmond.Poyektauk, on the north bank of Rappahannock River in Richmond County.Poykemkack, on the north bank of Rappahannock River in Richmond County.Pungoteque, in Accomac County, probably near Metomkin Inlet.Quackcohowaon, on the south bank of the Mattapony in King William County.Quioucohanock, probably on an eminence now called Wharf Bluff just east ofUpper Chipoak Creek in Surry County.Quiyough, on the south bank of Aquia Creek near its mouth, in Stafford County.Rappahannock, at the mouth of a creek on Rappahannock River in RichmondCounty.Rickahake, probably in Norfolk County.Righkahauk, on the west bank of Chickahominy River in New Kent County.Ritanoe, probably Powhatan, in Virginia or North Carolina.Roscows, in Elizabeth City County.Secacawoni, at the mouth of Coan Creek on the south bank of the Potomac inNorthumberland County.Secobec, on the south bank of Rappahannock River in CaroUne County.Shamapa, on Pamunkey or York River.Sockobeck, on the north bank of Rappahannock River in King George County.Tantucquask, on Rappahannock River in Richmond County.
70 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Tauxenent, about Mount Vernon in Fairfax County.Teracosick, on the west bank of Nansemond River in Nansemond County.Utenstank, on the north bank of Mattapony River in Caroline County.Uttamussac, on the north bank of Pamunkey River in King WiUiam County.Uttamussamacoma, on the south bank of Potomac River in WestmorelandCounty.Waconiask, on the north bank of Rappahannock River in King George County.Warrasqueoc, on the south bank of James River at the mouth of WarrasqueocCreek in Isle of Wight County.Weanoc, below the mouth of Appamattox River at the present Weyanoke inPrince George County.Wecuppom, on the north bank of Rappahannock River in Richmond County.Werawahon, on the north bank of Chickahominy River in New Kent County.Werowacomoco, on the north bank of York River in Gloucester County aboutopposite the mouth of Queen Creek.Wicocomoco, at the mouth of Wicomico River in Northumberland County.Winsack, on the north bank of Rappahannock River in Richmond County.History.?The Powhatan were visited by some very early explorers,including probably the Cabots in 1498. Their territory was wellknown to the Spaniards in the latter part of the sixteenth century anda Jesuit mission was established among them in 1570 though soonextinguished by the Indians. In 1607 the Vii'ginia colony wasplanted on James River and from that time on relations between theWhites and Powhatans were of the most intimate character, friendlyat first, but later disturbed by the exactions of the newcomers. Peacewas restored for a time by the marriage of Powhatan's daughterPocahontas to John Rolfe, and lasted until Powhatan's death in 1618.In 1622 Powhatan's second successor, Opechancanough, led an up-rising against the colonists, as a result of which all of the White set-tlements except those immediately about Jamestown were destroyed.War continued until 1636 when exhaustion of both sides led to peace,but in 1644 Opechancanough led another uprising as destructive asthe first. He was captured and was killed the same year. The tribesmade peace separately, and they were placed upon reservations,where they gradually dwindled away. In 1654 or 1656 the Pamunkeyassisted the English in resisting an invasion of some inland people,but the allied army was severely defeated (see Manahoac). In 1675these Indians were accused of having committed certain depredations,really caused by the Conestoga, and several unauthorized expeditionswere led against them by Nathaniel Bacon. In August 1676, agreat body of them gathered in a fort near Richmond which was car-ried by storm, and men, women, and cliildren indiscriminately mas-sacred. Peace was made with the survivors on condition that anannual tribute be paid by each village. In 1722 in a treaty made atAlbany between the English and Iroquois, the latter agreed to ceasetheir attacks upon the Powhatan Indians, but the Powhatans already
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 71had been greatly reduced and they continued to decline. Those onthe eastern shore of Virginia, who had become very much mixed withNegroes, were driven away in 1831 during the excitement caused bythe slave rising under Nat Turner. In 1785 Jefferson reported thePowhatan Indians reduced to two tribes, the Pamunkey and Matta-pony, embracing only about 15 men, but he must have overlookedgreat numbers of these Indians, for at the present time there areseveral bands, including the Chickahominy, Nansemond, Pamunkey,Mattapony, Upper Mattapony, Rappahannock, Wicocomoco, Poto-mac, Powhatan, and Werowocomoco (Speck, 1925).Population.?The Powhatan population was estimated by Mooney(1928) as 9,000 in 1600; Smith (1884) allows them 2,400 warriors; in1669 a census gave 528 warriors or about 2,000 population, the Wico-comoco being then the largest tribe. In 1705 the Pamunkey bythemselves numbered 150 souls. Jefferson in 1785 represented thetwo tribes which he mentions as having but 15 men; Mooney, however,believed that there must have been a population of something like1,000 because of the number of mixed-bloods still surviving. Thecensus of 1910 returned 115 Chickahominy and 85 Pamunkey. TheUnited States Office of Indian Affairs Report for 1923 includes stillother bands, giving in all a population of 822, and Speck (1925) givesthe names of 10 bands aggregating 2,118 in 1923. The census of1930 returned only 203 Indians from Virginia but evidently missednearly all except the Pamunkey.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Powhatan Con-federacy is famous as embracing those Indians among whom thefirst permanent English settlement in North America was made; forthe personal character of its chief, Powhatan, who had conqueredabout 24 tribes, in addition to the 6 under him at his accession, beforethe appearance of the Europeans; on account of the dealings of theWhites with both Powhatan and his brother Opechancanough, aswell as the massacre of the settlers by the latter in 1622 and again in1644; and not least from the fame attached to Powhatan's daughter,Pocahontas. There are post villages named Powhatan in JeffersonCounty, Ala.; Lawrence County, Ark.; Natchitoches Parish, La.;McDowell County, W. Va. ; a county and county seat of the name inVirginia; Powhatan Point in Belmont County, Ohio; and Powhattanin Brown County, Kans.Saponi. Evidently a corruption of Monasiccapano or Monasuka-panough, which, as shown by Bushnell, is probably derived in partfrom a native term "moni-seep" signifying "shallow water." Paa-nese is a corruption and in no way connected with the word "Pawnee."Connections.?The Saponi belonged to the Siouan linguistic family,their nearest relations being the Tutelo.
72 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bdll. 145Location.?The earliest known location of the Saponi has beenidentified by Bushnell (1930) with high probability with "an extensivevillage site on the banks of the Rivanna, in Albemarle County,directly north of the University of Virginia and about one-half mileup the river from the bridge of the Southern Railway." This wastheir location when, if ever, they formed a part of the MonacanConfederacy. (See also North Carolina, Pennsylvania, and New York.)VillagesThe principal Saponi settlement usually bore the same name as the tribe or,at least, it has survived to us under that name. In 1670 Lederer reports anotherwhich he visited called Pintahae, situated not far from the main Saponi town afterit had been removed to Otter Creek, southwest of the present Lynchburg (Lederer,1912), but this was probably the Nahyssan town.History.?As first pointed out by Mooney (1895), the Saponi tribeis identical with the Monasukapanough which appears on Smith'smap as though it were a town of the Monacan and may in fact havebeen such. Before 1670, and probably between 1650 and 1660, theymoved to the southwest and probably settled on Otter Creek, asabove indicated. In 1670 they were visited by Lederer in their newhome and by Thomas Batts (1912) a year later. Not long afterwardthey and the Tutelo moved to the junction of the Staunton and DanRivers, where each occupied an island in Roanoke River in Mecklen-burg County. This .movement was to enable them to escape theattacks of the Iroquois, and for the same reason they again movedsouth before 1701, when Lawson (1860) found them on Yadkin Rivernear the present site of Salisbury, N. C. Soon afterward they leftthis place and gravitated toward the White settlements in Virginia.They evidently crossed Roanoke River before the Tuscarora War of1711, establishing themselves a short distance east of it and 15 mileswest of the present Windsor, Bertie County, N. C. A little laterthey, along with the Tutelo and some other tribes, were placed byGovernor Spotswood near Fort Christanna, 10 miles north of RoanokeRiver about the present Gholsonville, Brunswick County. The nameof Sappony Creek in Dinwiddle County, dating back to 1733 at least,indicates that they sometimes extended their excursions north ofNottoway River. By the treaty of Albany (1722) the Iroquoisagreed to stop incursions on the Virginia Indians and, probably about1740, the greater part of the Saponi and the Tutelo moved northstopping for a time at Shamokin, Pa., about the site of Sunbury.One band, however, remained in the south, in Granville County,N. C, until at least 1755, when they comprised 14 men and 14 women.In 1753 the Cayuga Iroquois formally adopted this tribe and theTutelo. Some of them remained on the upper waters of the Susque-hanna in Pennsylvania until 1778, but in 1771 the principal section
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 73had their village in the territory of the Cayuga, about 2 miles southof Ithaca, N. Y. They are said to have separated from the Tuteloin 1779 at Niagara, when the latter fled to Canada, and to havebecome lost, but a portion, at least, were living with the Cayuga onSeneca River in Seneca County, N. Y., in 1780. Besides the PersonCounty Indians, a band of Saponi Indians remained behind in NorthCarolina which seems to have fused with the Tuscarora, Meherrin,and Alachapunga and gone north with them in 1802.Population.?The Saponi and the Tutelo are identified by Mooney(1928) as remnants of the Manahoac and Monacan with an estimatedpopulation of 2,700 in 1600. In 1716 the Huguenot Fontaine found200 Saponi, Manahoac, and Tutelo at Fort Christanna. In 1765, whenthey were living on the upper Susquehanna, the Saponi are said to havehad 30 warriors. The main North Carolina band counted 20 warriorsin 1761, and those in Person County, 14 men and 14 women in 1755.Connection in which they have become noted.?A small place calledSapona, in Davidson County, N. C, east of the Yadkin River,preserves the name of the Saponi.Shakori. They seem to have lived in the State at one time. (SeeNorth Carolina.)Shawnee. Indians of this tribe were settled for a time in the Shen-andoah Valley. (See Tennessee.)Tutelo. Significance unknown but used by the Iroquois, who seemto have taken it from some southern tongue. Also called:Kattera, another form of Tutelo.Shateras, a third form of the name.Connections.?The Tutelo belonged to the Siouan linguistic family,their nearest connections being the Saponi and probably the Monacan.Location.?The oldest known town site of the Tutelo was nearSalem, Va., though the Big Sandy River at one time bore their nameand may have been an earlier seat. (See also North Carolina, NewYork, and Pennsylvania.)History.?In 1671 Fallam and Batts (1912) visited the town abovementioned. Some years later the Tutelo moved to an island inRoanoke River just above the Occaneechi, but in 1701 Lawsonfound them still farther southwest, probably about the headwaters ofthe Yadkin (Lawson, 1860). From that time forward they accom-panied the Saponi until the latter tribe separated from them atNiagara as above noted. In 1771 they were settled on the east sideof Cayuga Inlet about 3 miles from the south end of the lake. Thisvillage was destroyed by Sullivan in 1779, but the Tutelo continuedto live among the Cayuga sufficiently apart to retain their ownlanguage until 1898, when the last individual who could speak it
74 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145fluently died. A certain amount of Tutelo blood flows in the veins ofsome of the Iroquois. (For further information, see Swanton (1937).)Population.?(See Saponi.) In 1701-9, according to Lawson (1860),the Tutelo, Saponi, Keyauwee, Occaneechi, and Shakori numberedtogether about 750. In 1715 Governor Spotswood reported that theIndians at Fort Christanna, including the Tutelo, Saponi, Occaneechi,and Manahoac, numbered 300. In 1763 the Tutelo, Saponi, Nanti-coke, and Conoy had 200 men, probably less than 1,000 souls.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Tutelo are note-worthy chiefly as the principal body of Siouan Indians from Virginiato retain their integrity and preserve a knowledge of their languagelate enough for a permanent record of it to be made.WEST VIRGINIAMoneton. Meaning "Big Water" people.Connections.?The Moneton belonged to the Siouan linguisticfamily; their nearest connections were probably the Manahoac andMonacan of Virginia and perhaps the Ofo of Ohio and Mississippi.Location.?Probably on the lower course of Kanawha River,History.?The Moneton were first mentioned by Thomas Batts in1671. (See Alvord and Bidgood, 1912.) Three years later they werevisited by Gabriel Arthur, an indentured servant of the trader AbrahamWood, and this is the last we hear of them as an independent tribe.They probably united with the Siouan people in the Piedmont regionof Virginia.Population.?Unknown. Arthur calls the principal Monetonsettlement "a great town."Cherokee (see Tennessee), Conoy (see Maryland), Delaware(see New Jersey), Honniasont and Susquehanna (see Pennsylvania),and Shawnee (see Tennessee) settled in various parts of West Virginiafrom time to time, but none of them was established there at an earlydate for an appreciable period except perhaps the Conoy, whose nameappears to be perpetuated in that of the Kanawha River. There isno information regarding the Moneton residence there other than thepreservation of their name.NORTH CAROLINABear River Indians. A body of Indians mentioned by Lawson andassociated with Algonquian tribes. They may have been a part ofthe Machapunga (q. v.). Rights (1947) calls them the Bear Riveror Bay River Indians. Lawson (1709) gives the name of their townas Raudauqua-quank and estimates the number of their fightingmen at 50. Mooney (1928) places them with the Pamlico in hisestimate as of the year 1600 and gives the two a population of 1,000.(See also California for another tribe of the same name.)
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 75Cape Fear Indians. Named from Cape Fear, their native designationbeing unknown or indeed whether they were an independent tribeor a part of some other.Connections.?No words of the language of the Cape Fear Indianshave been preserved, but early references clearly associate them withthe eastern Siouan tribes, and they may have been a part of the Wac-camaw, since Waccamaw River heads close to Cape Fear, Theywould then have been connected with the Siouan linguistic familyand probably with the southern Atlantic division of which Catawbais the typical member.Location.?On Cape Fear River, as above stated. (See also SouthCarolina.) VillagesThe only village mentioned by name is Necoes, about 20 miles from the mouthof Cape Fear River, probably in Brunswick County. In 1715 five villages werereported.History.?While the Cape Fear Indians were probably met by sev-eral of the early voyagers, our first specific notice of them comes fromthe narratives of a New England colony planted on Cape Fear Riverin 1661. These settlers seized some of the Indian children and sentthem away under pretense of instructing them in the ways of civiliza-tion and were themselves in consequence driven off. In 1663 a colonyfrom Barbadoes settled here but soon left. In 1665 a third colonyestablished itself at the mouth of Oldtown Creek in BrunswickCounty, on the south side of the river, on land bought from the Indians,but, though the latter were friendly, like the others this attempt atsettlement was soon abandoned. They were visited by Capt. WilliamHilton in 1663. In 1695 they asked to be taken under the protectionof Governor Archdale. The protection was granted and shortlyafterward they rescued 52 passengers from a wrecked New Englandvessel who formed the nucleus of Christ Church Parish north ofCooper River. A few Cape Fear Indians accompanied Barnwell onhis Tuscarora expedition in 1711-12. They were active in his behalfas scouts and also guarded the region around Port Royal. After theYamasee War they were removed to South Carolina and settled inlandfrom Charleston, probably in Williamsburg County (Milling. 1940).In the latter part of the eighteenth century, a remnant of this tribeand the Pedee lived in the Parishes of St. Stephens and St. Johns undera chief called King John. By 1808 only a half-breed woman remainedof these two tribes, though others may have removed to the Catawba.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates a population of 1,000 CapeFear Indians in 1600. The census of 1715, above mentioned, gives206. In 1808 White neighbors remembered when as many as 30Pedee and Cape Fear Indians lived in their old territories.
76 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bdll. 145Catawba. This tribe occupied parts of southwestern North Carolinanear Catawba River. (See South Carolina.)Cheraw. Significance unknown. Also called:Ani'-Suwa'li, Cherokee name.Saraw, Suali, synonyms even more common than Cheraw.Xuala, Xualla, Spanish and Portuguese forms of the word, the x beingintended for sh.Connections.?The Cheraw are classed on circumstantial grounds inthe Siouan linguistic family though no words of their tongue have beenpreserved.Location.?The earliest known location of the Cheraw appears tohave been near the head of Saluda River in Pickens and OconeeCounties, S. C, whence they removed at an early date to the presentHenderson, Polk, and Rutherford Counties.VillagesThe names given are always those of the tribe, though we have a "Lower SauraTown" and an "Upper Saura Town" on a map dating from 1760.History.?Mooney (1928) has shown that the Cheraw are identicalwith the Xuala province which De Soto entered in 1540, remainingabout 4 days. They were visited by Pardo at a later date, and almosta hundred years afterward Lederer (1912) heard of them in the sameregion. Before 1700 they left their old country and moved to theDan River near the southern line of Virginia, where they seem tohave had two distinct settlements about 30 miles apart. About theyear 1710, on account of constant Iroquois attacks, they movedsoutheast and joined the Keyauwee. The colonists of North Carolina,being dissatisfied at the proximity of these and other tribes, GovernorEden declared war against the Cheraw, and applied to Virginia forassistance. This Governor Spotswood refused, as he believed theCarolinians were the aggressors, but the contest was prosecuted bythe latter until after the Yamasee War. During this period complaintwas made that the Cheraw were responsible for most of the depre-dations committed north of Santee River and they were accused oftrying to draw the coast tribes into an alliance with them. It wasasserted also that arms were being supplied them from Virginia. TheCheraw were then living upon the upper course of the Great Pee Dee,near the line between the two colonies and in the later Cheraw dis-trict of South Carolina. Being stiU subject to attack by the Iroquois,they finally?between 1726 and 1739?became incorporated with theCatawba, with whom at an earlier date they had been at enmity.In 1759 a party joined the English in their expedition against FortDuquesne, but the last notice of them is in 1768 when the remnantwas still living with the Catawba.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 77Population.?During the Spanish period the Cheraw appear tohave been of considerable importance but no estimate of their num-bers has come down to us. Mooney (1928) gives 1,200 as a probablefigure for the year 1600. The census of 1715 gives 140 men and atotal of 510, probably including the Keyauwee and perhaps some othertribes. In 1768 the survivors numbered 50 to 60.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Cheraw are famousas one of the few tribes in the Carolinas mentioned by De Soto'schi'oniclers which can be identified and located with fair precision.They were noted later for their persistent hostility to the Englishand have left their name in vSuwali Gap in the Blue Ridge Mountains,N. C; in Saura Town Mountains, Stokes County, N. C; in the townof Cheraw, Chesterfield County, S. C. ; and possibly in the UwaharrieRiver and Uwaharrie Mountains of North Carolina. There is alocality named Cheraw in Otero County, Colo.Cherokee. The Cherokee lived in the mountainous parts of theState in the west. (See Tennessee.)Chowanoc. Meaning in Algonquian "(people) at the south."Connections.?The Chowanoc belonged to the Algonquian linguisticfamily and were evidently most nearly allied to the other NorthCarolina Algonquians.Location.?On Chowan River about the junction of Meherrin andBlackwater Rivers. VillagesMaratoD, on the east bank of Chowan River in Chowan County.Ohanoak, on the west side of Chowan River not far below Nottoway Riverprobably in Hertford County.Catoking, (probably) near Gatesville, in Gates County.Metocaum, on Chowan River in the present Bertie County.Ramushonok, apparently between the Meherrin and Nottoway Rivers in HertfordCounty.History.?In 1584-85, when first known to Europeans, the Chow-anoc were the leading tribe in northeastern North Carolina. In1663 they entered into a treaty with the English by which they sub-mitted to the English Crown, but they violated this in 1075 and aftera year of warfare were compelled to confine themselves to a reserva-tion on Bennett's Creek which became reduced by 1707 from 12 squaremiles to 6. They sided with the colonists in the Tuscarora War, andat about the same time were visited by a Church of England mis-sionary, Giles Rainsford. In 1723 a reservation of 53,000 acres wasset aside for them conjointly with the Tuscarora and in 1733 theywere given permission to incorporate with that tribe. They con-tinued to decline in numbers until in 1755 Governor Dobbs statedthat only 2 men and 3 women were left.
78 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Population.?In 1584-85 one of the Chowanoc towns, Ohanoak,was said to contain 700 warriors, and Mooney (1928) estimates theirnumbers at about 1,500 in 1600, In 1707 they were reduced to onetown with about 15 fighting men, but at the end of the TuscaroraWar their numbers were placed at 240. In 1731 less than 20 familieswere reported and by 1755 only 5 individuals, as above noted.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Chowanoc seemto have been the most powerful Algonquian tribe south of the Pow-hatan, Their memory is preserved in the names of Chowan Riverand Chowan County, and in the -designation of a small post office inthe county of the name, all in North Carolina,Coree, or Coranine. Meaning unknown.Connections.?As the final stage of the Coree existence was passedwith an Algonquian tribe, some have thought that the affiliations ofthis people were also Algonquian, On the other hand Lawson (1860)notes that their language and that of a tribe to the north were mutuallyintelligible and there is reason for thinking that this northern tribebelonged to the Iroquois Confederacy, At least the Coree wereclosely associated in many ways with the Iroquoian Tuscarora,Location.?On the peninsula south of Neuse River in Carteret andCraven Counties, VillagesCoranine, probably on the coast in Carteret County,Narhantes, among the Tuscarora, 30 miles from Newbern,Raruta, probably on the coast of Carteret County, south of Neuse River.History.?When the Coree and the Whites first met is unknown,but they appear in the records of the Raleigh colony under the nameCwarennoc, They were greatly reduced before 1696 in a war withanother people. They took part with the Tuscarora in their waragainst the colonists, and in 1715 the remnant of them and what wasleft of the Machapunga were assigned a reservation on MattamuskeetLake in Hyde County, where they occupied one village, probablyuntil they became extinct. A few of them appear to have remainedwith the Tuscarora,Population.?The population of this tribe and the Neusiok wasestimated by Mooney (1928) at 1,000 in 1600, In 1707 Lawson saysthey had 25 fighting men and were living in 2 villages. No laterenumeration is known.Connection in which they have become noted.?Although some distancefrom the Coree country, Core Creek Station in Craven County, N. C,may perpetuate the name of the Coree.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 79Eno. Significance unknown, but Speck suggests i'nare, "to dislike,"whence, "mean," "contemptible"; ye?i'nare, "People disliked,"Haynokes, synonym from Yardley (1654).Connections.?The Eno were probably of the Siouan linguisticstock, though, on account of certain peculiarities attributed to them,Mooney (1895) casts some doubt upon this. Their nearest relativeswere the Shakori.Location.?On Eno River in the present Orange and DurhamCounties. (See also South Carolina.)VillagesThe only village name recorded, distinct from that of the tribe, is Adshusheer,a town which they shared with the Shakori. It is located by Mooney (1928) nearthe present Hillsboro. Lawson (1860) speaks in one place as if it were a tribe butas there is no other mention of it, it is more likely that it was simply the name ofthe town which the Eno and Shakori occupied.History.?The Eno are first mentioned by Governor Yeardley ofVirginia, who was told that they had valiantly resisted the northwardadvance of the Spaniards. From this it appears possible that theyhad formerly lived upon the Enoree River in South Carolina, whichlay on the main trail from St. Helena to the Cheraw country at thefoot of the Appalachian INIountains. Lederer (1912) mentions themin 1671 and Lawson (1860) in 1701 when they and the Shakori werein the town of Adshusheer. About 1714, together with the Shakori,Tutelo, Saponi, Occaneechi, and Keyauwee, they began to movetoward the Virginia settlements. In 1716 Governor Spotswood ofVirginia proposed to settle the Eno, Cheraw, and Keyuawee at Enotown "on the very frontiers" of North Carolina but the project wasdefeated by the latter province on the ground that all three tribeswere then at war with South Carolina. From the records it is notclear whether this Eno town was the old settlement or a new onenearer the Albemarle colonists. Owing to the defeat of this plan, theEno moved into South Carolina. Presumably they finally unitedwith the Catawba, among whom, Adair (1930) states, their dialectwas still spoken in 1743.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates the combined Eno, Shakori,and Adshusheer at 1,500 in 1600. In 1714 the Eno, Shakori, Tutelo,Saponi, Occaneechi, and Keyauwee totaled 750. There is no otherrecord of their numbers.Connection in which they have become noted.?In marked distinctionfrom their neighbors, the Eno had taken to a trading life. Theirname was given to Eno River in Orange and Durham Counties, N. C,and perhaps to a place called Enno in the southwestern part of WakeCounty, and to Enoree River in South Carolina (see above), as alsoto a post village near the last mentioned.
80 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Hatteras. Meaning unknown.Connections.?The Hatteras belonged to the Algonquian Hnguisticfamily.Location.?Among the sandbanks about Cape Hatteras east ofPamlico Sound and frequenting Roanoke Island.VillageSandbanks, on Hatteras Island.History.?Lawson (1860) thought the Hatteras showed traces ofWhite blood and therefore they may have been the Croatan Indianswith whom Raleigh's colonists are supposed to have taken refuge.They disappeared soon after as a distinct tribe and united with themainland Algonquians. In 1761, the Rev. Alex. Stewart baptized 7Indians and mixed-blood children of the "Attamuskeet, Hatteras, andRoanoke" tribes and 2 years later he baptized 21 more.Population.?The Hatteras population has been estimated with theMachapunga and other tribes at 1,200 in 1600; they had 16 warriorsin 1701, or a total population of about 80.Connection in which they have become noted.?The possible connec-tion of the Hatteras with the Croatan has been mentioned and theirname has become perpetuated in the dangerous cape at the angle ofthe outer sand islands of their old country.Keyauwee. Meaning unknown.Connections.?From the historical affiliations of Keyauwee, they arepresumed to have been of the Siouan linguistic family.Location.?About the points of meeting of the present Guilford,Davidson, and Randolph Counties. (See also South Carolina.)VillagesNo separately named villages are known.History.?The Keyauwee do not appear to have been noted bywhite men before 1701 when Lawson (1860) found them in a palisadedvillage about 30 miles northeast of Yadkin River near the presentHighpoint, Guilford County. At that time they were preparing tojoin the Saponi and Tutelo for better protection against their enemies,and, shortly afterward, together with the last mentioned tribes, theOccaneechi, and the Shakori, they moved toward the settlementsabout Albemarle Sound. As mentioned already. Governor Spots-wood's project to settle this tribe together with the Eno and Cherawat Enotown on the frontier of North Carolina was foiled by the opposi-tion of the latter colony. The Keyauwee then moved southward tothe Pee Dee along with the Cheraw, and perhaps the Eno and Shakori.In the Jefferys atlas of 1761 their town appears close to the boundaryline between the two Carolinas. They do not reappear in any of the
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 81historical records but probably united ultimately in part with theCatawba, while some of their descendants are represented among theRobeson County Indians, often miscalled Croatan.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates 500 Kcyauwee in ICOO. In1701 they are said to have numbered approximately as many as theSaponi, but the population of that tribe also is unknown. Shortlyafterward it is stated that the Keyauwee, Tutelo, Saponi, Occaneechi,and Shakori totaled 750 souls. This is all the information that wehave.Machapunga. Said to mean "bad dust," or "much dirt," in thenative Algonquian language.Connections.?The Machapunga belonged to the Algonquian lin-guistic stock.Location.?In the present Hyde County and probably also inWashington, Tyrrell, and Dare Counties, and part of Beaufort.VillagesThe only village named is Mattamuskeet (probably on Mattamuskeet Lakein Hyde County). However, we should probably add Secotan on the north bankof Pamlico River in Beaufort County, and perhaps the town of the Bear RiverIndians (q. v.).History.?The Machapunga seem to have embraced the larger partof the descendants of the Secotan, who lived between Albemarle andPamlico Sounds when the Raleigh colony was established on RoanokeIsland (1585-86) though the Pamlico may also have been includedunder the same head. They were reduced to a single village by 1701,took part with other Indian tribes of the region in the Tuscarora War,and at its close were settled on Mattamuskeet Lake with the Coree.In 1761 a small number were still living in North Carolina, evidentlyat the same place, and the Rev. Alex. Stewart reported that he hadbaptized seven Indian and mixed-blood children belonging to the
"Attamuskeet, Hatteras, and Roanoke." On a second visit 2 yearslater he baptized 21 more.Population.?The Machapunga are estimated by Mooney (1928) tohave numbered 1,200, including some smaller tribes, in 1600. In 1701Lawson gives 30 warriors, probably less than 100 souls (Lawson,1860). In 1775 there were said to be 8 to 10 on the mainland and asmany more on the off-shore banks. In 1761 the number of warriorswas only 7 or 8. The Bear River Indians (q. v.) may have combinedwith these.Connection in which they have become noted.?In the form Machi-pongo, the name is applied to a post village in Northampton County,Va.
82 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Boll. 145Meherrin. This tribe extended across from Virginia into North-ampton and Hertford Counties. (See Virginia.)Moratok. A place name, but the meaning otherwise unknown.Connections.?There is little doubt that the Moratok belonged tothe Algonquian linguistic stock and were closely related to the otherAlgonquian tribes of the sound region of North Carolina.Location.?On Roanoke River and apparently on the north side, andestimated to be 160 miles up the river, though the distance is evidentlyreckoned from the Raleigh settlement on Roanoke Island.VillagesThe village bearing the name of the tribe is the only one known.History.?The sole mention of the Moratok is in the narratives ofthe Raleigh expeditions. They were first recognized as an independenttribe by Mr. Maurice Mook (1943 a).Population.?Unknown but reported as large.Natchez. Part of the Natchez Indians sought refuge with the Chero-kee after their tribe had been broken up by the French, and most ofthem appear to have lived along Hiwassee River. They accom-panied those Cherokee who moved to Oklahoma and settled on thewestern margin of the Cherokee Reservation, where a few of themretained their language long enough to have it recorded. (SeeMississippi.)Neusiok. Probably a place name.Connections.?The form of this name suggests that the Neusiok wereof the Algonquian stock, but they may have been Iroquoian like theirneighbors the Tuscarora and Coree (?).Location.?On lower Neuse River particularly on the south side, inCraven and Cartaret Counties.VillageChattooka, on the site of Newbern, and Rouconk, exact location unknown.History.?In 1584 Amadas and Barlowe heard of the Neusiok as awar with the tribes farther north. The later settlers speak of themas Neuse Indians. They dwindled away rapidly after White contactand perhaps united finally with the Tuscarora.Population.?With the Coree the Neusiok are estimated by Mooney(1928) at 1,000 in the year 1600. In 1709 they numbered but 15warriors although occupying two towns.Connection in which they have become noted.?The name Neusiok isconnected with that of the River Neuse in North Carolina, and apost village.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA S3Occaneechi. When the Occaneechi lived on Roanoke River, Va.,they probably ranged over into Warren, Halifax, and NorthamptonCounties, N. C. In 1701 they were in Orange County, N. C. (SeeVirginia.)Pamlico. Meaning unknown.Connections.?The Pamlico belonged to the Algonquian linguisticstock.Location.?On Pamlico River.History.?The Pamlico are mentioned by the Raleigh colonists in1585-86 under the name Pomouik. In 1696 they were almost de-stroyed by smallpox. In 1701 Lawson recorded a vocabulary fromthem which shows their affiliations to have been as given above(Lawson, 1860). In 1710 they lived in a single small village. Theytook part in the Tuscarora war, and at its close that part of theTuscarora under treaty with the English agreed to destroy them. Aremnant of the Pamlico was probably incorporated by the Tuscaroraas slaves.Population.?The Pamlico are estimated by Mooney (1928),together with "Bear River" Indians, as 1,000 in 1600. In 1710 theynumbered about 75.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Pamlico havegiven their name to or shared it with the largest sound in NorthCarolina and a North Carolina county. They are also noteworthyas having been almost if not quite the most southerly Algonquian tribeon the Atlantic seaboard, and the most southerly one from which avocabulary has been collected.Saponi. This tribe lived on Yadkin River and in other parts of theState for a certain period. (See Virginia.)Shakori. A native name but its significance unknown, though perhapsthe same as Sugari, "stingy or spoiled people," or "of the river-whose-water-cannot-be drunk." Also called:Cacores, a misprint.Connections.?The Shakori belonged to the Siouan linguistic family,their closest connections being evidently with the southern divisionof the Siouan tribes of the East. Barnwell (1908) identified themwith the Sissipahaw (q. v.).Location.?The Shakori moved so frequently and there is so muchuncertainty regarding their early history, that this is hard to give,but, as they usually kept company with the Eno, tenancy of thecourses of Shocco and Big Shocco Creeks in the present Vance,Warren, and Franklin Counties is perhaps the location most closelyconnected with them in historic times. (See South Carolina andVirginia.)
84 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145History.?It is possible that the Shakori gave their name to theprovince of Chicora visited by Aj^llon and his companions in 1521.If so, we must suppose that they moved north later in the sixteenthcentury or early in the seventeenth, perhaps as a result of the Pardoexpeditions. In 1650 Edward Blande and his associates found the"Nottoway and Schockoores old fields" between Meherrin and Notto-way Rivers, but the Indians were not there. In 1654 Governor Yeard-ley of Virginia was told by a Tuscarora Indian of an inland peoplecalled the "Cacores," probably an attempt to indicate this tribe.In 1672 Lederer found them living in a village 14 miles from that of theEno (Lederer, 1912), and in 1701 Lawson says these two tribes (theShakori and Eno) were in one village called Adshusheer on Eno River(Lawson, 18G0). The later fortunes of the Shakori were bound upwith those of the Eno (q. v.).Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates the Shakori, Eno, and
"Adshusheer" at 1,500 in 1600.Connection in which they have become noted.?The two creeks, Shoccoand Big Shocco, and a post office 9 miles south of Warrenton, WarrenCounty, perpetuate the name of the Shakori. If Chicora refers to thesame tribe, it appears prominently in Spanish narratives of Americanexploration, particularly because of the information regarding Indiancustoms obtained by Peter Martyr from an Indian, Francisco ofChicora.Sara, see Cheraw.Sissipahaw. Meaning unknown.Connections.?The Sissipahaw were probably of the Siouan linguisticfamily though no words of their language are known.Location.?l^Xie principal Sissipahaw settlement appears to havebeen about the present Saxapahaw on Haw River in the lower part ofAlamance County. (See also South Carolina.)History.?The name of this tribe is possibly preserved in the Sauxpamentioned by the Spanish officer Vandera in 1569 as a place visitedby Juan Pardo. Lawson (1860) spoke of them in connection with histravels through Carolina in 1701, but he did not visit them. Barn-well (1908) identified them with the Shakori with whom they weredoubtless nearly allied and of whom they may have been a branch.They united with other tribes of the region against the English in theYamasee war of 1715, and later with other Siouan remnants probablyjoined the Catawba.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates the Sissipahaw at 800 in1600. "Haw Old Fields" constituted the largest body of fertileland in the region.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 85Connections in which they have become noted.?The name Sissipahawhas been brought down to our times by Haw River and the towns ofHaw River and Saxapahaw on the same, in Alamance County, N. C.Sugeree. This tribe occupied parts of Mecklenburg County. (SeeSouth Carohna.)Tuscarora. From their own name Sk3,-ru'-re?, signifying according toHewitt {in Hodge, 1910), "hemp gatherers," and applied on accountof the great use they made of Apocymim cannahinum. Also called
:
A-ko-t'5.s'-kii-ro'-r6"', Mohawk name.Ani'-SkaiS'll, Cherokee name.A-t'as-kii-lo'-l6?', Oneida name.Tewohomomy (or Keew-ahomomjO, Saponi name.Connections.?The Tuscarora belonged to the Iroquoian linguisticfamily.Location.?On the Roanoke, Tar, Pamlico, and Neuse Rivers.(See also Pennsylvania and New York.)SubdivisionsThe Tuscarora should be considered a confederacy with three tribes or a tribewith three subtribes as follows: Ka'tS'nu'a'ka', "People of the submerged pinetree"; AkawSntca'ka', meaning doubtful; and Skaru'r6?, "hemp gatherers,"i. e., the Tuscarora proper. VillagesThe following were in North Carolina, a more precise location not being possibleexcept in the cases specified:Annaooka.Chunaneets.Cohunche.Conauhcare.Contahnah, near the mouth of Neuse River.Cotechney, on the opposite side of Neuse River from Fort Barnwell, about themouth of Contentnea Creek.Coram.Corutra.Harooka.Harutawaqui.Kenta.Kentanuska.Naurheghne.Neoheroka, in Greene County.Nonawharitse.Nursoorooka.Oonossoora.Tasqui, a day's journey from Cotechney on the way to Nottaway village.Tonarooka, on a branch of Neuse River between "Fort Narhantes" and Cotech-ney.Torhunte, on a northern affluent of Neuse River.Tosneoc.
86 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Ucouhnerunt, on Pamlico River, probably in the vicinity of Greenville, in PittCounty.Unanauhan.Later settlements in New York were these:Canasaraga, on Canaseraga Creeli on the site of the present Sullivan.Ingaren.Junastriyo.Jutaneaga.Kanhats.Kaunehsuntahkeh.Nyuchirhaan, near Lewiston, Niagara County.Ohagi, on the west side of Genesee River a short distance below Cuylersville,Livingston Count5\Oquaga, on the east branch of the Susquehanna on both sides, in the town ofColesville, Broome County.Oyonwayea, also called Johnson's Landing, in Niagara County, about 4 mileseast of the outlet of Niagara River at the mouth of Four Mile Creek.Shawiangto, on the west side of the Susquehanna not far from Windsor, BroomeCounty.Tiochrungwe, on the "main road" from Oneida to Onondaga.Tuscarora, the name of three villages: one a short distance east of "Anatsagane,"probably the present Stockbridge, in Madison County; the second about 3 milesbelow Oquaga, in Broome County, approximately on the site of Windsor; andthe third 12 miles by land and 20 by water below Oquaga, in the vicinity ofGreat Bend, in Susquehanna County.The location of Ganatisgowa is uncertain.History.?The place or manner of separation of the Tuscarora fromthe Iroquois tribes of New York is not known, and they were foundin the tract indicated above when the country was first entered bywhite colonists. John Lawson, Surveyor General of North Carolina,lived in close contact with these Indians for many years and hisHistory of Carolina gives us our earliest satisfactory picture of them.(See Lawson, 1860.) It was his capture and execution b}^ the tribein September 1711, however, which brought on the first TuscaroraWar, though behind it lay a series of encroachments by the Whiteson Tuscarora territory, and the kidnaping and enslavement of num-bers of Indians. Immediately after Lawson's death, part of theTuscarora, headed by chief Hencock, and the Coree, Pamlico, Ma-chapunga, and Bear River Indians conspired to cut off the whitesettlers and, in consequence, on September 22, 1711, they rose andmassacred about 130 of the colonists on Trent and Pamlico Rivers.Colonel Barnwell, with 33 white men and about 500 Indians, marchedagainst the hostiles, by direction of the colony of South Carolina,drove them from one of their towns with great loss, and investedHencock's own town, Cotechney. But having suffered severely intwo assaults upon the place and fearing lest the white captives in thehands of the Indians would be killed, he made peace and returned
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 87home. Dissatisfied with the treatment accorded him by the NorthCarolina authorities, however, he violated the treaty during his retreatby seizing some Indians and sending them away as slaves. This broughton the second Tuscarora War, 1712-13. South Carolina was againappealed to for assistance, and Colonel James Moore set out for thenorth with about 900 Indians and 33 white men, a number whichwas considerably swelled before he reached the seat of trouble.March 20 to 23 he stormed the palisaded town of Neoheroka, inflictinga loss upon the enemy of about 950. The Tuscarora became soterrified at this that part of them abandoned Fort Cohunche, situatedat Hencock's town and started north to join their relatives, theIroquois. This was only the beginning of the movement, bands ofTuscarora being noted at intervals as moving north or as havingarrived among the Five Nations. They were adopted by the Oneidabut, contrary to the general impression, were not granted coordinaterights in the League before September 1722. A part of the Tuscaroraunder a chief named Tom Blunt (or Blount), had, however, remainedneutral. They received recognition by the government of NorthCarolina, and continued in their former homes under their own chiefs.In 1766, 155 removed to New York, and the 105 remaining werebrought north in 1802 while a deputation of northern Tuscarora werein Carolina to obtain payment for the lands they had formerly occu-pied. When the Tuscarora first moved north they were settled atvarious places along the Susquehanna in Pennsylvania and in NewYork, some in the Oneida country itself. In 1875, by the treaty ofFort Herkimer, the Oneida sold to the State of New York, the landson which their adopted children, the Tuscarora, had settled, and for atime the Tuscarora were dispersed in various settlements in New YorkState, and even in Pennsylvania. At the outbreak of the AmericanRevolution, the majority of Tuscarora and Oneida espoused the causeof the colonists and in consequence they were attacked by Indiansin the British interest, including even some of their Iroquois brethren,their houses were burned, their crops and other property destroyed,and they themselves scattered. A large band of them settled, how-ever, at a place called Oyonwayea or Johnson's Landing, on LakeOntario. Later a party from this settlement discovered a place inthe northeastern part of the present Tuscarora Reservation whichpleased them so much that they decided to winter there and theywere presently joined by the rest of the inhabitants of Oyonwayea.At the treaty held at Genesee, September 15, 1797, between RobertMorris and the Seneca tribe, Morris reserved to the tribe, by grant,2 square miles, covering their new settlements, and the Seneca there-upon granted them an additional square mile. As a result of theirappeal to the legislature of North Carolina above mentioned, they
88 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145
were able to lease lands in the south, and they devoted the proceedsto the purchase of 4,329 acres adjoining their New York reserve.The Tuscarora who had sided with Great Britain were granted landsin severalty on Grand River, Ontario.Population.?There were 5,000 Tuscarora in 1600 accordmg to anestimate by Mooney (1928). In 1708, Lawson gives 15 towns and1,200 warriors (Lawson, 1860). Barnwell in 1712 estimates 1,200 to1,400 fightmg men (Barnwell, 1908); Chauvignerie in 1736, 250 war-riors, not including those in North Carolina, and on the Susquehannaand Juniata Rivers (Chauvignerie, in Schoolcraft, 1851-57, vol. 3,p. 555). In 1752 the southern Tuscarora were said to number 300men; in 1754 there were said to be 100 men and 200 women andchildren and these figures are repeated in 1761. In 1766 there weresaid to be 220 to 230 all told in the south; next year we read that 155southern Tuscarora had removed and that 105 remained. Otherestimates place the total Tuscarora population at 1,000 in 1765, 2,000in 1778, 1,000 in 1783, and 400 in 1796. In 1885 there were 828(evenly divided between New York and Canada). In 1909 therewere 364 in New York and a year later 416 in Canada, a total of 780.In 1910, 400 were reported in the United States and in 1923, 376 inNew York alone. The number in Canada is not separately given.Connection in which they have become noted.?This tribe is notedhistorically for its prominence among the peoples of eastern NorthCarolina, for the two wars which it waged with the colonists, and forthe rather spectacular migration of the greater part to the north andits union with the Five Iroquois Nations. The name Tuscaroraocciu-s applied to settlements in Frederick County, Md.; CravenCounty, North Carolina; Schuylkill County, Pennsylvania; LivingstonCounty, N. Y.; Elko County, Nev.; and Ontario; and to a creek andmountain in Pennsylvania.Tutelo. This tribe lived for a while on the upper Yadkin and later inBertie County. (See Virginia.)Waccamaw. They probably ranged across into North Carolina fromthe head of Waccamaw River. (See South Carolina.)Wateree. According to Lederer (1912) they were Uving in 1670 onthe upper Yadkin. (See South Carolina.)Waxhaw. They extended over into Union County from South Car-olina. (See South Carolina.)Weapemeoc. Meaning unknown, but evidently a place name. Alsocalled:Yeopim, a shortened and more usual form.Connections.?The Weapemeoc were almost certainly of the Algon-quian linguistic family and related to the Powhatan Indians to thenorth and the Chowan, Machapunga, and Pamlico to the south.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 89Location.?Most of the present Currituck, Camden, Pasquotank,and Perquimans Counties, and part of Chowan County north ofAlbemai-le Sound. SubdivisionsIn the same section in later times are given the following tribes which must beregarded as subdivisions of the Weapemeoc:Pasquotank, on Pasquotank River.Perquiman, on Perquimans River,Poteskeet, location uncertain.Yeopim, or Weapemeoc proper, on Yeopim River.VillagesChepanoc, on Albemarle Sound in Perquimans County.Mascoming, on the north shore of Albemarle Sound, in Chowan County.Metachkwem, location unknown,Pasquenock, perhaps identical with Pasquotank, on the north shore of Albe-marle Sound, perhaps in Camden County.Weapemeoc, probably in Pasquotank County.History.?The Weapemeoc first appear in history in the narrativesof the Raleigh colony of 1585-86, Later they are spoken of underthe various subdivisional names. They parted with some of theirland in 1662. In 1701, according to Lawson (1860), only 6 of theYeopim survived though there were 40 warriors of the other sub-divisions, including 10 Pasquotank and 30 Potekeet,Population.?In the time of the Raleigh colony the Weapemeocare said to have had between 700 and 800 warriors. They wereestimated by Mooney (1928) at 800 in 1600, From their numberas given by Lawson in 1701 Rights (1947) estimates 200 at that date.Connection in which they have become noted.?In the form Yeopimthe name has been preserved in that of a railroad station in Per-quimans County, N, C.Woccon. Significance unknown.Connections.?The Woccon belonged to the Siouan linguistic stock,their closest relations being the Catawba,Location.?Between Neuse River and one of its affluents, perhapsabout the present Goldsboro, Wayne County.
VillagesTooptatmeer, supposed to have been in Greene County.Yupwauremau, supposed to have been in Greene County.History.?The first mention of the Woccon appears to be by Lawsonwriting about 1701, who recorded 150 words of their language. Theseshow that it was nearer Catawba than any other known variety of
90 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Boll. 145
speech. Lack of any earlier mention of such a large tribe lendsstrength to the theory of Dr. Douglas L, Rights that they wereoriginally Waccamaw (q. v., under South Carohna). They tookpart against the Whites in the Tuscarora Wars and were probablyextinguished as a tribe at that time, the remnant fleeing north withthe Tuscarora, uniting with the Catawba, or combining with otherSiouan remnants in the people later known as Croatan.Population.?The number of Woccon was estimated by Mooney(1928) at 600 in 1600. Lawson (1860) gives 120 warriors in 1709.Connection in which they have become noted.?The sole claim of theWoccon to distinction is from the fact that it is the only one of thesouthern group of eastern Siouan tribes other than the Catawbafrom which a vocabulary has been preserved.Yadkin. Meaning unknown.Connections.?The Yadkin probably belonged to the Siouan lin-guistic family.Location.?On Yadkin River.History.?The Yadkin first appear in history in a letter by theIndian trader, Abraham Wood, narrating the adventures of two men,James Needham and Gabriel Arthur, whom he had sent on an explor-ing expedition to the west. They passed this tribe and town, whichthey call "Yattken," in the summer of 1674. Lawson (1860) givesthe name as Reatkin but applies it to the river, and there is no latermention of the people.Connection in which they have become noted.?Their name Yadkin isperpetuated by the Yadkin River, Yadkin County, and the townsand villages of Yadkin College, Yadkin Falls, Yadkin Valley, andYadkinville, all in the State of North Carolina.Yeopim, see Weapemeoc.SOUTH CAROLINACatawba. Significance unknown though the name was probablynative to the tribe. Also called:Ani'ta'gua, Cherokee name.Iswa or Issa, signifying "river," and specifically the Catawba River; orig-inally probably an independent band which united early with theCatawba proper.Oyadagahroenes, Tadirighrones, Iroquois names.Usherys, from iswahere, "river down here"; see Issa.Connections.?The Catawba belonged to the Siouan linguisticfamily, but Catawba was the most aberrant of all known Siouanlanguages, though closer to Woccon than any other of which a vocab-ulary has been recorded.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 91Location.?In York and Lancaster Counties mainly but extendinginto the neighboring parts of the State and also into North Carolinaand Tennessee. SubdivisionsTwo distinct tribes are given by Lawson (1860) and placed on early maps, theCatawba and Iswa, the latter deriving their name from the native word meaning
"river," which was specifically applied to Catawba River.VillagesIn early days this tribe had many villages but few names have come down to us.In 1728 there were six villages, all on Catawba River, the most northerly of whichwas known as Nauvasa. In 1781 they had two called in English Newton andTurkey Head, on opposite sides of Catawba River.History,?The Catawba appear first in history under the nameYsa, Issa (Iswa) in Vandera's narratives of Pardo's expedition intothe interior, made in 1566-67. Lederer (1912) visited them in 1670and calls them Ushery. In 1711-13 they assisted the Whites in theirwars with the Tuscarora, and though they participated in the Yamaseeuprising in 1715 peace was quickly made and the Catawba remainedfaithful friends of the colonists ever after. Meanwhile they declinedsteadily in numbers from diseases introduced by the Whites, the useof liquor, and constant warfare with the Iroquois, Shawnee, Delaware,and other tribes. In 1738 they were decimated by smallpox and in1759 the same disease destroyed nearly half of them. Through themediation of the Whites, peace was made at Albany in 1759 betweenthem and the Iroquois, but other tribes continued their attacks, andin 1763 a party of Shawnee killed the noted Catawba King Haigler.The year before they had left their town in North CaroHna andmoved into South Carolina, where a tract of land 15 miles square hadbeen reserved for them. From that time on they sank into relativeinsignificance. They sided with the colonists during the revolutionand on the approach of the British troops withdrew temporarily intoVirginia, returning after the battle of Guilford Court House. In 1826nearly the whole of their reservation was leased to Whites, and in1840 they sold all of it to the State of South Carolina, which agreed toobtain new territory for them in North CaroHna. The latter Staterefused to part with any land for that purpose, however, and most ofthe Catawba who had gone north of the State line were forced toreturn. Ultimately a reservation of 800 acres was set aside for themin South Carolina and the main body has lived there ever since. Afew continued in North CaroHna and others went to the Cherokee,but most of these soon came back and the last of those who remaineddied in 1889. A few Catawba intermarried with the Cherokee inlater times, however, and still live there, and a few others went to the
92 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Choctaw Nation, in what is now Oklahoma, and settled near Scully-ville. These also are reported to be extinct. Some families estab-lished themselves in other parts of Oklahoma, in Arkansas, and nearSanford, Colo., where they have gradually been absorbed by theIndian and White population. About 1884 several Catawba wereconverted by Mormon missionaries and went to Salt Lake City, andin time most of those in South Carohna became members of theMormon Church, although a few are Baptists. Besides the twodivisions of Catawba proper, the present tribe is supposed to includeremnants of about 20 smaller tribes, principally Siouan.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates the number of Catawba in1600, including the Iswa, at 5,000. About 1682 the tribe was sup-posed to contain 1,500 warriors or about'4,600 souls; in 1728, 400 war-riors or about 1,400 souls; and in 1743, after incorporating severalsmall tribes, as having less than that number of warriors. In 1752we have an estimate of about 300 warriors, or about 1,000 people;in 1755, 240 warriors; in 1757, about 300 warriors and 700 souls;and in 1759, 250 warriors. Although there is an estimate accreditingthem with 300 warriors in 1761, King Haigler declared that they hadbeen reduced by that year, after the smallpox epidemic of 1760, to60 fighting men. In 1763 fewer than 50 men were reported, and in1766 "not more than 60." In 1775 there was estimated a totalpopulation of 400; in 1780, 490; in 1784, 250; in 1822, 450; in 1826,110. In 1881 Gatschet found 85 on the reservation and 35 on ad-joining farms, a total of 120. The census of 1910 returned 124, andin 1912 there were about 100, of whom 60 were attached to the reser-vation. The census of 1930 gave 166, all but 7 in South Carolina.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Catawba, whetheroriginally or by union with the Iswa, early became recognized asthe most powerful of all the Siouan peoples of Carolina. They arealso the tribe which preserved its identity longest and from whichthe greatest amount of linguistic information has been obtained.The name itself was given to a variety of grape, and has become applied,either adopted from the tribe directly or taken from that of the grape,to places in Catawba County, N. C; Roanoke County, Va.; MarionCounty, W. Va.; Bracken County, Ky.; Clark County, Ohio; CaldwellCounty, Mo.; Steuben County, N. Y.; Blaine County, Okla.; YorkCounty, S. C; and Price County, Wis. It is also borne by an island inOhio, and by the Catawba River of the Carolinas, a branch of theWateree.Cherokee. The extreme northwestern portion of the State wasoccupied by Cherokee Indians. (See Tennessee.)Chiaha. A part of this tribe lived in South Carolina at times. (SeeGeorgia.)
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 93Chickasaw. The Chickasaw territory proper was in northernMississippi, at a considerable distance from the State under dis-cussion, but about 1753 a body of Chickasaw Indians settled onthe South Carolina side of Savannah River, to be near the Englishtrading posts and to keep in contact with the English, who weretheir allies. Before 1757 most of them moved over to the imme-diate neighborhood of Augusta and remained there until the periodof the American Revolution. In that war they sided against thecolonists and their lands were confiscated in 1783. (See Mississippi.)Congaree. Meaning unknown.Connection.?No words of this language have been preserved butthe form of the name and general associations of the tribe leave littledoubt that it was a Siouan dialect, related most closely to Catawba.Location.?On Congaree River, centering in the neighborhood ofthe present State Capital, Columbia.VillageThe only village mentioned bore the same name as the tribe and was sometimesplaced on the Congaree opposite Columbia, sometimes on the north side of theriver.History.?The Congaree are mentioned in documents of the seven-teenth century as one of the small tribes of the Piedmont region. In1701 Lawson (1860) found them settled on the northeast bank ofSantee River below the mouth of the Wateree. They took partagainst the WMtes in the Yamasee War of 1715, and in 1716 overhalf of them were captured and sent as slaves to the West Indies.The remnant appear to have retreated to the Catawba, for Adair(1930) mentions their dialect as one of those spoken in the CatawbaNation.Population.?The Congaree are estimated by Mooney (1928) at800 in 1600. A census taken in 1715 gives 22 men and a total popu-lation of about 40.Connection in which they have become noted.?Congaree River anda railroad station in Richland County, S. C, preserve the name;Columbia, the State capital, was originally known as the Congarees.Creeks. In the time of De Soto, Cofitachequi, which seems tohave been either Kasihta or Coweta, and a few other Creek townsincluding perhaps Hilibi and part of the Chiaha Indians were inthe territory of the present State of South Carolina near Savan-nah River. The Coosa of Coosawhatchie, Edisto, and AshleyRivers may have been Creek in origin, and in later times Creeksconstantly resorted to the provincial settlements in this area.(See Alabama.)
94 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Cusabo. Meaning perhaps "Coosawhatchie River (people)."Connections.?There is httle doubt that the Cusabo belonged to theMuskhogean linguistic family. Their closest connections appear tohave been with the Indians of the Georgia coast, the Guale.Location.?In the southernmost part of South Carolina betweenCharleston Harbor and Savannah River and including most of thevalleys of the Ashley, Edisto*, Ashepoo, Combahee, Salkehatchie, andCoosawhatchie Rivers. SubdivisionsThese people should be divided first into the Cusabo proper, who occupied allof the coast, and the Coosa, who were inland upon the rivers above mentioned.The Cusabo proper seem to have consisted of a northern group of tribes or sub-tribes, including the Etiwaw (on Wando River), Wando (on Cooper River),Kiawa (on the lower course of Ashley River), and perhaps the Stono (aboutStono Entrance); and a southern group including the Edisto (on Edisto Island),Ashepoo (on lower Ashepoo River), Combahee (on lower Combahee River),Wimbee (between the latter and the lower Coosawhatchie River), Escamacu(between St. Helena Sound and Broad River), and perhaps a few others. Some-times early writers erroneously include the Siouan Sewee and Santee as Cusabo.VillagesAhoya or Hoya, on or near Broad River.Ahoyabi, near the preceding.Aluste, near Beaufort, possibly a form of Edisto.Awendaw, near Awendaw Creek; it may have been Sewee (q. v.).Bohicket, near Rockville.Cambe, near Beaufort.Chatuache, 6-10 leagues north of Beaufort.Mayon, probably on Broad River.Talapo, probably near Beaufort.Touppa, probably on Broad River.Yanahume, probably on the south side of Broad River.History.?While their country was most likely skirted by earliernavigators, the first certain appearance of the Cusabo in history isin connection with a slave-hunting expedition sent out by Vasquesde Ayllon. This reached the mainland in 1521, probably a littlenorth of the Cusabo territory and introduced the blessings of Whitecivihzation to the unsuspecting natives by carrying away about 70of them. One of these Indians was finally taken to Spain andfurnished the historian Peter Martyr with considerable informationregarding his country and the names of a number of tribes, someof whom were certainly Cusabo. In 1525 Ayllon sent a second expedi-tion to the region and in 1526 led a colony thither. Dissatisfiedwith his first landing place, probably near the landfall of the expeditionof 1521, he moved the colony "40 or 45 leagues," perhaps to theneighborhood of Savannah River. But it did not prosper, AyUon
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 95died, trouble broke out among the survivors, and finally they returnedto Haiti in the middle of the following winter. In 1540 De Sotopassed near this country, but apparently he did not enter it, and thenext European contact was brought about by the settlement ofRibault's first colony at Port Royal in 1562. The small numberof people left by Ribault managed to maintain themselves for sometime with the assistance of friendly natives, but, receiving no relieffrom France, they became discouraged, and built a small vessel inwhich a few of them eventually reached home. In 1564 a Spanishvessel visited this coast for the purpose of rooting out the Frenchsettlement. Later the same year a second Huguenot colony wasestablished on St. Johns River, Florida, and communication wasmaintained with the Cusabo Indians. In 1565 this colony wasdestroyed by the Spaniards who visited Port Royal in quest of certainFrench refugees, and the year following Fort San Felipe was builtat the same place. From this time until 1587 a post was maintainedhere, although with some intermissions due to Indian risings. In1568-70 a vain attempt was made to missionize the Indians. In 1576a formidable Indian uprising compelled the abandonment of the fort,but it was soon reoccupied and an Indian town was destroyed in1579 by way of reprisal. Next year, however, there was a seconduprising, making still another abandonment necessary. The fortwas reoccupied in 1582 but abandoned permanently 5 years later;and after that time there was no regular post in the country butcommunication was kept up between the Cusabo and St. Augustineand occasional visits seem to have been made by the FranciscanFriars. Between 1633 and 1655 we have notice of a new mission inCusabo territory, called Chatuache, but when the English settledSouth Carolina in 1670 there appears to have been no regular missionthere and certainly no Spanish post. Charleston was founded onCusabo soil, and from the date of its establishment onward relationswere close between the English and Cusabo. In 1671 there was ashort war between the colonists and the Coosa Indians and in 1674there was further trouble with this people and with the Stono. In1675 the Coosa Indians surrendered to the English a large tract ofland which constituted Ashley Barony, and in 1682 what appearsto have been a still more sweeping land cession was signed by severalof the Cusabo chiefs. In 1693 there was another short war, this timebetween the Whites and the Stono. A body of Cusabo accom-panied Colonel Barnwell in his expedition against the Tuscarorain 1711-12, and this fact may have quickened the consciences of thecolonists somewhat, because in 1712 the Island of Palawana, "nearthe Island of St. Helena," was granted to them. It appears thatmost of their plantations were already upon it but it had inadvertently
96 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145been granted to a white proprietor. The Cusabo here mentionedwere those of the southern group; there is reason to think that theKiawa and Coosa were not included. Early in 1720 "King Gilbertand ye Coosaboys" took part in Col. John Barnwell's punitive expedi-tion against St. Augustine (Barnwell, 1908). In 1743 the Kiawawere given a grant of land south of the Combahee River, probablyto be near the other coast Indians. Part of the Coosa may haveretired to the Catawba, since Adair (1930) mentions "Coosah" asone of the dialects spoken in the "Catawba Nation," but othersprobably went to the Creeks. At least one band of Cusabo may havegone to Florida, because, in "A List of New Indian Missions in theVicinity of St. Augustine," dated December 1, 1726, there is mentionof a mission of San Antonio "of the Cosapuya nation and otherIndians" containing 43 recently converted Christians and 12 pagans.Two years later we are informed that "the towns of the CasapullasIndians were depopulated," though whether this has reference to theones in Florida or to those in their old country is not clear.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates the number of southernCusabo, exclusive of the Edisto, at 1,200 in 1600, the Edisto at 1,000,the Etiwaw at 600, and the Coosa at 600. He classifies the Stonowith the Westo, thereby falling into a common error. The colonialcensus of 1715 gives the number of southern Cusabo as 295, including95 men, in 5 villages, while the Etiwaw (probably including the othernorthern Cusabo) had 1 vUlage, 80 men, and a total populationof 240. There were thus 535 Cusabo over all. The Coosa arenowhere mentioned by name and were probably included with oneor the other of these. The 55 Indians at the Florida mission abovementioned, consisting of individuals of "the Cosapuya nation andother Indians," included 24 men, 13 women, and 18 children.Connection in which they have become noted.?The first part of thename Coosa is identical in origin with the first part of the name ofCoosawhatchie River, S. C, and a post village. The people them-selves are noted in history as the first in eastern North America northof Florida among whom European settlements were begun. They hadan earlier and longer contact with Europeans than any other Indianson the Atlantic seaboard except those of the Gulf of St. Lawrence.Eno. This tribe moved into the northern part of the State after 1716and perhaps united ultimately with the Catawba. At some pre-historic period they may have lived on Enoree River. (See NorthCarolina.)Keyauwee. They settled on the Pee Dee after 1716 and probablyunited with the Catawba. (See North Carolina.)
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 97Natchez. A band of Indians of this tribe lived for several years ata place called Four Hole Springs in South Carolina but left in 1744fearing the vengeance of the Catawba because of seven of that tribewhom they had killed. (See Mississippi.)Pedee. Meaning unloiown, but Speck (1935) suggests from Ca-tawba pi'ri, "something good," or pi'here, "smart," "expert,"
"capable."Connections.?No words of the language have survived but there isevery reason to suppose that it was a dialect of the Siouan linguisticfamily.Location.?On Great Pee Dee River, particularly its middle course.VillageNo village names are known apart from the tribal name, which was sometimesapplied to specific settlements.History.?The Pedee are first mentioned by the colonists of SouthCarolina. In 1716 a place in or near their country called Saukey(perhaps Socatee) was suggested as the site for a trading post but theproposition to establish one there was given up owing to the w^eaknessof the Pedee tribe, who were thought to be unable to protect it. In1744, the Pedee, along with Natchez Indians, killed some Catawbaand were in consequence driven from their lands into the Whitesettlements. Soon afterward most of them joined the Catawba, butsome remained near the Whites, where they are mentioned as late as1755. In 1808 the Pedee and Cape Fear tribes were represented byone half-breed woman.Population.?Mooney, 1928, estimates the number of Pedee as 600in 1600. The census of 1715 does not give them separate mention,and they were probably included among the 610 Waccamaw or the106 Winyaw.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Great and LittlePee Dee Rivers and a station in Marion County, S. C, also a postvillage in Anson County, N. C, perpetuate the name of the Pedee.Saluda. Meaning unknown.Connections.?These are uncertain but circumstantial evidenceindicates strongly that the Saluda were a band of Shawnee, andtherefore of the Algonquian stock.Location.?On Saluda River.History.?Almost all that we know regarding the Saluda is containedin a note on George Hunter's map of the Cherokee country drawn in1730 indicating "Saluda town where a nation settled 35 years ago,removed 18 years to Conestogo, in Pensilvania." As bands ofShawnee were moving into just that region from time to time duringthe period indicated, there is reason to think that this was one of them,
98 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145
all the more that a "Savana" creek appears on the same map flowinginto Congaree River just below the Saluda settlement.Population.?Unlaiown.Connection in which they have become noted.?The name Saluda ispreserved by Saluda River and settlements in Saluda County, S. C.
;
Polk County, N. C. ; and Middlesex County, Va.Santee. Named according to Speck (1935), from iswa?'ti, "theriver," or "the river is there." Also called:Seretee, by Lawson (I860).Connections.?No words of the Santee language have come down tous, but there is little doubt that they belonged to the Siouan linguisticfamily.Location.?On the middle course of Santee River.VillagesThe only name preserved is Hickerau, on a branch of Santee River.History.?The Santee were first encountered by the Spaniardsduring the seventeenth century, and in the narrative of his secondexpedition Captain Egija places them on Santee River. In 1700 theywere visited by John Lawson, who found their plantations extendingfor many miles along the river, and learned that they were at war withthe coast people (Lawson, 1860). They furnished Barnwell (1908)with a contingent for his Tuscarora campaign in 1711-12, but are saidto have taken part against the Whites in the Yamasee War of 1715. In1716 they were attacked by the Etiwaw and Cusabo, acting in theinterest of the colonists, and the greater part of them were carriedaway captive and sent to the West Indies. The remainder wereprobably incorporated with the Catawba.Population.?The number of Santee was estimated by Mooney(1928) at 1,000 in 1600. In 1715 an Indian census gave them 43warriors and a total population of 80 to 85 in 2 villages.Connection in which they have become noted.?The, name Santee hasbeen given permanency chiefly by its application to the Santee River,S. C, but it has also been applied to a village in OrangeburgCounty, S. C.Sewee. Significance: perhaps, as Gatschct suggested, from sawe',
"island."Connections.?No words of their language have survived, but theSewee are regarded as Siouan on strong circumstantial grounds, inspite of the fact that they are sometimes classed with the Cusabo.Location.?On the lower coiu-se of Santee River and the coastwestward to the divide of Ashley River about the present MonksCorner, Berkeley County.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 99
VillagesLawson, writing about 1700, mentions a deserted village in Sewee Bay calledAvendaughbough which may have belonged to them (Lawson, 1860). The nameseems to be still preserved in the form Awensdaw.History.?Possibly Xoxi (pronounced Shoshi or Shohi), one of theprovinces mentioned by Francisco of Chicora, an Indian carried fromthis region by the Spaniards in 1521, is a synonym of Sewee. Thename is mentioned by Captain E^ija in 1609. They may have beenthe Indians first met by the English expedition which founded thecolony of South Carolina in 1670, when they were in Sewee Bay.They assisted the English against the Spaniards, and supplied themwith corn. Lawson (1860) states that they were formerly a largetribe, but in his time, 1700, were wasted by smallpox and indulgencein alcoholic liquors. Moreover, a large proportion of the able-bodiedmen had been lost at sea in an attempt to open closer trade relationswith England. Just before the Yamasee War, they were still living intheir old country in a single village, but it is probable that the warput an end to them as a distinct tribe. The remnant may have unitedwith the Catawba.Population.?Mooney (1928) gives an estimate of 800 Sewee for the3^ear 1600. In 1715 there were but 57.Connection in which they have become noted.?At an earlier periodthis name was applied to the body of water now called Bulls Bay.There is a post hamlet with this designation in Meigs County, Term.,but the name is probably of independent origin.Shakori. This tribe is thought to have moved south with the Enoafter 1716 and to have united ultimately with the Catawba. Atsome prehistoric period the}'^ perhaps lived on or near Enoree River,and there is reason to think that they or a branch gave their nameto the Province of Chicora. (See North Carolina.)Shawnee. In 1680, or shortly before, a band of Shawnee, probablyfrom the Cumberland, settled on Savannah River, and the yearfollowing they performed a great service to the new colony ofSouth Carolina by driving off the Westo Indians, whom I considerto have been Yuchi. These Shawnee appear to have been of theband afterward known as Hathawekela. They remained longenough in the neighborhood of Augusta to give their name toSavannah River, but by 1707 some of them had begun to move intoPenns3dvania, and this movement continued at intervals until 1731,when all seem to have been out of the State. The Saluda (q. v.)were perhaps one of these bands. In 1715, as a result of theYamasee War, a body moved from the Savannah to the Chatta-hoochee, and thence to the Tallapoosa. (See Tennessee.)
100 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Sissipahaw. Possibly they were the Sauxpa mentioned by the Span-ish officer Vandera in 1569, and if so they may then have been inSouth Carohna, a proposition considerably strengthened if Chicorais to be identified \vith the Shakori, since Barnwell (1908) equatesthese tribes. (See North Carolina.)Sugeree. Speck (1935) suggests Catawba ye?si'grihere, "peoplestingy," or "spoiled," or "of the river whose-water-cannot-be-drunlc." (Cf. Shakori.) Also caUed:Suturees, a synonym of 1715.Connections.?No words of their language have been preserved, butthere is every reason to suppose that they belonged to the Siouanlinguistic family and were closely related to the Catawba, and perhapsstill more closely to the Shakori.Location.?On and near Sugar Creek in York County, S. C, andMecklenburg County, N. C. VillagesThere were said to be many but their names have not been preserved.History.?The Sugeree are hardly mentioned by anyone beforeLawson in 1701. They probably suffered in consequence of theYamasee War and finally united with the Catawba.Population.?No separate enumeration or estimate of the Sugereeappears ever to have been made, and Mooney (1928) seems to haveincluded them in the population of 5,000 allowed the Catawba.Connection in which they have become noted.?The name Sugeree hasbeen preserved in Sugar Creek, an affluent of Catawba River in Nortliand South Carolina.Waccamaw. Meaning unknown.Connections.?Nothing of their tongue has been preserved but evi-dence points to a connection of the Waccamaw with the Siouanlinguistic family, and presumably with the Catawba dialectic group.The Woccon may have been a late subdivision, as Dr. Rights hassuggested. (See North Carolina.)Location.?On Waccamaw River and the lower course of the PeeDee. (See North Carolina.) VillagesThe Waccamaw were reported to have had six villages in 1715, but none ofthe names is preserved.History.?The name of the Waccamaw may perhaps be recordedin the form Guacaya, given by Francisco of Chicora as that of a
"province" in this region early in the sixteenth century. In 1715 theCheraw attempted to incite them to attack the English, and theyjoined the hostile party but made peace the same year. In 1716 a
SwANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 101trading post was established in their country at a place called Uauenee(Uaunee, Euaunee), or the Great Bluff, the name perhaps a synonymof Winyaw, although we know of no Winyaw there. There was ashort war between them and the colonists in 1720 in which they lost60 men, women, and children killed or captured. In 1755 the Chero-kee and Natchez are reported to have killed some Pedee and Wacca-maw in the White settlements. Ultimately they may have unitedwith the Catawba, though more probably with the so-called CroatanIndians of North Carolina. There is, however, a body of mixed bloodsin their old country to whom the name is applied.Population.?The Waccamaw are estimated by Mooney (1928) at900 in 1600 along with the Winyaw and some smaller tribes. Thecensus of 1715 gives 210 men and 610 souls, and in 1720 they are saidto have had 100 warriors. (See Cape Fear Indians under NorthCarolina.)Connection in which they have become noted.?Waccamaw River inNorth and South Carolina and Waccamaw Lake in North Carolina,which empties into the river, perpetuate their name.Wateree. Gatschet suggests a connection with Catawba, wateran, " tofloat on the water." Also called:Chickanee, name for a division of Wateree and meaning "little."Guatari, Spanish spelling of their name.Connections.?The Wateree are placed in the Siouan linguistic stockon circumstantial evidence.Location.?The location associated most closely with the Watereehistorically was on Wateree River, below the present Camden. (SeeNorth Carolina.)History.?The Wateree are first mentioned in the report of an ex-pedition from Santa Elena (Beaufort) by Juan Pardo in 1566-67.They lived well inland toward the Cherokee frontier. Pardo made asmall fort and left a corporal there and 17 soldiers, but the Indianssoon wiped it out. In 1670 Lederer (1912) places them very muchfarther north, perhaps on the upper Yadkin, but soon afterward theyare found on Wateree River where Lawson met them. In 1711-12they furnished a contingent to Barnwell in his expedition against theTuscarora. In a map dated 1715 their village is placed on the westbank of Wateree River, possibly in Fairfield County, but on the Mollmap of 1730 it is laid down on the east bank. The Yamasee War re-duced their power considerably, and toward the middle of the eight-eenth century they went to live with the Catawba, with whom thesurvivors must ultimately have fused. They appear as a separatetribe, however, as late as 1744, when they sold the neck of land betweenCongaree and Wateree Rivers to a white trader.
102 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Boll. 145Population.?The number of Wateree is estimated by Mooney(1928) at 1,000 in 1600. There is no later enumeration.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Wateree were oneof the most powerful tribes of central South Carolina as far back asthe time of the Spanish settlements at St. Helena. Their name ispreserved in Wateree River, S. C, and in a post village in RichlandCounty in the same State.Waxhaw. Meaning unknown. Also called:Flatheads, a name given to this tribe and others of the Catawba connectionowing to their custom of deforming the head.Connection.?Nothing of their language has been preserved, butcircumstantial evidence points to a close relationship between theWaxhaw and the Catawba and hence to membership in the Siouanlinguistic stock. Their closest contacts appear to have been withthe Sugeree.Location.?In Lancaster County, S. C, and Union and Mecklen-burg Counties, N. C. VillagesLawson mentions two villages in 1701 but the names are not given.History.?The Waxhaw were possibly the Gueza of Vandera, wholived in western South Carolina in 1566-67. Lederer (1912) writingabout 1670, speaks of the Waxhaw under the name Wisacky and saysthat they were subject to and might be considered a part of theCatawba. They were probably identical with the Weesock, whosechildren were said by Gabriel Arthur (1918) to be brought up inTamahita (Yuchi) families "as ye lanesaryes are mongst ye Turkes."Lawson (1860) visited them in 1701. At the end of the YamaseeWar, they refused to make peace with the English and were set uponby the Catawba and the greater part of them killed. The rest fled tothe Cheraw, but a band numbering 25 accompanied the Yamasee toFlorida in 1715 and are noted as still there in 1720.Population.?The Waxhaw are included by Mooney (1928) in the5,000 estimated population of the Catawba. No separate estimateof their numbers is given any^vhere.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Waxhaw were dis-tinguished in early times on account of their custom of deforming theheads of their children, Their name is preserved in Waxhaw Creekand in the name of a post town, both in Union County, N. C; by ahamlet in Lancaster County, S. C.,; and a place in Bolivar County,Miss.Winyaw. Meaning unknown.Connections.?The Winyaw are placed in the Siouan Unguistic
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 103family on circumstantial evidence. Their closest connections werewith the Pedee and Waccamaw.Location.?On Winyaw Bay, Black River, and the lower course ofthe Pee Dee.History.?Unless this tribe is represented by the Yenyohol of Fran-cisco of Chicora (1521), the Winyaw were first mentioned by the colo-nists of South Carolina after 1670. In 1683 it was charged thatcolonists had raided them for slaves on an insufficiently supportedcharge of murder by some of their people This unfriendly act didnot prevent some of them from joining Barnwell's army in the firstTuscarora War. Along with other Indians they, indeed, withdrewlater from the expedition, but they claimed that it was for lack ofequipment. In 1715 the Cheraw tried to induce them and the Wac-camaw to side against the colonists in the Yamasee War. A yearlater a trading post was established in the territory of the Waccamawnot far from their own lands. (See Waccamaw.) About the sametime some of them settled among the Santee, but they appear to havereturned to their own country a few years later. Some assisted theWhites in their war with the Waccamaw in 1720. They soon disap-pear from history and probably united with the Waccamaw.Population.?Mooney (1928) includes the Winyaw in his estimateof 900 for the "Waccamaw, Winyaw, Hook, &c." as of the year 1600.The census of 1715 gives them one village of 36 men and a totalpopulation of 106.Connection in which they have become noted.?Winyaw Bay, S. C.,preserves the name. It was from this tribe or one in the immediateneighborhood that Francisco of Chicora was carried away by thefirst AyUon expedition and from which one of the earliest ethno-logical descriptions of a North American tribe was recorded Thename by which the Spaniards knew the province, however, Chicora,was probably derived from the Shakori, Sugeree, or a branch of oneof them.Yamasee. The Yamasee Indians lived originally near the southernmargin of the State and perhaps at times within its borders, butthey are rather to be connected with the aboriginal history ofGeorgia. In 1687, having become offended with the Spaniards,they settled on the north side of Savannah River on a tract after-ward known as the Indian land and remained there in alliance withthe colonists until 1715, when they rebelled and fled to St. Augustine.(See Georgia.)Yuchi. The Yuchi probably did not enter South Carolina until afterthe year 1661. The Westo, whom I consider to have been a partof them, were driven away by the Shawnee in 1681, but there was
104 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145
a band of Yuchi higher up the Savannah River which did not moveuntil 1716, and later another body settled between Silver Bluff andEbenezer Creek. Hawkins says that they had villages at Ponponand Saltkechers, but that is all the evidence we have of settlementsso far east, and these probably belonged to the Yamassee. In 1729the Yuchi began to move west to join the Creeks and by 1751completed the evacuation. (See Georgia.)GEORGIAApalachee. After the English and Creeks destroyed the Apalacheetowns in Florida in 1704, they established a part of the tribe in avillage not far below the present Augusta. In 1715, when theYamasee War broke out, these Apalachee joined the hostile Indiansand went to the Chattahoochee to live near that faction of theLower Creeks which was favorable to Spain. Soon afterward,however, the English faction gained the ascendency among theCreeks, and the Apalachee returned to Florida. (See Florida.)Apalachicoia. From Hitchiti "Apalachicoh" or Muskogee "Apala-chicolo," signifying apparently "People of the other side," withreference probably to the Apalachicoia River or some nearby stream.Also called:Talwa lako or Italwa lako, "big town," name given by the Muskogee Indians*Palachicola or Parachukla, contractions of Apalachicoia.Connections.?This was one of those tribes of the Muskhogeanlinguistic stock which spoke the Atsik-hata or Hitchiti language, andwhich included in addition the Hitchiti, Okmulgee, Oconee, Sawokli,Tamali, Mikasuki, Chiaha, and possibly the Osochi (but see Osochi).Location.?The earliest laiown home of the Apalachicoia was nearthe river which bears their name in the center of the Lower Creekcountry. Later they lived for a considerable period at the pointwhere it comes into existence through the junction of the Chatta-hoochee and Flint Rivers. (See also Alabama and Florida.)Subdivisions and VillagesThe following names of towns or tribes were given by a Tawasa Indian, Lam-hatty, to Robert Beverley (1722) and may well have belonged to the Apalachicoia:Aul^dley, Ephfppick, Sonepdh, and perhaps Socso6ky (or Socs6sky). The censusof 1832 returned two distinct bodies of Indians under the synonyms Apalachicoiaand Talwa iako.History.?According to Muskogee legend, the ancestors of theMuskogee encountered the Apalachicoia in the region above indicatedwhen they entered the country, and they were at first disposed to fightwith them but soon made peace. According to one legend the CreekConfederacy came into existence as a result of this treaty. Spanish
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 105documents of the seventeenth century are the earliest in which thename appears. It is there used both as the name of a town (as earlyas 1675) and, in an extended sense, for all of the Lower Creeks. Thisfact, Muskogee tradition, and the name Talwa lako all show the earlyimportance of the people. They were on more friendly terms withthe Spaniards than the Muskogee generally and hence were fallenupon by the Indian allies of the English and carried off, either in1706 or 1707. They were settled on Savannah River opposite MountPleasant, at a place which long bore their name, but in 1716, justafter the Yamasee War, they retired into their old country and estab-hshed themselves at the junction of Chattahoochee and Flint Rivers.Later they moved higher up the Chattahoochee and lived in RussellCounty, Ala., remaining in the general neighborhood until theyremoved to new homes in the present Oklahoma in 1836-40. Therethey established themselves in the northern part of the Creek Reser-vation but presently gave up their ceremo'nial ground and were grad-ually absorbed in the mass of Indians about them.Population.?In 1715 just before the outbreak of the Yamasee War,there were said to be 2 settlements of this tribe with 64 warriors anda total population of 214. A Spanish census of 1738 also gave 2settlements with 60 warriors in ojie and 45 in the other; a French censusof 1750, more than 30 warriors; a British enumeration of 1760, 60;one of 1761, 20; an American estimate of 1792, 100 (including theChiaha); and the United States Census of 1832, a total population of239 in 2 settlements.Connection in which they have become noted.?Apalachicola River,Apalachicola Bay, and the name of the county seat of FranklinCounty, Fla., are derived from this tribe. The Spaniards appliedtheir name to the Lower Creeks generally, and they were also notedas one of the tribes responsible for the formation of the Confederation.Chatot. Some of these Indians lived at times in the southwest cor-ner of this State. (See Florida.)Cherokee. From early times the Cherokee occupied the northernand northeastern parts of Georgia, though from certain place namesit seems probable that they had been {preceded in that territoryby Creeks. (See Tennessee.)Chiaha. Meaning unknown though it may contain a reference tomountains or highlands. (Cf. Choctaw and Alabama tcaha,Hitchiti tcaihi, "high.") Also called:Tolameco or Solameco, which probably signifies "big town," a namereported by the Spaniards.
106 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bdll. 145Connections.?The Chiaha belonged to the Muskhogean Hnguisticstock and in later times spoke the Muskogee tongue, but there is everyreason to class them in the Hitchiti group. (See Apalachicola.)Location.?In later historic times the Chiaha were on the middlecourse of Chattahoochee River, but at the earliest period at whichwe have any knowledge of them they seem to have been divided intotwo bands, one on Burns Island, in the present State of Tennessee,the other in eastern Georgia near the coast. (See also South Carolinaand Florida.) SubdivisionsThe Mikasuki of northern Florida are said to have separated from these people.VillagesHawkins (1848) gives the following:Aumucculle, on a creek of the same name which enters Flint River "45 miles belowTimothy Barnard's."Chiahutci, Little Chiaha, a mile and a half west of the Hitchiti town, near AuhegeeCreek.Hotalgihuyana, occupied jointly with the Osochi, on the right bank of FlintRiver 6 miles below Kinchafoonee.History.?Some confusion regarding this tribe has been occasionedby the fact that in the sixteenth century there appear to have beentwo divisions. The name first appears in the De Soto narrativesapplied to a "province" on an island in Tennessee River which J. Y.Brame has identified in a very satisfactory manner with Burns Islandclose to the Tennessee-Alabama line. They were said to be "subjectto a chief of Coga," from which it may perhaps be inferred that theCreek Confederacy was already in existence. Early in 1567 Boyano,Juan Pardo's lieutenant, reached this town with a small body ofsoldiers and constructed a fort, Pardo joining him in September.When Pardo returned to Santa Elena shortly afterward he left asmall garrison here which was later destroyed by the Indians. PossiblyChehawhaw Creek, an eastern affluent of the Coosa indicates a laterlocation of this band. The only remaining reference which mightapply to them occurs in the names of two bodies of Creeks called"Chehaw" and "Chearhaw" which appear in the census rolls of1832-33, but they may have gotten their designations from formerresidences on or near the creek so called. In 1727 there was a traditionamong the Cherokee that the Yamasee Indians were formerly Cherokeedriven out by the Tomahitans, i. e., the Yuchi, and in this there maybe some reminiscence of fhe fate of the Chiaha.In the Pardo narratives the name "Lameco or Solameco" is givenas a synonyxQ for the northern Chiaha, and this may have beenintended for Tolameco, which would be a Creek term meaning "ChiefTown." This was also the name of a large abandoned settlement
iLv.



SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 107
near Cofitachequi on the middle course of Savannah River visited byDe Soto in 1540. Since we know that Chiaha were also in this region,it is a fair supposition that this town had been occupied by people ofthis connection. There is a Chehaw River on the South Carolinacoast between the Edisto and Combahee, and as "Chiaha" is usedonce as an equivalent for Kiawa, possibly the Cusabo tribe of thatname may have been related. Moreover, we are informed (S. C.Docs.) that the Chiaha had their homes formerly among the Yamasee.In 1715 they ^vithd^ew to the Chattahoochee with other upper Creektowns, probably from a temporary abode on Ocmulgee River. Afterthe Creeks moved to Oklahoma the Chiaha settled in the northeasterncorner of the Creek Reservation and maintained a square groundthere until after the Civil War, but they have now practically losttheir identity. Some of them went to Florida and the Mikasuki aresaid by some Indians to have branched off from them. In the countryof the western Seminole there was a square ground as late as 1929which bore their name.Population.?There are no figures for the northern band of Chiahaunless they could have been represented in the two towns of the1832-33 census given above, which had total populations of 126 and306 respectively. For the southern division a Spanish census of 1738gives 120 warriors but this included also the Osochi and Okmulgee.In 1750 only 20 were reported, but in 1760, 160, though an estimatethe following year reduces this to 120. In 1792 Marbury gives 100Chiaha and Apalachicola, and the census of 1832-33 returned 381of the former. In 1799 Hawkins states that there were 20 Indianfamilies in Hotalgi-huyana, a town occupied jointly by this tribe andthe Osochi, but in 1821 Young raises this to 210. He gives 670 forthe Chiaha proper.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Chiaha tribe isof some note on account of the prominence given to one branch of itin the De Soto narratives. As above mentioned, its name, spelledChehawhaw, is applied to a stream in the northern part of TalladegaCounty, Ala. ; it is given in the form Chehaw to a post hamlet of MaconCounty, Ala.; to a stream in Colleton County, S. C; and also toa small place in Seminole County, Okla.Chickasaw. A band of Chickasaw lived near Augusta from about1723 to the opening of the American Revolution, and later they werefor some time among the Lower Creeks. (See Mississippi andSouth Carolina.)Creeks. A part, and perhaps a large part, of the Indians who after-ward constituted the Creek Confederacy were living in the sixteenth
108 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145
century in what the Spaniards called the province of Guale on thepresent Georgia coast. Some of them moved inland in consequenceof difficulties with the Whites, and in the latter half of the seven-teenth century most of those afterward known as Lower Creekswere upon Chattahoochee and Ocmulgee Rivers, the latter riverbeing then called Ocheese Creek, from the Hitchiti name given tothe Indians living on it. After the Yamasee War (1715) all assem-bled upon Chattahoochee River and continued there, part on theGeorgia side of the river, part on the Alabama side, until theyremoved to the present Oklahoma early in the nineteenth century.(See Creek Confederacy and Muskogee under Alabama.)Guale. Meaning unknown, though it resembles Muskogee wahali,
"the south," but it was originally applied to St. Catherines Island, orpossibly to a chief living there. Also called:Ouade, a French form of Guale.Ybaha, Yguaja, Ibaja, Iguaja, Yupaha, Timucua name.Connections.?The names of villages and the title "mico" appliedto chiefs leave little doubt that these Indians belonged to the Musk-hogean linguistic family. Part of them were probably true Creeksor Muskogee. (See Alabama.) Their nearest connections otherwiseappear to have been with the Cusabo Indians. (See South Carolina.)Location.?On the Georgia coast between St. Andrews Sound andSavannah River, though the section between St. Catherines Soundand Savannah seems to have been little occupied. (See also Florida.)SubdivisionsThree rough divisions appear to be indicated by Governor Ibarra of Florida,but this is very uncertain. (See below under Villages.)VillagesSo far as they can be made out, the villages in each of the three groups men-tioned above were as follows:Northern group:Asopo, apparently a form of Ossabaw but stated to have been on St. Cath-erines Island.Chatufo.Couexis, given in the French narratives as near St. Catherines.Culapala.Guale, not, it appears, on the island of that name but "on an arm of a riverwhich is a branch of another on the north bank of the aforesaid port in SantaElena in 32? N. lat.," probably on Ossabaw Island.Otapalas.Otaxe (Otashe).Posache, "in the island of Guale."Tolomato, said to have been on the mainland 2 leagues from St. CatherinesIsland and near the bar of Sapello.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 109Uchilape, "near Tolomato."Uculegue.Unallapa.Yfusiniquc, evidently on the mainland.Yoa, said to have been 2 leagues up a river emptying into an arm of the seaback of Sapello and St. Catherines Sound.Central group:Aleguifa, near Tulufina.Chucalagaite, near Tulufina.Espogache, near Espogue.Espogue, not more than 6 leagues from Talaxe.Fasquiche, near Espogue.Sapala, evidently on or near Sapello Island.Sotequa.Tapala.Tulufina, probably on the mainland.Tupiqui, probably the original of the name Tybee, but this town was verj' muchfarther south.Utine.Southern group:Aluque.Asao, probably on St. Simons Island.Cascangue, which seems to have been reckoned as Timucua at times and hencemay have been near the Timucua border.Falquiche.Fuloplata, possibly a man's name.Hinafasque.Hocaesle.Talaxe, probably on St. Simons Island or on the Altamaha River, both ofwhich were known by the name Talaxe.Tufulo.Tuque.Yfulo.To the above must be added the following town names which cannot be allo-cated in any of the preceding divisions:Alpatopo.Aytochuco.Ayul.Olatachahane, perhaps a chief's name.Olatapotoque, given as a town, but perhaps a chief's name.Olataylitaba, perhaps two names run together, Olata and Litabi.Olocalpa.Sulopacaques.Tamufa.Yumunapa.History.?The last settlement of the Ayllon colony in 1526 was onor near the Guale country, as the name Gualdape suggests. Whenthe French Huguenot colony was at Port Royal, S. C, in 1562, theyheard of a chief called Ouade and visited him several times forprovisions. After the Spaniards had driven the French from Florida,they continued north to Guale and the Cusabo territory to expel
110 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145
several Frenchmen who had taken refuge there. In 1569 missionarywork was undertaken by the Jesuits simultaneously among theCusabo and Guale Indians and one of the missionaries, DomingoAugustin, wrote a grammar of the Guale language. But thespiritual labors of the missionaries proved unavailing, and they soonabandoned the country. In 1573 missionary work was resumed bythe Franciscans and was increasingly successful when in 1597 therewas a general insurrection in which all of the missionaries but one werekilled. The governor of Florida shortly afterward burned very manyof the Guale towns with their granaries, thereby reducing most of theIndians to submission, and by 1601 the rebellion was over. Mission-ary work was resumed soon afterward an^ continued uninterruptedly,in spite of sporadic insurrections in 1608 and 1645 and attacks ofnorthern Indians in 1661, 1680, and even earlier. However, as aresult of these attacks those of the Guale Indians who did not escapeinland moved, or were moved, in 1686, to the islands of San Pedro,Santa Maria, and San Juan north of St. Augustine. Later anotherisland called Santa Cruz was substituted for San Pedro. The Quaker,Dickenson, who was shipwrecked on the east coast of Florida in 1699,visited these missions on his way north. At the time of the removalsome Guale Indians appear to have gone to South Carolina, and in1702 a general insurrection of the remainder took place, and theyjoined their kinsmen on the outskirts of that colony under the leader-ship of the Yamasee. A few may have remained in Florida. Inany event, all except those who had fled to the Creeks were unitedafter the outbreak of the Yamasee in 1715 and continued to live inthe neighborhood of St. Augustine until their virtual extinction. In1726 there were two missions near St, Augustine occupied by Indiansof the "Iguaja nation," i. e., Guale, but that is the last we hear ofthem under any name but that of the Yamasee iq, v.).Population.?Mooney (1928), who was not aware of the distinctionto be drawn between the Guale Indians and the Yamasee, gives anestimate of 2,000 Guale in the year 1650. For the two tribes this isprobably too low. The Guale alone, before they had been depletedby White contact and Indian invasions from the north, might well havenumbered 4,000, but some of these were later added to the Creeks. In1602 the missionaries claimed that there were more than 1,200 Chris-tians in the Guale province, and in 1670 the English estimated that theSpanish missions contained about 700 men. The first accurate censusof the Yamasee and Guale Indians together, made in 1715, perhapsomitting some few of the latter stiU in Florida, gives 413 men and atotal population of 1,215.Connection in which they have become noted.?Aside from the abortivemissionary undertakings of the friars who accompanied Coronado,
SwANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA HIand a short missionary experience among the Calusa, the provinces ofGuale and Orista (Cusabo) were the first north of Mexico in whichregular missionary work was undertaken, and the grammar of theGuale language by Domingo Augustin was the first of any languagein that region to be compiled.Hitchiti. Perhaps from Atcik-hata, a term formerly apphed to allof the Indians who spoke the Hitchiti language, and is said to referto the heap of white ashes piled up close to the ceremonial ground.Also called:At-pasha-shliha, Koasati name, meaning "mean people."Connections.?The Hitchiti belonged to the Muskhogean linguisticfamily and were considered the mother town of the Atcik-hata group.(See Apalachicola.)Location.?The Hitchiti are oftenest associated with a location inthe present Chattahoochee County, Ga., but at an earlier periodwere on the lower course of the Ocmulgee River. (See also Floridaand Oklahoma.) VillagesHihaje, location unknown.Hitchitoochee, on Flint River below its junction with Kinchafoonee Creek.Tuttallosee, on a creek of the same name, 20 miles west from Hitchitoochee.History.?The Hitchiti are identifiable with the Ocute of De Soto'schroniclers, who were on or near the Ocmulgee River. Early Englishmaps show their town on the site of the present Macon, Ga., but after1715 they moved to the Chattahoochee, settling first in Henry County,Ala., but later at the site above mentioned in Chattahoochee County,Ga. From this place they moved to Oklahoma, where they graduallymerged with the rest of the Indians of the Creek Confederacy.Population.?The population of the Hitchiti is usually given inconjunction with that of the other confederate tribes. The followingseparate estimates of the effective male Hitchiti population arerecorded: 1738, 60; 1750, 15; 1760, 50; 1761, 40; 1772, 90; in 1832 theentire population was 381.Connection in which they have become noted.?In early days, asabove mentioned, the Hitchiti were prominent as the leaders in thatgroup of tribes or towns among the Lower Creeks speaking a languagedistinct from Muskogee. Hichita, Mcintosh County, Okla., pre-serves the name.Kasihta. One of the most important divisions of the Muskogee,possibly identical with the Cofitachequi of the De Soto narratives.(See Muskogee under Alabama.)
112 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Oconee. Significance unknown.Connections.?The Oconee belonged to the Muskhogean linguisticstock, and the Atcik-hata group. (See Apalachicola.)Location.?SvLsi below the Rock Landing on Oconee River, Ga.(But see also Florida.)History.?Early documents reveal at least two bodies of Indiansbearing the name Oconee and probably related. One was on or nearthe coast of Georgia and seems later to have moved into the Apalacheecountry and to have become fused with the Apalachee tribe beforethe end of the seventeenth century. The other was at the pointabove indicated, on Oconee River. About 1685 they were on Chatta-hoochee River, whence they moved to the Rock Landing. A morenortherly location for at least part of the tribe may be indicated inthe name of a Cherokee town, though that may have been derivedfrom a Cherokee word as Mooney supposed. About 1716 they movedto the east bank of the Chattahoochee in Stewart County, Ga., anda few years later part went to the Alachua Plains, in the presentAlachua County, Fla., where they became the nucleus of the SeminoleNation and furnished the chief to that people until the end of theSeminole war. Most of them were then taken to Oklahoma, butthey had already lost their identity.Population.?The following estimates of effective Oconee men inthe Creek Nation are preserved: 1738, 50; 1750, 30; 1760, 50; 1761, 50.In 1675 there were about 200 Indians at the Apalachee Mission ofSan Francisco de Oconi.Connection in which they have become noted.?The name Oconee isperpetuated in the Oconee River, the town of Oconee, Oconee MiUs,and Oconee Siding, all in Georgia, but not necessarily in the name ofOconee County, S. C, which is of Cherokee origin, although theremay be some more remote relationship. There is a place of thename in Shelby County, 111.Okmulgee. Signifying in the Hitchiti language, "where water boilsup" and referring probably to the big springs in Butts County,Ga., called Indian Springs. Also called:Waiki lako, "Big Spring," Muskogee name.Connections.?The Okmulgee belonged to the Muskhogean linguisticstock and the Atsik-hata group. (See Apalachicola under Georgia.)Location.?In the great bend of the Chattahoochee River, RussellCounty, Ala.; earlier, about the present Macon, Ga. (See alsoAlabama and Oklahoma.)History.?The Okmulgee probably separated from the Hitchiti orone of their cognate towns when these towns were on Ocmulgee Riverand settled at the point above indicated, where they became closely
SwANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 113
associated with the Chiaha and Osochi. They went west with theother Creeks and reestabHshed themselves in the most northeasternpart of the allotted territory, where they gradually lost their identity.Although small in niunbers, they gave the prominent Ferrymanfamily to the Creek Nation and its well-known head chief, PleasantPorter.Population.?A French census of about 1750 states that there wererather more than 20 effective men among the Okmulgee, and theBritish census of 1760 gives 30. Young, quoted by Morse, estimatesa total population of 220 in 1822, There are few other enumerationsseparate from the general census of the Creeks.Connection in which they have become noted.?The name of the cityof Okmulgee and that of Ocmulgee River were derived independentlyfrom the springs above mentioned. The name Okmulgee given to thelater capital of the Creek Nation in what is now Oklahoma was,however, taken from the tribe under consideration. It has nowbecome a flourishing oil city.Osochi. A division of the Lower Creeks which lived for a time insouthwestern Georgia. (See Alabama.)Sawokli. A division of the Creeks belonging to the group of townsthat spoke the Hitchiti language. (See Alabama.)Shawnee. The Sha^\'nee band which settled near Augusta concernsSouth Carolina and Georgia almost equally. Their history hasalready been given in treating the tribes of the former State.(See also Tennessee.)Tamathli. The name is possibly related to that of a Creek clan withthe Hitchiti plural ending, in which case it would refer to ''flyingcreatures," such as birds.Connections.?Tamatlili belonged to the Atsik-hata group in theCreek Confederation.Location.?The historic seats of the Tamathli were in southwesternGeorgia and neighboring parts of Florida.History.?It is beheved that we have our first mention of theTamathh in the Toa or Toalli of the De Soto narratives. WhenDe Soto passed through Georgia in 1540, it is beheved that this tribewas hving at Pine Island in Daugherty County. They may havebeen connected with the Altamaha Yamasee living between Ocmulgeeand Oconee Rivers whose name sometimes appears in the form Tama.They afterward drifted into Florida and were established in a missioncalled La Purificacidn de la Tama on January 27, 1675, by BishopCalder6n of Cuba, in the Apalachee country 1 league from San Luis.In a mission hst dated 1680 appears the name of another mission,Nuestra Senora de la Candelaria de la Tama. The TamathU suffered
114 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145the same fate as the Apalachee in general when the latter were at-tacked by Moore in 1704. At least part of these Indians afterwardmoved to the neighborhood of St. Augustine, where another missionwas established for them, but this was attacked by the Creeks onNovember 1, 1725, while mass was being celebrated. Many Indianswere killed and the remainder moved to other missions. In 1738 wehear of a "Tamaxle nuevo," as the northernmost Lower Creek settle-ment and a southern division called "Old Tamathle," and are informedthat "in the town of Tamasle in Apalachee [i. e., Old Tamathle]there were some Catholic and pagan families." We hear again ofthese Tamathli Indians from Benjamin Hawkins (1848), writing in1799, who sets them down as one of the tribes entering into the forma-tion of the Florida Seminole. A town of the same name alsoappears in the Cherokee country "on Valley River, a few miles aboveMurphy, about the present Tomatola, in Cherokee County, N. C."The name cannot be interpreted in Cherokee and there may oncehave been a northern division of the Tamathli.Population.?The Spanish census dated 1738 enters Old Tamathli,with 12 men, and New Tamathli with 26, but the latter probably wasin the main a Sawokli settlement. The French estimate of 1750entered only the former town with 10 men. In Young's enumerationof Seminole towns {in Morse, 1822) this is given a total population of220.Timucua. One contact between the Timucua Indians and Georgiais mentioned later in connection with the Osochi. When theSpaniards first came in contact with them, the Timucua occupiednot merely northern and central Florida but Cumberland Islandand a part of the adjacent mainland. The Timucua evidentlywithdrew from this territory as a result of pressure exerted bynorthern Indians in the latter part of the seventeenth century orthe very beginning of the eighteenth. (See Utina under Florida.)Yamasee. Meaning unknown, though it has been interpreted byMuskogee yamasi, "gentle." The form given in some earlywritings, Yamiscaron, may have been derived from a Siouan dialector from Timucua, as there is no r in any of the Muskhogean tongues.Connections.?The Yamasee town and chief names indicate plainlythat they spoke a Muskhogean dialect and tradition affirms that itwas connected most closely with Hitchiti, a contention which may beconsidered probable.Location.?The earliest references that we have place the Yamaseeon Ocmulgee River not far above its junction with the Oconee. Theyseem to have ranged or extended northeastward of these rivers to oreven slightly beyond the Savannah, but always inland. (See alsoFlorida, Alabama, South Carolina.)
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 115Subdivisions and VillagesImmediately before the outbreak of the Yamasee War there were the following:Upper Towns:Huspaw, near Huspaw Creek between Combahee River and the Whale Branch.Pocotaligo, near Pocotaligo River.Sadkeche, probably near Salkehatcliie, a hamlet at the Atlantic Coast Linecrossing of the Combahee River.Tomatly, in the neighborhood of Tomatly, Beaufort County, S. C.Yoa, near Huspaw.Lower Towns:Altamaha, location unknown.Chasee, location unknown.Oketee, probaly near one of the places so called on New River, in Jasper andBeaufort Counties, S. C.Pocasabo.Tulafina (?), perhaps near Tulafinny Creek, an estuary of the CoosawhatchieRiver in Jasper County.Other possible Yamasee settlements were Dawfuskee, Ilcombe, and Peterba.History.?The first reference to the Yamasee appears to be a mentionof their name in the form Yamiscaron as that of a province with whichFrancisco of Chicora was acquainted in 1521. The "Province ofAltamaha" mentioned by De Soto's chronicler Ranjel in 1540 probablyincluded at least a part of the Yamasee people. For a hundred yearsafterward the tribe remained practically unnoticed except for a briefvisit by a Spanish soldier and two missionaries in 1597, but in 1633they are reported to have asked for missionaries, and in 1639 peace issaid to have been made between the allied Chatot, Lower Creeks, andYamasee and the Apalachee. In 1675 Bishop Calder6n of Cubafounded two missions in the Apalachee country which were occupiedby Yamasee or their near relatives. The same year there were threeYamasee missions on the Atlantic coast but one of these may havebeen occupied b}^ Tamathli. Later they moved nearer St Augustinebut in the winter of 1684-85 some act of the Spanish governor offendedthem and they removed to South Carolina, where the English gavethem lands on the west side of Savannah River near its mouth. Someof these Indians were probably from the old Guale province, but theYamasee now took the lead. Eighty-seven warriors of this nation tookpart in Barnwell's expedition against the Tuscarora (see NorthCarolina). In 1715 they rose in rebellion against the English andkilled two or three hundred settlers but were defeated by GovernorCraven and took refuge in Florida, where, until the cession of Floridato Great Britain, the Yamasee continued as allies of the Spaniards.Meanwhile their numbers fell off steadily. Some remained in theneighborhood of the St. Johns River until the outbreak of the SeminoleWar.
116 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145The Oklawaha band of Seminole is said to have been descendedfrom them. Another band accompanied the Apalachee to Pensacolaand Mobile, and we find them located near those two places on variouscharts. They may be identical with those who, shortly afterward,appear among the Upper Creeks on certain maps, though this is theonly testimony we have of their presence there. At any rate, theselatter are probably the Yamasee found among the Lower Creeks inthe nineteenth century and last heard of among the Seminole ofwest Florida. Of some historical importance is a small band of theseIndians who seem to have lived with the Apalachicola for a time, afterthe Yamasee War, and in 1730 settled on the site of what is nowSavannah under the name of Yamacraw. There the Georgia colonistsfound them three years later, and the relations between the two peopleswere most amicable. The name Yamacraw was probably derivedfrom that of a Florida mission, Nombre de Dios de Amacarisse, wheresome of the Yamasee once lived. Ultimately these Yamacraw arebelieved to have retired among the Creeks and later may have goneto Florida.Population.?It is impossible to separate distinctly the true Yamaseefrom the Quale Indians. Mooney (1928) gives an estimate of 2,000in 1650, probably too low. A mission list compiled by Gov. Salazarof Florida in 1675 gives 1,190 Yamasee and Tama. In 1708 the twotribes, united under the name Yamasee, were thought to have 500men capable of bearing arms. In 1715 a rather careful census gives413 men and a total population of 1,215. Lists dating from 1726and 1728 give 313 and 144 respectively in the missions about St.Augustine. A fairly satisfactory Spanish census, taken in 1736,indicates that there were then in the neighborhood of St. Augustinemore than 360 Yamasee and Indians of Guale. This does not includethe Yamasee near Pensacola and Mobile, those in the Creek Nation,or the Yamacraw. In 1761 a body of Yamasee containing 20 menwas living near St. Augustine, but by that time the tribe had probablyscattered widely. In 1821 the "Emusas" on Chattahoochee Rivernumbered 20 souls.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Yamasee are famousparticularly on account of the Yamasee War, which marked an epochin Indian and White history in the Southeast. At the end of theseventeenth century a certain stroke was used in paddling canoesalong the coast of Georgia, South Carolina, and Florida, which wascalled the "Yamasee stroke." A small town in Beaufort County,S. C, is called "Yemasee," a variant of this name.Yuchi. Significance unknown, but perhaps, as suggested by Speck(1909), from a native word meaning "those far away," or "at adistance," though it is also possible that it is a variant of Ochesee
SwANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 117
or Ocheese, which was apphed by the Hitchiti and their alHes toIndians speaking languages different from their own. Also called:Ani'-Yu'tsl, Cherokee name.Chiska, probably a Muskogee translation of the name of one of their bands.Hughchee, an early synonym.Round town people, a name given by the early English colonists.Rickohockans, signifying "cavelanders" (Hewitt, in Hodge, 1907), perhapsan early name for a part of them.Tahogal^wi, abbreviated to Hogologe, name given them by the Delawareand other Algonquian people.Tamahita, so called by some Indians, perhaps some of the eastern Siouans.Tsoyaha, "People of the sun," their own name, or at least the name ofone band.Westo, perhaps a name applied to them by the Cusabo Indians of SouthCarolina though the identification is not beyond question.Connections.?The Yuchi constituted a linguistic stock, the Uchean,distinct from all others, though structurally their speech bears acertain resemblance to the languages of the Muskhogean and Siouanfamilies.Location.?The earliest known location of the Yuchi was ineastern Tennessee, perhaps near Manchester, but some of themextended still farther east, while others were as far west as MuscleShoals. On archeological grounds Prof. T. M. N. Lewis believes thatone main center of the Yuchi was on Hiwassee River. We findsettlements laid down on the maps as far north as Green River,Kentucky. In later times a part settled in West Florida, near thepresent Eucheeanna, and another part on Savannah and OgeecheeRivers. (See also Alabama, Florida, Oklahoma, Tennessee, and SouthCarolina.) SubdivisionsThere appear to have been three principal bands in historic times: one onTennessee River, one in West Florida, and one on Savannah River, but only asuggestion of native band names has survived. Recently Wagner has heard ofat least three subdivisional names, including the Tsoyaha, or "Sun People" andthe Root People. VillagesMost of their settlements are given the name of the tribe, Yuchi, or one of itssynonyms. In early times they occupied a town in eastern Tennessee called bythe Cherokee Tsistu'yl, "Rabbit place," on the north bank of Hiwassee Riverat the entrance of Chestua Creek in Polk County, Tenn., and at one time also thatof Hiwassee, or Euphasee, at the Savannah Ford of Hiwassee River. TheSavannah River band had villages at Mount Pleasant, probably in ScrevenCounty, Ga., near the mouth of Brier Creek, 2 miles below Silver Bluff on Savan-nah River in Barnwell County; and one on Ogeechee River bearing the name ofthat stream, though that was itself perhaps one form of the name Yuchi.Hawkins (1848) mentions former villages at Ponpon and Saltketchers in SouthCarolina, but these probably belonged to the Yamasee. The following Yuchisettlements were established after the tribe united with the Lower Creeks:
118 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Arkansaw River, in Oklahoma.Big Pond Town, Polecat Creek, and Sand Creek, in and near Creek County, Okla.Blackjack Town.Deep Fork Creek, Okla.Duck Creek Town.Intatchkalgi, on Opilthlako Creek 28 miles above its junction with Flint River,probably in Schley County, Ga.Padshilaika, at the junction of Patchilaika Creek with Flint River, MaconCounty, Ga.Red Fork, location uncertain.Snake Creek, location uncertain.Spring Garden Town, above Lake George, Fla.Tokogalgi, on Kinchafoonee Creek, an affluent of Flint River, Ga.History.?The chroniclers of the De Soto expedition mention theYuchi under the name Chisca, at one or more points in what is nowTennessee. In 1567 Boyano, an officer under Juan Pardo, had twodesperate encounters with these Indians somewhere in the highlandsof Tennessee or North Carolina, and, according to his own story,destroyed great numbers of them. In 1670 Lederer (1912) heard ofpeople called Rickohockans living in the mountains who may havebeen Yuchi, and two white men sent from Virginia by AbrahamWood visited a Yuchi town on a head stream of the Tennessee in1674. About this time also, English explorers and settlers in SouthCarolina were told of a warlike tribe called Westo (probably a divisionof Yuchi) who had struck terror into all of the coast Indians, andhostilities later broke out betv/een them and the colonists. At thisjuncture, however, a band of Shawnee made war upon the Yv^estoand drove them from the Savannah. For a time they seem to havegiven themselves up to a roving life, and some of them went so farinland that they encountered La Salle and settled near Fort St.Louis, near the present Utica, 111. Later some were located among theCreeks on Ocmulgee River, and they removed with them to theChattahoochee in 1715. Another band of Yuchi came to live onSavannah River about 20 miles above Augusta, probably after theexpulsion of the Westo. They were often called Hogologe. In 1716they also moved to the Chattahoochee but for a time occupied a towndistinct from that of the other Yuchi. It was probably this bandwhich settled near the Shawnee on Tallapoosa River and finallyunited with them. Still later occurred a third influx of Yuchi whooccupied the Savannah between Silver Bluff and Ebenezer Creek.In 1729 a Kasihta chief named Captain Ellick married three Yuchiwomen and persuaded some of the Yuchi Indians to move overamong the Lower Creeks, but Governor Oglethorpe of Georgiaguaranteed them their rights to their old land until after 1740, andthe final removal did not, in fact, take place until 1751.A still earlier invasion of southern territories by Yuchi is noted by
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 119one of the governors of Florida in a letter dated 1639. These in-vaders proved a constant source of annoyance to the Spaniards.Finally they established themselves in West Florida not far from theChoctawhatchee River, where they were attacked by an allied Spanishand Apalachee expedition in 1677 and suffered severely. They con-tinued to live in the same region, however, until some time before 1761when they moved to the Upper Creeks and settled near the Tukabah-chee. Eucheeanna in Walton County, Fla. seems to preserve theirname.A certain number of Yuchi remained in the neighborhood of Ten-nessee River, and at one time they were about Muscle Shoals. Theyalso occupied a town in the Cherokee country, called by the lattertribe Tsistu'yi, and Hiwassee at Savannah Ford. In 1714, theformer was cut off by the Cherokee in revenge for the murder of amember of their tribe, instigated by two English traders. Latertradition afiirms that the surviving Yucfii fled to Florida, but manyof them certainly remained in the Cherokee country for a long timeafterward, and probably eventually migrated west with their hosts.A small band of Yuchi joined the Seminole just before the outbreakof the Seminole War. They appear first in West Florida, near theMikasuki but later had a town at Spring Garden in Volusia County.Their presence is indicated down to the end of the war in the Peninsula,when they appear to have gone west, probably reuniting with theremainder of the tribe.The Yuchi who stayed with the Creeks accompanied them westand settled in one body in the northwestern part of the old CreekNation, in Creek County, Okla.Population.?For the year 1650 Mooney (1928) makes an estimateof 1,500 for the Yuchi in Georgia, Alabama, and Tennessee, but thisdoes not include the "Westo," for whom, with the Stono, he allows1,600. The colonial census of 1715 gives 2 Yuchi towns with 130men and 400 souls, but this probably takes into consideration only 1band out of 3 or 4. In 1730 the band still on Tennessee River wassupposed to contain about 150 men. In 1760, 50 men are reportedin the Lower Creek town and 15 in one among the Upper Creeks.In 1777 Bartram (1792) estimated the number of Yuchi warriors inthe lower to^vn at 500 and their total population as between 1,000and 1,500. In 1792 Marbury (1792) reports 300 men, or a populationof over 1,000, and Hawkins in 1799 says the Lower Creek Yuchiclaimed 250 men. According to the census of 1832-33 there were1,139 in 2 towns known to have been occupied by Indians of thisconnection. In 1909 Speck stated that the whole number of Yuchicould "hardly exceed five hundred," but the official report for 1910gives only 78. That, however, must have been an underestimate as
120 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Boll. 145the census of 1930 reported 216. Owing to the number of Yuchibands, their frequent changes in location, and the various termsapplied to them, an exact estimate of their numbers at any periodis very difficult. In the first half of the sixteenth century they maywell have numbered more than 5,000.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Yuchi have at-tained an altogether false reputation as the supposed aborigines ofthe Gulf region. They were also noted for the uniqueness of theirlanguage among the Southeastern tongues. The name is preservedin Euchee, a post hamlet of Meigs County, Tenn.; Eucheeanna, apost village of Walton County, Fla.; Euchee (or Uchee) Creek,Russell County, Ala. ; Uchee, a post station of EusseU County, Ala.
;
Uchee Creek, Columbia County, Ga.; and an island in SavannahRiver near the mouth of the latter.Yufera. (See Florida.) FLORIDAAcuera. Meaning unknown (acu signifies "and" and also "moon").Connections.?This tribe belonged to the Timucuan or Timuquananlinguistic division of the Muskhogean linguistic family.Location.?Apparently about the headwaters of the OcklawahaRiver.Towns.? (See Utina.)History.?The Acuera were first noted by De Soto in a letter writtenat Tampa Bay to the civil cabildo of Santiago de Cuba. Accordingto information transmitted to him by his officer Baltazar de Gallegos,Acuera was "a large town . . . where with much convenience wemight winter," but the Spaniards did not in fact pass through it,though, while they were at Ocale, they sent to Acuera for corn. Thename appears later in Laudonniere's narrative of the second Frenchexpedition to Florida, 1564-65 (1586), as a tribe allied with the Utina.It is noted sparingly in later Spanish documents but we learn thatin 1604 there was an encounter between these Indians and Spanishtroops and that there were two Acuera missions in 1655, San Luisand Santa Lucia, both of which had disappeared by 1680. Theinland position of the Acuera is partly responsible for the few noticesof them. The remnant was probably gathered into the "Pueblo deTimucua," which stood near St. Augustine in 1736, and was finallyremoved to the Mosquito Lagoon and Halifax River in VolusiaCounty, where Tomoka River keeps the name alive.Population.?This is nowhere given by itself. (See Utina.)Aguacaleyquen, see Utina.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 121Ais. Meaning unknown; there is no basis for Romans' (1775) deri-vation from the Choctaw word "isi" (deer). Also called:Jece, form of the name given by Dickenson (1699).Connections.?Circumstantial evidence, particularly resemblance intown names, leads to the conclusion that the Ais language was similarto that of the Calusa and the other south Florida tribes. (SeeCalusa.) It is believed that it was connected with the Muslvhogeanstock.Location.?Along Indian River on the east coast of the peninsula.VillagesThe only village mentioned by explorers and geographers bears some form ofthe tribal name.History.?Fontaneda (1854) speaks of a Biscayan named Pedrowho had been held prisoner in Ais, evidently during the sixteenthcentury, and spoke the Ais language fluently. Shortly after theSpaniards made their first establishments in the peninsula, a warbroke out with the Ais, but peace was concluded in 1570. In 1597Governor Alendez de Cango, who traveled along the entire eastcoast from the head of the Florida Keys to St. Augustine, reportedthat the Ais chief had more Indians under him than any other. AHttle later the Ais killed a Spaniard and two Indiars sent to them byCango for which summary revenge was exacted, and stiU later adifficulty was created by the escape of two Negro slaves and theirmarriage with Ais men. Relations between the Floridian govern-ment and these Indians were afterward friendly but efforts to mis-sioni'/e them uniformly failed. An ultimate picture of their conditionin 1699 is given by the Quaker Dickenson (1803), who was ship-wrecked on the coast farther south and obliged, with his companions,to travel through their territory. They disappear from history after1703, but the remnant may have been among those who, accordingto Romans (1775), passed over to Cuba in 1763, although he speaksof them all as Calusa.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates the number of Indians onthe southeastern coast of Florida in 1650, including this tribe, theTekesta, Guacata, and Jeaga, to have been 1,000. As noted above,the Ais were the most important of these and undoubtedly thelargest. We have no other estimates of population applying to theseventeenth century. In 1726, 88 "Costa" Indians were reported ina mission farther north and these may have been drawn from thesoutheast coast. In 1728, 52 "Costa" Indians were reported.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Ais were notedas the most important tribe of southeastern Florida, and they were
122 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145probably responsible for the fact that the watercourse on which theydwelt came to be called Indian River.Alabama. Early in the eighteenth century the Pawokti, and perhapssome other Alabama bands, lived near Apalachicola River, whencethey were driven in 1708. After the Creek-American War a partof the Alabama again entered Florida, but they do not seem tohave maintained an independent existence for a very long period.(See Alabama.)Amacano. A tribe or band perhaps connected with the Yamasee,placed in a mission on the Apalachee coast in 1674 with two others,Chine, and Caparaz (q. v.). The three together had 300 souls.Amacapiras, see Macapiras.Apalachee. Meaning perhaps "people on the other side" (as inHitchiti), or it may be cognate with Choctaw apelachi, "a helper."Connections.?These Indians belonged to the Muskhogean linguisticfamily, their closest connections having been apparently the Hitchitiand Alabama.Location.?The Apalachee towns, with few exceptions, were com-pactly situated in the neighborhood of the present Florida capital,Tallahassee. (See also Georgia, Alabama, Louisiana, and Oklahoma.)VillagesAute, 8 or 9 days' journey from the main towns and apparently southwest of them.Ayubale, 77 leagues from St. Augustine.Bacica, probably near the present Wacissa River.Bacuqua, seemingly somewhat removed from the main group of towns.Calahuchi, north of the main group of towns and not certainly Apalachee.Cupayca, location uncertain; its name seems to be in Timucua.Ibitachuco, 75 leagues from St. Augustine.Iniahica, close to the main group of towns, possibly the Timucua name for one ofthe others given, since hica is the Timucua word for "town."Ochete, on the coast 8 leagues south of Iniahica.Ocuia, 84 leagues from St. Augustine.Ospalaga, 86 leagues from St. Augustine.Patali, 87 leagues from St. Augustine.Talimali, 88 leagues from St. Augustine and very likely identical with Iniahica.Talpatqui, possibly identical with the preceding.Tomoh, 87 leagues from St. Augustine.Uzela, on or near Ocilla River.Yapalaga, near the main group of towns.Ychutafun, on Apalachicola River.Yecambi, 90 leagues from St. Augustine.A few other names are contained in various writings or placed uponsundry charts, but some of these belonged to distinct tribes and werelocated only temporarily among the Apalachee; others are not men-
Swantonj INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 123tioned elsewhere but appear to belong in the same category; and stillothers are simpl}'^ names of missions and may apply to certain of thetowns mentioned above. Thus Chacatos evidently refers to theChatot tribe, Tama to the TamaH, and Oconi probably to a branch ofthe Oconee mentioned elsewhere. The Chines were a body of Chatotand derived their name from a chief. Among names which appearonly in Spanish we find Santa Fe. Capola and Ilcombe, given on thePopple Map, were probably occupied by Guale and Yamasee refugees.A late Apalachee settlement was called San Marcos.History.?The Apalachee seem to appear first in histoiy in thechronicles of the Narvaez expedition (Bandelier, 1905). The ex-plorers spent nearly a month in an Apalachee town in the year 1528but were subjected to constant attacks on the part of the warlikenatives, who pursued them during their withdrawal to a coast townnamed Ante. In October 1539, De Soto arrived in the Apalacheeprovince and remained there the next winter in spite of the unceas-ing hostility of the natives, who well maintained the reputation forprowess they had acquired 11 years before. Although the provinceis mentioned from time to time by the first French and Spanish col-onists of Florida, it did not receive much attention until the tribesbetween it and St. Augustine had been pretty well missionized. Ina letter written in 1607 we learn that the Apalachee had asked formissionaries and, although one paid a visit to them the next year,the need is reiterated at frequent intervals. It was not until 1633,however, that the work was actually begun. In that year two monksentered the country and the conversion proceeded very rapidly sothat by 1647 there were seven churches and convents and eight ofthe principal chiefs had been baptized. In that year, however, agreat rebellion took place. Three missionaries were killed and all ofthe churches with their sacred objects were destroyed. An expedi-tion sent against the insurgents was repulsed, but shortly afterwardthe movement collapsed, apparently through a counterrevolution inthe tribe itself. After this most of the Apalachee sought baptismand there was no further trouble between them and the Spaniardsexcept for a brief sympathetic movement at the time of the Timucuauprising of 1656. The outstanding complaint on the part of theIndians was that some of them were regularly commandeered to workon the fortifications of St. Augustine. In 1702 a large Apalachee warparty was severely defeated by Creek Indians assisted by some Eng-lish traders, and in 1704 an expedition from South Carolina underColonel Moore practically destroyed the nation. Moore claims tohave carried away the people of three towns and the greater part ofthe population of four more and to have left but two towns and part
124 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Boll. 145
of another. Most of these latter appear to have fled to Mobile,where, in 1705, they were granted land on which to settle. TheApalachee who had been carried off by Moore were established nearNew Windsor, S. C, but when the Yamasee War broke out theyjoined the hostile Indians and retired for a time to the Lower Creeks.Shortly afterward the English faction among the Lower Creeks be-came ascendant and the Apalachee returned to Florida, some remain-ing near their old country and others settling close to Pensacola tobe near their relatives about Mobile. By 1718 another Apalacheesettlement had been organized by the Spaniards near San Marcos deApalache and close to their old country. In 1728 we hear of twosmall Apalachee towns in this neighborhood. Most of them grav-itated finally to the neighborhood of Pensacola. In 1764, the yearafter all French and Spanish possessions east of the Mississippi passedinto the hands of Great Britain, the Apalachee, along with severalother tribes, migrated into Louisiana, now held by Spain, and settledon Red River, where they and the Taensa conjointly occupied a stripof land between Bayou d'Arro and Bayou Jean de Jean. Most ofthis land was sold in 1803 and the Apalachee, reduced to a smallband, appear to have moved about in the same general region untilthey disappeared. They are now practically forgotten, though a fewmixed-blood Apalachee are still said to be in existence. A fewaccompanied the Creeks to Oklahoma.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates 7,000 Apalachee Indians in1650, a figure which seems to me to be ample. Governor Salazar'smission-by-mission estimate in 1675 yielded a total of 6,130, and aSpanish memorial dated 1676 gives them a population of 5,000. Atthe time of Moore's raid there appear to have been about 2,000. TheSouth Carolina Census of 1715 gives 4 Apalachee villages, 275 men,and 638 souls. As the Mobile Apalachee were shortly afterwardreduced to 100 men, the number of the entire tribe in 1715 must havebeen about 1,000. By 1758 they appear to have fallen to not muchover 100, and in 1814 Sibley reported but 14 men in the Louisianaband, signifying a total of perhaps 50 (Sibley, 1832). Morse's esti-mate (1822) of 150 in 1817 is evidently considerably too high.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Apalachee werementioned repeatedly as a powerful and warhke people, and thischaracter was attested by their stout resistance to Narvaez andDe Soto. The sweeping destruction which overtook them at thehands of the Creeks and Carolinians marks an epoch in Southeasternhistory. Their name is preserved in Apalachee Bay and River, Fla.
;
Apalachee River, Ga., Apalachee River, Ala,; and most prominentlyof all, in the Appalachian Mountains, and other terms derived fromthem. Tallahassee, the capital of Florida, the name of which signifies
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 125
"Old Town," is on the site of San Luis de Talimali, the principalSpanish mission center. There is a post village named Apalachee inMorgan County, Ga.Apalachicola. At times some of the Apalachicola Indians lived southof the present Florida boundary line and they gave their name to thegreat river which runs tlirough the panhandle of that State. (SeeGeorgia.)Calusa. Said by a Spaniard, Hernando de Escalante Fontaneda, whowas a captive among them for many years, to mean "fierce people,"but it is perhaps more probable that, since it often appears in theform Carlos, it was, as others assert, adopted by the Calusa chieffrom the name of the Emperor Charles V, about whose greatnesshe had learned from Spanish prisoners.Connections.?From the place names and the few expressionsrecorded by Fontaneda, I suspect that the Calusa were connectedlinguistically with the Muskhogean stock and particularly with thatbranch of it to which the Apalachee and Choctaw belonged, but nodefinite conclusion on this point is as yet possible.Location.?On the west coast of the Peninsula of Florida southwardof Tampa Bay and including the Florida Keys. The Indians in theinterior, about Lake Okeechobee, while forming a distinct group,seem also to have been Calusa.Subdivision*Unknown, except aa indicated above.VillagesIn the following list the letters S and I indicate respectively towns belongingto the seacoast division and those of the interior division about Lake Okeechobee.Beyond this allocation the positions of most of the towns may be indicated merelyin a general manner, by reference to neighboring towns.Abir (I), between Neguitun and Cutespa.Alcola (or Chosa), location uncertain.Apojola Negra, the first word is Timucua; the second seems to be Spanish; loca-tion unknown.Calaobe (S).Caragara, between Namuguya and Henhenguepa.Casitoa (S), between Muspa and Cotebo.Cayovea (S).Cayucar, between Tonco and Neguitun.Chipi, between Tomgobe and Taguagemae.Chosa (see Alcola).Comachica (S).Cononoguay, between Cutespa and Estegue.Cotebo, between Casitoa and Coyobia.Coyobia, between Cotebo and Tequemapo.Cuchiyaga, said to be southwest from Bahia Honda and 40 leagues northeast ofGuarungube, probably on Big Pine Key.
126 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Custavui, south of Jutun.Cutespa (I), between Abir and Cononoguay,Elafay, location uncertain.Enempa (I).Estame (S) , between Metamapo and Sacaspada.Estantapaca, between Yagua and Queyhicha.Estegue, between Cononoguay and Tomsobe.Excuru, between Janar and Metamapo.Guarungube, "on the point of the Martyrs," and thus probably near Key West.Guevu (S).Henhenguepa, between Caragara and Ocapataga.Janar, between Ocapataga and Escuru.Judyi, between Satucuava and Soco.Juestocobaga, between Queyhicha and Sinapa.Jutun (S), between Tequemapo and Custavui.Metamapo (S), between Escuru and Estame.Muspa (S), between Teyo and Casitoa.Namuguya, between Taguagemae and Caragara.Neguitun, between Cayiicar and Abir.No or Non (S).Ocapataga, between Henhenguepa and Janar.Queyhicha, between Estantapaca and Juestocobaga.Quisiyove (S).Sacaspada (S), between Estame and Satucuava.Satucuava, between Sacaspada and Judyi,Sinaesta (S).Sinapa (S) , between Juestocobaga and Tonco.Soco, between Judyi and Vuebe.Taguagemae, between Chipi and Namuguya.Tampa (S), the northernmost town, followed on the south by Yegua, andprobably on Charlotte Harbor.Tatesta (S), between the Tequesta tribe and Cuchiyaga, about 80 leagues northof the latter, perhaps at the innermost end of the Keys.Tavaguemue (I).Tequemapo (S), between Coyobia and Jutun.Teyo, between Vuebe and Muspa.Tiquijagua (?).Tomo (S).Tomsobe (I), between Estegue and Chipi.Tonco, between Sinapa and Cayucar.Tuchi (S).Vuebe, between Soco and Teyo, possibly the same as Guevu.Yagua (S), between Tampa and Estantapaca.History.?Most early navigators who touched upon the west coastof Florida must have encountered the Calusa but the first definiteappearance of the tribe historically is in connection with shipwrecksof Spanish fleets, particularly the periodical treasure fleet fromMexico, upon the Calusa coast. These catastrophes threw numerousSpanish captives into the hands of the natives and along with thema quantity of gold and silver for which the Calusa shortly becamenoted. Ponce de Leon visited them in 1513, Miruelo in 1516, Cordova
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 127in 1517; and Ponce, during a later expedition in 1521, received fromthem a mortal wound from which he died after reaching Cuba,Most of our early information regarding the Calusa is obtained fromFontaneda (1854), who was held captive in the tribe from about 1551to 1569. At the time when St. Augustine was settled attempts weremade to establish a post among these Indians and to missionize them,but the post had soon to be withdrawn and the missionary attemptproved abortive. The Calusa do not seem to have been converted toChristianity during the entire period of Spanish control. Whiletheir treatment of castaways was restrained, in ever\^ other respectthey appear to have continued their former manner of existence,except that they resorted more and more to Havana for purposes oftrade. Outside of a steady diminution in numbers there is little toreport of them until the close of the Seminole War. The Seminole,when hard pressed by the American forces, moved south into theEverglade region and there came into contact with what was left ofthe Calusa. Romans (1775) states that the last of the Calusa emi-grated to Cuba in 1763, but probably the Indians who composed thisbody were from the east coast and were not true Calusa. TheCalusa themselves appear about this time under the name Muspa,which, it will be seen, was the designation of one of their towns. Onthe movement of the Seminole into their country they became involvedin hostilities with the American troops, and a band of Muspa attackedthe camp of Colonel Harney in 1839 killing 18 out of 30 men. July23 of the same year Harney fell upon the Spanish Indians, killed theirchief, and hung six of his followers. The same band later killed a bot-anist named Perrine living on Indian Key and committed other depre-dations. The Calusa may have been represented by the "Choctawband" of Indians, which appears among the Seminole shortly afterthis time. The Seminole now in Oklahoma assert that a body ofChoctaw came west with them when they were moved from Florida,but the only thing certain as to the Calusa is that we hear no moreabout them. Undoubtedly some did not go west and either becameincorporated with the Florida Seminole or crossed to Cuba.Population.?Mooney's (1928) estimate of 3,000 Calusa Indians in1650 is probably as near the truth as any estimate that could besuggested. No census and very few estimates of the population,even of the most partial character, are recorded. An expeditionsent into the Calusa country in 1680 passed through 5 villages saidto have had a total population of 960, but this figure can be acceptedonly with the understanding that these villages were principal centers.In the band that attacked Harney in 1839 there were said to be 250Indians.Connection in which they have become noted.?When first discovered
128 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. i45the Calusa were famous for the power of their chiefs, the amount ofgold which they had obtained from Spanish treasure ships, and fortheir addiction to human sacrifice. Their name persists in that ofCaloosahatchee River and probably also in that of Charlotte Harbor.Another claim to distinction is the adoption by their chief of the nameof the great Emperor Charles?if that was indeed the case. Theonly similar instance would seem to be in the naming of the DelawareIndians, but that was imposed upon the Lenni Lenape, not adoptedby them.Caparaz. A small tribe or band placed in 1674 in connection with adoctrina called San Luis on the Apalachee coast along with twoother bands called Amacano and Chine. Possibly they may havebeen survivors of the Capachequi encountered by De Soto in 1540,The three bands were estimated to contain 300 people.Chatot. Meaning unknown, but the forms of this word greatlyresemble the synonyms of the name Choctaw.Connections.?The language spoken by this tribe belonged, un-doubtedly, to the southern division of the Muskhogean stock.Location.?West of Apalachicola River, perhaps near the middlecourse of the Chipola. (See also Georgia, Alabama, and Louisiana).VillagesFrom the names of two Spanish missions among them it would appear thatthere were at least two towns in early times, one called Chacato, after the nameof the tribe, and the other Tolentino.History.?The Chatot are first mentioned in a Spanish documentof 1639 in which the governor of Florida congratulates himself onhaving consummated peace between the Chatot, Apalachicola, andYamasee on one side and the Apalachee on the other. This, he says,
"is an extraordinary thing, because the aforesaid Chacatos nevermaintained peace with anybody." In 1674 the two missions notedabove were established among these people, but the following yearthe natives rebelled. The disturbance was soon ended by the SpanishoflBcer Florencia, and the Chatot presently settled near the Apalacheetown of San Luis, mission work among them being resumed. In1695, or shortly before, Lower Creek Indians attacked this mission,plundered the church, and carried away 42 Christianized natives. In1706 or 1707, following on the destruction of the Apalachee towns, theChatot and several other small tribes living near it were attackedand scattered or carried off captive, and the Chatot fled to Mobile,where they were well received by Bienville and located on the site ofthe present city of Mobile, When Bienville afterward moved theseat of his government to this place he assigned to them land on DogRiver by way of compensation. After Mobile was ceded to the
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 129English in 1763 the Chatot, along with a number of other small tribesnear that city, moved to Louisiana. They appear to have settledfirst on Bayou Boeuf and later on Sabine River. Nothing is heard ofthem afterward though in 1924 some old Choctaw remembered theirformer presence on the Sabine. The remnant may have found theirway to Oklahoma.Popvlation.?I would estimate a population of 1,200-1,500 for theChatot when they were first missionized (1674). When they weresettled on the site of Mobile, Bienville (1932, vol. 3, p. 536) says thatthey could muster 250 men, which would indicate a population of near900, but in 1725-26 there were but 40 men and perhaps a total popu-lation of 140. In 1805 they are said to have had 30 men or about 100people. In 1817 a total of 240 is returned by Morse (1822), but thisfigure is probably twice too large.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Chatot are notedbecause at one time they occupied the site of Mobile, Ala., and becauseBayou Chattique, Choctaw Point, and Choctaw Swamp close by thatcity probably preserve their name. The Choctawhatchee, w^hich is neartheir former home, was probably named for them.Chiaha. A few Creeks of this tribe emigrated from their former townsto Florida before the Creek-American War and after that encountermay have been joined by others. In an early list of Seminole set-tlements they are credited with one town on "Beech Creek," andthis may have been identical with Fulemmy's Town or FinderTown located on Suwanee River in 1817, which was said to beoccupied by Chiaha Indians. The Alikasuki are reported to havebranched off from this tribe. (See Georgia.)Chilucan. A tribe mentioned in an enumeration of the Indians inFlorida missions made in 1726. Possibly the name is derived fromMuskogee chiloki, "people of a different speech," and since one ofthe two missions where they are reported was San Buenaventuraand elsewhere that mission is said to have been occupied by MocamaIndians, that is, seacoast Timucua, a Timucuan connection isindicated. In the list mentioned, 70 Chilucan were said to be atSan Buenaventura and 62 at the mission of Nombre de Dios.Chine. A small tribe or band associated with two others calledAmacano and Caparaz (q. v.) in a doctrina established on the coastof the Apalachee country called San Luis. Other evidence suggeststhat Chine may be the name of a Chatot chief. Later they mayhave moved into the Apalachee country, for in a mission list dated1680 there appears a mission called San Pedro de los Chines. Thistribe and the Amacano and Caparaz were said to number 300individuals in 1674.
130 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Creeks, see Alabama, Chiaha, Hitchiti, Mikasukee, Muskogee,Oconee, Sawokli, Tawasa, and Yuchi.)Fresh Water ("Agua Dulce") Indians. A name applied to the peopleof seven to nine neighboring towns, and for which there is no nativeequivalent.Connections.?The same as Acuera (q. v.).Location.?In the coast district of eastern Florida between St.Augustine and Cape Canaveral.VillagesThe following towns are given in this province extending from north to south,but not all of the native names have been preserved:Anacape, said to have been 20 leagues south of St. Augustine.Antonico; another possible name is Tunsa.Equale, location uncertain.Filache, location uncertain.Maiaca, a few leagues north of Cape Canaveral and on St. Johns River.Moloa, south of the mouth of St. Johns River (omitted from later lists).San Julian, location uncertain.San Sebastian, on an arm of the sea near St. Augustine, destroyed in 1600 by aflood.Tocoy, given by one writer as 5 leagues from St. Augustine; by another as 24leagues.The names Macaya and Maycoya, which appear in the neighborhood of thelast of these are probably synonyms or corruptions of Maiaca, but there seems tohave been a sister town of Maiaca at an early date which Fontaneda (1854) callsMayajuaca or IMayjuaca. In addition to the preceding, a number of town nameshave been preserved which perhaps belong to places in this province. Some ofthem may be synonyms of the town names already given, especially of townslike Antonico and St. Julian, the native names of which are otherwise unknown.These include:Qacoroy, l}'^ leagues from Xocoroco.Caparaca, southwest of Nocoroco.Chimaucayo, south of St. Augustine.Cicale, 3 leagues south of Nocoroco.Colucuchia, several leagues south of Nocoroco.Disnica, probably south of St. Augustine, though not necessarily in the FreshWater Province.Elanogue, near Antonico.Maiaca, south of Nocoroco.Mogote, in the region of Nocoroco.Nocoroco, one day's journey south of Matanzas Inlet and on a river called No-coroco River, perhaps Halifax River.Perqumaland, south of the last mentioned; possibly two towns, Perqui andMaland.Pia, south of Nocoroco.Sabobche, south of Nocoroco.Tomeo, apparently near or in the Fresh Water province.Tucura, apparently in the same province as the last mentioned.Yaocay, near Antonico.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 131History.?The history of this province differed little from that ofthe other Timucua provinces, tribes, or confederacies. Ponce deLeon made his landfall upon this coast in 1513. The French hadfew dealings with the people but undoubtedly met them. Fontaneda(1854) heard of the provinces of Maiaca and Mayajuaca, and laterthere were two Spanish missions in this territory, San Antonio deAnacape and San Salvador de Maiaca. These appear in the missionlist of 1655 and in that of 1680 but from data given with the latterit is evident that Yamasee were then settled at Anacape. All ofthese Indians were converted rapidly early in the seventeenth centuryand the population declined with increasing celerity. The last bodyof Timucua were settled in this district and have left their name inthat of Tomoka Creek, (See Utina.)Population.?There are no data on which to give a separate andfull statement of the Timucua population in this district. In 1602,however, 200 Indians belonging to it had been Christianized and 100more were under instruction. (See Acuera.)Guacata. Meaning unknown.Connections.?On the evidence furnished by place names in thissection, the tribe is classified with the south Florida peoples.Location.?On or near Saint Lucie River in Saint Lucie and PalmBeach Counties.History.?The Guacata are first mentioned by Fontaneda (1854),who in one place speaks of them as on Lake Mayaimi (Okeechobee),but this probably means only that they ranged across to the lakefrom the eastern seacoast. Shortly after his conquest of FloridaAl^enendez left 200 men in the Ais country, but the Indians of thattribe soon rose against them and they moved to the neighborhood ofthe Guacata, where they were so well treated that they called the placeSanta Lucia. Next year, however, these Indians rose against themand although they were at first defeated the Spaniards were so hardpressed that they abandoned the place in 1568. They were still anindependent body in the time of Dickenson, in 1699, but not longafterward they evidently united with other east coast bands, and theywere probably part of those who emigrated to Cuba in 1763.Population.?No separate estimate has ever been made. (See Ais.)Guale. In relatively late times many of these Indians were drivenfrom their country into Florida. (See Georgia.)Hitchiti. The ancient home of the Hitchiti was north of Florida butafter the destruction of the earlier tribes of the peninsula, in whichthey themselves participated, Hitchiti-speaking peoples moved in ingreat numbers to take their places, so that up to the Creek-xVmericanWar, the Hitchiti language was spoken by the greater number of
132 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Seminole. The later immigration, as we have indicated above,reduced the Hitchiti element to a minority position, so that whatwe now call the Seminole language is practically identical withMuskogee. True Hitchiti as distinguished from Hitchiti-speakingpeoples who bore other names, do not appear to have been veryactive in this early movement though Hawkins (1848) mentionsthem as one of those tribes from which the Seminole were made up.The Hitchiti settlement of Attapulgas or Atap'halgi and perhapsother of the so-called Fowl Towns seem to represent a later immigra-tion into the peninsula. (See Georgia.)Icafui. Meaning unknown.Connections.?They were undoubtedly of the Timucuan groupthough they seem to have been confused at times with a tribe calledCascangue which may have been related to the Muskogee or Hitchiti.On the other hand, Cascangue may have been another name of thistribe, possibly one employed by Creeks or Hitchiti.Location.?On the mainland and probably in southeastern Georgianear the border between the Timucua and the strictly Muskhogeanpopulations. VillagesSeven or eight towns are said to have belonged to this tribe but the names ofnone of them are known with certainty.History.?Icafui seems to be mentioned first by the Franciscanmissionaries who occasionally passed through it on their way to orfrom interior peoples. It was a "visita" of the missionaiy at SanPedro (Cumberland Island). Otherwise its history differed in norespect from that of the other Timucuan tribes. (See Utina.)Population.?Separate figures regarding this tribe are wanting.(See Utina.)Jeaga. Meaning unkno'wm.Connections.?The Jeaga are classed on the basis of place namesand location with the tribes of south Florida, which were perhaps ofthe Muskhogean division proper.Location.?On the present Jupiter Inlet, on the east coast of Florida.VillagesBetween this tribe and the Tequesta the names of several settlements are givenwhich may have belonged to one or both of them, viz: Cabista, Custegiyo, Janar,Tavuacio.History.?The Jeaga tribe is mentioned by Fontaneda (1854) andby many later Spanish writers but it was of minor importance. NearJupiter Inlet the Quaker Dickenson (1803), one of our best informantsregarding the ancient people of the east coast of Florida, was cast
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 133
ashore in 1699. In the eighteenth century, this tribe was probablymerged with the Ais, Tequesta, and other tribes of this coast, andremoved with them to Cuba. (See Ais.)Population.?No separate enumeration is known. (See Ais.)Koasati. Appearance of a "Coosada Old Town" on the middlecourse of Choctawhatchee River on a map of 1823 shows that aband of Koasati Indians joined the Seminole in Florida, but this isall we know of them. (See Alabama.)Macapiras, or Amacapiras. Meaning unknown. A small tribewhich was brought to the St. Augustine missions in 1726 along withsome Pohoy, and so apparently from the southwest coast. Therewere only 24, part of whom died and the rest returned to their oldhomes before 1728.Mikasuki. Meaning unkno"WTi.Connections.?These Indians belonged to the Hitchiti-speakingbranch of the Muskhogean linguistic family. They are said by someto have branched from the true Hitchiti, but those who claim thatthey were originally Chiaha (q. v.) are probably correct.Location.?Their earliest known home was about Miccosukee Lakein Jefferson County. (See also Oklahoma.)VillagesAlachua Talofa or John Hick's Town, in the Alachua Plains, Alachua County.New Mikasuki, near Greenville in Madison County.Old Mikasuki, near Miccosukee Lake.History.?The name Mikasuki appears about 1778 and thereforewe know that their independent status had been established by thatdate whether they had separated from the Hitchiti or the Chiaha.They lived first at Old Mikasuki and then appear to have divided,part going to New Mikasuki and part to the Alachua Plains. Somewriters denounce them as the worst of all Seminole bands, but it isquite likely that, as a tribe differing in speech from themselves, theMuskogee element blamed them for sins they themselves had com-mitted. Old Mikasuki was burned by Andrew Jackson in 1817.Most Mikasuki seem to have remained in Florida where they stillconstitute a distinct body, the Big Cypress band of Seminole. Thosewho went to Oklahoma retained a distinct Square Ground as late as1912.Population.?Morse (1822) quotes a certain Captain Young to theeffect that there were 1,400 Mikasuki in his time, about 1817. Thisfigure is probably somewhat too high though the Mikasuki elementis known to have been a large one. They form one entire band amongthe Florida Seminole.
134 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Connection in which they have become noted.?The Mikasuki attainedprominence in the Seminole War. In the form Miccosukee theirname has been applied to a lake in Jefferson and Leon Counties, Fla.,and a post village in the latter county. In the form Mekusuky ithas been given to a village in Seminole County, Okla.Mocoso, or Mucogo. Meaning unknown.Connections.?They belonged with little doubt to the Timucuandivision of the Muskhogean linguistic stock.Location.?About the head of Hillsboro Bay.VillagesNone are mentioned under any other than the tribal name.History.?The chief of this tribe gave asylum to a Spaniard namedJuan Ortiz who had come to Florida in connection with the expedi-tion of Narvaez. When De Soto landed near the Mocogo town itschief sent Ortiz with an escort of warriors to meet him. Ortiz after-ward became De Soto's principal interpreter until his death west ofthe Mississippi, and the M0C090 chief remained on good terms withthe Spaniards as long as they stayed in the neighborhood. Thereare only one or two later references to the tribe. (See Utina.)Connection in which they have become noted.?The contacts of theM0C090 with De Soto and his followers constitute their only claim todistinction.Muklasa. A small Creek town whose inhabitants were probablyrelated by speech to the Alabama and Koasati. They are saidto have gone to Florida after the Creek War. (See Alabama.)Muskogee. The first true Creeks or Muskogee to enter Florida seemto have been a body of Eufaula Indians who made a settlementcalled Chuko tcati. Red House, on the west side of the peninsulasome distance north of Tampa Bay.^ This was in 1761. OtherMuskogee drifted into Florida from time to time, but the greatimmigration took place after the Creek-American War. The new-comers were from many towns, but more particularly those on theTallapoosa River. They gave the final tone and the characteristiclanguage to the Florida emigrants who had before been dominantlyof Hitchiti connection, and therefore the so-called Seminole lan-guage is Muskogee, with possibly a few minor changes in thevocabulary. (See Alabama.)Ocale, or Etocale. Meaning unknown, but perhaps connected withTimucua tocala, "it is more than," a comparative verb.
' A possible exception to this statement was the temporary entrance of a small body of Coweta Indiansunder Secoffee, or the Cowkeeper.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 135Connections.? (See Acuera.)Location.?In Marion County or Levy County north of the bendof the Withlacoochee River. VillagesUqueten (first village approaching from the south), and perhaps Itaraholata.History.?This tribe is first mentioned by the chroniclers of theDe Soto expedition. He passed through it in 1539 after crossingWithlacoochee River. Fontaneda also heard of it, and it seems toappear on De Bry's map of 1591. This is the last inforaiation thathas been preserved.Population.?Unknown. (See Acuera and Utina.)Connection in which they have become noted.?Within comparativelymodern times this name was adopted in the form Ocala as that ofthe county seat of Marion County, Fla. There is a place so called inPulaski County, Ky.Ogita, see Pohoy.Oconee. After leaving the Chattahoochee about 1750 the Oconeemoved into Florida and estabUshed themselves on the AlachuaPlains in a town which Bartram calls Cuscowilla. They constitutedthe first large band of northern Indians to settle in Florida and theirchiefs came to be recognized as head chiefs of the Seminole. Oneof these, Mikonopi, was prominent during the Seminole War, butthe identity of the tribe itself is lost after that struggle. Anotherpart of them seem to have settled for a time among the Apalachee(q. v.). (See Georgia.)Onatheaqua. In the narratives of Laudonniere and Le Moyne thisappears as one of the two main Timucua tribes in the northwesternpart of Florida, the other being the Hostaqua (or Yustaga). Else-where I have suggested that it may have covered the Indiansafterward gathered into the missions of Santa Cruz de Tarihica,San Juan de Guacara, Santa Catalina, and Ajoica, where there were230 Indians in 1675, but that is uncertain. (See Utina.)Osochi. A Creek division thought to have originated in Florida.(See Alabama.)Pawokti. Meaning unknown.Connections.?They were probably afiiliated either with the Tawasaor the Alabama. In any case there is no reason to doubt that theyspoke a Muskhogean dialect, using Muskhogean in the extended sense.Location.?The earliest known location of the Pawokti seems to havebeen west of Choctawhatchee River, not far from the shores of theGulf of Mexico. (See also Alabama.)
136 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145History.?Lamhatty {in Bushnell, 1908) assigns the Pawokti theabove location before they were driven away by northern Indians,evidently Creeks, in 1706-7. Although the name does not appear inany French documents known to me, they probably settled nearMobile along with the Tawasa. At any rate we find them on AlabamaRiver in 1799 a few miles below the present Montgomery and it isassumed they had been there from 1717, when Fort Toulouse wasestablished. Their subsequent history is merged in that of theAlabama (q. v.).Population.? (See Alabama.)Pensacola. Meaning "hair people," probably from their own tongue,which in that case was very close to Choctaw.Connections.?The name itself, and other bits of circumstantialevidence, indicate that the Pensacola belonged to the Muskhogeanstock and, as above noted, probably spoke a dialect close to Choctaw.Location.?In the neighborhood of Pensacola Bay. (See alsoMississippi.)History.?In 1528 the survivors of the Narvaez expedition had anencounter with Indians near Pensacola Bay who probably belonged tothis tribe. It is also probable that their territory constituted theprovince of Achuse or Ochus which Maldonado, the commander ofDe Soto's fleet, visited in 1539 and whence he brought a remarkablyfine "blanket of sable fur." In 1559 a Spanish colony under Tristande Luna landed in a port called "the Bay of Ichuse," (or "Ychuse")undoubtedly in the same province, but the enterprise was soon givenup and the colonists returned to Mexico. The Pensacola tribe seemsto be mentioned first by name in Spanish letters dated 1677. In 1686we learn they were at war with the Mobile Indians. Twelve yearsafterward, when the Spanish post of Pensacola was established, it isclaimed that the tribe had been exterminated by other peoples, butthis is an error. It had merely moved farther inland and probablytoward the west. They are noted from time to time, and in 1725-6Bienville (1932, vol. 3, p. 535) particularly describes the location oftheir village near that of the Biloxi of Pearl River. The last mentionof them seems to be in an estimate of Indian population dated Decem-ber 1, 1764, in which their name appears along with those of six othersmall tribes. They may have been incorporated finally into theChoctaw or have accompanied one of the smaller Mobile tribes intoLouisiana near the date last mentioned.Population.?In 1725 (or 1726) Bienville (1932, vol. 3, p. 535) saysthat in the Pensacola village and that of the Biloxi together, therewere not more than 40 men. The enumeration mentioned above,made in 1764, gives the total population of this tribe and the Biloxi,
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 137Chatot, Capinans, Washa, Chawasha, and Pascagoula collectively as251 men.Connection in which they have become noted.?Through the adoptionof their name first for that of Pensacola Bay and secondly for the portwhich grew up upon it, the Pensacola have attained a fame entirelydisproportionate to the aboriginal importance of the tribe. There areplaces of the name in Yancey County, N. C, and Mayes County,Okla.Pohoy, Pooy, or Posoy. Meaning unknown.Connections.?They were evidently closely connected with theTimucuan division of the Muskhogean linguistic stock. (See Utina).Location.?On the south shore of Tampa Bay.Tovms.?(See History.)History.?This tribe, or a part of the same, appears first in historyunder the names Ogita or Ucita as a "province" in the territory ofwhich Hernando de Soto landed in 1539. He established his head-quarters in the town of the head chief on June 1, and when he marchedinland on July 15 he left a captain named Calder6n with a hundredmen to hold this place pending further developments. These werewithdrawn at the end of November to join the main army in theApalachee country. In 1612 these Indians appear for the first timeunder the name Pohoy or Pooy in the account of an expedition to thesouthwest coast of Florida under an ensign named Cartaya. In 1675Bishop Calder6n speaks of the "Pojoy River," and in 1680 there is apassing reference to it. Some time before 1726 about 20 Indians ofthis tribe were placed in a mission called Santa Fe, 9 leagues south ofSt. Augustine, but they had already suffered from an epidemic andby 1728 the remainder returned to their former homes. (See Utina.)Population.?In 1680 the Pohoy were said to number 300.Connection in which they have become noted.?The only claim of thePohoy to distinction is derived from their contacts with the expeditionof De Soto.Potano. Meaning unknown.Connections.? (See Utina.)Location.?In the territory of the present Alachua County.TownsThe following places named in the De Soto narratives probably belonged tothis tribe: Itaraholata or Ytara, Potano, Utinamocharra or Utinama, Cholupaha,and a town they called Mala-Paz. A letter dated 1602 mentions five towns, andon and after 1606, when missionaries reached the tribe, stations were establishedcalled San Francisco, San Miguel, Santa Anna, San Buenaventura, and SanMartin (?) . There is mention also of a mission station called Apalo.
138 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145History.?The name Potano first appears as that of a provincethrough which De Soto passed m 1539. In 1564-65 the French colon-ists of Florida found this tribe at war with the Utina and assisted thelatter to win a victory over them. After the Spaniards had supplantedthe French, they also supported the Utina in wars between them andthe Potano. In 1584 a Spanish captain sent to invade the Potanocountry was defeated and slain. A second expedition, however,killed many Indians and drove them from their town. In 1601 theyasked to be allowed to retm*n to it and in 1606 missionary work wasundertaken among them resulting in their conversion along with mostof the other Timucua peoples. Their mission was known as SanFrancisco de Potano and it appears in the mission lists of 1655 and1680. In 1656 they took part in a general Timucuan uprising whichlasted 8 months. In 1672 a pestilence carried off many and as thechief of Potano does not appear as signatory to a letter written toCharles II by several Timucua chiefs in 1688, it is possible theirseparate identity had come to an end by that date. Early in theeighteenth century the Timucua along with the rest of the SpanishIndians of Florida were decimated rapidly and the remnant of thePotano must have shared their fate. (See Utina.)Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates the number of PotanoIndians at 3,000 in 1650 and this is probably fairly accurate, as theFranciscan missionaries state that they were catechizing 1,100 personsin the 5 towns belonging to the tribe in 1602. In 1675 there wereabout 160 in the 2 Potano missions. (See Acuera and Utina.)Connection in which they have become noted.?The Potano tribe wasanciently celebrated as, with one or two possible exceptions, the mostpowerful of all the Timucua peoples.Saturiwa. Meaning unknown.Connections.? (See Utina.)Location.?About the mouth of St. Johns River. Some earlywriters seem to include Cumberland Island in their jurisdiction.VillagesLaudonnifere (1586) says that the chief of this tribe ruled over 30 subchiefs, butit is uncertain whether these subchiefs represented villages belonging to the tribe,allied tribes, or both. The Spaniards give the following: San Juan del Puerto, themain mission for this province under which were Vera Cruz, Arratobo, Potaya,San Matheo, San Pablo, Hicachirico ("Little Town"), Chinisca, and Carabay.San Diego de Salamototo, near the site of Picolata, on which no villages seem tohave depended; and Nuestra Senora de Guadalupe, 3 leagues from St. Augustine,may be classed here somewhat uncertainly.History.?The Saturiwa were visited by Jean Ribault in 1562 andprobably by earlier explorers, but they appear first under their propername in the chronicles of the Huguenot settlement of Florida of
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OP NORTH AMERICA 1391564-5. Fort Caroline was built in the territory of the Saturiwa andintimate relations continued between the French and Indians untilthe former were dispossessed by Spain. The chief, known as Saturiwaat this time, assisted De Gourgues in 1567 to avenge the destructionof his countrymen. It is perhaps for this reason that we find theSpaniards espousing the cause of Utina against Saturiwa 10 yearslater. The tribe soon submitted to Spain, however, and was one ofthe first missionized, its principal mission being San Juan del Puerto.There labored Francisco de Pareja to whose grammar and religiousworks we are chiefly indebted for our knowledge of the Timucualanguage (Pareja, 1612, 1613, 1886). Like the other Florida Indians,they sufi^ered severely from pestUence in 1617 and 1672. The nameof their chief appears among those involved in the Timucua rebellionof 1656, and the names of their missions appear in the list of BishopCalderdn and in that of 1680. We hear nothing more of them, andthey evidently suffered the same fate as the other tribes of the group
.
Population.?No separate figures for the Saturiwa have been pre-served, except that a missionary states in 1602 that there were about500 Christians among them and in 1675 San Juan del Puerto contained
"about thirty persons" and Salamototo "about forty." (See Utina.)Connection in which they have become noted.?The prominence of theSaturiwa was due to the intimate dealings between them and theFrench colonists. Later the same people, though not under the samename, became a main support of the Spanish missionary movementamong the Florida Indians.Sawokli. A division of Creek Indians belonging to the Hitchiti-speaking group. Anciently it seems to have lived entirely inFlorida, but later it moved up into the neighborhood of the LowerCreeks. (See Alabama.)Seminole. Meaning "one who has camped out from the regulartowns," and hence sometimes given as "runaway," but there is toomuch onus in this rendering. Prof. H. E. Bolton believes it wasadopted from Spanish cimarron meaning "wild."IkanaMskalgi, "people of the point," a Creek name.Ikanidksalgi, "peninsula people," own name.Isti Seminole, "Seminole people."Lower Creeks, so called by Bartram (1792).Ungiay6-rono, "peninsula people," Huron name.Connections.?As implied above, the Seminole removed from theCreek towns and constituted just before the last Seminole War a fairrepresentation of the population of those towns: perhaps two-thirdsCreek proper or Muskogee, and the remaining third Indians of theHitchiti-speaking towns, Alabama, Yamasee, and besides a band of
140 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 14^Yuchi, latterly a few of the original Indian inhabitants of southernFlorida.Location.?The Seminole towns were first planted about Apalachi-cola River, in and near the old Apalachee country and in the Alachuacountry in the central part of the State, although a few were scatteredabout Tampa Bay and even well down the east coast as far south asMiami. They did not enter the Everglade section of the State untiltoward the end of the last Seminole War. As a result of that war, thegreater part were removed to the territory now constituting SeminoleCounty, Okla. A few remained in their old territory and their descend-ants are there today. VillagesAhapopka, near the head of Ocklawaha River.Ahosulga, 5 miles south of New Mikasuki, perhaps in Jefferson County.Alachua, near Ledwiths Lake.Alafiers, probably a synonym for some other town name, perhaps McQueen'sVillage, near Alafia River.Alapaha, probably on the west side of the Suwannee just above its junction withthe Allapaha.Alligator, said to be a settlement in Suwannee County.Alouko, on the east side of St. Marks River 20 miles north of St. Marks.Apukasasoche, 20 miles west of the head of St. Johns River.Attapulgas: first location, west of Apalachicola River in Jackson or CalhounCounties; second location inland in Gadsden County.Beech Creek, exact location unknown.Big Cypress Swamp, in the "Devil's Garden" on the northern edge of Big CypressSwamp, 15 to 20 miles southwest of Lake Okeechobee.Big Hammock, north of Tampa Bay.Bowlegs' Town, chief's name, on Suwannee River and probably known usuallyunder another name.Bucker Woman's Town, on Long Swamp east of Big Hammock.Burges' Town, probably on or near Flint or St. Marys River, southwesternGeorgia.Calusahatchee, on the river of the same name and probably occupied by CalusaIndians.Capola, east of St. Marks River.Catfish Lake, on a small lake in Polk County nearly midway between Lake Pierceand Lake Rosalie, toward the headwaters of Kissimmee River.Chefixico's Old Town, on the south side of Old Tallahassee Lake, 5 miles east ofTallahassee.Chetuckota, on the west bank of Pease Creek, below Pease Lake, west centralFlorida.Choconikla, on the west side of Apalachicola River, probably in Jackson County,Chohalaboohulka, probably identical with Alapaha.Chukochati, near the hammock of the same name.Cohowofooche, 23 miles northwest of St. Marks.Cow Creek, on a stream about 15 miles northeast of the entrance of KissimmeeRiver.Cuscowilla (see Alachua).Etanie, west of St. Johns River and east of Black Creek.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 141
Etotulga, 10 miles east of Old Mikasuki.Fish-eating Creek, 5 miles from a creek emptying into Lake Okeechobee.Fulemmy's Town, perhaps identical with Beech Creek, Suwannee River.Hatchcalamocha, near Drum Swamp, 18 miles west of New Mikasuki.Hiamonee, on the east bank of Ocklocknee River, probably on Lake lamonia.Hitchapuksassi, about 20 miles from the head of Tampa Bay and 20 miles south-east of Chukochati.Homosassa, probably on Homosassa River,lolee, 60 miles above the mouth of Apalachicola River on the west bank at ornear Blountstown.John Hicks' Town, west of Payne's Savannah.King Heijah's Town, or Koe Hadjo's Town, consisted of Negro slaves, probably inAlachua County.Lochchiocha, 60 miles east of Apalachicola River and near Ocklocknee River.Loksachumpa, at the head of St. Johns River.Lowwalta (probably for Liwahali), location unknown.McQueen's Village, on the east side of Tampa Bay, perhaps identical with Alafiers.Miami River, about 10 miles north of the site of Fort Dallas, not far from Bis-cayne Bay, on Little Miami River.Mulatto Girl's Town, south of Tuscawilla Lake.Negro Town, near Withlacoochee River, probably occupied largely by runawayslaves.New Mikasuki, 30 miles west of Suwannee River, probably in Madison County.Notasulgar, location unknown.Ochisi, at a bluff so called on the east side of Apalachicola River.Ochupocrassa, near Miami.Ocilla, at the mouth of Aucilla River on the east side.Oclackonayahe, above Tampa Bay.Oclawaha, on Ocklawaha River, probably in Putnam County.Oithlakutci, on Little River 40 miles east of Apalachicola River.Okehumpkee, 60 miles southwest from Volusia.Oktahatki, 7 miles northeast of Sampala.Old Mikasuki, near Miccosukee in Leon County.Oponays, "back of Tampa Bay," probably in Hillsboro or Polk Counties.Owassissas, on an eastern branch of St. Marks River and probably near its head.Payne's Town, near Koe Hadjo's Town, occupied by Negroes.Picolata, on the east bank of St. Johns River west of St. Augustine.Pilakhkaha, about 120 miles south of Alachua.Pilatka, on or near the site of Palatka, probably the site of a Seminole town andof an earlier town as well.Red Town, at Tampa Bay.Sampala, 26 miles above the forks of the Apalachicola on the west bank, inJackson County, or in Houston County, Ala.Santa Fe, on the river of the same name, perhaps identical with Washitokha.Sarasota, at or near Sarasota.Seleuxa, at the head of Aucilla River.Sitarky, evidently named after a chief, between Camp Izard and Fort King,West Florida.Spanawalka, 2 miles below lolee and on the west bank of Apalachicola River.Suwannee, on the west bank of Suwannee River in Lafayette County.Talakhacha, on the west side of Cape Florida on the seacoast.Tallahassee, on the site of present Tallahassee.Tallahassee or Spring Gardens, 10 miles from Volusia, occupied by Yuchi.
142 BUREAU OP AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Talofa Okhase, about 30 miles west southwest from the upper part of Lake George.Taluachapkoapopka, a short distance west of upper St. Johns River, probably atthe present Apopka.Tocktoethia, 10 miles above the junction of Chattahoochee and Flint Rivers.Tohopki lagi, probably near Miami.Topananaulka, 3 miles west of New Mikasuki.Topkegalga, on the east side of Ocklocknee River near Tallahassee.Totstalahoeetska, on the west side of Tampa Bay.Tuckagulga, on the east side of Ocklocknee River between it and Hiamonee.Tuslalahockaka, 10 miles west of Walalecooche.Wacahoota, location unknown.Wachitokha, on the east side of Suwannee River between Suwannee and Santa FeRivers.Wakasassa, on the coast east of the mouth of Suwannee River.Wasupa, 2 miles from St. Marks River and 18 miles from St. Marks itself.Wechotookme, location unknown.Welika, 4 miles east of the Tallahassee town.Wewoka, at Wewoka, Qkla.Willanoucha, at the head of St. Marks River, perhaps identical with Alouko.Withlacoochee, on Withlacoochee River, probably in Citrus or Sumter County.Withlako, 4 miles from Clinch's battle ground.Yalacasooche, at the mouth of Ocklawaha River.Yulaka, on the west side of St. Johns River, 35 miles from Volusia or Dexter.Yumersee, at the head of St. Marks River, 2 miles north of St. Marks, asettlement of Yamasee. (See Georgia.)History.?The origin of the Seminole has already been given (p.112). The nucleus of the nation was constituted by a part of theOconee, who moved into Florida about 1750 and were gradually fol-lowed by other tribes, principally of the Hitchiti connection. Thefirst true Muskogee to enter the peninsula were some of the Indiansof Lower Eufaula, who came in 1767^ but these were mixed withHitchiti and others. There was a second Muskogee immigration in1778, but after the Creek-American War of 1813-14 a much greaterimmigration occurred from the Creek Nation, mainly from the UpperTowns, and as the great majority of the newcomers were Muskogee,the Seminole became prevailingly a Muskogee people, what is nowcalled the Seminole language being almost pure Muskogee. Laterthere were two wars with the Whites; the first from 1817-18, in whichAndrew Jackson lead the American forces; and the second, from 1835to 1842, a long and bitter contest in which the Indians demonstratedto its fullest capacity the possibihties of guerrilla warfare in a semi-tropical, swampy country. Toward the end of the struggle the Indi-*ans were forced from northern and central Florida into the Evergladesection of the State. This contest is particularly noteworthy on ac-count of the personality of Osceola, the brains of Seminole resistance,whose capture by treachery is an ineffaceable blot upon all who wereconnected with it and incidentally upon the record of the American
' But see footnote p. 134.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 143Army. Diplomacy finally accomplished what force had failed toeffect?the policy put in practice by Worth at the suggestion of Gen-eral E. A. Hitchcock. The greater part of the hostile Indians sur-rendered and were sent to Oklahoma, where they were later granteda reservation of their own in the western part of the Creek Nation.Both the emigrants, who have now been allotted, and the small num-ber who stayed behind in Florida have since had an uneventful his-tory, except for their gradual absorption into the mass of the popu-lation, an absorption long delayed in the case of the Florida Seminolebut nonetheless certain.Population.?Before the Creek-American war the number of Semi-nole was probably about 2,000; after that date the best estimates giveabout 5,000. Exclusive of one census which seems clearly too high,figures taken after the Seminole war indicate a gradual reduction ofSeminole in Oklahoma from considerably under 4,000 to 2,500 in 1851.A new census, in 1857, gave 1,907, and after that time little change isindicated though actually the amount of Indian blood was probablydechning steadily. In Florida the figures were: 370 in 1847, 348 in1850, 450 in 1893, 565 in 1895, 358 in 1901, 446 in 1911, 600 in 1913,562 in 1914, 573 in 1919, 586 in 1937. In 1930 there were 1,789 inOklahoma, 227 in Florida, and 32 scattered in other States.Connection in which they have become noted.?The chief claim of thistribal confederation to distinction will always be the remarkable warwhich they sustained against the American Nation, the losses in menand money which they occasioned having been out of all proportion tothe number of Indians concerned. The county in Oklahoma wheremost of the Seminole were sent at the end of the great war bearstheir name, as does a county in Florida, and it will always be asso-ciated with the Everglade country, where they made their last stand.Towns or post villages of the name are in Baldwin County, Ala.;Seminole County, Okla. ; Armstrong County, Pa.; and Gaines County,Tex.Sarruque. Meaning unknow^l.Connections.?Somewhat doubtful, but they were probably of theTimucuan linguistic group. (See Utina.)Location.?At or very close to Cape Canaveral.History.?The Surruque appear first in history as the "Sorrochos"of Le Moyne's map (1875), and his "Lake Sarrope" also probablyderived its name from them. About the end of the same century,the sixteenth, trouble arose between them and the Spaniards, inconsequence of which the Spanish governor fell upon a Surruque town,killed 60 persons and captured 54. Later they probably united withthe Timucua people and shared their fortunes.Population.?No estimate is possible. (See Utina.)
144 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Tacatacuru. The meaning is unknown, though it seems to have some-thing to do with "fire" (taca).Connections.? (See Utina.)Location.?On Cumberland Island to which the name Tacatacuruwas applied. VillagesIt is probable that the same name was used for its chief town, which wasmissionized by the Spaniards under the name of San Pedro Mocama. Underthis mission were those of Santo Domingo and Santa Maria de Sena.History.-?The chief of Tacatacuru (now Cumberland Island), or ofthe neighboring mainland, met Jean Ribault in 1562 and seems tohave remained on good terms with the French during their occupancyof Fort Caroline in 1564-65. He, or a successor, is mentioned amongthose who joined De Gourgues in his attack upon the Spaniards in1567, but soon afterward they made peace with Spain and one chief,Don Juan, was of great assistance to the white men in many ways,particularly in driving back the Guale Indians after their rising in1597. This chief died in 1600, and was succeeded by his niece. Thechurch built by these Indians was said to be as big as that in St.Augustine. The good relations which subsisted between the Tacata-curu Indians and the Spaniards do not appear to have been brokenby the Timucua rebellion of 1656. By 1675 the tribe had abandonedCumberland Island and it was occupied by Yamasee. The missionof San Pedro Mocama consequently does not appear in the missionhst of 1680, although it is in that of 1655.* The tribe was subsequentlyamalgamated with the other Timucua peoples and shared theirfortunes. (See Utina.)Population.?There is no estimate of the number of Tacatacurudistinct from that of the other Timucua. The missionary stationedamong them in 1602 notes that there were then 8 settlements and792 Christianized Indians in his province, but this province may nothave been confined to the tribe. In that year Santo Domingoserved 180 Christians and Santa Maria de Sena 112.Tawasa. Meaning unkno^vn.Connections.?They spoke a dialect belonging to the Timucuandivision of the Muskhogean linguistic family, intermediate betweenTimucua proper and Choctaw, Hitchiti, Alabama, and Apalachee.Location.?In 1706-7 in west Florida about the latitude of thejunction of the Chattahoochee and Flint Rivers; at an earlier timeand again later they were on the Alabama near the present Mont-gomery. (See also Louisiana.)
* I have stated elsewhere (Swanton, 1946, p. 187) that the name of this mission was wanting In the listdrawn up in 1665. I should have given the date as 1680.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 145
VillagesThey usually occupied only one town but Autauga on Autauga Creek in thesoutheastern part of Autauga County, Ala., is said to have belonged to them.History.?De Soto found the Tawasa near the Montgomery site in1540. Some time during the next century and a half they moved tothe neighborhood of Apalachicola River, but in 1707 they wereattacked by the Creeks, who captured some of them, while thegreater part fled to the French and were by them given lands nearthe present Mobile. They occupied several different sites in thatneighborhood but in 1717 they moved back to the region whereDe Soto found them, their main village being in the northwesternsuburbs of the present Montgomery. After the Treaty of FortJackson in 1814, they were compelled to abandon this place and moveinto the Creek territories between the Coosa and Talapoosa Rivers,where they remained until the main migration beyond the Mississippi.Previous to this, some of them had gone with other Alabama intoLouisiana and they followed their fortunes. The name was remem-bered by Alabama in Polk County, Tex., until within a few years.Population.?The French census of 1760 returned 40 Tawasa menand the Georgia census of 1792 "about 60." The census of 1832-33gives 321 Indians in towns called Tawasa and Autauga, but all ofthese were quite certainly not Tawasa Indians in the strict apphcationof that term. (See Alabama.)Connection in which they have become noted.?The Tawasa tribe willbe remembered ethnologically on account of the rescue of so muchimportant information regarding the early history of themselves andtheir neighbors through the captive Indian Lamhatty {in Bushnell,1908), who made his way into Virginia in 1708, and on account ofthe still more important vocabulary obtained from him.Tekesta or Tequesta. Meaning unknown.Connections.?The language of this tribe was probably connectedwith the languages of the other peoples of the southeast coast ofFlorida and with that of the Calusa, and may have been Muskhogean.Locati&n.?In the neighborhood of Miami.VillagesBesides Tekesta proper, the main town, four villages are mentioned betweenthat and the next tribe to the north, the Jeaga, to whom some of the villages mayhave belonged. These were, in order from south to north: Tavuacio, Janar,Cabista, and Custegiyo.History.?The Tekesta do not appear in history much before thetime of Fontaneda, who was a captive among the Calusa from 1551to 1569. In 1566 we learn that they protected certain Spaniardsfrom the Calusa chief, although the latter is sometimes regarded as
146 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Boll. 145their overlord. A post was established in their country in 1566 butabandoned 4 years later. Attempts made to convert them to Chris-tianity at that time were without success. In 1573 they are said tohave been converted by Pedro Menendez Marques, but later theyreturned to their primitive beliefs. It was these Indians who, accord-ing to Romans (1775), went to Cuba in 1763 along with some othersfrom this coast.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates that in 1650 there were1 ,000 Indians on the southeast coast of Florida. According to Romansthose who went to Cuba in 1763 had 30 men. Adair (1775) saysthere were 80 families.Connection in which they have become noted.?Although the name hasfound rlo topographical lodgement, the Tekesta may be rememberedas the earliest known body of people to occupy the site of Miami.Tocobaga. Meaning unknown, though toco means in Timucua "tocome out," "to proceed from."Connections.?(See Utina.)Location.?About Old Tampa Bay,VillagesThe main town was at or near Safety Harbor at the head of Old Tampa Bay.History.?Narvaez probably landed in the territory of this tribe in1528, but his chroniclers speak of meeting very few Indians. Elevenyears later De Soto's expedition disembarked just south in Tampa Baybut came into little contact with this tribe. Two years after drivingthe French from St. Johns River in 1565, Menendez visited Tocobaga,and left a captain and 30 soldiers among them, all of whom were wipedout the year following. In 1612 a Spanish expedition was sent topunish the chiefs of Pohoy and Tocobaga because they had attackedChristian Indians, but spent little time in the latter province. Thereis no assured reference to a mission nearer than Acuera, nor do theTocobaga appear among the tribes which participated in the greatTimucua revolt of 1656. Ultimately it is probable that they joinedthe other Timucua and disappeared with them, though they may haveunited with the Calusa. It is also possible that they are the"Tompacuas" who appear later in the Apalachee country, and if sothey may have been the Indians placed in 1726 in a mission nearSt. Augustine caUed San Buenaventura under the name "Macapiras"or "Amacapiras." (See Utina.)Population.?Unknown. (See Utina.)Connection in which they have become noted.?The principal claim tonotoriety on the part of the Tocobaga is the fact that Narvaez landedin their country in 1528.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 147Ucita, see Pohoy.Utina or Timucua. The first name, which probably refers to thechief and means "powerful," is perhaps originally from iiti, "earth,"while the second name, Timucua, is that from which the linguisticstock, or rather this Muskhogean subdivision of it, has receivedits name.Connections.?As given above.Location.?The territory of the Utina seems to have extended fromthe Suwannee to the St. Johns and even eastward of the latter,though some of the subdivisions given should be rated as independenttribes. (See Timucua under Georgia.)TownsLaudonni^re (1586) states that there were more than 40 under the Utina chief,but among them he includes "Acquera" (Acuera) and Moquoso far to the southand entirely independent, so that we are uncertain regarding the status of theothers he gives, which are as follows: Cadecha, Calanay, Chilili, Eclauou, Molona,Omittaqua, and Onachaquara.As the Utina, with the possible exception of the Potano, was the leading Timucuadivision and gave its name to the wliole, and as the particular tribe to wlilcheach town mentioned in the documents belonged cannot be given, it will be wellto enter all here, although those that can be placed more accurately will beinserted in their proper places.In De Soto's time Aguacaleyquen or Caliquen seems to have been the principaltown. In the mission period we are told that the chief lived at Ayaocuto.
.\cassa, a town inland from Tampa Bay.Aguacaleyquen, a town in the province of Utina between Suwannee and SantaFe Rivers.Ahoica, probably near the Santa Fe River.Alachepoyo, inland from Tampa Bay.Alatico, probably on Cumberland Island.Albino, 40 leagues or 4 days inland from St. Augustine and within lYz to 2leagues of two others called Tucuro and Utiaca.Alimacani, on an island of the same name not far north of the mouth of St.Johns River.Amaca, inland from Tampa Bay.Anacapa, in the Fresh Water Province 20 leagues south of St. Augustine.Anacharaqua, location unknown.Antonico, in the Fresh Water Province.Apalu, in the province of Yustaga.Arapaja, 70 leagues from St. Augustine, Probably on Alapaha River.Araya, south of the Withlacoochee River.Archaha, location unknown.Assile, on or near Aucilla River.Astina, location unknown.Atuluteca, probably near San Pedro or Cumberland Island.Ayacamale, location unknown.Ayaocute, in the Utina country 34 leagues from St. Augustine.Ayotore, inland from Cumberland Island and probably southwest.Beca, location unknown.
148 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Boll. 145Becao, location unknown.Bejesi, location unknown, perhaps the Apalachee town of Wacissa.Cachipile, 70 leagues west of St. Augustine.Qacoroy, south of St. Augustine and 1}4 leagues from Nocoroco, probably in theFresh Water Province.Cadecha, allied with Utina.Calany, allied with Utina.Caparaca, south of St. Augustine, southwest of Nocoroco and probably in theFresh Water Province.Casti, location unknown.Cayuco, near Tampa Bay.Chamini, 70 leagues west of St. Augustine.Chimaucayo, south of St. Augustine.Chinica, 134 leagues from St. Augustine.Cholupaha, south of Aguacaleyquen in the Potano Province.Chuaquin, 60 leagues west of St. Augustine.Cicale, south of St. Augustine and 3 leagues south of Nocoroco, perhaps in theFresh Water Province.Cilili, said to be a Utina town.Colucuchia, several leagues south of Nocoroco.Coya, location unknown.Disnica, south of St. Augustine, perhaps should be Tisnica.Egalamototo, on the site of Picolata.Egita, near Tampa Bay, possibly a variant of Ocita.Eclauou, location unknown.Edelano, on an island of the same name in St. Johns River.Elajay, location unknown, perhaps Calusa.Elanogue, in the Fresh Water Province near Antonico.Emola, location unknown.Enecaque, location unknown.Equale, in the Fresh Water Province.Ereze, inland from Tampa Bay.Esquega, a town or tribe on the west coast.Exangue, near Cumberland Island.Filache, in the Fresh Water Province.Guacara, on Suwannee River in northwestern Florida.Guagoco, probably a town on a plain so called in the Urriparacoxl country.Heliocopile, location unknown.Helmacape, location unknown.Hicachirico ("Little town"), one league from the mission of San Juan del Puerto,which was probably at the mouth of St. Johns River in the Saturiwa Province.Hiocaia, the probable name of a town giving its name to a chief, location unknown.Huara, inland from Cumberland Island.Itaraholata, south of Potano, Potano Province.Juraya, a rancheria, apparently in the Timucua territory.Laca, another name for Egalamototo.Lamale, inland from Cumberland Island.Luca, between Tampa Bay and the Withlacoochee River in the Urriparacoxicountry.Machaba, 64 leagues from St. Augustine, near the northern border of the Timucuacountry inland.Maiaca, the town of the Fresh Water Province most distant from St. Augustine,a few leagues north of Cape Canaveral and on St. Johns River.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 149Malaca, south of Nocoroco.Marracou, location unknown.Mathiaqua, location unknown.Mayajuaca, near Maiaca.Mayara, on lower St. Johns River.Mocama, possibly a town on Cumberland Island, province of Tacatacuru, butprobably a province.Mogote, south of St. Augustine in the region of Nocoroco.Moloa, on the south side of St. Johns River near its mouth, province of Saturiwa.Napa, on an island one league from Cumberland Island.Napituca, north of Aguacalej-quen, province of Utina.Natobo, a mission station and probably native town 2}^ leagues from San Juandel Puerto at the mouth of St. Johns River, province of Saturiwa.Nocoroco, at the mouth of a river, perhaps Halifax River, one day's journey southof Matanzas Inlet, Fresh Water Province.Ocale, in a province of the same name in the neighborhood of the present Ocala.O^ita, probably on Terra Ceia Island, on Hillsborough Bay.Onathaqua, a town or tribe near Cape Canaveral.Osigubede, a chief and probably town on the west coast.Panara, inland from Cumberland Island.Parca, location unknown.Patica, on the seacoast 8 leagues south of the mouth of St. Johns River.Patica, on the west bank of St. Johns River in the Utina territory.Pebe, a chief and probably a town on the west coast.Pentoaya, at the head of Indian River.Perquymaland, south of Nocoroco; possibly the names of two towns, Perqui andMaland, run together.Pia, on the east coast south of Nocoroco.Pitano, a mission station and probably a native town a league and a half fromPuturiba.Pohoy, a town or province, or both, at Tampa Bay, and perhaps a sj-nonym ofO^ita.Potano, the principal town of the Potano tribe, on the Alachua plains.Potaya, 4 leagues from San Juan del Puerto at the mouth of St, Johns River.Puala, near Cumberland Island.Punhuri, inland from Cumberland Island.Puturiba, probably near the northern end of Cumberland Island, province ofTacatacuru. There was another town of the same name west of the SuwanneeRiver.Sabobche, near the coast south of Nocoroco.Saint Julian, in the Fresh Water Province.San Mateo, about 2 leagues from San Juan del Puerto at the mouth of St. JohnsRiver, province of Saturiwa.San Pablo, about l}^ leagues from San Juan del Puerto, province of Saturiwa.San Sebastian, on an arm of the sea near St. Augustine.Sarauahi, a quarter of a league from San Juan del Puerto.Sena, on an "inlet" north of the mouth of St. Johns River, perhaps Amelia River.Siyagueche, near Cape Canaveral.Socochuno, location unknown.Soloy, not far from St. Augustine and probably on the river called Seloy by theFrench.Surruque, a town or tribe near Cape Canaveral.
150 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Tacatacuru, the name of Cumberland Island and Province, and perhaps of thechief town, on the mainland side of the island near the southern end, 2 leaguesfrom the Barra de San Pedro.Tafocole, inland from Tampa Bay.Tahupa, inland from Cumberland Island.Tanpacaste, a chief and perhaps town north of Pohoy, i. e., north of Tampa Bay.Tarihica, 54 leagues from St. Augustine, and perhaps in the Onatheaqua Province.Tocaste, on a large lake south of the Withlacoochee River, province of Urri-paracoxi.Tocoaya, very near Cumberland Island.Tocobaga, the chief town of the province so called, in Safety Harbor, Tampa Bay.Tocoy, in the Fresh Water Province 5 leagues south of St. Augustine.Tolapatafi, probably toward the west coast of the peninsula of Florida nearAucilla River.Toloco, location unknown.Tomeo, near the Fresh Water Province.Tucura, near the Fresh Water Province.Tucuro, see Abino.Tunsa, possibly a synonym of Antonico.Ujachile, a town or tribe in the Yustaga Province, perhaps the mother town ofthe Osochi.Uqueten, the southernmost village of the province of Ocale on WithlacoocheeRiver entered by De Soto.Urica, 60 leagues from St. Augustine.Uriutina, just north of the river of Aguacaleyquen, perhaps at Lake City.Urubia, near Cape Canaveral and lyi leagues from the town of Surruque.Utayne, inland from Cumberland Island.Utiaca, see Abino.Utichini, inland from Cumberland Island and within a league and a half ofPuturiba.Utinamocharra, 1 day's journey north of Potano, Potano Province.Vera Cruz, half a league from San Juan del Puerto, province of Saturiwa.Vicela, a short distance south of Withlacoochee River, province of Urriparacoxi.Xapuica, near the Quale country, perhaps a synonym of Caparaca.Xatalalano, inland from Cumberland Island.Yaocay, near Antonico in the Fresh Water Province.Ycapalano, inland from Cumberland Island and probably within half a league ora league of Puturiba.Yufera, inland and probably northwest from Cumberland Island.History.?The Utina were evidently tliose Indians occupying theprovince called Aguacaleyquen which De Soto passed through in 1539.In 1564 the French came in contact with them after the establislimentof Fort Caroline. On one occasion they sent a contingent to helpthem defeat the neighboring Potano. After the Spaniards had sup-planted the French, the Timucua allied themselves with the formerand in 1576 or 1577 a body of soldiers was sent to support them againstseveral neighboring tribes. They were missionized at a comparativelyearly date, and afterward followed the fortunes of the rest of theTimucua.Following is a brief over-all sketch of the history of the tribes consti-
SwANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 151tuting the Timucuan group. They first came mto contact withEuropeans during Ponce de Leon's initial expedition in 1513 when thepeninsula and subsequently the State received its name. Narvaez in1528 and De Soto in 1539 passed through the country of the westerntribes. Ribault visited those on and near St. Johns River in 1562, andthe French settlers of Fort Caroline on that river in 1564-65 were inclose contact with them. A considerable part of our knowledgeregarding these Indians is contained in the records of that colony.The Spaniards supplanted the French in 1565 and gradually conqueredthe Timucua tribes while the Franciscans missionized them. Ourknowledge of the Timucua language is derived mainly from religiousworks by the missionaries Pareja and Mouilla and a grammar com-piled by the former. During the early half of the seventeenth centurythe missions were in a flourishing condition but a general rebellion in1656 occasioned some losses by death and exile. They also sufferedseverely from pestilences which raged in the missions in 1613-17,1649-50, and 1672. It is probable that some decline in populationtook place even before the great rebellion but that and the epidemicsoccasioned considerable losses. Toward the end of the seventeenthcentury, however, all the Florida Indians began to suffer from theinvasion of Creek and Yuchi Indians to the northward, and this wasaccentuated after the break-up of the Apalachee in 1704 by theexpedition under Moore. Most of the remaining Timucua were thenconcentrated into missions near St. Augustine, but this did not secureimmunity against further attacks by the English and their Indianallies. Sometime after 1736 the remnants of these people seem to haveremoved to a stream in the present Volusia County which in theform Tomoka bears their name. Here they disappear from history,and it is probable that they were swallowed up by the invadingSeminole.Population.?The Timucua, in the wide extent of the term, areestimated by Mooney (1928) to have numbered 13,000 in 1650,including 3,000 Potano, 1,000 Hostaqua, 8,000 Timucua proper andtheir allies, and 1,000 Tocobaga. In a letter dated February 2, 1635,it is asserted that 30,000 Christian Indians were connected with the44 missions then maintained in the Quale and Timucua provinces.While this figure is probably too high, it tends to confirm Mooney's(1928) estimate. In 1675 Bishop Calder6n of Cuba states that heconfirmed 13,152 in the four provinces of Timucua, Quale, Apalache,and Apalachicoli, but Qovernor Salazar estimates only 1,400 in theTimucua missions that year. Later, pestilences decimated the Timu-cua very rapidly, and their ruin was completed by attacks of theEnglish and the northern Indians, so that by 1728 the single townwhich seems to have contained most of the survivors had but 15 men
152 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145and 20 women. Eight years later 17 men were reported there. Notlong after this time the tribe disappears entirely, though it is highlyprobable that numbers of individuals who had belonged to it hadmade their homes with other Indians.As to the Utina tribe by itself, we have a missionary letter dated1602 which estimates its population as 1,500, in this case probably anunderstatement.Connection in which they have become noted.?This tribe, known asthe Utina or Timucua, is noteworthy (1) for having given its name tothe peoples of the Timucuan or Timuquanan stock now regarded aspart of the Muskogean family, and (2) as having been, next perhapsto the Potano, the most powerful tribe constituting that stock.The Timucuan group has left its name in that of the river abovementioned.Yamasee. Some tribes aflBliated with the Yamasee settled in theApalachee country in the latter part of the seventeenth century.The great body came to Florida from South Carolina after their warwith the English colonists in 1715, and most of them remained inthe northeastern part of the peninsula. Their final appearance isas the Ocklawaha band of Seminole. Part of them moved west,however, and settled near Mobile, and either this or a third partylived among the Creeks for a time, after which they seem to havereturned to west Florida, where they were represented by the"Yumersee" town of the Seminole. A considerable number of themwere captured by the Creek Indians and incorporated with them.(See Georgia.)Yuchi. In the seventeenth century a body of Yuchi establishedthemselves west of Apalachicola River, but moved north to jointhe Upper Creeks before 1761. At a much later date a body ofeastern Yuchi joined the Seminole and in 1823 had a settlementcalled Tallahassee or Spring Gardens 10 miles from Volusia. Theyprobably moved to Oklahoma at the end of the last Seminole war.(See Georgia.)Yufera. This is the name of a town or group of towns reported aslocated somewhere inland from Cumberland Island, and perhaps inthe present territory of Georgia. The name is derived throughTimucua informants but it may have referred to a part of the Mus-kogee tribe called Eufaula.Yui. Meaning unknown.Connections.?(See Utina.)Location.?On the mainland 14 leagues inland from CumberlandIsland and probably in the southeastern part of the present state ofGeorgia.
SwANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 153
VillagesThey had five villages but the names of these are either unknown or unidenti-fiable.History.?The name of the Yui appears first in Spanish documents.They were visited by the missionary at San Pedro (CumberlandIsland) and appear to have been Christianized early in the seventeenthcentury. No individual mission bore their name and they, are soonlost sight of, their history becoming that of the other Timucua tribes.Popvlation.?The missionaries estimated more than 1,000 Indiansin this province in 1602. (See Utina.)Yustaga. Meaning unknown.Connections.?No words of the Yustaga language have beenpreserved but circumstantial evidence indicates they belonged to theTimucuan branch of the Muskhogean linguistic stock, althoughoccasionally the provinces of Timucua and Yustaga are spoken of asif distinct.Location.?Approximately between Aucilla and Suwannee Rivers,somewhat toward the coast. VillagesThe Yustaga villages cannot be satisfactorily identified though the missions ofAsile, San Marcos, Machaba, and San Pedro seem to have belonged to it.History.?The Yustaga are first mentioned by Biedma {in Bourne,1904), one of the chroniclers of De Soto, who gives the title to a
"province" through which the Spaniards marched just before comingto Apalachee. While the French Huguenots were on St. Johns River,some of them visited this tribe, and later it is again mentioned by theSpaniards but no mission bears the name. Its history is soon mergedin that of the Timucuan peoples generally. The last mention of thename appears to be in 1659. It is of particular interest as the provincefrom which the Osochi Indians who settled among the Lower Creeksprobably emigrated in 1656 or shortly afterward.Population.?In 1675, 40 Indians were reported in the mission ofAsile and 300 in each of the others, giving a total very close toMooney's (1928) estimate of 1,000 as of the year 1600.ALABAMAAbihka, see Creek Confederacy and Muskogee.Alabama. Perhaps connected with the native word "albina," mean-ing "to camp," or alba amo, "weed gatherer," referring to the blackdrink. Also called:Ma'-mo a?-ya -di, or Ma'-mo ha?-ya, by the Biloxi.Oke-choy-atte, given by Schoolcraft (1851-57), the name of an Alabamatown, Oktcaiutci.
154 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Connections.?The Alabama language belonged to the southerndivision of the Muskhogean stock, and was perhaps connected withthe tongues of the Muklasa and Tuskegee, which have not been pre-served. It was closely related to Koasati and more remotely toHitchiti and Choctaw,Location.?The principal historic seat of this tribe was on the uppercoiu-se of Alabama River. (See also Florida, Louisiana, Oklahoma,and Texas.) SubdivisionsThe Tawasa and Pawokti, which later formed two Alabama towns, were origi-nally independent tribes (see under Florida), though the former, at least, was notproperly Alabama. The same may have been true of some other Alabama towns,though we have no proof of the fact. VillagesBesides the above:Autauga, on the north bank of Alabama River about the mouth of Autauga Creekin Autauga County.Kantcati, on Alabama River about 3 miles above Montgomery and on the sameside.Nitahauritz, on the north side of Alabama River west of the confluence of theAlabama and Cahawba Rivers in Dallas County.Okchayutci, in Benjamin Hawkins' time (about 1800) on the east bank of CoosaRiver between Tuskegee and the Muskogee town of Otciapofa. (See Hawkins,1848, 1916.)Wetumpka, a branch village reported in 1761,History.?Native tradition assigns the origin of the Alabamato a point at the confluence of Alabama and Tombigbee Rivers, butwe seem to hear of the tribe first historically in what is now northernMississippi west of the Chickasaw countiy. This is in the narrativesof De Soto's chroniclers, which, however, do not altogether agree,since one writer speaks of a province of the name, two others bestowthe designation upon a small village, and only Garcilaso (1723), theleast reliable, gives the title Fort Alibamo to a stockade?west of thevillage above mentioned?where the Spaniards had a severe combat.While this stockade was probably held by Alabama Indians, thereis no certainty that it was. The next we hear of the tribe it is inits historic seats above given. After the French had establishedthemselves at Mobile they became embroiled in some small affraysbetween the Alabama and Mobile Indians, but peace was presentlyestablished and thereafter the French and Alabama remained goodfriends as long as French rule continued. This friendship wascemented in 1717 by the establishment of Fort Toulouse in theAlabama country and the admission among them of one, or probablytwo, refugee tribes, the Tawasa and Pawokti. (See Florida.) About1763 a movement toward the west began on the part of those Indiana
SWANTONJ INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 155who had become accustomed to French rule. Some Alabama joinedthe Seminole in Florida. Others accompanied the Koasati to Tom-bigbee River but soon returned to their own country. Still anotherbody went to Louisiana and settled on the banks of the MississippiRiver, where they were probably joined from time to time by more.Later they advanced further toward the west and some are stillscattered in St. Landry and Calcasieu Parishes, but the greatestsingle body finally reached Polk County, Tex., where they occupya piece of land set aside for them by the State. Those who remainedbehind took a very prominent part in the Creek-American War andlost aU their land by the treat}^ of Fort Jackson, 1814, being obligedto make new settlements between the Coosa and Tallapoosa. Theyaccompanied the rest of the Creeks to Oklahoma, and their des-cendants are to be found there today, principally about a littlestation bearing the name just south of Weleetka.Population.?In 1702 Iberville {in Margry, 1875-86, vol. 4, p. 514)estimated that there were 400 families of Alabama in two villages,and the English census of 1715 gives 214 men and a total populationof 770 in four villages. These figures must have been exclusiveof the Tawasa and Pawokti, which subsequent estimates include.About 1730-40 there is an estimate of 400 men in six towns. In1792 the number of Alabama men is given as 60, exclusive of 60Tawasa, but as this last included Kantcati the actual proportionof true Alabama was considerably greater. Hawkins, in 1799, esti-mated 80 gunmen in four Alabama towns, including Tawasa andPawokti, but he does not include the population of Okchaiyutci.(See Hawkins, 1848.) In 1832 only two towns are entered which maybe safely set down as Alabama, Tawasa and Autauga, and these hada population of 321 besides 21 slaves. The later figures given abovedo not include those Alabama who had moved to Louisiana. In 1805Sibley (1832) states there were two villages in Louisiana with 70men; in 1817 Morse (1822) gives 160 Alabama all told in Texas,but this is probably short of the truth. In 1882 the United StatesIndian Office reported 290 Alabama, Koasati, and Muskogee inTexas, the larger number of whom were probably Alabama. In 1900the figure is raised to 470. In 1910 a special agent from the IndianOffice reported 192 Alabama alone. The census of 1910 gave 187in Texas and 111 in Louisiana, a total of 298. The 176 "Creek"Indians returned from Polk County, Tex., in 1930, were mainlyAlabama. The number of Alabama in Oklahoma has never beenseparately reported.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Alabama attainedearly literary fame from Garcilaso de la Vega's (1723) description
156 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145
of the storming of "Fort Alibamo." Their later notoriety hasrested upon the fact that their name became attached to AlabamaRiver, and still more from its subsequent adoption by the Stateof Alabama. A railroad station in Oklahoma is named after them,and the term has been appUed to places in Genesee County, N. Y.,and in Polk County, Wis. There is an Alabama City in EtowahCounty, Ala., and Alabam in Madison County, Ark.Apalachee. A part of this tribe lived for a time among the LowerCreeks and perhaps in this State, Another section settled nearMobile and remained there until West Florida was ceded to GreatBritain when they crossed the Mississippi. A few seem to havejoined the Creeks and migrated with them to Oklahoma. (SeeFlorida.)Apalachicola. Very early this tribe lived on the Apalachicola andChattahoochee Rivers, partly in Alabama. Sometime after 1715they settled in Russell County, on the Chattahoochee River w^herethey occupied at least two different sites before removing with therest of the Creeks to the other side of the Mississippi. (See Georgia.)Atasi. A division or subtribe of the Muskogee (q. v.).Chatot. This tribe settled near Mobile after having been drivenfrom Florida and moved to Louisiana about the same time asthe Apalachee. (See Florida.)Cherokee. In the latter part of the eighteenth century some Cher-okee worked their way down the Tennessee River as far as MuscleShoals, constituting the Chickamauga band. They had settlementsat Turkeytown on the Coosa, WiUstown on Wills Creek, andColdwater near Tuscumbia, occupied jointly with the Creeks anddestroyed by the Whites in 1787. All of their Alabama territorywas surrendered in treaties made between 1807 and 1835. (SeeTennessee.)Chickasaw. The Chickasaw had a few settlements in northwesternAlabama, part of which State was within their huntmg territories.At one time they also had a town called Ooe-asa (Wi-aca) amongthe Upper Creeks. (See Mississippi.)Choctaw. This tribe hunted over and occupied, at least temporarily,parts of southwestern Alabama beyond the Tombigbee. (SeeMississippi.)Creek Confederacy. This name is given to a loose organizationwhich constituted the principal political element in the territory ofthe present States of Georgia and Alabama from very early times,probably as far back as the period of De Soto. It was built around
SwANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 157
a dommant tribe, or rather a group of dominant tribes, calledMuskogee. The name Creek early became attached to thesepeople because when they were first known to the Carolina colonistsand for a considerable period afterward the body of them whichthe latter knew best was living upon a river, the present Ocmulgee,called by Europeans "Ocheese Creek." The Creeks were earlydivided geographically into two parts, one called Upper Creeks, onthe Coosa and Tallapoosa Rivers; the other, the Lower Creeks, onthe lower Chattahoochee and Ocmulgee. The former were alsodivided at times into the Coosa branch or Abihka and the Talla-poosa branch and the two were called Upper and Middle Creeksrespectively. Bartram (1792) tends to confuse the student bydenominating all of the true Creeks "Upper Creeks" and theSeminole "Lower Creeks." The dominant Muskogee graduallygathered about them?and to a certain extent under them?theApalachicola, Hitchiti, Okmulgee, Sawokli, Chiaha, Osochi, Yuchi,Alabama, Tawasa, Pawokti, Muklasa, Koasati, Tuskegee, a partof the Shawnee, and for a time some Yamasee, not counting brokenbands and families from various quarters. The first seven of theabove were for the most part among the Lower Creeks, theremainder with the Upper Creeks. (For further information, seethe separate tribal names under Alabama, Georgia, and Florida.)Eufaula. A division or subtribe of the Muskogee (q. v.).Fas-hatchee. A division of the Muskogee (q. v.).EUlibi. A division or subtribe of the Muskogee (q. v.).Hitchiti. This tribe lived for considerable period close to, and attimes within, the present territory of Alabama along its south-eastern margin. (See Georgia.)Ean-hatki. A division of the Muskogee (q. v.).Eealedji. A division of the Muskogee (q. v.).Koasati. Meaning unknown; often given as Coosawda and Cou-shatta, and sometimes abbreviated to Shati.Connections.?They belonged to the southern section of the Musk-hogean linguistic group, and were particularly close to the Alabama.Location.?The historic location of the Koasati was just below thejunction of the Coosa and Tallapoosa Rivers to form the Alabamaand on the east side of the latter, where Coosada Creek and Stationstill bear the name. (See also Florida, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas,and Oklahoma.) VillagesTwo Koasati towns are mentioned as having existed in very early times, oneof which may have been the Kaskinampo. (See Tennessee.) At a later period a
158 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145town known as Wetumpka on the east bank of Coosa River, in Elmore County,near the falls seems to have been occupied by Koasati Indians. During part ofits existence Wetumpka was divided into two settlements, Big Wetumpka on thesite of the modern town of the same name, and Little Wetumpka above the fallsof Coosa,History.?It is probable that from about 1500 until well along inthe seventeenth century, perhaps to its very close, the Koasati livedupon Tennessee River. There is good reason to think that they arethe Coste, Acoste, or Costehe of De Soto's chroniclers whose principalvillage was upon an island in the river, and in all probability thiswas what is now known as Pine Island. There is also a bare mentionof them in the narrative of Pardo's expedition of 1567 inland fromSanta Elena, and judging by the entries made upon maps publishedearly in the eighteenth century this tribe seems to have occupied thesame position when the French and English made their settlementsin the Southeast. About that time they were probably joined by therelated Kaskinampo. Not long after they had become known to theWhites, a large part of the Koasati migrated south and establishedthemselves at the point mentioned above. A portion seems to haveremained behind for we find a village called Coosada at Larkin'sLanding in Jackson County at a much later date. The main bodycontinued with the Upper Creeks until shortly after France ceded allof her territories east of the Mississippi to England in 1763, when alarge part moved to Tombigbee River. These soon returned to theirformer position, but about 1795 another part crossed the Mississippiand settled on Red River. Soon afterward they seem to have splitup, some continuing on the Red while others went to the Sabine andbeyond to the Neches and Trinity Rivers, Tex. At a later date afew Texas bands united with the Alabama in Polk County, wheretheir descendants still live, but most returned to Louisiana andgathered into one neighborhood northeast of Kinder, La. Thegreater part of the Koasati who remained in Alabama accompaniedthe Creeks to Oklahoma, where a few are still to be found. Previousto this removal, some appear to have gone to Florida to cast in theirlot with the Seminole.Population.?The earliest estimates of the Alabama Indians prob-ably included the Koasati. In 1750 they are given 50 men; in 1760,150 men. Marbury (1792) credits them with 130 men. In 1832,after the Louisiana branch had split off, those who remained numbered82 and this is the last separate enumeration we have. Sibley (1806)on native authority gives 200 hunters in the Louisiana bands; in1814 Schermerhorn estimates that there were 600 on the Sabine; in1817 Morse places the total Koasati population in Louisiana andTexas at 640; in 1829 Porter puts it at 180; m 1850 Bollaert gives thenumber of men in the two Koasati towns on Trinity River as 500.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 159In 1882 the United States Indian Office reported 290 Alabama,Koasati, and Muskogee in Texas, but the Census of 1900 raised thisto 470. The Census of 1910 returned 11 Koasati from Texas, 85from Louisiana, and 2 from Nebraska; those in Oklahoma werenot enumerated separately from the other Creeks. The 134 "Creeks"returned from Louisiana in 1930 were mainly Koasati.Connection in which they have become noted.?Coosada, a post villagein Elmore County, Ala., near the old Koasati town, and Coushatta,the capital of Red River Parish, La,, preserve the name of the Koasati.Kolomi. A division of the Muskogee (q. v.).Mobile. Meaning unknown, but Halbert (1901) suggests that itmay be from Choctaw moeli, "to paddle," since Mobile is pro-nounced moila by the Indians. It is the Mabila, Manilla, Mavila,or Mauvila of the De Soto chroniclers.Connections.?The language of the tribe was closely connected withthat of the Choctaw and gave its name to a trade jargon based uponChoctaw or Chickasaw.Location.?When the French settled the seacoast of Alabama theMobile were living on the west side of Mobile River a few miles be-low the junction of the Alabama and Tombigbee.History.?When they make their first appearance in history in 1540the Mobile were between the Alabama and Tombigbee Rivers, andon the east side of the former. Their chief, Tuscaloosa, was a verytall and commanding Indian with great influence throughout thesurrounding country. He inspired his people to attack the invadingSpaniards and a terrific battle was fought October 18, 1540, for thepossession of one of his fortified towns (Mabila), which the Spaniardscarried with heavy losses to themselves in killed and wounded, whileof the Indians 2,500 or more fell. It is probable that the village ofNanipacna, through which a force of Spaniards of the De Lunacolony passed in 1559, was occupied by some of the survivors of thistribe. At a later date they may have settled near Gees Bend of theAlabama River, in Wilcox County, because earl}^ French maps givea village site there which they call "Vieux Mobiliens." A Spanishletter of 1686 speaks of them as at war with the Pensacola tribe.When the French came into the country, the Mobile were, as statedabove, settled not far below the junction of the Tombigbee and Ala-bama. After a post had been established on the spot where Mobilestands today, the Mobile Indians moved down nearer to it and re-mained there until about the time when the English obtained posses-sion of the country. They do not appear to have gone to Louisianalike so many of the smaller tribes about them and were probablyabsorbed in the Choctaw Nation.
160 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Population.?After allowing for all exaggerations, the number ofMobUe Indians when De Soto fought with them must have been veryconsiderable, perhaps 6,000 to 7,000. Mooney (1928) estimates 2,000Mobile and Tohome in 1650, over a hundred years after the greatbattle. In 1702 Iberville states that this tribe and the Tohometogether embraced about 350 warriors; in 1725-26 Bienville (1932,vol. 3, p. 536), gives 60 for the Mobile alone, but in 1730 R^gis deRouillet (1732) cuts this in half. In 1758 De Kerl^rec (1907) esti-mates the number of warriors among the Mobile, Tohome, and Na-niaba at about 100.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Mobile haveattained a fame altogether beyond anything which their later numer-ical importance would warrant: (1) on account of the desperateresistance which they offered to De Soto's forces, and (2) from theimportant Alabama city to which they gave their name. There is aplace called Mobile in Maricopa County, Ariz.Muklasa. Meaning in Alabama and Choctaw, "friends," or "peopleof one nation."Connections.?Since the Muklasa did not speak Muskogee and theirname is from the Koasati, Alabama, or Choctaw language, and sincethey w^ere near neighbors of the two former, it is evident that theywere connected with one or the other of them.Location.?On the south bank of Tallapoosa River in MontgomeryCounty. (See Florida and Oklahoma.)History.?When we first hear of the Muklasa in 1675 they were inthe position above given and remained there until the end of theCreek-American War, when they are said to have emigrated to Floridain a body. Nothing is heard of them afterward, however, andalthough Gatschet (1884) states that there was a town of the namein the Creek Nation in the west in his time, I could learn nothing aboutit when I visited the Creeks in 1911-12.Population.?In 1760 the Muklasa are said to have had 50 men,in 1761, 30, and in 1792, 30. These are the only figures availableregarding their numbers.Muskogee. Meaning unknown, but perhaps originally from Shawneeand having reference to swampy ground. To this tribe the nameCreeks was ordinarily apphed. Also called:Ani'-Gu'sa, by the Cherokee, meaning "Coosa people," after an ancientand famous town on Coosa River.Ku-H'sha, by the Wyandot.Ochesee, by the Hitchiti.Sko'-ki ha?-ya, by the Biloxi.Connections.?The Muskogee language constitutes one division ofthe Muskhogean tongues proper, that which I call Northern.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 161
Location.?From the earliest times of which we have any recordthese people seem to have had to^vns aU the way from the Atlanticcoast of Georgia and the neighborhood of Savannah River to centralAlabama. (See also Florida, Louisiana, Oklahoma, Tennessee,and Texas.) Subdivt^ions and VillagesIt is difficult to separate major divisions of the Muskogee from towns andtowns from villages, but there were certainly several distinct Muskogee tribes ata very early period. The following subdivisional classification is perhaps as goodas any:Abihka (in St. Clair, Calhoun, and Talladega Counties):Abihka-in-the-west, a late branch of Abihka in the western part of the CreekNation, Okla.Abihkutci, on Tallassee Hatchee Creek, Talladega County, on the right bank5 miles from Coosa River.Kan-tcati, on or near Chocolocko, or Choccolocco, Creek and probably not farfrom the present "Conchardee."Kayomalgi, possibly settled by Shawnee or Chickasaw, probably near Sylacauga,Talladega County.Lun-ham-ga, location unknown.Talladega, on Talladega Creek, Talladega County.Tcahki lako, on Choccolocco Creek in Talladega or Calhoun County.Atasi: Location (1) on the upper Ocraulgee River, (2) on the Chattahoochee,(3) on the Tallapoosa in Tallapoosa County, (4) on the south side of the Talla-poosa in Macon County, and (5) on the north side near Calebee Creek inElmore County.Coosa:Abihkutci, a division of Okfuskee, which apparently came into existence afterthe Creeks had removed to Oklahoma.Atcinaulga, on the west bank of Tallapoosa River in Randolph County.Big Tulsa, on the east bank of Tallapoosa River at the mouth of Ufaubee Creekin Tallapoosa County.Chatukchufaula, possibly identical with the last, on Nafape Creek or TallapoosaRiver.Chuleocwhooatlee, on the left bank of Tallapoosa River, 11 miles below Nuyaka,in Tallapoosa County.Holitaiga, on Chattahoochee River in Troup County, Ga.Imukfa, on Emaufaw Creek in Tallapoosa Countj'.Ipisagi, on Sandy Creek in Tallapoosa County.Kohamutkikatsa, location unknown.Little Tulsa, on the east side of Coosa River, 3 miles above the falls, ElmoreCounty.Lutcapoga, perhaps near Loachapoka in Lee County, or on the upper Tallapoosa.Nafape, on a creek of the same name flowing into Ufaubee Creek.Okfuskee, location (1) at the mouth of Hillabee Creek, (2) at the mouth ofSand Creek, both in Tallapoosa County.Okfuskutci, (1) on Chattahoochee River in Troup County, Ga.; (2) on the upperTallapoosa in Tallapoosa County, Ala.; (3) another town of the name or anearlier location of the first somewhere near the lower Tallapoosa.Old Coosa, near the junction of the Coosa and Tallapoosa Rivers.
162 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Otciapofa, on the east side of the Coosa River in Elmore County, just belowthe falls.Saoga-hatchee, on Saogahatchee Creek, in Tallapoosa or Lee County.Suka-ispoga, on the west bank of Tallapoosa River below the mouth of HillibeeCreek, in Tallapoosa Countj'.Tallassehasee, on Tallassee Hatchee Creek in Talladega County.Tcahkilako, on Chattahoochee River near Franklin, Heard County, Ga.Tcatoksofka, seemingly a later name of the main Okfuskee town.Tcawokela, 25 miles east northeast of the mouth of Upatoie Creek, probablynear Chewacla Station, Lee County.Tculakonini, on Chattahoochee River in Troup County, Ga.Tohtogagi, on the west bank of Tallapoosa River, probably in RandolphCounty.Tukabahchee Tallahassee, later called Talmutcasi, on the west side of Talla-poosa River in Tallapoosa County.Tukpafka, on Chattahoochee River in Heard County, Ga., later moved toTallapoosa, settled on the left bank 11 miles above Okfuskee, TallapoosaCounty, and renamed Nuyaka.Tulsa Canadian, a branch of Tulsa on the Canadian River, Okla.Tulsa Little River, a branch of Tulsa near Holdenville, Okla.Coweta (early location on the upper Ocmulgee, later on the west bank of Chatta-hoochee River in Russell County, Ala., opposite Columbus, Ga.):Coweta Tallahassee, later Likatcka or Broken Arrow, probably a former locationof the bulk of the tribe, on the west bank of Chattahoochee River in RussellCounty, Ala.Katca tastanagi's Town "at Cho-lose-parp-kari."Settlements on "Hallewokke Yoaxarhatchee."Settlements on "Toosilkstorkee Hatchee."Settlements on "Warkeeche Hatchee."Wetumpka, a branch of the last on the main fork of Big Uchee Creek 12 milesnorthwest from the mother town, Coweta Tallahassee.Eufaula:A branch among the Seminole called Kan-tcati. (See Florida, Seminole.)A branch village of Eufaula hopai on a creek called "Chowokolohatchee."Eufaulahatchee or Eufaula Old Town, on Talladega Creek, also called EufaulaCreek, 15 miles from its mouth.Lower Eufaula or Eufaula hopai, above the mouth of Pataula Creek, in ClayCounty, Ga.Upper Eufaula, on the right bank of Tallapoosa River 5 miles below Okfuskee,in Tallapoosa County?at one time separated into Big Eufaula and LittleEufaula.Hilibi (at the junction of Hillabee and Bear Creeks, Tallapoosa County)
:
Anetechapko, 10 miles above Hilibi on a branch of Hillabee Creek.Etcuseislaiga, on the left bank of Hillabee Creek, 4 miles below Hilibi.Kitcopataki, location unknown.Lanutciabala, on the northwest branch of Hillabee Creek, probably in Talla-poosa County.Little Hilibi, location unknown.Oktahasasi, on a creek of the name 2 miles below Hilibi.Holiwahali (on the north bank of Tallapoosa River in Elmore County):Laplako, on the south side of Tallapoosa in Montgomery County nearly oppositeHoliwahali.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 163Kasihta (best-known location on the east bank of Chattahoochee River, at thejunction of Upatoie Creek in Chattahoochee County, Ga.):Apatai, in the forks of Upatoie and Pine Knob Creeks in Muskogee County, Ga.Salenojuh, on Flint River 8 miles below Aupiogee Creek (?).Settlements bearing the same name (Kasihta).Settlements on Chowockeleehatchee Creek, Ala.Settlements on Little Uchee Creek, Ala.Settlements on "Tolarnulkar Hatchee."Sicharlitcha, location unknown.Tallassee Town, on Opillikee Hatchee, perhaps in Schley or Macon Counties,Ga.Tuckabatchee Harjo's Town, on Osenubba Hatchee, a west branch of theChattahoochee, Ala.Tuskehenehaw Chooley's Town, near West Point, Troup County, Ga.Okchai:Asilanabi, on Yellow Leaf Creek in Shelby County.Lalogalga, or Fish Pond, on a branch of Elkhatchee Creek, 14 miles up, inTallapoosa or Coosa County.Okchai, location (1) on the east side of the lower Coosa in Elmore County; (2)in the southeastern part of Coosa County, on a creek bearing their name,which flowed into Kialaga Creek.Potcas hatchee, probably a branch of this on the upper course of HatchetCreek in Clay or Coosa County.Tcahki lako, on Chattahoochee River.Tulsa hatchee, location uncertain.Pakana:Pakan Tallahassee, on Hatchet Creek, Coosa County.The Pakana who settled near Fort Toulouse at the junction of Coosa andTallapoosa Rivers and aftenvard moved to Louisiana, living on CalcasieuRiver for a while.Tukabahchee (in the sharp angle made where Tallapoosa River turns west inElmore County)
:
Only one small out village is mentioned, Wihili, location unknown.Wakokai (on the middle course of Hatchet Creek in Coosa County)
:
Sakapadai, probably on Sacapartoy, a branch of Hatchet Creek, Coosa County.Tukpafka, on Hatchet Creek, Coosa County.Wiogufki, on Weogufka Creek in Coosa County.Besides the Muskogee tribes noted above, there were the following:Fus-hatchee. Not a major division; on the north bank of Tallapoosa River inElmore County, 2 miles below HoHwahali. They may have been related tothe Holiwahali.Kan-hatki. Not a major division; just below Kolomi on the north bank ofTallapoosa River in Elmore County. Possibly related to the Holiwahali.Kealedji. Not a primary division; perhaps a branch of Tukabahchee; location(1) on the Ocmulgee, (2) on Kialaga Creek in Elmore County or TallapoosaCounty, having one branch Hatcheetcaba, west of Kealedji, probably in ElmoreCounty.Kolomi. Probably not a major division; location (1) on the Ocmulgee, (2) on themiddle Chattahoochee in Russell County, Ala., (3) on the north side of thelower Tallapoosa in Elmore County. They may have been related to theHoHwahali.
164 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull, 145Wiwohka. Not a primary division but a late town; location (1) near the mouthof Hatchet Creek in Coosa County, (2) on Weoka Creek in Elmore County.In addition to the above there were a number of towns and villages whichcannot be classified, or only with extreme doubt. They are as follows:Acpactaniche, on the headwaters of Coosa River, perhaps meant for Pakana.Alkehatchee, an Upper Creek town.Atchasapa, on Tallapoosa River not far below Tulsa, possibly for ' tcheechubba.Aucheucaula, in the northwestern part of Coosa County.Auhoba, below Autauga. (See Alabama.)Breed Camp, an Upper Creek town, probably meant for the Chickasaw settlementof Ooe-asa.Cauwaoulau, a Lower Creek village in Russell County west of Uchee Post Officeand south of the old Federal road.Chachane, the Lower Creek town farthest downstream.Chanahunrege, between the Coosa and Tallapoosa Rivers in or near Coosa County.Chananagi, placed by Brannon (1909) "in Bullock County, just south of theCentral of Georgia Railroad near Suspension."Chichoufkee, an Upper Creek town in Elmore County, east of Coosa River andnear Wiwoka Creek.Chinnaby's Fort, at Ten Islands in the Coosa River.Chiscalage, in or near Coosa County, perhaps a body of Yuchi.Cholocco Litabixee, in the Horseshoe Bend of Tallapoosa River.Chuahla, just below White Oak Creek, south of Alabama River.Cohatchie, in the southwestern part of Talladega County on the bank of CoosaRiver.Conaliga, in the western part of Russell County or the eastern part of Macon,somewhere near the present Warrior Stand.Cooccohapofe, on Chattahoochee River.Cotohautustenuggee, on the right bank of Upatoie Creek, Muscogee County, Ga.Cow Towns, location uncertain.Donnally's Town, on the Flint or the Chattahoochee River.Ekun-duts-ke, probably on the south bank of Line Creek in Montgomery County.Emarhe, location uncertain.Eto-husse-wakkes, on Chattahoochee River, 3 miles above Fort Gaines.Fife's Village, an Upper Creek village a few miles east of Talladega, Ala.Fin'halui, a Lower Creek settlement, perhaps the Yuchi settlement of High Log.Habiquache, given by the Popple Map as on the west side of Coosa River.Ikan atchaka, "Holy Ground," in Lowndes County, 2}^ miles due north of WhiteHall, just below the mouth of Holy Ground Creek on the Old Sprott Plantation.Istapoga, in Talladega County near the influx of Estaboga Creek into Choc-colocco Creek, about 10 miles from Coosa River.Kehatches, somewhere above the bend of Tallapoosa River and between it and theCoosa.Kerofif, apparently on the upper Coosa.Litafatchi, at the head of Canoe Creek in St. Clair County.Lustuhatchee, above the second cataract of Tallapoosa River.Melton's Village, in Marshall County, Ala., on Town Creek, at the site of thepresent "Old Village Ford."Ninnipaskulgee, near Tukabahchee.Nipky, probably a Lower Creek town.Oakchinawa Village, in Talladega County, on both sides of Salt Creek, near thepoint where it flows into Big Shoal Creek.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 165Old Osonee Town, on Cahawba River in Shelby Ck)unty.Opillako, on Pinthlocco Creek in Coosa County.Oti palin, on the west bank of Coosa River, just below the junction of Canoe Creek.(See Chinnaby's Fort.)Oti tutcina, probably between Coosa and OpiHako or Pakan Tallahassee and onCoosa River.Pea Creek, perhaps an out settlement of Tukabahchee, location unknown.Pin Huti, somewhere near Dadeville iu Tallapoosa County.Rabbit Town, possibly a nickname, location unknown.St. Taffery's, location unknown.Satapo, on Tennessee River.Talipsehogy, an Upper Creek settlement.Talishatchie Town, in Calhoun County east of a branch of Tallasehatchee Creek,3 miles southwest of Jacksonville.Tallapoosa, said to be within a day's journey of Fort Toulouse at the junction ofthe Coosa and Tallapoosa Rivers and probably on the river of that name.Talwa Hadjo, on Cahawba River.Tohowogly, perhaps intended for Sawokli, 8 to 10 miles below the falls of theChattahoochee.Turkey Creek, in Jefferson County, on Turkey Creek north of Trussville, prob-ably Creek.Uncuaula, in the western part of Coosa County on Coosa River.Wallhal, an Upper Creek town given on the Purcell map, perhaps intended forEufaula, or an independent town on Wallahatchee Creek, Elmore County.WeyoUa, a town so entered on the Popple Map, between the Coosa and Tallapoosabut near the former; probably a distorted form of the name of some well-knownplace.History.?Muskogee tradition points to the northwest for the originof the nation. In the spring of 1540, De Soto passed through somesettlements and a "province" called Chisi, Ichisi, and Achese, insouthern Georgia, which may have been occupied by Muskogee becausethey are known to Hitchiti-speaking people as Ochesee. Somewhatlater he entered Cofitachequi, probably either the later Kasihta, orCoweta, and the same summer he entered Coosa and passed throughthe country of the Upper Creeks. Companions of De Luna visitedCoosa again in 1559 and assisted it in its wars with a neighboringtribe to the West, the Napochi. Cofitachequi was visited later byJuan Pardo and other Spanish explorers and some of Pardo's com-panions penetrated as far as Coosa. It is probable that part if notall of the province of Guale on the Georgia coast was at that time occu-pied by Muskogee, and relations between the Guale Indians and theSpaniards continued intimate from 1565 onward. Soon afterwardthe Spaniards also encountered the Creeks of Chattahoochee River.At what time the confederacy of which the Muskogee were the mostimportant part was estabhshed is unknown but the nucleus probablyexisted in De Soto's time. At any rate it was in a flourishing condi-tion in 1670 when South Carolina was colonized and probably con-tinued to grow more rapidly than before owing to the accession of
166 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Creek tribes displaced b}'' the 'Whites or other tribes whom the Whiteshad displaced. Before 1715 a large body were Hving on OcmulgeeRiver but following on the Yamasee outbreak of that year they with-drew to the Chattahoochee from which they had moved previouslyto be near the English trading posts. Occupying as they did a cen-tral position between the Enghsh, Spanish, and French colonies, thefavor of the Creeks was a matter of concern to these nations, and theyplayed a more important part than any other American Indians inthe colonial history of the Gulf region. For a considerable periodthey were allied with the English, and they were largely instrumentalin destroying the former Indian inhabitants of Florida and breakingup the missions which had been established there. Finding the terri-tory thus vacated very agreeable and one abounding in game, theypresently began to settle in it permanently, particularly after it wasceded to Great Britain in 1763. The first of the true Muskogee toemigrate to Florida, except for a small band of Coweta, were someEufaula Indians, and the Muskogee do not seem to have constitutedthe dominant element until after the Creek-American war, 1813-14.In the last decades of the eighteenth century, the internal organizationof the Confederacy was almost revolutionized by Alexander McGiUi-vray, the son of a Scotch trader, who set up a virtual dictatorship andraised the Confederacy to a high position of influence by his skill inplaying off one European nation against another. After his deathfriction developed between the factions favorable to and those opposedto the Whites. Inspired by the Shawnee chief, Tecumseh, a largepart of the Upper Creeks broke out into open hostihties in 1813, butnearly all of the Lower Creeks and some of the most prominent UpperCreek towns refused to join with them and a large force from theLower Creeks under William Macintosh and Timpoochee Barnard,the Yuchi chief, actively aided the American army. This war wasended by Andrew Jackson's victory at Horsehoe Bend on the Talla-poosa River, March 27, 1814. One immediate result of this war wasto double or triple the number of Seminole in Florida, owing to themultitude of Creeks who wished to escape from their old country.Fx'om this time on friction between the pro-White and anti-WhiteCreek factions increased. When the United States Governmentattempted to end these troubles by inducing the Indians to emigrate,the friction increased stiU more and culminated in 1825 when theGeorgia commissioners had induced William Macintosh, leader of thepro-American faction, and some other chiefs to affix their signaturesto a treaty ceding all that was then left of the Creek lands. For thisact formal sentence of death was passed upon Macintosh, and he wasshot by a band of Indians sent to his house for that purpose May 1,1825. However, the leaders of the Confederacy finally agreed to the
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 167
removal, which took place between 1836 and 1840, the Lower Creekssettling in the upper part of their new lands and the Upper Creeks inthe' lower part. The former factional troubles kept the .relations be-tween these two sections strained for some years, but they were finallyadjusted and in course of time an elective government with a chief,second chief, and a representative assembly of two houses was estab-lished, which continued until the nation was incorporated into theState of Oklahoma.Population.?Except where an attempt is made to give the popu-lation by towns, it is usually impossible to separate the Muskogeefrom other peoples of the Confederacy. Correct estimates of allCreeks are also rendered difficult because they were taking in smallertribes from time to time and giving off colonists to Florida andLouisiana. In 1702 Iberville placed the whole number of Creek andAlabama families at 2,000. In 1708 South Carolina officials esti-mated about 2,000 warriors. In 1715 something approaching acensus was taken of the tribes in their vicinity by the government ofSouth Carolina and a total of 1,869 men and a population of 6,522was returned for the Creeks, exclusive of the Alabama, Yuchi, Shawnee,Apalachicola, and Yamasee. A town by town enumeration madeby the Spaniards in 1738 shows 1,660 warriors; a French estimate of1750, 905; another of 1760, 2,620; a North Carolina estimate of 1760,2,000 warriors; an English estimate of 1761, 1,385; one of about 3,000the same year; an American estimate of 1792, 2,850; and finally thecensus taken in 1832-33 just before the emigration of the Creeks totheir new lands across the Mississippi, showed a total of 17,939 inthe true Aluskogee towns. Besides these more careful statements,we have a number of general estimates of warriors in the eighteenthcentury ranging from 1,250 up to between 5,000 and 6,000. Thislast was by Alexander McGillivray and is nearest that shown by thecensus of 1832-33. It would seem either that the earlier estimateswere uniformly too low or that the Confederacy increased rapidly dur-ing the latter part of the eighteenth century and the first part of thenineteenth. After the removal estimates returned by the IndianOffice and from other sources ranged between 20,000 and 25,000.When a new census was taken in 1857, however, less than 15,000 werereturned, and there was a slow falling off until 1919 when there wereabout 12,000. It must be noted that the census of 1910 returnedonly 6,945, a figure which can be reconciled with that of the UnitedStates Indian Office only on the supposition that it is supposed tocover only Indians of full or nearly full blood. The report of theUnited States Indian Office for 1923 gives 11,952 Creeks by blood.Regarding the later population it must be remembered that it hasbecome more and more diluted. The United States Census of 1930
168 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Boll. 145gave 9,083 but included the Alabama and Koasati Indians of Texasand Louisiana and individuals scattered through more than 13 otherStates outside of Oklahoma, where 8,760 lived. These "generalestimates" include the incorporated tribes.Connection in which they have become noted.?In the form Mus-khogean, the name of this tribe was adopted by Powell (1891) for thatgroup of languages to which the speech of the Muskogee belongs.In the form Muscogee it has been given to a county in western Georgia,and to a railroad junction in it, and to a post-village in EscambiaCounty, Fla. In the form Muskogee it is the name of the capital ofMuskogee County, Okla., the third largest city in that state. Thepolitical organization of which they constituted the nucleus and thedominant element represents the most successful attempt north ofMexico at the formation of a superstate except that made by theIroquois, and the part they played in the early history of our Gulfregion was greater than that of any other, not even excepting theCherokee. They were one of the principal mound-building tribes tosurvive into modern times and were unsurpassed in the elaboratecharacter of their ceremonials (except possibly by the Natchez),while their prowess in war was proven by the great contest whichthey waged with the United States Government in 1813-14, and thestill more remarkable struggle which their Seminole relatives anddescendants maintained in Florida in 1835-1842. Their great warspeaker, Hopohithli-yahola, was probably surpassed in native great-ness by no chief in this area except the Choctaw Pushmataha. (SeeForeman, 1930.)Napochi. If connected with Choctaw Napissa, as seems not unlikely,the name means "those who see," or "those who look out," probablyequivalent to "frontiersmen."Connection.?They belonged to the southern division of the Musk-hogeans proper, and were seemingly nearest to the Choctaw.Location.?Along Black Warrior River.History.?The tribe appears first in the account of an attempt tocolonize the Gulf States in 1559 under Don Tristan de Luna. Apart of his forces being sent inland from Pensacola Bay came toCoosa in 1560 and assisted its people against the Napochi, whomthey claimed to have reduced to "allegiance" to the former. Afterthis the Napochi seem to have left the Black Warrior, and we knownothing certain of their fate, but the name was preserved down tovery recent times among the Creeks as a war name, and it is probablethat they are the Napissa spoken of by Iberville in 1699, as havingrecently united with the Chickasaw. Possibly the Acolapissa ofPearl River and the Quinipissa of Louisiana were parts of the sametribe.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 169Population.?Unknown.Connection in which they have become noted.?The only claim theNapochi have to distinction is their possible connection with theremarkable group of momids at Moundville, Hale County, Ala.Natchez. One section of the Natchez Indians settled among thethe Abihka Creeks near Coosa River after 1731 and went to Okla-homa a century later with the rest of the Creeks. (See Mississippi.)Okchai. A division of the Muskogee (q. v.).Okmulgee. A Creek tribe and town of the Hitchiti connection.(See Georgia.)Osochi. Meaning unknown.Connections.?Within recent times the closest connections of thistribe have been with the Chiaha, though their language is said tohave been Muskogee, but there is some, reason to think that theymay have been originally a part of the Timucua. (See below.)Location.?Their best known historic seat was in the great bend ofChattahoochee River, Russell County, Ala., near the Chiaha. (Seealso Georgia and Florida.) VillagesThe town of Hotalgi-huyana was populated in part from this tribe and in partfrom the Chiaha. The census of 1832 gives two settlements, one on the Chatta-hoochee River and one on a stream called Opillike Hatchee.History.?The suggestion that the Osochi may have been Timucuais founded (1) on the resemblance of their name to that of a Timucuadivision in northwest Florida called by the Spaniards Ossachile orUgachile, (2) on the fact that after the Timucua uprising of 1656some of the rebels "fled to the woods," and (3) the later mention ofa detached body of Timucua in the neighborhood of the Apalachicola.Early in the eighteenth century they seem to have been living withor near the Apalachicola at the junction of the Chattahoochee andFlint. From what Hawkins (1848) tells us regarding them, we mustsuppose that they moved up Flint River somewhat later and fromthere to the Chattahoochee, in the location near the Chiaha abovegiven. They migrated to Oklahoma with the rest of the LowerCreeks, and maintained their separateness in that country for awhile but were later absorbed in the general mass of the Creekpopulation.Population.?The following estimates of the effective male popula-tion of the Osochi occur: 1750, 30; 1760, 50; 1792, 50. The censusof 1832-33 returned a total of 539, but one of the two towns inhabitedby these Indians may have belonged to the Okmulgee.
170 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Pakana. A division of the Muskogee (q, v.).Pawokti. This tribe moved from Florida to the neighborhood ofMobile along with the Alabama Indians and afterward establisheda town on the upper course of Alabama River. Still later theywere absorbed into the Alabama division of the Creek Confederacy.(See Florida.)Pilthlako. A division of the Creeks, probably related to the Muskogee(q. v.), and possibly a division of the Okchai,Sawokli. Possibly meaning "raccoon people," in the Hitchiti language,and, while this is not absolutely certain, the okli undoubtedlymeans "people."Connections.?The Sawokli belonged to the Muskhogean linguisticstock and to the subdivision called Atcik-hata. (See Apalachicola.)Location.?The best known historic location was on ChattahoocheeRiver in the northeastern part of the present Barbour County, Ala.(See Florida and Georgia.) VillagesHatches tcaba, probably on or near Hatchechubbee Creek, in Russell County,Ala.Okawaigi, on Cowikee Creek, in Barbour County, Ala.Okiti-yagani, in Clay County, Ga., not far from Fort Gaines.Sawokli, several different locations, the best known of which is given above.Sawoklutci, on the east bank of the Chattahoochee River, in Stewart County, Ga.Tcawokli, probably on Chattahoochee River in the northeastern part of RussellCounty, Ala.History.?When first known to the Spaniards the Sawokli were livingon Chattahoochee River below the falls. A Spanish mission, SantaCruz de Sabacola, was established in one section of the tribe by BishopCalder6n of Cuba in 1675, and missionaries were sent to a larger bodyamong the Creeks in 1679 and again in 1681. Most of the Indianssurrounding these latter, however, soon became hostile and those whowere Christianized withdrew to the junction of the Chattahoocheeand Flint Rivers, where they were settled not far from the newlyestablished Chatot missions. The Sawokli appear to have remainedin the same general region until 1706 or 1707, when they were displacedby hostile Indians, probably Creeks. At least part lived for a while onOcmulgee River and returned to the Chattahoochee, as did the resi-dents of many other Indian towns, about 1715, after which theygradually split up into several settlements but followed the fortunesof the Lower Creeks. In the seventeenth century there may have beena detached body as far west as Yazoo River, since a map of that periodgives a "Sabougla" town there and the name is preserved to thepresent day in a creek and post village.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 171Population.?In 1738 a Spanish report gives the Sawokh 20 men,evidently an underestimate. In 1750 four settlements are given withmore than 50 men, and in 1760 the same number of settlements and190 men, including perhaps the Tamati, but to these must be added 30men of Okiti-yakani. In 1761, including the neighboring and probablyrelated villages, they are reported to have had 50 hunters. Hawkinsin 1799 gives 20 hunters in Sawoklutci but no figures for the othertowns. (See Hawkins, 1848.) In 1821 Young {in Morse, 1822)estimates 150 inhabitants in a town probably identical with this, and,according to the census of 1832-33, there were 187 Indians in Sawoklibesides 42 slaves, 157 Indians in Okawaigi, and 106 in Hatcheetcaba;altogether, exclusive of the slaves, 450.Connection in which they have become noted.?Sawokla is the name ofa small place in Oklahoma, and a branch of this town has had its nameincorporated in that of a stream, the Chewokeleehatchee, in MaconCounty., Ala., and in a post office called Chewacia in Lee County, Ala.Shawnee. In 1716 a band of Shawnee from Savannah River movedto the Chattahoochee and later to the Tallapoosa, where theyremained until early in the nineteenth century. A second bandsettled near Sylacauga in 1747 and remained there until some timebefore 1761 when they returned north. (See Tennessee.)Taensa. This tribe was moved from Louisiana in 1715 and given alocation about 2 leagues from the French fort at Mobile, one whichhad been recently abandoned by the Tawasa, along a watercoursewhich was named from them Tensaw River. Soon after the cessionof Mobile to Great Britain, the Taensa returned to Louisiana. (SeeLouisiana.)Tohome. Said by Iberville to mean "little chief," but this is evidentlyan error.Connections.?They belonged to the southern branch of theMuskhogean linguistic group, their closest relatives being the Mobile.Location.?About Mcintosh's Bluff on the west bank of TombigbeeRiver, some miles above its junction with the Alabama.SubdivisionsAnciently there were two main branches of this tribe, sometimes called theBig Tohome and Little Tohome, but the Little Tohome are known more oftenas Naniaba, "people dwelling on a hill," or "people of the Forks;" the latterwould be because they were where the Alabama and Tombigbee Rivers unite.VillagesNo others are known than those which received their names from the tribeand its subdivisions.
172 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145History.?Cartographical evidence suggests that the Tohome mayonce have lived on a creek formerly known as Oke Thome, now-contracted into Catoma, which flows into Alabama River a shortdistance below Montgomery. When first discovered by the Whites,however, they were living at the point above indicated. In the DeLuna narratives (1559-60) the Tombigbee River is called "River ofthe Tome." Iberville learned of this tribe in April 1700, and sentmessengers who reached the Tohome village and returned in May.In 1702 he went to see them himself but seems not to have gonebeyond the Naniaba. From this time on Tohome history is identicalwith that of the Alobile and the two tribes appear usually to have beenin aUiance although a rupture between them was threatened upon oneoccasion on account of the murder of a Mobile woman by one of theTohome. In 1715 a Tohome Indian killed an English trader namedHughes who had come overland from South Carolina, had beenapprehended and taken to Mobile by the French and afterwardliberated. A bare mention of the tribe occurs in 1763 and again in1771-72. They and the Mobile probably imited ultimately with theChoctaw.Population.?In 1700 Iberville estimated that the Tohome andMobile each counted 300 warriors, but 2 years later he revised hisfigures so far that he gave 350 for the two together. In 1730 Regis deRouillet estimated that there were 60 among the Tohome and 50among the Naniaba. In 1758 Governor De Kerlerec estimated thatthe Mobile, Tohome, and Naniaba together had 100 warriors. (SeeMobile.)Tukabahchee. One of the four head tribes of the Muskogee (q. v.).Tuskegee. Meaning unknown, but apparently containing theAlabama term taska, "warrior."Connections.?The original Tuskegee language is unknown but itwas probably affiliated with the Alabama, and hence with the southernbranch of Muskhogeans.Location.?The later and best known location of this tribe was onthe point of land between Coosa and Tallapoosa Rivers, but in 1685part of them were on the Chattahoochee River near modern Columbusand the rest were on the upper Tennessee near Long Island. (See alsoOklahoma and Tennessee.) VillagesNone are known under any except the tribal name.History.?In 1540 De Soto passed through a town called Tasqui 2days before he entered Coosa. In 1567 Vandera was informed thatthere were two places in this neighborhood near together called Tasquiand Tasquiqui, both of which probably belonged to the Tuskegee.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 173By the close of the seventeenth century the Tuskegee appear to havedivided into two bands one of which Coxe (1705) places on an islandin Tennessee River. This band continued to live on or near the Ten-nessee for a considerable period but in course of time settled amongthe Cherokee on the south side of Little Tennessee River, just abovethe mouth of Tellico, in the present Monroe County, Tenn. Sequoyahved there in his boyhood. Another place wliich retained this name,and was probably the site of an earlier settlement was on thenorth bank of Tennessee River, in a bend just below Chattanooga,while there was a Tuskegee Creek on the south bank of Little Tennes-see River, north of Robbinsville, in Graham County, N. C. Thisband, or the greater part of it, was probably absorbed by the Cherokee.A second body of Tuskegee moved to the location mentioned abovewhere the Coosa and Tallapoosa Rivers come together. It is possiblethat they first established themselves among the Creek towns on theOcmulgee, moved with them to the Chattahoochee in 1715 and finallyto the point just indicated, for we have at least two documentarynotices of Tuskegee at those points and they appear so situated on anumber of maps. It is more Ukely that these were the Tuskegee whofinally settled at the Coosa-Tallapoosa confluence than a third divisionof the tribe but the fact is not yet established. In 1717 the Frenchfort called Fort Toulouse or the Alabama Fort was built close to thistown and therefore it continued in the French interest as long asFrench rule lasted. After the Creek removal, the Tuskegee formeda town in the southeastern part of the Creek territories in Oklahoma,but at a later date part moved farther to the northwest and estabhshedthemselves near Beggs.Population.?There are no figures for the Tuskegee division whichremained on Tennessee River. The southern band had 10 menaccording to the estimate of 1750, but this is evidently too low.Later enumerations are 50 men in 1760, 40 in 1761, including those ofCoosa Old Town, 25 in 1772 and 1792, 35 in 1799. The census of1832-33 returned a population of 216 Indians and 25 Negro slaves.Connection in which they have become noted.?The name Tuskegeebecame applied locally to several places in eastern Tennessee andwestern North Carolina, and one in Creek County, Okla., but the mostimportant place to receive it was Tuskeegee or Tuskegee, the countyseat of Macon County, Ala. The Tuskegee Normal and IndustrialInstitute for colored people, located at this place, has, under theguidance of the late Booker T. Washington, made the name betterknown than any other association.Wakokai. A division or subtribe of the Muskogee (q. v.).
174 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Wiwohka. A division of the Muskogee made up from several differentsources. (See Muskogee.)Yamasee. There was a band of Yamasee on MobUe Bay shortly after1715, at the mouth of Deer River, and such a band is entered onmaps as late as 1744. It was possibly this same band which appearsamong the Upper Creeks during the same century and in particularis entered upon the Mitchell map of 1755. Later they seem to havemoved across to Chattahoochee River and later to west Florida,where in 1823 they constituted a Seminole town. (See Florida.)Yuchi. A band of Yuchi seems to have lived at a very early datenear Muscle Shoals on Tennessee River, whence they probablymoved into east Tennessee. A second body of the same tribemoved from Choctawhatchee River, Fla., to the Tallapoosa before1760 and established themselves near the Tulcabahchee, but theysoon disappeared from the historical record. In 1715 the WestoIndians, who I believe to have been Yuchi, settled on the Alabamaside of Chattahoochee River, probably on Little Uchee Creek. Theyear afterward another band, accompanied by Shawnee and Apala-chicola Indians, established themselves farther down, perhaps atthe mouth of Cowikee Creek in Barbour County, and not longafterward accompanied the Shawnee to Tallapoosa River. Theysettled beside the latter and some finally united with them. Theyseem to have occupied several towns in the neighborhood in succes-sion and there is evidence that a part of them reached the lowerTombigbee. The main body of Yuchi shifted from the Savannahto Uchee Creek in Russell County between 1729 and 1740 andcontinued there until the westward migration of the Creek Nation.(See Georgia.) MISSISSIPPIAcolapissa. When first known to Europeans, this tribe lived on PearlRiver, partly in what is now Mississippi, -partly in Louisiana, butthey were more closely associated with Louisiana in later times andwill be treated among the tribes of that State. (See Louisiana.)Biloxi. Apparently a corruption of their own name Taneks a?ya,
"first people," filtered over the tongues of other Indians. Alsocalled
:
Ananis, Anaxls, Annocchy, early French spellings intended for Taneks.Polu'ksalgi, Creek name.Connections.?They belonged to the Siouan linguistic family.Location.?Their earUest historical location was on the lower courseof Pascagoula River. (See also Louisiana, Oklahoma, and Texas.)
SwANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 175
VillagesNone are knowii except those bearing the name of the tribe, unless we assumethe "Moctobi" or "Capinans" to be a part of them. These, however, may havebeen merely synonyms of the tribal name.History.?It is possible that the Biloxi are the Capitanesses whoappear west of Susquehanna River on early Dutch charts. On theDe Crenay map of 1733, a Biloxi town site appears on the right bankof the Alabama River, a little above the present Clifton in WilcoxCounty, Ala. This was probably occupied by the Biloxi during theirimmigration from the north. Individuals belonging to the tribe weremet by Iberville on his first expedition to Louisiana in 1699, and inJune of the same year his brother Bienville visited them. In 1700Iberville found their town abandoned and does not mention encounter-ing the people themselves, though they may have been sharing thePascagoula village at which he made a short stop. A few years later,P^nicaut says (1702-23), St. Denis persuaded the Biloxi to abandontheir village and settle on a small bayou near New Orleans but by1722 they had returned a considerable distance toward their old homeand were established on the former terrain of the Acolapissa Indianson Pearl River, They continued in this neighborhood and close tothe Pascagoula until 1763, when French government east of theMississippi came to an end. Soon afterward, although we do notknow the exact date, they moved to Louisiana and settled not farfrom Marksville. They soon moved farther up Red River and stilllater to Bayou Boeuf, Early in the nineteenth century they soldtheir lands, and, while part of them remained on the river, a largebody migrated to Texas and settled on Biloxi Bayou, in AngelinaCounty. All of these afterward left, either to return to Louisiana orto settle in Oklahoma, A few Biloxi are still hving in Rapides Parish,La., and there are said to be some in the Choctaw Nation, but thetribe is now practically extinct. In 1886 the Siouan relationship oftheir language was established by Dr, Gatschet of the Bureau of Ameri-can Ethnology, and a considerable record of it was obtained by Mr.James O. Dorsey of the same institution in 1892-93. (See Dorseyand Swanton, 1912.)Population.?On the basis of the imperfect records available, I havemade the following estimates of Biloxi population at different periods:420 in 1698, 175 in 1720, 105 in 1805, 65 in 1829, 6-8 in 1908, Mooney(1928) estimated that this tribe, the Pascagoula, and the "Moctobi"might number 1,000 in 1650.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Biloxi are remark-able (1) as having spoken a Siouan dialect unlike all of their neighborswith one possible exception; (2) as the tribe first met by Iberville whenhe reached the coast of Louisiana and estabhshed the French colony
176 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145
of that name; (3) as having furnished the names of the first two capitalsof Louisiana, Old and New Biloxi; that of the present Biloxi, Miss.;and the name of Biloxi Bay.Capinans. The name of a body of Indians connected in Frenchreferences with the Biloxi and Pascagoula and probably a branchof one of them.Chakchiuma. Proper spelling Shaktci homma, meaning "RedCrawfish [People]."Connections.?They spoke a dialect closely related to Choctaw andChickasaw. Their nearest relatives were the Houma (q. v.), whoevidently separated from them in very recent times.Location.?In the eighteenth century on Yalobusha River where itempties into the Yazoo but at an early period extending to the headof the Yalobusha and eastward between the territories of the Choctawand Chickasaw tribes as far as West Point.SubdivisionsA French map dated about 1697 seems to call that section of the tribe on YazooRiver, Sabougla, though these may have been a branch of the Sawokli.(See Georgia.)History.?According to tradition, this tribe came from the west atthe same time as the Chickasaw and Choctaw and settled betweenthem. When De Soto was among the Chickasaw, an expedition wasdirected against the Chakchiuma "who the [Chickasaw] Cacique saidhad rebelled," but their town was abandoned and on fire. It wasclaimed that they had planned treachery against the Spaniards. Thechief of the tribe at this time was Miko Lusa (Black Chief). Afterthe French settlement of Louisiana a missionary was killed by thesepeople and in revenge the French stirred up the neighboring tribes toattack them. They are said to have been reduced very considerablyin consequence. Afterward, they remained closely allied with theFrench, assisted them after the Natchez outbreak, and their chiefwas appointed leader of the Indian auxiliaries in the contemplatedattack upon the Chickasaw in 1739. The animosity thus excitedprobably resulted in their destruction by the Chickasaw and absorptioninto the Chickasaw and Choctaw tribes. From De Crenay's map itappears that a part had gone to live with the Chickasaw by 1733.The rest may have gone to the Choctaw, for a band bearing their nameconstituted an important division of that nation. Tradition statesthat they were destroyed by the united efforts of the Chickasaw andChoctaw, but the latter were uniformly alUed with the French andhostile to the Chickasaw when this alliance is supposed to havebeen in existence.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 177Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates 1,200 souls among theChakchiuma, Ibitoupa, Taposa, and Tiou in 1650; exclusive of theTiou, my owti would be 750. In 1699 they are said to have occupied70 cabins. In 1702 it is claimed that there were 400 famihes, whichin 1704 had been reduced to 80, but probably the first figure is anexaggeration. About 1718-30 there were 50 Chakchiuma cabins andin 1722 the total population is placed at 150.Chickasaw. Meaning unknown, though the ending suggests that itmight have been a place name. Also called:Ani'-Td'ksA, Cherokee name.Kasahd unii?, Yuchi name.Tchaktch^n, Arapaho name.Tchfkasa, Creek name.Tci'-ka-sa', Kansa name.Ti-ka'-jS,, Quapaw name.Tsi'-ka-c^, Osage name.Connections.?Linguistically the Chickasaw were closely connectedwith the Choctaw and one of the principal tribes of the Muskhogeangroup.Location.?In northern Mississippi, principally in Pontotoc andUnion Counties. (See South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Arkansas,Kentucky, Oklahoma, and Tennessee.)SubdivisionsAside from some incorporated tribes such as the Napochi and Chakchiuma, nomajor subdivisions other than towns are mentioned until late in Chickasawhistory when we hear of three such subdivisions: those of Tishomingo, Sealy, andMcGilvery, named after their chiefs. These, however, were probably superficialand temporary. VillagesAckia.Alaoute, mentioned only by Iberville.Amalahta.
.\peonn6.Apile faplimengo (Iberville).Ashukhuma.Ayebisto (Iberville).Chatelaw.Chinica (Iberville).Chucalissa.Chukafalaa.Coiii loussa, (French Memoir of 1755).Latcha Hoa, on Latcha Hoa Run, an affluent of Ahoola Ihalchubba, a westerntributary of Tombigbee River, northeastern Mississippi.Etoukouma (De Batz).Falatchao.Gouytola (Iberville).
178 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Boll. 145Ogoula-Tchetoka (Dc Batz).Onthaba atchosa (Iberville).Ooe-asa, in Creek Nation near Sylacauga.Oucahata (Iberville).Oucthambolo (Iberville).Outanquatle (French Memoir of 1755).Tanvachilca (Iberville).Thanbolo (Iberville).Tuckahaw.Tuskawillao.Yaneka.All of the above, with one or two exceptions noted, were close to one anotherin the general location given above.History.?Like most of the other Muskhogean peoples, the Chicka-saw believed they had come from the west. They thought that theyhad settled for a time at a spot in northern Alabama on the northside of the Tennessee River long known as Chickasaw Old Fields.There is little doubt that Chickasaw had once hved at that placew^hether or not the whole tribe was so located. The first Europeansto become acquainted with the tribe were the Spaniards under De Soto,who spent the months of January, February, and March 1541, inthe Chickasaw country, and in the latter month were attacked by thetribe with such fury that they were nearly destroyed. Little is heardof the Chickasaw from this time until French explorers and colonistsarrived, at the end of the seventeenth century. They found the tribein approximately the position in which De Soto had encounteredthem, and they found them as warhke as before. Although the Frenchtried to make peace with them, English traders had effected estabUsh-ments in their country even before the settlement of Louisiana, andthey remained consistent alhes of England while England and Francewere fighting for the possession of North America. In the south theiralliance meant much the same to the English as L*oquois friendshipmeant to them in the north. As practically all of the sm-roundingpeoples were devoted to the French, and the Chickasaw were notnumerous, they were obliged to maintain a very unequal struggleuntil the final victory of England in 1763, and they suffered severelyin consequence. They supported the Natchez when they revoltedin 1729, and when French expeditions from the north and south werehurled upon them simultaneously in 1736, they beat both off withheavy losses. In 1740 a gigantic attempt was made to conquer them,but the greater part of the force assembled dissolved without accom-plishing anything. A small French expedition under Celoron suc-ceeded in obtaining a treaty of peace advantageous to the Frenchbut this soon became a dead letter, and French coromunications upand down the Mississippi River were constantly threatened andFrench voyageurs constantly attacked in the period following. In
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 1791752 and 1753 the French commanders Benoist and Reggio weredefeated by the Chickasaw. At an earUer period, shortly before1715, they and the Cherokee together drove the Shawnee from theirsettlements on the Cumberland, and in 1745 they expelled anotherShawnee band from the same region. In 1769 they utterly routedthe Cherokee on the site of the Chickasaw Old Fields. In 1793-95war broke out with the Creeks, who invaded their territories with1,000 men, but while they were attacking a small stockade, a bandof about 200 Chickasaw fell upon them, whereupon an unaccountableterror took possession of the invaders, and they fled precipitately.There was at one time a detached body of Chickasaw on the lowerTennessee not far from its mouth. They also had a town among theUpper Creeks for a brief period (Ooe-asa), and a settlement nearAugusta, Ga., from about 1723 to the opening of the AmericanRevolution. The Chickasaw maintained friendship with the Ameri-can Government after its establishment, but, being pressed upon bywhite settlers, parted with their lands by treaties made in 1805, 1816,1818, and 1832. The actual migration to new homes in what is nowOklahoma began in 1837 and extended to 1847. The Chickasaw andChoctaw mingled rather indiscriminately at first but their lands wereseparated in 1855 and the Chickasaw set up an independent govern-ment modeled on that of the United States which lasted until mergedin the new State of Oklahoma.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates that there were about 8,000in 1600. In 1702 Iberville estimated that there were 2,000 familiesof Chickasaw, but in 1715 a rather careful enumeration made bythe colony of South Carolina, gave 6 villages, 700 men, and a popula-tion of 1,900. In 1761, a North Carolina estimate gives about 400men; in 1766, about 350. Most of the subsequent estimates of thenumber of warriors made during the eighteenth century vary between250 and 800. In 1817 Morse (1822) places the total population at3,625; in 1829 General Peter B. Porter estimates 3,600 {in School-craft, 1851-57, vol. 3); and a more accurate report in Schoolcraftgives 4,715 in 1833. The figures of the United States Indian OflBcebetween 1836 and the present time vary from 4,500 for 1865 to 1870to nearly 11,000 in 1923, but this latter figure includes more than 5,000freedmen and persons intermarried in the tribe, and, when we allowfor mixed bloods, we shall find that the Chickasaw population properhas usually stood at between 4,500 and 5,500 during the entire period.There has probably been a slow decline in the absolute amount ofChickasaw blood owing to constant intermixture with other peoples.The 1910 census returned 4,204 Chickasaw and that of 1930, 4,745.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Chickasaw werenoted (1) as one of the most warlike tribes of the Gulf area, (2) as
180 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bdll. 145the tribe of all those encountered by the Spaniards who came nearestputting an end to De Soto's army, (3) as the constant allies of theEnglish without whom the control of the Gulf region by the latterwould many times have been jeopardized. There are post villagesof the name in Mobile County, Ala., and Mercer County, Ohio,and Chickasha, a variant form, is the name of the county seat ofGrady County, Okla.Choctaw. Meaning unknown, though Halbert (1901) has suggestedthat they received their name from Pearl River, "Hachha". Alsocalled:Ani'-Tsa'ta, Cherokee name.Flat Heads, from their custom of flattening the heads of infants.Henne'sb, Arapaho name.Nabuggindebaig, probably the Chippewa name for this tribe, signifying
"flat heads."Pa?s falaya, "Long Hairs," given by Adair.Sanakfwa, Cheyenne name, meaning "feathers sticking up above the ears."Ta-qta, Quapaw name.Tca-qtd, a?-ya-df, or Tca-qta ha''-ya, Biloxi name.Tca-td, Kansa name.T^tes Plates, French equivalent of "Flat Heads."Tsah-t<i, Creek name.Connections.?This was the largest tribe belonging to the southernMuskhogean branch. Linguistically, but not physically, it was mostclosely allied with the Chickasaw and after them with the Alabama.Location.?Nearly all of the Choctaw towns were in the southeasternpart of Mississippi though they controlled the adjoining territoryin the present State of Alabama. The small tribes of Mobile weresometimes called Choctaw. (See also Louisiana, Texas, Oklahoma,Alabama, and Arkansas.)Subdivisions and VillagesFrom the earliest times of which we have any knowledge the Choctaw villageswere distributed into three divisions: a southern, a northeastern, and a western,though a central group may also be distinguished. The southern division isfairly well defined by our several informants, but there is considerable disagree-ment with reference to the others. One authority gives but two divisions, aneastern and a western, and even cuts up the southern group between them.The following locations were established largely by Mr. H. S. Halbert (1901):Southern or Sixtown Division:Bishkun, in the northern part of Jasper County.Bissasha, on the west side of Little Rock Creek, in Newton County, sect. 23,tp. 8, range 12, east.Boktoloksi, on Boguetuluksi Creek, a southwest affluent of ChickasawhayRiver.Chickasawhay, on Chickasawhay River about 3 miles south of Enterprise,Clarke County.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 181Chinakbi, on the site of Garlandville, in Jasper County.Chiskilikbacha, probably in Jasper County.Coatraw, 4 miles southwest of the town of Newton in sect. 17, tp. 5, range 11,east, Newton County.Inkillis tamaha, in the northeastern part of Jasper County.Nashobawenya, in the southwestern part of Jasper County.Okatalaia, in the eastern part of Smith County or the western part of JasperCounty.Oktak chito tamaha, location unknown.Oskelagna, probably in Jasper County.Puskustakali, in the southwest corner of Kemp>er County or the proximatepart of Neshoba County.Siniasha, location uncertain.Tala, in the southern part of Newton County, between Tarlow and BogueFelamma Creeks.Talahoka, in Jasper County.Yowani, on the east side of Chickasawhay River, in the southern part of ClarkeCounty.Western Division:Abissa, location uncertain.Atlantchitou, location unknown.Ayoutakale, location unknown.Bok chito, probably on Bogue Chitto, in Neshoba and Kemper Counties.Bokfalaia, location uncertain.Bokfoka, location unknown.Boktokolo, location unknown.Cabea Hoola, location unknown.Chunky, on the site of Union, Newton County.Chunky chito, on the west bank of Chunky Creek, about half a mile below theconfluence of that creek with Talasha Creek?later this belonged to thesouthern district.East Kunshak chito, near Moscow, in Kemper County.Filitamon, location unknown.Halunlawi asha, on the site of Philadelphia, in Neshoba County.Hashuk chuka, location unknown.Hashuk homa, location unknown.Imoklasha, on the headwaters of Talasha Creek, in Neshoba County, in sec-tions 4, 9, and 16, tp. 9, range 13, east,lyanabi, on Yannubbee Creek, about 8 miles southwest of De Kalb, in KemperCounty.Itichipota, between the headwaters of Chickasawhay and Tombigbee Rivers.Kafitalaia, on Owl Creek, in section 21, tp. 11, range 13, east, in NeshobaCounty.Kashtasha, on the south side of Custusha Creek, about 3 miles a little south ofWest Yazoo Town.Konshak osapa, somewhere west of West Imoklasha.Koweh chito, northwest of De Kalb, in Kemper County.Kushak, on Lost Horse Creek, 4 miles southeast of Lazelia, liauderdale County.Kunshak bolukta, in the southwestern part of Kemper County some 2 milesfrom Neshoba County line and 1% miles from the Lauderdale County line.Kunshak chito, on or near the upper course of Oktibbeha River.Lushapa, perhaps on Lussalaka Creek, a tributary of Kentarcky Creek, inNeshoba County.
182 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bcll. 145Oka Chippo, location unknown.Oka Coopoly, on Ocobly Creek, in Neshoba County.Oka hullo, probably on or near the mouth of Sanoote Creek, which emptiesinto Petickfa Creek in Kemper County.Oka Kapassa, about Pinckney Mill, in sect. 23, tp. 8, range 11, east, in NewtonCounty?possibly in the southern section.Okalusa, in Romans' time on White's Branch, Kemper County.Okapoola, location unknown.Okehanea tamaha, location unknown.Oklabalbaha, location unknown.Oklatanap, location unknown.Oony, south of Pinckney Mill, in Newton County?possibly in the southerndivision.Osak talaia, near the line between Neshoba and Kemper Counties.Osapa chito, on the site of Dixon Post OfRce, in Neshoba County.Otuk falaia, location unknown.Pante, at the head of Ponta Creek, in Lauderdale County.Shinuk Kaha, about 7 miles a little north or east of Philadelphia, in NeshobaCounty.Shumotakali, in Kemper County, between the two head prongs of Black WaterCreek.Tiwaele, location unknown.Tonicahaw, location unknown.Utapacha, location unknown.Watonlula, location uncertain.West Abeka, location unknown.West Kunshak chito, in Neshoba Covmty, near the headwaters of OktibbehaCreek.Wiatakali, about 1 mile south of the De Kalb and Jackson road, in NeshobaCounty.Yazoo, or West Yazoo, in Neshoba County, near the headwaters of OktibbehaCreek, in sections 13 and 24, tp. 10, range 13, east.Northeastern Divison:Alamucha, 10 miles from Sukenatcha Creek, in Kemper Coimty.Athlepele, location unknown.Boktokolo chito, at the confluence of Running Tiger and Sukenatcha Creeks,about 4 miles northwest of De Kalb.Chichatalys, location unknown.Chuka hullo, on the north side of Sukenatcha Creek, somewhere between themouths of Running Tiger and Straight Creeks, in Kemper County.Chuka lusa, location unknown.Cutha Aimethaw, location unknown.Cuthi Uckehaca, probably on or near the mouth of Parker's Creek, which emp-ties into Petickfa, in sect. 30, tp. 10, range 17, east.East Abeka, at the junction of Straight Creek with the Sukenatcha, in KemperCount}'.Escooba, perhaps on or near Petickfa Creek, in Kemper County.Hankha Ula, on a fiat-topped ridge between the Petickfa and Black WaterCreeks, in Kemper County.Holihta asha, on the site of De Kalb, in Kemper County.Ibetap okla chito, perhaps on Straight Creek, in Kemper County.Ibetap okla iskitini, at the head of the main prong of Yazoo Creek, in KemperCounty.
SWAHTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 183Imoklasha iskitiui, on Flat Creek, the eastern prong of Yazoo Creek, in KemperCounty.Itokchako, near East Abeka, in Kemper County.Kunshaktikpi, on Coonshark Creek, a tributary of Kentarky Creek, in NeshobaCounty.Lukfata, on the headwaters of one of the prongs of Sukenatcha River.Oka Altakala, probably at the confluence of Petickfa and Yannubbee Creeks,in Kemper County.Osapa issa, on the north side of Blackwater Creek, in Kemper County.Pachanucha, location unknown.Skanapa, probably on Running Tiger Creek, in Kemper County.Yagna Shoogawa, perhaps on Indiao. branch of Running Tiger Creek.Yanatoe, probably in southwest Kemper County.Yazoo iskitini, on both sides of Yazoo Creek.The following were outside the original town cluster:Bayou Chicot, south of Cheneyville, St. Landry Parish, La.Boutt^ Station, in St. Charles Parish, La.Cahawba Old Towns, in Perry County, Ala., and probably on Cahawba River,Cheponta's Village, on the west bank of the'Tombigbee River in the extremesoutheastern part of Choctaw County, Ala.Chisha Foka, on the site of Jackson.Coila, in Carroll County, probably occupied by Choctaw.Heitotowa, at the site of the later Sculleyville, Choctaw Nation, Okla.Shukhata, on the site of Columbus, Ala.Teeakhaily Ekutapa, on the lowQr Tombigbee River.Tombigbee, on or near Tombigbee River.A few other names of towns placed in the old Choctaw country appear on variousmaps, but most of these are probably intended for some of the villages givenabove.History.?After leaving the ruins of Mabila, De Soto and his fol-lowers, according to the Gentleman of Elvas (see Robertson, 1933),reached a province called PafaUaya, but, according to Ranjel, to achief river called Apafalaya. Halbert is undoubtedly right in be-lieving that in these words we have the old name of the Choctaw,Pa?sfalaya, "Long Hairs," and this is the first appearance of theChoctaw tribe in history. We hear of them again, in Spanish Floridadocuments of the latter part of the seventeenth century, and fromthis time on they occupied the geographical position always asso-ciated with them until their removal beyond the Mississippi. TheFrench of necessity had intimate dealings with them from the timewhen Louisiana was first colonized, and the relations between thetwo peoples were almost invariably friendly. At one time an Englishparty was formed among the Choctaw, partly because the pricescharged by the Carolina traders were lower than those placed uponFrench goods. This was led by a noted chief named Red Shoes andlasted for a considerable time, one of the principal Choctaw townsbeing burned before it came to an end with the defeat of the Britishparty in 1750. In 1763, after French Government had given way to
184 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145that of the English east of the Mississippi, relations between thelatter and the Choctaw were peaceful though many small bands ofIndians of this tribe crossed the Mississippi into Louisiana. TheAmerican Revolution did not alter conditions essentially, and, thoughTecumseh and his emissaries endeavored to enlist the Choctaw inhis favor, only about 30 individuals joined the hostile Creeks. Theabstinence of the tribe as a whole was due very largely to the personalinfluence of the native statesman, Pushmataha, whose remains He inthe Congressional Cemetery in Washington, surmounted by an im-pressive monument. Meanwhile bands of Choctaw continued movingacross the Mississippi, but the great migration occurred after theTreaty of Dancing Rabbit, September 30, 1830, by which the tribeceded their old lands. However, a considerable body of Choctaw didnot leave at this time. Many followed, it is true, at the time of theallotment in Oklahoma, but upward of a thousand still remain, prin-cipally in the neighborhood of Philadelphia, Miss. The westernChoctaw established a government on the model of those of the othercivihzed tribes and that of the United States, and it was not given upuntil merged in the State of Oklahoma early in the present century.Population.?Estimates of the number of Choctaw warriors between1702 and 1814 vary between 700 and 16,000. A North Carolinaestimate made in 1761 says they numbered at least 5,000 men.Conmion estimates are between 4,000 and 5,000, but even thesefigures may be a trifle low since the first rehable census, that of Arm-strong, in 1831, gave 19,554. However, there may have been a shghtincrease in population after the beginning of the nineteenth century,when an end was put to intertribal wars. Figures returned by theIndian Office since that time show a rather unusual constancy. Theygo as low as 12,500, and at the other extreme reach 22,707, but theaverage is from 18,000 to 20,000. The census of 1910 gave 15,917,including 1,162 in Mississippi, 14,551 in Oklahoma, 115 in Louisiana,57 in Alabama, and 32 in other States, but the United States IndianOffice Report for 1923 has 17,488 Choctaw by blood in Oklahoma,1,600 "Mississippi Choctaw" in Oklahoma, and 1,439 in the State ofMississippi, not counting about 200 in Louisiana, Alabama, andelsewhere. A few small tribes were gathered into this nation, butonly a few. The census of 1930 returned 17,757, of whom 16,641 werein Oklahoma, 624 in Mississippi, 190 in Louisiana, and the rest inmore than 14 other States. In 1937 the Mississippi Choctaw num-bered 1,908, from which it seems that many of the Mississippi Choc-taw were missed in 1930 unless the "Mississippi Choctaw" ah'eady inOklahoma are included.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Choctaw werenoted (1) as the most numerous tribe in the Southeast next to the
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 185Cherokee, (2) as depending more than most other tribes in the regionon agriculture, (3) for certain peculiar customs such as head deforma-tion, extensive use of ossuaries for the dead, and the male custom ofwearing the hair long, (4) as faithful allies of the French against theEnglish but always at peace with the United States Government,(5) as having furnished the names to counties in Alabama, Missis-sippi, and Oklahoma, and settlements in the same States, and in VanBuren County, Ark.Choola. Bernard de La Harpe gives this as the name of a smalltribe of 40 individuals on the Yazoo River. There is some reasonto think it was applied to a part of the Ibitoupa tribe (q. v.).The name means "fox" in Chickasaw and Choctaw.Grigra. Said to have been given them from the frequent occurrenceof these two syllables in their speech. They sometimes appear asthe "Gray Village" of the Natchez.Convections.?The fact that the language of this tribe contained anr suggests a probable relationship with the tribes of the Tunicangroup.Location.?When first known to us, it formed one of the Natchezvillages on St, Catherines Creek, Miss.VillagesOnly one village is mentioned called by a shorter form of the name given to thetribe, Gris or Gras.History.?The Grigra had been adopted by the Natchez at an earherperiod than the Tiou (q. v.) and, Uke them, may once have resided onYazoo River, but there is no absolute proof of this. They are men-tioned as one of three Natchez tribes belonging to the anti-Frenchfaction. Otherwise their history is identical with that of the Natchez.Population.?One estimate made about 1720-25 gives about 60warriors.Houma. Literally "red," but evidently an abbreviation of saktcihomma, "red crawfish."Connections.?They spoke a Muskhogean language very close toChoctaw, and it is practically certain from the fact that their emblemwas the red crawfish that they had separated from the Chakchiuma(q. v.).Location.?The earliest known location of the Houma was on theeast side of the Mississippi River some miles inland and close to theMississippi-Louisiana boundary line, perhaps near the present Pinck-ney, Miss. (See also Louisiana.)
186 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Boll. 145
VillagesAt one time the people of this tribe were distributed between a Little Houmavillage 2 leagues below the bead of Bayou La Fourche and a Great Houmavillage half a league inland from it. This was after thej- had moved from theirearlier home.History.?La Salle heard of the Houma in 1682, but he did not visitthem. Tonti made an alliance with them 4 years later, and in 1699their village was the highest on the Mississippi reached by Iberville be-fore returning to his ships. In 1700 Iberville visited them again andleft a missionary among them to build a church, which was an accom-plished fact when Gravier reached the tribe in November of the sameyear. A few years later the Tunica, who had been impelled to leavetheir old town, were hospitably received by this tribe, but in 1706 theyrose upon their hosts, destroyed part of them, and drove the rest downthe Mississippi. These reestablished themselves on Bayou St. Johnnear New Orleans, but not long afterward they reascended the river tothe present Ascension Parish and remained there for a considerableperiod. In 1776 they sold a part at least of their lands to two FrenchCreoles but seem to have remained in the neighborhood until some yearsafter the purchase of Louisiana by the United States. By 1805 somehad gone to hve with the Atakapa near Lake Charles. Alost of theremainder appear to have drifted slowly across to the coast districtsof Terrebonne and La Fourche Parishes, where their descendants,with Creole and some Negro admixture, still live.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates a Houma population in 1650of 1,000. In 1699 Iberville gives 140 cabins and about 350 warriors,while the Journal of the second vessel in this expedition gives a popu-lation of 600-700. In 1718, after the tribe had suffered from bothpestilence and massacre. La Harpe estimates 60 cabins and 200 war-riors. In 1739 a French officer who passed their town rates thenumber of their warriors at 90-100 and the whole population at 270-300. In 1758 there is an estimate of 60 warriors and in 1784 one of 25while, in 1803, the total Houma population is placed at 60. In 1907the native estimate of mixed-blood population calling itself Houmawas 800-900, but the census of 1910 returned only 125 Indians fromTerrebonne. To these there should probably be added some fromLa Fourche but not a number sufficient to account for the discrepancy.In 1920, 639 were returned and in 1930, 936 from Terrebonne besides1 1 from La Fourche. Speck estimates double the number.Connection in which they have become noted.?Houma, the capital ofTerrebonne Parish, preserves the name.Ibitoupa. Meaning probably, people "at the source of" a streamor river.




SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 187Connections.?No words of this language are known unless the tribalname itself is native, but from this and Le Page du Pratz's (1758)statement that their language, unlike that of the Tunica group, waswithout an r, there is every reason to class it as Muskhogean and closelyrelated to Chackchiuma, Chickasaw, and Choctaw.Location.?On Yazoo River in the present Holmes County, perhapsbetween Abj^atche and Chicopa Creeks.VillagesOnly one village is known, and that called by the tribal name, though it ispossible that the Choula, (q. v.) mentioned by La Harpe were an offshoot.History.?The Ibitoupa are mentioned in 1699 by Iberville, and inCoxe's Carolana (1705). Before 1722 they had moved higher up andwere 3 leagues above the Chakchiuma (q. v.), who were then probablyat the mouth of the Yalobusha. They probably united with theChickasaw soon after the Natchez War, though they may first havecombined with the Chakchiuma and Taposa. They were perhaps re-lated to the people of the Choctaw towns called Ibetap okla.Population.?All that we know of the population of the Ibitoupa isthat in 1722 it occupied 6 cabins; in the same year there are said tohave been 40 Choula, a possible offshoot.Connection in which their name has become noted.?It seems to havebeen the original of the name of Tippo Bayou, Miss.Koasati. A band of Koasati moved from Alabama to TombigbeeRiver in 1763 but returned to their old country a few years laterimpelled by the hostilities of their new neighbors. (See Alabama.)Koroa. Meaning unknowTi. Also called:Kiilua, Choctaw name, the Muskhogean people being unable to pronouncer readily.Connections.?The name and associations, together with Le Pagedu Pratz's (1758) statement that their language possessed an r sound,are practically conclusive proof that this tribe belonged to the Tunicanlinguistic group.Location.?The Koroa appear oftenest in association with the Yazooon the lower course of Yazoo River, but at the very earliest periodthey were on the banks of the Mississippi or in the interior of what isnow Louisiana on the other side of that river. (See also Louisiana.)VillagesNone are known under any other name.History.?In the De Soto narratives a people is mentioned calledColigua and Colima which may be the one under discussion. If not,the first appearance of the Koroa in history is on Marquette's map
188 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bdll. 145
applying to 1673, though they are there misplaced. The La Sallenarratives introduce us, apparently, to two tribes of the name, one onYazoo River, the other below Natchez, but there are reasons forthinking that the latter was the tribe elsewhere called Tiou. InTonti's account of his expedition overland to the Red River in 1690we learn of a Koroa town west of the Mississippi, and also of a KoroaRiver. In 1700 Bienville also learned of a trans-Mississippi Koroasettlement. From the time of Tonti's expedition to the mouth ofthe Mississippi in 1686 there seems to have been a Koroa town on ornear the lower Yazoo, as mentioned above. When the Natchez out-break occurred, this tribe and the Yazoo joined them and destroyedthe French post on Yazoo River, but they suffered severely fromIndians allied with the French and probably retired soon afterwardto the Chickasaw, though part, and perhaps all of them, ultimatelysettled among the Choctaw. The Choctaw chief Allen Wrightclaimed to be of Koroa descent.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates that there were 2,000Koroa, Yazoo, Tunica, and Ofo in 1650. Le Page du Pratz placesthe number of Koroa cabins in his time at 40. In 1722 the totalpopulation of the Koroa, Yazoo, and Ofo is given as 250, and in 1730the last estimate of the Koroa and Yazoo together gives 40 warriors,or perhaps 100 souls.Moctobi. This name appears in the narratives of the first settlementof Louisiana, in 1699, applied to a tribe living with or near the Biloxiand Pascagoula. It is perhaps the name of the latter in the Biloxilanguage, or a subdivision of the Biloxi themselves, and is besttreated in connection with the latter.Natchez. Meaning unknown (the z should not be pronounced).Also called:Ani'-Na'tsT, Cherokee name.Sunset Indians, given by Swan {in Schoolcraft (1851-57)).Theloel or Thecoel, name used by the Natchez but seemingly derived fromthat of a town.Connections.?The Natchez were the largest of three tribes speakingclosely related dialects, the other two being Taensa and Avoyel, andthis group was remotely related to the great Muskhogean family.Location.?The historic seat of the Natchez Indians was along St.Catherines Creek, and a little east of the present city of Natchez.(See also Alabama, Louisiana, North Carolina, Oldahoma, SouthCarolina, and Tennessee.) VillagesIberville gives the following list of Natchez villages: "Natch6s, Pochougoula,Ousagoucoulas, Cogoucoulas, Yatanocas, Ymacachas, Thoucoue, Tougoulas, and
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 189Achougoulas." This list was obtained through the medium of the Mobilian tradelanguage and part of the names are undoubtedly translated into it. Thus wefind the Mobilian and Choctaw word for people, okla, "ougoula," or "oucoula," infive of these. The term Tougoulas probably designates the town of the Tiou (q. v.),an adopted tribe, and one of the others is perhaps a designation for the adoptedtribe of Grigra (q. v.). Later writers usually speak of but five settlements,including that of the Grigra. One of these, the town of the "walnuts," is evi-dently the Ousagoucoulas of Iberville's informants, meaning, in reality, the townof the Hickories. The Great Village was probably the town called Nachds orNatchez, and Pochougoula, the Flour Village, but the others mentioned, Jen-zenaque or Jensenac and the White Apple or Apple Village cannot be identified.A White-earth village is mentioned by one writer, probably intended for theWhite Apple village. The Natchez among the Cherokee lived for a time at atown called Guhlaniyi.History.?Undoubtedly tribes of the Natchez group were encoun-tered by De Soto and his companions in 1541-43, and it is highlyprobable that the chief Quigaltanqui, who figures so prominently inthe pursuit of the Spaniards when they took to the Mississippi, wasleader of the tribe in question or of one of its divisions. The nameNatchez appears first, however, in the narratives of La Salle's descentof the Mississippi in 1682. Relations between the French and Natchezwere at first hostile, but peace was soon made and in 1699 a mis-sionary visited the latter with a view to permanent residence. Thenext year Iberville, who had stopped short of the Natchez in his earlierascent of the Mississippi, opened negotiations with the Natchez chief.A missionary was left among them at this time and the mission wasmaintained until 1706. In 1713 a trading post was established.The next year four Canadians, on their way north, were killed bysome Natchez Indians and this resulted in a war which Bienvillepromptly ended. Inmiediately afterward a stockaded fort was builton a lofty bluff by the Mississippi and named Fort Rosalie. Severalconcessions were granted in the neighborhood and settlers flowed inuntil this was one of the most flourishing parts of the new colony.Between 1722 and 1724 there were shght disturbances in the goodrelations which had prevailed between the settlers and Indians, butthey were soon smoothed over and harmony prevailed until a newcommandant named Ch^part, who seems to have been utterly unfitfor his position, was sent to take command of Fort Rosahe. Inconsequence of his mismanagement a conspiracy was formed againstthe French and on November 28, 1729, the Indians rose and destroyedboth post and settlement, about 200 Whites being slain. Next yearthe French and their Choctaw allies attacked the forts into whichthe Natchez had retired and hberated most of their captives but ac-complished httle else, and one night their enemies escaped across theMississippi, where they established themselves in other forts in themarshy regions of northeastern Louisiana. There they were again
190 BUREAIf OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145
attacked and about 400 were induced to surrender, but the greaterpart escaped during a stormy night and withdrew to the Chickasaw,who had been secretly aiding them. Later they divided into twobands, one of which settled among the Upper Creeks while the otherwent to live with the Cherokee. Afterward each followed the fate oftheir hosts and moved west of the Mississippi with them. Those whohad hved with the Creeks Established themselves not far from Eufaula,Okla., where the last who was able to speak the old tongue died about1890. The Cherokee Natchez preserved their language longer, anda few are able to converse in it at the present day (1925).Population.?Mooney's (1928) estimate of Natchez population in1650 is 4,500; my own, as of- 1698, 3,500. In 1731, after the lossessuffered by them during their war with the French, Perrier estimatedthat they had 300 warriors. In 1735, 180 warriors were reportedamong the Chickasaw alone. During the latter half of the eighteenthcentury estimates of the warriors in the Creek band of Natchez varyfrom 20 to 150, and in 1836 Gallatin conjectures that its numbersover aU were 300, which is probably above the fact. There are nofigures whatever for the Cherokee band of Natchez.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Natchez havebecome famous in a number of ways: (1) because they were the largestand strongest tribe on the lower Mississippi when Louisiana wassettled by the French, (2) on account of their monarchical governmentand the peculiar- institution of the Sun caste, (3) on account of thecustom of destroying relatives and companions of a dead member ofthe Sun caste to accompany him or her into the world of spirits, (4) forthe massacre of the French post at Natchez and the bitter war whichsucceeded it, (5) from the name of the city of Natchez, Miss., adoptedfrom them. The name is also borne by post villages in MonroeCounty, Ala.; and Natchitoches Parish, La.; and a post hamlet inMartin County, Ind.Ofo, or Ofogoula, see Mosopelea under Ohio.Okelousa. A tribe living at one time in northern Mississippi. (SeeLouisiana.)Pascagoula. "Bread people." Also called:Miskigiila, Biloxi name.Connections.?They were probably Muskhogeans although closelyassociated with the Siouan Biloxi.Location.?Their earhest known location was on the river whichstiU bears their name, about 16 French leagues from its mouth.(See also Louisiana and Texas.)
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 191VillagesUnknown, but see Biloxi.History.?Iberville heard of the Pascagoula in 1699 when he madethe first permanent settlement in Louisiana. That summer his brotherBienville visited them, and the following winter another brother,Sauvolle, who had been left in charge of the post, received severalPascagoula visitors. Some Frenchmen visited the Pascagoula townthe next spring and P^nicaut (in Margry, 1875-86, vol. 5) has leftan interesting account of them. In Le Page du Pratz's time (earlyeighteenth century) they were on the coast, but they did not movefar from this region as long as France retained possession of thecountry. When French rule ended the Pascagoula passed over toLouisiana and settled first on the Mississippi River and later on RedRiver at its junction with the Rigolet du Bon Dicu. In 1795 theymoved to Bayou Boeuf and established themselves between a bandof Choctaw and the Biloxi. Early in the nineteenth century allthree tribes sold these lands. A part of the Pascagoula remained inLouisiana for a considerable period, Morse mentioning two distinctbands, but a third group accompanied some Biloxi to Texas and hvedfor a time on what came to be called Biloxi Bayou, 15 miles above itsjunction with the Neches. I have been able to find no Indians inLouisiana claiming Pascagoula descent, but in 1914 there were twoamong the Alabama who stated that their mother was of this tribe,their father having been a Biloxi.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates that in 1650 there were 1,000all told of the Biloxi, Pascagoula, and Moctobi. My own estimatefor about the year 1698 is 875 of whom I should allow 455 to thePascagoula. In 1700 Iberville states that there were 20 families,which would mean that they occupied the same number of cabins,but Le Page du Pratz raises this to 30. In 1758 the Pascagoula,Biloxi, and Chatot are estimated to have had about 100 warriors.In 1805 Sibley (1832) gives 25 among the Pascagoula alone. Morse(1822) estimates a total Pascagoula population of 240, and Schoolcraft(1851-57) cites authority for 111 Pascagoula in 1829. This is thelast statement we have bearing upon the point.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Pascagoula tribeis of some note as a constant companion of the Siouan Biloxi, andfrom the fact that it has bequeathed its name to Pascagoula River,Pascagoula Bay, and Pascagoula Port, Miss.Pensacola. This tribe moved inland from Pensacola Bay near theend of the seventeenth century and in 1725-26 had establishedthemselves near the Biloxi on Pearl River, (See Florida.)
192 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Quapaw. When the French discovered this tribe in 1673 one townwas on the east side of the Mississippi, but before 1700 it moved tothe western bank. (See Arkansas.)Taposa. Meaning unknown.Connections.?As this tribe is said to have been alhed with theChickasaw and, unlike the Tunica and Tiou, did not have an r soundin their language, there is every reason to suppose that they belongedto the Muskhogean stock. Probably they were most closely affiUatedwith their neighbors, the Chakchiuma and Chickasaw.Location.?Their earliest known location was on Yazoo River afew miles above the Chakchiuma.History.?The Taposa are first mentioned by Iberville and themissionary De Montigny, in 1699. On the De Crenay map of 1733(1910) their village is placed very close to that of the Chakchiuma,whose fortunes they probably followed.Population.?The only hint as to the size of this tribe is given byLe Page du Pratz who says that the Taposa had about 25 cabins,half the number he assigns to the Chakchiuma. Other writers usuallyinclude them with the Chakchiuma (q. v.).Tiou. Meaning unknown. The name has occasionally been mis-printed "Sioux," thus causing confusion with the famous Siouxor Dakota of Minnesota and the Dakotas.Connections.?The Tiou are proved by a statement of Dirond'Artaguiette (1916) to have belonged to the Tunica linguistic groupof the Tunican family.Location.?Their earliest location was near the upper course ofYazoo River; later they lived a little south of the Natchez and thenamong them.History.?Shortly before 1697 the Tiou appear to have been in thelocality first mentioned, and a map of that date seems to give twotowns of Tiou, one above the Tunica and one below them. By 1699part had settled among the Natchez, having been driven from theirformer homes, according to Le Page du Pratz (1758), by the Chicka-saw. Before establishing themselves finally with the Natchez, theyseem to have lived for a time a short distance below them on theMississippi River, where La Salle and his companions speak of them asKoroa. Part of the tribe appears to have remained on the Yazoo forsome years after the rest had left. At a later period the Bayogoulacalled in Tiou and Acolapissa to take the places of the Mugulasha withwhom they had formerly lived and whom they had destroyed. Soonafter Fort Rosalie had been built, the Tiou sold the lands upon whichthey had settled to the Sieur Roussin and moved elsewhere. Afterthe Natchez massacre the hostile Indians sent them to the Tunica in a
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 193
vain endeavor to induce the latter to declare against the French. In1731, if we may trust a statement by Charlevoix, they were utterly cutoff by the Quapaw, and while the completeness of this destruction maywell be doubted, we hear nothing of them afterward.Population.?No estimate of Tiou population separate from that ofthe Natchez is known.Tunica. Meaning "the people," or "those who are the people."Also called:Yoron, their own name.Connections.?They were the leading tribe of the Tunica group ofthe Tunican stock, the latter including also the Chitimacha andAtakapa.Location.?On the lower course of Yazoo River, on the south sideabout 4 French leagues from its mouth. (See also Arkansas.)History.?There is evidence that tribes belonging to the Tunicagroup were encountered by De Soto west of the Mississippi and veryprobably the name of the tribe is preserved in that of the town ofTanico mentioned by Elvas {in Robertson, 1933), where people madesalt, for in later years we find the Tunica engaged in the making andselling of this commodity. An early location for them on the easternside of the Mississippi is indicated by the "Tunica Oldfields" nearFriar Point, not many miles below Helena, Ark. The name appears onMarquette's map (1673) but there they are wrongly placed. In 1682La Salle and his companions learned of this tribe, then located as givenabove, but neither he nor his lieutenant Tonti visited them on this orany subsequent expedition, though they learned of Tunica villages inthe salt-making region of northeastern Louisiana. The Yazoo town ofthe tribe was first seen, apparently, by three missionary priests fromCanada, one of whom, Father Davion, established himself amongthem in 1699. In 1702 he fled from his charges, but two or threeyears later was induced by them to return, and he remained amongthem for about 15 years more. In 1706 this tribe left the Yazoo andwere received into the Houma town nearly opposite the mouth ofRed River, but later, according to La Harpe (1831), they rose upontheir hosts and killed more than half of them, and for a long periodthey continued to live in the region they had thus appropriated. Theywere firm friends of the French and rendered them invaluable servicein all difficulties with the tribes higher up, and particularly against theNatchez, but in 1719 or 1720 Davion was so much discouraged at themeager results of his efforts that he left them. The anger excitedagainst them by their support of the French resulted in an attack by alarge party of Natchez and their allies in 1731 in which both sidessuffered severely and the head chief of the Tunica was killed. The
194 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Tunica remained in the same region until some time between 1784 and1803, when they moved up Red River and settled close to the presentMarksville, La., on the land of the Avoyel Indian village which theyclaimed to have bought from the Avoyel tribe. Before this event tookplace, in company with the Ofo, Avoyel, and some Choctaw, theyattacked the pirogues of a British expedition ascending the Mississippi,killed six men, wounded seven, and compelled the rest to turn back.A few families descended from the Tunica are still settled on the sitejust mentioned, which forms a small reservation. Sibley (1832) saysthat in his time Tunica had settled among the Atakapa, and it wasperhaps some of their descendants of whom Dr. Gatschet heard asliving near Beaumont, Tex., about 1886. Mooney (1928) learned ofsome Tunica families in the southern part of the Choctaw Nation,Okla., but they had lost their old language.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated that in 1650 the totalpopulation of the Tunica, Yazoo, Koroa, and Ofo was 2,000, and thisvery figure, except that it does not include the Koroa, is given by themissionary De Montigny in 1699. My own figure for the same dateis somewhat higher, 2,450, out of which I estimate about 1,575 wereTunica. In 1719 the number of Tunica was conjectured to be 460and in 1803, 50 to 60, though a second statement of about the sameperiod gives 25 warriors. Morse (1822) reports 30 Tunica inLouisiana.The census of 1910 gives 43 Tunica in all, but among these are includedsome Indians of other tribes and there w&re many mixed-bloods.The census of 1930 gives only 1, he being the onlj^ one who couldspeak the old language.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Tunica wereprominent in history (1) from the fact that their language was theprincipal dialect of a stock on the lower Mississippi which receivedits name from them, (2) for their sedentary character, (3) for theirdevotion to the French interest and their part in the Natchez wars,(4) from the perpetuation of their name in Tunica County, andTunica Oldfields, Miss., and a post village of the name in WestFeliciana Parish, La.Yazoo. Meaning unknown.Connections.?The associations of this tribe with the Koroa and thefact that their language contained an r sound make it reasonablycertain that they belonged to the Tunican group and stock.Location.?On the south side of Yazoo River about 4 French leaguesabove its mouth. (See also Ai'kansas.)History.?The Yazoo appear to have been the first of the tribesliving on the lower part of the Yazoo River to have establishedthemselves there, and hence it was from them that the stream received
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 195
its name. They are mentioned by La Salle and his companions inconnection with their voyage to the mouth of the Mississippi in 1682.A French post was established near them in 1718, and in 1727 a Jesuitmissionary, Father Seuel, settled nearby. In 1729, however, theYazoo joined the Natchez in their uprising, murdered the missionary,and massacred the French garrison. Their subsequent fortunes wereidentical with those of the Koroa, and they were probably absorbedinto the Chickasaw or Choctaw. It is not improbable that. there issome connection between the name of this tribe and that of two ofthe Yazoo towns among the Choctaw, but if so it goes back beyondrecorded history.Population.?I have estimated that in 1698 there were somewhatmore than 600 Yazoo and Koroa together. In 1700 Gravier reported30 Yazoo cabins, but a quarter of a century later Le Page du Pratz(1758) estimated 100. In 1722 the Yazoo, Koroa, and Ofo togetherare said to have numbered 250. In 1730, however, the number ofYazoo and Koroa warriors is placed at 40.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Yazoo are notedprincipally from the fact that they have transmitted their name toYazoo River, Miss., and secondarily to Yazoo County and its capitalcity, in the same State. LOUISIANAAcolapissa. Meaning "those who listen and see," indicating possibly
"borderers" or "scouts." Also called:Aquelou pissas, by Le Page du Pratz (1758, 2: 219).Cenepisa, by La Salle {in IMargry, 1875-86, 1: 564).Colapissas, in 1699 by P^nicaut {in French, 1869, p. 38).Coulapissas, in 1700 by Sauvole {in Margry 1875-86, 4: 462).Equinipichas, by Sauvole {in French, 1851, 3: 225).Kinipissa, by Tonti {in Margry, 1875-86; 1: 604).Kolapissas, in 1700 by Gravier {in French, 1875, p. 88).Connections.?The Acolapissa belonged to the Muskhogean lin-guistic family and evidently spoke a language closely related toChoctaw and Chickasaw. They may have been more intimatelyconnected with the Napissa who united with the Chickasaw and whowere perhaps identical with the Napochi (q. v.) of De Luna, but theirclosest relatives were the Tangipahoa (q. v.).Location.?Their earliest known location was on Pearl River about11 miles above its mouth. (See also Mississippi.)VillagesIberville was told that they consisted of six villages and that the Tangipahoaconstituted a seventh, but we treat the latter separately, and the names of thesix are not given.
196 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145History.?The Acolapissa are not mentioned among the tribes thatcame to Iberville in 1699 to form an alliance with him, but after hisdeparture for France, Bienville visited them and was well received,although at first they were terrified because of a slave raid made uponthem 2 days before by the English and Chickasaw. In 1702 (or 1705)they moved from Pearl River and settled on a bayou on the northside of Lake Pontchartrain called "Castembayouque" (now CastineBayou). Six months later the Natchitoches Indians (q. v.) de-scended to the French fort on the Mississippi from their town on RedRiver to ask assistance from St. Denis, the commandant there, becauseof the ruin of their crops. St. Denis sent them under the charge ofPenicaut to the Acolapissa, who welcomed them and assigned a placefor them to settle close to their own village. Late in 1713 or early in1714 St. Denis, who had received a commission to proceed to Texasto examine the Spanish settlements, sent for the Natchitoches intend-ing to reestablish them in their former seats, but upon hearing of thisproject the Acolapissa fell upon them and killed and captured a con-siderable number. In 1718, according to Penicaut, but in any casebefore 1722, they moved over to the Mississippi River and settled onthe east side 13 leagues from New Orleans. In 1739 they constitutedpractically one settlement with the Bayogoula and Houma, withwhom they finally merged. Their later history is one with that ofthe Houma (q. v.).Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated that in 1650 the populationof the Acolapissa and the Tangipahoa together was 1,500. My owncalculation as of 1698 is 1,050, based on La Harpe's (1831) estimate of300 Acolapissa warriors in 1699 and Iberville's estimate of 250 families3 years later. In 1722 Charlevoix states that there were 200 warriorsand in 1739 there are said to have been of the Acolapissa, Houma, andBayogoula together 90 to 100 warriors and 270 to 300 people exclu-sive of children.Adai. Meaning unloiown.Connections.?This tribe was at first thought to have constitutedan independent linguistic stock and the name Adaizan was given toit, but later Dr. Gatschet determined that the Adai language was asomewhat aberrant Caddo dialect, and it was therefore placed in theCaddoan stock.Location.?Near the present Robeline in Natchitoches Parish.History.?In 1699 Iberville mentions the Adai under the nameNatao. In 1717 the mission of San Miguel de Linares was establishedamong them by Spanish Franciscan missionaries. The buildings weredestroyed in 1719 by a force of French and Indians, but they wererebuilt 2 years later as San Miguel de los Adaes, and the mission was
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 197
not finally abandoned until 1773. In October 1721 a military postcalled Nuestra Senora del Pilar de los Adaes was located close to themission and continued until the latter was given up. For 50 years thispost was the capital of Texas in spite of, or because of, the fact that itwas on its extreme eastern frontier. In 1778 De M^zieres states {inBolton, 1914) that the tribe was almost extinct, but in 1805 Sibleyreported a small Adai settlement on Lake Macdon near an affluentof Red River. The survivors probably combined with the otherCaddoan tribes of the region and followed their fortunes.Population.?Bienville reported 50 warriors among them in 1700but twice as many in 1718. When the mission of San Miguel wasrebuilt it is said to have served 400 Indians. In 1805 the Adai villagecontained only 20 men but the number of women was much greater.The total Adai population in 1825 was 27. My own estimate for 1698is about 400.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Adai were peculiarin having spoken a dialect so diverse from the other Caddo forms ofspeech that, as already stated, Powell (1891) at first gave them anindependent status as constituting the Adaizan linguistic family.Historically, the Adai Indian and White settlement was noted as theeasternmost outpost of the Spaniards and of the Franciscan Spanishmissions, and it was the capital of the Province of Texas for 50 years.Alabama. Some of this tribe moved to Louisiana shortly after theterritory east of the Mississippi was abandoned by the French.Most of them finally passed on into Texas, but a few are still settledin the southwestern part of the State. (See Alabama.)Apalachee. A band of Apalachee Indians moved from the neighbor-hood of Mobile to Louisiana in 1764, remained for a short time on theMississippi River and then moved up to Red River, where theyobtained a grant of land along with the Taensa. Later they soldthis land and part of them probably removed to Oklahoma, butothers remained in Louisiana and amalgamated with other tribes,(See Florida.)Atakapa. Meaning in Choctaw and MobiUan, "man eater," becausethey and some of the Indians west of them at times ate the fleshof their enemies.Skunnemoke, the name of a chief, extended to the whole people.Ttlk-pa'-ha?-ya-di, Biloxi name.Yuk'hiti ishak, own name.Connections.?The Atakapa were originally placed in an independentlinguistic stock, including also the Bidai, Deadose, and probably theOpelousa, but it has now been determined that they belonged to onefamily ^vith the Chitimacha, their eastern neighbors, and probably
198 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bdll. 145the Tunican group on the Mississippi, the whole being called theTunican stock.Location.?Atakapa bands extended along the coast of Louisianaand Texas from Vermillion Bayou to and including Trinity Bay.(See Akokisa under Texas.)Subdivisions and VillagesThe Atakapa about Trinity Bay and the lower course of Trinity River werecalled Akokisa by the Spaniards, but they diflfered in no respect from the Atakapaof Lake Charles. There was, however, an eastern Atakapa dialect which wasdistinctly different from the one current in the Lake Charles and Trinity Baysections and was spoken by two different bands, one about Vermillion Bay andone on the Mermentou River. There were a number of small villages but theirnames are unknown.History.?In 1528 Cabeza de Vaca learned of the existence of someof these Indians, calling them Han. The portion of the Atakapaliving in Louisiana came to the attention of the French after the latterhad established themselves on the Mississippi River, but it so hap-pened that they had more dealings with the people of Trinity Bay,the Akokisa. This was owing in the first place to the romantic adven-tures of a French officer, Simars de Belle-Isle, left upon this coast in1719. In 1721 Bernard de la Harpe and Captain Beranger accom-panied by Belle-Isle visited the bay and carried some Indians offwith them to New Orleans. Fortunately for us, Beranger recordeda number of words in their language which prove it to have beenalmost identical with the Atakapa of Lake Charles. The Indianssubsequently escaped and are reported to have reached their owncountry. In 1779 the band of Atakapa on Vermillion Bayou fur-nished 60 men and the Mermentou band 120 men to Galvez for hisexpedition against the British forts on the Mississippi. In the latterpart of the eighteenth century numerous plots of land were sold toFrench Creoles by the Atakapa Indians, but the last village of theeasternmost band was not abandoned until early in the nineteenthcentury. The last village of the Atakapa who spoke the easterndialect was on the Mermentou and Indians are said to have livedthere down to 1836. The Calcasieu band held together for a longerperiod, so that in 1908 a few persons were living who once made theirhomes in the last native village on Indian Lake or Lake Prien. Itwas from two of these that Dr. Gatchet, in January 1885, obtainedhis Atakapa linguistic material. (See Gatschet and Swanton, 1932.)Although in 1907 and 1908 I found a few Indians who knew some-thing of the old tongue, it is today practically extinct. (See alsoJ. O. Dyer, 1917.) As early as 1747 a Spanish mission was proposedfor the Akokisa Indians, and in 1756, or about that time, it was estab-lished on the left bank of Trinity River, a short distance below the
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 199present Liberty. It was named Nuestra Senora de la Luz, and nearit was the presidio of San Agustfn de Ahumada erected the same year.Be'fore 1772 both of these had been abandoned. In 1805 the principalAkokisa village was on the west side of Colorado River about 200miles southwest of Nacogdoches, but there was another between theNeches and the Sabine. The ultimate fate of the tribe is unlcnown.Population.?Exclusive of the Akokisa, Mooney (1928) estimates apopulation of 1,500 Atakapa in 1650, which the Akokisa would per-haps swell to 2,000. In 1747 a Spanish report gives 300 Akokisafamilies, a figure which is probably too high. In 1779 the BayouVermillion and Mermentou bands had 180 warriors. Sibley (1832)states that in 1805 there were 80 warriors in the only Atakapa townremaining but that 30 of these were Houma and Tunica. The samewriter adds that in 1760-70 the Akokisa numbered 80 men.Connection in which they have become noted.?The traditional fameof the Atakapa rests upon the sinister reputation it had acquired asa body of cannibals. After the French began to settle southwesternLouisiana, they distinguished as the Atakapas district a section ofsouthern Louisiana including the parishes of St. Mary, Iberia, Ver-million, St, Martin, and Lafayette, a usage which continues in com-mercial reports to the present day. The capital of this district, themodern St. Martinville, was known as the Atakapas Post. In Spar-tanburg County, S. C, is a place called Tucapau, the name of whichmay have been taken from this tribe.Avoyel. The name signifies probably "people of the rocks," referringto flint and very likely applied because they were middlemen insupplying the Gulf coast tribes with flint. Also called:Little Taensa, so-called from their relationship to the Taensa (q. v.).Tassenocogoula, name in the Mobilian trade language, meaning "flintpeople."Connections.?The testimony of early writers and circumstantialevidence render it almost certain that the Avoyel spoke a dialect ofthe Natchez group of the Muskhogean linguistic family.Location.?In the neighborhood of the present Alaxksville, La.History.?The Avoyel are mentioned first by Iberville in the ac-count of his first expedition to Louisiana in 1699, where they appearunder the Mobilian form of their name, Tassenocogoula. He did notmeet any of the people, however, until the year following when hecalls them "Little Taensas." They were encountered by La Harpein 1714, and Le Page du Pratz (1758) gives a short notice of themfrom which it appears that they acted as middlemen in disposing tothe French of horses and cattle plundered from Spanish settlements.In 1764 they took part in an attack upon a British regiment ascending
200 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145the Mississippi (see Ofo), and they are mentioned by some laterwriters, but Sibley (1832) says they were extinct in 1805 except fortwo or three women "who did Uve among the French inhabitants ofWashita," In 1930 one of the Tunica Indians still claimed descentfrom this tribe.Population.?I have estimated an Avoyel population of about 280in 1698. Iberville and Bienville state that they had about 40 warriorsshortly after this period. (See Taensa.)Connection in which they have become noted.?The name of theAvoyel is perpetuated in that of Avoyelles Parish, La.Bayogoula. Meaning "bayou people," either from their location orfrom the fact that their tribal emblem was the alligator.Connections.?Their language was of the southern Mushkogeandivision, not far removed from Houma and Choctaw.Location.?Near the present Bayou Goula, in Iberville Parish,History.?Unless this tribe was the Pishenoa encountered by Tontiin 1686 and not mentioned subsequently, it was first visited by Iber-ville in 1699. It then occupied one town with the Mugulasha (q. v.).In the winter of 1699-1700 the Bayogoula suffered severely from asurprise attack of the Houma. In the spring of 1700, for what causewe know not, the Bayogoula attacked their fellow townsmen, theMugulasha, and destroyed them, but in 1706 they suffered a similarfate at the hands of the Taensa who had sought refuge with them.The remnant of the Bayogoula was given a place near New Orleans,but some time later they moved up the river to the present AscensionParish, where they were found in 1739 between the Houma andAcolapissa. Yet our informant states that the three tribes werevirtually one and the same, the distinction being kept up merelybecause the chief of each band was descended from the tribe men-tioned. The subsequent history of the Bayogoula is identical withthat of the Houma. (See Houma under Mississippi.)Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates that in 1650 there were1,500 of the Bayogoula, Quinipissa, and Mugulasha together. Myown estimate for the same tribes, as of 1698, is 875. In 1699 IberviUegave about 100 cabins and 200-250 warriors, and the Journal of hiscompanion ship, Le Marin, has 400-500 people. In 1700, after thedestruction of the Mugulasha, Gravier gives a population of 200, andabout 1715 they are said to have had 40 warriors. For their numbersin 1739, see Houma under Mississippi.Connection in which they have become noted.?This tribe shared withthe Washa the distinction of having been the first Indians within thelimits of the present State of Louisiana to meet Iberville in the yearin which the French colony of Louisiana was founded. The name is
SwANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 201preserved in the post village of Bayou Goula, IberviUe Parish, La.,which seems to be close to the location of the original Indian town.Biloxi. The Biloxi settled in Louisiana about 1764, and a very feware stUl Uving there. (See Mississippi.)Caddo. The Caddo Indians are given under five different heads:the Ada! and the Natchitoches Confederacy in Louisiana; the Eye-ish, the Hasinai Confederacy, and the Kadohadacho Confederacyin Texas.Chatot. The Chatot entered Louisiana about 1764, lived for a whileon Bayou Boeuf, and later moved to Sabine River, after whichnothing more is heard of them. (See Florida.)Chawasha. Meaning unknown, though possibly "raccoon place(people)."Connections.?A reference to this tribe- and the Washa by Bienvilleplaces them in the Chitimacha division of the Tunican linguisticstock. I had erroneously concluded at an earlier period, on slendercircumstantial evidence, that they were Muskhogeans.Location.?On Bayou La Fourche and eastward to the Gulf ofMexico and across the Mississippi.History.?After the relics of De Soto's army had escaped to themouth of the Mississippi River and while their brigantines wereriding at anchor there, they were attacked by Indians, some of whomhad "staves, having very sharp heads of fish-bone." (See Bourne1904, vol. 2, p. 202.) These may have belonged to the Chawasha andWasha tribes. The same two tribes are said, on doubtful authority,to have attempted to attack an English sea captain who ascended theMississippi in 1699, but they were usually friendly to the French.In 1712 ^ they were moved to the Mississippi by Bienville and estab-lished themselves on the west side, just below the English Turn. In1713 (or more probably 1715) they were attacked by a party ofChickasaw, Yazoo, and Natchez, who kiUed the head chief and manyof his family, and carried off 11 persons as prisoners. Before 1722they had crossed to the east side of the river, half a league lower down.In 1730, in order to allay the panic in New Orleans following on theNatchez uprising of 1729 which resulted in the massacre of theWhites at Natchez, Governor Perrier allowed a band of Negro slavesto attack the Chawasha, and it is commonly reported that they werethen destroyed. The French writer Dumont (1753) is probablyright, however, when he states that only seven or eight adult maleswere killed. At any rate they are mentioned as living with theWasha at Les AUemands on the west side of the Mississippi above
? So given by Bienville in an unpublished ms. (See page 294.)
202 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145New Orleans in 1739, and in 1758 they appear as constituting onevUlage "wdth the Washa. Except for one uncertain reference, this isthe last we hear of them, but they may have continued for a con-siderable period longer before disappearing as a distinct body.Population.?Mooney (1928) gives an estimate of 1,400 for theWasha, Chawasha, and Opelousa together in the year 1650. My ownestimate for the first two and the Okelousa, as of 1698, is 700. Thisis based on Beaurain's (La Harpe's) estimate (1831) of 200 warriorsfor the 3 tribes. About 1715 there are said to have been 40 Chawashawarriors; in 1739, 30 warriors of the Washa and Chawasha together;and in 1758, 10 to 12.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Chawasha at-tained temporary notoriety on account of the massacre perpetratedupon them in the manner above mentioned.Chitimacha. Perhaps derived from the name of Grand River in thenative tongue, which was Sheti, though Gatschet (1883) interprets itthrough the Choctaw language as meaning "those who have pots."Connections.?The Chitimacha have given their name to a group oflanguages under the Tunican linguistic stock, including also theChawasha and Washa.Location.?On Grand River, Grand Lake, and the lower course ofBayou La Teche. Subdivisions and VillagesThe earliest French writers couple with this tribe the name of a tribe or supposedtribe called Yakna-Chitto, "Big Earth," but it is not known whether they werea part of the Chitimacha or an entirely independent people. In later times theChitimacha were drawn into two unnamed subdivisions, one near the upper endof Bayou La Fourche and the other on Grand Lake. Following are the knownvillages:Ama'tpan na'mu, two villages: (1) 3 miles east of Charenton on Bayou Teche;(2) on the east side of Grand Lake opposite Charenton.Grosse Tete na'mu, 2 miles from the village at Plaquemine.Hi'pinimsh na'mu, at the Fausse Pointe in the western part of Grand Lake, nearBayou Gosselin.Ka'me naksh teat na'mu, at Bayou du Plomb, near Bayou Chene, 18 miles northof Charenton.Ku'shuh na'mu, on Lake Mingaluak, near Bayou Chfine.Na'mu ka'tsi, the Bayou Ch^ne village, St. Martin's Parish.Ne'kun tsi'snis, opposite He aux Oiseaux, in the Lac de la Fausse Pointe.Ne Pinu'nsh, on Bayou Teche, 2 miles west of Charenton.Oku'nkiskin, probably at some sharp bend on Bayou La Teche judging from theirname.Shatshnish, at Jeanerette.She'ti na'mu, on Grand River west of Plaquemine.Sho'ktangi ha'ne hetci'nsh, on the south side of Graine k Vol^e Inlet, Grand Lake.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 203
Tca'ti kuti'ngi na'mu, at the junction of Bayou Teche with the AtchafalayaBayou.Teat kasi'tunshki, on the site of Charenton.Tsa'htsinshup na'mu, the Plaquemine village, on Bayou des Plaquemines nearGrand River.Waitinimsh, at Irish Bend near Franklin.There are said to have been others at the shell bank on the shore of GrandLake, close to Charenton, and at a place called "Bitlarouges."History.?Iberville made an alliance with the Chitimacha in 1699,shortly after his arrival in the present Louisiana. In August 1706,the Taensa captured some Chitimacha by treachery and enslavedthem, and later the same year a Chitimacha war partly killed St.Cosme, missionary to the Natchez, and three other Frenchmen en-camped with him. War followed between the Chitimacha on onehand and the French and their Indian allies on the other, whichdragged along until 1718. The Chitimacha suffered severely duringthese 12 years and this war was responsible for the fact that in theearly days of the Louisiana colony the greater part of the Indianslaves were Chitimacha. By the terms of the peace concluded in1718, the Chitimacha agreed to settle at a designated spot upon theMississippi, not far from the present Plaquemine. This, they orrather the eastern portion of them, did in 1719. In 1739 they seemto have been farther down, near the head of Bayou La Fourche. In1784 one village is reported on Bayou La Fourche and two on theTeche. By 1881 the only survivors were near Charenton, wherethey occupied a small part of what had once been a considerablereservation. In that year and the year following Dr. A. S. Gatschetof the Bureau of American Ethnology collected from them a consider-able body of linguistic material and some ethnological information.(See Gatschet, 1883.) Descendants of the tribe, mostly mixed-bloods,occupy the same section at the present time, but the Plaquemineband has disappeared.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated that in 1650 the Chiti-macha numbered 3,000 souls. The present writer allowed 750 war-riors to the tribe in 1698, based on Beaurain's estimate of 700-800in 1699, which would mean about 2,625 souls. In 1758 the Mississippiband counted only about 80 warriors and in 1784 Hutchins gives 27.The size of the western band is nowhere indicated separately but thecensus of 1910 gives 69 for the entire tribe, 19 of whom were then atschool in Pennsylvania. In 1930, 51 were returned.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Chitimacha werethe most powerful tribe of the northern Gulf coast west of Florida inUnited States territory. They also attained prominence in earlyLouisiana history on account of their long war with the French
204 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145and the number of Chitimacha slaves in colonial families arising fromthat fact. The survivors are noteworthy as the best basket makersin the whole Gulf region.Choctaw. Choctaw began moving into Louisiana not long after thesettlement of New Orleans, at first temporarily, but later for per-manent occupancy, especially after the territory east of the Mis-sissippi had been ceded lo Great Britain. Some settled on thenorthern shores of Lake Pontchartrain, where a few still remain,while other bands established themselves on the Nezpique, RedRiver, Bayou Boeuf, and elsewhere. Most of these drifted in timeto the Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma, but a few families are stillscattered about the State of Louisiana. (See Mississippi.)Doustioni. A smaU tribe of the Natchitoches Confederacy (q. v.).Houma. When first encountered by Europeans, the Houma hvednear the present boundary line between Mississippi and Louisiana,if not actually on the Louisiana side. In 1706 or shortly afterwardthey moved altogether within the limits of Louisiana, where theirdescendants have remained to the present day. (See Mississippi.)Koasati. Part of this tribe entered Louisiana near the end of theeighteenth century and lived on Red River and in the western partof the State. At the present day, the largest single band of Koasatiin existence is northeast of Kinder, La. (See Alabama.)Koroa. The Koroa camped, hunted, and had at times more perma-nent settlements in northeastern Louisiana. (See Mississippi.)Mugulasha. This was a tribe which formerly lived in the same townas the Bayogoula on the lower course of the Mississippi. Someearly writers state that they were identical with the Quinipissaand they wUl be treated in connection with that tribe.Muskogee. The true Muskogee were represented by one band, apart of the Pakana tribe, which moved into the colony about 1764.They were settled upon Calcasieu River in 1805. Later theyseem to have united with the Alabama now living in Polk County,Tex., but there are no known survivors at the present day. (SeeAlabama.)Natchez. When this tribe was attacked by the French after they haddestroyed the Natchez post, they escaped into Louisiana and forti-fied themselves at Sicily Island, from which most of them againescaped. A part under the chief of the Flour Village attacked theFrench post at Natchitoches in the fall of 1731, drove the Natchi-toches from their town, and intrenched themselves in it. St. Denis,commander of that post, attacked them, however, having been
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 205previously reinforced by some Caddo and Atakapa, and inflictedupon them a severe defeat. After this no considerable number ofNatchez seem to have remained in Louisiana. (See Mississippi.)Natchitoches Confederacy. The word "Natchitoches" is generally sup-posed to be derived from "nashitosh", the native word for pawpawbut an early Spanish writer, Josd Antonio Pichardo, was told thatit was from a native word "nacicit" signifying "a place where thesoil is the color of red ochre," and that it was applied originally to asmall creek in their neighborhood running through red soil. Thefollowing are synonyms:Nachittoos, Yoakum, 1855-56, vol. 1, p. 392.Nachtichoukas, Jefferys, 1761, pt. 1, p. 164.Nacitos, Linares (1716) in Margry, 1875-86, vol. 6, p. 217.Nactythos, Iberville (1699) in Margry, 1880, 1875-86, vol. 4, p. 178.Nadchito, Bienville (1700), in Margry, 1875-86, vol. 4, p. 434,Naketosh, Gatschet, Caddo and Yatassi MS., p. 77, B. A. E.Napgitache, McKenney and Hall, 1854, vol. 3, p. 82.Naquitoches, Belle-Isle (1721), in Margry, 1875-86, vol. 6, p. 341.Nashi'tosh, Mooney, 1896, p. 1092.Nasitti, Joutel (1687) in Margry, 1875-86, vol. 3, p. 409.Natsytos, Iberville (1699) in Margry, 1875-86, vol. 4, p. 178.Notchitoches, Carver, 1778, map.Yatchitcohes, Lewis and Clark, 1840, p. 142.As part of the Caddo, the same terms were applied to them as appearunder Kadohadacho (q. v.).Connections.?They belonged to the Caddo division of the Caddoanlinguistic stock, their nearest relatives being the Indians of the Kado-hadacho and Hasinai Confederacies.Location.?In northwestern Louisiana.SubdivisionsDoustioni, appearing sometimes as Souchitioni, a small tribe near the presentNatchitoches.Natchitoches, close to the present site of Natchitoches.Ouachita, on Ouachita River not far from the present Columbia.Yatasi, on Red River near Shreveport.A tribe called Capich6 is mentioned by Tonti, but it is otherwise never referredto. Another called Nakasa, Nakas6, Natch^s or Natach^ was probably a part ofthe Yatasi, and Tonti mentions a tribe called Choye, probably the Chaye ofJoutel (1713), as a people associated with the Yatasi. At a relatively late datepart of the Yatasi went to live with the Indians of the Kadohadacho Confedera-tion while the rest settled close to the Natchitoches.History.?Moscoso, De Soto's successor, perhaps encountered someof the tribes of this group though his route lay farther north andwest. On February 17, 1690, Tonti reached the villages of theseIndians coming from the Taensa on Lake St. Joseph, and went onup the river to the Kadohadacho, visiting the Yatasi on the way.
206 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145In March 1700 Bienville followed the same route from the Taensaand reached the Natchitoches Indians in April, stopping at theOuachita town en route. He went up Red River as far as the Yatasiand then returned to Biloxi. In 1702 the Natchitoches tribe, havinglost their crops, descended the Red River and the Mississippi to theFrench fort near the mouth of the latter, then commanded by LouisJuchereau de St, Denis, who received them kindly and sent them tolive with the Acolapissa Indians on Lake Pontchartrain. A fewyears later St. Denis visited the Natchitoches country himself. In1707 four Indians of this tribe took part in an expedition against theChitimacha to avenge the death of the missionary St. Cosme. In1713-14 St. Denis sent for the Natchitoches Indians in order to takethem back to their old country, where "he had planned to establish apost. On learning of the intentions of their neighbors, the AcolapissaIndians fell upon them, killed 17 and captured 50 women and girls,but the latter were apparently recovered soon afterward and all werereturned to their old town, where the post was established accordingto plan in 1714. From this time until his death St. Denis' careerwas intimately bound up with this post and the Indians about it,though he was frequently engaged in expeditions into and acrossTexas. He was formally appointed commandant of the post July 1,1720, and retained it until his death in June 1744. In 1731, with theassistance of his Indians and a detachment of soldiers from theSpanish post of Adai, he won a signal victory over a large body ofNatchez Indians, the only clear-cut advantage which the Frenchgained in the Natchez War. In the meantime Natchitoches hadbecome the center of a flourishing trade with the Indians extendingfar to the north and west, and when St. Denis died his son, Louis deSt. Denis continued to enjoy the advantages of it and to share theprestige of his father. During all of this time, however, the Natchi-toches Indians seem to have been decreasing, and toward the end ofthe eighteenth century they parted with most of their lands to FrenchCreoles, though their relations with the latter seem to have beenuniformly cordial. Part of them remained in their old country per-manently and either died out or mixed with the newcomers, while therest joined their relatives of the Kadohadacho and Hasinai Con-federations and followed their fortunes.Population.?In 1700 Bienville estimated that there were 400-450warriors in the Natchitoches Confederacy, but in 1718 he reportedthat the number had fallen to 80, while La Harpe (1831) reported atotal population of 150-200. In 1805 Sibley (1832) reported 52warriors and for the Natchitoches tribe by itself, 32, and 20 yearslater a total population of 61 was returned. An estimate of 1,000 forall of these tribes before White contact would probably be ample.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 207Connection in which they have become noted.?The city of Natchi-toches, La., is named after this group of tribes and is noteworthy asthe oldest permanent settlement in the State. The victory whichthey enabled St. Denis to win over the Natchez Indians occupies anoteworthy place in the history of the section.Ofo. This tribe entered Louisiana some time in the latter half ofthe eighteenth ccntiu-y and finally united with the Tunica, settlingwith them at Marksville. (See the article Mosopelea under Ohioand Tunica under Mississippi.)Okelousa. Meaning "black water."Connections.?The associations of this tribe were mainly withMuskhogean peoples and this fact, coupled with the Muskhogeanname, indicates their linguistic affiliations with a fair degree ofcertainty.Location.?The Okelousa moved about considerably. The best-determined location is the one mentioned by Le Page du Pratz (1758),on the west side of the Mississippi back of and above Pointe Couple.(See History below.) (See also Mississippi.)History.?After De Soto reached the principal Chickasaw tow^n,the head chief came to him, January 3, 1541, "and promptly gave theChristians guides and interpreters to go to Caluga, a place of muchrepute among the Indians. Caluga is a province of more than 90villages not subject to anyone, with a savage population, very warlikeand much dreaded, and the soil is fertile in that section." (SeeBourne, 1904, 1922, vol. 2, p. 132.) There is every reason to thinkthat Caluga is a shortened form of Okalousa and it is rather likelythat the later Okelousa were descended from these people, but if soeither De Soto's informants had very much exaggerated their numbersor they suffered immense losses before we hear of them again. Thename in De Soto's time may, however, have been applied to a geo-graphical region. Nicolas de la Salle, writing in 1682, quotes nativeinformants to the eflfect that this tribe, in alliance with the Houma,had destroyed a third. La Harpe (1831) mentions them as allied withthe Washa and Chawasha and wandering near the seacoast, a state-ment which led me to the erroneous conclusion that the three tribesthus associated were related. The notice of them by Le Page duPratz has been mentioned above. They finally united with theHouma, the Acolapissa, or some other Muskhogean band on thelower Mississippi.Population.?Unknown, but for an estimate, see Chawasha (p. 202).Opelousa. Probably from Mobilian and Choctaw Aba lusa, "blackabove," and meaning "black headed" or "black haired."
208 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Connections.?No words of the Opelousa language have survived,but the greater number of the earher references to them speak as ifthey were allied with the Atakapa, and it is probable that they belongedto the Atakapan group of tribes.Location.?In the neighborhood of the present Opelousas.History.?The Opelousa seem to have been mentioned first byBienville in an unpublished report on the Indians of the Mississippiand Gulf regions. They were few in numbers and led a wanderinglife. They maintained some sort of distinct tribal existence into thenineteenth century but disappeared by the end of the first quarter of it.Population.?About 1715 this tribe was estimated to have 130warriors; in 1805 they are said to have had 40, and in 1814 the totalpopulation of the tribe is placed at 20.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Opelousa gavetheir name to an important post and the district depending upon it.Ouachita. A tribe of the Natchitoches Confederacy (q. v.).Pascagoula. This tribe entered Louisiana about 1764 and lived onRed River and Bayou Boeuf. Their subsequent history is wrappedin uncertainty. (See Mississippi.)Quapaw. From 1823 to 1833 the Quapaw lived with the Kadohadachoon a southern affluent of Red River. (See Arkansas.)Quinipissa. Signifying "those who see," perhaps meaning "scouts,"or "outpost."Connections.?The Quinipissa belonged to the southern division ofthe Muskhogean stock, and probably were very closely related tothe Choctaw.Location.?On the west bank of the Mississippi River and somedistance above New Orleans.History.?There may have been a connection between this tribe,the Acolapissa (q. v.) and the Napissa or Napochi. (See Mississippi.)They were met first by La Salle and his companions when the latterwere on their way to the Gulf of Mexico in 1682. They treated theexplorers in a hostile manner but made peace with Tonti in 1686.When Iberville ascended the river in 1699, no tribe of the name wasto be found, but later it w^as learned that the chief of the Mugulashatribe, then forming one village with the Bayogoula, was the sameQuinipissa chief who had had dealings with La Salle and Tonti.According to some writers, the Mugulasha were identical with theQuinipissa; according to others, the Mugulasha had absorbed the re-mains of the Quinipissa. In May 1700, the Bayogoula rose againstthe Mugulasha and destroyed them as a tribe, though they probablyadopted many of them as individuals. We hear nothing further re-garding them.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 209Population.?There is no separate estimate of the number of theQuinipissa. (See Bayogoula.)Connection in which they have become noted.?The Quinipissa arenoted only for the encounter, ultimately hostile, which La Salle hadwith them in 1682 when he descended to the mouth of the Mississippi.Souchitioni, see Natchitoches Confederacy.Taensa. Meaning unknown, but the name is evidently derived fromthat of one of the tribe's constituent towns.Connections.?The\'' were one of the three known tribes of theNatchez division of the Muskhogean stock.Location.?At the western end of Lake St. Joseph, in TensasParish. (See also Alabama.) VillagesThe only list of Taensa villages preserved was obtained by Iberville throughthe medium of the Mobilian trade language and it is uncertain how much of eachname is a Mobilian translation. In four of them we recognize the Mobilianword for people, okla. These villages are: Taensas, Ohytoucoulas, Nyhougoulas,Couthaougoula, Conchayon, Talaspa, and Chaoucoula. Gatschet has endeav-ored to interpret all but one of them; Taensas by reference to ta?'tci, "corn";Ohytoucoulas from u'ti, "chestnut"; Couthaougoula from uk'ha'tax, "lake";Conchayon from ko'nshak, "reed"; Talaspa from ta"lapi, "five" or ta"lepa,
"hundred"; Chaoucoula from issi, "deer" or ha'tche, "river." Most of theseseem in the highest degree doubtful. All of the towns were situated close togetherin the place above indicated.History.?It is altogether probable that the Spaniards under DeSoto encountered the Taensa or bands afterward affiliated with them,and the probability is strengthened by the fact that La Salle in 1682was shown some objects of Spanish origin by the chief of the Taensa.However, La Salle and his companions are the first Europeans knownto have met them. The French were treated with great kindnessand no war ever took place between the two peoples. The Taensawere subsequently visited by Tonti and by Iberville. When thelatter was in their town in 1700 the temple was destroyed by fire,whereupon five infants were thrown into the flames to appease thesupposedly offended deity. De Montigny undertook missionarywork among them for a brief period but soon went to the Natchezas presenting a larger field and liis place was never filled. In 1706the Taensa abandoned their villages on account of the threateningattitude of the Yazoo and Chickasaw and settled in the town of theBayogoula whom they afterward destroyed or drove away in thetragic manner above described. (See Bayogoula.) The Taensa ap-pear to have moved shortly to a spot in the vicinity of Edgard, St.John Baptist Parish, and later to the Manchac. In 1715 they leftthis latter place and moved to Mobile, where they were assigned a
210 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145townsite 2 leagues from the French post, at a place formerly occupiedby ihe Tavvasa. Before 1744 they had crossed the Tensaw River, towhich they gave their name, and made a new settlement which theyretained until Mobile was surrendered to the British in 1763. Soonafter that event, they moved to Red River. In April 1764, theyasked permission to establish themselves on the Mississippi River atthe upper end of Bayou La Fourche, but they seem never to havegone there. For more than 40 years they occupied a tract of landon Red River adjoining that of the Apalachee. Early in the nine-teenth century both tribes sold their lands and moved to BayouBoeuf. Still later the Taensa seem to have moved farther south toa small bayou at the head of Grand Lake which still bears theirname, where they intermarried with the Chitimacha, Alabama, andAtakapa. Some Taensa blood is known to run in the veins of certainChitimacha, but as a tribe they are entirely extinct.Population.?Mooney's estimate (1928) for the Taensa and Avoyelin 1650 is 800, and my own for 1698 slightly greater or nearly thesame, although De Montigny (in Shea, 1861), writing in 1699, givesonly 700. In 1700 Iberville estimated 120 cabins and 300 warriors,but in 1702 allows them 150 families. Somewhat later Le Page duPratz (1758) says they had about 100 cabins. In 1764 this tribe,with the Apalachee and Pakana Creeks, counted about 200 all told.Sibley (1832) places the number of Taensa warriors in 1805 at 25.Connection in which they have become noted.? The Taensa werenoted for (1) the peculiarity of their customs, which were like thoseof the Natchez, (2) the tragic destruction of their temple in 1700 andthe human sacrifices which followed, (3) the perpetuation of theirname in Tensas Parish, Tensas River, and Tensas Bayou, La., andthe Tensaw River and Tensaw Village in Baldwin County, Ala.Tangipahoa. Meaning probably "corncob gatherers," or "corncobpeople."Connections.?The name of this tribe and its affiliations with theAcolapissa indicate that it belonged to the southern division of theMuskhogean stock.Location.?Probably on the present Tangipahoa River, TangipahoaParish.History.?The original home of the Tangipahoa seems to have beenas given above, and their relations with the Acolapissa must have beenvery close, for Iberville was informed by some Indians that they con-stituted a seventh Acolapissa town. In 1682 La Salle's party dis-covered a town on the eastern side of the Mississippi, 2 leagues belowthe settlement of the Quinipissa, which had recently been destroyed,and one of his companions calls this "Tangibao," while others speak
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 211
of it as Maheouala or Mahehoualaima. The last two terms mayrefer to the name of the town and the first to that of the tribe whichoccupied it. Probably a part of the Tangipahoa only settled here,but, as we hear little of them after this period, we must assume thatthey had been absorbed by some other people, most likely theAcolapissa.Population.? (See Acolapissa.)Connection in which they have become noted.?Tangipahoa Parish,Tangipahoa River, in Amite and Pike Counties, Miss., and Tangi-pahoa Parish, La., and the post town of Tangipahoa preserve thename of the Tangipahoa.Tawasa. Some Tawasa accompanied the Alabama to Louisiana butnot until after the separate existence of the tribe had been ended.(See Alabama.)Washa. Appearing oftenest in literature in the French form Ouacha,meaning unkno"wn.Connections.?The nearest relations of the Washa were the Chawa-sha (q. V.) and both belonged to the Chitimachan branch of theTunican linguistic family.Location.?Their earliest known location was on Bayou La Fourche,perhaps in the neighborhood of the present LabadievHle, AssumptionParish. VillagesNone are known under any but the tribal name.History.?As stated in treating the Chawasha, this tribe and theone just mentioned may have been those which attacked Moscoso'sflotilla at the mouth of the Mississippi. Shortly after Ibervillereached America in 1699, the Washa and three other tribes west ofthe Mississippi came to make an alliance with him and a little later,on his way up the great river, he fell in with some of them. He callsBayou La Fourche "the River of the Washas." In July 1699,Bienville made a vain attempt to establish friendly relations withthem, but we hear little more of them until 1715 ^ when Bienvillemoved them to the Mississippi and settled them 2 leagues aboveNew Orleans on the south side of the Mississippi. In 1739 theWasha and Chawasha were found living together at Les Allemands,and they probably continued in the same neighborhood until a con-siderably later period. Sibley (1832) says the tribe in 1805 wasreduced to 5 persons (2 men and 3 women) scattered in Frenchfamilies.
? So stated in a ms. by Bienville. In Swanton (1911) this date was given erroneously as 1718 on otherauthority.
212 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Population.?^A memoir attributed to Bienville states that in 1715the Washa numbered 50 warriors, having been reduced from 200.This is the only separate estimate of them. (See Chawasha for thecombined population of the two tribes at other periods.)Connection in which they have become noted.?The name Washa ispreserved in Washa Lake, near the seacoast of Terrebonne Parish,La., and it was formerly given to Lake Salvador, southeast of NcavOrleans.Yatasi. A tribe of the Natchitoches Confederacy (q. v.).ARKANSASCaddo. These Indians are treated under the five following heads:Adai and the Natchitoches Confederacy in Louisiana, Eyeish and theHasinai Confederacy in Arkansas, and Kadohadacho Confederacyin Texas. Tribes of the Kadohadacho Confederacy are the onlyones known to have lived in Arkansas.Cahinnio. One of the tribes connected with the KadohadachoConfederacy (q. v. under Texas).Cherokee. Some Cherokee lived in this State while they were ontheir way from their old territories to Oklahoma, and a tract of landin northwestern Arkansas was granted them by treaty in 1817,which in 1828 they re-ceded to the United States Government.(See Tennessee.)Chickasaw. Chickasaw passed through Arkansas on their way toOklahoma but owned no land there. (See Mississippi.)Choctaw. The Choctaw had a village on the lower course of ArkansasRiver in 1805 and they owned a large strip of territory in thewestern part of the State, granted to them by the treaty of Doak'sStand, October 18, 1820. They surrendered the latter in a treatyconcluded at Washington, January 20, 1825. (See Mississippi.)Illinois. When Europeans first descended the Mississippi an Illinoisdivision known as Michigamea, "Big Water", was settled in north-eastern Arkansas about a lake known by their name, probably thepresent Big Lake in Mississippi County. They had probablycome from the region now embraced in the State of Illinois only ashort time before, perhaps from a village entered on some maps as
"the old village of the Michigamea." Toward the end of theseventeenth century they were driven north again by the Quapawor Chickasaw" and united with the cognate Kaskaskia. (SeeIllinois.)Kaskinampo. This tribe appears to have been encountered by DeSoto in what is now the State of Arkansas in 1541 . (See Tennessee.)
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 213Michigamea. (See Illinois above.)Mosopelea, see Ofo.Ofo. If these are the Mosopelea, as seems assured, they appear tohave lived for a short time near the end of the seventeenth centuryin the neighborhood of the Quapaw on the lower course of ArkansasRiver before moving farther south. (See Mississippi.)Osage. The Osage hunted over much of the northern, and particu-larly northwestern, part of Arkansas and claimed all lands nowincluded in the State as far south as Arkansas River. They cededmost of their claims to these to the United States Government in atreaty signed at Fort Clark, Louisiana Territory, in 1808, and theremainder by treaties at St. Louis, September 25, 1818, and June 2,1825. (See Missouri.)Quapaw. Meaning "downstream people." They were known bysome form of this word to the Omaha, Ponca, Kansa, Osage, andCreeks. Also called:Akansa, or Arkansas, by the Illinois and other Algonquian Indians, aname probably derived from one of the Quapaw social subdivisions.Beaux Hommes, a name given them by the French.Bow Indians, so-called probably because the bow wood from the Osageorange came from or through their country.Ima, by the Caddo, probably from one of their towns.Papikaha, on Marquette's map (1673).Utsdshuat, Wyandot name, meaning "wild apple," and referring to thefruit of the Carica papaya.Connections.?The Quapaw were one of the five tribes belonging towhat J. O. Dorsey (1897) called the 0egiha division of the Siouanlinguistic stock.Location.?At or near the mouth of Arkansas River. (See alsoLouisiana, Kansas, Mississippi, Oklahoma, and Texas.)VillagesTongigua, on the Mississippi side of Mississippi River above the mouth of theArkansas, probably in Bolivar County, Miss.Tourima, at the junction of White River with the Mississippi, Desha County,probably the town elsewhere called Imaha.Ukakhpakhti, on the Mississippi, probably in Phillips County.Uzutiuhi, on the south side of the lower course of Arkansas River not far fromArkansas Post.History.?Before the French became acquainted with this tribe (in1673) the Quapaw had lived on Ohio River above its junction with theWabash, and that portion of the Ohio was known as Arkansas Riverby the Illinois from this circumstance. It was formerly thought thatthe Pacaha or Capaha met by De Soto in this part of Arkansas were
214 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145the tribe in question, but it is not probable that they had left the Ohiothen, and the name Capaha, the form on which the relationship issupposed to be established, is probably incorrect. In 1673 Mar-quette visited them and turned back at their towns without descend-ing the Mississippi any farther. La Salle in 1682, Tonti in 1686, and allsubsequent voyagers down and up the Mississippi mention them,and they soon became firm allies of the French. Shortly after Mar-quette's visit they were ravaged by pestilence and the Ukakhpakhtivillage was moved farther downstream. A few years later and before1700 the people of Tongigua moved across and settled with those ofTourima, and still later all of the towns moved from the Mississippito the Arkansas. Le Page du Pratz (1758) encountered them about12 miles above the entrance of White River. Sibley (1832) foundthem in 1805 on the south side of Arkansas River about 12 milesabove Arkansas Post. By a treaty signed at St. Louis, August 24,1818, the Quapaw ceded all their claims south of Arkansas River excepta small territory between Arkansas Post and Little Rock, extendinginland to Saline River. The latter was also given up in a treatysigned November 15, 1824, at Harrington's, Arkansas Territory, and thetribe agreed to live in the country of the Caddo Indians. The}'' wereassigned by the Caddo a tract on Bayou Treache on the south side ofRed River, but it was frequently overflowed, their crops were oftendestroyed, and there was much sickness, and in consequence theysoon returned to their old country. There they annoyed the whitesettlers so much that by a treaty signed May 13, 1833, the UnitedStates Government conveyed to them 150 sections of land in the ex-treme southeastern part of Kansas and the northeastern part ofIndian Territory, to which they in turn agreed to move. February23, 1867, they ceded their lands in Kansas and the northern part oftheir lands in Indian Territory. In 1877 the Ponca were brought tothe Quapaw Reservation for a short time, and when they removedto their own reservation west of the Osage most of the Quapaw wentwith them. Still later the lands of the Quapaw were allotted inseveralty and they are now citizens of Oldahoma.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated that in 1650 the Quapawnumbered 2,500. In 1750 Father Vivier stated that they had about400 warriers or about 1,400 souls. In 1766, however, the BritishIndian Agent, John Stuart, reported that they had but 220 gunmen.Porter estimated that the total Quapaw population in 1829 was 500.In 1843 it was 476. In 1885 there were 120 on the Osage Reservationand 54 on the Quapaw Reservation, and in 1890, 198 on both. Thecensus of 1910 gave 231, but the Indian OflSce Report of 1916, 333,and that of 1923, 347. The census of 1930 returned 222.
SWANTON 1 INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 215Connection in which they have become noted.?The native form of thename of this tribe, Quapaw, is but seldom used topographically, al-though there is a village of the name in Ottawa County, Okla.,but Arkansas^ the term appUed to them by the Illinois Indians, hasbecome affixed to one of the largest branches of the Mississippi andto one of the States of the American Union. It has also been givento a county and mountain in Arkansas and to cities in that State andin Kansas.Tunica. From some names given by the chroniclers of De Soto it isprobable that the Tunica or some tribes speaking their language wereliving in Arkansas in his time. In fact it is not imlikely that thePacaha or Capaha, who have often been identified with the Quapaw,were one of these. In later historic times they camped in the north-eastern part of Louisiana and probably in neighboring sections ofArkansas. (See Alississippi.)Yazoo. Like the Tunica this tribe probably camped at times innortheastern Louisiana and southeastern Arkansas, but there is nodirect evidence of the fact. (See Mississippi.)TENNESSEECatawba. For a brief period in their later history the Catawba Uvedamong the Cherokee and they may have occupied lands in Tennesseeat that time. There are indications that they may have been ineastern Tennessee at a more remote epoch. (See South Carolina.)Cherokee. Meaning unknown, but possibly from Creek tciloki,
"people of a different speech." The middle and upper dialects sub-stitute I for r. Also called:Alligewi or Alleghanys, a people appearing in Delaware tradition whowere perhaps identical with this tribe.Ani'-Kltu'hwagI, own name, from one of their most important ancientsettlements, and extended by Algonquian tribes to the whole.Ani'-Y<in'-wiy&', own name, meaning "real people."Baniatho, Arapaho name (Gatschet, MS., B, A. E.).Entari ronnon, Wyandot name, meaning "mountain people."Mfi?t6rd?', Catawba name, meaning "coming out of the ground."Ochie'tari-ronnon, a Wyandot name.Oyata' ge'ron6n, Iroquois name, meaning "inhabitants of the cave country."Sh^naki, Caddo name.Shdnnakiak, Fox name (Gatschet, Fox MS., B. A. E.).Talligewi, Delaware name (in Walam Glum), see Alligewi.Tcdlke, Tonkawa name.Tceroki^co, Wichita name.Uwatdyo-r6no, Wyandot name, meaning "cave people."Connections.?The Cherokee language is the most aberrant form ofspeech of the Iroquoian linguistic family.
216 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buli,. 145Location.?From the earliest times of which we have any certainknowledge the Cherokee have occupied the highest districts at thesouthern end of the Appalachian chain, mainly in the States ofTennessee and North Carolina, but including also parts of SouthCarolina, Georgia, Alabama, and Virginia, (See also Arkansas,Kansas, Kentucky, Oklahoma, and Texas.)Subdivisions and VillagesThere were anciently three Cherokee dialects which probably corresponded insome measure to the three groups of towns into which early traders and explorersdivided the tribe. These groups, with the towns belonging to each according tothe Purcell map, but following as far as possible the Handbook (Hodge, 1907,1910) orthography, are as follows:Lower Settlements:Estatoee, 2 towns: Old Estatoee on Tugaloo River below the junction ofChattooga and Tullalah Rivers, in Oconee County, S. C; and Estatoee inthe northwestern part of Pickens County.Keowee, 2 towns: Old Keowee on Keowee River near Fort George, OconeeCounty, S. C; and New Keowee on the headwaters of Twelve-mile Creek inPickens County, S. C, the latter also called probably Little Keowee.Kulsetsiyi, 3 towns: (1) on Keowee River, near Fall Creek, Oconee County,S. C; (2) on Sugartown or Cullasagee Creek near Franklin, Macon County,N. C; (3) on Sugartown Creek, near Morganton, Fannin County, Ga.Oconee, on Seneca Creek near Walhalla, Oconee County, S. C.Qualatchee, 2 towns: (1) on Keowee River, S. C; (2) on the headwaters ofChattahoochee River, Ga.Tomassee, 2 towns: (1) on Tomassee Creek of Keowee River, Oconee County,S. C. ; (2) on Little Tennessee River near the entrance of Burningtown Creek,Macon County, S. C.Toxaway, on Toxaway Creek, a branch of Keowee River, S. C.Tugaloo, on Tugaloo River at the junction of Toccoa Creek, HabershamCounty, Ga.Ustanali, several towns so called: (1) on Keowee River below the present FortGeorge, Oconee County, S. C; (2) probably on the waters of TuckasegeeRiver in western North Carolina; (3) just above the junction of Coosawateeand Conasauga Rivers to form the Oostanaula River in Gordon County,Ga.; (4) perhaps on Eastanollee Creek of Tugaloo River, Franklin County,Ga.; (5) perhaps on Eastaunaula Creek flowing into Hiwassee River in Mc-Minn County, Tenn.; and (6) possibly another.Middle Settlements:Cowee, about the mouth of Cowee Creek of Little Tennessee River, about 10miles below Franklin, N. C.Coweeshee, probably between the preceding and Yunsawi.Ellijay, 4 towns: (1) on the headwaters of Keowee River, S. C; (2) on EllijayCreek of Little Tennessee River near Franklin, N. C; (3) about Ellijay inGilmer County, Ga. ; and (4) on Ellejoy Creek of Little River near Marysvillein Blount County, Tenn.Itseyi, 3 towns: (1) on Brasstown Creek of Tugaloo River, Oconee County,S. C; (2) on Little Tennessee River near Franklin, N. C; and (3) on upperBrasstown Creek of Hiwassee River, Towns County, Ga.Jore, on lola Creek, an upper branch of Little Tennessee River, N. C.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 217Kituhwa, on Tuckasegee River and extending from above the junction of theOconaluftee nearly to the present Bryson City, Swain County, N. C.Nucassee, at the present Franklin, N. C.Stikayi, 3 towns: (1) on Sticoa Creek, near Clayton, Rabun County, Ga. ; (2)on Tuckasegee River at the old Thomas homestead just above Whittier,Swain County, N. C; and (3) on Stekoa Creek of Little Tennessee River, afew miles below the junction of Nantahala, Graham County, N. C.Tawsee, on Tugaloo River, Habersham County, Ga.Tekanitli, in upper Georgia.Tessuntee, on Cowee River, south of Franklin, N. C.Tikaleyasuni, on Burningtown Creek, an upper branch of Little TennesseeRiver, western North Carolina.Watauga, 2 towns: (1) on Watauga Creek, a branch of Little Tennessee River,a few miles below Franklin, N. C; (2) traditionally located at Watauga OldFields, about Elizabethtown, on Watauga River, in Carter County, Tenn.Yunsawi, on West Buffalo Creek of Cheowa River, Graham County, N. C.Over-the-Hills and Valley Settlements, or Overhill Settlements:Chatuga, 3 towns: (1) on Chattooga River, on the boundary between SouthCarolina and Georgia; (2) probably on upper Tellico River, Monroe County,Tenn.; (3) perhaps on Chattooga River, a tributary of the Coosa, in north-west Georgia.Chilhowee, on Tellico River in Monroe County, Tenn., near the North Carolinaborder.Cotocanahut, between Natuhli and Niowe.Echota, 5 towns: (1) Great Echota, on the south side of Little TennesseeRiver, a short distance below Citico Creek, Monroe County, Tenn. ; (2) LittleEchota on Sautee Creek, a head stream of the Chattahoochee west of Clarks-ville, Ga. ; (3) New Echota, at the junction of Oostanaula and ConasaugaRivers, Gordon County, Ga.; (4) the old Macedonian Mission on Soco Creek,of the North Carolina Reservation; and (5) at the great Nacoochee mound.(See Naguchee below.)Hiwassee, 2 towns: (1) Great Hiwassee on the north bank of Hiwassee Riverat the present Savannah Ford, above Columbus, Polk County, Tenn.; (2) atthe junction of Peachtree Creek with Hiwassee River, above Murphy, N. C,probably the Guasuli of the De Soto Chroniclers.Natuhli, on Nottely River, a branch of Hiwassee River at or near the site ofthe present Ranger, Cherokee County, N. C.Nayuhi, seems to have been the name of four towns: (1) probably of the LowerSettlements, on the east bank of Tugaloo River, S. C. ; (2) on the upper watersof Tennessee River, apparently in North Carolina, and (3 and 4) in the samegeneral region, the last three being mentioned by Bartram (1792).Sitiku, on Little Tennessee River at the entrance of Citico Creek, MonroeCounty, Tenn.Tahlasi, on Little Tennessee River about Talassee Ford in Blount County,Tenn.Tallulah, 2 towns: (1) on the upper Tallulah River, Rabun County, Ga.; (2) onTallulah Creek of Cheowa River in Graham County, N. C.Tamahli, 2 towns: (1) on Valley River a few miles above Murphy, about thepresent Tomatola, Cherokee County, N. C; (2) on Little Tennessee Riverabout Tomotley Ford, a few miles above Tellico River in Monroe County,Tenn.Tellico, 4 towns: (1) Great Tellico, at Tellico Plains on Tellico River, MonroeCounty, Tenn.; (2) Little Tellico, on Tellico Creek of Little Tennessee River
218 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145
about 10 miles below Franklin, N. C; (3) (also called Little Tellico at times)on Valley River about 5 miles above Murphy, N. C; (4) Tahlequah, capitalof the Cherokee Nation in what is now Oklahoma.Tennessee, 2 towns: (1) on Little Tennessee River a short distance above itsjunction with the main stream in east Tennessee; (2) on an extreme headbranch of Tuckasegee River, above the present Webster, N. C.Toquo, on Little Tennessee River about the mouth of Toco Creek, MonroeCounty, Tenn.Tsiyahi, 3 towns: (1) on a branch of Keowee River, near the present Cheochee,Oconee County, S. C; (2) a modern settlement on Cheowa River aboutRobbinsville, N. C; (3) a former settlement in Cades Cove, on Cover Creek,Blount County, Tenn.Ustanali; according to Purcell's map, there was a town of this name differentfrom those already given, on the upper waters of Cheowa River, GrahamCounty, N. C.Besides the above, the following settlements are given by Mooney and otherwriters:Amahyaski, location unknown.Amkalali, location unknown.Amohi, location unknown.Anisgayayi, a traditional town on Valley River, Cherokee County, N. C.Anuyi, location unknown.Aquohee, perhaps at the site of Fort Scott, on Nantahala River, Macon County,N. C.Atsiniyi, location unknown.Aumuchee, location unknown.Ayahliyi, location unknown.Big Island, on Big Island, in Little Tennessee River a short distance below themouth of Tellico River.Briertown, on Nantahala River about the mouth of Briertown Creek, MaconCounty, N. C.Broomtown, location unknown.Brown's Village, location unknown.Buffalo Fish, location unknown.Canuga, 2 towns: (l)apparently on Keowee River, S. C; (2) a traditional town onPigeon River probably near Waynesville, Haywood County, N. C.Catatoga, on Cartoogaja Creek of Little Tennessee River above Franklin, N. C.Chagee, near the mouth of Chatooga Creek of Tugaloo River at or near FortMadison, southwest Oconee County, S. C.Cheesoheha, on a branch of Savannah River in upper South Carolina.Chewase, on a branch of Tennessee River in East Tennessee.Chlcherohe, on War Woman Creek in the northwestern part of Rabun County,Ga.Chickamauga, a temporary settlement on Chickamauga Creek near Chattanooga.Conisca, on a branch of Tennessee River.Conontoroy, an "out town."Conoross, on Conoross Creek which enters Keowee or Seneca River from the westin Anderson County, S. C.Coyatee, on Little Tennessee River about 10 miles below the Tellico, about thepresent Coytee, Loudon County, Tenn.Crayfish Town, in upper Georgia.Creek Path, with Creeks and Shawnee at Gunter's Landing, Ala.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 219Crowmocker, on Battle Creek which falls into Tennessee River below Chatta-nooga, Tenn.Crow Town, on the left bank of Tennessee River near the mouth of RaccoonCreek, Cherokee County, Ala.Cuclon, an unidentified town.Cusawatee, on lower Coosawatee River in Gordon County, Ga.Dulastunyi, on Nottely River, Cherokee County, N. C, near the Georgia line.Dustayalunyi, about the mouth of Shooting Creek, an affluent of Hiwassee River,near Hayesville, Clay County, N. C.Ecochee, on a head stream of Savannah River in northwest South Carolina ornortheast Georgia.Elakulsi, in northern Georgia.Etowah, 2 towns: (1) on Etowah River about the present Hightower, ForsythCounty, Ga.; (2) a possible settlement on Hightower Creek of Hiwassee River,Towns County, Ga.Euforsee, location unknown.Fightingtown, on Fightingtown Creek, near Morgantown, Fannin County, Ga.Frogtown, on a creek of the same name, north of Dahlonega, Lumpkin County,Ga.Guhlaniyi, occupied by Cherokee and Natchez, at the junction of BrasstownCreek with Hiwassee River a short distance above Murphy, N. C.Gusti, traditional, on Tennessee River near Kingston, Roane County, Tenn.Halfway Town, about halfway between Sitiku and Chilhowee on Little TennesseeRiver about the boundary of Monroe and Loudon Counties, Tenn.Hemptown, on Hemptown Creek near Morgantown, Fannin County, Ga.Hickory Log, on Etowah River a short distance above Canton, Cherokee County,Ga.High Tower Forks, probably one of the places called Etowah.Ikatikunahita, on Long Swamp Creek about the boundary of Forsyth and Chero-kee Counties, Ga.Ivy Log, on Ivy Log Creek, Union County, Ga.Johnstown, on the upper waters of Chattahoochee River and probably in thenorthern part of Hall County, Ga.Kalanunyi, a district or town laid off on the Eastern Cherokee Reserve in Swainand Jackson Counties, N. C.Kanastunyi, on the headwaters of French Broad River near Brevard in Transyl-vania County, N. C, also possibly a second on Hiwassee River.Kansaki, 4 towns: (1) on Tuckasegee River a short distance above the presentWebster in Jackson County, N. C; (2) on the lower course of Canasauga Creekin Polk County, Tenn.; (3) at the junction of Conasauga and CoosawateeRivers, the later site of New Echota, Gordon County, Ga. ; (4) mentioned inthe De Soto narratives but perhaps identical with No. 2.Kanutaluhi, in northern Georgia.Kawanunyi, about the present Ducktown, Polk County, Tenn,Kuhlahi, in upper Georgia.Kulahiyi, in northeastern Georgia near Currahee Mountain.Leatherwood, at or near Leatherwood in the northern part of Franklin County,Ga.Long Island, at the Long Island in Tennessee River on the Tennessee-Georgialine.Lookout Mountain Town, at or near the present Trenton, Dade County, Ga.
220 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Naguchee, about the junction of Soquee and Sautee Rivers in Nacoochee Valleyat the head of Chattahoochee River, Habersham County, Ga.Nanatlugunyi, traditional, on the site of Jonesboro, Washington County, Tenn.Nantahala (see Briertown).Nickajack, on the south bank of Tennessee River in Marion County, Tenn.Nununyi, on Oconaluftee River near Cherokee, Swain County, N. C.Ocoee, on Ocoee River near its junction with the Hiwassee, about Benton, PolkCounty, Tenn.Oconaluftee, probably at the present Birdtown, on the Eastern Cherokee Reser-vation.Ooltewah, about the present Ooltewah, on Ooltewah Creek, James County, Tenn.Oothcaloga, on Oothcaloga (Ougillogy) Creek of Oostanaula River near Calhoun,Gordon County, Ga.Paint Town, on lower Soco Creek, within the reservation in Jackson and SwainCounties, N. C.Pine Log, on Pine Log Creek in Bartow County, Ga.Quacoshatchee, in northwest Pickens County, S. C.Qualla, agency of the Eastern Cherokee on a branch of Soco River, JacksonCounty, N. C.Quanusee, location unknown.Rabbit Trap, in upper Georgia.Red Bank, on Etowah River, at or near Canton, Cherokee County, Ga.Red Clay, on Oconaluftee River in Swain County, N. C, Eastern Cherokee Reser-vation.Running Water, on the southeast bank of Tennessee River below Chattanooga,near the northwestern Georgia line and 4 miles above Nickajack.Sanderstown, in northeastern Alabama.Selikwayi, on Sallacoa Creek probably at or near the present Sallacoa, CherokeeCounty, Ga.Seneca, on Keowee River about the mouth of Conneross Creek in Oconee County,S. C.Setsi, traditional, on the south side of Valley River, about 3 miles below Valley-town, Cherokee County, N. C.Skeinah, on Toccoa River, Fannin County, Ga.Soquee, on Soquee River, near ClarksviUe, Habersham County, Ga.Spikebuck Town, on Hiwassee River at or near Hayesville, Clay County, N. C.Spring Place, a mission station in Murray County, Ga.Standing Peach Tree, on Chattahoochee River, at the mouth of Peachtree Creek,northwest of Atlanta, Ga.Sutali, on Etowah River, probably in southwestern Cherokee County, Ga.Suwanee, on Chattahoochee River about the present Suwanee, Gwinnett County,Ga.Tagwahi, 3 towns: (1) on Toccoa Creek east of ClarkesviUe, Habersham County,Ga. ; (2) on Toccoa or Ocoee River about the present Toccoa in Fannin County,Ga. ; (3) perhaps on Persimmon Creek which enters Hiwassee River somedistance below Murphy, Cherokee County, N. C.Takwashnaw, a Lower Cherokee town.Talahi, location unknown.Talaniyi, in upper Georgia.Talking Rock, on Talking Rock Creek, an affluent of Coosawattee River, Ga.Tasetsi, on the extreme head of Hiwassee River in Towns County, Ga.Taskigi, 3 towns occupied originally by Tuskegee Indians (see Alabama) : (1) onLittle Tennessee River above the junction of the Tellico, Monroe County,
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 221Tenn. ; (2) on the north bank of Tennessee River just below Chattanooga, Tenn.
;
(3) perhaps on Tuskegee Creek of Little Tennessee River near Robbinsville,Graham County, N. C.Tikwalitsi, on Tuckasegee River at Bryson City, Swain County, N. C.Tlanusiyi, at the junction of Hiwassee and Valley Rivers on the site of Murphy, N. C.Tocax, location unknovsTi, perhaps connected with Toxaway or Toccoa.Torsalla, one of the Keowee towns.Tricentee, one of the Keowee towns.Tsilaluhi, on a small branch of Brasstown Creek of Hiwassee River, just withinthe lines of Towns County, Ga.Tsiskwahi, a district or town in the Eastern Cherokee Reservation, Swain County, N. C.Tsistetsiyi, on South Mouse Creek, a branch of Hiwassee River in BradleyCounty,- Tenn.Tsistuyi, on the north bank of Hiwassee River at the entrance of Chestua Creek,in Polk County, Tenn., at one time occupied by Yuchi.Tsudinuntiyi, on lower Nantahala River, in Macon County, N. C.Tucharechee, location unknown.Tuckasegee, 2 towns: (1) about the junction of the two forks of TuckasegeeRiver, above Webster, Jackson County, N. C; (2) on a branch of BrasstownCreek of Hiwassee River, in Towns County, Ga.Turkeytown, on the west bank of Coosa River opposite the present Center,Cherokee County, Ala.Turniptown, on Turniptown Creek above EUijay, Gilmer County, Ga.Turtletown, in upper Georgia.Tusquittah, on Tusquittee Creek near Hayesville, Clay County, N. C.Two Runs, on Etowah River at the crossing of the old Indian trail between Coosaand Tugaloo Rivers, Bartow County, Ga.Ustisti, one of the Lower Towns.Valleytown, at Valleytown on Valley River, Cherokee County, N. C.Wahyahi, on upper Soco Creek on the Eastern Cherokee Reservation, JacksonCounty, N. C.Wasasa's Village, on Brown's Creek, a southern affluent of Tennessee River innorthern Alabama.Willstown, on Wills Creek, below Fort Payne, De Kalb County, Ala.History.?There seems to have been a Cherokee migration legendsomething Hke that of the Creeks according to which the tribe enteredtheir historic scats from some region toward the northeast.In 1540 De Soto seems to have passed through only one town thathas a Cherokee name, but Pardo in 1566 learned of another, Tanasqui,which has a Cherokee appearance and may have given its name toTennessee River. Continuous contact between the Cherokee and theWhites began after Virginia was settled, when traders from thatcolony commenced to work their way into the Appalachian Mountains.Contact became more intimate with the founding of the Carolinacolonies, and a contingent of 310 Cherokee joined Moore in his attackon the Tuscarora in 1713. In 1730 Sir Alexander Cuming staged apersonal embassy to the Cherokee and afterward took seven of theIndians to England vnih. him. In 1738 an enemy more serious eventhan White men made its first appearance in this tribe, namely small-
222 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bdll. 145pox, which cut down their numbers by nearly 50 percent. In 1755 theCherokee won a great victory over the Abihka Creeks, who forthwithwithdrew from the Tennessee River. Relations with the Whiteswere upon the whole friendly until 1759 when the Indians refused toaccede to the demand of the Governor of South Carolina that a numberof Indians including two leading chiefs be turned over to him forexecution under the charge that they had killed a White man. He hadasked also to have 24 other chiefs sent to him merely on suspicionthat they entertained hostile intentions. War followed, and theIndians captured P'ort Loudon, a post in the heart of then* country,August 8, 1760, after having defeated an army which came to relieveit. The year following, however, the Indians were defeated onJune 10, by a larger force under Col. James Grant, who laid the,greater number of the Middle Cherokee settlements in ashes, andcompelled the tribe to make peace. In 1769 they are said to havesuffered a severe defeat at the hands of the Chickasaw at the Chicka-saw Oldfields. On the outbreak of the American Revolution theysided with the British and continued hostilities after its close downto 1794. Meanwhile parties of Cherokee had pushed down TennesseeRiver and formed new settlements near the present Tennessee-Alabama boundary. Shortly after 1800 missionary work was begunamong them, and in 1820 they adopted a regular form of governmentmodeled on that of the United States. In the meantime large numbersof them, wearied of the encroachments of the Whites, had crossed theMississippi and settled in the territory now included in the State ofArkansas. In 1821 Sequoya, son of a mixed-blood Cherokee woman bya White man, submitted a syllabary of his own devising to the chiefmen of the nation, and, on their approval, the Cherokee of all agesset about learning it with such zeal that in a few months numbers ofthem were able to read and write by means of it. In 1822 Sequoyawent west to teach his alphabet to the Indians of the western- division,and he remained among them permanently. The pressure of theWhites upon the frontiers of the Eastern Cherokee was soon increasedby the discovery of gold near the present Dahlonega, Ga., and aftera few years of fruitless struggle the nation bowed to the inevitableand by the treaty of New Echota, December 29, 1835, sold all of theirterritories not previously given up and agreed to remove to the otherside of the Mississippi to lands to be set apart for them. These landswere in the northeastern part of the present Oklahoma, and thitherthe greater part of the tribe removed in the winter of 1838-39, sufferinggreat hardships and losing nearly one-fourth of their number on theway. Before the main migration took place one band of Cherokeehad established themselves in Texas where they obtained a grant ofland from the Mexican government, but the Texas revolutionists
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 223
refused to recognize this claim although it was supported by Gon.Sam Houston. In consequence, the Cherokee chief Bowl was killedin 1839, along with many of his men, and the rest were expelled fromthe State. At the time of the great migration, several hundredCherokee escaped to the mountains where they lived as refugees untilin 1842, through the efforts of William H. Thomas, an influentialtrader, they received permission to remain on lands set apart for theiruse in western North Carolina, the Qualla Reservation, where theirdescendants still reside. The early years of the reestablished CherokeeNation west of the Mississippi were troubled by differences betweenthe faction that had approved removal and that which had opposed it.Afterward the tribal life was entirely disrupted for a few years by theCivil War. In 1867 and 1870 the Delaw^arc and Shawnee wereadmitted from Kansas and incorporated into the nation. March 3,1906, the Cherokee government came to an end, and in time the landswere allotted in severalty, and the Cherokee people soon becamecitizens of the new State of Oklahoma.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates that in 1650 there was atotal Cherokee population of 22,000. In 1715 a rather careful esti-mate, yet in all probability too low, gave a total of 11,210 (LowerCherokee 2,100; Middle 6,350; Upper 2,760), including 4,000 warriorsand distributed among 60 villages. In 1720 two estimates wxremade, of 10,000 and 11,500 respectively, but in 1729 the estimatejumps to 20,000, with 6,000 warriors, distributed in 64 towns. In1755 a North Carolina estimate gives 5 divisions of the tribe iind atotal of 2,590 men. In 1760 we find a flat figure of 2,000; in 1761,about 3,000. Even before this time the Cherokee are supposed tohave lost heavily from smallpox, intoxicants, and wars with thecolonists, but at the time of their forced removal to the west in 1838those in their old country had increased to 16,542. Those already inthe w^est were estimated at about 6,000. The Civil War interferedwith their growth but in 1885 they numbered 19,000, about 17,000being in the west. In 1902 there were officially reported in the west28,016 persons of Cherokee blood, including all degrees of admixture,but this includes several thousand persons repudiated by the tribalcourts. The Census of 1910 returned 31,489 Cherokee, 29,610 ofwhom were in Oklahoma, 1,406 in North Carolina, and the restscattered in 23 other States. In 1923 the report of the United StatesIndian OflSce gave 36,432 Cherokee "by blood" in Oklahoma, and 2,515in North Carolina: total 38,947. In 1930, 45,238 were returned:40,904 in Oklahoma, 1,963 in North Carolina, and the rest in morethan 36 other States. In 1937 the number of eastern Cherokee wasgiven as 3,327.
224 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Connection in which they have become noted.?The Cherokee tribe isone of the most famous in all North America, (1) on account of itssize and strength and the prominent part it played in the history ofour country, (2) from the fact that the invention of the Cherokeealphabet by Sequoya was the only case of the adoption of a systemof writing without immediate White prompting in the annals of ourIndians, (3) from the perpetuation of numerous place names fromCherokee sources and of the name itself in counties in Alabama,Georgia, Iowa, Kansas, Oldahoma, North Carolina, South Carolina,and Texas, and places in some of these States and California, Ken-tucky, and Arkansas; in Colbdrt County, Ala.; Cherokee County,Iowa; Crawford County, Kans.; Lawrence County, Ky.; and the nameof stations in Louisville, Ky.; Swain County, N. C; Alfalfa County,Okla.; and San Saba County, Tex. There is a Cherokee City inBenton County, Ark.; Cherokee Dam at Jefferson City, Tenn.; andCherokee Falls in Cherokee County, S. C. Several prominent Ameri-cans were descended from this tribe, including Senator Robert Owenand Will Rogers.Chiaha. A part of this tribe was encountered by De Soto in 1540, inthe territory now forming this State, probably, as shown by Mr.J. Y. Brame, on what is now Burns Island. They are also men-tioned in connection with the explorations of Juan Pardo in1567. (See Georgia.)Chickasaw. In historic times the Chickasaw claimed the greaterpart of western Tennessee, and twice drove Shawnee Indians fromthe Cumberland Valley, the first time with the assistance of theCherokee, according to the claim of the latter. At an early datethey had a settlement on the lower Tennessee River but it is doubt-ful whether this was in Temiessee or Kentucky. (See Mississippi.)Kaskinampo. Meaning unknown, though -nampo may be theKoasati word for "many."Connections.?The Kaskinampo were probably closely related tothe Koasati, and through them to the Alabama, Choctaw, and otherMuskhogean people.Location.?Their best-known historic location was on the lower endof an island in the Tennessee River, probably the one now calledPine Island. (See also Arkansas.)History.?There is every reason to believe that this tribe constitutedthe Casqui, Icasqui, or Casquin "province" which De Soto enteredimmediately after crossing the Mississippi River, and it was probablyin what is now Phillips County, Ark. We hear of the Kaskinamponext in connection with the expeditions of Marquette and Joliet butdo not learn of their exact location until 1701, when they seem to
SWANTOr,-] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 225have been on the lower end of the present Pine Island. . We areinformed, however, by one of the French explorers that they hadpreviously lived upon Cumberland River, and there is evidence that,when they first moved to the Tennessee, they may have settled fora short time near its mouth. Both the Cumberland and the Tennesseewere Icnown bj'- their name, and it stuck persistently to the latterstream until well along in the eighteenth century. After the earlyyears of the eighteenth century we hear little more of them, butthere is reason to believe that they united with the Koasati.Population.?Our only clue to the population of the Kaskinampois in an unpublished report of Bienville, who estimates 150 men, ora total population of about 500.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Kaskinampo aredistinguished only for the prominent part they played in the De Sotonarratives and for the application of their name for a time to TennesseeRiver.Mosopelia. This tribe probably established themselves on Cumber-land River and at one or two points on the Tennessee shore of theAlississippi on their way from Ohio to Mississippi. (See Ofo underMississippi and Ohio.)Muskogee. Although we do not have records of any settlement inTennessee by the true Muskogee, it is probable that some of themoccupied part of its territory in prehistoric times, and at a laterdate their war parties constantly visited it. (See Alabama.)Natchez. After being driven from Mississippi and Louisiana, oneband of Natchez lived among the Cherokee. (See Mississippi.)Ofo, see Mosopelia.Shawnee. Meaning "southerners," the best-known variants of thename being the French form Chaouanons, and that which appearsin the name of Savannah River. Also called:Ani'-SawUnu'gl, by the Cherokee.Ontwagana, "one who stutters," "one whose speech is unintelligible,"applied by the Iroquois to this tribe and many others.Oshawanoag, by the Ottawa.Shawala, by the Teton Dakota.Connections.?The Shawnee belonged to the Algonquian linguisticstock, their closest relatives being the Fox, Sauk, and Kickapoo.Location.?There was scarcely a tribe that divided so often or movedso much as the Shawnee, but one of the earliest historic seats of thepeople as a whole was on Cumberland River. (See also Alabama,Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, Maryland and the Dis-trict of Columbia, Missouri, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, SouthCarolina, Texas, Virginia.)
226 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Boll. 145Subdivisions and VillagesThere were five subdivisions of long standing, Chillicothe, Hathawekela, Kis-pokotha, Mequachake, and Piqua. The Hathawekela, Kispokotha, and Piqualater formed one body known as Absentee Shawnee. The following names ofvillages have been preserved:Bulltown, or Mingo, on Little Kanawha River, W. Va.Chillicothe, 3 or 4 towns: (1) on Paint Creek on the site of Oldtown, near Chilli-cothe in Ross County, Ohio; (2) on the Little Miami about the site of Oldtownin Greene County, Ohio; (3) on the Great Miami River at the present Piqua inMiami County; (4) probably the native name of Lowertown (see below).Conedogwinit, location unknown.Cornstalk's Town, on Scippo Creek opposite Squaw Town, Pickaway County,Ohio.Girty's^Town, on St. Mary's River, east of Celina Reservoir, Auglaize County,Ohio.Grenadier Squaw's Town, on Scippo Creek, Pickaway County, Ohio.Hog Creek, on a branch of Ottawa River in Allen County, Ohio.Kagoughsage, apparently in Ohio or western Pennsylvania.Lewistown (and Seneca), near the site of the present Lewistown, Logan County,Ohio.Lick Town, probably Shawnee, on upper Scioto River, probably near Circleville,Ohio.Logstown, with Delaware, and later Iroquois, on the right bank of Ohio Riverabout 14 miles below Pittsburgh, in Allegheny County, Pa.Long Tail's Settlement, in Johnson County, Kans.Lowertown, 2 towns; (1) on Ohio River just below the mouth of the Scioto andlater built on the opposite side of the river about the site of Portsmouth, Ohio;(2) in Ross County, also called Chillicothe.Mequachake: There were several towns of the name occupied by people of thisdivision; they also had villages on the headwaters of Mad River, Logan County,Ohio.Old Shawnee Town, on Ohio River in Gallia County, Ohio, 3 miles above themouth of the Great Kanawha.Peixtan (or Nanticoke), on or near the lower Susquehanna River in DauphinCounty, Pa., possibly on the site of Paxtonville.Pigeon Town, Mequachake division, on Mad River, 3 miles northwest of WestLiberty, Logan County, Ohio.Piqua, 4 towns: (1) Pequea on Susquehanna River at the mouth of Pequea Creek,in Lancaster County, Pa.; (2) on the north side of Mad River, about 5 mileswest of Springfield, Clark County, Ohio; (3) Upper Piqua on Miami River 3miles north of the present Piqua in Miami County, Ohio, and (4) Lower Piqua,a smaller village on the site of the modern town of that name, Ohio.Sawanogi, on the south side of Tallapoosa River in Macon County, Ala. ; but seeMuskogee in Alabama.Scoutash's Town (or Mingo), near Lewistown, Logan County, Ohio.Shawneetown, on the west bank of Ohio River about the present Shawneetown,Gallatin County, 111.Sonnioto, at the mouth of Scioto River, Ohio, perhaps the same as Lowertown.Tippecanoe, on the west bank of the Wabash River, just below the mouth ofTippecanoe River in Tippecanoe County, Ind.Wapakoneta, on the site of the present Wapakoneta, Auglaize County, Ohio.V/ill's Town, at the site of Cumberland, Md.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 227History.?Tradition and the known linguistic connections of theShawnee indicate that they had migrated to the Cumberland RiverValley from the north not long previous to the historic period. Theywere on and near the Cumberland when French explorers first heardof them, although there are indications that they had been in part onthe Ohio not long before. Shortly after 1674 the Hathawekela orthat part of the Shawnee afterward so called, settled upon SavannahRiver, and in 1681 they proved of great assistance to the new colonyof South Cai'olina by driving a tribe known as Westo, probably partof the Yuchi, from the middle Savannah. Early in the followingcentury, or possibly very late in the same centiu-y, some of theseHathawekela began to move to Pennsylvania and continued to do soat intervals until 1731, Meanwhile, however, immediately after theYamasee War, a part had retired among the Creeks, settling first onChattahoochee River and later on the Tallapoosa, where they remaineduntil some years before the removal of the Creeks to the west. Of theremaining bands of Shawnee?those which had stayed upon theCumberland?part of the Piqua moved eastward into Pennsylvaniaabout 1678, and more in 1694, so that they were able to welcome theirkinsmen from the south a few years later. A French trader namedCharleville established himself at Nashville among the rest of thetribe, but soon afterward they were forced out of that region by theCherokee and Chickasaw. They stopped for a time at several pointsin Kentucky, and perhaps at Shawneetown, 111., but about 1730, bypermission of the Wyandot, collected along the north bank of theOhio between the Allegheny and Scioto Rivers. Shortly after themiddle of the eighteenth century they were joined by their kinsmenwho had been Uving in Pennsylvania. One Pennsylvania band con-tinued on south to the Upper Creeks with whom they Hved for severalyears before returning north. Their return must have occurred soonafter 1760, and they are said to have settled for a time in the oldShawnee country on the Cumberland but were soon ejected by theChickasaw, this time unassisted by the Cherokee. From the beginningof the French and Indian War to the treaty of Greenville in 1795 themain body of Shawnee were almost constantly fighting with theEnglish or the Americans. They were the most active and perti-nacious foes of the Whites in that section. Driven from the Scioto,they settled upon the headwaters of the Miami, and later many ofthem assisted the Cherokee and Creeks in their wars with the Ameri-cans. In 1793, however, one considerable body, on invitation of theSpanish Government, occupied a tract of land near Cape Girardeau,Mo., along with some Delaware. After the treaty of Greenville, theShawnee were obUged to give up their lands on the Miami, and partretired to the headwaters of the Auglaize, while the more hostile
228 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145
element swelled the numbers of those who had gone to Missouri . In1798 a part of the Shawnee in Ohio settled on White River, Ind., byinvitation of the Delaware. Shortly afterward a Shawnee medicineman named Tenskwatawa, known to the Whites as "the Shawneeprophet," began to preach a new doctrine which exhorted the Indiansto return to the communal life of their ancestors, abandoning all cus-toms derived from the Whites, His followers increased rapidly innumbers and established themselves in a village at the mouth ofTippecanoe River, Ind. Their hostile attitude toward the Whites soonbecoming evident, they were attacked here in 1811 by Gen. W. H.Harrison and totally defeated. While this war was going onTecumseh, Tenskwatawa's famous brother, was in the south endeavor-ing to bring about an uprising among the tribes in that section. Inthe war between the Americans and British which broke out in 1812Tecumseh acted as leader of the hostiles and was killed at the battleof the Thames in 1814. In 1825 the Shawnee in Missouri, who aresaid to have taken no part in these wars, sold their lands, and most ofthem moved to a reservation in Kansas, but a large part had pre-viously gone to Texas, where they remained until expelled by theAmerican colonists in 1839. About 1831 the Shawnee still in Ohiojoined those in Kansas, and about 1845 the Hathawekela, Kispokotha,and Piqua moved from Kansas to Oklahoma and estabhshed them-selves on Canadian River, becoming known later as the AbsenteeShawnee. In 1867, a band which had been living with the Senecaalso moved to what is now Oklahoma and came to be known as EasternShawnee; and still later the main body became incorporated with theCherokee. One band, known as Black Bob's band, at first refused toremove from Kansas, but later joined the rest. All have now becomecitizens of Oklahoma.Population.?Owing to the number of separate bodies into whichthis tribe became divided, and their complex history, estimates ofShawnee population in early times are difficult. Mooney (1928)places their entire number at 3,000 in 1650. Estimates made byvarious writers during the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuriesvary between 1,000 and 2,000, 1,500 being the favorite figure. In1760 the Abihka and Tallapoosa bands numbered 100 warriors. In1909 the Eastern Shawnee numbered 107; the Absentee Shawnee, 481;and those incorporated with the Cherokee Nation, about 1,400. Thecensus of 1910 returned only 1,338. In 1923, 166 Eastern Shawneewere enumerated and 551 Absentee, but no figures were given for thatpart of the tribe in the Cherokee Nation. The census of 1930 gave1,161, most of whom were in Oklahoma. There were 916 in Oklahomain 1937.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 229Connection in which they have become noted.?Although prominentby virtue of its size, the Shawnee tribe is noteworthy rather onaccount of numerous migrations undertaken by its various branchesand the number of contacts estabhshed by them, involving thehistory of three-quarters of our southern and eastern States. Theyconstituted the most formidable opposition to the advance of settle-ments through the Ohio Valley, and under Tecumseh and Tenskwa-tawa attempted an extensive alhance of native tribes to oppose theWhites. The name Shawnee is preserved in various forms in Pennsyl-vania, Tennessee, Wisconsin, Kansas, New York, Ohio, Oklahoma,Missouri, and Illinois, and most conspicuously of all, perhaps, in thename of the river Savannah and the city of Savannah, Ga. Thereare places called Shawnee in Park County, Colo.; Johnson County,Kans.; Perry County, Ohio; Pottawatomie County, Okla.; and Con-verse County, Wyo.; Shawnee-on-Delaware in Monroe County, Pa.;Shawanee in Claiborne County, Tenn.; Shawanese in Luzerne County,Pa.; Shaw^ano in Shawano County, Wis.; Shawneetown in GallatinCounty, 111., and Cape Girardeau County, Mo.Tali. A tribe met by De Soto near the great bend of the Tennesseeand found in the same region by the earliest English and Frenchexplorers, living in what is now northern Alabama and perhapsalso in Tennessee. It is probable that they were a part of theCreeks (q. v.).Tuskegee. One band of Tuskegee formed a settlement or settlementsin the Cherokee Nation. (See Cherokee, and Tuskegee underAlabama.)Yuchi. The greater part of the Yuchi probably lived at one periodin and near the mountains of eastern Tennessee though one band ofthem was on the Tennessee River just above Muscle Shoals andthere is evidence for an early occupation of the Hiwassee Valley.Some remained with the Cherokee until a very late date. (SeeGeorgia.) KENTUCKYCherokee. The Cherokee claimed some land in southeastern Ken-tucky and traces of culture of Cherokee type are said to be foundin archeological remains along the upper course of the Cumberland,but no permanent Cherokee settlement is knowm to have existed inhistoric times within this State. (See Tennessee.)Chickasaw. The westernmost end of Kentucky w-as claimed by theChickasaw, and at a very early period they had a settlement on thelower course of Tennessee River, either in Kentucky or Tennessee.(See Mississippi.)
230 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Boll. 145Mosopelea. This tribe may have hved within the boundaries ofKentucky for a brief time, perhaps at the mouth of the CumberlandRiver, when they were on their way from Ohio to the lower Missis-sippi. (See Ohio, and see also Ofo under Mississippi.)Shawnee. The Shawnee had more to do with Kentucky in earlytimes than any other tribe, but maintained few villages in the Statefor a long period. Their more permanent settlements were farthersouth about Nashville. At one Shawnee town, located for a shorttime near Lexington, Ky., the noted Shawnee chief, Blackhoof, wasborn. The tribe crossed and recrossed the State several times inits history and used it still more frequently as a hunting ground.(See Tennessee.)Yuchi. According to some early maps, the Yuchi had a town in thisState on a river which appears to be identical with Green River.(See Georgia.)Hunting bands of Illinois, Miami, Iroquois, and Delaware at timesvisited Kentucky, but these tribes can hardly be said to have playedmuch of a part in Kentucky history. (See New York, New Jersey,Indiana, and Illinois.) OHIOChippewa. Representatives of this tribe appear as parties to theTreaty of Greenville, 1795, and to treaties concluded in 1807 and1817 by which lands in this State were relinquished to the Whites.(See Minnesota.)Delaware. The Delaware lived in Ohio for a considerable period inthe course of their migration west under White pressure (See NewJersey.)Erie. Meaning in Iroquois, "long tail," and referring to the panther,from which circumstance they are often referred to as the CatNation. Also called:Ga-qua'-ga-o-no, by L. H. Morgan (1851).Connection.?The Erie belonged to the Iroquoian linguistic family.Location.?All of northern Ohio, except possibly the northwesterncorner, and in portions of northwestern Pennsylvania and western NewYork, In the southeastern part of the State they perhaps reachedthe Ohio River. (See also Indiana, New York, and Pennsylvania.)Subdivisions and VillagesThe names of but two villages are known, Gentaienton and Riqu6. There aresupposed to have been several subdivisions, but their names have not beenpreserved.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OP NORTH AMERICA 231History.?Little is known of this tribe until the final struggle whichresulted in its destruction as a nation at the hands of the Iroquoisand the incorporation of most of the remnants among the conquerors.The war lasted from 1653 to 1656 and seems to have been unusually-bloody, the victory of the Iroquois having been determined probablyby the fact that they possessed firearins. Some of the so-calledSeneca of Oklahoma may be descended from Erie refugees.Population.?Hewitt (1907) considers 14,500 a conservative esti-mate of Erie population at the time of the last war, but Mooney(1928) allows only 4,000.Connection in which they have become noted.?The historical prom-inence of the Erie tribe itself is confined to the war in which it wasdestroyed. Its claim to present remembrance arises from the adoptionof the name for one of the Great Lakes; for an important city inPermsylvania upon its shores; counties in New York, Ohio, andPennsylvania; places in Weld County, Colo.; Whiteside County, 111.;Neosho County, Kans.; Monroe County, Mich.; Cass County,N. Dak.; Loudon County, Tenn.; Erieside in Lake County, Ohio; andErieville in Madison County, N. Y., and some smaller settlements;also an important railroad.Honniasont. This tribe occupied parts of the eastern fringe of Ohioafter it had been incorporated into the Iroquois and perhaps before.(See Pennsylvania.)Illinois. Representatives of the Illinois were parties to the Treaty ofGreenville by which lands of the State of Ohio were relinquished tothe Whites. (See Illinois.)Iroquois. After the destruction or dispersal of the Erie and othernative tribes of Ohio, many Iroquois settlements were made in theState, particularly by the westernmost tribe, the Seneca. Some ofthese so-called Iroquois villages were no doubt occupied by peopleof formerly independent nations. (See New York.)Kickapoo. Representatives of this tribe were parties to the Treatyof Greenville by which Ohio lands were relinquished to the Whites.(See Wisconsin.)Miami. After the original tribes of Ohio had been cleared away,some Miami worked their way into the State, particularly into thewestern and northern parts, and they gave their name to three Oliiorivers, the Miami, Little Miami, and Maumee. (See Indiana.)Mosopelea. Significance uncertain, though probably from an Algon-quian language. Also called:Chonque, by Tonti in 1690, probably the Quapaw name.Ofo, own name, perhaps an abbreviation of the Mobilian term, Ofogoula,though this last may mean simply "Ofo people." Ofogoula may also be
232 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145interpreted Ofi okla, "Dog People." They were, in fact, known to someof the other tribes as "Dog People."Ouesperie, Ossipe, Ushpee, names by which they were known to othertribes and evidently shortened forms of Mosopelea, which has a variantin r.Connections.?The Mosopelea spoke a Siouan dialect most closelyrelated to Biloxi and Tutelo and secondarily to Dakota.Location.?When the French first heard of them, they were insouthwestern Ohio, but their best-known historical location was on thelower Yazoo, close to the Yazoo and Koroa Indians. (See alsoArkansas, Indiana, Kentucky, and Tennessee.)VillagesAnciently they had eight villages, but none of the names of these have beenpreserved.History.?After abandoning southwestern Ohio some time before1673, the Mosopelea appear to have settled on the Cumberland, driventhither probably by the Iroquois, and to have given it the name itbears in Coxe's map (1741), Ouesperie, a corruption of Mosopelea.By 1673 they had descended to the Mississippi and established them-selves on its western side below the mouth of the Ohio. Later theyappear to have stopped for a time among the Quapaw, but before1686 at least part of them had sought refuge among the Taensa.Their reason for leaving the latter tribe is unknown, but Ibervillefound them in the historic location above given in 1699. He insertstheir name twice, once in the form Ofogoula and once as "Ouispe,"probably a corruption of Mosopelea. When their neighbors, theYazoo and Koroa, joined in the Natchez uprising, the Ofo refusedto side with them and went to live with the Tunica, who were Frenchallies. Shortly before 1739 they had settled close to Fort Rosalie,where they remained untU after 1758. In 1784 their village was onthe western bank of the Mississippi 8 miles above Point Couple, butnothing more was heard of them until 1908, when I found a singlesurvivor living among the Tunica just out of Marksville, La., andwas able to establish their linguistic connections.Population.?In 1700 the Mosopelea are said to have occupied 10-12cabins, but some years later Le Page du Pratz (1758) gives 60. In1758 they are reported to have had 15 warriors and in 1784, 12.Connection in which they have become noted.?The most noteworthycircumstance connected with this tribe is its romantic history andthe recovery of the knowledge of the same.Neutrals. The Neutral Nation may have occupied a little territoryin the extreme northwest of Ohio. (See New York.)Ofo, see Mosopelea.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 233Ottawa. In the eighteenth century, Ottawa worked into the northernpart of Ohio and estabhshed settlements along the shore of LakeErie. (See Michigan.)Potawatomi. Representatives of this tribe were parties to the Treatyof Greenville in 1795 and to treaties made in 1805, 1807, and 1817by which lands in this State were relinquished to the Whites.(See Michigan.)Seneca, see Iroquois, under New York.Shawnee. It is probable that some Shawnee were in Ohio at veryearly periods. After they had been driven from the CumberlandValley by the Chickasaw and Cherokee shortly after 1714, theyworked their way north into this State and, as they were joined bythe former eastern and southern bands, Ohio became the Shawneecenter for a considerable period, until after the Treaty of Green-ville. (See Tennessee.)Wyandot. Meaning perhaps "islanders," or "dwellers on a penin-sula." Occasionally spelled Guyandot. At an earlier date usuallyknown as Huron, a name given by the French from hur^, "rough,"and the depreciating suffix -on. Also called:HatindiaSointen, Huron name of Huron of Lorette.Nadowa, a name given to them and many other Iroquoian tribes byAlgonquians.Telamateno", Delaware name, meaning "coming out of a mountain orcave."Thastchetci', Onondaga name.Connection.?The Wyandot belonged to the Iroquoian linguisticfamily.Location.?The earliest known location of the Huron proper wasthe St. Lawrence Valley and the territory of the present province ofOntario from Lake Ontario across to Georgian Bay, The Tionontatiwere just west of them on Lake Huron. (See also Illinois, Indiana,Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin.)Subdivisions and VillagesThere are said to have been four confederated Huron tribes in the time ofChamplain.Cartier, who first met these people, gives the following town names:Araste, on or near St. Lawrence River below the site of Quebec.Hagonchenda, on St. Lawrence River not far from the point where it is joined byJacques Cartier River.Hochelaga, on Montreal Island.Hochelay, probably near Point Platon, Quebec.Satadin, location uncertain.Stadacona, on the site of the present Quebec.
234 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Boll. 145Starnatan, just below the site of Quebec.Tailla, near Quebec.Teguenondahi, location uncertain.Tutonaguay, 25 leagues above the site of Quebec.The following towns, some under their native names and others under the namesof the missions established by the French Jesuits, existed in Ontario between LakeSimcoe and Georgian Bay in the first half of the seventeenth century:Andiata.Angoutenc, between the refugee Wenrohronon town and Ossossan^ and about 2miles from the latter.Anonatea, 1 league from Ihonatiria.Arendaonatia.Arente.Arontaen, near Point Cockburn, on the north shore of Nattawasaga Bay.Cahiague, where was the mission of St. John the Baptist.Carhagouha, in Tiny Township about 2 miles northwest of Lafontaine.Carmaron.Ekiodatsaan,Endarahy.lahenhouton.Ihonatiria, where was the mission of the Immaculate Conception.Karenhassa.Khinonascarant, the name of three small villages.Onentisati, in Tiny Township.Ossossan^, where was the mission of the Immaculate Conception after it wasmoved from Ihonatiria.Ste. Agnes.Ste. Anne.St. Antoine.Ste. Barbe.Ste. Catherine.Ste. C^cile.St. Charles, 2 villages.St. Denys.St. Etienne.St. Frangois Xavier.Ste. Genevieve.St. Joachim,St. Louis.Ste. Madeleine.St. Martin.Ste. Marie, 2 villages.Ste. T^r^se.Scanonaerat, where was the mission of St. Michel.Taenhatentaron, where was the mission of St. Ignace.Teanaustaya6, whither the mission of St. Joseph was moved from Ihonatiria (?).Teandewiata.Tondakhra, on the west side of the northern peninsula of Tiny Township, 4 milesnorthwest of Lafontaine and about 1 mile southeast of Clover Point.Touaguainchain, perhaps where the mission of Ste. Madeleine was established.After the Huron had been broken up by the Iroquois there was for a time aHuron mission on Mackinac Island, called St. Ignace, which was soon moved to
SwANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 235Point Ignace on the shore to the northward. A part of the tribe settled succes-sively in villages called Ancienne Lorette and Jeune Lorette, 8 miles northwest ofQuebec.The following names of Huron or Wyandot towns are recorded in Ohio after thepart of the tribe which moved west and south had collected there:Cranetown, 2 towns: (1) on the site of the present Royalton, Fairfield County;(2) in Crawford County, 8 or 10 miles northeast of the present Upper Sandusky.Junquoindundeh, on Sandusky River 24 miles above its mouth.Junundat, on a small creek that empties into a little lake below the mouth ofSandusky River, Seneca County.Sandusky, 2 towns: (1) Lower Sandusky on the site of Sandusky, Erie County;(2) Upper Sandusky near the present town of that name in Wyandot County.There was a Wyandot village in Wayne County, Mich., called Brownstown,occupied by people of this tribe from 1809 to 1818.History.?The St. LawreDce territories seem to have been occupiedby two of the four Huron tribes when Cartier explored the St. LawrenceRiver in 1534-43; at any rate Hurons were in occupancy. WhenChamplain came into the country in 1603, they were all living southof Georgian Bay. The French soon entered into amicable relationswith them and, beginning in 1615, missionaries undertook to convertthem to Cliristianity. These efforts were crowned with considerablesuccess, but were brought to an end when the tribe was attacked anddisrupted by the Iroquois in 1648-49. Part of the Huron were thenadopted by their conquerors, while part placed themselves under theprotection of the French at Quebec, their descendants being knowntoday as the Hurons of Lorette, and others fled to the Neutrals, theErie, the Tionontati, and other tribes. In 1649, however, the Tio-nontati were attacked in their turn and forced along with theirHuron guests to take refuge on Christian Island in Lake Huron.Then followed a long course of wandering; to Michilimackinac; Mani-toulin Island; Green Bay; the Potawatomi; the Illinois; the neigh-borhood of the Ottawa on Chequamigon Bay, on the south shore ofLake Superior; and again to Michilimackinac. In the latter part ofthe seventeenth century some moved to Sandusky, Ohio, and Detroit,Mich. In 1745 a considerable party of Huron under the leadershipof the war chief Orontony or Nicholas went from Detroit to themarshlands of Sandusky Bay, but in 1748, on the failure of a con-spiracy Orontony had attempted against the French, he abandonedhis villages and removed to White River, Ind. After his death theHurons seem to have returned to Detroit and Sandusky and graduallyextended their claims over Ohio, so that it was by their permissionthat the Shawnee from the south and the Delaware from the eastsettled north of Ohio River. The Wyandot allied themselves withthe British in the War of 1812. At its close a large tract of land in
236 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Ohio and Michigan was confirmed to them, but they sold much of itin 1819, under treaty provisions, reserving a small portion near UpperSandusky, Ohio, and a smaller area on Huron River, near Detroit,until 1842, when these tracts also were sold, and the tribe removed toWyandotte County, Kans. In 1867 they were placed upon a smallreservation in the northeastern part of the Indian Territory and arenow citizens of the State of Oldahoma,Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates that in 1600 there were10,000 Huron and 8,000 Tionontati. French estimates of the firsthalf of the seventeenth century range from 20,000 to 30,000, the formerfigure being one that Hewitt (in Hodge, 1907) is inclined to accept.After the dispersal, the Hurons of Lorette were estimated at 300 in1736 but placed officially at 455 in 1904. The following figures aregiven for the other Huron: 1,000 in 1736; 500 and 850 in 1748; 1,250in 1765; 1,500 in 1794-95; 1,000 and 1,250 in 1812. In 1885 theHuron in Oklahoma numbered 251; in 1905, 378; and by the censusof 1910, 353. In 1923 there were 502 in Oklahoma and in 1924, 399at Lorette, Canada: total 901. The census of 1930 returned exactlythe same number in the United States as had the census of 1910. In1937, 783 were reported in Oklahoma.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Wyandot tribe isfamous, (1) from the fact that it was the chief tribe or group of tribesencountered by Cartier when he explored the St. Lawrence, (2) for theflourishing missions maintained among them by the French Jesuits,(3) for the tragic destruction of their confederacy by the Iroquois,(4) from the various applications of the names Huron and Wyandot,the former including one of the Great Lakes and also rivers and coun-ties in Michigan, Ohio, and Ontario ; places in Fresno County, Calif.
;
Lawrence County, Ind.; Atchison County, Kans.; Erie County, Ohio;Beadle County, S. Dak.; Henderson County, Tenn.; and the HuronMountains in Marquette County, Mich. Wyandot was applied inthe forms Wyandot or Wyandotte to counties in Ohio and Kansas;to places in Wyandot County, Ohio; Crawford County, Ind.; ButteCounty, California; Ottawa County, Okla.; and Wayne County,Mich.; and a famous cave, Wyandotte Cave, 4 miles northeast ofLeavenworth, Ind. In the form Guyandotte, the name of the Wyan-dot has been given to a river, mountains, and a town in West Virginia.INDIANAChippewa. Representatives of this tribe appear as parties to theTreaty of Greenville in 1795 and treaties made in 1817 and 1821by which lands in Indiana were relinquished to the Whites. (SeeMinnesota.)
SwANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 237Delaware. About 1770 the Delaware, most of whom were then livingin Ohio, received permission from the Miami and Piankashaw tooccupy that part of Indiana between the Ohio and White Rivers,where at one period they had six villages. In course of time, allmoved west of the Mississippi to Missouri, Kansas, and Oklahoma.(See New Jersey.)Erie. Erie tribal territory may once have extended into the north-eastern part of the State, but this tribe played but little part in theknown history of the region covered by it. (See Ohio.)Illinois. Representatives of this tribe appear as parties to the Treatyof Greenville in 1795, relinquishing land in Indiana to the Whites.(See Illinois.)Iroquois. The earlier Indian occupants of Indiana were largelydriven out by the Iroquois, particularly by the westernmost of theIroquois tribes, the Seneca, yet they seem to have had few settle-ments in the State. (See New York.)Kickapoo. "VMien the Kickapoo were on Vermilion River, lU., theyundoubtedly occupied some of western Indiana for brief periods.(See Wisconsin.)Miami. The name is thought to be derived from the Chippewa wordOmaumeg, signifying "people on the peninsula," but according totheir own traditions, it came from the word for pigeon. The nameused by themselves, as recorded and often used by early wTiters, isTwightwees, derived from the cry of a crane. Also called:Naked Indians, a common appellation used by the colonists, from a con-fusion of twa?h, twa''h, the cry of a crane, with tawa, "naked."Pkfwi-ldni, by the Shawnee, meaning "dust or ashes people."Sa^shkid-a-runil, by the Wyandot, meaning "people dressing finely, orfantastically."Tawatawas, meaning "naked." (See Naked Indians above.)Wa-ya-ta-no'-ke, cited by Morgan (1851).Connections.?The Miami belonged to the Algonquian linguisticstock, their nearest immediate connections being with the Illinois.Location.?For territory occupied in Indiana, see History. (Seealso Illinois, Kansas, Michigan, Ohio, Oklahoma, and Wisconsin.)Subdivisions and VillagesFrench writers divided the Miami into the following five bands: Piankashaw,Wea, Atchatchakangouen, Kilatika, Mengakonkia, and Pepicokia. The firsttwo later became recognized as independent tribes, the last may have been ab-sorbed by the Piankashaw but this and the other three divisions are no longerrecognized. The following villages are mentioned:
238 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Chicago, on the site of the present city, probably occupied by Wea.Chippekawkay (Piankashaw), perhaps containing originally the Pepicokia band,on the site of Vincennes, Knox County, Ind.Choppatee's Village, on the west bank of St. Joseph River, a few miles from FortWayne, Allen County, Ind.Flat Belly's Village (see Papakeecha).Kekionga, on the east bank of St. Joseph River, in Allen County, Ind., oppositeFort Wayne.Kenapacomaqua, a Wea village on the west bank of Eel River, near its mouth,6 miles above Logansport, Cass County, Ind.Kokomo, on the site of the present Kokomo, Ind.Kowasikka or Thorntown, on Sugar Creek near the present Thornton, BooneCounty, Ind.Little Turtle's Village, on Eel River, Ind., about 20 miles northwest of FortWayne.Meshingomesia, on a reservation on the northeastern side of Mississinewa River,in Liberty Township, Wabash County, Ind.Missinquimeschan, probably Piankashaw, near the site of Washington, DaviessCounty, Ind.Mississinewa, on the east side of Mississinewa River at its junction with theWabash in Miami County, Ind.Osaga, location uncertain.Papakeecha, named from its chief, east of Turkey Lake at the present Indianvillage, Noble County, Ind.Piankashaw, occupied by Piankashaw, on Wabash River at the junction of theVermilion.Pickawillanee, on Miami River at the site of the present Piqua, Miami County,Ohio.Saint Francis Xavier, mission for Miami and Mascouten on Fox River, Wis.,near De Pere, Brown County.Seek's Village, on Eel River about 3 miles from Columbia City, in Whitley County,Ind.Thornton (see Kowasikka).White Raccoon's Village, near the present Aboite, Allen County, Ind.History.?Miami were living in the neighborhood of Green Bay,Wis., when knowledge of the tribe first came to Europeans shortlyafter the middle of the seventeenth centm-y. In 1670 they were at theheadwaters of Fox River, but soon afterward they formed new settle-ments at the southern end of Lake Michigan and on Kalamazoo River,Mich. It is quite possible that bands of this tribe had moved fromWisconsin at a still earlier period and were in northern Indiana. Theirfirst settlements at the lower end of Lake Michigan were at Chicagoand on St. Joseph River. In 1703 there was a Miami village at De-troit, but the greater part of the tribe continued to live on St. JosephRiver for a considerable period. By 1711 they had reached the Wa-bash, and presently they were forced from St. Joseph River by thePotawatomi, Kickapoo, and other northern tribes. In consequencethey moved farther south and also eastward to Miami River, andperhaps as far as the Scioto. After the peace of 1763, they abandoned
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 239these eastern territories to the Shawnee and retired to Indiana.They took a prominent part in all subsequent wars in this section, butsoon after the War of 1812 began to dispose of their lands and by 1838had parted with most of them, the United States Government agreeingto provide thorn with new lands west of the Mississippi. In 1840 allof their remaining territories were ceded except one tract reservedfor a part of the tribe called Meshingomesia's band, which had chosento remain in their old country. In 1867 the rest accompanied theIllinois to Oklahoma, where they were given a reservation in thenortheastern corner of the State. Their lands now have been allottedin severalty, and they are citizens of the State of Oklahoma. Thelands of Meshingomesia's band in Indiana were divided among thesurvivors in 1872 and their descendants are citizens of Indiana.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated 4,500 Miami, including theWea and Piankashaw, in the year 1650. An estimate of 1764gives them 1,750, but a year later another substracts 500 from thisfigure. In 1825 the Miami, Wea, and Piankashaw, entered as tribes,were supposed to total about 1,400, of whom 327 were Wea. In 1885only 57 Miami proper were officially recognized in Indian Territory,while the W^ea and Piankashaw were enumerated with the Illinois, thewhole numbering 149. These last had increased to 191 in 1903. In1905 the total number of Miami in Indian Territory was 124. In 1900the Miami in Indiana, including many White-Indian mLxed-bloods,numbered 243. The census of 1910 returned 226 Miami, of whom 123were in Oklahoma and 90 in Indiana. The United States IndianOffice Report of 1923 gave 125 Indians in Indiana, most of whomcertainly belonged to this tribe. The census of 1930 returned 284Miami and Illinois; the 47 reported from Indiana were, of course, allMiami. In 1937, 287 were reported from Oklahoma.Connection in which they have become noted.?Historically the Miamiwere noted as one of those tribes which offered steady resistance to thewestward movement of White population in the eighteenth century.Their name has been given to three Ohio rivers of some importance, theGreat Miami, Little Miami, and Maumee; counties in Ohio, Indiana,and Kansas; and to places in California, Indiana, Oklahoma, Missouri,Ohio, Texas, and Manitoba, Canada; also to a creek in Missouri.There are places of the name in Gila County, Ariz.; Miami County,Ind.; Saline County, Mo.; Colfax County, N. Mex.; Ottawa County,Okla. ; Roberts County, Tex. ; Kanawha County, W. Va. Miamisburgis in Montgomery County, Miamitown in Hamilton County, andMiamiville in Clermont County, all in Ohio; and Miami Station isin Carroll County, Mo. The name of Miami, Fla., and the derivedMiami Beach and Miami Springs, Fla., have a different origin. The
240 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Miami tribe had a famous chief, Little Turtle, whose name oftenappears in historical narratives.Mosopelea. Before this tribe left its former territory north of theOhio, it probably extended into the extreme southeastern part ofIndiana. (See Ohio.)Neutrals. The Neutral Nation may have extended slightly into thenortheastern portion of this State, though this is uncertain. (SeeNew York.)Ottawa. Representatives of the Ottawa appear as parties to theTreat;^ of Greenville in 1795, relinquishing Indiana land to theWhites, and as parties to similar treaties in 1817 and 1821. (SeeMichigan.)Potawatomi. The Potawatomi pushed into the northern part ofIndiana during the eighteenth century and were in occupancy untilthey ceded their lands to the United States Government in the firsthalf of the nineteenth century. (See Michigan.)Seneca, see Iroquois.Shawnee. There was an ancient Shawnee town in Posey County,Ind., at the junction of the Wabash and Ohio. At a later period thetribe had settlements along the southern and eastern borders, andthe soil of Indiana was the scene of the activities of the Shawneeprophet and his brother Tecumseh until after Gen. Harrison'svictory at Tippecanoe. (See Tennessee.)Wyandot. Representatives of this tribe appear as parties to theTreaty of Greenville in 1795, relinquishing land in Indiana to theWhites. (See Wisconsin and Ohio.)ILLINOISChippewa. Representatives of this tribe appear in treaties made in1795, 1816, 1829, and 1833 relinquishing Illinois land to the Whites.(See Minnesota.)Delaware. While they were being slowly crowded west by the Whites,the Delaware passed across Illinois, and their connection with theState was transitory in both senses of the term. (See New Jersey.)Foxes. This tribe, together with the Sauk, drove the Illinois Indiansfrom the northwestern part of the State of Illinois in the latterpart of the eighteenth century and took their places, but ceded theterritory to the United States Government by a treaty signedNovember 3, 1804. (See Wisconsin.)
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 241
Illinois. A native word signifying "men," "people." Also called:Chicktaghicks, Geghdageghroano, or Kighetawkigh Roanu, by the Iroquois.Oudataouatoiiat, applied by the Wyandot to the Ottawa and later to theIllinois.Witishaxtdnu, the Huron name for the Illinois and Miami, from UshaxtAno,
"Illinois River."Connections.?The Illinois belonged to the Algonquian linguisticfamily, and were more closely connected with the Chippewa thanwith any other Algonquian tribe, except the Miami.Location.~ln historic times they lived principally along the Illinoisand Mississippi Rivers, one division, the Michigamea, being as farsouth as northeastern Arkansas (q. v.). (See also Indiana, Iowa,Kansas, Alissouri, Ohio, Oklahoma, and Wisconsin.)Subdivisions and VillagesThe Illinois were in reality a group of related tribes, of which the best knownare the following:Cahokia, later home about Cahokia, 111.Kaskaskia, before 1700 near the present Utica, La Salle County, later at or nearKaskaskia, 111.Michigamea, probably on Big Lake, between the St. Francis and MississippiRivers, Ark.Moingwena, in Iowa near the mouth of Des Moines River.Peoria, their early location probably in northeastern Iowa, later near the presentPeoria.Tamaroa, on both sides of Mississippi River about the mouths of the Illinoisand Missouri.The following were perhaps minor Illinois tribes:Albivi, given by only one writer and it is doubtful whether this was a true Illinoisband.Amonokoa, mentioned by Hennepin, 1680.Chepoussa, probably a band from Kaskaskia River connected with the Michi-gamea.Chinko, mentioned by Allouez and La Salle.Coiracoentanon, mentioned by La Salle.Espeminkia, mentioned by La Salle.Tapouaro, mentioned by La Salle.The villages noted in history are:Cahokia, near the present Cahokia.Immaculate Conception, a mission among the Kaskaskia, near Rockford.Kaskaskia, as given above.Matchinkoa, 30 leagues from Fort Crevecoeur, near the present Peoria.Moingwena, as given above.Peoria, as given above,Pimitoui, on Illinois River near the mouth of Fox River in La Salle County.
242 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145History.?In 1667 the French priest Allouez met a party of IlHnoisIndians who had come to La Pointe on Lake Superior to trade. In1673 Marquette, while descending the Mississippi, found the Peoriaand Moingwena west of the river near the mouth of the Des Moines,but before his return they had moved to the neighborhood of thepresent Peoria, and most of the other Illinois tribes, except theMitchi-gamea, were then on Illinois River. In 1700 the Kaskaskia movedto southern Illinois and settled on Kaskaskia River. About the timeof La Salle's visit in 1682 the Illinois were at war with a number ofneighboring peoples, and the Iroquois, who were then just beginningraids against them, caused them heavy losses in the succeeding years.The murder of Pontiac by a Kaskaskia Indian set the northern tribesin motion against the Illinois and in the ensuing wars the latter werereduced to a fraction of their former strength and the Sauk, Foxes,Kickapoo, and Potawatomi dispossessed them of the greater part oftheir territories. The remnant settled near the French at Kaskaskia,where they continued to decline in numbers until, in 1800, only about150 were left. In 1832 the survivors sold their lands and removedwest of the Mississippi, to the present Kansas, whence they removedagain in 1867 and became consolidated with the Wea and Piankashawin the northeastern corner of the present State of Oklahoma.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated that in 1650 the Illinoisnumbered about 8,000. About 1680 Hennepin gives 400 houses and1,800 warriors. Rasles estimated 300 cabins of 4 fires each, indicatinga population of 9,000, which is probably excessive. About the year1750 there were supposed to be from 1,500 to 2,000 souls. In 1778the Kaskaskia numbered 210 and the Peoria and Michigamea together170. In 1800 all these were reduced to 150. In 1885 the mixed-bloodremnant in Indian territory, including the Wea and Pianliashaw,numbered 149, and in 1905, 195. The census of 1910 gave 128, ofwhom 114 were in Oklahoma, and the census of 1930, 284 Illinois andMiami. In 1937 there were 370 "Peoria" in Oklahoma.Connection in which they have become noted.?The chief claim ofthe Illinois to distinction is the adoption of its name for an importantbranch of the Mississippi and more particularly its later adoption asthe name of the State of Illinois. The name is also given geographicalapplication in Arkansas, Texas, Oregon, and Oklahoma. The nameappears in Illinois Bend, Montague County, Tex. ; Illinois City, RockIsland County, 111.; and Illiopolis, Sangamon County, 111.Kickapoo. This tribe, after helping destroy the Illinois, settled onVermilion River and extended its territories to Illinois River. Itceded this land to the United States Government July 30, 1819.(See Wisconsin.)
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 243Miami. In very early times the Miami had a town where now standsChicago, and later their territorial claims covered parts of the easternsections of the State. (See Indiana.)Ottawa. Some Ottawa worked down to the northernmost part of theState in the eighteenth century. (See Michigan.)Potawatomi. This tribe succeeded the Miami in the region of Chicago,and, after the destruction of the Illinois, occupied still more territoryin the northeastern part of the State. (See Michigan.)Sauk. The Sauk assisted their relatives the Foxes in expelling theIllinois tribes from the Rock River region, and they occupied itwith them until the lands were ceded to the Whites and theymoved farther west. (See Wisconsin.)Shawnee. There were Shawnee for a while in the southern part ofIllinois. (See Tennessee.)Winnebago. Representatives of this tribe were parties to an Illinoisland cession m 1829. (See Wisconsin.)Wyandot. Some Wyandot were parties to the Greenville Treaty in1795 relinquishing land in Illinois to the Whites. (See Ohio.)MICHIGANChippewa. At a very early period, Chippewa lived about the SaultSt. Marie and on the northern shore of Lake Michigan. (SeeMinnesota.)Foxes. Since the Sauk are known to have lived in Michigan atan early period, it is probable that the Foxes did also, but this isstill uncertain. (See Wisconsin.)Hurons, see Wyandot.Kickapoo. The same probability of an early residence in Michiganapplies to the Kickapoo as to the Foxes and for a similar reason.(See Wisconsin.)Menominee. This tribe ceded its claim to a portion of the upperpeninsula of Michigan in 1836. (See Wisconsin.)Miami. The Miami, or a portion of them, at one time occupied thevalley of St. Joseph River and other parts of the southern Michiganborder. (See Indiana.)Neutrals. Bands of the Neutral Nation extended, in the seventeenthcentury, into what is now southeastern Michigan. (See New York.)Noquet. Meaning probably "bear foot," another name for the Beargens in Chippewa. The Bear gens may have been prominent inthis tribe.
244 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Boll. 145Connections.?The Noquet are thought to have been related to theMenominee of the Algonquian hnguistic family.Location.?About Big Bay de Noquet and Little Bay de Noquetand extending across the northern peninsula of Michigan to LakeSuperior. (See also Wisconsin.)History.?In 1659 the Noquet was one of the tribes attached to themission of St. Michel. They were never prominent and were prob-ably absorbed at a very early date by the Alenominee or Chippewa.Population
.
?Unknown
.
Connection in which they have become noted.?The name Noquet isperpetuated in the two bays above mentioned.Ottawa. From a native word signifying "to trade," because theywere noted as middlemen. It occurs shortened to Tawa. Alsocalled:Andatahouats, Ondatawawat, Huron name.Udawak, Penobscot name.Ukua'-yata, Huron name, according to Gatschet (1877).Waganha's, Iroquois name, meaning "stammerers".Watawawininiwok, Chippewa name, meaning "men of the bulrushes",from the many bulrushes in Ottawa River.Wdowo, Abnaki name.Connections.?The Ottawa belonged to the Algonquian linguisticstock and were related most closely ^^^th the Chippewa and Pota-watomi.Location.?The earliest known home of this tribe was ManitoulinIsland and neighboring parts of the north shore of Georgian Bay.Their connection with Michigan came later. (See also Illinois,Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Wisconsin, andCanada.) Subdivisions and VillagesThe following four main divisions are given by early writers: The Kishkakonor Bear Gens, the Nassauaketon, or Fork People, the Sable Gens and the Sinagoor Gray Squirrel Gens, to which a fifth, the Keinouche or Pickerel Gens, is some-times added. The Kishkakon, Sinago, and Keinouche were closely associated.Villages:Aegakotcheising, in Michigan.Anamiewatigong, in Emmet County, lower Michigan.Apontigoumy, probably in Ontario.Machonee, near the mouth of Au Vaseau River which flows into Lake St.Clair, in lower Michigan.Manistee, in Michigan, perhaps near the village of Weganakisi on LittleTraverse Bay.Menawzhetaunaung, on an island in the Lake of the Woods.Meshkemau, on Maumee Bay, Lucas County, Ohio.Michilimackinac, on Mackinac Island.Middle Village, location unknown.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 245Obidgewong, with Chippewa, on the western shore of Lake Wolseley, Mani-toulin Island, Ontario.Oquanoxa, on the west bank of the Little Auglaize, at its mouth, in PauldingCounty, Ohio.Roche de Boeuf, on the northwestern bank of Maumee River, near Waterville,Lucas County, Ohio.Saint Simon, a mission on Manitoulin Island.Shabawywyagun, apparently on the eastern shore of Lake Michigan.Tushquegan, on the south bank of Maumee River opposite Toledo, Ohio.Waganakisi, on the site of Harbor Springs, Emmet County, Mich.Walpole Island, on the island of that name, Ontario.Waugau, near the mouth of Maumee River, in Lucas County, Ohio.Wolf Rapids, on Maumee River, Ohio, about the boundary of Wood and HenryCounties.Additional bands:Maskasinik, position uncertain, mentioned in Jesuit Relation of 1657-58 withNikikouek and Missisauga.Nikikouek, position uncertain, associated with Missisauga and dwelling east ofthem on the north shore of Lake Huron.Outaouakamigouk, on the northeast coast of Lake Huron in 1648, probablyOttawa.Sagnitaouigama, in 1640 southeast of Ottawa River, perhaps same as Sinago.History.?It is uncertain whether the Ottawa River in Ontarioreceived its name because the Ottawa once hved upon it or because theOttawa had obtained a monopoly of the trade passing up and down it.When the French actually came among them they were in the regionabove indicated. After the destruction of their allies, the Hurons, in1648-49, the Iroquois attacked the Ottawa in turn, who fled to theislands at the entrance of Green Bay, part of them later passing toKeweenaw Bay, while the rest accompanied the Hurons to an islandnear the entrance of Lake Pepin on the Mississippi. Harassed by theDakota, the Ottawa settled on Chequamegon Bay but in 1670-71 wereinduced by the French to return to Manitoulin Island. By 1680 mostof them had left Manitoulin Island and joined the Hurons about themission station at Mackinaw. About 1700 the Hurons removed toDetroit, and a portion of the Ottawa seem to have obtained a footholdon the west shore of Lake Huron between Saginaw Bay and Detroit,but they returned to Mackinaw about 1706. Soon afterward the cliiefseat of a portion of the tribe was fixed at L'Ai'bre Croche in EmmettCounty, whence they spread down the east side of Lake Michigan toSt. Joseph River, a few finding their way into Wisconsin and north-eastern Illinois. At the same time some of them were living in theirold country on Manitouhn Island and about Georgian Bay, and otherswere scattered along the southern shore of Lake Erie from Detroit tothe vicinity of Beaver Creek, Pa. They took part successively againstthe English and the American colonists in all wars during the latterhalf of the eighteenth century and the begmning of the nineteenth
246 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Boll. 145
until the end of the War of 1812. The famous chief Pontiac was anOttawa. The Canadian Ottawa are on Manitouhn and CockburnIslands and the adjacent shores of Lake Huron. In 1831 two bands ofOttawa known as the Ottawa of Blanchard's Fork of Great AuglaizeRiver and the Ottawa of Roche de Boeuf on Maumee River weregranted lands on Marais des Cygnes River, Kans., but they re-cededthe greater part of these lands in 1846, and in 1862 they agreed toallotment in severalty and to the relinquishment of their remainingterritory. Further treaties regarding the disposal of their lands weremade in 1867 and 1872. In 1867 they received a plot of land in Okla-homa which had been ceded by the Shawnee. A few Ottawa wentwest with the Prairie Potawatomi but were soon fused with them orscattered to other places. A few others have continued to occupyparts of Kansas down to the present day but after 1868 most of themremoved to Oklahoma. A still larger body of Ottawa remained inMichigan, scattered among a number of small villages.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated that in 1600 there were ofthe combined Algonkin and Ottawa about 6,000. The scattered con-dition of the tribe during their earlier history prevented theu' contem-porary chroniclers from obtaining satisfactory figures. In 1906 theChippewa and Ottawa on Manitoulin and Cockburn Islands numbered1,497, of whom about half were Ottawa; there were 197 under theSeneca School, Okla.; and in Michigan there were 5,587 in 1900 ofwhom about two-thirds were Ottawa. According to the census of1910, there were 2,717 Ottawa in the United States, 2,454 being inMichigan, 170 in Oklahoma, and the rest in Wisconsin, Nebraska,Kansas, and Pennsylvania. In 1923 there were 274 in Oklahomaand a much larger number in Michigan and Canada. The UnitedStates Census of 1930 gives 1,745, of whom 1,469 were in Michigan,167 in Oklahoma, and 84 in Wisconsin. In 1937 there were 422 inOklahoma.Connection in which they have become noted.?Although a prominenttribe in early times, the Ottawa will now be especially rememberedfrom the fact that they have given their name to the most importantbranch of the St. Lawrence River and the city on its banks whichbecame the capital of the Dominion of Canada. Their name is alsoborne by counties in Kansas, Michigan, and Ohio, and the provinceof Quebec; by important cities in La Salle County, 111., and FranklinCounty, Kans.; and by smaller places and streams in RockcastleCounty, Ky.; Waukesha County, Wis.; Le Sueur County, Minn.;Putnam County, Ohio; Boone County, Wis.; Boone County, Va.; andOttawa Beach in Ottawa County, Mich., and Ottawa Lake in MonroeCounty in the same State. The tribe will be noted furthermore asthat to which belonged the famous Indian patriot, Pontiac.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 247Potawatomi. Meaning "people of the place of the fire," and hencesometimes known as the Fire Nation. Also called:Atsistarhonon, Huron name.Kiinu-hdyanu, Caddo name, meaning "watermelon people."NdatonSatendi, Undatomd.tendi, Huron name.Peki'neni, Fox name, meaning "grouse people."Tcashtaldlgi, Creek name, meaning "watermelon people."Wah-ho'-na-hah, Miami name, meaning "fire makers."Wdhiu(^axd, Omaha name.Wdhiijyaha, Kansa name.Woraxa, Iowa, Oto, and Missouri name.Wordxg, Winnebago name.Connections.?The Potawatomi belonged to the Algonquian lin-guistic family, being most closely affiliated with the Chippewa andOttawa.Location.?The ancient home of this tribe was evidently in thelower peninsula of Michigan. (See also Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kan-sas, Ohio, Oklahoma, and Wisconsin.)Subdivisions and VillagesIn the course of their later history, the Potawatomi became separated intoseveral distinct bands but these do not seem to have corresponded to any old,well-determined classification.Villages:Abercronk, not certainly Potawatomi, in northeastern Porter County, Ind.Ashkum's Village, on the north side of Eel River, about Denver, Miami County,Ind.Assiminehkon, probably Potawatomi, in Lee County, 111.Aubbeenaubbee's Village, in Aubbeenaubbee Township in Fulton County, Ind.Checkawkose's Village, on the south side of Tippecanoe River, about HarrisonTownship, Kosciusko County, Ind.Chekase's Village, on the west side of Tippecanoe River between Warsaw andMonoquet, Kosciusko, Ind.Chichip6 Outip^, near South Bend, St. Joseph County, Ind.Chippoy, on Big Shawnee Creek, in Fountain County, Ind.Comoza's Village, on Tippecanoe River in Fulton County, Ind.Kinkash's Village, on Tippecanoe River, Kosciusko County, Ind.Little Rock Village, on the north bank of Kankakee River about the boundaryof Kankakee and Will Counties, 111.Macon, location unknown.Macousin, on the west bank of St. Joseph River, Berrien County, Mich.Mangachqua, on Peble River in southern Michigan.Maquanago, probably Potawatomi, near Waukesha, in southeastern Wisconsin.Masac's Village, on the west bank of Tippecanoe River in the northeastern partof Fulton County, Ind.Matchebenashshewish's Village, on Kalamazoo River probably in JacksonCounty, Mich.Maukekose's Village, near the head of Wolf Creek in Marshall County, Ind.Menominee's Village, on the north side of Twin Lakes near the site of Plymouth,Marshall County, Ind.
248 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Menoquet's Village, on Cass River, lower Michigan.Mesheketeno's Village, on Kankakee River, a short distance above the presentKankakee in northeastern Illinois.Mesquawbuck's Village, near Oswego, Kosciusko County, Ind.Mickkesawbee, at the site of the present Coldwater, Mich.Milwaukee, with Foxes and Mascouten, at or near the present Milwaukee, Wis.Minemaung's Village, near Grantpark, Kankakee County, 111.Mota's Village, just north of Tippecanoe River near Atwood, Kosciusko County,Ind.Muskwawasepeotan, near Cedarville, Allen County, Ind.Natowasepe, on St. Joseph River about the present Mendon, St. JosephCounty, Mich.Nayonsay's Village, probably Potawatomi, in the northeastern part of KendallCounty, 111.Pierrish's Village, on the north bank of Eel River, just above Laketon, WabashCounty, Ind.Pokagon, in Berrien County, near the west bank of St. Joseph River just northof the Indiana line.Prairie Ronde, about the boundary of Cass and Van Buren Counties, Mich.Rock Village in northeastern Illinois.Rum's Village, about 4 miles south of South Bend, St. Joseph County, Ind.Saint Joseph, a mission on St. Joseph River near the south end of Lake Michigan.Saint Michael, a mission in southern Wisconsin.Sawmehnaug, on Fox River, 111.Seginsavin's Village, on Rouge River near Detroit, Mich.Shaytee's Village, probably Potawatomi on Fo.x River, 111.Shobonier's Village, near the present Shabbona, De Kalb County, 111.Soldier's Village, in northern Illinois.Tassinong, probably Potawatomi, in Porter County, Ind.Toisa's Village, on the west bank of Tippecanoe River, nearly opposite Bloom-ingsburg, Fulton County, Ind.Tonguish's Village, near Rouge River in the southern part of Oakland County,or the northern part of Wayne County, Mich.Topenebee's Village, on St. Joseph River opposite Niles, Berrien County, Mich.Waisuskuck's Village, in northeastern, Illinois.Wanatah, in La Porte County, Ind., a short distance east of the presentWanatah.Wimego's Village, on the north bank of Indian Creek, in the northern part ofCass County, Ind.Winamac's Village, near the present Winamac, Pulaski County, Ind.Wonongoseak, probably Potawatomi, between the northern and southernbranches of Elkhart River, apparently in Noble County, Ind.History.?Shortly before the Potawatomi were encountered by theFrench they seem to have been Hving in the lower peninsula of Mich-igan. According to native traditions, the Ottawa, Chippewa, andPotawatomi reached the upper end of Lake Huron in company fromsome region farther east, and the Potawatomi crossed from that pointinto the peninsula. By 1670 they had been driven to the neighborhoodof Green Bay west of Lake Michigan, whence they slowly moved southuntil by the end of the century they had established themselves on Mil-waukee River, at Chicago, and on St. Joseph River. After the con-
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 249quest of the Illinois Indians about 1765, they took possession of stillmore of what is now the northern part of the State of Illinois and ex-tended their settlements eastward over southern Micliigan as far asLake Erie. After 1795, against the protests of the Miami, they moveddown the Wabash and advanced their occupancy as far as Pine Creek.They sided actively first with the French against the English and thenwith the English against the Americans until a general peace wasbrought about in 1815. As White settlers increased in numbers in theirneighborhood, the Potawatomi gradually parted with their lands,the greatest cessions being made between 1836 and 1841, and most ofthem retired beyond the ^lississippi. Part of the Prairie band ofPotawatomi returned to Wisconsin, while another band, the Potawa-tomi of Huron, are in lower Michigan. A few escaped into Canada andare now on Walpole Island in St. Clair County, Part of the Potawa-tomi living in Wisconsin sold their lands and received in exchange areservation in southwestern Iowa. These received the name of PrairiePotawatomi. In 1846 they also disposed of their Iowa territory andin 1847-48 passed over into Kansas and established themselves justeast of the Potawatomi of the Woods, who had come from Indianain 1840 to occupy a reserve on Osage River, in Kansas. In 1846,however, the latter re-ceded this and settled the following year betweenthe Shawnee and Delaware Indians in the present Sha^vnee County,Kans. The Potawatomi of the Prairie remained in Kansas and re-ceived allotments there, but the Potawatomi of the Woods went to anew reservation in Oklahoma in 1869-71 near the Kickapoo, A fewhave accompaied the Kickapoo to Mexico.Population.?Mooney's (1928) estimate for the Potawatomi, as ofthe year 1650, is 4,000. Estimates made between 1765 and 1843vary from 1,200 to 3,400, but it would seem that they must haveaveraged 2,000 to 2,500. In 1908, 2,522 Potawatomi were reported inthe United States, distributed as follows: Citizen Potawatomi inOklahoma, 1,768; Prairie band in Kansas, 676; and Potawatomi ofHuron, in Calhoun County, Mich., 78. A few besides these werescattered through their ancient territory and at various other points.Those in Canada are all in the Province of Ontario and number about220, of whom 176 are living with Cliippewa and Ottawa on WalpoleIsland and the remainder, no longer officially reported, are dividedbetween Caradoc and Riviere aux Sables, where they reside by per-mission of the Chippewa and Munsee. The United States Census of1910 returned 2,440, of whom 866 were hving in Oklahoma, 619 inKansas, 461 in Micliigan, and 245 in Wisconsin, while the remainderwere scattered in 11 other States. The United States and CanadianIndian Office Reports of 1923-24 give 2,227 in Oklahoma, 803 inKansas, and 170 on Walpole Island, Ontario, but those in Michigan
250 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145
are not separately entered. The United States Census of 1930 re-turned 1,854, of whom 654 were in Kansas, 636 in Oklahoma, 425 inWisconsin, and 89 in Michigan. In 1937 there were 142 in Michigan,311 in Wisconsin, 1,013 in Kansas, and 2,667 in Oklahoma: total 4,133.Connection in which they have become noted.?In the form Pottawa-tomie the name of this tribe is used as a designation of counties inKansas and Oklahoma and a post township of Coffey County, Kans.,and in the form Pottawattamie as the designation of a county in Iowa.Sauk. At some time shortly before European contact the Sauk livedabout Saginaw Bay and the present name of the bay is derived fromthem. They were probably driven beyond Lake Michigan by theOttawa allied with the Neutral Nation. (See Wisconsin.)Wyandot. After the disruption of their nation by the Iroquois thesepeople lived for limited periods at several different points in theterritory now included in the State of Michigan. They weretemporarily at Michilimackinac, Detroit, and other places. (SeeOhio.) WISCONSINChippewa. This tribe pushed its way west in the latter part of theseventeenth century as far as the territory lying within the presentState of Wisconsin, and the trading post established by the Frenchat La Pointe became an important Chippewa base. Early in theeighteenth century they are said to have driven the Foxes out ofnorthern Wisconsin, and they have continued to occupy that partof the State until the present time, having two reservations there.(See Minnesota.)Dakota. In very early times the Dakota occupied a little of thenorthwestern margin of Wisconsin. (See South Dakota.)Foxes. A name thought to have been derived from that of the Foxclan and to have been applied to the tribe through a misunderstand-ing. Also called:Beshde'ke, Dakota name.Mfishkwa kihQg', own name signifying "red earth people," from the kindof earth from which they are supposed to have been created.0-dug-am-eeg, Chippewa name, meaning "those who live on the oppositeside."Skaxshurunu, Wyandot name, meaning "fox people."Skuakfsagi, Shawnee name.To-che-wah-coo, probably the Arikara name.Wakush^g, Potawatomi name, meaning "foxes."Connections.?The Foxes belonged to the Algonquian linguisticfamily and in one group with the Sauk and Kickapoo.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 251Location.?In the vicinity of Lake Winnebago or along Fox River.(See also Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri,Nebraska, and Oklahoma.)History.?Since the closely related Sauk Indians came to Wisconsinfrom Saginaw Bay, Mich., it is probable that the Foxes once lived inthat region as well, but it is uncertain. There is also a tradition thatthey were in northern Wisconsin and were driven south by the Chip-pewa. The French missionaries heard of them as early as 1640, and in1670 found them in the location above given, where they remained fora long period. They were constantly at war with the Chippewa, andthough they received aid from the Dakota, obtained little advantagein these contests. It was on account of assistance rendered theChippewa by the French that the Foxes came to assume a hostileattitude toward the latter and finally went to war with them. In1712 they planned an attack on the French fort at Detroit whichnearly succeeded. Between 1729 and 1733 occurred a bitter war withthe French in which the Foxes, though assisted by some Sauk, lostheavily. Before 1746 they were in the habit of exactmg a toll from allwhite traders passing up Fox River, and for this reason they wereattacked by a band of French, defeated, and driven down WisconsinRiver, settling on the north bank of that stream about 20 miles fromits mouth. In 1780, in alliance with the Dakota, they attacked theChippewa at St. Croix Falls and were defeated. Shortly before thisthey had assisted the Sauk in driving the Illinois tribes from thenorthwestern part of the Rock River country, and they occupiedthese territories, but early in the nineteenth century they drew awayfrom the Sauk and settled in Iowa. In 1842 the Foxes and the Sauk,who had taken refuge with them after the Black Hawk War, sold theirlands in Iowa and were given in exchange a tract across the Missom-iin Kansas. About 1857-59 the Foxes became angered at the Sauk forentering into an agreement for the disposition of the lands of the twotribes during the absence of the former, and they returned to Iowawhere a few of their people had always remained. There they boughtland near Tama City on Iowa River, which they increased by purchaseuntil they had more than 3,000 acres. They have remained on thisreservation down to the present day.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated that in 1650 there musthave been about 3,000 Foxes, but this figure seems to be somewhat toohigh. In 1728 Guignes stated that they had 200 warriors, probablyan underestimate, but most of the figures before 1850 fall between1,500 and 2,500. Michelson (1919) says that the most rehable earlyestimate is that of Lewis and Clark in 1805, which gives 1,200. Sincethat date they have usually been enumerated with the Sauk. In
252 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 1451885 the Indians at Tama, most of whom were Foxes, numbered 380.In 1909 the United States Indian Office gives 352 (nearly all Foxes)in Iowa, besides the bands in Oklahoma and Kansas, most of whomwere Sauk. The United States Census of 1910 gives only 257 inIowa, but the Indian Office Report of 1923 raises this again to 354.In 1930 there were 887 Sauk and Fox, and it is assumed that the 344returned from Iowa were nearly all Fox. In 1937, 441 were returnedfrom Iowa. (See Sauk.)Connection in which they have become noted.?Historically this tribeis remarkable (1) as having been almost the only Algonquian tribe ofconsequence to imdertake a serious war with the French, and (2) fromits connection with the Sauk at the time of the uprising of the latterunder Black Hawk. It has given its name to Fox River, Wis., and toa second Fox River, also called Pishtaka, which rises in Wisconsinand flows through Illinois, into the lUinois River. Some small placeshave also been named from it.Housatonic, see Stockbridges.Illinois. At one time Illinois Indians probably occupied some of thesouthern and southwestern sections of Wisconsin. (See Illinois.)Iowa. A rather pronounced tradition points to the Winnebago as themother tribe of the Iowa, Oto, and Missouri, and the latter aresupposed to have stopped at certain places within the State ofWisconsin during their migration to the southwest. (See Iowa.)Iroquois. The Iroquois anciently played an important part in theaboriginal history of the Indian tribes of Wisconsin, usually asenemies. In very late times the Oneida were given a reservationhere where their descendants still live. (See New York.)Eickapoo. From Kiwggapaw', "he stands about," "he moves about,standing now here, now there." Also called:A'-uya,, Tonkawa name, meaning "deer eaters."Hfgabu, Omaha and Ponca name.I'-ka-dti', Osage name.Shake-kah-quah, Wichita name.Shfgapo, Shikapu, Apache name.Sik'-a-pu, Comanche name.T^kapu, Huron name.Yu?tara'ye-ru'nu, a second Huron name, meaning "tribe living aroundthe lakes."Connections.?The Kickapoo belonged to the Algonquian linguisticstock, and in a special group with the Foxes and Sauk.Subdivisions and VillagesThe villages were: Etnataek (shared with the Foxes), rather a fortificationthan a village, near the Kickapoo village on Sangamon River, 111., and Kicka-
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 253pougowi, on the Wabash River iu Crawford County, 111., about opposite themouth of Turman Creek.Location.?For territory occupied in Wisconsin, see History. (Seealso Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Michigan, ^Missouri, Ohio, andOklahoma.)History.?As suggested in the case of the Foxes, the Kickapoo mayonce have lived near the Sauk in the lower peninsula of Michiganbut such a residence cannot be proven. If the name Outitchakoukused by the Jesuit missionary Druillettes refers to this tribe, as seemsprobable, knowledge of them was brought to Europeans in 1658. Atany rate they were visited by Allouez about 1667-70 and were thennear the portage between Fox and Wisconsin Rivers, perhaps aboutAlloa, Columbia County, Wis. Early in the eighteenth century apart of them settled somewhere near Milwaukee River, and after thedestruction of the Illinois about 1765, they moved still farther southand lived about Peoria. One portion then pushed down to theSangamon, while another worked east to the Wabash, and made theirheadquarters on Vermilion River. The former became known asthe Prairie band and the latter as the Vermilion band. They tookpart against the colonists in the War of 1812 and the Black Hawk War,but in 1837 a hundred of them were engaged to assist the UnitedStates Government against the Seminole. In 1809 and 1819 theyceded their lands in Illinois and soon removed to Alissouri and thenceto Kansas. About 1852 a large party of Kickapoo, along wdth somePotawatomi, went to Texas and thence to Mexico, where they becameknown as ''Mexican Kickapoo." In 1863 another dissatisfied bandjoined them, and though in 1873 part were induced to return toIndian Territory, and others afterward followed, nearly half thetribe remained and were granted a reservation in the Santa RosaMountains of eastern Chihuahua. The remainder are divided betweenOklahoma and Kansas.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates that in 1650 there were 2,000Kickapoo. In 1759 they were estimated at 3,000; in 1817, at 2,000;and in 1825, at 2,200. In 1875 those in the United States were officiallyestimated at 706 and there were supposed to be about 100 more inMexico. In 1885 those in the United States were estimated at 500and those in Mexico at 200. In 1905, 247 were reported in Oklahomaand 185 in Kansas, a total of 432, and almost as many more werethought to be in Mexico. The census of 1910 returned 348 in theUnited States, of whom 211 w^ere in Kansas and 135 in Oklahoma.In 1923 the United States Indian Office gave 277 in Kansas and 200in Oklahoma, total 477. In 1930 there were 523, half in Kansas andhalf in Oklahoma. In 1937, 332 were returned from Kansas and 260from Oklahoma.
254 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Connection in which they have become noted.?The Kickapoo havegiven theu" name to a river in Wisconsin, creeks in Illinois and Texas,and some small places in these States and Kansas.Mahican, see Stockbridges.Mascouten. A name applied at times to the Prairie band of thePotawatomi, but more often to the Peoria band of Illinois who, inearly days, lived with or near the Kickapoo.Menominee. Meaning "WUd Rice Men," because they lived largelyupon the wild rice of the lakes in and near their country. Hencethe French "Nation de la Folle Avoine," and English "Wild RiceMen." Also called:Addle-Heads, a misinterpretation of Folles Avoines.Omanomini, Chippewa name.White Indians, so given by Long (in Keating, 1824).Connections.?The Menominee belonged to the Algonquian lin-quistic family and to the same section as the Cree and Foxes.Location.?On and near the Menominee River, Wis. (See alsoMichigan.) Subdivisions(As given by Skinner, 1921)Kaka'pa'kato' Wini'niwAk, "Barricade Falls people," at Keshena Falls of WolfRiver.Kaka'nikone Tusi'-niniwAg, "Portage people," at Portage, Wis.Kipisa"kia Wini'wiwtlk, "River Mouth people," at Prairie du Chien.Mani'towAk Tusi'niniwAg, "Manitou Place people," at Manitowoc, Wis.M&tc Sua'mako Tusi'nini", "Great Sand Bar people," on the sand dunes at whatis now called Big Suamico, on Green Bay.Minika'ni Wini'niwuk, "Village people," at the mouth of Menominee River.Misi'nimak Kimiko Wini'niwtlk, "Michilimackinac People," near the old fort atMackinac, Mich.Muhwa'o Se'peo Wini'niwdk, "Wolf River people," on the upper stretches ofWolf River.Nama'o Wikito' Tusi'ni", "Sturgeon Bay people," at Sturgeon Bay.Noma'kokon Se'peo Tusi'niniwOg, "Beaver River people," near Winneconne,Fond du Lac, and Oshkosh.Oka'to Wini'niwAk, "Pike Place people," at the mouth of the Oconto River.Pa'sa'tiko Wini'niw6k, "Peshtigo River people," at the mouth of Peshtigo River.Powahe'kune Tusi'niniwAg, "Rice-gathering-place people," on Lake Poygan.Sua'makosa Tusi'nini", "Little Sand Dune people," on the sandhills of LittleSuamico.Wi'skos Se'peo Wini'niw^ik, "Wisconsin River people"?the name Wisconsinbeing derived from wi'skos or wi'sko?s, "muskrat"?on the Mississippi nearWisconsin River.There were other settlements of Menominee at Milwaukee and at Fort Howardin the present city of Green Bay.
SwANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 265About the time of the arrival of the Whites the old bands were broken up orrenamed after their chiefs, and the following bands of this kind are recorded byHoffman:Aia'miqta. Osh'kosh.Aqkd'mot. Pgsh'tiko, evidently one of the old localKeshok, or Ke'so. groups.Le Motte. Piwa'qtinet.Ma'nabft'sho Sha'kitOk.O'hope'sha. Shu'nu' ni'tl or Shu'nien.History.?Tradition says that the Menominee were driven into theregion later identified with them, from the neighborhood of MichiH-mackinac, but when they were first known to white men they wereah-eady there, and they remained there until 1854, though their villagessometimes extended to Fox River and their later claims reached to themouth of Milwaukee River on Lake Michigan and on the west sideof Green Bay to the headwaters of Menominee and Fox Rivers.Westward they claimed the height of land between Green Bay andLake Superior. In 1854 they ceded all their lands except a reserveon Wolf River, where they have continued to the present day.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates that there were 3,000Menominee in 1650. The most conservative estimates made duringthe nineteenth century range from 1,600 to 1,900. In the first decadeof the twentieth century their numbers were placed at 1,600, of whom1,370 were under the Green Bay School superintendency, Wisconsin.The census of 1910 returned 1,422; 1,350 in Wisconsin and the restscattered over 8 States. The United States Indian Ofiice Report for1923 gave 1,838. The census of 1930 returned 1,969, and the UnitedStates Indian Office Report of 1937, 2,221.Connection in which they have become noted.?The name Menomineehas become applied to a county in Michigan and a city of some sizein the same State, also to a small place in Illinois. In the form Meno-monee, it is given to a considerable river of Wisconsin which flowsinto Green Bay, and to various other places in Wisconsin. A city inthe same State, capital of Dunn County, bears the name Menomonie.Menomonee Falls are in Waukesha County, Wis. There is a placecalled Menominee in Menominee County, Mich.Miami. This tribe, or at least portions of it, lived in southern Wis-consin when it was first known to French explorers and missionariesbut later it moved south entirely out of the State. (See Indiana.)Missouri. (See Iowa.)Munsee. Some Munsee moved into Wisconsin with the Stockbridges(q. v.).
256 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Noquet. This tribe may have been related to the Menominee or theChippewa. At times it probably overlapped the northeasternborder of Wisconsin. (See Michigan.)Oneida, see Iroquois.Oto. (See Iowa.)Ottawa. Some Ottawa lived in Wisconsin temporarily after theyhad been driven from their old homes by the Iroquois. Theysettled first on the islands at the mouth of Green Bay, and a partof them lived later upon Black River and at Chequamegon Baybefore returning to their old country. (See Michigan.)Potawatomi. When first encountered by the French the Potawatomiwere on the islands at the mouth of Green Bay. Later they pusheddown the coast of Lake Michigan to Milwaukee River and thenceto Chicago after which they drew further south into Illinois, Indiana,and southern Michigan. (See Michigan.)Sauk. From Osa'kiwiig, meaning "people of the outlet," or "peopleof the yellow earth." Also called:Hotl'nestako"', Onondaga name.Satoeronnou, Huron name.Quatokeronon, Huron name.Za'-ke, Santee and Yankton Dakota name.Connections.?The Sauk belonged to the Algonquian linguistic stockand the same subdivision as that embracing the Foxes and Kickapoo.Location.?On the upper part of Green Bay and lower course ofFox River. (See also Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota,Missouri, and Oklahoma.)History.?The earliest known home of the Sauk was about SaginawBay, Mich., which still bears their name. Shortly before the appear-ance of the Whites they were expelled from this country by the Ottawaand the Neutral Nation, and settled in the region above indicatedwhere they remained for a considerable period. In 1766 Carver(1796) found their chief villages on Wisconsin River. After the de-struction of the lUinois they extended their territories over the RockRiver district of northwestern Illinois. In 1804 a band of Sauk winter-ing near St. Louis were induced to enter into a treaty ceding to theUnited States Government the Sauk territories in Illinois and Wis-consin, but this transaction created so much indignation among therest of the tribe when it became known that the band who made thetreaty never returned to the rest and they have received independentrecognition as the Missouri River Sauk. As the rest of the Saukrefused to move, other negotiations were entered into which werebroken off in 1832 by the Indian outbreak known as the Black Hawk
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 257War. As a result of this struggle, the Sauk abandoned their countryeast of the Mississippi and sought refuge with the Foxes, alreadyestablished in Iowa. In 1842 the Sauk, with the Foxes, ceded theirlands in Iowa also in exchange for a tract in Kansas. About 1857-59,in the absence of the Foxes, the Sauk agreed to take up land in severaltyand cede the remainder of this Kansas territory, and the Foxes, whenthey learned of this, returned to Iowa. In 1867 the Sauk ceded theirlands in Kansas and removed to the Indian territory, and in 1889 theytook up land in severalty and sold their surplus temtories to thegovernment.Population.?Mooncy (1928) estimates that there were 3,500 Saukin 1650. The principal early estimates of the Sauk are: in 1736,750 persons; in 1759, 1,000; in 1766, 2,000; in 1783, 2,250; in 1810,2,850; in 1825, 4,800; in 1834, 2,500. Alichelson (1919) states, how-ever, that the best was that of Lewis and Clark, whicli would makethem about 2,000 m 1805. In 1885 there were 457 in Indian Terri-tory, including a few Foxes, and 87 in southeastern Nebraska. TheIndian Office Report for 1909 gives 536 (chiefl}^ Sauk) in Oklahoma,and 87 (chiefly Sauk) in Kansas. The census of 1910 gives 347 inOklahoma and 69 in Kansas, Sauk and Fox not being discriminated.It also records a number of individuals of both tribes scattered overnine other States. In 1923 the United States Report on Indian Afi'airsgave 673 in Oklahoma, and 93 in Kansas; total 766. The census of1930 returned 887 Sauk and Fox, rather more than two-thirds beingSauk. In 1937 the United States Indian Office reported 126 "Sacand Fox" in Kansas and 861 in Oklahoma, principally Sauk.Connection in which they have become noted.?'Wliatever prominencethe Sauk have attained they owed almost entirely to the war which,under Black Hawk, they sustained against the WTiites. Their nameis perpetuated in Sauk River, Minn.; Sauk County, Wis.; and placesin these two States. In the form Sac, it has been applied to a countyand its capital in Iowa, a river in Missouri, and a small place inTennessee. There is a post village called Sauk in Skagit County,Wash.; a Sauk City in Sauk County, Wis.; a Saukville in OzaukeeCounty in the same State; Sauk Rapids in Benton County, Minn.;and in the same State but in Stearns Count}', Sauk Centre which hasa reputation all its own.Stockbridges. This name was given to a body of Indians most ofwhom belonged to the Housatonic and other tribes of the Mahicangroup, who in 1833 were placed upon a reserve in the neighborhoodof Green Bay, along with the Oneida Indians and some Munsee.In 1856 all but a few who desired to become citizens removed to
258 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145
a reservation west of Shawano, Shawano County, Wis., wherethey still live. (See New York.)Tionontati. Kemnants of this tribe were in Wisconsin as part of theWyandot (q. v.).Winnebago. Signifying in the Fox and the Sauk languages "people ofthe filthy water," for which reason they were sometimes known to theFrench as Puants and to the English as Stinkards, Also called:Aweatsiwaenhronon, a form of the Huron name (see below).Banabeouiks, a shortened form of Winnebago.Bay Indians, so called by Lapham, Blossom, and Dousman (1870).Hati'hshi'rA'nii, Huron name, meaning "afraid of sticking in the mire."Hotanka, Dakota name.Hotcangara, own name, signifying "(people of the) big or real speech,"but, through a confusion of words, often misinterpreted "fish eaters."Nipegon, so called by Long (in James (1823)).Connections.?The Wiimebago belong to the Siouan linguistic fam-ily, and to a subdivision comprising also the group called by J. O.Dorsey (1897) Chiwere, which includes also the Iowa, Oto, andMissouri.Location.?The most ancient known habitat of this tribe was onthe south side of Green Bay extending inland as far as Lake Winne-bago. (See also Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota, and South Dakota.)VillagesThose that are known by name are:Prairie la Crosse, in southeastern Wisconsin.Sarrochau, on the site of Taycheeday, Fond du Lac County, Wis.Spotted Arm's Village, near Exeter, Green County, Wis.Village du Puant, on Wildcat Creek about a mile above its junction with theWabash, above Lafayette, in Tippecanoe County, Ind.Wuckan, on Lake Poygan, Winnebago County, Wis.Yellow Thunder, at Yellow Banks, Green Lake County, Wis.History.?The Winnebago were occupants of the territory abovementioned from the earliest times of which we have any record. Dur-ing the eighteenth century they spread up Fox River and still laterextended their villages to Wisconsin and Rock Rivers. It is reportedthat they were nearlj^ destroyed by the Illinois some time before1671 but, if so, they soon recovered entirely from this shock. Theymanaged to remain on better terms with the surrounding tribes thanmost of their neighbors. By treaties made in 1825 and 1832 theyceded all of their lands south of Wisconsin and Fox Rivers to theUnited States Government in return for a reservation on the westside of the Mississippi above upper Iowa River. In 1836 they sufferedseverely from the smaUpox. In 1837 they relinquished the title totheir old country east of the Mississippi, and in 1840 they removed
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 259to the Neutral Ground in the territory of Iowa. Many, however,remained in their old lands. In 1846 the rest surrendered theirreservation for one in Minnesota north of Minnesota River, and in1848 removed to Long Prairie Reservation, bounded by Crow Wing,Watab, Mississippi, and Long Prairie Reservations, Minn. In 1853they removed to Crow River and in 1856 to Blue Earth, Minn., wherethey remained until the Dakota outbreak of 1862, when the WTiitesin the section demanded their removal. In consequence they weretaken to Crow Creek Reservation, S. Dak., but suffered so much fromsickness, and in other ways, that they escaped to the Omaha for pro-tection. There a new reservation was assigned to them on theOmaha lands, where they have since been allotted land in severalty.Some however, remained in Minnesota when the tribe was removedfrom that State and a larger number did not leave Wisconsin.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates that there were 3,800individuals belonging to the Winnebago tribe in 1650. The followingjBgures have been given from time to time: In 1806, 1,750; in 1820,5,800; in 1837 and 1843, 4,500; in 1867, 1,750 in Nebraska and 700 inWisconsin. In 1876 there were 1,463 on the Nebraska Reservationand 860 in Wisconsin, but 204 of the latter removed to Nebraska in1877. In 1886 there were 1,222 in Nebraska and 930 in Wisconsin.In 1910 the L^nited States Indian Office gave 1,063 in Nebraska and1,270 in Wisconsin, but the United States Census of the same dategave a total Winnebago population of 1,820, of whom 1,007 were inNebraska, 735 in Wisconsin, and the remainder scattered among 10other States. In 1923 the Report of the United States Commissionerof Indian Affairs gave 1,096 in Nebraska. In 1930 the figure was1,446, of whom 937 were in Wisconsin and 423 in Nebraska. In 1937the United States Indian Office reported 1,456 in Wisconsin, and1,212 in Nebraska: total, 2,668.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Winnebago tribe isnoted for the unique position it occupied, as a Siouan tribe surroundedby Algonquian peoples, probably having been left behind in thegeneral Siouan movement west, and its reputation as one of themother tribes of the Siouan stock. Its name is perpetuated in thatof Winnebago Lake, Wis.; the names of counties in Iowa, IlHnois, andWisconsin; and places in Winnebago County, lU.; Faribault County,Minn.; Winnebago County, Wis.; and Thurston County, Nebr.Wyandot. After being driven out of Ontario by the Iroquois, part ofthe Wyandot, along with some Ottawa, went to Michilimackinac andfrom there to Green Bay, after which they lived successively atseveral different points within the boundaries of the present Stateof Wisconsin until they finally removed to Detroit. (See Ohio.)
260 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145MINNESOTAArapaho. There are traditions that they once lived along Red River,in the present North Dakota and Minnesota, (See Wyoming.)Cheyenne. The earliest known home of this tribe was in that part ofMinnesota bounded roughly by the Mississippi, Minnesota, andupper Red Rivers. From here they moved to the Sheyenne branchof Red River, North Dakota. (See South Dakota.)Chippewa or Ojibwa. Traditional significance of name in their owtilanguage, "to roast until puckered up," referring to the puckeredseam in their moccasins. Also called:An-ish-in-aub-ag, another native term meaning "spontaneous men."Axshissay^-riinu, Wyandot name.Bawichtigouek, name in Jesuit Relations.Bedzaqetcha, Tsattine name, meaning "long hairs."Bedzietcho, Kawchodinne name.Bungees, so called by Hudson Bay traders.Cabellos realzados, the Spanish translation of French Cheveux-relev6s.De-w3,-ka-nha', Mohawk name.Dshipowe-hdga, Caughnawaga name.Dwa-ka-ng", Onondaga name.Eskiaeronnon, Huron name, meaning "people of the falls."Hahatonwan, Dakota name.iiahatonway, Hidatsa name, meaning "leapers."Jumpers, incorrect rendering of Saulteurs.Kiitaki, Fox name.Leapers, same as Jumpers.Nd-a-ya-og, Cree name, meaning "those speaking the same language."Ne-gd-tcg, Winnebago name.Nwa'-ka, Tuscarora name.Ostiagahoroones, Iroquois name.Paouichtigouin, name in Jesuit Relations.Saulteurs, or Saulteaux, given to part of the tribe from the falls at SaultSainte Marie.Sotoes, Anglicization of above.Wah-kah-towah, Assiniboin name, according to Tanner.Connections.?The Chippewa are the type tribe of one of the twolargest divisions of the Algonquian linguistic stock.Location.?The earliest accounts of the Chippewa associate themparticularly with the region of Sault Sainte Marie, but they camein time to extend over the entire northern shore of Lake Huron andboth shores of Lake Superior, besides well into the northern interiorand as far west as the Turtle Mountains of North Dakota. (See alsoIllinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Montana, North Dakota,Ohio, Wisconsin, and Canada.)
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OP NORTH AMERICA 261SubdivisionsThere were a number of major and numerous minor divisions of this tribe.According to Warren, there were 10 major divisions, as follows:Betonukeengainubejig, in northern Wisconsin.Kechegummewininewug, on the south shore of Lake Superior,Kechesebewininewug, on the upper Mississippi in Minnesota.Kojejewininewug, on Rainy Lake and River, about the northern boundaryof Minnesota.Mukmeduawininewug, or Pillagers, on Leech Lake, Minn.Munominikasheenhug, at the headwaters of St. Croix River in Wisconsin andMinnesota.Ottawa Lake Men, on Lac Courte Oreilles, Wis.Sugwaundugahwiuinewug, north of Lake Superior.Wahsuahgunewininewug, at the head of Wisconsin River.Wazhush, on the northwest side of Lake Superior at the Canadian border.Villages and Small BandsAmikwa, on the north shore of Lake Huron, opposite Maoitoulin Island.Angwassag, near St. Charles, Saginaw County, Mich.Anibiminanisibiwininiwak, a band, on Pembina River in the extreme northernpart of Minnesota and the adjacent part of Manitoba.Bagoache, a band, about the northern shore of Lake Superior.Bay du Noc, perhaps Chippewa, probably on Noquet Bay in upper Michigan.Beaver Island Indians, on the Beaver Islands of Lake Michigan, at the outlet.Big Rock, the location of a reservation in lower Michigan.Blackbird, on Tittibawassee River, Saginaw County, Mich.Burnt Woods, Chippewa, on Bois Brul6 River near the west end of Lake Superior,northern Wisconsin.Chetac Lake, on the lake of the same name in Sawyer County, Wis.Crow Wing River, at the mouth of Crow Wing River in north central Minnesota.Doki's Band, at the head of French River where it leaves Lake Nipissing, Ont.Epinette, on the north shore of Lake Superior, east of Michipicoton River, Ont.Flying Post, about the post of that name in Ontario.Fond du Lac, on St. Louis River near Fond du Lac, Minn.Gamiskwakokawininiwak, about Cass Lake, near the head of the Mississippi,in Minn.Gasakaskuatchimmekak, location uncertain.Gatagetegauning, on Lac (Vieux) Desert or Gatagetegauning on the Michigan-Wisconsin State line.Gawababiganikak, about White Earth Lake, Minn.Grand Portage, at Grand Portage on the northern shore of Lake Superior in Minn.Gull Lake Band, on Gull Lake on the upper Mississippi, in Cass County, Minn.Kahmetahwungaguma, on Sandy Lake, Cass County, Minn.Kawkawling, location uncertain.Kechepukwaiwah, on the lake of the same name near Chippewa River, Wis.Ketchewaundaugenink, on Shiawassee River on the trail between Detroit andSaginaw Bay, Mich.Kishkawbawee, on Flint River in lower Michigan.Knife Lake, location uncertain.Lac Courte Oreilles, on the lake of the same name at the headwaters of ChippewaRiver, in Sawyer County, Wis.
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Little Forks, a reservation on Tittibawassee River, in lower Michigan.Long Lake, on Long Lake north of Lake Superior, between Nipigon and PicRiver, Ont.Matawachkirini, Matachewan, about Fort Matachewan, Ont.Mattagami, about Mattagami Lake.Mekadewagamitigweyawininiwak, on Black River, Mich.Menitegow, on the east bank of Saginaw River in lower Michigan.Menoquet's Village, on Cass River, lower Michigan.Michilimackinac, on Mackinac Island, Mich.Michipicoten, a band on Michipicoten River, Ont.Midinakwadshiwininiwak, a band in the Turtle Mountain region, N. Dak.Misisagaikaniwininiwak, a band on Mille Lacs, Minn.Miskwagamiwisagaigan, a band about Red Lake River, Minn.Nabobish, at the mouth of Saginaw River, Mich.Nagonabe, in lower Michigan.Nameuilni, a band northwest of Lake Superior, between Rainy Lake and LakeNipigon in Algoma, Ont.Nibowisibiwininiwak, in Saskatchewan north of Lake Winnipeg.Nipissing, about Lake Nipissing.Obidgewong, with Ottawa, on the west shore of Lake Wolseley, ManitoulinIsland, Ont.Ommunise, or Ottawa, on Carp River, Mich.Onepowesepewenenewak, in Minnesota.Ontonagon, a band on Ontonagon River in upper Michigan.Oschekkamegawenenewak, 2 bands: (1) near Rainy Lake (1753); (2) east of MilleLacs.Ouasouarini, on Georgian Bay, Ont.Oueschekgagamiouilimy, the Caribou gens of Rainy River, Minn.Outchougai, on the east side of Georgian Bay and probably south of French River,connected with the Amikwa.Otusson, on upper Huron River in Sanilac County, Mich,Pawating, at Sault Ste. Marie, on the south bank of St. Mary's River, ChippewaCounty, Mich.Pic River, at the mouth of Pic River on the north shore of Lake Superior, Ont.Pokegama, on Pokegama Lake, Pine County, Minn.Portage du Prairie, in Manitoba.Rabbit Lake Chippewa, a band on Rabbit Lake, Minn.Reaum's Village, in Flint River, Mich., about the boundary of Genesee andSaginaw Counties.Red Cedar Lake, on Red Cedar Lake, Barron County, Wis.Red ChflF, near the west end of Lake Superior, in Wisconsin or Minnesota.Rice Lake Band, on Rice Lake, Barron County, Wis.Saginaw, with Ottawa, near Saginaw, Mich.Saint Francis Xavier, a mission, on Mille Lacs, Aitkin County, Minn.Shabwasing, a band, probably in lower Michigan.Shaugawaumikong, on Long Island, on the west coast of Lake Superior, in Ash-land County, Wis.Sukaauguning, on Pelican Lake, Oneida County, Wis.Thunder Bay, Chippewa or Ottawa, a band on Thunder Bay, Alpena County,Mich.Timagimi, about Lake Timagimi.Trout Lake, location uncertain.Turtle Portage, in Wisconsin.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 263Wabasemowenenewak, near a white rock perhaps in Minnesota.Walpole Island, with other tribes, Ontario.Wanamakewajejenik, near the Lake of the Woods.Wapisiwisibiwininiwak, a band, on Swan Creek, near Lake St. Clair, Mich.Wauswagiming, on Lac du Flambeau, Lac du Flambeau Reservation, Wisconsin.Wequadong, near L'Anse at the head of Keweenaw Bay, Baraga County, Mich.Whitefish, on Sturgeon River.Wiaquahhechegumeeng, at the head of Lake Superior in Douglass County, Wis.Winnebegoshishiwininewak, a band on Lake Winnibigashish, Minn.Yellow Lake, on Yellow Lake, Burnett County, Wis.History.?According to tradition, the Chippewa were part of alarge body of Indians which came from the east?how much east oftheir later homes is uncertain?and after reaching Mackinaw sep-arated into the Chippewa, Ottawa, and Potawatomi. The Chippewaafterward pushed their way west along both shores of Lake Superior,and in the eighteenth century, assisted by the adoption of firearms,drove the Dakota from Mille Lacs, and spread over the northern partof Minnesota and southern Manitoba as far as the Turtle Mountains.They also flowed back around Lake Huron. During the nineteenthcentury they were gradually gathered into reservations on both sidesof the International Boundary, but none were ever removed from theiroriginal country except two small bands and some scattered familieswhich went to Kansas early in 1839, and in 1866 agreed to settle amongthe Cherokee in Oklahoma.Population.?Mooney (1928) considered that there were 35,000Chippewa in 1650. The tribe was so large and has so many rami-fications that few early estimates are very close to the truth. Theprincipal are: In 1764, about 25,000; in 1783 and 1794, about 15,000;in 1843, about 30,000; in 1851, about 28,000. In 1884 there were inDakota 914; in Minnesota, 5,885; in Wisconsin, 3,656; in Michigan,3,500 returned separately and 6,000 combined Chippewa and Ottawa,of whom perhaps one-third were Chippewa; in Kansas, 76 Chippewaand Munsee. In Canada the Chippewa of Ontario, including theNipissing, numbered at the same time about 9,000, while in Manitobaand the Northwest Territories there were 17,129 Chippewa and Creeon reservations under the same agencies. The census of 1910 gave20,214 in the United States, of whom 8,234 were in Minnesota, 4,299 inWisconsin, 3,725 in Michigan, 2,966 in North Dakota, and the balancescattered among 18 States. The United States Indian Office Reportfor 1923 gave 22,599. In Canada there were probably somewhat lessthan 25,000, giving a total for the tribe of about 45,000. It must,however, be remembered that the present population of Chippewaincludes thousands of mixed-bloods, partly representing mixtures withother tribes and partly mixtures with Whites, The United StatesCensus of 1930 gives 21,549, including 9,495 in Minnesota, 4,437 in
264 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Boll. 145Wisconsin, 3,827 in North Dakota, 1,865 in Michigan, and 1,549 inMontana. In 1937, 15,160 were returned from Minnesota, 4,303from Wisconsin, 6,513 from North Dakota, and 481 from Montana; atotal in the United States of 26,457.Connection in which they have become noted.?From early times theChippewa were one of those tribes most prominent in the minds ofwriters on American Indians. This fact they owed in the first placeto their numbers and the extent of country covered by their bands;secondly, to their central position and the manyWhite men who becameacquainted with them; and, thirdly, to the popularization given themby Henry M. Schoolcraft (1851-57), and the still wider popularitywhich they and their myths attained through the use of Schoolcraft'smaterial by Longfellow in his famous poem of Hiawatha, for while thename Hiawatha is drawn from Iroquois sources, the stories are nearlyall Chippewa. The name is preserved by streams in Wisconsin, Ohio,Michigan, Minnesota, and Ontario; by counties in Michigan, Wis-consin, and Minnesota; by various places in Pennsylvania, New York,Wisconsin, Michigan, Ohio, and Ontario; and by Chippewa Bay, St.Lawrence County, N. Y.; Chippewa Falls, Chippewa County, Wis.;Chippewa Lake, Mecosta County, Mich.; Chippewa Lake, MedinaCounty, Ohio; and Ojibwa in Sawyer County, Wis.Dakota. When first known to Europeans the Dakota were mainlyin southern Minnesota. They gradually moved westward butdid not cede aU of their lands in Minnesota until 1863, and eventhen retained rights to the famous Red Pipestone Quarry. (SeeSouth Dakota.)Foxes. In 1830 representatives of this tribe were a party to a treatyceding Minnesota lands to the Whites. (See Wisconsin.)Iowa. According to tradition, this tribe lived for a time near thefamous Red Pipestone Quarry in southwestern Minnesota, and wereat the mouth of Minnesota River when the Dakota reached thatcountry. They appear to have been near the mouth of Blue EarthRiver just before Le Sueur arrived there in 1701. Dakota informedhim that Blue Earth River belonged to the Dakota of the West, theIowa, and the Oto. (See Iowa.)Missouri. Representatives of this tribe were a party to the treaty of1830, ceding Minnesota lands to the Whites. (See Missouri.)Omaha. At one time the Omaha lived about the Red PipestoneQuarry in Minnesota. (See Nebraska.)Oto. As noted above (under Iowa), the Oto are reported to haveshared at one time the ownership of Blue Earth River with theIowa and the Western Dakota. (See Nebraska.)
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 265Ottawa. A band of Ottawa, in company with some Wyandot, oncewintered on Lake Pepin. (See Michigan.)Ponca. This tribe was probably in southwestern Minnesota at thesame time as the Omaha. (See Nebraska.)Sauk. In 1830 Sauk representatives were a party to a treaty cedingMinnesota lands to the Whites. (See Wisconsin.)Winnebago. A part of the Winnebago lived in Minnesota from 1848to 1862 after surrendering their reservation in Iowa Territory.(See Wisconsin.)Wyandot. This tribe visited the borders of Minnesota for a shortperiod in company with the Ottawa. (See Ottawa, above, andOhio.) IOWAChippewa. Part of the Chippewa, together with the Potawatomiand Ottawa, ceded lands in this State in 1846. (See Minnesota.)Dakota. After the Iowa Indians moved from the northern part of thepresent State of Iowa, the Dakota occupied much of the territorythey had abandoned until the Sauk and Fox settled in theirneighborhood shortly before and immediately after the Black HawkWar of 1832 and harassed them so constantly that they withdrew,(See South Dakota.)Foxes. This tribe began moving into Iowa sometime after 1804 andby the end of the Black Hawk War all were gathered there. In1842 they parted with their Iowa lands and most of them removedto Kansas with the Sauk, but shortly after the middle of the nine-teenth century some began to return to the State and by 1859nearly all had come back. They bought a tract of land near TamaCity to which they added from time to time and where they havelived ever since. (See Wisconsin.)Illinois. Franquelin (1688) seems to locate the Peoria on the upperIowa River, but Marquette, on his descent of the Mississippi in1673, found that tribe and the Moingwena near the mouth of theDes Moines. When he returned he found that they had movedto the neighborhood of Peoria, 111. The name Des Moines isderived from that of the Moingwena. (See Illinois.)Iowa. Apparently borrowed by the French from Ayuhwa, theDakota term applied to them, which, according to Riggs, signifies
"sleepy ones." Skinner (1926) states that Iowa is their own name,but I feel sure that it has been borrowed in later years. Also called:Nadouessioux Maskoutens, Algonkin name meaning "Dakota of the Prairies."Nez Perc6s, a traders' nickname.
266 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bulu 145Pahodja, own name, meaning "dusty noses." Skinner (1926) gives a differenttranslation, but I am inclined to accept that furnished by J. 0. Dorsey.Pash6han, Pawnee name.Pierced Noses, traders' name.Wa-otc', Winnebago name.Connections.?The Iowa were a tribe of the Siouan hnguistic stockand of the Chiwere subdivision, which included also the Oto, andMissouri.Location.?The Iowa moved about a great deal but mainly withinthe boundaries of the State which bears their name. (See also Kansas,Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, Oklahoma, and Wisconsin.)Subdivisions and VillagesThe only subdivisions mentioned are those of the moieties and gentes. Butone village, the Wolf village, appears in the historical narratives.History.?In the eariiest historical period the Iowa were Hving ona western affluent of the Mississippi conjectured by Mott (1938) tohave been the Upper Iowa. Later they moved into the northwesternpart of the present State of Iowa about the Okoboji Lakes and prob-ably extended into southwestern Minnesota to the neighborhood ofthe Red Pipestone Quarry and to the Big Sioux River. In the latterpart of the eighteenth century they passed over to the Missouri andsettled south of the spot where Council Bluffs now stands and on theeast side of the river. About 1760 they moved east and came to Hvealong the Mississippi between the Iowa and Des Moines Rivers.Their principal town was on the Des Moines River and for a longtime at a spot in the northwestern part of Van Buren County. Earlyin the nineteenth century part of them seem to have moved fartherup the Des Moines while others established themselves on Grand andPlatte Rivers, Mo. At this time they seem to have come into contactwith the Dakota and to have suffered considerably in consequence.There is a tradition that they were defeated by Black Hawk in 1821.In 1814 they were allotted lands in what was known as "the PlattePurchase" extending from the Platte River of Missouri throughwestern Iowa even to the Dakota country. By treaties signedAugust 4, 1824, July 15, 1830, September 17, 1836, and November23, 1837, they ceded all of their claims to lands in Missouri and Iowa,and by that of Prairie du Chien, signed August 19, 1825, they sur-rendered all claims to land in Minnesota. The treaty of 1836 assignedpart of them a reservation along Great Nemaha River, in the presentRichardson County, Nebr., and Brown County, Kans., but it wasconsiderably reduced by treaties of May 17, 1854, and March 6, 1861.Later part removed to Oklahoma to find homes in the present Lincolnand Noble Counties.
SWANXON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 267Tradition assigns to this tribe a single origin with the Winnebago,Oto, and Missouri, and it is borne out by the close linguistic relation-ship between them. Rather specific migration legends have beenpreserved giving an account of the movements of this tribal complexand the time and circumstances of the separation. If we are to be-lieve these traditions, after separation from the Winnebago, thelowa-Oto-Missouri mother tribe moved first to Rock River, 111., nearits junction with the Mississippi, and thence to the Des Moines Riversome distance above its mouth, after separating at the Iowa River intotwo bands, the one which became the Iowa moving to the northwestwhile the Oto-Missouri went on to the mouth of Grand River, wherepart remained becoming the Missouri while the rest, the Oto, wenton westward up the Missouri. The historical documents do notbring the Iowa so far south and they also seem to hnk the Oto and Iowaclosely together. We should, therefore, be inclined to dismiss thenative traditions altogether were it not that we have to account forthe Missouri who are not mentioned in early times in close conjunc-tion with the other two but had reached the mouth of Grand Riveras early as 1687. It is, of course, possible that the Missouri separatedfrom the lowa-Oto or Iowa at Upper Iowa River instead of IowaRiver, but it is also possible that the entire tribal complex movedsomewhat farther south before their separation. The later stages ofIowa history given in the tradition already noted conform sufficientlywell with the known historical facts to give us some confidence regard-ing the rest of the story though it varies in details. According tothis, the Iowa went from the neighborhood of the Red PipestoneQuarry to the mouth of the Platte, and then in succession to theheadwaters of the Little Platte River, Mo., to the west bank of theMississippi slightly above the mouth of the Des Moines, to a point alittle higher up on the same side of the Mississippi, southwestwardlyto Salt River and up it to its extreme headwaters, to the upper partof Chariton River, to Grand River, and thence to Missouri Riveropposite Fort Leavenworth, where they lived in 1848 at the timewhen this narrative was related and the map accompanying it drawn.By agreement, the Oklahoma tract held by the Iowa was grantedto its occupants in severalty.Population.?In 1702 Iberville estimated that the war power of theIowa was about 300 "good men." In 1736 Chauvignerie placed it aslow as 80. An estimate made in 1760 gives the total population as1,100 souls. In 1777 Cruzat reported that there were 250 warriors,and Lewis and Clark, in 1804, 200 warriors and a total population of800. In 1829 we find an estimate of 1,000, and in 1832 Catlin givesone of the highest, 1,400. In 1836, however, an attempted census
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returned 992 but only 7 years later the United States Indian OflBcereported only 470. In 1885 there were 138 in Kansas, and 88 inOklahoma. In 1905 the figures were 225 and 89 respectively. Thecensus of 1910 returned 244 of whom 124 were in Kansas, 79 in Okla-homa, and 38 in Nebraska. The United States Indian Ofiice Reportof 1923 gave 338 in Kansas and 82 in Oklahoma, a total of 420. Thecensus of 1930 returned 10 in Brown County, Kans.; 83 in RichardsonCounty, Nebr.; 32 in Lincoln County, Okla.; 24 in Noble County,Okla.; and 5 in other States, or a total of 154. In 1937 there were112 in Oklahoma. Although we have estimates of Iowa populationhigher than any above given, in one case as high as 8,000, it is evidentthat the figure suggested by Mooney (1928) as giving the probablepopulation in 1780, i. e., 1,200, is nearer the truth?too high ifanything.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Iowa were rela-tively inconspicuous in the early days, but their name will always beprominent because it was adopted as that of one of the great agricul-tural States of the Middle West. Iowa City, two rivers, a county,and several smaller places in the same State bear the name. Thereis also a coimty so designated in Wisconsin and villages in Kansasand California.There is a place of the name in Calcasieu Parish, La. ; Iowa FaUs inHardin County, Iowa; Iowa Colony in Brazoria County, Tex.; IowaPark in Wichita County in the same State, and Iowa Hill in PlacerCounty, Calif.Missouri. This tribe is said to have had the same origin as the Iowaand to have moved with them and the Oto to Iowa River, wherethe Iowa remained while the others continued on to the Missouri.(See Missouri.)Moingwena. (See Illinois above.)Omaha. While the Omaha usually lived west of the Missouri, theywandered for a time in western Iowa before moving over intoNebraska. (See Nebraska.)Oto, see Missouri above, and Missouri, page 269.)Ottawa. Representatives of this tribe were a party to a treaty madein 1846, ceding Iowa lands to the Whites. (See Michigan.)Peoria. (See Illinois above.)Ponca. The Ponca accompanied the Omaha while they were inwestern Iowa. (See Nebraska.)Potawatomi. The Prairie Potawatomi settled in western Iowa beforeremoving to Kansas. They ceded their lands in 1846. (SeeMichigan.)
8WANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 269Sauk. The Sauk moved into Iowa after the Black Hawk War andfrom there to Kansas in 1842. (See Wisconsin.)Winnebago. In 1840 this tribe went to the Neutral Ground in Iowaassigned to them by treaty of September 15, 1832, whence theyremoved in 1848 to Minnesota. (See Wisconsin.)MISSOURICaddo. Within historic times no Caddoan tribe is knowTi to havehved within the limits of the present State of Missouri, but occu-pancy by Caddo is indicated by certain archeological remains iathe extreme southwestern section. (See Texas.)Dakota. Representatives of this tribe were a party to a treaty madein 1830, relinquishing lands in Missouri to the Whites. (See SouthDakota.)Delaware. In 1818 a grant of land in southern Missouri was made tosome of the Delaware Indians but it was re-ceded by them in 1829.(See New Jersey.)Foxes. Representatives of this tribe were a party to treaties with theUnited States Government concerning Missouri lands made in 1804and 1830. (See Wisconsin.)Illinois. Some of the tribes of the Illinois group at one time lived closeto, and probably for a short' time within, the eastern boundaries ofMissouri. (See Illinois.)Iowa. The Iowa perhaps lived for a time in that part of Missourinorth of Missouri River. (See Iowa.)Kickapoo. The Kickapoo lived in Missouri for awhile after theyhad sold theu' lands in Illinois but soon passed on to Kansas. (SeeWisconsin.)Missouri. Meaning either "(people having) dugout canoes," or
"(people having) wooden canoes," which amounts to the same thing.Through a misunderstanding, the name has been supposed to applyto the river which now bears the name, and it has been interpretedas meaning "big muddy." They were also called:Niiitachi, their own name.Wagux^a, by the Osage.Wa-ju'-xd^&, by the Quapaw.Location.?The best-known historical location of the Missouri wason the river which bears their name on the south bank near the mouthof Grand River. Berry and Chapman (1938) have recently sought toidentify this site, and probably correctly, with what they call the Utzsite at a place called The Pinnacles in Saline County, Mo., a few
270 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bulu 146
miles above the mouth of the Grand. (See also Iowa, Kansas,Minnesota, Nebraska, Oklahoma, and Wisconsin.)Connection.?The Missouri belonged to the Chiwere division of theSiouan linguistic family, the other tribes under this head being theIowa and Oto.According to tradition, the Missouri, Iowa, and Oto separated fromthe Winnebago at some indefinite period in the past and moved south-west to Iowa River where the Iowa remained, the others continuingto the Missouri, which they reached at the mouth of Grand River.Here, in consequence of a dispute between two chiefs, the tribe spUtagain, the Missouri remaining where they were, while the Oto con-tinued on up the Missouri River. From what we know of the rela-tionship between the tribes in question, such successive fissions arenot inherently improbable, though they may not have occurred atthe places indicated. No doubt, events that happened gradually havebeen represented as occurring abruptly within limited periods. (Fora further discussion of the Chiwere migration legends, see Iowa underIowa and Oto under Nebraska.) Whatever their earlier history Mar-quette (1698) reported their presence on the Missouri River in 1673,and they were probably at the point above indicated, though his mapis too inaccurate to place this beyond question. Here, or in the imme-diate neighborhood, they remained until 1798, when they suflFered aterrible defeat at the hands of the Sauk and Fox Indians and scatteredto live for a time among the Osage, Kansa, and Oto. By 1805 theyhad recovered to some extent, and Lewis and Clark found them invillages south of the River Platte. As a result of another unfortunatewar, however, this time with the Osage, part joined the Iowa but thegreater part went to the Oto to live, and followed their fortunes, par-ticipating with them in all treaties from 1830 onward.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates that there were 1,000 Mis-souri in 1780. In 1702 there were supposed to be 200 families. In1805 Lewis and Clark placed the entire population of the tribe at300 souls, but in 1829, when they were with the Oto, they countedbut 80. Only 13 Indians of the Missouri tribe were returned by thecensus of 1910, and in 1930 they were not separated from the Oto(q.v.).Connection in which they have become noted.?Historically the Mis-souri tribe itself is remembered particularly for the tragic manner inwhich it was almost destroyed, but, as in many other cases, its namehas attained a distinction out of all proportion to the aboriginalstanding of the people. It is associated with that of the largestbranch of the largest river of North America and to one of the greatStates of the American Union. There is a post town in Clay County,Mo., called Missomi City; another Missouri City in Fort Bend
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 271County, Tex. ; and a city in Harrison County, Iowa, known as MissouriValley, besides a Missouri Branch in Wayne County, W. Va,Omaha. Representatives of this tribe were party to a treaty madein 1830 relinquishing lands in Missouri to the United Slates Gov-ernment. (See Nebraska.)Osage. A corruption of their own name Wazhazhe, which in turn isprobably an extension of the name of one of the three bands ofwhich the tribe is composed. Also called:Anahou, a name used by the French, perhaps the Caddo name.Bone Indians, given by Schoolcraft.Connections.?The Osage were the most important tribe of thedivision of the Siouan linguistic stock called by J. O. Dorsey (1897)Dhegiha, which included also the Omaha, Ponka, Kansa, and Quapaw.Location.?The greater part of this tribe was anciently on OsageRiver, Mo., but from a very early period a smaller division known asLittle Osage was on the Missouri River near the village of the Mis-souri Indians (q. v.). (See also Arkansas, Kansas, and Oklahoma.)Subdivisions and VillagesThe two principal local divisions were the Great and Little Osages, mentionedabove. About 1802 a third division, the "Arkansas Band," was created by themigration of nearly half of the Big Osage to Arkansas River under a chief knownaa Big-Track. The names of the following Osage villages, some of them havingthe names of their chiefs, have been recorded:Big Chief, 4 miles from the Mission in Indian Territory in 1850.Black Dog, 60 miles from the Mission in Indian Territory in 1850.Heakdhetanwan, on Spring Creek, a branch of Neosho River, Indian Territory.Intapupshe, on upper Osage River about the mouth of Sac River, Mo.Khdhasiukdhin, on Neosho River, Kans.Little Osage Village, on Osage Reservation, Okla., on the west bank of NeoshoRiver.Manhukdhintanwan, on a branch of Neosho River, Kans.Nanzewaspe, In Neosho valley, southeastern Kansas.Nikhdhitanwan, at the junction of the Sac and Osage Rivers, Mo.Paghuukdhinpe, on the east side of Verdigris River, Okla.Pasukdhin, an ancient village name and also name of a late village on VerdigrisRiver, Okla.Santsepasu, location uncertain.Santsukhdhin, native name of the Arkansas band, the village being located onVerdigris River, Okla., 60 miles above its mouth.Takdheskautsiupshe, unidentified.Tanwakanwakaghe, at the junction of Grand and Osage rivers. Mo.Tanwanshinka, on Neosho River, Okla.Wakhakukdhin, on Neosho River, Okla.White Hair's Village, on the east side of Little Osage River in the northern partof the present Vernon County, Mo.
272 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bdll. 145History.?Tradition indicates a prehistoric seat of the Osage on theOhio River, but the first historical notice of them appears to be onMarquette's autograph map of 1673, where they are located in theregion with which they are usually associated. They continued thereuntil the separation of the Arkansas band already mentioned. Bythat time the Little Osage had moved from the Missouri to a positionAvithin 6 miles of the Great Osage. During the eighteenth centuryand the first part of the nmeteenth, the Osage were at war withpractically all the other tribes of the Plains and a large number ofthose of the woodlands, to many of which their name was a synonymfor enemy. On November 10, 1808, the Osage signed a treaty cedingall their territorial claims in the present States of Missouri and Arkan-sas to the United States. The remainder was further curtailed bytreaties signed in 1825, 1839, and 1865, and the limits of their laterreservation were established by act of Congress of July 15, 1870.They have since been allotted land in severalty and are now citizensof Oklahoma.Population.?Mooney's (1928) estimate of Osage population as ofthe year 1780 is 6,200. In 1804 Lewis and Clark estimated 500warriors in the Great Osage band, nearly half as many Little Osages,and 600 in the Ai'kansas band. Sibley (1832), about the same time,gave 1,250 warriors. ]Morse (1822) estimated that there was anOsage population of 5,200; in 1829 Porter gave 5,000; in 1843 theUnited States Indian Oflace enumerated 4,102; Schoolcraft (1851-57)records 3,758 exclusive of an important division known as Black Dgg'sband; in 1877 the United States Indian OflSce had 3,001; in 1884,1,547; in 1886, 1,582; and in 1906, 1,994. The census of 1910 gives1,373, all but 28 in Oklahoma, but the United States Indian OfficeReport for 1923 has 2,099. In 1930, 2,344 were reported, and in 1937,3,649.Connection in which they have become noted.?As above stated, theOsage attained a high reputation as fighters among all the tribes ofthe southern Plains and many of those of the Gulf region. They arealso remarkable for then social organization as set forth in the reportsof Dr. Francis La Flesche (1921, 1925, 1928). The name becameaffixed to the Osage River, a considerable branch of the Missouri,which rises in Kansas but flows principally through the State ofMissouri; also to counties in Kansas and Alissouri; a fork of theGasconade River, Mo.; a creek in Arkansas; and to places in CarrollCounty, Ark.; Frankhn County, 111.; Mitchell County, Iowa;Becker County, Minn. ; Osage County, Okla. ; Coryell County, Tex.
;
Monongalia County, W. Va. ; Weston County, Wyo. ; Osage Beach inCamden County, Mo.; Osage City in Cole County, Mo.; and Osage
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OP' NORTH AMERICA 273City in Kansas. Indirectly they have also furnished one of the popularnames of the bois d'arc, Osage orange, the favorite wood for makingbows among the tribes of the southern Plains between the lowerMississippi and the Pueblo country.Oto. As stated in treating of the Missouri (q. v.), the Oto accom-panied that tribe into this State, left them when they were both onthe Missouri River near Grand River, and moved northeast intoKansas. (See Nebraska.)Sauk. Representatives of this tribe were parties to the treatiesinvolving Missouri land cessions made in 1804 and 1830. (SeeWisconsin.)Shawnee. A part of the Shawnee Indians settled about Cape Girar-deau in southeastern Missouri early in the nineteenth century.They ceded their lands to the U. S. Government in 1825. (SeeTennessee.) NORTH DAKOTAArapaho. Certain traditions indicate that the Arapaho at one timelived in the Red River Valley in what is now Minnesota and NorthDakota, but they had left before the historic period. (See Wyo-ming.)Ankara. Signifying "horns," or "elk," and having reference to theirancient manner of wearing the hair with two pieces of bone stand-ing up, one on each side of the crest; -ra is the plural suffix. Alsocalled:A. da ka' da ho, Hidatsa name.Ah-pen-ope-say, or A-pan-to'-pse, Crow name.Corn eaters, given as their own name.Ka'-nan-in, Arapaho name, meaning "people whose jaws break in pieces."O-no'-ni-o, Cheyenne name.Padani, Pani, applied to them by various tribes.Ree, abbreviation of Ankara.Sanish, "person," their own name, according to Gilmore (1927).S'qQIes'tslii, Salish name.Stfir-rah-he' [tstarahi], their own name, according to Lewis and Clark(1904-05).Tanish, their own name, meaning "the people," according to Hayden (1862).Perhaps a misprint of Sanish.\Va-zi'-ya-ta Pa-da'-niu, Yankton name, meaning "northern Pawnee."Connections.?The Arikara belonged to the Caddoan linguistic stockand were a comparatively recent offshoot of the Skidi Pawnee.Location.?In historic times they have occupied various points onthe Missouri River between Cheyenne River, South Dakota, and FortBerthold, North Dakota. (See also Montana and Nebraska.)
274 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bpix. 145Subdivisions and VillagesThe Arikara are sometimes spoken of as a confederacy of smaller tribes eachoccupying its own village, and one account mentions 10 of these, while Gilmore(1927) furnishes the names of 12, including 4 of major importance under whichthe others were grouped. These were as follows:Awahu, associated with which were Hokat and Scirihauk.Hukawirat, with which were associated Warihka and Nakarik.Tukatuk, with which were associated Tsininatak and Witauk.Tukstanu, with which were associated Nakanusts and Nisapst.Earlier sources give other names which do not agree with these:Hachepiriinu.Hia.Hosukhaunu, properly the name of a dance society.Hosukhaunukarerihu, properly the name of a dance society.Kaka.Lohoocat, the name of a town in the time of Lewis and Clark.Okos.Paushuk.Sukhutit.History.?After parting from the Skidi in wliat is now Nebraska,the Arikara gradually pushed north to the Missouri River and on upthat stream.In 1770 when French traders opened relations with them they werea little below Cheyenne River. Lesser and Weltfish (1932) suggestthat they may have been the Harahey or Arahey of whom Coronadowas told rather than the Pawnee (q. v.) . Lewis and Clark found them,reduced considerably in numbers, between Grand and CannonbaliRivers. In 1823 they attacked the boats of an American trader,killing 13 men and wounding others, and in consequence of thistrouble they abandoned their country and went to live with theSkidi on Loup River. Two years later they returned to the Missouri,and by 1851 they had pushed as far north as Heart River. Meantimewars with the Dakota and the smallpox had reduced them so muchthat they were glad to open friendly relations with two other tribes,similarly reduced, the Hidatsa and Mandan. In 1862 they moved toFort Berthold. In 1880 the Fort Berthold Reservation was createdfor the three tribes, and the Arikara have ever since lived upon it,though they are now allotted land in severalty, and on the approvalof the allotments, July 10, 1900, they became citizens of the UnitedStates.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates that in 1780 there wereabout 3,000 Arikara. In 1804 Lewis and Clark gave 2,600. In 1871they numbered 1,650; m 1888 only 500; and in 1904, 380. The censusof 1910 returned 444 of whom 425 were in North Dakota. In 1923the United States Indian OflSce gave 426. The census of 1930 re-turned 420, and the United States Indian OflBce in 1937, 616.
SWASTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 275Connection in which they have become noted.?The Arikara are notedmerely as the most northerly of the Caddoan tribes and from theirprobable influence in introducing a knowledge of agriculture to thepeople of the upper Alissouri. Arickaree in Washington County,Colo., perpetuates the name.Assiniboin. In early days the Assiniboin were constantly comingacross from Canada to fight and trade with the tribes of the upperMissouri, but they did not settle within the limits of North Dakotafor any considerable period. (See Montana, and also Dakota underSouth Dakota.)Cheyenne. When they left Minnesota the Cheyenne settled for awhile on the Sheyenne fork of Red River after which they movedbeyond the limits of the State of North Dakota. (See SouthDakota.)Chippewa. After they had obtained guns the Chippewa pushedwestward as far as the Turtle Mountains which gave their name toa Chippewa band. There were 2,966 Chippewa in North Dakotain 1910. (See Minnesota.)Dakota. TMiile working their way west from Minnesota, bands ofDakota occupied at various times parts of the eastern, southern,and southwestern margins of North Dakota and a part of theStanding Rock Agency is within the limits of the State. In 19101,190 Dakota were making their homes on its soil. (See SouthDakota.)Hidatsa. Derived from the name of a former village and said, onsomewhat doubtful authority, to signify "willows." Also called:A-gutch-a-ninne-wug, Chippewa name, meaning "the settled people."A-me-she', Crow name, meaning "people who live in earth houses."Gi-aucth-iu-in-e-wug, Chippewa name, meaning "men of the olden time."Gros Ventres of the Missouri, traders' name, probably derived from thesign for them in the sign language.Hewaktokto, Dakota name.Minitari, meaning "they crossed the water," said to have been given tothem by the Mandan, from the tradition of their fir.it encounter withthe tribe on the Missouri.Wa-nuk'-e-ye'-ua, Arapaho name, meaning "lodges planted together."Wetitsadn, Arikara name.Connections.?The Hidatsa belonged to the Siouan linguistic stock,their closest relations within it being the Crow.Location.?They lived at v.arious points on the Missouri betweenthe Heart and Little Missouri Rivers. (See also Montana andCanada.)
276 BUEEAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145
VillagesLewis and Clark (1804-5) give the following three names:Amahami or Mahaha, on the south bank of Knife River, formerly an independentbut closely related tribe.Amatiha, on the south bank of Knife River.Hidatsa, on the north bank of Knife River.The band names given by Morgan are rather those of social divisions.History.?According to tradition, the Hidatsa formerly lived by alake northeast of their later country, one sometimes identified withDevil's Lake. They moved from there to the mouth of Heart River,where they met and allied themselves with the Mandan, and fromthem they learned agriculture. As we have seen, Lewis and Clarkfound them on Knife River. In 1837 a terrible smallpox epidemicwasted them so completely that the survivors consolidated into onevillage which was moved in 1845 to the neighborhood of Fort Berthold,where the tribe has ever since continued to reside. They have nowbeen allotted lands in severalty and are citizens of the United States.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates the Hidatsa and Amahamitogether as numbering 2,500 in 1780. Lewis and Clark give 600warriors, or about 2,100 people. In 1905 they totaled 471, and thecensus of 1910 gives 547, a figure repeated by the United StatesIndian Office in 1923. In 1930, 528 were returned and in 1937, 731.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Hidatsa appearmost prominently, along with the Mandan, in connection with theascent of the Missouri by Lewis and Clark and later expeditions intothe same region. The name of Minatare, Scotts Bluff County,Nebr., probably refers to this tribe.Mandan. Probably a corruption of the Dakota word applied tothem, Mawatani. .^Vlso called:A-rach-bo-cu, Hidatsa name (Long, 1791).As-a-ka-shi, Us-suc-car-shay, Crow name.How-mox-tox-sow-es, Hidatsa name (?).Kanit', Arikara name.Kwowahtewug, Ottawa name,M^tutahanke, own name since 1837, after their old village.Mo-no'-ni-o, Cheyenne name.Numakaki, own name prior to 1837, meaning "men," "people."U-ka'-she, Crow name, meaning "earth houses."Connections.?The Mandan belonged to the Siouan linguistic stock.Their connections are with the Tutelo and Winnebago rather thanthe nearer Siouan tribes.Location.?When known to the Whites, the ^Mandan were on thesame part of the Missouri River as the Hidatsa, between Heart andLittle Missouri Rivers. (See also South Dakota.)
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 277Subdivisions and VillagesThe division names given by Morgan (1851) appear to have been those of theirformer villages and are as follows: Horatamumake, Matonumake, Seepoosha,Tanatsuka, Kitanemake, Estapa, and Net^ahke. In 1804 Lewis and Clark foundtwo villages in existence, Metutahanke ajid Ruptari, about 4 miles below themouth of Knife River.They were divided socially into two moieties named like those of the Hidatsa,the Four- Clan ^toiety and Three-Clan Moiety, and many of the clans constitutingthese bear village names. One of Dr. Lowie's (1917) informants gave the Prairie-chicken people, Young white-headed Eagle, People all in a bunch, and Crowpeople, as clans of the first Moiety; and the Maxi"kina, Tami'sik, and Nu'pta asclans of the second. Another informant gave the following clans altogether:Si'pucka, Xtaxta'nu'm'k', Village above, Maxdhe, Tami'sik, Seven-different-kinds, Hilltop village, Scattered village, White-bellied mouse people, and Nuptare.Curtis (1907-9) and Maximilian (1843) give a Badger clan; Curtis, Red Butte andCharcoal clans; Maximilian, Bear and Cactus villages, perhaps intended forclans; and Morgan, Wolf, Good Knife, Eagle, and Flathead clans. Some ofLowie's informants substituted other names for Nu'pta, which latter is also thename of a village.History.?When first visited by the Whites, the Mandan had distincttraditions of an eastern origin, and they may have come from theneighborhood of tlie Winnebago or from the Ohio country. Traditionalso affirms that they first reached the Missouri at the mouth of WhiteRiver, South Dakota, whence they moved to Morcau River and thenceto Heart River, where the WTiites found them. The first recordedvisit to them was by Varendrye in 1738. The nine villages whichthey had in 1750 were merged into two by 1776 which were about 4miles below the mouth of Knife River when Lewis and Clark visitedthem in 1804. In 1837 they were almost destroyed by smallpox,only 31 souls being left out of 1,600, according to one account. In1845 some Mandan accompanied the Hidatsa to Fort Berthold,others followed at intervals, and the tribe has continued to residethere down to the present time, though lands are now allotted to themin severalty and they are citizens of the United States.Population.?Mooney's (1928) estimate of Mandan population for1780 is 3,600. In 1804 Lewis and Clark estimated there were 1,250,and in 1837, just before the great smallpox epidemic, there weresupposed to be 1,600. In 1850 the total number was said to be 150,but in 1852 it had apparently increased to 385. In 1871 there were450; in 1877, 420; in 1885, 410; and 1905, 249; while the census of1910 retiu-ned 209, and the United States Indian Office Report of1923, 273. The census of 1930 gives 271, and the Indian Office Reportfor 1937, 345.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Mandan attainedwide notoriety among the Whites (1) from their intimate dealingswith the early Wliite explorers and tradei-s in the upper Missouri
278 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY {Buvu 146
region; (2) from the fact that their customs and ceremonies were madeparticular matters of record by Maximilian (1843), Catlin (1844), andother White visitors; (3) from the reputation these Indians acquiredof an unusually light skin color and theories of Welsh or, at leastEuropean, origin based upon these characters; and (4) from the tragicdecimation of the tribe by smallpox as above mentioned. The namehas been adopted as that of a city in North Dakota, the capital ofMorton County. SOUTH DAKOTAArapaho. According to tradition, the Arapaho at one time lived inthe neighborhood of the Black Hills and warriors of the tribe oftentraversed the western parts of this State. (See Wyoming.)Arikara. The Arikara lived at various points on the Missouri River inSouth Dakota during their migration northward after separatingfrom the Skidi Pawnee. (See North Dakota.)Cheyenne. From a Dakota term applied to them meaning "peopleof alien speech," literally, "red talkers." Also called:A-was-she-tan-qua, Hidatsa name (Long, 1791).Bdhakosin, Caddo name, meaning "striped arrows."Dog Indians, so called sometimes owing to a confusion of the name withthe French word chien.DzTtsi'stas, own name.Gatsalghi, Kiowa Apache name.Hitasi'na or It&si'na. Arapaho name, meaning "scarred people."I-86nsh'-pu-she, Crow name.Itah-Ischipahji, Hidatsa name (Maximilian, 1843).I-ta-su-pu-zi, Hidatsa name, meaning "spotted arrow quills."Ka'neaheawastslk, Cree name, meaning "people with a language somewhatlike Cree."Nanonlks-karS'nlki, Kichai name.Niere'rikwats-k<ini'ki, Wichita name.PagSnavo, Shoshoni and Comanche name, meaning "striped arrows."Sak'o'ta, Kiowa name.Scarred Arms, from a misinterpretation of the tribal sign.Sha-ho, Pawnee name.Connections.?Cheyenne was one of the three most aberrantlanguages of the Algonquian linguistic family, and was shared by noother tribe except the Sutaio, whose speech differed only in minorpoints.Location.?This tribe moved frequently; in South Dakota they wereassociated with the Cheyenne River and the Black Hills. (See alsoColorado, Kansas, Minnesota, Montana, Nebraska, North Dakota,Oklahoma, and Wyoming.)
BWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 279SubdivisionsFollowing are the bands which had a well-recognized place in the camp circle,as given by Mooney (1928); Hevlqs'-nr'pahls, M6Is6yu, WQ'tapIu, H6vhaita'nio,Ol'vimdna, Hlsfometa'nio, Stitdio (formerly a distinct tribe; see below), Oqt6gtini,H6'nowa, Masr'kotfi, O'ml'sls. Other band names not commonly recognizedas divisional names, are these: MoqtdvhaitS'niu, Nd'kuim^na, Anakdwinis,Pl'ntitgtl', Mdhoyum, W6opotsI't, Totoimana (on Tongue River), Black Lodges(near Lame Deer), Ree Band, Yellow Wolf Band, Half-breed Band.History.?Before 1700 the Cheyenne lived in what is now the Stateof Minnesota. There are very definite traditions of a time when theywere on Minnesota River, from which region the Cheyenne whovisited La SaUe's fort in Illinois in 1680 probably came. A littlelater they seem to have moved to the neighborhood of Lake Traverseand still later part of them occupied a stockaded town on the SheyenneRiver of North Dakota near the present Lisbon, N. Dak. Some yearsbefore 1799, perhaps in the decade 1780 to 1790, this town was sur-prised by Chippewa Indians and destroyed while most of the menwere off hunting. The Cheyenne who escaped first settled along theMissouri where other bands of Cheyenne seem to have preceded them.There were a number of villages belonging to the tribe along theMissouri near the point where the boundary line between North andSouth Dakota crosses it until just before the time of Lewis and Clark,or, as Grinnell (1923) believes, for a number of years after the dateof their expedition (1804-1806). However, they accustomed them-selves more and more to a nomadic life and moved on toward theBlack HiUs whither they had been preceded by a cognate tribe knownas the Sutaio. It is very probable that the Cheyenne had met theSutaio east of the Missouri. At first the attitude of the two peopletoward each other is said to have been hostile, but presently theybecame friendly and finally united. On leaving the Missom-i, theCheyenne seem to have given up raising corn and making pottery.During the early part of the nineteenth century they moved to theheadwaters of the Platte. When Bent's Fort was built on the upperArkansas in 1832 a large part decided to establish themselves near itbut the rest continued to rove about the headwaters of the NorthPlatte and the Yellowstone. This separation in the tribe was madepermanent by the Treaty of Fort Laramie in 1851, the two sectionsbeing known respectively as Southern Cheyenne and Northern Chey-enne. In the meantime they had met and formed an alliance withthe Arapaho, though there is no memory of the date or the circum-stances.They were at war with the Kiowa from the time of their settlementon the upper Arkansas until 1840, but afterward acted with them
280 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145
against other tribes and the Whites. In 1849 they suffered severelyin the cholera epidemic, and later between 1860 and 1878, in warswith the Whites. The southern division took a leading part in thegeneral outbreak of 1874-75, and the Northern Cheyenne joined thehostile Dakota in 1876 and shared in the Custer massacre. Finally,the Northern Cheyenne were assigned a reservation in Montana.The Southern Cheyenne were similarly assigned to a reservation inthe present Oklahoma in 1867 but could not be induced to remainupon it until after the general surrender of 1875. In 1901-02 thelands of the Southern Cheyenne were allotted in severalty.Population.?Mooney (1928) places the number of Cheyenne andSutaio at 3,500 in 1780. In 1904 the number of Southern Cheyennewas given as 1,903, and the Northern Cheyenne as 1,409, a total of3,312. The census of 1910 returned 3,055, of whom 1,522 were inOklahoma and 1,346 in Montana, but the United States Indian OfficeReport of 1923 gives 3,248, composed of 1,831 Southern Cheyenne,and 1,417 Northern Cheyenne. The census of 1930 returned 2,695,the Northern Cheyenne being slightly more numerous then theSouthern division. In 1937 there were 1,561 Northern Cheyenneand 2,836 Southern Cheyenne and Arapaho together.Connection in which they have become noted.?This Cheyenne tribewas one of the most famous of the Plains, and was conspicuous onaccount of the frequent wars which it waged against other tribes, aswell as against the Whites. It is also noted on account of its romantichistory, having originally been a corn-raising tribe in southern Min-nesota and later having become thoroughly adjusted to Plains life.The name is preserved by the State Capital of Wyoming; by a riverin South Dakota; by counties in Colorado, Nebraska, and Kansas;by the Cheyenne Mountains and Canons in Colorado; by a river ofNorth Dakota (spelled Sheyenne); and by Cheyenne WeUs in Colo-rado, and Sheyenne in Eddy County, N. Dak. There is also a placeof the name in Roger Mills County, Okla.; and another in WinJderCounty, Tex.Dakota. Signifying "allies" in the Santee or eastern dialect; inYankton and in Assiniboin it is Nakota; in Teton, Lakota. Theyare more often known as Sioux, an abbreviation of Nadouessioux,the name appMed to them by the Chippewa, as transmitted throughFrench; it signifies "adders," and by derivation "enemies." Alsocalled
:
Ab-boin-ug, Boinug or Obwahnug, Wanak, Chippewa name, meaning
"roasters" from their custom of torturing foes.Ba-akush', Caddo name.Ba-ra-shup'-gi-o, Crow name.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 281Chah'-ra-rat, Pawnee name.Coupe-gorges, French rendering of a name given them in the sign language.Cut-throats, English equivalent of same.Hand Cutters, translation of Ute name.Ita ha'tski, Hidatsa name, meaning "long arrows."Kaispa, Sarsi name.K'odalpa-Kinago, Kiowa name, meaning "necklace people."Mar-au-sho-bish-ko, Crow name, meaning "cutthroats."Minishupsko, Crow name of opprobrious meaning.Nadouessioux, general Algonquian name received through the French.Natni or Natnihina, Arapaho, meaning "cutthroats."Na'-to-wo-na, Cheyenne name for easternmost bands of Sioux.Nuktusem or Nktusem, Salish name.Ocheti shakowin, own name, meaning "the seven council fires."O-o'-ho-mo-i'-o, Cheyenne name, meaning "those on the outside."Oshahak, Fox name.Pambizimina, Shoshoni name, meaning "beheaders."Pdmpe Chyimina, Ute name, meaning "Hand Cutters."Papitsinima, Comanche name, meaning "beheaders."Pfshakulk, Yakima name, meaning "beheaders."Poualak or Pouanak, name given in early French records, for Ab-boin-ug.Sdhagi, Shawnee name.Shahan, Osage, Kansa, and Oto name.Shdnana, Kiowa Apache name.Tsaba'kosh, or Ba-akush', Caddo name, meaning "cutthroats."Tiiygtchlskg, Comanche name, meaning "cutthroats."Wa-sa-sa-o-no, Iroquois name.Yu?ssdha, Wyandot name, meaning "birds."Connections.?The Dakota belonged to the Siouan hnguistic family,their closest relations being the Hidatsa.Location.?The earliest known home of this tribe was on and nearthe Mississippi in southern Minnesota, northwestern Wisconsin, andneighboring parts of Iowa. In 1825, after they had spread somewhatfarther west, Long (1791) gives their boundaries thus: They werebounded by a curved line extending east of north from Prairie du Chienon the Mississippi, so as to include all the eastern tributaries of theMississippi, to the first branch of Chippewa River; thence by a linerunning west of north to Spirit Lake; thence westwardly to CrowWing River, Minn., and up that stream to its head; thence westwardlyto Red River and down that stream to Pembina; thence southwest-wardly to the eastern bank of the Missouri near the Mandan villages;thence down the Missouri to a point probably not far from SoldiersRiver; thence east of north to P*rairie du Chien. At a later timethey occupied less territory toward the east but extended much fai-therwestward between the Yellowstone and Platte Rivers. (See alsoIowa, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, North Dakota,Wisconsin, Wyoming, and Canada.)
282 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Boll. 146SubdivisionsEarly explorers usually distinguished an Eastern or Forest and a Western orPrairie division, but the following is a more accurate classification: (1) Mdewkan-ton, (2) Wahpeton, (3) Wahpekute, (4) Sisseton, (5) Yankton, (6> Yanktonai, in-cluding (a) Upper Yanktonai, and (b) Lower Yantonai or Hunkpatina, fromwhom also the Assiniboin are said to have separated, and (7) Teton, including(a) the Brul6 (Upper and Lower), (6) Hunkpapa, (c) Miniconjou, {d) Oglala, (c)Oohenonpa or Two Kettle, (/) San Arcs, (g) Sihasapa or Blackfoot. Numbers 1to 4 constituted the Santee or Eastern division.Minor Bands, Villages, Etc.Black Tiger, near Fort Peck Agency.Broken Arrows, possibly the Cazazhita.Casarba, 35 leagues up St. Peters River in 1804.Cazazhita, probably Tetons and perhaps the same as the Wannawega.Chansuushka, unidentified.Chasmuna, unidentified.Cheokhba, a band of the Hunkpapa Teton.Congewichacha, a Dakota division, perhaps Teton.Farmers Band, probably a band of the Mdewakanton, below Lake Traverse,Minn.Fire Lodge, below Lake Traverse.Flandreau Indians, a part of the Santee who settled at Flandreau, S. Dak.Grey Eagle Band, below Lake Traverse, Minn.Lake Comedu, unidentified.Lean Bear, below Lake Traverse, Minn.Long Sioux, near Fort Peck.Magayuteshni, a Mdewakanton division.Menostamenton, unidentified.Micacoupsiba, on the upper St. Peters, Minn.Minisha, an Oglala band.Neecoweegee, unidentified, possibly Minneconjou.Nehogatawouahs, near St. Croix River in Minnesota or Wisconsin.Newastarton, an unidentified band on the Mississippi above the St. Peters (Minne-sota) River; probably the Mdewakanton.Ocatameneton, an eastern Dakota band.Ohanhanska, a band of the Magayuteshni division of the Mdewakanton onMinnesota River.Oughetgeodatons, a village or subdivision of one of the western bands.Oujatespouitons, west of the Mississippi.Peshlaptechela, an Oglala Teton band.Pineshow, a band of Wahpeton, on Minnesota River, 15 miles from its mouth.Psinchaton, belonging to the Western Dakota in Minnesota.Psinoumanitons, a division of the Eastern Dakota, probably in Wisconsin.Psinoutanhinhintous, a band of Western Dakota in Minnesota.Rattling Moccasin Band, a band of Mdewakanton Dakota on Minnesota Riverbelow Lake Traverse, Minn.Red Leg's Band, a Wahpekute band in Minnesota.Redwood, location uncertain.Star Band, a band of Mdewakanton.Takini, an Upper Yanktonai band.Talonapin, a Hunkpapa band.
SWANTONJ INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 283Tashunkeota, a Sihasapa band.Tateibombu's Band, location uncertain,Touchouasintons, a band of the Western Dakota, perhaps the Wazikute.Traverse de Sioux, a part of the Sisseton formerly on Minnesota River, Minn.Waktonila, unidentified.Wazikute, a band of Upper Yanktonai.White Cap Indians, on the south Saskatchewan River, in Assiniboia, Canada.White Eagle Band, location unknown.Wiattacbechah, an unidentified village.History.?The first historical mention of the Dakota is in the JesuitRelation for 1640 when they were probably in the eastern part of theterritory indicated above. Rev. A. L. Riggs, for many years amissionary among them, claims that their traditions pointed to thenortheast as the place of their origin and that they once lived aboutthe Lake of the Woods. There are, however, strong grounds for believ-ing that they pushed their way up into the present Minnesota fromthe southeast, though there is no doubt that the Chippewa forcedthem back in later times from some of the most easternmost landsthey occupied and their expulsion from Mille Lacs is an historicalevent. It is thought that few Dakota crossed the Missouri before1750, yet it is claimed that some of them reached the Black Hills by1765. In 1862 the Eastern Dakota under Little Crow rose upon theWhites and in the war which followed 700 settlers and 100 soldierswere killed, while the hostile bands lost all of the rest of their lands inMinnesota and were forced to move to Dakota and Nebraska. On thediscovery of gold in the Black Hills the rush of miners to that regionbecame the occasion for a war with the Western Dakota renderedfamous by the cutting off of General Custer and five companies ofcavalry on the Little Bighorn, June 25, 1876. An incipient rising atWounded Knee Creek, resulting from the spread of the Ghost Dancereligion, was the last scene of the struggles between the Dakota andthe Whites, and the tribe is now allotted lands in severalty, principallyin South Dakota, but in part in North Dakota and Nebraska.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated that in 1780 there were25,000 Dakota of all divisions, exclusive of the Assiniboin (q. v. underMontana). In 1904 their distribution on agencies and their numberswere as follows: Cheyenne River (Minniconjou, Sans Arcs, and Oohe-nonpa), 2,477; Crow Creek (Lower Yanktonai), 1,025; Fort TottenSchool (Sisseton, Wahpeton, and Yanktonai), 1,013; Riggs Institute(Santee), 279; Fort Peck (Yankton), 1,116; Lower Brul6 (LowerBrul6), 470; Pine Ridge (Oglala), 6,690; Rosebud (Brul6, Waglukhe,Lower Brul6, Northern, Oohenonpa, and Wazhazha), 4,977; Santee(Santee), 1,075; Sisseton (Sisseton and Wahpeton), 1,908; StandingRock (Sihasapa, Hunkpapa, and Yanktonai), 3,514; Yankton (Yank-
284 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 14Ston), 1,702; under no agency (Mdewakanton in Minnesota) 929;total, 27,175. The census of 1930 returned 25,934, of whom 20,918were in South Dakota, 2,307 in North Dakota, 1,251 in Montana,690 in Nebraska, and the remainder in more than 22 other States.The Report of the United States Office of Indian Affairs for 1937gave 33,625, including 27,733 in South Dakota, 2,797 in NorthDakota, 1,292 in Nebraska, 1,242 in Minnesota, and 561 in Montana.Connections in which they have become noted.?The Dakota are oneof the most famous tribes of North America, thanks to their numbersand prowess, their various wars with the Whites and the spectacularcharacter of one of the last encounters with them, the celebrated
"Custer massacre," not to mention the conspicuous nature of their con-nection with the Ghost Dance cult and the tragic affray at WoundedKnee Creek which grew out of it. The name is preserved in two ofthe States of our Union, North and South Dakota; by a river whichflows through them; by counties in Minnesota and Nebraska; and byplaces in Stephenson County, lU.; Winona County, Minn.; in Wis-consin and Nebraska; and as Dakota City in Humboldt Coimty, Iowa,and Dakota County, Nebr. The other popular name for this tribe,Sioux, has been given to Sioux City, Iowa, and Sioux Falls, S. Dak.; tocounties in Iowa and Nebraska; and small places in Nebraska, Iowa,and Minnesota; as Sioux in Yancey County, N. C; Sioux Center inSioux County, Iowa; Sioux Rapids in Buena Vista County, Iowa; andSioux Pass in Richland County, Mont. It appears as Lacota (theTeton form of the name) in Marion County, Fla., and Van BurenCounty, Mich., and wdth the spelhng Lakota in Kossuth County,Iowa; Nelson County, N. Dak.; and Culpeper County, Va.Kiowa. The Kiowa hved in and about the Black Hills for a timebefore they were succeeded by the Sutaio and Cheyenne. (SeeOklahoma.)Mandan. According to tradition, this tribe reached the MissouriRiver near the mouth of White River, and settled at several placesalong the former within the borders of this State before passing outof it into North Dakota. (See North Dakota.)Omaha. After having been driven from the region of the PipestoneQuarry in Minnesota, the Omaha settled on the Missouri in theterritory of South Dakota and later moved downstream underpressure from the Dakota to their later seats in Nebraska. (SeeNebraska.)Ponca. This tribe was with the Omaha when it left the region of thePipestone Quarry, but separated from it on the Missouri and wentinto the Black Hills for a time, after which it retired to the Missouriand settled in the present Nebraska. (See Nebraska.)
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OP NORTH AMERICA 285Sutaio. Significance uncertain. A Cheyenne informant of Grinnell(1923) believed it was derived from issuhf, "ridge."Connection.?The Sutaio belonged to the Algonquian linguisticstock, their nearest relatives being the Cheyenne.Location.?When first brought distinctly to the knowledge of Whites,this tribe was west of Missouri River, between it and the Black Hills.History.?The Sutaio may have been the "Chousa" band of Chey-enne of whom Perrin du Lac (1805) heard. At any rate they wereprobably not far distant from the Cheyenne during their migrationsfrom Minnesota to the Alissouri River and beyond, though whetherin front of them, or to one side, it is impossible to tell. Accordingto Cheyenne tradition as reported by Grinnell (1923), the two tribesmet three different times. At any rate we know that they lived sideby side in the region eastward of the Black Hills for some time andthat they finally united there into one body, the Sutaio taking theirplace as one band in the Cheyenne tribal camping circle.Population.?Unknown. (See Cheyenne.)Winnebago. After leaving Minnesota in 1862 and before they tookrefuge with the Omaha, part of this tribe lived for a while on theCrow Creek Reservation. (See Wisconsin.)NEBRASKAArapaho. The Arapaho ranged for a considerable period over thewestern part of this State. (See Wyoming.)Arikara. This tribe lived in the territory now included in Nebraskawith the Skidi Pawnee at some prehistoric period, and after 1823they returned to the same tribe for 2 years. (See North Dakota.)Cheyenne. Like the Arapaho, the Cheyenne ranged to some extentover the western territories of the State. (See South Dakota.)Comanche. At an early day the Comanche must have lived in ornear the western part of Nebraska, before moving south. (SeeTexas.)Dakota. The Dakota had few settlements of any permanency in theterritory of Nebraska but they were constantly raiding into andacross it from the north. (See South Dakota.)Foxes. The Foxes were parties to a land cession made in 1830. (SeeWisconsin.)Iowa. When the Omaha lived about the Pipestone Quarry in Minne-sota, they were accompanied by the Iowa, who afterward wentwith them to South Dakota and thence to Nebraska. They,however, continued southeast into the territory of the presentState of Iowa (q. v.).
286 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 14BKansas. They were parties to a cession of Nebraska land made in1825. (See Kansas.)Kiowa. The Kiowa were at one time on the western margin ofNebraska and later followed the Comanche south. (See Oklahoma.)Missouri. After they had been driven from Missouri by the Saukand Fox, the remnant of this tribe lived for a while in villages southof Platte River. (See IVfissouri.)Omaha. Meaning "those going against the wind or current"; some-times shortened to Maha. Also called:Ho'-m&"-ha?, Winnebago name.Hu-Amdi, Cheyenne name.Onl'h&o, Cheyenne name, meaning "drum beaters" (7).Piik-tis, Pawnee name.U'-aha, Pawnee name.Connections.?The Omaha belonged to that section of the Siouanlinguistic stock which included also the Ponca, Kansa, Osage, andQuapaw, and which was called by J. O. Dorsey (1897) Dhegiha.Location.?Their principal home in historic times was in north-eastern Nebraska, on the Missouri River. (See also Iowa, Minnesota,Missouri, and South Dakota.)History.?According to strong and circumstantial traditions, theOmaha and others belonging to the same group formeriy hved on theOhio and Wabash Rivers. It is usually said that the Quapaw sepa-rated from the general body first, going down the Mississippi, but it ismore likely that they were left behind by the others and later movedout upon the great river. The Osage remained on Osage River, andthe Kansa continued on up the Missouri, but the Omaha, still includingthe Ponca, passed north inland as far as the Pipestone Quarry inMinnesota, and were afterward forced west by the Dakota, into whatis now the State of South Dakota. There the Ponca separated fromthem and the Omaha settled on Bow Creek, in the present Nebraska.They continued from that time forward in the same general region,the west side of the Missouri River between the Platte and the Nio-brara, but in 1855 made their last movement of consequence to thepresent Dakota County. In 1854 they sold all of their lands excepta portion kept for a reserve, and they gave up the northern part of thisin 1865 to the Winnebago. (See Wisconsin.) In 1882, through theefforts of Miss Alice C. Fletcher, they were granted lands in severaltywith prospects of citizenship, and Miss Fletcher was given charge ofthe ensuing allotment. Citizenship has now been granted them.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates that there were about2,800 Omaha in 1780. In 1802 they were reduced by smallpox toabout 300. In 1804 the estimated number was 600; in 1829, 1,900;
8WANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 287in 1843, 1,600. Schoolcraft (1851-57) gives 1,349 in 1851; Burrows,1,200 in 1857; and the same number appears in the census returns for1880. In 1906 the United States Indian Office returned 1,228, andthe census of 1910 gave 1,105, The Report of the United States In-dian Office for 1923 showed an increase to 1,440. The census of 1930gave 1,103, principally in Nebraska. The United States IndianOffice reported 1,684 in 1932.Connection in winch they have become noted.?The Omaha will beremembered particularly from the fact that its name has been adoptedby the City of Omaha, Nebr. It has also been given to small placesin Boone County, Ark.; Stewart County, Ga.; Gallatin County, 111.;Morris County, Tex.; Knott County, Ky.; and Dickenson County,Va.It will be remembered furthermore as the scene of the humanitarianlabors of Miss Alice C. Fletcher and the ethnological studies of MissFletcher and Dr. Francis La Flesche.Oto. From Wat'ota, meaning "lechers." It often appears in alengthened form such as Hoctatas or Octoctatas. Also called:Che-wae-rae, own name.Matokatagi, Shawnee name.Motdtatak, Fox name.Wacutada, Omaha and Ponca name.Wad6tata, Kansa name.Watohtata, Dakota name.Watiitata, Osage name.Connections.?The Oto formed, with the Iowa and Missouri, theChiwere group of the Siouan linguistic family and were closely con-nected with the Winnebago.Location.?The Oto moved many times, but their usual location inthe historic period was on the lower course of the Platte or the neigh-boring banks of the Missouri. (See also Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota,Missouri, Oklahoma, and Wisconsin.)History.?From the maps of the Marquette expedition it wouldseem that at the time when they were drawn, 1673, the Oto were somedistance up Des Moines River. Their name was often coupled withthat of the related Iowa who lived north of them, but they alwaysseem to have occupied a distinct area. Shortly after this time theymoved over to the Missouri and by 1804 had established their townon the south side of the Platte River not far from its mouth. Accord-ing to native traditions, this tribe, the Iowa, and the Missouri wereanciently one people with the Winnebago, but moved southwest fromthem, and then separated from the Iowa at the mouth of Iowa Riverand from the Missouri at the mouth of Grand River. Their languageproves that they were closely related to these tribes whether or not
288 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Boll. 145the separations occurred in the manner and at the places indicated.Their spHt with the Missouri is said to have been brought about by aquarrel between two chiefs arising from the seduction of the daughterof one by the son of the other, and from this circumstance the Oto aresupposed to have derived their name. In 1700 they were, accordingto Le Sueur, on Blue Earth River near the Iowa, and it is probablethat they moved into the neighborhood of the Iowa or Missouri atseveral different times, but their usual position was clearly inter-mediate along a north-south line. In 1680 two Oto chiefs came tovisit La Salle in Illinois and reported that they had traveled farenough west to fight with people using horses, w^ho were evidentlythe Spaniards, a fact which proves their early westward range.By treaties signed July 15, 1830, and October 15, 1836, they andthe Missouri ceded all claims to land in Missouri and Iowa, and byanother signed September 21, 1833, the two ceded all claims to landsouth of the Little Nemaha River. By a treaty signed March 15,1854, they gave up all their lands except a strip 10 miles wide and 25miles long on the waters of Big Blue River, but when it was found thatthere was no timber on this tract it was exchanged on December 9 foranother tract taken from the Kansas Indians. In a treaty signedAugust 15, 1876, and amended March 3, 1879, they agreed to sell120,000 acres off the western end of their reserve. And finally, atreaty signed on March 3, 1881, provided, the consent of the tribebeing obtained, for the sale of all of the remainder of their land inKansas and Nebraska, and the selection of a new reservation. Consentto the treaty was recorded May 4 following, and the tribe removed thefollowing year to the new reservation w^hich was in the presentOklahoma southwest of Arkansas River on Red Rock and Black BearCreeks, west of the present Pa\Miee. The first removal to Oklahomais said to have been due to a fission in the tribe resulting in the forma-tion of two bands, a conservative band called Coyotes and theQuakers, who w^ere progressives. The Coyotes moved m 1880 andthe Quakers joined them 2 years later.Population.?MooneJ (1928) estimated that in 1780 the Otonumbered about 900. In 1805 Lewis and Clark estimated 500 thenliving, but Catlin in 1833 raised this to 1,300, a figure which includesthe Missouri. Burrows in 1849 gives 900, and the United StatesIndian Ofiice in 1843, 931. This and all later enumerations includeboth the Oto and the Missouri. In 1862 they numbered 708; in1867, 511; in 1877, 457; in 1886, 334; in 1906, 390; and by the censusof 1910, 332. The census of 1930, however, showed a marked increaseto a total of 627, all but 13 of whom were in Oklahoma, 376 in NobleCounty, 170 in Pa\\Tiee, 34 in Kay, and 17 in Osage. There were 7
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 289in California, 1 in Kansas, and 1 in Nebraska. In 1937, 756 werereported in Oklahoma.Connection in which they have become noted.?The name Oto has beenapplied to some small settlements in Woodbury County, Iowa, and inMissouri, and in the form Otoe to a county and post village inNebraska.Pawnee. The name is derived by some from the native word pariki,
"a horn," a term said to be used to designate their peculiar mannerof dressing the scalp lock; but Lesser and Weltfish (1932) considerit more likely that it is from parisu, "hunter," as claimed bythemselves. They were also called Padani and Panana by varioustribes. Also known as:Ahihinin, Arapaho name, meaning "wolf people."Awahi, Caddo and Wichita name.Awahu, Arikara name.Aw6, Tonkawa name, originally used by the Wichita.Chahiksichahiks, meaning "men of men," applied to themselves but alsoto all other tribes whom they considered civilized.Ddrazhazh, Kiowa Apache name.Harahey, Coronado documents (somewhat uncertain).Ho-ni'-i-tahi-o, Cheyenne name, meaning "little wolf people."Kuitare-i, Comanche name, meaning "wolf people."Paoneneheo, early Cheyenne name, meaning "the ones with projecting frontteeth."Pdyi", Kansa form of the name.Pi-ta'-da, name given to southern tribes (Grinnell, 1923).Tse-sa do hpa ka, Hidatsa name meaning "wolf people."W6hesh, W^ichita name.Xaratenumanke, Mandan name.Connections.?The Pawnee were one of the principal tribes of theCaddoan linguistic stock. The Arikara (q. v.) were an offshoot, andthe Wichita were more closely related to them than were the Caddo.Location.?On the middle course of Platte River and the Republicanfork of Kansas River. (See also Kansas, Oklahoma, and Wyoming.)SubdivisionsThe Pawnee consisted in reality of four tribes, or four known in historic times,viz: The Chaui or Grand Pa^vmee, the Kitkehahki or Republican Pawnee, thePitahauerat or Tapage Pawnee, and the Skidi or Skiri Pawnee, the first threespeaking the same dialect and being otherwise more closely connected with oneanother than with the last. The Kitkehahki embraced two divisions, the Kitke-hahki proper and the Little Kitkehahki. Murie gives two others, the Black Headsand Karikisu, but Lesser and Weltfish (1932) state that the first was a society andthe second the name of the women's dance or ceremony before corn planting.The Pitahauerat consisted of the Pitahauerat proper and the Kawarakis, some-times said to be villages.
290 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145History.?Some of the Pawnee trace their origin to the southwest,some to the east, and some claim always to have lived m the coimtrywith which later history associates them. The first White men tomeet any members of these tribes were the Spaniards imder Coronadoin 1541. French explorers heard of them again eariy in the eighteenthcentm-y and French traders were estabhshed among them before themiddle of it. The Spaniards of New Mexico became acquainted withthem at about the same time on account of the raids which they con-ducted in search of horses. They lay somewhat out of the track ofthe first explorers from the east, and in consequence suffered lessdiminution in numbers through White influences than did many oftheir neighbors, but they were considerably reduced through warswith the surrounding tribes, particularly with the Dakota. Althoughsome of the early traders and trappers were treated harshly by them,their relations with the United States Government were friendly fromthe first, and they uniformly furnished scouts for the frontier armies.By treaties negotiated in 1833, 1848, and 1857, they ceded all oftheir lands in Nebraska except one reservation and in 1876 this tractwas also surrendered and the entire tribe given new lands in Okla-homa, where they still live. The land has been allotted to them inseveralty and they are now citizens of the United States.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates 10,000 Pawnee in 1780. In1702 Iberville estimated 2,000 families. In 1838 they numberedabout 10,000 according to an estimate of Dunbar and Allis (1880-82),and one authority places the figure as high as 12,500. In 1849, afterthe cholera epidemic, they were reported at 4,500; in 1856, 4,686were returned, but in 1861, only 3,416. In 1879, after sufferingseverely in consequence of the removal to Indian Territory, they haddropped to 1,440, and by 1906 they had fallen to 649. The censusof 1910 returned 633, but according to the Report of the United StatesIndian Office for 1923, they had then increased to 773. The censusof 1930 gave 730. In 1937, 959 were reported.Connection in vMch they have become noted.?The Pawnee tribe isdistinguished (1) for its peculiar language and culture; (2) because ofits numbers and warfike prowess, its constant hostility to the Dakota,and consistent assistance to the American forces operating upon thePlains; and (3) as having given its name to a city in Oklahoma; tocounties in Oklahoma, Kansas, and Nebraska; to streams in Coloradoand Kansas; and to places in Morgan County, Colo.; SangamonCounty, 111.; Montgomery County, Ind.; Pawnee City in PawneeCounty, Nebr.; Pawnee Rock in Barton County, Kans.; PawneeStation in Bourbon Coimty, Kans.; and a creek and buttes in north-eastern Colorado.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 291Ponca. Own name, meaning unknown. Also called:Dibit, Li-hit' or Rfhit, Pawnee name.Kan'ka?, Winnebago name.Tchidxsokush, Caddo name.Connections.?The Ponca spoke practically the same language asthe Omaha and formed with them, the Osage, Kansa, and Quapaw,the Dhegiha group of the Siouan linguistic family.Location.?On the right bank of the Missouri at the mouth of theNiobrara. (See also Iowa, Minnesota, Oklahoma, and South Dakota.)History.?The early hfe of the Ponca seems to have run parallelwith that of the Omaha (q. v.). They are said to have separated fromthe latter at the mouth of White River, S. Dak., and to have movedwest into the Black Hills but to have rejoined the Omaha a little later.These two tribes and the Iowa then descended the Missouri togetheras far as the mouth of the Niobrara, where the Ponca remained whilethe Omaha estabhshed themselves below on Bow Creek. Theyremained in approximately the same situation until 1877 when thelarger part of them were forcibly removed to Indian Territory. Thisaction was the occasion for a special investigation, as a result of whichabout three-quarters continued in the Territory while the remainderpreferred to remain in their old country. Their lands have now beenallotted to them in severalty.Population.?Mooney (1928) gives 800, as the probable size of thePonca tribe in 1780. In 1804 Lewis and Clark estimate only 200 butthey had been greatly reduced just before by smallpox. In 1829 theyhad increased to 600 and in 1842 to about 800. In 1871 they num-bered 747. In 1906 the Ponca in Oklahoma numbered 570 and thosein Nebraska 263; total, 833. The census of 1910 gave 875 in all,including 619 in Oklahoma and 193 in Kansas. The Report of theUnited States Indian Office for 1923 was 1,381, evidently includingother tribes. The census of 1930 returned 939. In 1937 the UnitedStates Indian Office gave 825 in Oklahoma and 397 in Nebraska.Connection in wkUh they have become noted.?The name Ponca ispreserved by a river in South Dakota, Ponca City in Kay County,Okla., and places in Newton County, Ark., and Dixon County, Nebr.Sauk. Like the Foxes, they were parties to the land cession of 1830involving territories in this State. (See Wisconsin.)Winnebago. Part of the Winnebago settled close to the Omahaafter they had been driven from Minnesota following the Dakotaoutbreak of 1862. A reservation was later assigned them thereand in course of time they were allotted land in severalty upon it.(See Wisconsin.)
292 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145KANSASApache, see Jicarilla.Arapaho. The Arapaho ranged at one time over much of the westernpart of this State. (See Wyoming.)Cherokee. By the terms of the Treaty of New Echota, the Cherokeeobtained title to lands in southeastern Kansas, part in one blockknown as the "Neutral land," and the rest in a strip along thesouthern boundary of the State. These were re-ceded to the UnitedStates Government in 1866. (See Tennessee.)Cheyenne. Like the Arapaho they at one time ranged over thewestern part of the State. (See South Dakota.)Chippewa. In 1836 two bands of Chippewa living in Michigan andknown as the Swan Creek and Black River bands were given a tractof territory on Osage River, Kans. They arrived in 1839. In1866 they agreed to remove to the Cherokee country in what is nowOklahoma and to unite with that tribe. A small number of familiesof Chippewa living west of Lake Michigan accompanied the PrairiePotawatomi to southwestern Iowa, but they were either absorbedby the Potawatomi or subsequently separated from them. (SeeMinnesota.)Comanche. They ranged over the western part of the State. (SeeTexas.)Delaware. A strip of land in northeastern Kansas was granted tothe Delaware in 1829 and was again surrendered by treaties madein 1854, 1860, and 1886. In 1867 they agreed to take up theirresidence with the Cherokee in Oklahoma. Four sections of landwere, however, confirmed to a body of Munsee ("Christian Indians"),who in turn sold it in 1857. This sale was confirmed by the UnitedStates Government in 1858, and a new home was found for theseIndians among the Swan Creek and Black River Chippewa whomthey accompanied to the Cherokee Nation in Oklahoma in 1866.Nevertheless, a few Munsee have remained in the State. (SeeNew Jersey.)Foxes. The Foxes lived for a time on a reservation in eastern Kansasbut about 1859 returned to Iowa. (See Wisconsin.)Illinois. The remnants of these people were assigned a reservationabout the present Paola in 1832. In 1867 they removed to thenortheastern corner of the present Oklahoma, where they receivedlands which had formerly belonged to the Quapaw. (See Illinois.)Iowa. This tribe was placed on a reservation in northeastern Kansasin 1836, and part of them continued in this State and were allotted
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 293land here in severalty, while the rest went to Oklahoma. (SeeIowa.)Iroquois. Lands were set aside in Kansas in 1838 for some Iroquois,part of the Munsee, and remnants of Mahican and southern NewEngland Indians but only a few of the Indians involved moved tothem. They were later declared forfeited, and the rights of 32 bonafide Indian settlers were purchased in 1873. (See Seneca and alsoNew York, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut.)Jicarilla. This was one of the so-called Apache tribes. They livedin Colorado and New Mexico and ranged over parts of Texas,Oklahoma, and Kansas. (See Colorado.)Kansa. Name derived from that of one of the major subdivisions; ashortened form Kaw is abouL equally current. Also called:Alah6, Kiowa name.Guaes, in Coronado narratives, thought to be this tribe.Hdtauga, own name.M6htawas, Comanche name, meaning "without a lock of hair on the fore-head."t5^kase, Fox name.Connections.?The Kansa belonged to the Siouan linguistic stockand constituted, with the Osage, Quapaw, Omaha, and Ponca adistinct subgroup called by Dr. J. O. Dorsey (1897) Dhegiha.Location.?They were usually on some part of the Kansas River,which derives its name from them. (See also Nebraska and Okla-homa.) VillagesBahekhube, near a mountain south of Kansas River, Kans.CheghuUn, 2 villages; (1) on the south side of Kansas River, and (2) on a tributaryof Kansas River, on the north side east of Blue River.Djestyedje, on Kansas River near Lawrence.Gakhulin, location uncertain.Gakhulinulinbe, near the head of a southern tributary of Kansas River.Igamansabe, on Big Blue River.Inchi, on Kansas River.Ishtakhechiduba, on Kansas River.Manhazitanman, on Kansas River near Lawrence.Manhazulin, on Kansas River.Manhazulintanman, on Kansas River.Manyinkatuhuudje, at the mouth of Big Blue River.Neblazhetama, on the west bank of the Mississippi River a few miles above themouth of Missouri River, in the present Missouri.Niudje, on Kansas River, about 4 miles above the site of Kansas City, Mo.Padjegadjin, on Kansas River.Pasulin, on Kansas River.Tanmangile, on Big Blue River.Waheheyingetseyabe, location uncertain.Wazhazhepa, location uncertain.
294 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Yuzhemakancheubukhpaye, location uncertain.Zandjezhinga, location uncertain.Zandzhulin, at Kaw Agency, Indian Territory, in 1882.Zhanichi, on Kansas River.History.?According to tradition, the Kansa and the others of thesame group originated on Ohio River, the Kansa separating from themain body at the mouth of Kansas River. If the Guaes of Coronadowere the Kansa, the tribe was first heard of by white men in 1541.During at least a part of the eighteenth century, they were on Mis-souri River above the mouth of the Kansas, but Lewis and Clarkmet them on the latter stream. They occupied several villages insuccession along Kansas River until they settled at Council Grove,on Neosho River, in the present Morris County, where a reservationwas set aside for them by the United States Government in 1846,when they ceded the rest of their lands. They remained on thisreservation until 1873 when it was sold and another reserve purchasedfor them in Oklahoma next to the Osages. Their lands have nowbeen allotted to them in severalty.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates a Kansa population of 3,000in 1780. In 1702 Iberville estimated 1,500 families. Lewis and Clark(1804) give 300 men. In 1815 there were supposed to be about 1,500in all, and m 1822, 1,850. In 1829 Porter estimated 1,200, but thepopulation as given by the United States Indian Office for 1843 was1,588. After this time, however, the tribe lost heavily throughepidemics and in 1905 was returned at only 209. The census of 1910gave 238, but the United States Indian Office Report of 1923 gave420. The census of 1930 returned 318. In 1937 the number wasgiven as 515.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Kansa will beremembered particularly from the fact that they have given theirname to Kansas River and the State of Kansas, and secondarily toKansas City, Mo., and Kansas City, Kans. It is also appHed toplaces in Walker County, Ala.; Edgar County, lU.; Seneca CountyOhio; Seneca and Delaware Comities, Okla.; and in the form Kaw,to a village in Kay County, Okla., and a station out of the KansasCity, Mo., P. O. Kansasville is in Racine County, Wis.Eickapoo. A reservation was granted this tribe in southeasternKansas in 1832, and though it was progressively reduced in area,part of them have continued to live there down to the present time.(See Wisconsin.)Kiowa. Signifying (in their own language) "principal people." Alsocalled:Be'shfltchS, Kiowa Apache name.Dattimpa'ta, Hidatsa name, perhaps a form of Wi'tapaha'tu below.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 295Gahe'wa, Wichita and Kichai name.Ko'mpabi'anta, Kiowa name, meaning "large tipl flaps."KwQ'da, old name for themselves, meaning "going out."Manrhoat, mentioned by La Salle, perhaps this tribe.Na'la'ni, Navaho name, including southern plains tribes generally, but par-ticularly the Comanche and Kiowa.Nl'chihing'na, Arapaho name, meaning "river man."Quichuan, given by La Harpe (1831) and probably this tribe.Te'pda', ancient name for themselves, meaning "coming out."Tepki'nago, own name, meaning "people coming out."Tideing Indians, Lewis and Clark (1904-5).Vi'tapatdi, name used by the Sutaio.Wi'tapahatu, Dakota name, meaning "island butte people." (The Chey-enne name was similar.)Connections.?Though long considered a separate linguistic stock,the researches of J. P. Harrington make it evident that the Kiowawere connected with the Tanoan stock as the Kiowa-Tanoan stockand probably with the Shoshonean stock also.Location.?The best-known historic location of these people was aplot of territory including contiguous parts of Oklahoma, Kansas,Colorado, New Mexico, and Texas. (See also Montana, Nebraska,South Dakota, and Wyoming.)SubdivisionsThe bands constituting their camp circle, beginning on the east and passinground by the south were: Kata, Kogui, Kaigwu, Kingep, Semat (i. e., Apache),and Kongtalyui.History.?According to tradition, the Kiowa at one time lived at thehead of Missouri River near the present Virginia City. Later theymoved down from the mountains and formed an aUiance with theCrows but were gradualy forced south by the Arapaho and Cheyenne,while the Dakota claim to have driven them from the Black Hills.They made peace with the Arapaho and Cheyenne in 1840 and after-ward acted with them. When they reached the Arkansas, they foundthe land south of it claimed by the Comanche. These people were atfirst hostile, but after a time peace was made between the two tribes,the Kiowa passed on toward the south, and the two ever after acted asallies. Together they constantly raided Mexican territory, advancingas far south as Durango. The Kiowa were among the most bitterenemies of the Americans. They were placed on a reservation insouthwestern Oklahoma in 1868 along with the Commanche andKjowa Apache and have now been allotted lands in severalty.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates that there were 2,000 in1780. In 1905 their population was 1,165; the census of 1910 gave itas 1,126, and the United States Indian Office Report for 1923, 1,679,including the Kiowa Apache. The census of 1930 returned 1,050, butin 1937 the United States Office of Indian Affairs reported 2,263.
296 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY IBcll. 145Connection in which they have become noted.?The Kiowa were oneof the leading tribes on the southern Plains and were surpassed onlyby the Comanche and Apache in the raids which they undertook intoMexico. The name has become affixed to counties in Colorado andKansas, a creek in Colorado; and small places in Barber County,Kans.; Pittsburg County, Okla.; and Elbert County, Colo.Kiowa Apache. The name is derived from that of the Kiowa and fromthe circumstance that they spoke a dialect related to those of thebetter-known Apache tribes, though they had no other connectionwith them. Also called:Bad-hearts, by Long (1823). (See Kaskaias.)Cancey or Kantsi, meaning "liars," applied by the Caddo to all Apache ofthe Plains, but oftenest to the Lipan.Essequeta, a name given by the Kiowa and Comanche to the MescaleroApache, sometimes, but improperly, applied to this tribe.Gd.ta'ka, Pawnee name.Gina's, Wichita name.Gli'ta'k, Omaha and Ponca name.K'd-patop, Kiowa name, meaning "knife whetters."Kaskaias, possibly intended for this tribe, translated "bad hearts."Kislnahls, Kichai name.MfitsfanS-taniu, Cheyenne name, meaning "whetstone people."Nadfisha-d6na, own name, meaning "our people."Pacer band of Apache, H. R. Doc.Prairie Apaches, common name.S!idals6mte-k'fago, Kiowa name, meaning "weasel people."Tfi'gugdla, Jemez name for Apache tribes including Kiowa Apache.Tagdi, an old Kiowa name.Tdgukerish, Pecos name for all Apache.Tashin, Comanche name for all Apache.Tha'kd-hinS'na, Arapaho name, meaning "saw-fiddle man."Yabipais Natag^, Garc^s Diary (1776).Connections.?The Kiowa Apache belonged to the Athapascanlinguistic family, their nearest relatives being the Jicarilla and Lipan(Hoijer).Location.?'They have been associated with the Kiowa from theearliest traditional period. (See also Colorado, New Mexico, Okla-homa, and Wyoming.)History.?The first historical mention of the Kiowa Apache is byLa Salle in 1681 or 1682, who calls them Gattacka, the term by whichthey are known 1o the Pawnee. As intimated above, their historywas in later times the same as that of the Kiowa, and they occupieda definite place in the Kiowa camp circle. For 2 years only, 1865-67,they were at their own request detached from the Kiowa and adjoinedto the Cheyenne and Arapaho, on account of the unfriendly attitudeof the Kiowa toward the Whites.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 297Population.?Mooney (1928) gives an estimate of 300 KiowaApache as of 1780, adopting the estimate made by Lewis and Clark in1805. In 1891 their population was 325, but like the associatedtribes they suffered heavily from measles in 1892 and in 1905 therewere only 155 left. The census of 1910 returned 139, that of 1930,184, and in 1937 they appear to have increased to 340 but otherApache may be included.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Kiowa Apacheare remarkable merely as an example of a tribe incorporated into thesocial organism of another tribe of entirely alien speech and origin.Miami. In 1832 the Miami subdivisions known as Piankashaw andWea were assigned lands along with the Illinois in Eastern Kansas.In 1840 the rest of the Miami were granted lands in the immediateneighborhood but just south, and all but one band removed therefrom Indiana. In 1854 they ceded part of this territory and in1867 accompanied the Illinois to the present Oklahoma. (SeeIndiana.)Missouri. The remnant of this tribe accompanied the Oto whenthey lived in this State. (See Missouri.)Munsee. A band of Munsee or "Christian Indians" owned land inKansas between 1854 and 1859. (See Delaware in New Jersey,etc.)Osage. The southeastern part of Kansas was claimed by the Osageand was ceded by them to the United States Government intreaties made in 1825, 1865, and 1870. (See Missouri.)Oto. The Oto were on the eastern border of Kansas several times dur-ing their later history. (See Nebraska.)Ottawa. In 1831 two bands of Ottawa were granted lands on Maraisdes Cygnes or Osage River. They relinquished these in 1846 andin 1862 agreed to allotment of land in severalty, giving up theirremaining lands. Further treaties regarding these were made in1867 and 1872. A few families of Ottawa accompanied the PrairiePotawatomi when they removed from Wisconsin to Iowa, but theywere soon absorbed or else scattered. Ottawa bands called Ottawaof Blanchard's Fork and Ottawa of Roche de Boeuf occupied landsin Kansas between 1832 and 1865 when they moved to Oklahoma.(See Michigan.)Pawnee. A part of the Paw^nee occupied the valley of the RepublicanFork of Kansas River. (See Nebraska.)Potawatomi. In 1837 the United States Government entered into atreaty with five bands of Potawatomi living in the State of Indiana
298 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bm-u 145by which it was agreed to convey to them by patent a tract of coun-try on Osage River, southwest of the Missouri, in the present Stateof Kansas. This was set apart the same year and the Indians, thePotawatomi of the Woods, moved into it in 1840, but they cededit back in 1846 and were given a reserve between the Shawnee andthe Delaware, in the present Shawnee County, which they occupiedin 1847. By a series of treaties, culminating in the Treaty ofChicago, 1833, the Potawatomi west of Lake Michigan surrenderedtheir lands and received a large tract in southwestern Iowa. Theywere accompanied by a few Chippewa and Ottawa. In 1846 thisreserve was re-ceded to the United States Government and in1847-48 the Indians, now known as the Prairie Potawatomi,moved to lands in Kansas just east of the lands of the Potawatomiof the Woods. Michigan Potawatomi did not come to this placeuntil 1850. About the end of the Civil War some of the Prairieband moved back to Wisconsin but the greater part of them re-mained and accepted lands in severalty. In 1869 the Potawatomiof the Woods began a movement to secure lands in Oklahoma, andby 1871 most of them had gone thither. (See Michigan.)Quapaw. Between 1833 and 1867 lands in the southeastern tip ofKansas belonged to their reserve in Indian Territory (Oklahoma),but in the latter year they ceded this back to the Government.(See Arkansas.)Sauk. After leaving Iowa, the Sauk and Fox Indians occupied areserve in the eastern part of Kansas, but about 1859 the Foxesreturned to Iowa, and in 1867 the Sauk ceded their Kansas terri-tories and moved to Oklahoma. (See Wisconsin.)Seneca. Seneca Indians were joint owners with other tribes of landin the extreme southwestern part of Kansas. They ceded this tothe United States Government in 1867. (See New York.)Shawnee. In 1825 the Shawnee residing in Missouri received a grantof land along the south side of Kansas River, west of the boimdaryof Missouri. In 1831 they were joined by another body of Shawneewho had formerly lived at Wapaghkonnetta and on Hog Creek,Ohio, In 1854 nearly all of this land was re-ceded to the UnitedStates Government and the tribe moved to Indian Territory, thepresent Oklahoma. (See Tennessee.)Wyandot. The Wyandot purchased land in eastern Kansas on Mis-souri River from the Delaware in 1843 and parted with it again in1850. A few Wyandot also held title to land along with othertribes on the border of Oklahoma and re-ceded it along with themin 1867. (See Ohio.)




SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 299OKLAHOMAAlabama. This was one of the tribes of the Creek Confederacy, partof which accompanied the Creeks to Oklahoma early in the nine-teenth century and settled near Weleetka, where a small stationon the Frisco Railway bears their name. (See Alabama.)Apache. The name was given to a tribe or rather a group of tribes.(See Jicarilla under Colorado; Kiowa Apache, under Kansas;Lipan under Texas; also Apache under New Mexico.)Apalachee. A few individuals of this tribe removed to Oklahomafrom Alabama or Louisiana. Dr. Gatschet learned the names oftwo or three individuals about 1884. (See Florida.)Arapaho. In early times the Arapaho ranged to some extent over thewestern sections of Oklahoma, and part of them (the SouthernArapaho) were finaUy given a reservation and later allotted landin severalty in the west central part along with the SouthernCheyenne. (See Wyoming.)Biloxi. A few Biloxi reached Oklahoma and settled with the Choctawand Creeks. (See Mississippi.)Caddo. The Caddo moved to Oklahoma in 1859 and were given areservation in the southwestern part about Anadarko, where theywere allotted land in severalty. (See Texas.)Cherokee. The Cherokee were moved to a large reservation in thenortheastern part of Oklahoma in the winter of 1838-39. Afternearly 70 years of existence under their own tribal government theywere allotted land in severalty and became citizens of the UnitedStates. (See Tennessee.)Cheyenne. The history of the Southern Cheyenne parallels that ofthe Southern Arapaho as given above. (See South Dakota.)Chickasaw. The Chickasaw moved to the present Oklahoma between1822 and 1840. They had their own government for many yearsbut are now citizens. (See Mississippi.)Choctaw. This tribe moved to Oklahoma about the same time as theChickasaw though several thousand remained in their old country.Like the Chickasaw they had their own national government for along time but are now citizens at large of Oklahoma. (SeeMississippi.)Comanche. The western part of Oklahoma was occupied by theComanche during their later history, and they were finally givena reservation in the southwestern part of it, where they were al-
300 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145lotted land in severalty and given the privileges of citizenship.(See Texas.)Creeks. The tribes constituting the Creek Confederacy came toOklahoma between 1836 and 1841 and were given a reservation inthe northeastern part, where they maintained a national govern-ment until early in the present century when their lands wereallotted in severalty, and they became citizens. (See Alabama,Florida, and Georgia.)Delaware. In 1867 a part of the Delaware were removed fromKansas to the northeastern part of what is now Oklahoma andincorporated with the Cherokee Nation, Another band of Dela-ware is with the Caddo and Wichita in southwestern Oklahoma.(See New Jersey.)Foxes. A few Fox Indians accompanied the Sauk (q. v.) to Oklahomain 1867. (See Wisconsin.)Hitchiti. This is a subtribe of the Creek Confederacy. (See Georgia;also Creeks and Creek Confederacy above and under Alabama,Florida, and Georgia.)Illinois. In 1868 the surviving Illinois Indians, principally Peoriaand Kaskaskia, previously united with the Miami bands, Wea andPiankashaw, moved to Oklahoma and occupied a reserve in thenortheastern part of the State under the name Peoria. (SeeIllinois.)Iowa. Part of the Iowa were moved from Kansas to a reserve incentral Oklahoma set apart in 1883; they were allotted land inseveralty in 1890. (See Iowa.)Iroquois. Some Iroquois Indians, together with the Tuscarora, someWyandot, and probably Indians of the former Erie Nation, all underthe name of Seneca Indians, were given a reservation in northeasternOklahoma, where their descendants still hve, now as citizens of theUnited States. (See New York and Ohio.)Jicarilla. This was one of those Athapascan tribes known as Apache.In early times they ranged over parts of western Oklahoma. (SeeColorado.)Kansa. In 1873 the Kansa were moved to Oklahoma and given areservation in the northeastern part of the State. (See Kansas.)Eichai. In very early times this tribe lived on, or perhaps north of.Red River, but later they worked their way south to the head-waters of the Trinity. In 1859 they returned to the north side ofthe river in haste in fear of attack by the Texans and have sincelived with the Wichita in the neighborhood of Anadarko. (SeeTexas.)
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 301Kickapoo. In 1873 some Kickapoo were brought back from Mexicoand settled in the central part of Oklahoma, where all but a certainportion of the Mexican band were afterward gathered. (SeeWisconsin.)Kiowa and Kiowa Apache. These tribes formerly ranged over muchof the western part of this State. (See Kansas.)Koasati. The Koasati were one of the tribes of the Creek Confederacy.They removed to northeastern Oklahoma with the rest of theCreeks and settled in the western part of the Creek territory. (SeeAlabama and Louisiana.)Lipan. The Lipan were the easternmost band of Apache; some ofthem are with the Tonkawa. (See Texas.)Miami. Part of the Miami were brought from Indiana and given areservation in the extreme northeastern part of Oklahoma alongwith the Illinois (q. v.). (See Indiana.)Mikasuki. Some of these Indians accompanied the Seminole toOldahoma and as late as 1914 had a Square Ground of their own.(See Florida.)Missouri. The remnant of the Missouri came to Oklahoma with theOto in 1882 and shared their reservation. (See Missouri.)Modoc. In 1873, at the end of the Modoc War, a part of the defeatedtribe was sent to Oklahoma and placed on the Quapaw Reservationwhere a few yet remain. (See Oregon.)Muklasa. A small Creek division said to have kept its identity inOklahoma. (See Alabama.)Munsee. A few Munsee accompanied the Delaware proper toOklahoma and 21 were reported there in 1910. (See New Jersey.)Muskogee. This was the name of the principal tribe or group oftribes of the Creeks (q. v.).Natchez. A small band of Natchez accompanied the Creeks to Okla-homa and settled near Eufaula, where they later became merged inthe rest of the Creek population. Another band of Natchez settledin the Cherokee Nation, near Illinois River, and a very few stillpreserve something of their identity. (See Mississippi.)Nez Perce. Chief Joseph's band of Nez Perc6 were sent to Oklahomain 1878, but they suffered so much from the change of climate thatthey were transferred to Colville Reservation in 1885. (See Idaho.)Okmulgee. A Creek tribe and town belonging to the Hitchiti divisionof the Nation. Its name is perpetuated in the city of Okmulgee,former capital of the Creek Nation in Oklahoma. (See Georgia.)
302 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Boll. 145Osage. The Osage formerly owned most of northern Oklahoma andafter they had sold the greater part of it still retained a large reser-vation in the northeast, which they continue to occupy, though theyhave now been allotted land in severalty. (See Missouri.)Oto. In 1880 a part of the Oto moved to the lands of the Sauk andFox Indians in Oklahoma and in 1882 the rest followed. (SeeNebraska.)Ottawa. When they surrendered their lands in Michigan and Ohio,some Ottawa bands including those of Blanchard's Fork and Kochede Boeuf migrated to Kansas, and about 1868, to Oklahoma, settlingin the northeastern part of the State. (See Michigan.)Pawnee. The Pawnee moved to Oklahoma in 1876 and were givena reservation in the north central part of the State, where they havenow been allotted land in severalty. (See Nebraska.)Peoria. (See Illinois.)Piankashaw, see Miami.Ponca. In 1877 the Ponca were moved by force to Oklahoma and,though some individuals were finally allotted land in severalty intheir old country, the greater part settled permanently near theOsage in northeastern Oklahoma.Potawatomi. The Potawatomi of the Woods were moved from Kansasto Oklahoma in 1867-81 and given a reservation in the central partof the State. (See Michigan.)Quapaw. Lands were granted to the Quapaw in the extreme south-eastern part of Kansas and the extreme northeastern part of Okla-homa in 1833. In 1867, they ceded all their lands in Kansas andhave since confined themselves within the limits of Oklahoma, thougha large part have removed to the reservation of the Osage. (SeeArkansas.)Sauk. In 1867 the Sauk ceded their lands in Kansas in exchange fora tract in the central part of Oklahoma, where they have continuedto live down to the present time. (See Wisconsin.)Seminole. The greater part of the Seminole were removed to Okla-homa after the Seminole War in Florida. (See Florida.)Seneca, see Iroquois.Shawnee. The Absentee Shawnee moved from Kansas to what isnow central Oklahoma about 1845; in 1867 a second band, which hadbeen living with the Seneca in Kansas, also moved to Oklahoma butsettled in the extreme northeastern part of the State; and in 1869
SWAifTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 303the third and largest section removed to the lands of the Cherokeeby agreement with that tribe. (See Tennessee.)Tawakoni. Said to refer to "a river bend among red hills," or "neckof land in the water." The synonyms should not be confoundedwith those of the Tonkawa. Also called:Three Canes, an English form resulting from a mistaken attempt to trans-late the French spelling of their name, Troiscannes.Connections.?The Tawakoni belonged to the Caddoan linguisticstock and were most closely connected with the Wichita, the twolanguages differing but slightly.Location.?They were on the Canadian River about north of theupper Washita. (See also Texas.)
VillagesFlechazos, on the west side of Brazos River near the present Waco.History.?The Tawakoni were first met in the above location incompany with the Wichita and other related tribes. Within the next50 years, probably as a result of pressure on the part of more northerlypeoples, they moved south and in 1772 they were settled in two groupson Brazos and Trinity Rivers, about Waco and above Palestine. By1779 the group on the Trinity had rejoined those on the Brazos. In1824 part of the Tawakoni were again back on Trinity River. In1855 they were established on a reservation near Fort Belknap on theBrazos, but in 1859 were forced, by the hostility of the Texans, to movenorth into southwestern Oklahoma, where they were officially incor-porated with the Wichita.Population.?Mooney (1928) includes the Tawakoni among theWichita (q. v.). In 1772 M^zieres reported 36 houses and 120warriors in the Trinity village and 30 families in the Brazos village,perhaps 220 warriors in all. In 1778-79 he reported that these twotowns, then on the Brazos, contained more than 300 warriors. Sibley(1832) reported that in 1805 the Tawakoni, probably including theWaco, numbered 200 men. In 1859 they were said to number 204exclusive of the Waco. The census of 1910 records only a singlesurvivor of this tribe.Tawehash. Meaning unknown. Lesser and Weltfish (1932) suggestthat this group was identical with a Wichita band reported to themas Tiwa. They have been given some of the same synonyms asthe Wichita (q. v.).Connections.?The Tawehash belonged to the Caddoan linguisticstock and were related closely to the Wichita, Tawakoni, Waco, andYscani.
304 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Location.?Their earliest knovm home was on Canadian Rivernorth of the headwaters of the Washita.
VillagerIn 1778 Mdziferes found two native villages to which he gave the names SanTeodoro and San Bernardo.History.?The Tawehash were encountered in the above situationby La Harpe in 1719. They moved south about the same time as theTawakoni and other tribes of the group and were found on Red Riverin 1759, when they defeated a strong Spanish force sent against them.They remained in this same region until in course of time they unitedwith the Wichita and disappeared from history. Their descendantsare among the Wichita in Oklahoma.Population.?Most writers give estimates of the Tawehash alongwith the Wichita and other related tribes. In 1778 they occupiedtwo villages aggregating 160 lodges and numbered 800 fighting menand youths.Tonkawa. In 1884 the remnant of the Tonkawa were removed toOklahoma and the next year settled on a reservation near Ponca,where they were finally allotted land in severalty. (See Texas.)Tuskegee. A Creek division believed to be connected linguisticallywith the Alabama Indians. It removed to Oklahoma with the otherCreeks and established itself in the northwest^n part of the allottedterritory. (See Alabama.)Waco. According to Lesser and Weltfish (1932), from Wehiko, acorruption of Mexico, and given the name because they were alwaysfighting with the Mexicans. The same authorities report that theWaco are thought to have been a part of the Tawakoni without anindependent village but separated later. Also called:Gentlemen Indians, by Bollaert (1850).Houechas, Huanchan6, by French writers, possibly intended for this tribe.Connections.?The Waco were most closely related to the Tawakoniof the Wichita group of tribes belongiiig to the Caddoan Stock.Location.?They appear first in connection with their village on thesite of the present Waco, Tex., though their original home was inOklahoma with the Wichita. VillagesQuiscat, named from its chief, on the west side of the Brazos on a blufiF orplateau above some springs and not far from the present Waco.History.?According to native informants as reported by Lesserand Weltfish (1932), the Waco are formerly supposed to have con-
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 305
stituted a part of the Tawakoni without an independent village. Ithas also been suggested that they may have been identical with theYscani, but Lesser and Weltfish identify the Yscani with anotherband. Another possibility is that the Waco are descendants of theShuman tribe. (See Texas.) In later times the Waco merged withthe Tawakoni and Wichita.Population.?In 1824 the Waco had a village of 33 grass houses andabout 100 men, and a second village of 15 houses and an unnamednumber of men. In 1859, just before their removal from Texas, theynumbered 171, They are usually enumerated with the Wichita (q. v.),but the census of 1910 returned 5 survivors.Connection in which they have become noted.?Almost the sole claimto special remembrance enjoyed by the Waco is the fact that its namewas adopted by the important city of Waco, Tex. It also appears asthe name of places in Sedgwick County, Kans.; Madison County,Ky.; Jasper County, Mo.; Smith County, Miss.; Haralson County,Ga.; York County, Nebr.; Cleveland County, N. C; Stark County,Ohio; and in Tennessee; but it is uncertain whether the designationsof all these came originally from the Waco tribe.Wea, see Miami.Wichita. From wits, "man." Ms,o known as:Black Pawnee, common early name.Do'gu'at, Kiowa name, meaning "tattooed people."Do'kan&, Comanche name, meaning "tattooed people."Freckled Panis, from above.Guichita, Spanish form of the name.Hindsso, Arapaho name.Hoxsiiwitan, Cheyenne name.Ki'-^i-ku'-jfuc, Omaha name.Kirikiris, Kirikurus, or Kitikitish, reported as own name but properly thename of one of their bands.Mftsitd, Kansa name.Pd^i? wasdbe, Ponca and Omaha name, meaning "Black bear Pawnee."Paneassa, various early writers.Panis noirs, early French name.Panis piqu6s, early French name.Pdnyi Wac4we, Iowa, Oto, and Missouri name.Picks, from Panis piquds.Pitchindvo, Comanche name, meaning "paint-ed breasts."Prickled Panis, referring to their tattooing.Quirasquiris, French form of native name.Quivira, from chronicles of Coronado expedition.S6nik'ni, Comanche name, meaning "grass lodges."Speckled Pawnee, referring to their tattooing.TtixquSt, see Do'gu'at.Connections.?The Wichita were one of the principal tribes of theCaddoan linguistic family.
306 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Boll. 145Location.?Their earliest certain location was on Canadian Rivernorth of the headwaters of the Washita. (See also Texas.)SubdivisionsMost of the so-called subdivisions of the Wichita were independent tribes,some of which, including the Tawakoni, Waco, Tawehash, and Yscani, have beentreated separately. The others?Akwits or Akwesh, Kirikiris, Isis (see Yscani),Tokane (see Yscani), and Itaz?were probably only temporary bands. Mooney(1928) also mentions the Kirishkitsu (perhaps a Wichita name for the Kichai)and the Asidahetsh and Kishkat, which cannot be identified.History.?The Wichita rose to fame at an early period owing to thefact that they were visited by Coronado in 1541, the Spaniards callingthe Wichita country the province of Quivira. They were then farthernorth than the location given above, probably near the great bendof the Arkansas and in the center of Kansas. A Franciscan missionary,Juan de Padilla, remained 3 years among them in the endeavor toconvert them to Christianity, but he was finally killed by them throughjealousy on account of his work for another tribe. In 1719 La Harpefound the Wichita and several allied tribes on the south CanadianRiver in the territory later embraced in the Chickasaw Nation.Within the next 50 years they were forced south by hostile northernand eastern tribes and by 1772 were on the upper courses of the Redand Brazos Rivers. In 1835 they made their first treaty with theUnited States Government. They continued to live in southwesternOklahoma until the Civil War, when they fled to Kansas until it wasover. In 1867 they returned and were placed on a reservation inCaddo County, Okla., where they have since remained.Population.?In 1772 the Wichita and the Tawehash seem to havehad about 600 warriors. Mooney (1928) estimates that in 1780 theconfederated Wichita tribes had a population of about 3,200. Bolton(1914), on information derived from M^zi^res, estimated about 3,200for the Wichita proper in 1778. In 1805 Sibley estimated the Wichitaat 400 men. In 1868, 572 were reported in the confederated tribes.The census of 1910 gives 318, including the remnant of the Kichai.In 1937 there were 385.Connection in which they have become noted.?Although a tribe ofconsiderable power in early days, the Wichita will be remembered infuture principally from the prominence of the city of Wichita, Kans.,which bears their name. It is also the name of counties in Kansas andTexas, a ridge of hills in southwestern Oklahoma called the WichitaMountains, a river in Texas, and places in Oklahoma, besides WichitaFalls in Wichita County, Tex. The identification of this tribe withthe Province of Quivira gives it additional interest.
8WANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 307Wyandot. In 1867 a part of the Wyandot who had been Uving inKansas was removed to the northeastern comer of Oklahoma wherethey have since remained. It is probable that this body includesmore of the old Tionontati than of the true Wyandot. (See Ohio.)Yscani. Meaning unknown. Also spelled Ascani, Hyscani, Ixcani.Connections.?This was one of the confederated Wichita tribes andtherefore without doubt related to them in speech, and thus of theCaddoan linguistic family.Location.?The Yscani are first mentioned in connection with theWichita and allied tribes on the South Canadian in the territory laterassigned to the Chickasaw Nation. Part, however, were reported tobe Hving 60 leagues farther toward the northwest.History.?The Yscani evidently moved south from the above-mentioned location at the same time as the other tribes. They keptparticularly close to the Tawakoni, with whose history their own isalmost identical. As the name Yscani disappears from the earlyannals shortly before the name Waco appears in them, it has beenthought that the Waco were the Yscani under a new name, but Lesserand Weltfish (1932) identify the Waco with the Isis or Tokane,perhaps both. (See Waco above.)Population.?In 1772 their village was reported to contain 60warriors, and about 1782 the entire tribe was said to have about90 families.Yuchi. Although originally an independent tribe, the Yuchi unitedwith the Creeks before coming west, and they settled in the CreekNation, in the northwestern part of that territory, where theirdescendants still live. (See Georgia.)TEXASAkokisa. The name Akokisa, spelled in various ways, was givenby the Spaniards to those Atakapa hving in southeastern Texas,between Trinity Bay and Trinity River and Sabine River. (SeeAtakapa under Louisiana.)Alabama. Alabama Indians came to Texas early in the nineteenthcentury, and the largest single body of Alabama still lives there ona State reservation in Polk County. (See Alabama.)Anadarko. The name of a tribe or band belonging to the HasinaiConfederacy (q. v.).Apache. The Jicarilla and other Apache tribes raided across theboundaries of this State on the northwest and west in early times,but the only one of them which may be said to have had its head-quarters inside for any considerable period was the Lipan (q. v.).
308 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Aranama. The Aranama were associated sometimes with the Karan-kawa in the Franciscan missions but were said to be distinct fromthem. Although a small tribe during all of their kno\vn history,they held together until comparatively recent times, and Morse(1822) gives them a population of 125. They were remembered bythe Tonkawa, when Dr. A. S. Gatschet visited the latter, and heobtained two words of their language, but they are said to havebeen extinct as a tribe by 1843. While their affiUations are notcertainly known, they were undoubtedly with one of the threestocks, Karankawan, Tonkawan, or Coahuiltecan, probably thelast mentioned, and will be enumerated provisionally with them.(See Coahuiltecan Tribes.)Atakapa, see Akokisa above and under Louisiana.Bidai. Perhaps from a Caddo word signifying "brushwood," andhaving reference to the Big Thicket near the lower Trinity Riverabout which they lived. Also called:Quasmigdo, given as their own name bj^ Ker (1816).Spring Creeks, the name given by Foote (1841).Connections.?From the mission records it appears that the Bidaiwere of the Atakapan linguistic stock.Location.?On the middle course of Trinity River about BidaiCreek and to the westward and southwestward.History.?The Bidai were hving in the region above given when firstknown to the Europeans and claimed to be aborigines of that territory.The Franciscan mission of San Ildefonso was founded for them and theAkokisa, Deadose, and Patiri. In the latter part of the eighteenthcentury they are said to have been chief intermediaries between theSpaniards and Apache in the sale of firearms. The attempt to mis-sionize them was soon abandoned. In 1776-77 an epidemic carriedaway nearly half their number, but they maintained separate existencedown to the middle of the nineteenth century, when they were in avillage 12 miles from Montgomery. They have now entirelydisappeared.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates for them a population of500 in 1690. In 1805 there were reported to be about 100.Connection in which they have become noted.?The name is perpetuatedin that of a small creek flowing into Trinity River from the west andin a village known as Bedias or Bedais in Grimes County, Tex.Biloxi. Some Biloxi entered Texas before 1828. In 1846 a band wascamped on Little River, a tributary of the Brazos. Afterwardthey occupied a village on Biloxi Bayou in the present AngelinaCounty, but later either returned to Louisiana or passed north tothe present Oklahoma. (See Mississippi.)
SWANTONJ INDIAN TRIBES OP NORTH AMERICA 309Caddo Tribes. Under this head are included the Adai and the Natchi-toches Confederacy (see Louisiana) ; and the Eyeish, the HasinaiConfederacy, and the Kadohadacho Confederacy in Texas.Cherokee. A band of Cherokee under a chief named Bowl settled inTexas early in the nineteenth century, but they were driven out bythe Texans in 1839 and their chief killed. (See Tennessee.)Choctaw. Morse (1822) reported 1,200 Choctaw on the Sabine andNeches Rivers, and some bands continued to live for a while ineastern Texas. One band in particular, the Yowani Choctaw, wasadmitted among the Caddo there. All the Choctaw finally re-moved to Oklahoma. (See Mississippi.)Coahuiltecan Tribes. The name was derived from that of the MexicanState of Coahuila, the tribes of this group having extended overthe eastern part of that province as well as a portion of Texas.Also called:Tejano, an alternative name for the group.Connections.?As Coahuiltecan are included all of the tribes knownto have belonged to the Coahuiltecan linguistic family and somesupposed on circumstantial evidence to be a part of it. It is probablethat most of the so-called Tamaulipecan family of Mexico were reallyrelated to this, and that the Karankawan and Tonkawan groups wereconnected as well, though more remotely.Location.?The Coahuiltecan tribes were spread over the easternpart of Coahuila, Mexico, and almost all of Texas west of San AntonioRiver and Cibolo Creek. The tribes of the lower Rio Grande mayhave belonged to a distinct family, that called by Orozco y Berra(1864) Tamaulipecan, but the Coahuiltecans reached the Gulf coastat the mouth of the Nueces. Northeast of that point they weresucceeded by Karankawan tribes. Toward the north it is probablethat the Coahuiltecans originally extended for a long distance beforethey were displaced by the Apache and Comanche. (See also Mexico.)SubdivisionsIn considering the Coahuiltecan stock it has been found necessary to changethe original plan of giving separate consideration to each tribe because we arehere confronted bj' an enormous number of small tribal or band names, of manyof which we do not know even the location. In lieu of subdivisions, therefore,we shall give as complete a list as possible of these small tribes or bands, as far asthey are known. They are as follows:Aguastayas. Asan.Alasapas. Atajal.Andacaminos. Atastagonies.Anns'". Borrados.Apayxam. Cabia.Aranama (see above). Cacafes.
310 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Cachopostales.Camai.Cantunas.Casas Chiquitas.Casastles.Chaguantapam,Chagustapa.Chapamaco.Ghemoco.Choyapin (perhaps Tonkawan).Chuapas.Cimataguo.Cluetau.Cocomeioje.Comecrudo.Cotonam.Cupdan.Escaba.Espopolames.Gabilan.Geies.Guanipaa.Gueiquesales.Guerjuatida.Guisoles.Haeser.Hapes.Harames.Heniocane.Hiabu.Hihames.Huacacasa.Huanes.Hume.Juamaca.Jueinzum.Juncatas.Junced.Macapao.Macocoma.Mallopeme.Mamuqui.Manam.Manico.Manos Colorados.Manos de Perro.Manos Prietaa.Maquems.Maraquites.Matucar.Matuime.Maubedan.Mauyga.
Mazapes.Menenquen.Mescales.Mesquites.Miiijaes.Morbanas.Mulatoa.Muruam (perhaps Tonkawan).Narices.Natao.Nazas.Necpacha.Nigco (probably meant for Sinicu).Nonapho (perhaps Tonkawan).Obozi (?).Ocana.Odoesmades.Ohaguames.Orejones.Oydican.Paac.Paachiqui.Pabor.Paearuja (given by Uhde, 1861).Pachal.Pachalaque.Pachaloco.Pachaquen.Pachaug.Pacpul.Pacuaches.Pacuachiam.Paguan.Paguanan.Pajalat.Pajarito.Pakawa.Pamaque.Pamaya.Pamoranos.Pampopas.Papanao,Paquache.Parantones.Parchaque.Parchinas.Pasalves.Pasnacanes.Pasqual.Pastaloca.Pastancoyas.Pasteal.Patague.
SWAKTOW] INDIAN TRIBES OP NORTH AMERICA 311Patan.Patanium.Pataquilla (perhaps Karankawan).Patou.Patzau.Pausanes.Pausaqui.Pausay.Payaya.PayuguarLPeana.Pelones.Pescado (?).Piedraa Blancas.Piquique.Pinanaca.Piniquu.Pintos.Pita.Pitahay.Pomuluma.Prietos.Psaupsau.Pulacuam (perhaps Tonkawan).Putaay.Quanataguo.Querns.Quepanos.Quesal.Quide (?).Quioborique (?).Quisabas (?).Quitacas.Quivi (?).Salapaque (?).Salinas (?).Samampac.Sampanal.Sanipao.Saracuam (?).Secmoco.Semonan (?).Senisos.Siaguan.Siansi.Sijame (perhaps Tonkawan).Sillanguayas.Simaomo (perhaps Tonkawan).Sinicu.Siupam.Sonaque.Sonayan.Suahuaohes (?).
Suanaa.Sulujame.Tacame.Taimamares.Tamcan (7).Tamique (?).Tanpacuazes.Tarequano.Teana.Tecahuistes.Tejones.Teneinamar.Tenicapeme.Tepachuaches.Tepemaca.Terocodame.Tet.Tetaaauoica.Tetecores.Tetzino (perhaps Tonkawan).Tilijaes.Tinapihuayas.Tiopane (perhaps Karankawan).Tiopines.Tishim. (perhaps Tonkawan).Tocas.Tonzaumacagua.Tripaa Blancas.Tuancas.Tumamar.Tumpzi.Tusanes.Tusonid.Tuteneiboica.Unojita (?).Uraoha.Utaca (?).Venados.Vende Flechas.Viayam.Viddaquimamar.Xarame.Xiabu.Yacdossa.Ybdacax.Yem6.Yman.Ymic.Yoricas.Ysbupue.Yni.Yurguimes.Zorquan.
312 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bttll. 145As indicated, some of these were perhaps Tonkawan, Karankawan, or of otheraffiliations. Some were represented by single individuals and no doubt many ofthe names are synonyms or have become distorted in the process of recording.The exact nature of these groups can now never be known. The above list doesnot include a great many names given only by Cabeza de Vaca or La Salle andhis companions in the same region. The multiplicity of tribes and confusion innames is not so serious in any other region north of Mexico.History.?The Coahuiltecan tribes were first encountered by Cabezade Vaca and his companions who passed through the heart of theircountry, and by the Spaniards when they invaded Coahuila andfounded Parral. From the early part of the seventeenth centuryonward, their country was traversed repeatedly. In 1675 the Coa-huiltecan country on both sides of the Rio Grande was invaded byFernando del Bosque, and in 1689 and 1690 the Texas portion wasagain traversed by De Leon and Manzanet. In 1677 a Franciscan mis-sion for Coahuiltecan tribes was established at Nadadores and beforethe end of the century others were started ?vlong the Rio Grande andnear San Antonio. Great numbers of Indians were gathered intothese missions during the first part of the eighteenth century but thechange of life entailed upon roving people, disease, and the attacks ofhostile tribes from the north reduced their numbers rapidly. Todaynone of these Indians are known to survive in Texas. In 1886 Dr.A. S. Gatschet found remnants of two or three tribes on the southside of the Rio Grande and some of their descendants, survive, butthey are no longer able to speak their ancient language.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated that in 1690 the Coahuiltec-an peoples totaled 15,000; no figures embracing all of them occur inthe various narratives.Comanche. Significance unknown. Also called:AUebome, given by Lewis and Clark as the French- name.Bald Heads, so called by Long (1823).Bo'daik' ifiago, Kiowa name, meaning "reptile people," "snake men."Ca'-tha, Arapaho name, meaning "having many horses."Cintu-aluka, Teton Dakota name.Dats6-a?, Kiowa Apache name (Gatschet, MS, BAE).Gyai'-ko, Kiowa name, meaning "enemies."Idahi, Kiowa Apache name (Mooney, 1896).Indd, Jicarilla name.La Plais, French traders' name, perhaps corrupted from T^te Pel6e.La'-ri'hta, Pawnee name.Los Mecos, Mexican name.Mahdn, Isleta name.Mdhana, Taos name.Na"Iani, Navaho name, meaning "many aliens," or "many enemies" (col-lective for Plains tribes).Na'nita, Kichai name.Nar-a-tah, Waco name.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 313Na't&a, Wichita name, meaning "snakes," i. e., "enemies."Ne'me ng, or Nim6nim, own name, or Numa, meaning "people."Padouca, common early name, evidently from the name of the Penatekaband.Sanko, obsolete Kiowa name.Sau'hto, Caddo name.Selakamp6m, Comecrudo name for all warlike tribes but especially for theComanche.ShIshIn6wtitz-hita'neo, Cheyenne name meaning "snake people."Snake Indians, common name.THe Pel6e, French traders' name, identification somewhat doubtful.Yampah or Ya'mpaini, Shoshoni name, meaning "Yampa people," or"Yampa eaters."Connections.?The Comanche belonged to the Shoshonean linguisticfamily, a branch of Uto-Aztecan, its tongue being almost identicalwith that of the Shoshoni.Location.-?In northwestern Texas and the region beyond as faras Arkansas River. (See also Colorado, Kansas, Nebraska, NewMexico, Oklahoma, and Wyoming.)SubdivisionsThe following are the names of Comanche bands so far as these are known:Detsanayuka or Nokoni. Pagatsu.Ditsakana, Widyu, Yapa or Yamparika. Penateka or Penande.Kewatsana. Pohoi (adopted Shoshoni),Kotsai. Tanima, Tenawa or Tenahwit.Kotsoteka, Kwahari or Kwahadi. Waaih.Motsai.Various writers also mention the following:Guage-johe. Muvinabore.Ketahto. Nauniem.Kwashi. Parkeenaum.History.?Although differing today in physical type, on account oftheir close linguistic relationship it is supposed that the originalComanche must have separated from the Shoshoni in the neighbor-hood of eastern Wyoming. The North Platte was known as PadoucaFork as late as 1805. In 1719, however, the Comanche are placedby early writers in southwestern Kansas. For a long time the Arkan-sas River was their southern boundary, but finally they moved belowit attracted by opportunities to obtain horses from the Mexicans andpushed on by other peoples. The Apache, who were in the countryinvaded, attacked them but were defeated. In this movement thePenateka Comanche were in advance and from the name of this bandcomes Padouca, one of the old terms applied to the entire people.For a long time the Comanche were at war with the Spaniards and
314 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bulu 145the Apache, and later with the Americans. Texas suffered so muchfrom their depredations that the famous Texas Rangers were organ-ized as a protection against them and proved extremely effective. In1854, by permission of the State of Texas, the Federal Governmentestablished two reservations upon Brazos River and some of theComanche and Kiowa were placed upon the upper reserve. Frictionwith the settlers, however, continued and compelled the abandonmentof these reserves in 1859 and the removal of the Indians to the terri-tory embraced in the present State of Oklahoma. By a treaty con-cluded October 18, 1865, a reservation was set apart for the Comancheand Kiowa consisting of the Panhandle of Texas and aU of Oklahomawest of Cimarron River and the 98th meridian of west longitude. Bya treaty concluded October 21, 1867, they surrendered all of this excepta tract of land in southwestern Oklahoma between the 98th meridian.Red River, the North Fork of Red River, and Washita River. Theydid not settle finally upon this land, however, until after the lastoutbreak of the southern prairie tribes in 1874-75. Their descendantscontinue to live in the same territory.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated that there must have been7,000 Comanche about 1690. The census of 1904 gives 1,400; thecensus of 1910, 1,171; and the United States Indian Office Report for1923 shows a total of 1,697. The census of 1930 returned 1,423. In1937 the figure given is 2,213.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Comanche were oneof the most famous tribes of the Plains, particularly the southernPlains. They were remarkable (1) for their numbers, horsemanship,and warlike character; (2) for the frequent clashes between them andthe White expeditions or bodies of emigrants; (3) as largely instru-mental in introducing horses to the Indians of the northern Plains.They gave place names to counties in Kansas and Texas; a mountainin Texas; and places in Yellowstone County, Mont.; ComancheCounty, Tex.; and Stephens County, Okla. There is a ComancheRiver in Colorado.Creeks, see Muskogee, under Alabama.Deadose. An Atakapa tribe or subtribe in south central Texas.(See Louisiana.)Eyeish, or HIiish. Meaning unknown. Also called Aays, Aix,Aliche, Yayecha, etc.Connections.?The Eyeish belonged to the Caddoan linguistic stock,their closest relatives probably being the Adai, and next to them thepeoples of the Kadohadacho and Hasinai Confederacies, with which,in fact, Lesser and Weltfish (1932) classify them.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 315Location.?On Ayish Creek, northeastern Texas, between the Sabineand Neches Rivers.History.?In 1542 the Eyeish were visited by the Spaniards underMoscoso, De Soto's successor. They are next noted in 1686-87 bythe companions of La Salle. In 1716 the mission of Nuestra Sefiorade los Dolores was established among them by the Franciscans,abandoned in 1719, reestablished in 1721, and finally given up in 1773,the success of the mission having been very small. Their proximityto the road between the French post at Natchitoches and the Spanishpost at Nacogdoches seems to have contributed to their generaldemoralization. Sibley (1832) reported only 20 individuals in thetribe in 1805 but in 1828 there were said to be 160 families. Soonafterward they joined the other Caddo tribes and followed their for-tunes, and they must have declined very rapidly for only a barememory of them is preserved.Population.?In 1779, 20 families were reported; in 1785, a totalpopulation of 300; in 1805, 20 individuals; in 1828, 160 families. (SeeCaddo Confederacy, under Louisiana.)Connection in which they have become noted.?Ayish Bayou, a tribu-tary of the Angelina River on which they formerly lived, perpetuatesthe name of the Eyeish.Guasco. A tribe or band which attained some prominence from theimportance attached to jt in the narratives of the De Soto expedi-tion. (See Hasinai Confederacy.)Hainai. An important band of the Hasinai Confederacy (q. v.).Hasinai Confederacy. Hasinai signifies "our own folk." The nameoften occurs in the forms Assinay or Cenis.Connections.?The Hasinai Confederacy constituted one of themajor divisions of the Caddo, the others being the KadohadachoConfederacy, the Natchitoches Confederacy, and the Adai and Eyeish,the two last probably connected but not confederated. All belongedto the Caddoan linguistic stock.Location.?^In northeastern Texas between the headwaters of theNeches and Trinity Rivers. SubdivisionsThe following tribes or bands were included:Anadarko, northwest of Nacogdoches in the present Rusk County.Guasco, position unknown.Hainai, 3 leagues west of Nacogdoches.Nabedache, 3 to 4 leagues west of Neches River and near Arroyo San Pedro, at asite close to the old San Antonio road, which became known as San Pedro.Nacachau, just north of the Neches tribe and on the east side of Neches River.
316 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Nacanish, north of the Hainai.Nacao, probably part of the Nacanish.Nacogdoche, at the present Nacogdoches.Nacono, southeast of the Neches and Nabedache and 5 leagues frona the former.Namidish or Nabiti, on Angelina River north of the Hainai.Nasoni, two towns: (1) about 27 miles north of Nacogdoches near the Anadarko;(2) in the Kadohadacho Confederacy.Nechaui, southeast of the Nabedache, half a league from the Nacono, and 5leagues from the crossing of the Neches at the Neches village.Neches, the main village 1 league or more east of Neches River, nearly west of thepresent Nacogdoches and near the mounds southwest of Alto, Cherokee County.The following names may belong to other allied tribes but next to nothing isknown of them:Naansi. ^fJadamin. Neihahat.Nabeyeyxa. Natsshostanno. Tadiva.Lesser and Weltfish (1932) speak of a tribe called Kayamaici, but this wasprobably a local group on Kiamichi River.VillagesAs recorded by our authorities, these almost always bore the names of thetribes occupying them.History.?On their way west in 1542 after the death of De Soto, inan endeavor to reach Mexico overland, the Spaniards who had followedhim passed through the Caddo country, and the names of the Nabe-dache, Nasoni, Anadarko, and Nacanish seem to be recognizable. In1686-87 La Salle and his companions spent some time in their villages,and it was near one of them that La Salle was murdered by his ownpeople. In 1690 the Spaniards entered their country and opened thefirst mission among them at the Nabedache village in May of thatyear. A number of missions were established in the other villages.All were abandoned in 1719 in expectation of a French attack, butthey were reestablished in 1721. They did not prove successful, how-ever, and were gradually removed to the neighborhood of San Antonio.Early in the nineteenth century the Hasinai were joined by theLouisiana Caddo, and all were placed upon a reservation on the BrazosRiver in 1855. Threatened with massacre by some of their Whiteneighbors, they fled to Oklahoma 4 years later, were granted new landsnear the present Anadarko, and finally allotted land in severalty.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates that in 1690 the entire Caddopopulation, including the Hasinai, the Kadohadacho and NatchitochesConfederacies, and the Adai and Eyeish tribes, amounted to 8,500,700 more than the number I arrived at. He does not give figures forthe Hasinai by themselves, but it is probable that he would have al-lowed between 4,000 and 5,000. The former figure is the one I sug-gested (see Swanton, 1942).Referring to earlier estimates, we are told that a Canadian who hadlived for several years among the Hasinai stated in 1699 that they had
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 317between 600 and 700 warriors, which would indicate a population of2,500-3,000. In 1716 Don Diego Ramon, under whom the missionswere established, gave it as his opinion that they were serving a popu-lation of 4,000-5,000. When x\guayo reestablished them in 1721 hedistributed presents to the inhabitants of the principal towns. Hisfigures are evidently incomplete, but even so they suggest some fallingoff in the 5 years that had elapsed. At any rate it is evident thatthese Indians lost very heavily during the eighteenth century and thattheir numbers did not exceed 1,000 at the opening of the nineteenthcentury. A rather careful estimate by Jesse Stem in 1851 wouldindicate a population of about 350. In 1864 the United States IndianOffice reported 150, and in 1876 and subsequent years still smallerfigures appear which are evidently incomplete. The first seeminglyaccurate census taken by the Indian Office was in 1880, when the figurefor the united Caddo people was given as 538. It varied httle fromthis until after 1910 when it showed steady gains. In 1937, 967Caddo were reported.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Hasinai are notedas the Indians among whom La Salle came to his untimely end, andalong with the Kadohadacho and Natchitoches as makers of the beau-tiful Caddo pottery. (See Kadohadacho Confederacy.) Texas, acommon name applied to them, was adopted as the designation of aRepublic and later State of the American Union. It has been givento places in Washington County, Ky., and Baltimore County, Md.;to Texas City, Galveston County, Tex.; Texas Creek, FremontCounty, Colo.; and in the combined form Texarkana to a city on theboundary line between Texas and Arkansas, entering also into Tex-homa, Texas County, Olda., and Sherman County, Tex.Isleta del Sur, see Pueblos under New Mexico.Jicarilia. The Jicarilla ranged into this State (Texas) at times.(See Colorado.)Kadohadacho Confederacy. The word Kadohadacho signifies in thenative language "real chiefs," kadi being the word for "chief," andit is from an abbreviation of this term that we get the word Caddo.They were also called:At'-ta-wits, by the Comanche, according to Ten Kate (1907).Da'sha-i, or Tdshash, by the Wichita.firawika, by the Pawnee.
'H'-doum-dei-kiH, by the Kiowa.Ka-16X-la'-tce, by the Choctaw.Kalu-xnddshu or Kasseye'i, by the Tonkawa.Kul-hQI-atsI, by the Creeks.Ma'-seip'-kiH, by the Kiowa, signifying "pierced noses."Ni'rls-h&ri's-kl'riki, another Wichita name.
318 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Ota's-ita'niuw', Cheyenne name, signifying "pierced nose people" (orUtds6ta).Su'-d^6, by the Quapaw.Tani'bangn, by the Arapaho, signifying "pierced nose people."Witdne, by the Comanche, according to Gatschet (MS., B. A. E.).Connections.?The Kadohadacho belonged to the Caddo divisionof the Caddoan linguistic stock, the other members being the closely-related Hasinai (q, v.) and Natchitoches (see under Louisiana), andthe more remotely connected Adai of Louisiana and Eyeish of Texas.Location.?The Kadohadacho lived in northeastern Texas andsouthwestern Arkansas at the Great Bend of Red River, though theyare usually associated with the region around Caddo Lake which theyoccupied at a later period. (See also Arkansas and Louisiana.)SubdivisionsCahinnio, near Ouachita River, Ark.Kadohadacho, on the north side of Red River near the point where the presentArkansas-Texas boundary line reaches it.Nanatsoho, on the south side of Red River not far from the point reached by thepresent Arkansas-Oklahoma State line.Upper Nasoni, on the south side of Red River nearly opposite the present Ogden.Upper Natchitoches, on the south side of Red River between the Nanatsoho andNasoni.Upper Yatasi, a part of the Yatasi which joined them in very late times.History.?In October 1541, De Soto and his army entered a provincecalled Tula believed to be the country of the Indians later known asCahinnio, a tribe for whose bravery the Spaniards came to have awholesome respect. The next encounter between these people andwhite men was in the summer of 1687 when, after the murder of theSieur de la Salle, six survivors of his expedition, including Jouteland Father Anastasius Donay, passed through the Kadohadachotowns on their way to the Mississippi, visiting the Nasoni, Kadohada-cho, and Cahinnio. Tonti visited them also 4 years later. In Novem-ber and December 1691, Domingo Teran (Castaneda, 1936) spent amiserable week in this country exploring it and taking soundings ofRed River, and we owe to him the first map of the region. In 1700Bienville undertook to reach them but got no farther than the Yatasivillage halfway between the Natchitoches and Kadohadacho. In1719 the French officer Bernard de la Harpe (1831) spent some timeamong them and established a trading post which endured for a con-siderable period. French traders quickly monopolized the Kadohada-cho trade, the principal trading point being Natchitoches, but nomissions were established. This group of tribes proved to be a strongbulwark against the warlike northern Indians, particularly the Osage,but they suffered much in consequence, and late in the eighteenthcentury the Kadohadacho or a part of them moved to another location
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 319some miles below their ancient village. The town established in thenew location, however, was also attacked by the Osages, who inflictedsuch losses upon its inhabitants that they removed again about 1800and established themselves on Sodo Creek northwest of the presentShreveport. In 1824 a treaty was signed between the United StatesGovernment and the Quapaw Indians by which the latter agreed togive up their lands on the Arkansas and remove to the country of theCaddo Indians. The Quapaw removed the year following but sufferedsuch losses on account of floods in Red River that in 1833 they sur-rendered these lands and removed to Oklahoma, Two years later theKadohadacho and their allies also subscribed to a treaty by whichthey surrendered all of their lands within the territory of the UnitedStates. In consequence, they removed to Texas and settled near theirHasinai kindred, whose fortunes they afterward followed although thetwo parties remained distinct for a considerable period. Some unitedthemselves for a time with the Cherokee under Chief Bowl. Somealso took up their residence with the Chickasaw in the Indian Terri-tory. Those who remained in Texas were fellow victims with theHasinai of the increasing friction with their white neighbors embitteredby Comanche and Apache depredations for which they were in noway responsible. We may now call these united peoples by the simpleterm "Caddo." In an endeavor to end these difficulties a reservationw^as set apart for the Caddo on Brazos River in 1852 but trouble aroseagain of such a violent character that in 1859 the Caddo abandonedTexas and were assigned a new reservation in the southwestern partof the present State of Oklahoma, where their descendants still live,most of the scattered bands having been gathered into one section.Most of the Caddo sided with the Federal Government during theCivil War and went to Kansas, where they remained until it was over,though experiencing many hardships in consequence and losing manyof their people in epidemics. They took considerable interest in theGhost Dance Religion and still more in the Peyote Cult, John Wilson,a mixed-blood Caddo and Delaware, being one of the prominentleaders. The fact that they had always cultivated the ground hasmade their adjustment to the new economic system fairly easy. In1902 they were allotted land in severalty.Population.?My estimate for the Kadohadacho division of theCaddo before WTiite contact is 2,000. Bienville and La Harpe placeit in 1700-1709 between 2,000 and 2,500. In 1718, however, Bienvilleasserts that it had fallen to 200 warriors, which would mean about 800people, and Sibley (1832) indicates the same figures as late as 1805.In 1829 Porter {in Schoolcraft, vol. 3) gives an estimate of 450, andin 1851 Stem (1851) who is likely to be reliable, places it at 476, In1857 Neighbors returns a partial enumeration of 235, and in 1876,
320 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145the last time they were returned separately from the Hasinai, theIndian Ofl&ce reported 467. It is evident, however, that this alsoincludes part of the Hasinai and all of the Adai and Eyeish besides theremnants of the Natchitoches group. After this date the populationof the united Caddo group remained around 500, but during thepresent century it has been steadily increasing and in 1937, 967 werereported.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Kadohadachogroup is noted as containing the tribe which ultimately gave the nameCaddo to the linguistic family of which it is a part. The name Caddohas been applied to a parish and lake in Louisiana; a county in Okla-homa; a creek and gap in Arkansas; to the village of Caddo Gap,Montgomery County, Ark.; and to villages in Bryan County, Olda.,and Stephens County, Tex. ; and in Hunt County, Tex., is Caddo Mills.Earankawan Tribes. The name Karankawa is derived from one ofthe constituent tribes, but the significance is unknown.Nda kun-dad6he, Lipan name, meaning "people walking in the water."Quglancouchis, Clamcoets, names given by the French.Ydkokon kdpai, Tonkawa, meaning "without moccasins," but this nameincludes the coast Coahuiltecan tribes.Connections.?The Karankawan tribes are placed in an independentlinguistic stock, which was connected most closely, it would seem,with the Coahuiltecan group.Location.?On the coast of the Gulf of Mexico between Trinity andAransas Bays. SubdivisionsFive principal tribes constituted the Karankawan stock. They were as follows:Coapite.Coaque or Coco, on Galveston Island and at the mouth of Brazos River.Karankawa, on Matagorda Bay.Kohani, near the mouth of Colorado River.Kopano, on Copano Bay.To these should perhaps be added the Tiopane and Tups, and perhaps also thePataquilla, and the Quilotes mentioned by Cabeza de Vaca (1851).History.?The Karankawan coast was skirted by a number of earlyvoyagers but the first contact with its inhabitants worth noting wasby Cabeza de Vaca and other shipwrecked members of Pamphilo deNarvaez's expedition. There is little doubt that the people amongwhom Cabeza de Vaca was cast away in 1528 were the Coaque orCoco. In 1685 La Salle landed in their country supposing that hewas near the mouth of the Mississippi, and he built a fort (Fort St.Louis) in which the French maintained themselves for 2 years. In1689 the region was visited by a Spanish expedition under De Leonintent upon driving the Frenchmen out of the country. Shortly
SwANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 321
afterward the Spaniards began to colonize Texas and, though fewsettlements were made near the coast, missions were established fromtime to time to gather in the Karankawan Indians. The neophytescould never be induced to remain long at these missions, however,and continued during the Spanish period in about the same conditionof savagery in which they had been fomid, though they decreasedsteadily in numbers. After the American settlements had begun, thecoast tribes annoyed them by constant pilfering, and the reprisalswhich the Karankawans suffered finally destroyed them entirely.The last are said to have perished shortly before the Civil War. Theonly Karankawan vocabulary of undoubted purity was recorded in1720 by the French Captain Beranger. In 1891 Dr. A. S. Gatschetpublished two others, one obtained from Tonkawa Indians and theother, much longer, from a white woman named Oliver who had livednear the last band of Karankawa in her girlhood and had learned aconsiderable number of words. But this band is said to have beenmuch mixed with Coahuiltecan, a contention which an examinationof the material seems to confirm.Population.?Mooney's (1928) estimate of 2,800 for the Karanlvawantribes in 1690 appears to me decidedly too high, but there are prac-tically no data upon which to make a satisfactory determination.Connection in which they haiie become noted.?The Karankawantribes will be longest remembered as those among which Cabeza deVaca and his companions were cast away in 1528, and where La Salle'scolony was established in 1685. The name of one Karanlcawantribe (Kopano) is preserved by Copano Bay.Kichai or (more phonetically) Kitsei. Their own name and said tomean "going in wet sand," but the Pawnee translate their renderingof it as "water turtle." Also called:Gits'ajl, Kansa name.Ki-jii'-tcac, Omaha name.Ki6tsash, Wichita name.Ki'-tchesh, Caddo name.Quichais, Spanish variant.Quidehais, from French sources (La Harpe, 1831).Connections.?The Kichai were a tribe of the Caddoan stock whoselanguage la}' midway between Wichita and Pawnee.Location.?On the upper waters of Trinity River, and between thatstream and Red River. (See also Oklahoma.)History.?It is probable that in the prehistoric period the Kichailived north of Red River but they had gotten south of it by 1701 whenthe French penetrated that country and they continued in the samegeneral region until 1855. They were then assigned to a smallreservation on Brazos River, along with several other small tribes.
322 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bdll. 145In 1858, however, alarmed at threats of extermination on the part ofthe neighboring Whites, they fled to the present Oklahoma, where theyjoined the Wichita. They have remained with them ever since.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates a total Kichai population of500 in 1690. In 1772 the main Kichai village contained 30 housesand there were estimated in it 80 warriors, most of whom were young.In 1778 the number of Kichai fighting men was estimated at 100,The census of 1910 returned a total population of only 10, and thatof 1930 included them with the Wichita, the figure for the two tribes,nearly all Wichita however, being 300.Connection in which they have become noted.?Their name Kichai isperpetuated in the Keeche Hills, Okla.; Keechi Creek, Tex.; a branchof the Trinity, Keechi; a post hamlet of Leon County, Tex.; and per-haps Kechi, a post township of Sedgwick County, Kans.Kiowa. This tribe hunted in and raided across northern Texas.(See Kansas.)Koasati. Early in the nineteenth century bands of Koasati hadworked over from Louisiana into Texas, settling first on the Sabineand later on the Neches and the Trinity. In 1850 the bulk of theentire tribe was in Texas but later, partly it is said on account ofa pestilence, they suffered heavy losses and most of the survivorsreturned to Louisiana, where the largest single body of Koasati isliving. Among the Alabama in Polk County, Tex., there were in1912 about 10 of this tribe. (See Alabama and Louisiana.)Lipan. Adapted from Ipa-n'de, apparently a personal name; n'demeaning "people." Also called:A-tagui, Kiowa name, meaning "timber Apache"; used also for Mescalero.Cances, Caddo name, meaning "deceivers."Hu-ta'-ci, Comanche name, meaning "forest Apache" (Ten Kate, 1884, inHodge, 1907).Hiixul, Tonkawa name. (See Uxul.)Na-izha'fi, own name, meaning "ours," "our kind."Nav6ne, Comanche name (Gatschet, MS., B. A. E.).Shi'Ini, former Mescalero name, meaning "summer people" (?).Tu-tsan-nde, Mescalero name, meaning "great water people."Uxul, Tonkawa name, meaning a spiral shell and applied to this tribebecause of their coiled hair.Yabipai Lipan, so called by Garces in 1776.Connections.?This is one of the tribes of the Athapascan linguisticstock to which the general name Apache was applied. Their closestrelations politically were with the Jicarilla, with whom they formedone Imguistic group.Location.?The Lipan formerly ranged from the Rio Grande inNew Mexico over the eastern part of the latter State and western
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 323Texas southeastward as far as the Gulf of Mexico. (See also NewMexico and Oklahoma.) SubdivisionsThe Lipan were reported during the early part of the nineteenth century toconsist of three bands, probably the same which Orozco y Berra (1864) callsLipanjenne, Lipanes de Arriba, and Lipanes Abajo.History.?The position of the Lipan prior to the eighteenth centuryis somewhat obscure, but during that century and the early part ofthe nineteenth they ranged over the region just indicated. In 1757the San Saba mission was estabhshed for them, but it was broken upby their enemies, the Comanche and Wichita. In 1761-62 the mis-sions of San Lorenzo and Candelaria were organized for the samepurpose but met a similar fate in 1767. In 1839 the Lipan sidedwith the Texans against the Comanche but suffered severely from theWhites between 1845 and 1856, when most of them were driven intoCoahuila, Mexico. They remained in Coahuila until October 1903,when the 19 survivors were taken to northwest Chihauhua, and re-mained there until 1905. In that year they were brought to theUnited States and placed on the Mescalero Reservation, N. Mex.,where they now live. A few Lipan were also incorporated with theTonkawa and the Kiowa Apache.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates that the Lipan numbered500 in 1690. In 1805 the three bands were reported to number 300,350, and 100 men respectively, which would seem to be a too hberalallowance. The census of 1910 returned 28.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Lipan were notedas persistent raiders into Texas, New Mexico, and Mexico. Theirname has been given to a post village in Hood County, Tex.Muskogee. A few Muskogee came to Texas in the nineteenth century,most belonging to the Pakana division. Two or three individualslived until recently near Livingston, Tex. (See Alabama.)Nabedache, Nacachau, Nacanish, Nacogdoche, Nadaco, Namidish,Nechaui, Neches, and one section of the Nasoni. Small tribesor bands belonging to the Hasinai Confederacy (q. v.).Nanatsoho, Nasoni (Upper). Small tribes or bands connected withthe Kadohadacho Confederacy (q. v.).Pakana. A Muskogee division. (See Muskogee above and also underAlabama.)Pascagoula. Bands belonging to the Pascagoula, entered Texas fromLouisiana early in the nineteenth century, and one baud lived onBiloxi Bayou, a branch of the Neches, for a considerable period,together with some Biloxi Indians. AU had disappeared in 1912
324 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Boll. 145
except two Indians, only half Pascagoula, living with the Alabamain Polk County. (See Mississippi).Patiri. A tribe associated with the Akokisa, Bidai, and Deadose inthe mission of San Ildefonso west of Trinity River. Since relatedtribes are said to have been put in the same mission in that period(1748-49), it is believed that the Patiri spoke an Atakapan language.Their former home is thought to have been along Caney Creek.Pueblos. There were two late settlements of Pueblo Indians, Isletadel Sur and Senecii del Sur, near El Paso, Tex., composed principallyof Indians brought back by Governor Otermin in 1681 after anunsuccessful attempt to subdue the Pueblo Indians of the RioGrande. Senecii del Sur was, however, actually in Chihuahua,Mexico. The people of these pueblos are now almost completelyMexicanized. (See New Mexico.)Quapaw. Between 1823 and 1833 the Quapaw lived with the CaddoIndians in northwestern Louisiana and northeastern Texas, and oneband of them known as Imaha were reckoned as a constituent ele-ment of the Caddo Confederacy. (See Arkansas.)Senecfi del Sur. (See Pueblos above.)Shawnee. A band of Shav.Tiee entered eastern Texas for a briefperiod during the middle of the nineteenth century. They wereafterward moved to Oklahoma. (See Tennessee.)Shuman. More often known as Jumano or Humano, significanceunknown. Also called:Borrados, from Spanish sources, "striped" (?).Chouman, French form of name.Humanas, Jumanas, Xumanas, Spanish forms of name.Ipataragiiites, from Mota-Padilla, probably intended for this tribe.Patarabueyes, given by Espejo in 1582.Suma, sometimes regarded as a separate tribe but considered by Sauermerely as a synonym.Connections.?The eastern division of the Shuman, that to whichthe name Jumano is oftenest applied, was once thought to have be-longed to the Caddoan stock, but Sauer (1934) appears to have shownthat in all probability it was Uto-Aztecan. The western section,oftener called Suma, has been classed, erroneously of course, as Tanoan.Location.?In early times most of the Shuman lived along the RioGrande between the mouth of the Concho and the present El Paso butextending westward as far as the Casas Grandes in Chihuahua. Latera part of them entered the Plains in western Texas and eastern NewMexico. (See also New Mexico.)
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 325Subdivisions and VillagesBesides the two main divisions to which the names Shuman or Jumano and Sumahave been applied respectively, the Suma later became separated into two groups,one about El Paso and the other in the region of the Casas Grandes. The onlyvillages named are: Atripuy, Genobey, Quelotetrey, and Pataotrey.History.?The Shuman were first met by Cabeza de Vaca and hiscompanions about the beginning of the year 1536 although De Vacadoes not mention them by name. In 1582 they were visited byAntonio de Espejo and in 1598 by Juan de Onate. At the latter datea part of them at least were near the Salinas, east of the Rio Grande inwhat is now New Mexico. About 1622 they were visited by theFranciscan missionary of the Pueblo of Isleta, and in 1629 an independ-ent mission was established for them. By this time, the eastern sec-tion of the tribe had gotten as far east as the Conchos, a headstream ofthe Nueces. About 1670 there were Shuman not far from PecosRiver, and from that time through the eighteenth century they seemto have resided principally in the region indicated. As late as themiddle of the nineteenth century they are mentioned in connectionwith the Kiowa, and again as living near Lampazas, Nuevo Leon,Mexico. Possibly they were the tribe later known as Waco. Thename of the western Shuman appears in the form Suma as early as1630 when it was used by Benavides, and in 1659 some of the northernSuma were at San Lorenzo. During the Pueblo revolt of 1680 theybecame hostile and united with the Manso and Jano in an outbreak in1684, but they were reduced 2 years later and formed into severalsettlements about El Paso, San Lorenzo being the only one to endure.They declined steadily in numbers until in 1897 only one was known tobe living, at Senecu. The mission of Casas Grandes was establishedamong the southern branch of the Suma in 1664. Then and for someyears afterward they were allied with the Apache and Jocome in raidsagainst the Piman tribes west of them, particularly the Opata, but aresupposed to have been destroyed ultimately by the Apache.Population.?In 1582 Espejo believed that the Shuman numbered10,000, probably an overestimate. Mooney (1928) does not givethem separate entry in his estimates' of population. In 1744 thenorthern branch of that part of the tribe called Suma had become re-duced to 50 families; in 1765 there were only 21 families; and in 1897only one individual was supposed to be left.Soacatino, or Xacatin. A tribe met by the companions of De Soto innorthwestern Louisiana or northeastern Texas. It was undoubtedlyCaddo but has not been identified satisfactorily with any knownCaddo tribe.Tawakoni. The Tawakoni were a subdivision of the Wichita, or atleast a tribe closely afl^iated with them. (See Oklahoma.)
326 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Tonkawan Tribes. The name derived from the most important andonly surviving tribe of the family. Gatschet (1891 a) says thatTonkawa is a Waco word, Tonkaweya, meaning "they all staytogether." The synonyms are not to be confounded with those ofthe Tawakoni. Also called:Kddiko, Kiowa name, probably a corruption of Kdikogo, "man-eating men"(Gatschet, MS., B. A. E.).Kariko, Comanche name, from above.KMnahi-pfako, Kiowa name, meaning "maneaters" (Mooney, 1898).Konkon6 or Komkom^, early French name.Maneaters, common translation of some of above synonyms.Midxsfin, Cheyenne name.N^mer^xka, Comanche name (Gatschet, MS., B. A. E.).Tftskan wdtitch, own name.Connections.?The Tonkawan tribes constitute a distinct linguisticfamily but with affinities for the Coahuiltecan and probably Karan-kawan and Tunican groups.Location.?In central Texas from Cibolo Creek on the southwest towithin a few miles of Trinity River on the northeast. (See alsoOklahoma.) SubdivisionsThe tribes or bands certainly included under this head were the Tonkawa,Yojuane, Mayeye, and Ervipiame, but there should probably be added the Sana,Emet, Cava, Toho, Tohaha, Quiutcanuaha, Tenu, Tetzino, Tishin, Tusolivi, andUjuiap, and perhaps also the Nonapho, Sijame, Siraaomo, Muruam, Pulacuam,and Choyapin, though the last three at least were probably Coahuiltecan.History.?Tribes of Tonkawan stock were undoubtedly encounteredby Cabeza de Vaca early in the sixteenth century; certainly so if theMuruam were Tonkawan for they are evidently his Mariames. In1691 the Tonkawa and Yojuane are mentioned by Francisco Casafiasde Jesus Maria as enemies of the Hasinai (Swanton, 1942, p. 251), andin 1714 the Yojuane destroyed the main fire temple of the Hasinai.Between 1746 and 1749 the Tonkawa were gathered into missions onSan Xavier (San Gabriel) River but these were given up in 1756, and2 years later the Tonkawa assisted in the destruction of the San SabaMission established for the Apache, From that time until well intothe nineteenth century the tribe continued to reside in the samesection, rarely settling down for any considerable period. In 1855they and several other Texas tribes were gathered by the United StatesGovernment on two small reservations on Brazos River. In 1859however, the threatening attitude of their white neighbors resulted intheir removal to Washita River in what is now Oklahoma. On thenight of October 25, 1862, the Tonkawa camp there was fallen uponby a body of Delaware, Shawnee, and Caddo Indians desiring to payoff old scores but pretending that the Tonkawa and their agent werein sympathy with the Southern Confederacy. Out of about 300
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 327Tonkawa 137 were massacred, and the survivors, after some years ofmiserable wandering, were gathered into Fort Griffin, Tex., where theymight be protected from their enemies. In 1884 all that were leftwere given a small reservation in northern Oklahoma, near the Ponca,where their descendants still Uve.Population.?Moftney (1928) estimated that in 1690 there wereabout 1,600 Tonkawa. A Spanish estimate of 1778 gives 300 warriorsbut the following year, after an epidemic of smallpox, this is cut inhalf. In 1782, 600 were said to have attended a certain meeting andthis was only a portion of the tribe. Sibley (1832) estimated that in1805 they had 200 men. In 1809 there were said to be 250 familiesand in 1828, 80. In 1847 the official estimate was 150 men. Beforethe massacre of 1862 there were supposed to be about 300 all told, butwhen they were placed on their reservation in 1884 there were only 92.In 1908 there were 48 including a few intermarried Lipan; the censusof 1910 gave 42, but that of 1930 restores the figure to 48, and in 1937there were said to be 51.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Tonkawan tribeshave the following claims to remembrance: (1) On account of theuniqueness of their language, (2) for their reputed addiction to can-nibalism, (3) on account of the massacre perpetrated upon thempartly in consequence of this reputation, as above described. The cityof Tonkawa in Kay County, Okla., perpetuates the name.Waco. The Waco were a subtribe or tribe of the Wichita group whichHved near the present Waco for a Umited period before removal toOklahoma (q. v.).Wichita. The Wichita lived for a time along both sides of Red Riverin northern Texas. (See Oklahoma.)NEW MEXICOApache. Probably from ?,pachu, "enemy," the Zuni name for theNavaho who were designated "Apaches de Nabaju" by the earlySpaniards in New Mexico. The name has also been applied tosome Yuman tribes, the Apache Mohave (Yavapai) and the ApacheYuma. Also called:Ahuddjg, Havasupai name for at least Tonto and White Mountain Apache.Ai-a'-ta, Panamint name.Atokiiwe, Kiowa name.Awdtch or Awdtche, Ute name.Chah'-shm, Santo Domingo Keres name.Chishye, Laguna name.Ha-ma-kaba-mitc kwa-dig, Mohave name, meaning "far-away Mohave."H'iwana, Taos name.Igihua'-a, Havasupai name.
328 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Inde or Nde, own name.Jarosoma, Pima name (from Kino).Mountain Comanche, by Yoakum (1855-56).Muxtsuhintan, Cheyenne name.Oop, Papago name.Op, or Awp, Pima name.P6anin, Sandia and Isleta name (Hodge, 1895).P'6nin, Isleta name (Gatschet, MS., B. A. E.).Shis-Inday, own name meaning "men of the woods," because their winterquarters were always in the forest.Td-ashi, Comanche name, meaning "turned up," and having reference totheir moccasins.Tagdi, Old Kiowa name.Tdguker^sh, Pecos name.Tashin, Comanche name (Mooney, 1898).Taxkdhe, Arapaho name.Thah-a-i-nin', Arapaho name, meaning "people who play on bone instru-ments," meaning two bison ribs, one notched, over which the other isrubbed.Tinna'-ash, Wichita name.Tshish6, Laguna name.Utce-cI-nyu-mAh or Utsaamu, or Yotchd-eme, Hopi name.Xa-he'-ta-no', Cheyenne name meaning "those who tie their hair back."Connections.?Together with the Navaho, the Apache constitutedthe western group of the southern division of the Athapascan Hnguisticstock (Hoijer, 1938).Location.?In southern New Mexico and Arizona, western Texas,and southeastern Colorado, also ranging over much of northernMexico. (See also Kansas, Oklahoma, and Mexico.)SubdivisionsOn linguistic grounds Hoijer (1938) divides the southern Athapascans into twomain groups, a western and an eastern. The latter includes the Jicarilla, Lipan,and Kiowa Apache, the two former being more closely related to each other thaneither is to the Kiowa Apache. In the western group Hoijer again distinguishestwo major subdivisions, the Navaho, and the San Carlos-Chiricahua-Mescalero.The Navaho are always regarded as a distinct tribe and will be so treated here.Separate treatment is also being given to the Jicarilla, Lipan, and Kiowa Apache.The rest of the southern Athapascans will be placed under the present head, itbeing freely admitted at the same time that such treatment is mainly a matter ofconvenience and that it is impossible to say how many and what southernAthapascan divisions should be given tribal status. What is here called theApache Tribe may be classified as follows with the locations of the divisions,basing the scheme on the classifications of Hoijer and Goodwin (1935)
:
1. San Carlos Group:San Carlos proper:Apache Peaks Band, in the Apache Mountains, northeast of Globe.Arivaipa Band, on Arivaipa Creek.Pinal Band, between Salt and Gila Rivers in Gila and Pinal Counties.San Carlos Band, in the region of San Carlos River between Gila andSalt Rivers.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 329
1. San Carlos Group?Continued.White Mountain Group:Eastern White Mountain Band, in the region of the upper Gila and SaltRivers in southeastern Arizona.Western White Mountain Band, in the same region between the EasternBand and the San Carlos Band.Cibecuo Group:Canyon Creek Band, centering on Canyon Creek in Gila and NavajoCounties.Carrizo Band, on Carrizo Creek in Gila County.Cibicue Band, on Cibecue Creek between the two last.Southern Tonto Group:Mazatzal Band, about the Mazatzal Mountains.Six semibands: north of Roosevelt Lake; on the upper Tonto Creek;between the upper Tonto and the East Verde; west of the precedingbetween the East Verde, Tonto, and Verde; north of the East Verde;and from Cherry Creek to Clear Creek.Northern Tonto Group:Bald Mountain Band, about Bald Mountain, south of Camp Verde.Fossil Creek Band, on Fossil Creek between Gila and Yavapai Counties.Mormon Lake Band, centering on Mormon Lake south of Flagstaff.Oak Creek Band, about Oak Creek south of Flagstaff.2. Chiricahua-Mescalero Group:Gilenos Group:Chiricahua Band, about the Chiricahua Mountains in southeasternArizona.Mimbreno Band, centered in the Mimbres Mountains in southwesternNew Mexico.MogoUon Band, about the MogoUon Mountains in Catron and GrantCounties, N. Mex.Warm Spring Band, at the head of Gila River.Mescalero Group:Faraon or Apache Band of Pharaoh, a southern division of the Mescalero.Mescalero Band, mainly between the Rio Grande and Pecos Rivers,N. Mex.The term Querecho, as well as Vaquero, was applied rather generally to Apacheby the Spaniards but probably more particularly to the Mescalero and theirallies. Under Llanero were included Mescalero, Jicarilla, and even some Coman-che. The term Coyotero has been applied to some of the San Carlos divisionsand recently by Murdock (1941) to all.History.?The Apache tribes had evidently drifted from the northduring the prehistoric period, probably along the eastern flanks ofthe Rocky Mountains. When Coronado encountered them in 1540under the name Querechos, they were in eastern New Mexico andwestern Texas, and they apparently did not reach Arizona until afterthe middle of the sixteenth century. They were first called Apacheby Onate in 1598. After that time their history was one successionof raids upon the Spanish territories, and after the United StatesGovernment had supplanted that of Mexico in the Southwest, thewars with the Apache constituted some of the most sensational
330 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145
chapters in our military annals. Except for some Apache in Mexicoand a few Lipans with the Tonkawa and Kiowa in Oklahoma, thesepeople were finally gathered into reservations in New Mexico andArizona.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated that all of the Apacheproper numbered 5,000 in 1680. The census of 1910 gives 6,119Apache of all kinds, excluding only the Kiowa Apache, and theReport of the United States Indian OflEice for 1923 enumerates 6,630.If an increase has actually occurred, it is to be attributed to thecaptives taken by these people from all the surrounding tribes andfrom the Mexicans. The census of 1930 returned 6,537 but thisincludes the Jicarilla and Lipan. The Apache proper would numberabout 6,000. However, the Indian Office Report for 1937 gives6,916 exclusive of the Jicarilla.Connection in which they have become noted.?Apache is one of thebest-known Indian tribal names. This is due (1) to the warlikecharacter of the people bearing it, (2) to their constant depredationsalong the Spanish and American frontiers, and (3) to the severe anddifficult fighting made necessary before they were forced to give uptheir ancient raiding proclivities. The word has, therefore, beentaken over to some extent into literature when it is desired to describefierce and ruthless individuals, and in this sense it has been givenlocal application to some of the criminal elements of Paris. Thename Apache is given to villages in Cochise County, Ariz., and CaddoCounty, Okla., and Apache Creek is a place in Catron County, N. Mex.Comanche. In the Spanish period, the Comanche raided into andacross the territory of New Mexico repeatedly. (See Texas.)Jemez. Corrupted from Ha'-mish or Hae'-mish, the Keresan nameof the pueblo. Also spelled Amayes, Ameias, Amejes, Emeges,Gemes, etc. Also called:Maf-d6c-kT2-ne, Navaho name, meaning "wolf neck."Tu'-wa, own name of pueblo.Uala-to-hua or Walatoa, own name of pueblo, meaning "village of thebear."Wong'-ge, Santa Clara and Ildefonso name, meaning "Navaho place."Connections.?With the now extinct Pecos, the Jemez constituteda distinct group of the Tanoan linguistic family now a part of theKiowa-Tanoan stock.Location.?On the north bank of Jemez River, about 20 miles north-west of Bernalillo. VillagesThe following names of villages have been recorded as formerly occupied bythe Jemez but the list may contain some duplication:Amushungkwa, on a mesa west of the Hot Springs, about 12 miles north of Jemezpueblo.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 331Ajiyukwinu, north of Jemez pueblo.Astialakwa, on the summit of a mesa that separates San Diego and GuadalupeCanyons at their mouths.Bulitzequa, exact site unknown.Catr6o, site not identified.Ceca, not identified.Guatitruti, not identified.Guayoguia, not identified.Gyusiwa, one-half mile north of Jemez Hot Springs, on a slope descending to theriver from the east in Sandoval County.Hanakwa, not identified.Kiashita, in Guadalupe Canyon, north of Jemez pueblo.Kiatsukwa, not identified.Mecastria, not identified.Nokyuntseleta, not identified.Nonyishagi, not identified.Ostyalakwa, not identified.Patoqua, on a ledge of the mesa which separates Guadalupe and San DiegoCanyons, 6 miles north of Jemez pueblo.Pebulikwa, not identified.Pekwiligii, not identified.Potre, not identified.Seshukwa, not identified.Setokwa, about 2 miles south of Jemez pueblo.Towakwa, not identified.Trea, not identified.Tyajuindena, not identified.Uahatzae, not identified.Wabakwa, on a mesa north of Jemez pueblo.Yjar, not identified.Zolatungzezhii, not identified.Hisiory.?The Jemez came from the north, according to tradition,settKng in the valleys of the upper tributaries of the Jemez Riverand at last in the sandy valley of the Jemez proper. Castaneda,the chronicler of Coronado's expedition, mentions seven towns be-longing to the Jemez tribe besides three in the region of Jemez HotSprings. After they had been missionized they were induced toabandon their towns by degrees until about 1622 they became con-centrated into the pueblos of Gyusiwa and probably Astialakwa.Both pueblos contained chapels, probably dating from 1618, butbefore the Pueblo revolt of 1680 Astialakwa was abandoned andanother pueblo, probably Patoqua, established. About the middleof the seventeenth century, in conjunction with the Navaho, theJemez twice plotted insurrection against the Spaniards. After theinsurrection of 1680 the Jemez were attacked by Spanish forces ledsuccessively by Otermin, Cruzate, and Vargas, the last of whomstormed the mesa in July 1694, killed 84 Indians, and after destroyingPatoqua and two other pueblos, returned to Santa F6 with 361 pris-
332 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145
oners and a large quantity of stores. Gyusiwa was the only Jemezpueblo reoccupied, but in 1696 there was a second revolt and theJemez finally fled to the Navaho country, where they remained fora considerable time before returning to their former home. Thenthey built their present village, called by them Walatoa, "Village ofthe Bear." In 1728, 108 of the inhabitants died of pestilence. In1782 Jemez was made a visita of the mission of Sia. In 1838 theywere joined by the remnant of their relatives, the Pecos Indians fromthe upper Rio Pecos. Their subsequent history has been uneventful.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates the Jemez population at2,500 in 1680. In 1890 it was 428; in 1904, 498, including the remnantof Pecos Indians; in 1910, 499. In 1930 the entire Tanoan stocknumbered 3,412. In 1937 the Jemez Indians numbered 648.Jicarilla. An Apache tribe which ranged over the northeasterncorner of New Mexico. (See Colorado.)Keresan Pueblos. Keresan is adapted from K'eres, their own desig-nation. Also called:Biernl'n, Sandia name.Cherechos, Ofiate in 1598.Drinkers of the Dew, Zufii traditional name.Ing-we-pi'-ra^-di-vi-he-ma", San Ildefonso Tewa name.Pabiernl'n, Isleta name.Connections.?These Indians constituted an independent stockhaving no affiliations with any other.Location.?On the Rio Grande, in north central New Mexico,between the Rio de los Frijoles and the Rio Jemez, and on the latterstream from the pueblo of Sia to its mouth.Subdivisions and VillagesThe Keresan Indians are divided dialectically into an Eastern (Queres) Groupand a Western (Sitsime or Kawaiko) Group, comprising the following pUeblos:Eastern (Queres) Group:Cochiti, on the west bank of the Rio Grande, 27 miles southwest of Santa F6.San Felipe, on the west bank of the Rio Grande about 12 miles above Ber-nalillo.Santa Ana, on the north bank of the Rio Jemez.Santo Domingo, on the east bank of the Rio Grande about 18 miles aboveBernalillo.Sia, on the north bank of Jemez River about 16 miles northwest of Bernalillo.Western (Sitsime or Kawaiko) Group:Acoma, on a rock mesa or pefiol, 357 feet in height, about 60 miles west of theRio Grande, in Valencia County.Laguna, on the south bank of San Jos6 River, in Valencia County.In addition to the above principal towns, we have the following ancient townsand later out-villages recorded:
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 333Former towns of Cochiti and San Felipe:At the Potrero de las Vacas.At Tyuooyi or Rito de los Frijoles.Haatze, near the foot of the Sierra San Miguel, about Cochiti Pueblo.Hanut Cochiti, about 12 miles northwest of Cochiti Pueblo.Kuapa, in the Cafiada de Cochiti, 12 miles northwest of Cochiti Pueblo.Former towns of Santo Domingo:At the Potrero de la Cafiada Quemada.Gipuy, two towns: (1) on the banks of the Arroyo de Galisteo, more than amile east of the present station of Thornton; (2) west of No. 1.Huashpatzena, on the Rio Grande.Former towns of Sia:Opposite Sia are the ruins of a town called Kakanatzia and south of it anothercalled Kohasaya which may have been former Sia settlements.Former towns of Acoma:Kashkachuti, location unknown.Katzimo or the Enchanted Mesa, about 3 miles northeast of the present .\comaPueblo.Kowina, on a low mesa opposite the spring at the head of Cebollita Valley,about 15 miles west of Acoma.Kuchtya, location unknown.Tapitsiama, on a mesa 4 or 5 miles northeast of their present pueblo.Tsiama, the ruins are situated at the mouth of Canada de la Cruz, at or nearthe present Laguna village of Tsima.Later villages:Acomita, about 15 miles north of Acoma.Heashkowa, about 2 miles southeast of Acoma.Pueblito, about 15 miles north of Acoma.History.?Like the other Pueblo peoples of New Mexico, the Kere-sans traced their origin to the underworld, whence they had emergedat an opening called Shipapu. According to the tradition, they after-ward drifted south slowly to the Rio Grande, where they took uptheir residence in the Rito de los Frijoles, or Tyuonyi, and constructedthe cliff dwellings found there today excavated in the friable volcanictufa. Long before the coming of Europeans, they had abandonedthe Rito and moved farther south, separating into a number of au-tonomous viUage communities. Coronado, who visited them in 1540,reported seven of these. In 1583 Espejo encountered them and in1598 Onate. Missions were estabhshed in most of the principal townsearly in the seventeenth century, but they were annihilated andSpanish dominion temporarily brought to an end by the great Pueblorebellion of 1680, which was not finally quelled until about the end ofthe eighteenth century. Afterward, missionary work was resumed butwithout pronounced success, while the native population itself grad-ually declined in numbers. Although some of the most conservativepueblos belong to this group, they will not be able indefinitely to resistthe dissolving force of American civihzation in which they areimmersed.
334 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Population.?In 1760 there were 3,956 Keresans;ni 1790-93, 4,021;in 1805, 3,653; in 1850, 3,342; in 1860, 2,676; in 1871, 3,317; in 1901-5,4,249; in 1910, 4,027; in 1930, 4,134; in 1937, 5,781.Kiowa. The Kiowa raided into and across New Mexico in the Spanishand early American period. (See Oklahoma.)Kiowa Apache. The Kiowa Apache were an Athapascan tribe in-corporated into and accompanying the Kiowa. (See Oklahoma.)Lipan. The Lipan were the easternmost of the Apache tribes. (SeeApache and also Texas.)Manso. A Spanish word meaning "mild." Also called:Gorretas, by Zarate-Salmeron.Lanos, by Perea (1632-33).Connections.?The Manso belonged to the Tanoan division of theKiowa-Tanoan linguistic stock.Location.?About Mesilla Valley, in the vicinity of the present LasCruces, N. Mex. VillagesThe mission of Nuestra Sefiora de Guadalupe de los Mansos was founded amongthem but none of the native names of their villages are known.History.?Shortly before the appearance of the Spaniards in theircountry, the Manso hved in substantial houses like the Pueblo Indiansgenerally but changed these to dwellings of reeds and wood. Theywere relocated at a spot near El Paso in 1659 by Fray Garcia de SanFrancisco, who established the above-mentioned mission among them.The remnant of the Manso are now associated in one town with theTiwa and Piro.Population.?In 1668, when the mission of Nuestra Sefiora de Gua-dalupe de los Mansos was dedicated, Vetancourt states that it con-tained upward of 1,000 parishioners. Very few of Manso bloodremain.Navaho, Navajo. From Tewa Navahu, referring to a large area of cul-tivated land and applied to a former Tewa pueblo, and by extensionto the Navaho, known to the Spaniards as "Apaches de Navaj6,"who intruded on the Tewa domain or who hved in the vicinity, todistinguish them from other so-called Apache bands. Also called:Bdgowits, Southern Ute name.Dacdbimo, Hopi name.Ddvaxo, Kiowa Apache name.DIn6', own name.Djen6, Laguna name.Hua'amii'u, Havasupai name.I'hl-den6, Jicarilla name.Moshome, Keresan name.Oop, Oohp, Pima name.
SW4NTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 335Pdgowitch, southern Ute name, meaning "reed knives."Ta-cdb-cf-nyu-milh, Hopi name.Ta'hli'mnin, Sandia name.Tasdmew^, Hopi name (Ten Kate, 1885) meaning "bastards."Te'li^mnim, Isleta name.Teny^, Laguna name.Wild Coyotes, Zuni nickname translated.Yabipais Nabajay, Carets (1776).Ydtilatldvi, Tonto name.Yoetahd or Yutahd, Apache name, meaning "those who live on the borderof the Ute."Yu-i'-ta, Panamint name.Yutflapd, Yavapai name.Yutilatlawi, Tonto name.Connections.?With the Apache tribes, the Navaho formed thesouthern division of the Athapascan Hnguistic family.Location.?In northern New Mexico and Arizona with some exten-sion into Colorado and Utah.History.?Under the loosely appUed name Apache there may be arecord of this tribe as early as 1598 but the first mention of them bythe name of Navaho is by Zarate-Salmeron about 1629. Missionarieswere among them about the middle of the eighteenth century, buttheir labors seem to have borne no fruits. For many years previousto the occupation of their country by the United States, the Navahokept up an almost constant predatory war with the Pueblo Indiansand the \Miite settlers. A revolution in their economy was broughtabout by the introduction of sheep. Treaties of peace made by themwith the United States Government in 1846 and 1849 were not ob-served, and in 1863, in order to put a stop to their depredations, Col.
"Kit" Carson invaded their country, killed so many of their sheep as toleave them without means of support, and carried the greater part ofthe tribe as prisoners to Fort Sumner and the Bosque Redondo on theRio Pecos. They were restored to their country in 1867 and givena new supply of sheep and goats, and since then they have remainedat peace and prospered greatly, thanks to their flocks and the sale oftheir famous blankets.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates that there were 8,000Navaho in 1680. In 1867 an incomplete enumeration gave 7,300.In 1869 there were fewer than 9,000. The census of 1890, taken ona faulty system, gave 17,204. The census of 1900 returned more than20,000 and that of 1910, 22,455. The report of the United StatesIndian Office for 1923 gives more than 30,000 on the various Navahoreservations, and the 1930 census 39,064, while the Indian OfliceReport for 1937 entered 44,304.Connection in which they have become noted.?This tribe has acquiredconsiderable fame from its early adoption of a shepherd life after the
336 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145introduction of sheep and goats, and from the blankets woven byNavaho women and widely known to collectors and connoisseurs.The name has become affixed, in the Spanish form Navajo, to a county,creek, and spring in Arizona; a post village in Apache County, Ariz.;a mountain in New Mexico; and a place in Daniels County, Mont.In southwestern Oklahoma is a post village known as Navajoe. Thetribe has attracted an unusual amount of attention from ethnologistsand from writers whose interests are purely literary.Pecos. From P'e'-a-ku', the Keresan name of the pueblo. Alsocalled
:
Acuy^, Cicuy6, probably the name of a former pueblo, Tshiquit6 ortziquit^.Aqiu, Pecos and Jemez name.HiokQo'k, Isleta Tiwa name.K'ok'-o-ro-t'ii'-yu, Pecos name of pueblo.Los Angeles, mission name.Nuestra Senora de los Angeles de Porciuncula, full church name.Paego, Keresan name of Pueblo.Paequiu or Paequiuala, Keresan name of tribe.P'a-qu-lah, Jemez name.P^ahko, Santa Ana name.PeakQnf, Laguna name of Pueblo.Tamos, from Espejo.Connections.?The Pecos belonged to the Jemez division of theTanoan linguistic family, itself a part of the Kiowa-Tanoan stock.Location.?On an upper branch of Pecos River, about 30 milessoutheast of Santa F6. VillagesThe following are names of ruined Pecos villages:Kuuanguala, a few miles southeast of Pecos, near Arroyo Amarillo, at the presentsite of Rowe.Pomojoua, near San Antonio del Pueblo, 3 miles southeast of San Miguel, SanMiguel Count}'.San Jose, modern Spanish name of locality.Seyupa, a few miles southeast of Pecos, at the site of the village of Fulton, SanMiguel County,Tonchuun, 5 miles southeast of Pecos Pueblo,History.?According to tradition, the Pecos came originally fromsome place to the north of their historic seats, but their last migrationwas from the southeast where they occupied successively the nowruined pueblos at San Jos6 and Kingman before locating at theirfinal settlement. Pecos was first visited by Coronado in 1540 andafterward by Espejo in 1583, Castano de Sosa in 1590-91, and Onatein 1598. During the governorship of Onate, missionaries wereassigned to Pecos, and the great church, so long a landmark of theSanta F6 Trail, was erected about 1617. The town suffered severely
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 337from attacks of the Apache of the Plains and afterward from theComanche. In the Pueblo revolts of 1680-96 it took an active partand suffered proportionately. In 1782 the Pecos mission was aban-doned, the place becominj^ a visita of Santa F^. A few years laternearly every man in the Pecos tribe is said to have been killed in araid by the Comanche, epidemics decreased the numbers of theremainder, and in 1838 the old town of Pecos was abandoned. The17 surviving Pecos Indians moved to Jemez, where their descendantsstiU live.Population.?At the time of Coronado's visit in 1540 the populationwas estimated as 2,000-2,500. In 1630 and 1680 there were 2,000Pecos; in 1760, 599 (including Galisteo); in 1790-93, 152; in 1805,104; in 1838, 17; in 1910, 10.Connection in which they have become noted.?The name Pecos seemsassured of permanent preservation as applied to Pecos River, Tex.,the largest branch of the Rio Grande, as well as to Pecos County,Tex., and its principal town, and also to a place in San Miguel County,New Mex., adjacent to the ruins of the aboriginal village. Thelatter are well known as a result of the archeological work done thereby Dr. A. V. Kidder for the Department of Archeology, PhillipsAcademy, Andover, Mass.Piro Pueblos. Significance of Piro unknovrn. Also called:Nortefios, "northerners" in Spanish, because inhabiting the region ofEl Paso del Norte (may also refer to Tiwa).Tiikahun, Isleta Tiwa name for all pueblos below their village, meaning
"southern pueblos."Connections.?They w^ere a division of the Tanoan linguistic family,which in turn is a part of the Kiowa-Tanoan stock.Location and major subdivisions.?In the early part of the seven-teenth century the Piro comprised two divisions, one inhabiting theRio Grande Valley from the present town of San Marcial, SocorroCounty, northward to within about 50 miles of Albuquerque, wherethe Tiwa settlements began; and the other, sometimes called Tompirosand Salineros, occupying an area east of the Rio Grande in thevicinity of the salt lagoons, or salinas, where they adjoined the easterngroup of Tiwa settlements on the south.TownsAbo, on the Arroyo del Empedradillo, about 25 miles east of the Rio Grande and20 miles south of Manzano, in Valencia County.Agua Nueva, on the Rio Grande between Socorro and Servilleta.Alamillo, on the Rio Grande about 12 miles north of Socorro.Barrancas, on the Rio Grande near Socorro.Qualacu, on the east bank of the Rio Grande near the foot of the Black Mesa,on or near the site of San Marcial.
338 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Boll. 145San Felipe, on the Rio Grande, probably near the present San Marcial, SocorroCounty.San Pascual, on the east bank of the Rio Grande, opposite the present SanAntonio village, Socorro County.Senecu, on the west bank of the Rio Grande, at the site of the present village ofSan Antonio, 13 miles below Socorro.Senecu del Sur (also Tiwa), on the southeast bank of the Rio Grande, a few milesbelow El Paso, in Chihuahua, Mexico.Sevilleta, on the east bank of the Rio Grande about 20 miles above Socorro.Socorro or Pilabo, on the site of the present Socorro.Socorro del Sur, on both sides of the Rio Grande a few miles below El Paso, Tex.Tabira, at the southern apex of the Mesa de los Jumanos, northeast of the presentSocorro.Tenabo, probably at the Siete Arroyos, northeast of Socorro and east of the RioGrande.Teypana, nearly opposite the present town of Socorro, on the east bank of theRio Grande, in Socorro Couuty.Tenaquel (?).Following are names of deserted pueblos near the lower Rio Grande which werealso in all probability occupied by the Piro:Arao.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 339Mejia, 5 leagues below Isleta. San Francisco, on the lower Rio GrandeQuanquiz. between El Paso, Tex., and SanSalineta, 4 leagues from Guadelupe Lorenzo.Mission at El Paso, Tex. Xatoe.San Bautista, on the Rio Grande, 16 Xiamela (?).miles below Sevilleta. Yonalus.All the above pueblos not definitely located were probably situated in theSalinas in the vicinity of Abo.History.?The western or Rio Grande branch of the Piro was visitedby members of Coronado's Expedition in 1540, by Chamuscado in1580, by Espejo in 1583, by Onate in 1598, and by Benavides in1621-30. The establishment of missionaries among them began in1626, and the efforts of the monks combined with the threats ofApache raids to induce the Indians to concentrate into a smallernumber of towns. The first actual mission work among the Pirosof the Salinas began in 1629 and was prosecuted rapidly, but beforethe Pueblo rebellion of 1680 Apache raids had become so numerousthat all of the villages of the Salinas region and Senecu on the RioGrande were abandoned. The Piro were not invited to take part inthe great rebellion and when Governor Otermin retreated to El Pasonearly all of them joined him, while the few who remained subsequently scattered. Those who accompanied the governor weresettled at Senecu del Sur and Socorro del Sur, where their descendantsbecame largely Mexicanized.Population.?The Piro population was estimated at 9,000 early inthe sixteenth century, but is now about 60. (See Tewa.)Pueblo Indians. A general name for those Indians in the Southwestwho dwelt in stone buildings as opposed to the tribes living in morefragile shelters, pueblo being the word for "town" or "village" inSpanish. It is not a tribal or even a stock name, since the Pueblosbelonged to four distinct stocks. Following is the classification ofPueblos made by F. W. Hodge (1910) except that the Kiowa havesince been connected with the Tanoans and a few minor changeshave been introduced:Kiowa-Tanoan linguistic stock:Tewa Group:Northern Division: Nambe, Tesuque, San Ildefonso, San Juan, SantaClara, Pojoaque (recently extinct), Hano.Southern Division: Tano (practically extinct).Tiwa Group: Isleta, Isleta del Sur (Mexicanized), Sandia, Taos, Picuris.Jemez Group: Jemez, Pecos (extinct).Piro Group: Senecu, Senecu del Sur (Mexicanized).Keresan linguistic stock:Eastern Group: San Felipe, Santa Ana, Sia, Cochiti, Santo Domingo.Western Group: Acoma, Laguna, and outlying villages.
340 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bdll. 145Zunian linguistic stock:Zuni Group: Zufii and its outlying villages.Shoshonean linguistic stock, part of the Uto-Aztecan stock:Hopi Group: Walpi, Sichomovi, Mishongnovi, Shipaulovi, Shongopovi,Oraibi.The Pueblo Indians in New Mexico are being considered at lengthunder the following heads: Jemez, Keresan Pueblos, Piro Pueblos,Tewa Pueblos, Tiwa Pueblos, and Zuni; the Hopi are considered underArizona. (See also Colorado, Nevada, and Texas.)Connection in which they have become noted.?The Pueblo Indianshave become famous from the fact that, unlike all of their neighbors,they lived in communal stone houses and in stone dwellings perchedalong the canyon walls; from their peculiar customs and ceremonies,such as the Snake Dance; and from their real and supposed connectionwith the builders of the stone ruins with which their country andneighboring parts of the Southwest abound. In recent years theyhave been subjects of interest to artists and writers and an attempthas been made to base a style of architecture upon the type of theirdwellings. They are of historic interest as occupants of one of thetwo sections of the United States first colonized by Europeans.Shuman. The Shuman lived at various times in or near the southernand eastern borders of New Mexico. (See Texas.)Tewa Pueblos. The name Tewa is from a Keres word meaning
"moccasins." Also called:Tu'-ba-na, Taos name.Tu'-vSn, Isleta and Sandia name.Connections.?They constituted a major division of the Tanoanlinguistic family, itself a part of the Kiowa-Tanoan stock.Location.?Along the valley of the Rio Grande in the northern partof New Mexico, except for one pueblo, Hano, in the Hopi country,Arizona. SubdivisionsThey consisted of two main branches, the Northern Tewa, from near SantaT6 to the mouth of the Rio Chama, including also Hano; and the Southern Tewaor Tano, from Santa F4 to the neighborhood of Golden, back from the Rio Grande.TownsNorthern Tewa towns and villages still occupied:Hano, the easternmost pueblo of Tusayan, Ariz.Nambe, about 16 miles north of Santa Fe, on Nambe River, a small tributaryof the Rio Grande.San Ildefonso, near the eastern bank of the Rio Grande, about 18 miles northwestof Santa F6.San Juan, near the eastern bank of the Rio Grande 25 miles northwest of Sante Fe.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 341Santa Clara, on the western bank of the Rio Grande, about 30 miles aboveSanta F6.Tesuque, 8 miles north of Santa F6.Towns and villages formerly occupied by the Northern Tewa:Abechiu, at a place called Le Puente, on a bluff close to the southern bank ofRio Chama, 3 miles southeast of the present town of Abiquiu, Rio ArribaCounty.Agawano, in the mountains about 7 miles east of the Rio Grande, on Rio SantaCruz.Analco, at the place where there is now the so-called "oldest house," adjacent toSan Miguel Chapel, in Santa F6.Axol, location uncertain.Camitria, in Rio Arriba County.Chipiinuinge, on a small but high detached mesa between the Canones andPolvadera Creek, 4 miles south of Chama and about 14 miles southwest of Abi-quiu, Rio Arriba County.Chipiwi, location uncertain.Chupadero, location uncertain.Cuyamunque, on Tesuque Creek, between Tesuque and Pojoaque, about 15 milesnorthwest of Santa Fd.Fejiu, at the site of the present Abiquiu on the Rio Chama, Rio Arriba County.Fesere, on a mesa west or south of the Rio Chama, near Abiquiu, Rio ArribaCounty.Homayo, on the west bank of Rio Ojo Caliente, a small western tributary of theRio Grande, in Rio Arriba County.Howiri, at the Rito Colorado, about 10 miles west of the Hot Springs, near Abiquiu,Rio Arriba County.Ihamba, on the south side of Pojoaque River, between Pojoaque and San IldefonsoPueblos.Jacona, a short distance west of Nambe, on the south side of Pojoaque River,Santa F6 County.Junetre, in Rio Arriba County.Kaayu, in the vicinity of the "Santuario" in the mountains about 7 miles eastof the Rio Grande, on Rio Santa Cruz, Santa F6 County.Keguayo, in the vicinity of the Chupaderos, a cluster of springs in a mountaingorge, about 4 miles east of Nambe Pueblo.Kuapooge, with Analco occupying the site of Santa F6.Kwengyauinge, on a conical hill about 15 feet high, overlooking Chama River,at a point known as La Puenta, about 3 miles below Abiquiu, Rio ArribaCounty.Luceros, partially Tewa.Navahu, in the second valley south of the great pueblo and cliff village of Puye,west of Santa Clara Pueblo, in the Pajarito Park.Navawi, between the Rito de los Frijoles and Santa Clara Canyon, southwestof San Ildefonso.Otowi, on a mesa about 5 miles west of the point where the Rio Grande entersWhite Rock Canyon, between the Rito de los Frijoles and Santa Clara Canyon,in the northeastern corner of Sandoval County.Perage, a few rods from the west bank of the Rio Grande, about 1 mile westof San Ildefonso Pueblo.Pininicangui, on a knoll in a valley about 2 miles south of Puye and 3 miles southof Santa Clara Creek, on the Pajarito Plateau, Sandoval County.
342 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145
Pojiuuingge, at La Joya, about 10 miles north of San Juan Pueblo.Pojoaque, on a small eastern tributary of the Rio Grande, about 18 miles north-west of Santa F6.Ponyinumbu, near the Mexican settlement of Santa Cruz, in the northern partof Santa F6 County.Ponyipakuen, near Ojo Caliente and El Rito, about the boundary of Taos andRio Arriba Counties.Poseuingge, at the Rito Colorado, about 10 miles west of the hot springs nearAbiquiu.Potzuye, on a mesa west of the Rio Grande in northern New Mexico, betweenSan Ildefonso Pueblo on the north and the Rito de los Frijoles on the south.Pueblito, opposite San Juan Pueblo, on the west bank of the Rio Grande inRio Arriba County.Pueblo Quemado (or Tano), 6 miles southwest of Santa F6.Puye, on a mesa about 10 miles west of the Rio Grande and a mile south ofSanta Clara Canyon, near the intersection of the boundaries of Rio Arriba,Sandoval, and Santa F6 Counties.Sajiuwingge, at La Joya, about 10 miles north of San Juan Pueblo, Rio ArribaCounty.Sakeyu on a mesa west of the Rio Grande in northern New Mexico, betweenSan Ildefonso Pueblo and Rito de los Frijoles.Sandia, not the Tiwa pueblo of that name.Santa Cruz, east of the Rio Grande, 30 miles northwest of Santa Fe, at the siteof the present town of that name.Sepawi, in the valley of El Rito Creek, on the heights above the Ojo Calienteof Joseph, and 5 miles from the Mexican settlement of El Rito.Shufina, on a castlelike mesa of tufa northwest of Puye and separated from it bySanta Clara Canyon.Teeuinge, on top of the mesa on the south side of Rio Chama, about K milefrom the river and an equal distance below the mouth of Rio Oso, in Rio ArribaCounty.Tejeuingge Ouiping, on the southern slope of the hills on which stands the presentpueblo of San Juan, on the Rio Grande.Tobhipangge, 8 miles northeast of the present Nambe Pueblo.Triapf, location uncertain.Triaque, location uncertain.Troomaxiaquino, in Rio Arriba County.Tsankawi, on a lofty mesa between the Rito de los Frijoles on the south and LosAlamos Canyon on the north, about 5 miles west of the Rio Grande.Tsawarii, at or near the present hamlet of La Puebla, or Pueblito, a few milesabove the town of Santa Cruz, in southeastern Rio Arriba County.Tseweige, location uncertain.Tshirege, on the northern edge of the Mesa del Pajarito about 6 miles west ofthe Rio Grande and 7 miles south of San Ildefonso Pueblo.Yugeuingge, on the west bank of the Rio Grande, opposite the present puebloof San Juan, near the site of the village of Chamita.The following extinct villages are either Tewa or Tano:Chiuma, location uncertain.Guia, on the Rio Grande in the vicinity of Albuquerque.Guika, on the Rio Grande near Albuquerque.Penas Negras, on an eminence west of Pecos Road, near the edge of a forest, 8miles south-southeast of Santa F6.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 343The following were inhabited by either the Tiwa or the Tewa:Axoytre, perhaps the same as Axol above?Camitre, perhaps the same as Camitria above?Paniete, location uncertain.Piamato, location uncertain.Quiotrdco, probably in Rio Arriba County.So far as known the following pueblos belonged to the Southern Tewa:Ci^nega (also contained Keresan Indians), in the valley of Rio Santa F6, 12 milessouthwest of Santa F6.Dyapige, southeast of Lamy, "some distance in the mountains."Gahsteo, l}i miles southeast of the present hamlet of the name and about 22 milessouth of Santa F6.Guika (or Tewa), on the Rio Grande near Albuquerque.Kayepu, about 5 miles south of Galisteo, Santa F6 County.Kipana, south of the hamlet of Tejon, in Sandoval County.Kuakaa, on the south bank of Arroyo Hondo, 5 miles south of Santa F6.Ojana, south of the hamlet of Tejon, Sandoval County.Paako, south of the mining camp of San Pedro, Santa F6 County.Pueblo Blanco, on the west rim of the M6dano, or great sand-flow, east of theRio Grande.Pueblo Colorado, on the south border of the Galisteo plain.Pueblo de los Silos, in the Gahsteo Basin, between the Keresan pueblos of theRio Grande and Pecos.Pueblo Largo, about 5 miles south of Galisteo.Pueblo Quemado (or Tewa), 6 miles southwest of Santa Y6.Puerto (or Keresan).San Crist6bal, between Galisteo and Pecos.San Ldzaro, 12 miles southwest of the present Lamy, on the south bank of theArroyo del Chorro, Santa F^ County.San Marcos, 18 miles south-southwest of Santa F6.Sempoai, near Golden, Santa F6 County.She, about 5 miles south of Galisteo in Santa T6 County.Tuerto, near the present Golden City, Santa F6 County,Tungge, on a bare slope near the banks of a stream called in the mountains farthersouth Rio de San Pedro; lower down, Ufia de Gato; and in the vicinity of theruins Arroyo del Tunque, at the northeastern extremity of the Sandia Moun-tains, in Sandoval County.Tzemantuo, about 5 miles south of Galisteo, Santa F6 County.Tzenatay, opposite the little settlement of La Bajada, on the declivity slopingfrom the west toward the bed of Santa F6 Creek, 6 miles east of the Rio Grandeand 20 miles southwest of Santa F6.Uapige, east of Lamy Station on the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa F6 Railway,some distance in the mountains.History.?When Coronado passed through the southern end ofTewa territory in 1540, he found it had been nearly depopulated bythe Teya, a warlike Plains tribe, perhaps Apache, about 16 years before.The Tewa were next visited by Espejo. In 1630 there were but fiveSouthern Tewa towns remaining and those were entirely broken upduring the Pueblo revolts of L680-96, most of the Indians removing
344 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145to the Hopi in Arizona, after 1694. The greater part of the remainderwere destroyed by smallpox early in the nineteenth centmy, thoughthere are still a few descendants of this group living in the other pueblosalong the Rio Grande, particularly Santo Domingo. The history ofthe NorthernTewa was similar to that of the Southern but they sufferedmuch less and remain a considerable body at the present day thoughwith a stationary population. The Pueblo of Hano was establishedamong the Hopi as a result of the rebellion of 1680-92.Populations.?The population of the Northern Tewa is given asfollows: In 1680, 2,200; in 1760, 1,908; in 1790-93, 980; in 1805, 929;in 1850, 2,025; in 1860, 1,161; in 1871, 979, in 1901-05, 1,200; in 1910,968. In 1930 the entire Tanoan stock numbered 3,412. In 1937,1,708 were returned from the Tewa excluding the Hano, which wereenumerated with the Hopi.In 1630 Benavides estimated the Southern Tewa population at4,000; in 1680 Galisteo, probably including San Crist6bal, had anestimated population of 800 and San Marcos of 600. No later separatefigures are available.Connection in which they have become noted.?Tano, the alternativename of the Southern Tewa, has been used as a designation of the stockto which the entire group?Tewa, Tiwa, Piro, Pecos, and Jemez
?
belong, a stock now merged with the Kiowa-Tanoan.Tiwa Pueblos. The name Tiwa is from TiVan, pi. Tiwesh', theirown name. Also spelled Tebas, Tigua, Tiguex, Tihuas, Chiguas.Also called:E-nagh-magh, a name given by Lane (in Schoolcraft, 1851-57) to thelanguage of "Taos, Picuris, Tesuqua, Sandia," etc.Connections.?The Tiwa Pueblos are a division of the Tanoan lin-guistic family, itself a part of the Kiowa-Tanoan stock.Location and Subdivisions.?The Tiwa Pueblos formed three geo-graphic divisions, one occupying Taos and Picuris (the most northerlyof the New Mexican Pueblos) , on the upper waters of the Rio Grande
;
another inhabiting Sandia and Isleta, north and south of Albuquerquerespectively; and the third Uving in the pueblos of Isleta del Sur andSenecu del Sur, near El Paso, Tex., in Texas and Chihuahua, Mexico,respectively. Towns and Villages(As far as known)Alameda, on the east side of the Rio Grande about 10 miles above Albuquerque.Bejuituuy, near the southern limit of the Tiwa habitat on the Rio Grande, at thepresent Los Lunas.Carfaray, supposed to have been east of the Rio Grande beyond the saline lakes.Chilili, on the west side of the Arroyo de Chilili, about 30 miles southeast ofAlbuquerque.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 345
Isleta, on the west bank of the Rio Grande about 12 miles south of Albuquerque.Isleta del Sur, on the northeast side of the Rio Grande, a short distance belowEl Paso, Tex.Kuaua, north of the present bridge across the Rio Grande above Bernalillo.Lentes, on the west bank of the Rio Grande near Los Lunas.Manzano, near the present village so called, 6 miles northwest of Quarai and about25 miles east of the Rio Grande.Mojualuna, in the mountains above the present Taos Pueblo.Nabatutuei, location unknown.Nachurituei, location unknown.Pahquetooai, location unknown.Picuris, inhabited, about 40 miles north of Santa F6.Puaray, on a gravelly bluff overlooking the Rio Grande in front of the southernportion of the town of Bernalillo.Puretuay, on the summit of the round mesa of Shiemtuai, or Mesa de las Padillas,3 miles north of Isleta.Quarai, about 30 miles straight east of the Rio Grande, in the eastern part of Valen-cia County.San Antonio, east of the present settlement of the same name, about the centerof the Sierra de Gallego, or Sierra de Carnu6, between San Pedro and Chilili,east of the Rio Grande.Sandia, inhabited, on the east bank of the Rio Grande, 12 miles north of Albu-querque.Santiago, probably about 12^ miles above Bernalillo, on the Mesa del Cangelon.Senecu del Sur, including Piro Indians, on the southeastern bank of the Rio Grande,a few miles below El Paso, in Chihuahua, Mexico,Shumnac, east of the Rio Grande in the vicinity of the present Mexican settle-ments of Chilili, Tajique, and Manzano.Tajique, about 30 miles northeast of Belen, close to the present settlement of thesame name, on the southern bank of the Arroyo de Tajique.Taos, inhabited, on both sides of Taos River, an eastern tributary of the RioGrande, in Taos County.The following pueblos now extinct were probably also Tiwa:Locations entirely unknown: Locations known:Acacafui. Ranchos, about 3 miles from TaodGuayotrf. Pueblo.Henicohio. Shinana, on the Rio Grande nearLeyvia. Albuquerque.Paniete. Tanques, also on the Rio Grande nearPoxen. Albuquerque.Trimati. Torreon, at the modern town of theTuchiamas. same name, about 28 miles east ofVareato. Belen.History.?The first two Tiwa divisions above mentioned occupiedthe same positions when Coronado encountered the Tiwa in 1540-42.Relations between his followers and the Indians soon became hostileand resulted in the capture of two pueblos by his army. In 1581three missionaries were sent to the Tiwa under an escort but all werekilled as soon as the escort was withdrawn. In 1583 Espejo approachedPuaray, which Coronado had attacked, but the Indians fled. Cas-
346 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bdll. 145tano de Sosa visited the Tiwa in 1591 and Ofiate in 1598. Missionary-work was begun among them early in the seventeenth century, and theIndians were withdrawn progressively until only four pueblos wereoccupied by them at the time of the great rebellion of 1G80, in whichihej took part. In 1681 Governor Otermin stormed Isleta and cap-tured 500 Indians most of whom he settled near El Paso. Part of theIsleta fled to the Hopi country and remained there until 1709 or 1718,when the people of Isleta returned and reestablished their town. TheSandia Indians, however, remained away until 1742, when they werebrought back by some missionaries and settled in a new pueblo neartheir former one. Since then there have been few disturbances ofimportance, but the population until very lately slowly declined.Population.?In 1680 there were said to be 12,200 Tiwa; in 1760,1,428 were reported; in 1790-93, 1,486; in 1805, 1,491; in 1850, 1,575;m 1860, 1,163; in 1871, 1,478; m 1901-5, 1,613; in 1910, 1,650; in 1937,2,122. (See Tewa Pueblos.)Ute. The Ute were close to the northern border of New Mexico,extending across it at times and frequently raiding the tribes of theregion and the later white settlements. (See Utah.)Zufii. A Spanish adaptation of the Keresan Siinyyitsi, or Su'nyitsaof unknown meaning. Also spelled Juni. Synonyms are:A'shiwi, own name, signifying "the flesh."Cibola, early Spanish rendering of A'swiwi.La Purisima de Zuni, mission name.Nai-t6'-zi, Navaho name.Narsh-tiz-a, Apache name.Nashtezhg, Navaho name.Nuestra Senora de Guadalupe de Zuni, mission name.Saraf, Isleta and Sandia name of the pueblo; Sardn, Isleta name of thepeople.Saray, Tiwa name of the pueblo.Sa'u'u, Havasupai name.Siete Ciudades de Cibola, or Seven Cities of Cibola.Sti'nyitsa, Santa Ana name of the pueblo.Siinyftsi, Laguna name.TSa Ashiwani, sacred name of tribe, signifying "corn peoples."Xaray, the Tiwa name.Ze-gar-kin-a, given as Apache name.Connections.?The Zuni constitute the Zunian linguistic stock.Location.?On the north bank of upper Zuni River, ValenciaCounty. VillagesHalona (extinct), on both sides of Zuni River, on and opposite the site of ZuniPueblo.Hampasawan (extinct), 6 miles west of Zuni Pueblo.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 347Hawikuh (extinct), about 15 miles southwest of Zuni Pueblo, near the summervillage of Ojo Caliente.Heshokta (extinct), on a mesa about 5 miles northwest of Zuni Pueblo.Heshota Ayathltona (extinct), on the summit of Taaiyalana, or Seed Mountain,commonly called Thunder Mountain, about 4 miles southeast of Zuiii Pueblo.Heshota Hluptsina (extinct), between the "gateway" and the summer village ofPescado, 7 miles east of Zuni Pueblo.Heshota Imkoskwin (extinct), near Tawyakwin, or Nutria.Heshotapathltaie, or Kintyel, on Leroux Wash, about 23 miles north of NavahoStation, on the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa F6 Railway, Ariz.Heshota Uhla (extinct), at the base of a mesa on Zuni River, about 5 miles west ofthe summer village of Ojo Pescado, or Heshotatsina.Kechipauan (extinct), on a mesa east of Ojo Caliente, or Kyapkwainakwin, 15miles southwest of Zuni Pueblo.Kiakima (extinct), at the southwestern base of Thunder Mountain, 4 miles south-east of Zuiii Pueblo.Kwakina (extinct), 7 miles southwest Of Zuili Pueblo.Kwakiuawan (extinct), south-southeast of Thunder Mountain, which lies 4 mileseast of Zuiii Pueblo.Matsaki (extinct), near the northwestern base of Thunder Mountain and 3 mileseast of Zufii Pueblo.Nutria, at the headwaters of an upper branch of Zuiii River, about 23 miles north-east of Zuiii Pueblo.Ojo Caliente, about 14 miles southwest of Zuni Pueblo.Pescado, about 15 miles east of Zuiii Pueblo.Pinawan (extinct), about V/z miles southwest of Zuiii Pueblo, on the road to OjoCaliente.Shopakia (extinct), 5 miles north of Zuni Pueblo.Wimian (extinct), 11 miles north of Zuiii Pueblo.History.?According to Gushing (1896), the Zufii are descended fromtwo peoples, one of whom came originally from the north and waslater joined by the second, from the west or southwest (from thecountry of the lower Colorado), who resembled the Yuman and Pimanpeoples in culture. Although indefinite rumors of an Indian provincein the far north, containing seven cities, were afloat in Mexico soonafter its conquest, the first definite infonnation regarding the Zuniwas supplied by Fray Marcos de Niza, who set out in 1539, with aBarbaiy Negro named Estevanico as guide, to explore the regions ofthe northwest. In the present Arizona he learned that Estevanicowho, together with some of his Indian companions, had been sent onahead, had been killed by the natives of "Cibola," or Zufii. Afterapproaching within sight of one of the Zuni pueblos, Fray Marcosreturned to Mexico with such glowing accounts of the "Kingdom ofCibola" that the expedition of Francisco Vasquez de Coronado wasfitted out the next year. The first Zufii Indians were encountered nearthe mouth of Zuni River, and the Spaniards later carried the Zufiipueblo of Hav/ikuh by storm, but it was discovered that the Indianshad already moved their women and children, together with the
348 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 143greater part of their property, to their stronghold on Taaiyalone Mesa.Thither the men also escaped. The invaders were bitterly dis-appointed in respect to the riches of the country, and, after the arrivalof the main part of the army, they removed to the Rio Grande to gointo winter quarters. Later, Coronado returned and subjugated theZuiii.In 1580 the Zuiii were visited by Francisco Sanchez Chamuscado,and in 1583 by Antonio de Espejo, the first to call them by thename they commonly bear. By this time one of the seven originalpueblos had been abandoned. In 1598, the Zuni were visited byJuan de Onate, the colonizer of New Mexico. The first Zuni missionwas established by the Franciscans at Hawikuh in 1629. In 1632 theZuni murdered the missionaries and again fled to Taaiyalone Mesa,where they remained until 1635. On August 7, 1670, the Apache orNavaho raided Hawikuh, killed the missionary, and burned thechurch. The mission was not reestablished, and it is possible that thevillage itself was not rebuilt. In 1680 the Zuni occupied but threevillages, excluding Hawikuh, the central mission being at Halona, onthe site of the present Zuni pueblo. They took part in the great re-bellion of 1680 and fled to Taaiyalone Mesa, where they remained untiltheir reconquest by Vargas in 1692. From this time on the peoplewere concentrated in the single village now known as Zuni, and achurch was erected there in 1699. In 1703 they killed the missionaryand again fled to their stronghold, returning in 1705. A gaiTison wasmaintained at Zuni for some years after this, and there were troubleswith the Hopi, which were finally composed in 1713. The missioncontinued well into the nineteenth century, but the church was visitedonly occasionally by priests and gradually feU into ruins. In recentyeai"s the United States Government has built extensive irrigationworks and established a large school, where the younger generation arebeing educated in the ways of civilization.Population.?In 1630 the Zuni population was estimated at 10,000,probably much too high a figure; and in 1680, at 2,500. In 1760 it wasgiven as 664; in 1788, 1,617; in 1797-98, 2,716; in 1805, 1,470; inl871,1,530; in 1889, 1,547; in 1910, 1,667; in 1923, 1,911; in 1930, 1,749;in 1937, 2,080.Connections in which they have become noted.?The Zuni have becomewidely loiowTi (1) from their association with the "Kingdom of Ci-bola"; (2) from the size of the pueblo and the unique character of thelanguage spoken there; and (3) from the close study made of them byGushing, Mrs. Stevenson, Kroeber, and others. The name Zuni isborne by a detached range of mountains in the northwestern part ofNew Mexico. Besides Zuni post village in McKinley County, N. Max.,there is a place named Zuni in Isle of Wight County, Va.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 349ARIZONAApache. Bands of Apache occupied the Gila River region in Arizonawithin historic times and periodically overran much of the territoryof the State. (See New Mexico.)Cocopa. Significance of name unknown.Connections.?The Cocopa belong to the Yuman linguistic family,a branch of the Hokan stock.Location.?About the mouth of Colorado River. (See also Mexico.)SubdivisionsRiver Cocopa and Mountain Cocopa. Cuculato and Llagas are also men-tioned, the latter a name applied by the Spaniards to a group of villages.VillagesGiflFord (1923) reports as follows: "Settlement sites on W. bank of Coloradofrom Hardy confluence N. (when river flowed near Colonia Lerdo) : 1, A'u'ewawa;2, Kwinyakwa'a; 3, Yishiyul, settlement of Halyikwamai in 1848; 4, Heyauwah,5 miles N. of Yishiyul and opposite Colonia Lerdo (8 hours' slow walk fromColorado-Hardy confluence); 5, Amanyochilibuh; 6, Esinyamapawhai CNoche Buenaof the Mexicans)." There was also a tovra called Hauwala below or above No. 5.
"Settlement sites on W. bank of Hardy from confluence N.: 1, Karukhap; 2,Awiahamoka; 3, Niimischapsakal; 4, EweshespiL; 5, Tamanikwawa, (meaning
'mullet (tamanik) place') on lagoon 4 or 5 miles SE of Cocopah mts; 6, 'wikukapa(Cocopa mt.); 10, Wclsul; 11, Awisinyai, northernmost Cocopa village, about 5miles S. of Mexicali."Lumholtz (p. 251) lists following Cocopa settlements in the first decade of20th century; Noche Buena (20 families), Mexical (40-50 families), Pescador (15families), Pozo Vicente (more than 100 families)."History.?Without question this tribe was first met by Hernando deAlarc6n in 1540. They are mentioned by Onate in 1604-5, by Kinoin 1701-2 under the name "Hogiopas," and by Francisco Garc6s in1776. Most of their territory was outside of the limits of the UnitedStates, but a small part of it passed under United States Governmentcontrol with the Gadsden Purchase. Those Cocopa who remained onthe northern side of the International Boundary were placed on theColorado River Reservation.Population.?Garc6s estimated 3,000 in 1776. In 1857 Heintzelmanplaced the former strength of the tribe at about 300 warriors. Thereare now said to be 800 in northern Baja California. There were 99in the United States in 1930, and 41 in 1937.Halchidhoma. Significance unknown.Connections.?The Halchidhoma belonged to the Yuman branch ofthe Hokan Unguistic stock and are said to have spoken the samelanguage as the Yuma tribe and to have been closely connected alsowith the Maricopa.Location.?At various points on the Colorado River near the mouthof the Gila. (See also California.)
350 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145
VillagesAsumpci6n, a group of villages on or near the Colorado River, in California, morethan 50 miles below the mouth of Bill Williams Fork.Lagrimas de San Pedro, a group of villages in the neighborhood of Asumpci6n.San Antonio, in the same general location as Lagrimas but only 35 or 40 milesbelow the mouth of Bill Williams Fork.Santa Coleta, a group of villages in the same region as Asumpci6n and Lagrimasde San Pedro.History.?The Halchidhoma were probably encountered by Alarc6nin 1540, though he does not mention them. In 1604-5 Onate foundthem occupying eight villages on the Colorado below the mouth of theGUa; Father Eusebio Kino in 1701-2 came upon them above theGila, and by Garc6s' time (177B) their villages were scattered on bothsides of the Colorado, beginning about 38 miles below Bill WiUiams'Fork and extending the same distance downstream. Later theymoved farther north, along with the Kohuana, but were soon forceddownstream again by the Mohave and ultimately took refuge withthe Maricopa on Gila River, by whom they were ultimately absorbed.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates 3,000 in 1680, but this isevidently based on Garc6s' figure of 2,500 in 1776, which Kroeber(1920) believes much too high. Kroeber suggests about 1,000 as ofthe year 1770.Halyikwamai. Significance unknown. Also spelled Jallicumay,Quigyuma, Tlalliguamayas, Kikima (by Mason, 1940), and invarious other ways.Connections.?The Halyikwamai belonged to the Yuman linguisticstock, their dialect being reported as close to Cocopa and Kohuana.Location.? (See History.) VillagesPresentacion, probably Quigyuma, on the west side of the Colorado River, inBaja California,San Casimiro, probably on the east bank of the Colorado River, above tidewater,in northwest Sonora, Mexico.San Felix de Valois, apparently on the east bank of the Rio Colorado, between itsmouth and the junction of the Gila, probably about the present Arizona-Sonoraboundary line.San Rudesindo, probably on the east bank of the Colorado River, just above itsmouth, in northwestern Sonora, Mexico.Santa Rosa, a group of villages on the eastern side of the lower Rio Colorado,about latitude 32? 18' N., in northwestern Sonora, Mexico.History.?The Halyikwamai were discovered in 1540 by Alarc6n,who calls them Quicama. In 1604-5 Onate found them in villages onthe Colorado River below the mouth of the Gila River and above theCocopa Indians. In 1762 they dwelt in a fertile plain, 10 or 12 leaguesin length, on the eastern bank of the Colorado, and here they were
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 351found by Father Garc^s in 1771 in a group of villages which he namedSanta Rosa. By 1775, when he revisited the tribe, they had moved tothe west side of the river, their first villages on the north being in thevicinity of Ogden's Landing, about latitude 32?18' N., adjacent to theKohuana. It is probable that they were finally absorbed by theCocopa or some other Yuman people.Population.?-Mooney (1928) estimates a population for the Hal3^ik-wamai in 1680 of 2,000, which is Garces' estimate in 1775. Oiiate esti-mated 4,000-5,000 in 1605, but all of these figm'es are probably muchtoo high.Havasupai. Signifying "blue (or green) water people," abbreviatedinto Supai. Also called:Ak'-ba-su'-pai, Walapai form of name.Ka'nlna, Coconino, Cosnino, Kokonino, Zuni name said to have beenborrowed from the Hopi and to signify "pinon nut people."Nation of the Willows, so called by Gushing.Yabipai Jabesua, so called by Carets in 1776.Connections.?The Havasupai belong to the Yuman branch of theHokan linguistic stock, being most closely connected with the Walapai,and next with the Yavapai.Location.?They occupy Cataract Canyon of the Colorado River,northwestern Arizona.History.?The nucleus of the Havasupai Tribe is believed to havecome from the Walapai. The Cosnino caves on the upper Rio Verde,near the northern edge of Tonto Basin, central Arizona, were namedfor them, from a traditional former occupancy. Garces may have metsome of these Indians in 1776, but definite notices of them seem to belacking until about the middle of the last century. Leroux (1888)appears to have met one of this tribe in 1851, and since then theyhave come increasingly to the knowledge of the Whites.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates about 300 Havasupai in1680, but Spier (1928) believes this figure somewhat too high. In1869, 300 were reported; in 1902, 233; in 1905, 174; in 1910, 174; andin 1923, 184. In 1930, with the Walapai and Yavapai, they num-bered 646. In 1937 the number estimated was 208.Hopi. Contracted from their own name H6pitu, "peaceful ones,"or Hdpitu-shinumu, "peaceful all people." Also called:A-ar-ke, or E-ar'-ke, Apache name, signifying "live high up on top of themesas."Ah-mo-kdi, Zuni name.Ai-yah-kin-nee, Navaho name.A'-mu-kwi-kwe, Zuni name, signifying "smallpox people."Asay or Osay, by Bustamante and Gallegos (1582).Bokeaf, Sandia Tiwa name.
352 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bdll. 145Buhk'h6rk, Isleta Tiwa name for Tusayan.Bukfn, Isleta name for the people.Eyanini din6, Navaho name (Gatschet).Hapeka, a Zuni name, referring to excrement.Joso, Tewa name.Khoso, Santa Clara name.Kosho, Hano Tewa name.K'o-so-o, San Ildefonso Tewa name.Maastoetsjkwe, given by Ten Kate, signifying "the land of Mdsaw6," godof the earth, given as the name of their country.Mastutc'kwe, same as preceding.Moki, signifying "dead" in their own language, but probably from someother, perhaps a Keresan dialect.Topin-keua, said to be a Zuni name of which Tontonteac is a corruption.Tusayan, name of the province in which the Hopi lived, from Zufii Usaya-kue, "people of Usaya," Usaya referring to two of the largest Hopivillages.Whiwunai, Sandia Tiwa name.Connections.?The Hopi constitute a peculiar dialectic division ofthe Shoshonean branch of the Uto-Aztecan linguistic family, and theyare the only Shoshonean people, so far as known, who ever took on aPueblo culture, though the Tanoans are suspected of a remoteShoshonean relationship.Location.?On Three Mesas in northeastern Arizona.TownsAwatobi (destroyed), on a mesa about 9 miles southeast of Walpi.Hano, occupied by Tewa (see Tewa Pueblos under New Mexico).Homolobi, near Winslow, was formerly occupied by the ancestors of various Hopiclans.Kisakobi, at the northwest base of the East Mesa.Kuchaptuvela, on the terrace of the First or East Mesa below the present Walpivillage.Mishongnovi, on the Second or Middle Mesa.Moenkapi, about 40 miles northwest of Oraibi, a farming village of Oraibi.Oraibi, on the Third or West Mesa.Shipaulovi, on the Second or Middle Mesa.Shongopovi, on the Second or Middle Mesa.Sichomovi, on the First or East Mesa.Walpi, on the First or East Mesa.Kisatobi and Kuchaptuvela were successively occupied by the ancestors of theWalpi before the later Walpi was built.History.?According to tradition, the Hopi are made up of peopleswho came from the north, east, and south. Their first contact withEuropeans was in 1540, when Coronado, then at Zuni, sent Pedro deTobar and Fray Juan de Padilla to visit them. They were visitedby Antonio de Espejo in 1583, and in 1598 Juan de Onate, governorand colonizer of New Mexico, made them swear fealty and vassalageto the King of Spain. In 1629 a Franciscan mission was established
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 353
at Awatobi, followed by others at Walpi, Shongopovi, Mishongnovi,and Oraibi. These were destroyed in the general Pueblo outbreak of1680, and an attempt to reestablish a mission at Awatobi in 1700 ledto its destruction by the other pueblos. The pueblos of Walpi, Mish-ongnovi, and Shongopovi, then situated in the foothills, were prob-ably abandoned about the time of the rebellion, and new villages werebuilt on the adjacent mesas for defense against a possible Spanishattack which did not materialize. After the reconquest of the RioGrande pueblos by Vargas, some of the people who formerly occupiedthem fled to the Hopi and built a pueblo called Payupki on the MiddleMesa. About the middle of the eighteenth century, however, theywere taken back and settled in Sandia. About 1700 Hano wasestablished on the East Mesa, near Walpi, by Tewa from near Abi-quiu, N. Mex., on the invitation of the Walpians. About the timewhen the Payupki people returned to their old homes, Sichomovi wasbuilt on the First Mesa by clans from the Rio Grande, and Shipauloviwas founded by a colony from Shongopovi. The present HopiReservation was set aside by Executive order on December 16, 1882.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates a Hopi population of 2,800m 1680. In 1890 the population of Oraibi was 905, and in 1900 theother pueblos (exclusive of Hano) had 919. In 1904 the total Hopipopulation was officially given as 1,878. The Census of 1910 re-turned 2,009, apparently including Hano, and the Report of theUnited States Indian Office for 1923 gave 2,336. The United StatesCensus of 1930 returned 2,752. In 1937 there were 3,248, includingthe Tewan Hano.Connections in which they have become noted.?The Hopi are notedas a tribe Shoshonean in language but Puebloan in culture, and alsodeserve consideration as one of the Pueblo divisions to which particularattention has been paid by ethnologists, including Fewkes, the Steven-sons, Hough, Voth, Forde, Lowie, etc. Great popular attention hasbeen drawn to them on account of the spectacular character of theSnake Dance held every 2 years.Kohuana. Significance unknown. Also given as Cajuenche, Cawina,and Quokim.Connections.?The Kohuana belonged to the Yuman branch of theHokan linguistic stock, spoke the Cocopa dialect, and were also closelyconnected with the Halyikwamai.Location.?In 1775-76 the Kohuana lived on the east bank of theColorado River below the mouth of the Gila, next to the Halyik-wamai, theu' villages extending south to about latitude 32?33' N., andinto southern California, at about latitude 33?08' N., next to theeastern Diegueno. (See also Mexico.)
354 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145
VillagesMerced, a group of rancherias in northeastern Baja California, west of theColorado and 4 leagues southwest of Santa Olalla, a Yuma village.San Jacome, probably Cajuenche, near the mountains, about latitude 33?8' N.,in southern California.San Sebastian, Cajuenche or Diegueiio, in southern California, latitude 33?8' N.,evidently at Salton Lake.History.?The Kohuana are the Coana mentioned by Hernando deAlarc6n, who ascended the Colorado River in 1540. Juan de Onatevisited them in 1604-5, and they are probably the Cutganas of Kino(1701-2), while Francisco Garc^s in 1776 reported that they werenumerous and at enmity with the Cocopa. From Mohave tradition,it appears that at a somewhat later period they lived along the rivernear Parker together with the Halchidhoma, whom they followed tothe fertile bottom lands higher up. Later the Mohave crowded themsouthward but still later compelled them to return to the Mohavecountry where they remained for 5 years. At the end of that periodthey determined to go downstream again to live with the Yuma; but,one of their number having been killed by the Yuma, they jomed theMaricopa, with whom they ultimately became merged.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates that there were 3,000Kohuana in 1680, the figure given by Garc^s in 1775-76. Kroeber(1920) believes these estimates are too high. In 1851 Bartlett re-ported 10 of this tribe living with the Maricopa, and, according to aMohave informant of Kroeber's, there were 36 about 1883.Maricopa. Significance of the name unknown. Also called:Atchihwa', Yavapai name (Gatschet 1877-92).Cocomaricopa, an old form.Cohpdp, or Awo-pa-pa, Pima name.Pipatsje, own name, signifying "people."Si-ke-na, Apache name for Pima, Papago, and Maricopa, signifying "liv-ing in sand houses."Td'hba, Yavapai name (Gatschet, 1877-92).Tchihogdsat, Havasupai name.Widshi itfkapa, Tonto name, also applied to Pima and Papago.Connections.?The Maricopa belong to the Yuman linguistic stock,a part of the Hokan family, and are said to be related most closelyto the Yuma tribe proper and the Halchidhoma.Location.?On Gila River, with and below the Pima, to the mouthof the river. Anciently they are said to have had some rancherias ina valley west of the Colorado.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 355
VillagesThe following villages were all on theAicatum.Ainoque.Aopomue.Aqui.Aquimundurech.Aritutoc, on the north side at or nearthe present Oatman flat and theGreat Bend of the river.Atiahigui.Aycate.Baguiburisac, probably Maricopa, nearthe Gila River.Caborh.Caborica.Cant, probably Maricopa, not far belowthe mouth of Salt River.Choutikwuchik.Coat, probably Maricopa, location un-certain.Cocoigui.Cohate.Comarchdut.Cuaburidurch.Cudurimuitac.Dueztumac, about 120 miles above themouth of the Gila.Gohate.Guias.Hinama, its people now on the southbank of Salt River east of the Mor-mon settlement of Lehi, MaricopaCounty.Hiyayulge.Hueso Parado, with Pima, on the Pimaand Maricopa Reservation.Khauweshetawes.Kwatchampedau.Norchean.Noscario.Oitac.Ojiataibues.Pipiaca.Pitaya.Sacaton, mainly Pima, on the Gila Riverabout 22 miles east of Maricopa Sta-tion.
Gila River unless otherwise specified:San Bernadino, at Agua Caliente, nearthe Gila River; another place on theriver was called by the same name.San Geronimo, 20 leagues from Mercedand 27 leagues from the Gila River.San Martin, on the Gila River west ofthe Great Bend.San Rafael, probably Maricopa, insouthern Arizona.Sasabac.Shobotarcham.Sibagoida, probably Maricopa, locationuncertain.Sibrepue.Sicoroidag, on the Gila River belowTucsani.Soenadut.Stucabitic.Sudac.Sudacsasaba.Tadeovaqui.Tahapit.Toa.Toaedut.Tota, probably Maricopa.Tuburch.Tuburh, location uncertain.Tubutavia.Tucavi, perhaps identical with Tucsani.Tucsani.Tucsasic.Tuesapit.Tumac, said to have been the western-most Maricopa village on the GilaRiver.Tuquisan.Tutomagoidag.Uitorrum, a group of rancherias on thesouth bank of the Gila River not farwest of the Great Bend.Uparch.Upasoitac, near the Great Bend of theGila River.Urchaoztac.Yayahaye.
356 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Boll. 145History.?The Maricopa are thought to have separated from theYuma and to have moved slowly up the Colorado River to the lowerGila River; or, as later history would indicate, they may have beenforced into this region by hostile tribes. They were encountered byJuan de Onate in 1604-5, and by Kino in 1701-2. From 1775 untilrecent times they were at war with the Yuma, and in 1857, in alliancewith the Pima, they inflicted a severe defeat upon the Yuma nearMaricopa Wells. A reservation was set apart for the Maricopa andPima by Act of Congress February 28, 1859; it was enlarged by Execu-tive order of August 31, 1876, but was revoked and other lands wereset apart by Executive order of June 14, 1879. This was againenlarged by Executive orders May 5, 1882, and November 15, 1883.No treaty was ever made with them.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates that there were 2,000 Mari-copa in 1680, Venegas (1758) says that in 1742 there were about6,000 Pima and "Cocomaricopa" on Gila River, and in 1775 Garcesestimates a population of 3,000 Maricopa. In 1905 there were 350under the Pima School Superintendent. The census of 1910 gives386, and the Report of the United States Indian Office for 1923, 394.The census of 1930 returned 310, and the Report of the United StatesIndian Office of 1937, 339.Connection in which they have become noted.?The name of theMaricopa is preserved in that of Maricopa County, Ariz., and in thename of a post village in Pinal County and another in Kern County,Calif.Mohave. From a native word "hamakhava," referring to the Needlesand signifying "three mountains." Also given as Amojave,Jamajabs. Synonyms are:Naks'-at, Pima and Papago name.Soyopas, given by Font (1775).Tzi-na-ma-a, given as their own name "before they came to the ColoradoRiver."Wamakava, Havasupai name.Wili idahapd, Tulkepaya name.Connections.?The Mohave belonged to the Yuman linguisticfamily.Location.?On both sides of the Colorado River?though chieflyon the east side?between the Needles and the entrance to BlackCanyon. VillagesPasion, a group of rancherias on the east bank of the Colorado, below the presentFort Mohave.San Pedro, on or near the west bank of the Colorado, about 8 miles northwest ofNeedles, Calif.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 357Santa Isabel, a group of rancherias situated at or in the vicinity of the presentNeedles.History.?Possibly Alarc6n may have reached the Mohave territoryin 1540. At any rate, Onate met them in 1604, and in 1775-76 Caretsfound them in the above-named villages. No treaty was made withthem by the United States Government, but by Act of March 3, 1865,supplemented by Executive orders in 1873, 1874, and 1876, the Colo-rado River Reservation was established and it was occupied by theMohave, Chemehuevi, and Kawia.Population.?Mooney (1928) gives 3,000 Mohave in 1680, andKroeber (1925) the same as of 1770, the estimate made by Garcesin 1775-76. About 1834 Leroux estimated 4,000. In 1905 theirnumber was officially given as 1,589, of whom 508 were under theColorado River School Superintendent, 856 under the Fort MohaveSchool Superintendent, 50 under the San Carlos Agency, and about175 at Camp McDowell, on the Verde River. The Indians at FortMohave and Camp McDowell, however, were apparently Yavapai,commonly known as Apache Mohave. The census of 1910 gives1,058 true Mohave. The United States Indian Office Report for1923 seems to give 1,840, including Mohave, Mohave Apache, andChemehuevi. The census of 1930 returned 854, and the Report ofthe United States Office of Indian Affairs for 1937, 856.Connection in which they have become noted.?The name Mohave hasbeen preserved in the designation of the Mohave Desert and MohaveRiver in California, and Mohave County, Ariz., and also in the nameof a post-village in Arizona. There is also a post village namedMojave in Kern County, Calif.Navaho. The Navaho occupied part of the northeastern section ofArizona. (See New Mexico.)Paiute. The southern or true Paiute occupied or hunted over someof the northernmost sections of Arizona. (See Nevada.)Papago. Signifying "bean people," from the native words papah,
"beans," and 6otam, "people." Also called:Saikinn6, Si'-ke-na, Apache name for Pima, Papago, and Maricopa.Tdh'ba, Yavapai name.Texpamais, Maricopa name.T6no-oohtam, own name, signifying "people of the desert."Vidshi itikapa, Tonto name.Connections.?The Papago belong to the Piman branch of the Uto-Aztecan linguistic stock and stand very close to the Pima.Location.?In the territory south and southeast of the Gila River,especially south of Tucson; in the main and tributary valleys of the
358 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Santa Cruz River; and extending west and southwest across thedesert waste known as the Papagueria, into Sonora, Mexico.Subdivisions and VillagesAcachin, location uncertain.Alcalde, probably in Pima County.Ana, probably in Pima County.Anicam, probably in Pima County.Areitorae, south of Sonorita, Sonora, Mexico.Ati, on the west bank of Rio Altar, between Uquitoa and Tubutama, just southof the Arizona boundary.Babasaqui, probably Papago, 3 miles above Imuris, between Cocospera andMagdalena, Sonora, Mexico.Bacapa, in northwestern Sonora, Mexico, slightly southeast of Carrizal.Baipia, slightly northwest of Caborca, probably on the Rio Altar, northwesternSonora, Mexico.Bajfo, location uncertain.Batequi, east of the Rio Altar in northwestern Sonora, Mexico.Boca del Arroyo, probably in Pima County.Caborica, on the Gila River.Caca Chimir, probably in Pima County.Cahuabi, in Arizona near the Sonora border.Canoa, between Tubac and San Xavier del Bac, on Rio Santa Cruz.Casca, probably in Pima County.Charco, probably identical with Chioro.Chiora, probably in Pima County.Chuba, location uncertain.Coca, location uncertain.Comohuabi, in Arizona on the border of Sonora, M6xico.Cops, west of the Rio San Pedro, probably in the vicinity of the present Arivaca,southwest of Tubac.Cubac, in the neighborhood of San Francisco Atf, west from the present Tucson.Cuitoat, between San Xavier del Bac and the Gila River.Cujant, in northwest Sonora, between the mouth of the Rio Gila and Sonorita.Cumaro, southern Arizona near the Sonora border.Elogio, probably in Pima County.Fresnal, probably in Pima County.Guadalupe, about 10 leagues south of Areitorae.Gubo, probably Papago, 13 leagues east of Sonorita, just below the Arizonaboundary.Guitciabaqui, on the west bank of the Santa Cruz River, near the present Tucson.Juajona, near San Xavier del Bac, southern Arizona.Junostaca, near San Xavier del Bac.Macombo, probably in Pima County.Mata, probably Papago, north of Caborica.Mesquite, probably in Pima County.Milpais, location uncertain.Nariz, probably in Pima County.Oapars, in Arizona between San Xavier del Bac and the Gila River.Ocaboa, location uncertain.O'isur, on the Santa Cruz River, 5 or 6 leagues north of San Xavier del Bac, south-ern Arizona.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 359Onia, probably in Pima County.Ooltan, in northwest Sonora, Mexico, 3 leagues northwest of Busanic.Otean, location uncertain.Perigua, Arizona, south of the Gila River.Perinimo, probably in Pima County.Piato, probably the same as Soba, in the region of Tubutaraa and Caborica,Sonora, Mexico.Pitic, on the Rio Altar, northwest Sonora.Poso Blanco, in Arizona south of the Gila River.Poso Verde, south of the Arizona-Sonora boundary, opposite Oro Blanco, Ariz.Purificaci6n, probably Papago, near the Arizona-Sonora boundary, 12 leaguesfrom Agua Escondida, probably in a southeasterly direction.Quitovaquita, on the headwaters of Rio Salado of Sonora, near the Arizona-Sonora boundary line.Raton, location uncertain.San Bonifacio, probably Papago, south of the Gila River between San Angeloand San Francisco, in the present Arizona.San Cosme, probably Papago, directly north of San Xavier del Bac, on the SantaCruz River, Ariz.San Ignacio, with Pima, on the north bank of Rio San Ignacio, latitude 30? 45' N.,longitude 111? W., Sonora, Mexico.San Ildefonso, 4 leagues northwest of Caborica, Sonora, Mexico.San Lazaro, probably Papago, on the Rio Santa Cruz in longitude 110?30' W.,just below the Arizona-Sonora boundary.San Luis Babi, in northwest Sonora, Mexico, between Busanic and Cocospera.San Martin, probably Papago, on the Gila River, west of the Great Bend of theColorado.San Rafael, iu southern Arizona near the headwaters of the Rio Salado of Sonora.Santa Barbara, probably Papago, 4 miles southwest of Busanic, near the head-waters of the north branch of the Rio Altar, in Sonora, Mexico.Santa Rosa, south of the Gila River and west of Tucson.Saric, probably Papago, on the west bank of Rio Altar, in northern Sonora, Mexico.Saucita, in southern Arizona.Shuuk, or Pima, on the Gila River Reservation, southern Arizona.Sierra Blanca, probably in Pima County.Soba, a large body of Papago, including the villages of Carborica, Batequi, Mata,Pitic, and San Ildefonso.Sonoita, on the headwaters of the Rio Salado of Sonora, just below the Arizona-Sonora boundary.Tachilta, in southern Arizona or northern Sonora.Tacquison, on the Arizona-Sonora boundary.Tecolote, in southwestern Pima County, Ariz., near the Mexican border.Tubasa, probably on the Rio Santa Cruz River between San Xavier del Bacand the Gila River, southern Arizona.Tubutama, on the eastern bank of the northern branch of the Rio Altar, in north-west Sonora, Mexico.Valle, probably in Pima County.Zuniga, probably Papago, in northwest Sonora, Mexico.History.?Father Eusebio Kino was probably the first white manto visit the Papago, presumably on his first expedition in 1694. Theirsubsequent history has been nearly the same as that of the Pima,
360 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145
except that they were not brought quite as much in contact with theWhites.Population.?Mooney (1928) places the number of Papago at 6,000in 1680. In 1906 they were reported as follows: Under the PimaSchool Superintendent, 2,233; under the farmer at San Xavier, 523allottees on the reservation and 2,225 in Pima County. In addition,859 Papago were officially reported in Sonora, Mexico, in 1900, prob-ably an underestimate. In 1910, 3,798 were reported in the UnitedStates, but the Report of the United States Indian Office for 1923gives 5,672; the 1930 census, 5,205; and the Indian Office Reportfor 1937, 6,305.Pima. Signifying "no" in the Nevome dialect and incorrectly appliedthrough misunderstanding by the early missionaries. Also called:A'-d'tam, own name, signifying "people," or, to distinguish them from thePapago, A'-d'tam fi'kimtilt, "river people."Nashtefse, Apache name, signifying "live in mud houses."Palnyd, probably name given by Havasupai.Saikine, Apache name, signifying "living in sand (adobe) houses," alsoapplied to Papago and Maricopa.Tex-p^s, Maricopa name.Tihokahana, Yavapai name.Widshi Iti'kapa, Tonto-Yuma name.Connections.?The Pima gave their name to the Piman linguisticstock of Powell, which is now recognized to be a subdivision of thegreat Uto-Aztecan stock, also including the Nahuatlan and Shoshoneanfamilies. The tribes connected most intimately with the Pima werethe Papago (see above) and the Quahatika (q. v.), and after themthe so-called Pima Bajo or Nevome of Mexico.Location.?In the valleys of the Gila and Salt Rivers. (See alsoMexico.) SubdivisionsFormerly the name Pima was applied to two tribes called respectively tnePima Bajo and Pima Alto, but the former, living chiefly in Sonora, Mexico, arenow known as Nevome, the term Pima being restricted to the Pima Alto.VillagesAgua Escondida, probably Pima or Papago, southwest of Tubac, southwesternArizona.Agua Fria, probably Pima, on Gila River Reservation.Aquitun, 5 miles west of Picacho, on the border of the sink of the Santa CruzRiver.Aranca, two villages, location unknown.Arenal, probably Pima, on the Pima and Maricopa Reservation, Gila River.Arivaca, west of Tubac.Arroyo Grande, southern Arizona.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 361Bacuancos, 7 leagues south of the mission of Guevavi, northwestern Sonora,Mexico.Bisani, 8 leagues southwest of Caborica, Sonora, Mexico.Blackwater.Bonostac, on the upper Santa Cruz River, below Tucson.Busanic, southwest of Guevavi, near the Arizona-Sonora boundary, latitude31?10' N. longitude 111?10' W.Cachanila, probably Pima, on the Pima and Maricopa Reservation, Ariz.Casa Blanca, on the Gila.Cerrito, probably Pima, on the Pima and Maricopa Reservation, Ariz.Cerro Chiquito, probably Pima, on the Pima and Maricopa Reservation, Ariz.Chemisez, on the Gila.Chupatak, in southern Arizona.Chutikwuchik.Chuwutukawutuk, in southern Arizona.Cocospera, on the headwaters of the Rio San Ignacio, latitude 31? N., Sonora,Mexico.Comae, on the Gila River, 3 leagues (miles?) below the mouth of Salt River, Ariz.Estaneia, 4 leagues south of the mission of Saric, which was just south of theArizona boundary.Gaibanipitea, probably Pima, on a hill on the west bank of the San Pedro River,probably identical with the ruins known as Santa Cruz, west of Tombstone, Ariz,Gutubur, locality unknown.Harsanykuk, at Sacaton Flats, southern Arizona.Hermho, on the north side of Salt iliver, 3 miles from Mesa, Maricopa County,Ariz.Hiatam, north of Maricopa Station on the Southern Pacific R. R., southernArizona.Hormiguero, probably Pima, on the Pima and Maricopa Reservation, Ariz.Huchiltchik, below Santa Ana, on the north bank of the Gila.Hueso Parado, with Maricopa, on the Pima and Maricopa Reservation, Ariz.Imuris, near the eastern bank of Rio San Ignacio, or Magdalena, latitude 30?50' N.longitude 110?50' W., in the present Sonora, Mexico.Judae, on the Gila.Kamatukwucha, at the Gila crossing.Kamit, in southern Arizona.Kawoltukwucha, west of the Maricopa and Phoenix R. R., in Maricopa County,Ariz.Kikimi, on the Gila River Reservation.Kookupvansik, in southern Arizona.Mange, on the Gila.Merced, northeast of San Rafael, in what is now southern Arizona.Nacameri, on the east bank of Rio Horcasitas, Sonora, Mexico.Napeut, on the north bank of the Gila.Ocuca, in Sonora, Mexico, near the Rio San Ignacio, northwest of Santa Ana.Oquitoa, on the Rio del Altar, northwestern Sonora, M6xico.Ormejea, in southern Arizona.Oskakumukchochikam, in southern Arizona.Oskuk, on the Gila.Peepchiltk, northeast of Casa Blanca, southern Arizona.Pescadero, in northern Sonora, Mexico.Petaikuk, in southern Arizona.Pitac, on the Gila.
362 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145
Potlapigua, about Babispe, Baserac, and the frontier in Sonora, Mexico, but thiswas Opata territory.Remedios, a mission on the San Ignacio branch of the Rfo Asunci6n, in Sonora,Mexico.Rsanuk, about 1 mile east of Sacaton Station, on the Maricopa and Phoenix R. R.,southern Arizona.Rsotuk, northwest of Casa Blanca, southern Arizona.Sacaton, on the Gila, about 22 miles east of Maricopa Station and 16 miles northof Casa Grande Station on the Southern Pacific R. R., Ariz.San Andres Coata, near the junction of the Gila and Salado Rivers, Ariz.San Fernando, 9 leagues east of the ruins of Casa Grande, near the Gila.San Francisco Ati, west of the Santa Cruz River, Ariz.,San Francisco de Pima, 10 or 12 leagues above the Rfo Asunci6n from Pitic, aboutlatitude 31? N., Sonora, Mexico.San Serafin, northwest of San Xavier del Bac, southern Arizona.Santan, on the north bank of the Gila, opposite the Pima Agency.Santos Angeles, in Sonora, Mexico.Saopuk, at The Cottonwoods, on the Gila River.Sepori, south of the Gila River, Ariz.Shakaik, on the north side of the Gila, northwest of Casa Blanca.Statannyik, on the south bank of the Gila, between Vaaki (Casa Blanca) andHuchiltchik.Stukamasoosatick, on the Gila River Reservation.Sudacson, on the Gila River, Pinal County, Ariz., between Casa Grande and apoint 10 leagues below.Tatsituk, about Cruz's store in southern Arizona.Taumaturgo.Tubuscabors, on or near the Gila River, southern Arizona.Tucson, probably with Papago and Sobaipuri, on the site of modern Tucson.Tucubavia, on the headwaters of Rfo Altar, northern Sonora, Mexico.Tutuetac, about 16 miles northwest of Tucson and west of the Santa Cruz River,in southern Arizona.Uturituc, on the Gila and probably on the site of the present Sacaton.Wechurt, at North Blackwater, southern Arizona.History.?According to native tradition, the Pima originated in theSalt River Valley and spread later to the Gila River. They attributethe large adobe ruins in their country, including the Casa Grande, totheir ancestors, and tell stories of their occupancy of them, but the con-nection is still in doubt. The Nevome and Opata of the Altar, Mag-dalena, and Sonora Rivers are said to have sprung from Pima colonies.They claim that their old manner of life was ended by three bands offoreigners from the east, who destroyed their pueblos, devastated theirfields, and killed or enslaved many of their people. The rest fled tothe mountains, and when they returned they did not rebuild the sub-stantial adobe structures which they had formerly occupied, but livedin dome-shaped lodges of pliable poles covered with thatch and mud.Russell (1908) considers it unlikely that Coronado encountered thePima, but in 1694 Father Eusebio Francisco Kino reached the CasaGrande and undoubtedly met them. Under his inspiration, an ex-
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 363pedition was sent to the Gila in 1697 to ascertain the disposition of thetribe. In 1698 he again visited them and between that date and 1702entered their country four times more. In 1731 Fathers FelipeSegresser and Juan Bautista Grashoffer took charge of the missionsof San Xavier del Bac and San Miguel de Guevavi and became thefirst permanent Spanish residents of Arizona. Padre Ignacio JavierKeUer visited the Pima villages in 1736-37 and in 1743, and Sedelmayrreached the Gila in 1750. The first military force to be stationedamong the Pima was a garrison of 50 men at Tubac on the Santa Cruz.The presidio was moved to Tucson about 1776 and in 1780 it was in-creased to hold 75 men. Between 1768 and 1776 Father FranciscoGarc6s made five trips from Xavier del Bac to the Pimas and beyond.In 1851 parties of the Boundary Survey Commission passed down theGila River, and J. R. Bartlett, the American Commissioner, has leftan excellent description of the Pima Indians (Bartlett, 1854). Afterthe California gold rush began, the Pima frequently assisted partiesof explorers and travelers who were making the southern route, andthey often protected them from the Apache. In 1853 the GadsdenPurchase transferred the Pima to the jurisdiction of the United States.Surveys for a railroad through Pima territory were made in 1854 and1855, but it was not constructed until 1879. In the meantime thePima were subjected to contact with White outlaws and border rufl^ansof the worst description, and White settlers threatened to absorb theirsupplies of water. In 1857 the first United States Indian Agent forthe territory acquired by the Gadsden Purchase was appointed. In1871 the first school among them was opened.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates that there were 4,000 Pimain 1680. In 1775 Carets placed the number of those on the Gila Riverat 2,500. In 1906 there were 3,936 in all; in 1910, according to theUnited States Census, 4,236; and in 1923, according to the Report ofthe United States Indian Office, 5,592. The 1930 census returned4,382. The Indian Ofiice reported 5,170 in 1937.Connections in which they have become noted.?Pima County, Ariz.,and a post town in Graham County, Ariz., preserve the name of thePima, which has also been made familiar to ethnographers and geog-raphers by the use to which it has been put in the Powell classificationto cover a supposed linguistic stock. There is little doubt, however,that this supposed stock is merely a part of a much larger stock, theUto-Aztecan.Quahatika. Significance unknown. Also spelled Kohatk.Connections.?The Quahatika belonged to the Piman division of theUto-Aztecan stock, and were most closely related to the Pima, of whichtribe they are said to have been a branch.
364 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Location.?In the desert of southern Arizona, 50 miles south of theGila River. VillagesThe chief Quahatika settlement is Quijotoa, in the western part of PimaCounty, southern Arizona. Early in the eighteenth century they are said to haveshared the village of Aquitun with the Pima. (See Pima.)History.?The history of the Quahatika has, in the main, been paral-lel with that of the Pima and Papago (q. v.). They are said to haveleft Aquitun about 1800, and to have introduced cattle among thePima from the Mexicans about 1820.Population.?The Quahatika seem to have been enumerated withthe Pima.Sobaipuri. Significance unknown. Also called:Rsdrsavinfi, Pima name, signifying "spotted."Connections.?The Sobaipuri were intimately connected with, if nota part of, the Papago, of the Piman division of the Uto-Aztecanlinguistic stock.Location.?In the main and tributary valleys of the San Pedro andSanta Cruz Rivers, between the mouth of the San Pedro River andthe ruins of Casa Grande, and possibly eastward of this area in southernArizona. VillagesAlamos, on Rio Santa Cruz, southern Arizona.Aribaiba, on the San Pedro River, not far from its junction with the Gila.Babisi, probably Sobaipuri, at the southern boundary near Suamca.Baicadeat, on the San Pedro River, Ariz.Busac, probably Sobaipuri, apparently on Arivaipa Creek, a tributary of the SanPedro, east of old Camp Grant, Ariz.Camani, probably Sobaipuri, on the Gila River, not far from Casa Grande, Ariz.Causae, on the San Pedro.Comarsuta, on the San Pedro, between its mouth and its junction with ArivaipaCreek.Esqugbaag, probably Sobaipuri, on or near the San Pedro, near the Arizona-Sonora boundary.Guevavi, on the west bank of the Santa Cruz, below Tubac, at or near the presentNogales.Jiaspi, on the western bank of San Pedro, probably near the present Prospect, Ariz.Juamalturgo, or Pima, in Arizona south of the ruins of Casa Grande.Muiva, on the San Pedro, probably near the mouth of Arivaipa Creek.Ojio, on the eastern bank of the San Pedro River, near its junction with the GilaRiver and not far from the present Dudleyville, Ariz.Optuabo, probably Sobaipuri, near the present Arizona-Sonora boundary andprobably in Arizona.Quiburi, on the western bank of the San Pedro, perhaps not far from the presentBenson, Ariz.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 365Quiquiborica, on the Santa Cruz, 6 leagues south of Guevavi, near the Arizona-Sonora boundary.Reyes, probably Sobaipuri, on the Santa Cruz, in the present southern Arizona.San Angelo, near the western bank of the Santa Cruz, below its mouth, in southernArizona.San Clemente, probably Sobaipuri, on the western bank of the Santa Cruz, northof the present Tucson, Ariz.San Felipe, at the junction of the Santa Cruz and Gila Rivers.San Salvador, on the San Pedro River, above Quiburi, southern Arizona.San Xavier del Bac, on Santa Cruz, 9 miles south of Tucson in the northeastcorner of what is now the Papago Reservation.Santa Eulalia, probably Sobaipuri, slightly northwest of Busanic, just south ofthe Arizona-Sonora boundary line.Sonoita, on the Santa Cruz, north of the present Nogales and 7 leagues east north-east of Guevavi.Suamca, on the headwaters of the Santa Cruz, in the vicinity of Terrenate, Sonora,Mexico, just below the Arizona-Sonora boundary line.Tubo, probably Sobaipuri, apparently on Arivaipa Creek, a tributary of the SanPedro River, east of old Camp Grant, Ariz.Tumacacori, probably Sobaipuri, on the Santa Cruz, south of Tubac and 8 leaguesnorth northwest of Guevavi.Turisai, probably Sobaipuri, probably on or near the Santa Cruz River, southernArizona.Tusonimon, about 4 leagues west of Casa Grande, near the Gila River.Tutoida, on the San Pedro, probably between Arivaipa Creek and the Gila.History.?The Sobaipuri were visited by Kino, 1694-1702, andmissions were established among them, but at a later period the tribewas broken up by the Apache and seems to have sought refuge amongthe Papago, with whom it became merged.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates that there were 600 Sobai-puri in 1680. They are now extinct as an independent tribe.Tonto. This name has been applied to a number of distmct groupsof Apache and Yuman peoples. It is said to have been given to amixture of Yavapai, Yuma, and Maricopa, with some PinalenoApache, placed on the Verde River Reservation, Ariz., in 1873, andtransferred to the San Carlos Reservation in 1875; also to a bodyof Indians, descended mostly from Yavapai men and Pinalenowomen. (See New Mexico.)Walapai. From the native word Xawalap^iy', "pine-tree folk" (fideJ. P. Harrington). Also called:E-pa, by A. Hrdlifika (information, 1906), given as their own name.Gualiba, by Garc6s in 1776 (Diary, p. 404, 1900); Yavapai name.Hawdlapai, by Curtis (1907-9, vol. 2, p. 116).Jaguallapai, by Carets in 1776 (Diary, p. 308, 1900).Matd,v6k6-Paya, by Corbusier MS, p. 27. Meaning "people to thenorth"(?); Yavapai name.Oohp, by Ten Kate (1885, p. 160), Pima name.
366 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buli^ 145Pdxuddo dm6ti, by Gatschet (1886, p. 86), meaning "people far down theriver," Yavapai name.Setd K6xnina.me, by Ten Kate (1884, p. 9), Hopi name,Tabk6pdya?Gatschet (1883, p. 124), Yavapai name; abbreviated fromMatd,v6k6-Paya.Tiqui-Llapais, by Domenech (1860, vol. 1, p. 444).Connections.?The Walapai belonged to the Yuman branch of theHokan Knguistic stock and were connected especially closely with theHavasupai, the Yavapai apparently standing next.Location.?On the middle course of the Colorado River, above theMohave Indians, between Sacramento Wash and National Canyonand inland, extending south almost to Bill Williams Fork.Subdivisions and VillagesKroeber and his collaborators give the following:A. Mata'va-kopai (north people) {the northwestern division). Villages: HadQ'-ba, Hai'ya, Hathekdva-ki6, Huwusk6t, Kahwdga, Kwa'thekithe'i'ta, Mati'bika,Tanyika";B. Soto'lve-kopai (west people) (the Cerbat Mountains and the country west tothe Colorado). Villages: Chimethi'ap, Ha-kamue", Hdka-tovahddja, Hamt6",Ha'thewell'-kio', Ivthl'ya-tanakwe, Kenyua'tci, Kwatehd, Nyi'i'ta, Quwi'-nye-h-i, Thawiniiya, Waika'i'la, Wa-nye-ha', Wi'ka-tavata'va, Wi-kawea'ta, Winya'-ke-tawasa, Wiyakana'mo;C. Ko'o'u-kopai (mesa people) (north central section).?Villages: Crozier (Amer-ican name), Djiwa'ldja, Hak-tala'kava, Haktutu'deva, He'l, Katha't-nye-ha',Muketega'de, Qwa'ga-we', Sewi", Taki'otha'wa, Wi-kanyo";D. Nyav-kopai (east people) (east of the point where Truxton Canyon beginsto cut its way down to Hualpai Valley).?Villages: Agwa'da, Ha'ke-takwl'va,Haksa", Ha'nya-djiluwa'ya, Tha've-nalnalwi'dje, Wiwakwa'ga, Yiga't;E. Hakia' tce-pai (?) or Talta'l-kuwa (cane'!) (about the Mohon Mountains).
?
Villages: Hakeskia'l, Hakia' ch, Kr/nyu'tekwa', Tha'va-ka-lavala'va, Wi-ka-tava,Witevikivol, Witkitana'kwa;F. Kwe'va-kopai (south people).?Villages: Chivekaha', Djimwa'nsevio",Ha-djiluwa'ya, Ilapu'k, Kwakwa', Kwal-hwa'ta, Kwatha'wa, Tak-mi'nva;G. Hua'la-pai, Howa'la'^-pai (pine people) (at the northern end of the HualpaiMountains, extending in a rough half-circle from east to west.)?Villages:Hake-djeka'dja, Ilwi'-nya-ha', Kahwa't, Tak-tada'pa.History.?It is possible that some of the Walapai were encounteredby Hernando de Alarc6n in 1540, and at any rate Marcos Farfan delos Godos met them in 1598, and Francisco Garces in 1776. Theirhistory since that time has been httle different from that of the otherYuman tribes of the region.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates that there were 700 Walapaiin 1680, but estimates of native informants regarded by Kroeber andhis associates as reliable would give a population of more than 1,000previous to 1880. There were 728 in 1889; 631 in 1897; 501 in 1910,according to the census of that year; 440 in 1923; and 449 in 1932;454 in 1937. (See Havasupai.)
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 367Yavapai. According to the Handbook of American Indians (Hodge,1907, 1910), from enya^va, "sun," and pai, "people," and thussignifying "people of the sun," but the southeastern Yavapaiinterpreted it to mean "crooked-mouth people," that is, a "sulky"people who do not agree with other peoples (fide Gifford, 1936).Also called:Apache Mohaves, in Rep. Office Ind. Aff., 1869, p. 92; 1870.Apdches, by Carets in 1775-76 (Diary, p. 446, 1900) ; also by Spaniards.Cruzados, by Oiiate in 1598 (Col. Doc. InM., vol. 16, p. 276, 1864-84).Dil-zha, by White (MS.); Apache name meaning "Indians living wherethere are red ants."E-nya6-va Pai, by Ewing (1892, p. 203), meaning "sun people" becausethey were sun worshipers.Gohun, by Ten Kate, (1884, p. 5), Apache name.Har-dil-zhays, by White (1875 MS.), Apache name.Inya'vap^, by Harrington (1908, p. 324), Walapai name.Jum-pys, by Heintzelman, (1857, p. 44)Kohenins, by Corbusier (1886, p. 276), Apache name.Ku-we-v6-ka pai-ya, by Corbusier (MS., p. 27); said to be own name,because they live in the south.Nyavapai, by Corbusier (1886, p. 276).Taros, by Carets in 1775-76 (Diary, p. 446, 1900), Pima name.Yampaos, by Whipple (1856, p. 103).Connections.?The Yavapai belonged to the Yuman branch of theHokan linguistic family, their closest cultural afiBliations being withthe Havasupai and Walapai.Location.?In western Arizona from the Pinal and MazatzalMountains to the country of the Halchidhoma and Chemehuevi in theneighborhood of Colorado River and from Williams and Santa MariaRivers, including the valleys of the smaller branches, to the neighbor-hood of the Gila River. SubdivisionsGifford gives the following:A. Kewevikopaya or Southeastern Yavapai, which included the WalkamepaBand (along the southerly highway from Miami to Phoenix via Superior), and theWikedjasapa Band (along the present Apache trail highway from Phoenix toMiami via Roosevelt Dam). These included the following exogamous bands:Limited to the Walkamepa Band: Ilihasitumapa (original home in the PinalMountains); limited to the Wikedjasapa Band: Amahiyukpa (claiming as theirhomeland the high mountains on the west side of the Verde River, just north ofLime Creek and directly opposite the territory of the Yelyuchopa Clan), Atachiopa(who originated in the mountains west of Cherry), Hakayopa (whose inlandhomeland was Sunflower Valley, south of Mazatzal Peak, high in the MazatzalMountains, and west of Fort Reno in the Tonto Basin), Hichapulvapa (whosecountry was the Mazatzal Mountains southward from the East Verde River andwestward from North Peak and Mazatzal Peak); represented in both bands:liwilkamepa (who considered the mountainous country between the Superstitionand Pinal Mountains as their homeland), Matkawatapa (said to have originated
368 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145from intermarriage between people of the Walkamepa Band and Apache from theSierra Ancha), Onalkeopa (whose original homeland was in the Mazatzal Moun-tains between the lands of the Hichapulvapa and Yelyuchopa clans but whomoved later south into the territory of the Walkamepa Band), Yelyuchopa (whoclaimed as their homeland the Mazatzal Mountains between the territories of theHakayopa and Hichapulvapa clans). Cuercomache (on one of the heads ofDiamond Creek, near the Grand Canyon of the Colorado) is given as a village.Amanyikd was the principal camp site of the Wikedjasapa south of the Salt River.B. Yavepe or Northeastern Yavapai, including:a. Yavepe proper (claiming upper Verde Valley and the mountains on eitherside, including the Montezuma National Monument), whose bands were: Wipu-kupa (occupying caves in Redrock country, probably in the region designated asRed Buttes on maps, and descending Oak Creek to plant maize in certain moistflats and to gather mesquite in Verde Valley), Matkitwawipa (people of upperVerde Valley, East Verde River, Fossil Creek, Clear Creek, ranging south to CaveCreek, and Walkey-anyanyepa (people of the massif to which Jerome clings).b. Mat-haupapaya (inhabiting the massif from Prescott to Crown King andBumble Bee), and including: Wikutepa (the Granite Peak Band) and Wikeni-chapa (the Black Mountains or Crown King Band).C. Tolkepaya or Western Yavapai, including: Hakupakapa or Inyokapa(inhabitants of mountains north of Congress) ; Hakehelapa Wiltaikapaya (peopleof Harquahala and Harcuvar Mountains on either side of Wiltaika (Salome)
;
People's Valley, Kirkland Valley (upper drainage of Hassayampa Creek nearWickenburg and region around Hillside) ; Haka-whatapa or Matakwarapa (whoformerly lived at La Paz and Castle Dome).History.?Gifford (1936) states that "the earliest probable mention"of the Yavapai "is by Luxan of the Espejo expedition, who in 1582-1583 apparently visited only the country of the Northeastern Yava-pai." In 1598 Marcos Farfan de los Godos met them and called themCruzados because they wore small crosses on their heads, and in1604 Juan de Onate also visited them, as did Father Francisco Garcesin 1776, after which time contact with Europeans was pretty regular.They were removed to the Verde River Agency in May 1873. In1875 they were placed on the San Carlos Apache Agency, but by1900 most of the tribe had settled in part of their old home on theVerde River, including the abandoned Camp McDowell MilitaryReservation, which was assigned to their use, November 27, 1901,by the Secretary of the Interior, until Congress should take finalaction. By Executive Order of September 15, 1903, the old reserva-tion was set aside for their use, and the claims of the white settlerspurchased under Act of April 21, 1904.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates 600 Yavapai in 1680.Gifford's (1936) estimate would about double that, though he does notbelieve they ever exceeded 1500. In 1873 they were said to numberabout 1,000 and in 1903 between 500 and 600. In 1906, 520 werereported, 465 at Camp McDowell and Upper Verde Valley, and 55 atSan Carlos. In 1910, 289 were reported by the Census, but the sameyear the Indian Office reported 178 under the Camp McDowell School
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 369Superintendent, 282 under the Camp Verde School, and 89 under theSan Carlos School; total, 549. In 1823 the Indian Oflfice reported708 under the Camp Verde School and Salt River Superintendencies.In 1932 the Indian Office reported only 193, but the "Yuma Apache"would add 24. In 1937 there were 194.Connection in which they have become noted.?(See Havasupai.) Thename has been perpetuated in that of Yavapai County, Ariz.Yuma. Said to be an old Pima and Papago term for this tribe and insome cases the Kamia and Maricopa also (Forde, 1931). Also called:Cetguanes, by Venegas (1759).Chirumas, an alternative name given by Orozco y Berra (1864).Club Indians, by Emory (1848).Cuchan, or, strictly, Kwitc*'dn?, own name.Dil-zhay's, Apache name for this tribe and the Tonto and Mohave, signi-fying "red soil with red ants" (White, MS.).Garroteros, by Emory (1848).Guichyana, Chemehuevi name.Hatilshe', same as Dil-zhay's,Hiikwats, Paiute name, signifying "weavers."Klin, said to be Apache name for this tribe and the Tulkepaia.Wamakava, applied by Havasupai to Mohave and perhaps to this tribealso.Connections.?The Yuma were one of the chief tribes of the oldYuman linguistic stock, to which they have given their name, buttheir closest immediate relatives were the Maricopa and Halchidhoma,The Yuman stock is now considered a part of the larger Hokan family.Location.?On both sides of the Colorado River next above theCocopa, or about 50 or 60 miles from the mouth of the nver, at andbelow the junction of the Gila River, Fort Yuma being in about thecenter of their territory. (See also California.)VillagerForde (1931) gives the following:Ahakwedehor (axakweSexor), about 2 miles northeast of Fort Yuma.Avikwotapai, some distance south of Parker on the California side of the Colorado.Huksil (xuksi'l), along the Colorado River near Pilot Knob, a few miles south ofAlgodones and across the International Boundary.Kwerav (ava'io), about 2 miles south of the present Laguna Dam and on theCalifornia side of the Colorado.Unnamed town, a little east of the present site of Picacho, at the foot of theChocolate Mountains.History.?Neither Alarc6n, who ascended the Colorado River in1540, nor Onate, who visited it in 1604, mentions the Yuma, but inthe case of Onate this may be accounted for by the fact that theseIndians were then living exclusively on the west side of the river,which he did not reach. The first explorer to mention them by
370 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145name seems to have been Father Kino, 1701-2; and Garces, 1771, andAnza, 1774 and 1775, have a great deal to say about them. Garcesand Eixarch remained among them in 1775. (See Kino (1726), andGarces (1900).) Most of their territory passed under the control of theUnited States by the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848, andthe remainder in consequence of the Gadsden Purchase of 1853.After the founding of Fort Yuma, contacts between the Whites andthis tribe became intimate. Most of them were ultimately concen-trated on the Colorado River and Yuma Reservations.Population.?Garces (1776) estimated that there were 3,000 Yuma,but Anza (see Coues, 1900) raises this to 3,500. An estimate attributedto M. Leroux dating from "early in the 19th century," again gives3,000. According to the Report of the United States Indian Officefor 1910, there were then 655 individuals belonging to the tribe, butthe census of that year gives 834. The Indian Office figure for 1923is 826 and that for 1929, 826, but the United States Census for 1920increases it very materially, to 2,306. However, the Report of theIndian Office for 1937 gives only 848.Connections in which they have become noted.?Besides giving itsname to the Yuman stock, the name Yuma is preserved by counties inArizona and Colorado; localities in Yuma County, Ariz.; YumaCounty, Colo.; Cloud County, Kans.; Taylor County, Ky; WexfordCounty, Mich. ; and Carroll County, Tenn.COLORADOApache. A number of the Apache bands extended their raids fromtime to time over the territory of what is now Colorado, but onlyone of them, the Jicarilla, may be said to have been permanentoccupants of any part of the State within the historic period. Thistribe is considered under the name Jicarilla below; for an accountof the other Apache tribes except the Lipan, see New Mexico. TheLipan are treated under Texas.Arapaho. The Arapaho hunted and warred over parts of easternColorado. (See Wyoming.)Bannock. This tribe and the Shoshoni roamed over the extremenorthwestern corner of the State. (See Idaho.)Cheyenne. The same may be said of the Cheyenne as of the Arapaho.(See South Dakota.)Comanche. Like the Arapaho and Cheyenne, this tribe hunted andwarred in the eastern parts of the State. (See Texas.)Jicarilla. A Mexican Spanish word, meaning "httle basket," given
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 371to the tribe on account of the expertness of Jicarilla women inmaking baskets. Also called:Bfi'-xai, or Pex'-g6, Navaho name.Kinya-inde, Mescalero name.K^op-tagui, Kiowa name, signifying "mountain Apache."Pi'-ke-e-wai-i-ne, Picuris name.Tan-nah-shis-en, by Yarrow (1879) and signifying "men of the woodland."Tashi'ne, Mescalero name.Tinde, own name.Tu-sa-be', Tesuque name.Connections.?The Jicarilla were one of the so-called Apache tribes,all of which belonged to the gi"eat Athapascan linguistic stock, butwith the Lipan (see Texas) constituted a group distinct from theApache proper. (See New Mexico.)Location.?Within historic times the homes of the Jicarilla havebeen in southeastern Colorado and northern New Alexico, thoughthey have ranged into the adjacent parts of Kansas, Oklahoma, andTexas, SubdivisionsMooney (1928) gives the following:Apatsiltlizhihi, who claim the district of Mora, N. Mex.Dachizhozhin, original home around the present Jicarilla Reservation, N. Mex.Golkahin, claiming a former home south of Taos Pueblo, N. Mex.Ketsilind, claiming a former home south of Taos Pueblo, N. Mex.Saitinde, claiming the vicinity of present Espanola, N. Max., as their originalhome.History.?There is little doubt that the Jicarilla traveled south-ward at no very remote period from among the Athapascan tribesin northwestern Canada, very likely by way of the eastern flanks ofthe Rocky Mountains. They were probably among the Querechosmet by Coronado in 1540-42, the same people known to the laterSpanish explorers as Vaqueros. They first received mention undertheir own name early in the eighteenth century. In 1733 a Spanishmission was established for them near Taos, N. Mex., but it did notlast long, and their relations with the Spaniards were generally hostile.In 1853 the governor of New Mexico induced 250 of the tribe to settleon the Puerco River, but failure to ratify the treaty he had madewith them caused them to go on the warpath, and they continuedhostile until their defeat by United States troops in 1854. In 1870they resided on the Maxwell grant in northeastern New Mexico, butthe sale of it necessitated their removal. In 1872 and again in 1873attempts were made to move them to Fort Stanton, but most of themwere permitted to go to the Tierra Amarilla, on the northern confinesof the territory, on a reservation of 900 square miles set aside in 1874.Their annuities having been suspended in 1878 on account of their
372 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bdll. 145
refusal to move southward in accordance with an Act of Congress ofthat year, they resorted to thieving. In 1880 the Act of 1878 wasrepealed, and a new reservation was set aside on the Navajo River,to which they were removed. Here they remained until 1883, whenthey were transferred to Fort Stanton. On February 11, 1887, how-ever, a reservation was set aside for them in the Tierra Amarillaregion by Executive Order. They removed to this territory andthere they have now been allotted land in severalty.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated that there were about 800Jicarilla in 1845. In 1905 they numbered 795; according to theCensus of 1910, there were 694; the Report of the United StatesIndian Office for 1923 gave 608, and that for 1937, 714.Connection in which they have become noted.?The name Jicarilla isgiven to mountains and a post village in Lincoln County, N. Mex.Kiowa. Like the Arapaho, Cheyenne, and Comanche, the Kiowaformerly hunted and warred across parts of eastern Colorado.(See Oklahoma.)Kiowa Apache. This tribe always accompanied the Kiowa. (SeeOklahoma.)Navaho. The Navaho lived just south of the Colorado boundary,entering that State only occasionally. (See New Mexico.)Pueblos. Most of the Pueblo tribes trace their origin to some placein the north and there is no doubt that the ancestors of many ofthem lived in what are now the pueblo and cliff ruins of Colorado.In historic times the principal dealings of Colorado Indians with thePueblos have been with the Pueblo of Taos, which was once atrading point of importance. Many of its people intermarried withthe Ute. (See New Mexico.)Shoshoni. Together with the Bannock, the Shoshoni roamed overthe extreme northwestern part of Colorado. (See Idaho.)Ute. The Ute formerly occupied the entire central and western por-tions of Colorado. (See Utah.)UTAHBannock. This tribe and the Shoshoni roamed over the northernpart of Utah as far as the Uintah Mountains, and beyond GreatSalt Lake. (See Idaho.)Gosiute. The Gosiute were a smaU body of Indians inhabiting theregion about Great Salt Lake in northern Utah. They were longsupposed to be a mixture of Ute and Shoshoni but are now knownto have been connected only with the Shoshoni. They attractedparticular attention because of their wretched manner of life, which
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 373
reports frequently exaggerated unduly. (See Shoshoni, Western,under Idaho.)Navaho. This tribe occupied, at least at times, a small part of thesoutheastern section of Utah as far as the San Juan River. (SeeNew Mexico.)Paiute, Southern. The Southern Paiute occupied the southwesternpart of Utah. (See Nevada.)Shoshoni, Western. The Western Shoshoni extended into northernUtah; they included the Gosiute, as above stated. (See Idaho.)Ute. Significance unknown. Also called:Grasshopper Indians, Pattie (1833).liita-go, Kiowa name.letan, a form of their name used widely for Indians of the Shoshoneanstock.Mactcingeha wai", Omaha and Ponca name, signifying "rabbit skin robes.'Moh-tau-hai'-ta-ni-o, Cheyenne name, signifying "the black men."Ndsuia kwe, Zuni name, signifying "deer-hunting men."No-ochi or Notch, own name.Nota-^, Navaho name.Quazula, seems to be the Jemez name for them.Siipa wichasha, Dakota name, signifying "black people."T&'hana, Taos name.Tcingawdptuh, former Hopi name.Wdatenlhts, Atsina name, signifying "black."Connections.?The Ute belonged to the Shoshonean division of theUto-Aztecan linguistic stock and were related more closely to thetrue Paiute, Kawaiisu, and Chemehuevi.Location.?In central and western Colorado and all of easternUtah, including the eastern part of Salt Lake Valley and Utah Valleyand extending into the upper drainage area of the San Juan Riverin New Mexico. (See also Nevada and Wyoming.)SubdivisionsCapote, in the Tierra Amarilla and Chama River country, northwestern New-Mexico.Elk Mountain Ute (perhaps the Sabuaguanos of Escalante (1882) and Tah-bah-was-chi of Beckwith (1882), especially if the initial letter in one or the othercase has been misread, in the Elk Mountains of Colorado.Kosunats, on Uintah Reservation in 1873.Moache, in southwest Colorado and northwest New Mexico.Pahvant, around the lower portion of Sevier Lake and River, Utah.Pav6gowunsin, on the upper course of the Sevier River, south of the Salina River.Pikakwanarats, on the Uinta Reservation in 1873.Sampits or Sanpet, around Manti on San Pitch Creek but wintering on SevierRiver, Utah.Seuvarits or Sheberetch, in the Castle Valley country and on headwaters ofSan Rafael River, in east central Utah.
374 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Tabeguache, in southwest Colorado, chiefly about Los Pines.Tumpanogots or Timpaiavats, about Utah Lake, Utah.Uinta, in northeastern Utah.Wiminuche, in southwest Colorado, chiefly in the valley of the San Juan and itsnorthern tributaries.Yampa, on and about Green and Colorado Rivers in eastern Utah.The Sogup, in or near New Mexico, and Yubuincariri, west of Green River,Utah, are also given as former bands, and a few others of uncertain status alsoappear, such as the Kwiumpus, Nauwanatats, and Unkapanukints. In lateryears the recognized divisions were reduced to three: Tabeguache or Uncom-pahgre, Kaviawach or White River, and Yoovte or Uinta.History.?The Ute occupied the region above indicated when theycame to the knowledge of the Spaniards, who were the first Europeansto encounter them. Their warlike disposition was early accentuatedby the introduction of horses among them. Our first intimate knowl-edge of them is derived from the diary of Fray Silvestre Velez deEscalante, who penetrated their country in 1776. For a brief periodthey were organized into a confederacy under a chief named Tabb}^(Taiwi). The first treaty between the United States Government andthe Ute was concluded December 30, 1849. By Executive order ofOctober 3, 1861, Uintah Valley was set apart for the Uinta Band,while the remamder of the land claimed by them was taken withoutformal purchase. By a treaty of October 7, 1863, a reservation wasassigned to the Tabeguache, and the remainder of their land wastaken without formal purchase. On May 5, 1864, various reserves,established in 1856 and 1859 by Indian agents, were ordered vacatedand sold. By a treaty of March 2, 1868, a reservation was createdin Colorado for the Tabeguache, Moache, Capote, Wiminuche,Yampa, Grand River, Uinta, and other bands, who relinquished theremainder of their lands, but by an agreement of September 13, 1873,a part of the reservation was ceded to the United States. When itwas found that a portion of this last cession w^as included in the Un-compahgre Valley, the part so included was retroceded to the Uteby Executive order of August 17, 1876. By Executive order of No-vember 22, 1875, the Ute Reservation was enlarged, but this additionaltract was restored to the public domain by an order of August 4, 1882.By Act of June 18, 1878, a portion of the Act of May 5, 1864, wasrepealed, and several tracts included m the reservations thereunderestablished were restored to the public domain. Under an agreementof November 9, 1878, the Moache, Capote, and Wiminuche cededtheir right to the confederated Ute Reservation established by the1868 treaty, the United States agreeing to establish a reservation forthem on San Juan River, a promise which was finally fulfilled byExecutive order of February 7, 1879. On March 6, 1880, the South-ern Ute and the Uncompahgre acknowledged an agreement to settle
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OP NORTH AMERICA 376
respectively on La Plata River and on the Grand River near themouth of the Gunnison, while the White River Ute agreed to moveto the Uinta Reservation in Utah. Sufficient agricultural land notbeing found at the point designated as the future home of the Uncom-pahgre, the President, by Executive order of January 5, 1882, estab-lished a reserve for them in Utah, the boundaries of which were definedby Executive order of the same date. By Act of May 24, 1888, apart of the Uinta Reservation was restored to the public domain.The tribe has since been allotted land in severalty.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates that there were 4,500 Utein 1845, including the Gosiute. In 1870 there were supposed to be4,000. The official reports give 3,391 in 1885 and 2,014 in 1909.The census of 1910 returned 2,244; the United States Indian Office in1923, 1,922, including some Paiute; and the Indian Office in 1937,2,163.Connections in which they have become noted.?The Ute shared withthe Shoshoni the reputation of being the strongest and most warlikeof the Plateau people. The State of Utah derives its name fromthe Ute. Utah is also the name of a county and a lake in this State,There is a place called Utahville in Clearfield County, Pa., and locali-ties called Ute in Montrose County, Colo., and Monona County,Iowa, and Ute Park in Colfax County, N. Mex.NEVADAEoso. This is properly a California tribe, though it sometimesranged into Nevada. (See California.)Painte, Northern. The significance of the word "Paiute" is uncer-tain, though it has been interpreted to mean "water Ute" or
"true Ute." Also called:Monachi, Yokuts name.Monozi, Maidu name.Mono-Paviotso, name adopted in the Handbook of American Indians(Hodge, 1907, 1910), from an abbreviated form of the above and Paviotso.Nutaa, Chukchansi Yokuts name, signifying that they were east or up-stream.Paviotso, a native term applied by Powell (1891) to a part of theNevada Indians of this group.Snake, name commonly given to the Northern Paiute of Oregon.Connections.?With the Bannock, the Northern Paiute constitutedone dialectic group of the Shoshonean Branch of the Uto-Aztecanstock.Location.?The Northern Paiute were not properly a tribe, thename being used for a dialectic division as indicated above. They
376 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Boll. 145
covered western Nevada, southeastern Oregon, and a strip of Cali-fornia east of the Sierra Nevada as far south as Owens Lake exceptfor territory occupied by the Washo. According to the students ofthe area, they were pushed out of Powder River Valley and theupper course of John Day River in the nineteenth century by Sha-haptian tribes and the Cayuse. (See also Idaho.)Subdivisions and VillagesThere were no true tribes or bands except in the extreme western and north-eastern parts of the area covered, but topography enforced concentration intocertain valleys. Aside from the detached Bannock, the Northern Paiute weredivided by the Sierra Nevada Mountains into a widely spread eastern divisionand a small division confined to California, the Eastern and Western Mono ofKroeber. Kroeber (1925) distinguishes six divisions of the latter as follows:Balwisha, on the Kaweah River, especially on its south side.Holkoma, on a series of confluent streams?of which Big Burr and SycamoreCreeks are the most important?entering Kings River above Mill Creek.Northfork Mono, for whom no native name has survived, on the North Fork ofSan Joaquin River.Posgisa or Poshgisha, of the San Joaquin, on Big Sandy Creek, and toward, ifnot on, the heads of Little and Big Dry Creeks.Waksachi, on Limekiln and Eshom Creeks and the North Fork of Kaweah River.Wobonuch, at the head of Mill Creek, a southern affluent of Kings River, and inthe pine ridges to the north.Away from Owens Valley and the immediate neighborhood the Paiute havebeen divided into a large number of bands with names which usually signify thatthey were "eaters" of some particular kind of food. Although the entire area hasbeen filled in with such names, they have been given largely by Indians from areasoutside those of the supposed bands; different names are given by different inform-ants, the same name occurs in a number of places, at times widely separated, andthere is lack of agreement among informants, including Steward (1933), Kelly(1937), Park (1938), and Blyth (1938), as to the numbers, names, and locations ofthe groups under consideration. Instead of attempting any sort of classification,therefore, I will simply insert a miscellaneous list of villages and local settlementsthough these were almost as fluctuating and impermanent as the larger groups.In most cases, however, it may be assumed that the location was determined byeconomic factors and mention of such a site has, therefore, some permanent valuehowever often the name may have changed or the composition of the villagefluctuated.Gifford (1932) gives the following hamlets belonging to Kroeber's NorthforkMono besides 83 fishing places and campsites, the exact locations of which areentered in his report and accompanying map:Apasoraropa. Homohomineu.Apayiwe. Howaka.Asiahanyu. Kodiva.Bakononohoi. Konahinau.Dipichugu. Kotuunu.Dipichyu. Kunugipii.Ebehiwe. Monolu.Homenadobema. Moyopaso.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 377Muchupiwe. Sihuguwe.Musawati. Sikinobi.Nabamayuwe. Sipineu.Napasiat. Siiigatu.Noboihawe. Soyakanim.Nosidop. Sukuunu.Ohinobi. Supanaminau.O'oneu. Takapiwe.Oyonagatii. Takatiu.Pahabitima. Tasineu.Pakasanina. Tiwokiiwe.Papavagohira. Topochinatii.Pasawapii. Tiibipakwina.Pasiaputka. Tiikweninewe.Pausoleu. Tumuyuyu.Payauta. Ttipipasaguwe.Pekeneu. Waapiiwee.Pimishineu. Wadakhanau.Poniaminau. Wegigoyo.Poniwinyu. Wiakwii.Ponowee. Wokoiinaha,Saganiu. Wokosolna.Saiipii. Yatsayau.Saksakadiu. Yauwatinyu.Sanita. Yauyau.Sigineu.Steward enumerates the following "districts" of Owens Valley and neighboringvalleys, each with communistic hunting and seed rights, political unity, and anumber of villages:Kwina patii, Round Valley.Panatii, the Black Rock territory, south to Taboose Creek.Pitana patii, extending from the volcanic tableland and Norton Creek in the Sierrato a line running out into Owens Valley from Waucodayavi, the largest creeksouth of Rawson Creek.Tovowahamatii, centering at Big Pine, south to Big Pine Creek in the mountains,but with fishing and seed rights along Owens River nearly to Fish Springs.Tunuhu witii, of uncertain limits.Utu'iitu witii, from the warm springs, now Keough's, south to Shannon Creek.The people of Deep Springs Valley called their valley Patosabaya and themselvesPatosabaya ntinemua; the Fish Lake Valley people to the north of these did notconstitute a unified band but were distributed into the following villages:Ozanwin, on the east or south slope of the Sylvania Mountains and near Tii'nava.Pau'uva, in the vicinity of McNett ranch.Sohodiihatii, at the present Oasis ranch.Suhuyoi, at the Patterson ranch.Tuna'va, the present Geroux ranch, marked McFee on the United States Geo-logical Survey.Tii'nava, at Pigeon Spring at the east end of Fish Lake Valley.Watiihad, MoHne ranch on Moline Creek.Yogamatii, several miles from the mountains at the present Chiatovich ranch.
378 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Steward (1933) gives the following village names in and near Owens Valley:An unnamed site west of Deep Springs Lake.Ahagwa, on Division Creek.Antelope Springs, native name not recorded.Hudu matu, on Cottonwood Creek.Hunadudugo, camp near Wyman Creek.Ka'nasi, camp at Dead Horse Meadow on Wyman Creek.Mogahu' pina, scattered along Hogback, Lone Pine, Tuttle, and Diez Creeks.Mogohopinan watu, on Richter Creek.Muhu witu, on Tinnemaha Creek.Nataka' matu, at Independence.Nuvahu' matu, near Thibaut Creek.Oza'n witu, southeast of Deep Springs Lake.Padohahu matu, on Goodale Creek.Pahago watu, on Tuttle Creek.Pakwazi' natu, at Olancha.Pa'natu, on Owens River, near mouth of Birch Creek.Pau'wahapu, at Hines Spring.Pawona witu, on Bishop Creek below Bishop.Pa'yapo'o'ha, south of Bishop.Pazi'wapi'nwuna, at Independence.Posi'da witu, on Baker Creek.Suhubadopa, at Fish Springs Creek, at least in prehistoric times.Suhu'budu mutu, on Carroll Creek.Suhuvakwazi natu, on Wyman Creek.Tanova witu, south of Independence.Ti'numaha witu, on Tinnemaha Creek.To'owiawatu, at Symmes Creek.Totsitupi, on Thibaut Creek.To'vowaha'matu, at Big Pine on Big Pine Creek.Tsagapu witu, at Shepherd Creek.Tsaki'shaduka, near Old Fort Independence.Tsaksha witu, at Fort Independence.Tsa'wawua'a, on Bishop Creek.Tsigoki, beyond Owens ranch, east of Bishop.Tuhunitogo, near upper course of Birch Creek.Tuinu'hu, on Sawmill Creek.Tunwa'pu, at the mouth of Taboose Creek.Tupico, on Birch Creek, west of Hunadudugo.Tupuzi witu, at George's Creek.Waushova witu, on Lone Pine Creek.Steward gives the following villages in Fish Lake Valley:Oza'nwin, on the east or south slope of the Sylvania Mountains and near Tu'nava.Pau'uva, in the vicinity of McNett ranch.Sohoduhatu, at the present Oasis ranch.Suhuyoi, at the Patterson ranch.Tuna' va, at the present Geroux ranch.Tu' nava, at Pigeon Springs at east end of Fish Lake Valley.Watuhad, at Moline ranch.Yogamatu, several miles from the mountains at the present Chiatovich ranch.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 379The following are miscellaneous local groups of Northern Paiute, the namesdrawn from various sources:Agaivanuna, at Summit Lake, western Nevada.Duhutcyatikadu, on Silver and Summer Lakes, Oreg.Genega's Band, at the mouth of Truckee RiverGidutikadu, in Surprise, Calif.; Coleman; Warner, Oreg.; and probably alsoLong Valleys, in California, Nevada, and Oregon.Goyatikendu, at Yainax and Beatty, Oreg., brought from Silver Lake.Hadsapoke's Band, at Gold Canyon, Carson River.Hoonebooey, east of the Cascades and south of the Blue Mountains of Oregon.Itsaatiaga, about Unionville, Nev.Kaivaningavidukw, in Surprise Valley, northeastern California.Koeats, in north central Nevada.Kosipatuwiwagaiyu, about Carson Sink.Koyuhow, about McDermitt, Nev.Kuhpattikutteh, on Quinn River, Nev.Kuyuidika, near the site of Wadsworth on Truckee River.Kuyuitikadu, at Pyramid Lake, Nixon, Nev.Kwinaduvaa, at McDermitt, Nev.Laidukatuwiwait, about the sink of the Humboldt.Lohim, an isolated Shoshonean band, probably of this connection, on WillowCreek, a southern affluent of the Columbia, Oreg.Loko, on or near Carson River, Nev.Nogaie (with 4 subbands), in the vicinity of Robinson District, Spring Valley,Duckwater, and White River Valley.Odukeo's Band, around Carson and Walker Lakes.Oualuck's Band, in Eureka Valley, Oreg.Pamitoy, in Mason Valley.Paxai-dika, in Bridgeport Valley, Calif.Petodseka, about Carson and Walker Lakes.Piattuiabbe (with 5 bands), near Belmont, Nev.Pitanakwat or Petenegowat, in Owens Valley, but formerly in Esmeralda County,Nev.Poatsituhtikuteh, on the north fork of Walker River,San Joaquin's Band, at the forks in Carson Valley.Sawagativa, about Winnemucca.Shobarboobeer, probably of this connection, in the interior of Oregon,Shuzavi-dika, in Mono Valley, Calif.Togwingani, about Malheur Lake, Oreg.Tohaktivi, about the White Mountains, near the head of Owens River, Calif.Toitikadu, at Fallon and Yerington, Nev.Toiwait, about the lower Sink of the Carson.Tonawitsowa (with 6 bands), in the vicinity of Battle Mountain and Unionville.Tonoyiet's Band, below Big Meadows, Truckee River.Torepe's Band, near the lower crossing of Truckee River.Tosarke's Band, near Carson and Walker Lakes.Tsapakah, in Smith Valley.Tubianwapu, about Virginia City.Tubuwitikadu, east of Steens Mountain, Oreg.Tupustikutteh, on Carson River.Tuziyammos, about Warner Lake, Oreg.Wahi's Band, at the big bend of Carson River.
380 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Boll. 146Wadatikadu, at Burns, Malheur District, Oregon, and Susanville, Calif.Wahtatkin, east of the Cascade Mountains and south of the Blue Mountains,Oreg.Walpapi, on the shores of Goose, Silver, Warner, and Harney Lakes, Oreg.Warartika, about Honey Lake, northeastern California.Watsequeorda's Band, on Pyramid Lake.Winemucca's Band, said to have had a specific location on Smoke Creek nearHoney Lake, northeastern California, but to have been extended to othernorthern Paiute living west of the Hot Springs Mountains in Nevada, who do notseem to have been united into one body until brought together to defendthemselves against the Whites.Wobonuch, at the head of Mill Creek, California, and in the pine ridges to thenorth.Yahuskin, about the shores of Goose, Silver, and Harney Lakes, Oreg.Yammostuwiwagaiya, in Paradise Valley, Nev.History.?Although the territory of the Northern Paiute has beenoccupied for a long period by human beings and has been modifiedfrom time to time along its margins by neighboring cultures, thereseem to have been few fundamental changes in the culture of theregion taken as a whole, the economic life having been based onhunting and gathering. Contacts with Europeans began at a com-paratively late period, probably with the entrance of trappers about1825. Jedediah Smith made journeys across Nevada in 1825 andOld Greenwood may have visited it still earlier. Peter Skene Ogdenvisited the Paiute of eastern Oregon between 1826 and 1828 andprobably reached Humboldt River in Nevada. These men werefollowed by Walker (1833), Russell (1834-43), and many others.During this period relations with the Indians seem to have beenuniformly friendly, but clashes became more numerous with thegreat stream of immigration which began about 1840 and swelled totidal proportions with the discovery of gold in California. ThePaiute in the remote valleys, however, remained for a long timelittle affected. Descriptions of Indian life in the numerous reportsof travelers are disappointing. A great crisis in the affairs of theIndians was brought about by the discovery of the Comstock lode atVirginia City, Nev., since in the next 10 years prospectors penetratedevery part of the territory, says Steward, "and boom towns sprang upin the midst of sheer desert." A greater menace to the lives of theIndians was the introduction of livestock and consequent destructionof native food plants. Pinyon trees were also cut down for fuel. Bythis time the natives had both guns and horses and were in con-sequence much more capable of inflicting damage in the clasheswhich began about 1860 and in consequence of which several militaryposts were established. With the completion of the first trans-continental railroad in 1869, the native period came practically toan end. On October 1, 1863, the United States Government extended
SWANTONJ INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 381
its authority without formal purchase over the territory of the "West-ern Shoshoni" and included within it the northern part of the landsoccupied by the Northern Paiute under discussion. The Governmentassumed "the right of satisfying their claim by assigning them suchreservations as might seem essential for their occupancy, and sup-plying them in such degree as might seem proper with necessariesof life" (Royce, 1899). By virtue of the authority thus granted, amill and timber reserve was created on Truckee River by Executiveorder, April 24, 1864, for the Pyramid Lake Indians. In December1864 Eugene Monroe surveyed a reservation for the Paiute at WalkerRiver, and in January 1865 he surveyed another at Pyramid Lake.The former was set aside by Executive order March 19, 1874, andthe latter 4 days later. "The remainder of the Pai Ute country,"says Royce, "[was] taken possession of by the United States withoutformal relinquishment by the Indians." On the other hand, theIndians by no means confined themselves to these reservations.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated that this division, i. e., thetribes embraced under the name of Northern Paiute, and the true orSouthern Paiute numbered 7,500 in 1845. The figures given in theReport of the Indian Office for 1903 indicate a population of about5,400 for the group. The Census of 1910 reports 1,448 "Mono" and3,038 Paviotso, a total of 4,486, but the United States Indian OfficeReport of 1923 seems to give a total of more than 13,000. This isevidently erroneous since the United States Census of 1930 reported4,420. The figures of the United States Indian Office in 1937 seem toyield 4,108, after substracting 270, which plainly belonged to theSouthern Paiute.Paiute, Southern. Also called:Auolasus, Pima name.Chemegu6 Cuajdla, by Garc63 in 1776, the first name on account of theirassociation with the Chemehuevi (see under California; for Cuajdla, seeKohoaldje below).Da-da'-ze ni'-ka-ci?'-ga, Kansa name, signifying "grasshopper people."Diggers, a popular name sometimes used for them.Hogipa'goni, Shoshoni name, signifying "rush-arrow people."Kohoaldje, originally Mohave name of Virgin River Paiute.Niima, own name, signifying "people," "Indians."Pa'gonotch, Southern Ute.name.Pah-ru-sd-pdh, Chemehuevi name.Snake Diggers, or Ute Diggers, by Simpson (1859).Yabipai Cajuala, by Carets in 1776.Connections.?The Southern Paiute belonged to the Ute-Chemehuevigroup of the Shoshonean branch of the Uto-Aztecan stock.Location.?In western Utah, northwestern Arizona, southeasternNevada, and parts of southeastern California.
382 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Boll. 145SubdivisionsPowell and Ingalls give the following "tribes" which, as Steward (1933) sug-gests, were more likely villages or restricted local groups:Ho-kwaits, in the vicinity of Ivanspaw ("Ivanpah Mountain").I'-chu-ar'-rum-pats, in Moapa Valley, "probably in Overton-St. Thomas vicinity"(Kelly, 1932).Kai'vav-wits, in the vicinity of Kanab ("Kaibab Plateau"?Kelly).Kau-yai'-chits, at Ash Meadows but actually in Shoshoni territory.Kwai-an'-tikwok-ets, east of Colorado, which is perhaps what the name means(Palmer, 1928).Kwi-en'-go-mats, at Indian Springs.Kwi-um'-pus, in the vicinity of Beaver.Mo-a-pa-ri'-ats, in Moapa Valley (on Moapa Creek).Mo-quats, in Kingston Mountains.Mo-vwi'-ats, at Cottonwood Island.Nau-wan'-a-tats, in Moapa Valley.No-gwats, in the vicinity of Potosi ("in Spring Mountains"?Kelly).Nu-a'gun-tits, in Las Vegas Valley.Pa-ga'-its, in the vicinity of Colville.Pa-gu'-its, at Pagu Lake.Pa-ran-i-guts, in Pa-ran-i-gut Valley.Pa-room'-pai-ats, in Moapa Valley "head of Moapa Creek, at Home ranch."Pa-room'-pats, at Pa-room Spring.Pa-ru'-guns, in the vicinity of Parawau "Paragonah Lakes" (Kelly, 1932).Pa-spi'-kai-vats, in the vicinity of Toquerville, "a district on lower Ash Creek"(Kelly).Pin'-ti-ats, in Moapa Valley.Sau-won'-ti-ats, in Moapa Valley.Shi'-vwits, on Shi'-vwits Plateau.Tim-pa-shau'-wa-got-sits, at Providence Mountains.Tsou-wa'-ra-its, in Meadow Valley.U'-ai-Nu-ints, in the vicinity of St. George.U-in-ka'-rets, in Mountains ("Mount Trumbull"?Kelly).Un-ka-ka'-ni-guts, in Long Valley.Un-ka'-pa-Nu-kuints', in the vicinity of Cedar (perhaps "second creek south ofKanarra . . . slightly southeast of New Harmony"?Kelly).U-tum'-pai-ats, in Moapa Valley ("site of Wiser Ranch, near Glendale, Nevada"
?
Kelly).Ya'-gats, at Armagoza ("spring just north of Tecopa, in Armagosa Valley"Kelly).Kelly (1932) reduces the number of "tribes" or "bands" to 14, some of whichagree with those given by Powell, while others seem to contain the remnants of anumber of his "tribes." She also gives two not appearing in his list, viz: theKaiparowits and a band at Gunlock.History.?The Southern Paiute came in contact with the Spaniardsin the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries but were little disturbed bythem. The first attempt to describe them systematically seems tohave been made by Father Escalante, who traversed their territoryin 1776. After the annexation of California and New Mexico to the
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OP NORTH AMERICA 383United States, their country was slowly but steadily encroached upon,and they were in part removed to reservations though by far thegreater number remained scattered through the country. There hasbeen comparatively little friction between these Indians and theWhites.Population.?Mooney (1928) gives the population of the SouthernPaiute and Northern Paiute together as 7,500 in 1845. In 1906there were reported to be 129 Indians at Moapa Reservation, 267 atDuck Valley, and those not under an agent in Nevada were estimated6 years before to number 3,700, but this includes the Northern Paiute;in Utah there were 76 Kaibab, 154 Shivwits, and 370 not under anagency; and in Arizona there were 350 Paiute under the WesternNevada School Superintendent, altogether slightly more than 5,000.Even allowing for the Northern Paiute, this figure must be too high orthe enumerators of 1910 missed a great many Indians, for the census ofthat date reports only 780 Paiute altogether. The Indian OfficeReport for 1923 gives 226 in Nevada and southwestern Utah, butothers in Utah are enumerated with the Ute. The census of 1930enumerates 294 exclusive of the Chemehuevi. According to the Reportof the United States Indian Office for 1937, there seem to have been439 in that year.Connections in which they have become noted.?The name Paiutehas become identified with the name "Diggers." Both have beenused in a contemptuous sense. A county of south-central Utah isnamed Paiute.Panamint, see Paiute, Northern.Pueblo. In historic times none of the Pueblo Indians have occupiedany part of Nevada, but remains in the southern section of the Statetestify to former occupancy by these Indians. (See New Mexicoand Arizona.)Shoshoni. The Western Shoshoni occupied northeastern Nevada asfar as, and including, Reese River Valley. (See Idaho.)Ute. The Ute claimed a small part of eastern Nevada. (See Utah.)Washo. From the native term Washiu, signifying "person." Alsocalled:Tsaisuma, name given them by the northeastern Maidu.Connections.?Until recently the Washo were regarded as constitut-ing a distinct linguistic stock, but it is now believed that they wererelated to some of the tribes of California. J. P. Harrington hasannounced a linguistic connection between them and the Chumash, butother students place them in the Hokan linguistic family.
384 BT7REAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145SubdivisionsLowie gives the following:Ha'nale'lti, about Woodfords and in Antelope Valley.Pa'walu, near Minden and Gardnerville.We'lmelti, about Reno.Location.?On Truckee River as far down as the Meadows, thoughtheir right to the latter was disputed by the Northern Paiute tribes;Carson River down to the first large canyon below Carson City; theborders of Lake Tahoe; and Sierra and other valleys as far as the firstrange south of Honey Lake, Cafif.History.?There is some evidence that the Washo were once estab-lished in valleys farther east than the location above given and weredriven thence by Northern Paiute tribes. In 1860-62, according toMooney (1928), the Northern Paiute conquered them in a contestover the site of Carson and forbade them thenceforth to own horses.They had little contact with Whites until very recent years. Inlater times they lived between Reno and a point a short distancesouth of Carson City, where they adopted a parasitic mode of life,depending almost entirely on the towns and ranches. In 1865 it wasproposed to set aside two reservations for these Indians in Carsonand Washoe Valleys, but white settlers had already occupied theterritory and the plan was abandoned.Population.?Mooney (1928) made an estimate of 1,000 as of 1845.In 1859 they numbered about 900. In 1907, 300 were reported.The census of 1910 reported 819; that of 1930, 668. In 1937, 629were reported.Connections in which they have become noted.?The name W^asho ispreserved in the names of Washoe County, Washoe Lake, WashoeValley, and Washoe, a post hamlet, all in Nevada. Another localitycalled Washoe is in Carbon County, Mont.WYOMINGArapaho, possibly from the Pawnee tirapihu or larapihu, signifiying
"trader." Also called:Xhya'to, Kiowa name.Ano's-anyotskano, Kichai name.Betides, Kiowa Apache name.Detseka'yaa, Caddo name, signifying "dog eaters."Dog Eaters.E-tah-leh, Hidatsa name, signifying "bison path Indians."Hitiinwo'Iv, Cheyenne name, signifying "cloud men" or "sky men."Intina-ina, own name, signifying "our people."Ita-Iddi, Hidatsa name (Maximilian).Kaninahoish, Chippewa name.Koms^ka-Ki'nahyup, former Kiowa name, signifying "men of the worn-outleggings."
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 385Kun na-nar-wesh or Gens des Vachles], by Lewis and Clark (1804).Mahplyato, Dakota name, signifying "blue cloud."Nii'rharl's-kGrikiwa'ahdski, Wichita name.Sargtika, Comanche and Shoshoni name, signifying "dog eaters"; thePawnee, Wichita, and Ute names were forms of this.Connections.?Together with their near relatives, the Atsina, theArapaho constitute the most aberrant group of the Algonquianhnguistic stock.Location.?The Arapaho have occupied a number of differentregions in the historic period, but after they crossed the Missourithey became most closely identified with northeastern Wyoming,where the main or northern part of the tribe resided for a long periodand where they were finally given a reservation. (See also Colorado,Kansas, Montana, Nebraska, North Dakota, Oklahoma, SouthDakota, and Canada.) SubdivisionsThe Arapaho recognized five main divisions, which were evidently originallydistinct tribes. Mooney (1928) calls these: (1) NdkasinS'na, Bdachingna, orNorthern Arapaho; (2) NdwunSna, or Southern Arapaho; (3) Aa'ninCna, Hitiingna,Atsina, or Gros Ventres of the Prairie, today usually reckoned as a distinct tribe(see Montana) ; (4) Basawun?na, principally with the Northern Arapaho ; and (5)H^nahawungna, or Aanfi'nhawS, later incorporated with the Northern Arapaho.The corresponding names given by Kroeber (1902 b) are: Hinanae'ina" (Arapahoproper), Na^waginaha'ana" (evidently Southern Arapaho), Hitoune'na? (GrosVentres), Ba,asa?wuune'na?, and Ha?anaxawuune'na?. Kroeber also states thatfour more divisions recognized in the tribe were evidently in reality divisions ofthe Hinanae'ina". These are: Wa^xue'i^i ("ugly people"), about Cantonment,Okla.; Haxaa?9ine'na? ("ridiculous men"), on the South Canadian, Okla.;Baa?tcline'na? ("red-willow men"), in Wyoming; and a fourth whose name hasbeen forgotten. The following are relatively modern local bands of the .\rapaho:Forks-of-t he-River Men, Bad Pipes, Greasy Faces, Wdquithi, Aqdthing'na, Gawun-6na, Hdqihana, Sasdbaithi, of which the first three were among the NorthernArapaho.History.?According to tradition, the Arapaho were once sedentaryand seem to have lived in the Red River Valley, whence they movedsouthwest across the Missouri at some time prior to the passage ofthat stream by the Cheyenne. Sometime afterward the Atsinaseparated from the rest, possibly cut off from the main body by theCrow, and moved off to the north; and within the last centur}'' therest of the tribe have slowly divided into a northern and a vSouthernbranch, the Northern Arapaho living along the edges of the mountainsat the headwaters of the Platte, while the Southern Arapaho continuedon toward the Arkansas. About 1840 they made peace with the Da-kota, Kiowa, and Comanche but were at war with the Shoshoni, Ute,and Pawnee until they were confined to reservations. By the treatyof Medicine Lodge in 1867 the Southern Arapaho were placed upona reservation in Oklahoma along with the Southern Cheyenne; this was
386 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145thrown open to white settlement and the Indian lands were allottedin severalty in 1892. The Northern Arapaho were assigned to areservation on Wind River, Wyo., after having made peace with theShoshoni who occupied the same reserve. The Atsina were associatedwith the Assiniboin on Fort Belknap Reservation, Mont.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated that there were 3,000Arapaho in 1780 and the same number of Atsina. In 1894 therewere 2,638 of the two tribes together; in 1904 there were 889 NorthernArapaho and 859 Southern Arapaho, a total of 1,748. The census of1910 reported 1,419 Arapaho, while the United States Indian OfficeReport for 1923 gives 921 Arapaho in Wyoming and 833 in Oklahoma,a total of 1,754. The 1930 census reported 1,241, of whom 867belonged to the northern division. In 1937 there were 1,164 NorthernArapaho and 2,836 Southern Arapaho and Cheyenne together.Connections in which they have become noted.?The Arapaho were oneof the famous raiding tribes of the Plains; their name appears fre-quently coupled with that of the Cheyenne. The name Arapahoehas been given to a county and a mountain in Colorado and to localitiesin Furnas County, Nebr.; Pamlico County, N. C; Cheyenne County,Colo.; and Fremont County, Wyo.; and the name Arapaho to thecounty seat of Custer County, Okla.Bannock. Some Bannock ranged into western Wyoming. (SeeIdaho.)Cheyenne. The Cheyemie hunted and warred to some extent in theeastern part of Wyoming; were long allied with the Arapaho. (SeeSouth Dakota.)Comanche. Before separating from the Shoshoni the Comancheprobably occupied territory in Wyoming, afterward moving south-ward. (See Texas.)Crows. The Crows occupied in Wyoming the valleys of Powder,Wind, and Big Horn Rivers and ranged as far south as Laramie.(See Montana.)Dakota. Dakota hunting and war parties frequently reached theterritory of Wyoming, but the tribe had no permanent settlementsthere. In 1876 they participated with the Northern Arapaho andNorthern Cheyenne in the cession of the northeastern territory ofWyoming. (See South Dakota.)Kiowa. According to tradition, a tradition reinforced by other evi-dence, the Kiowa lived for a time in or near the Black Hills beforemoving south. (See Oklahoma.)
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 387Kiowa Apache. This tribe lived in close conjunction with the Kiowa.(See Oklahoma.)Pawnee. The Pawnee were known to Wyoming only as hunters andwarriors, (See Nebraska.)Shoshoni. The Northern Shoshoni formerly occupied the westernpart of Wyoming. (See Idaho.)Ute. The Ute were just south of the present Wyoming and enteredits territory at times to hunt or fight. (See Utah.)MONTANAArapaho. The Arapaho proper occupied, or camped in, parts ofsoutheastern Montana at various periods of their history. (SeeWyoming.)Arikara. Some Arikara hunted in eastern Montana. In 1869 and1880, together with the Hidatsa and Mandan, they relinquishedrights to land in the southeastern part of the State. (See NorthDakota.)Assiniboin. From a Chippewa term signifying "one who cooks bythe use of stones."E-tans-ke-pa-se-qua, Hidatsa name, from a word signifying "long arrows"(Long, 1823).Guerriers de pierre, French name.Hohe, Dakota name, signifying "rebels."Sioux of the Rocks, English name.Stonies, or Stone Indians, English name translated from the Indian.TlQ'tlama'eka, Kutenai name, signifying "cutthroats," the usual termfor Dakota derived from the sign language.Weepers, given by Henry (1809).Connections.?The Assiniboin belonged to the Siouan hnguisticfamily, and were a branch of the Dakota (see South Dakota), havingsprung traditionally from the Yanktonai whose dialect they spoke.Location.?The Assiniboin were most prominently associated his-torically with the valleys of the Saskatchewan and Assiniboin Rivers,Canada. In the United States they occupied the territory north ofthe Milk and Missouri Rivers as far east as the White Earth. (Seealso North Dakota.) SubdivisionsThe latest list is that given by Professor Lowie (1939). He states that, an-ciently, there were three principal tribal divisions, viz: Ho'ke (Like-Big-Fish),Tu-wa?'huda? (Looking-like-Ghosts), and Sitco?'-ski (Tricksters, lit. "Wrinkled-Ankles"). Lowie obtained the names of the following smaller bands: Tca?xta'da?,U?ska'ha (Roamers), Wazl'a wintca'ct*, (Northern People), Wat5'paxna-o?wa? or Wato'paxnatu", Tca?'xe wintca'cta (People of the Woods), Tani?'ta'bin(Buffalo-Hip), Hu'deca'bin* (Red-Butt), WacI'azI hyabin (Fat-Smokers), Witcl'-
388 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145
abin, I'''ya?to?Va?bin (Rock People), Wato'pabin (Paddlers), Cuntcg'bi (CanumMentulae), Cahi'a iye'skabin (Speakers of Cree (Half-Crees)), Xe'nato?wan(Mountain People), Xe'bina (Mountain People), Icna'umbis', (Those-who-stay-alone), and Ini'na u'mbi. Hayden (1862) mentions a band called Min'-i-shi-nak'-a-to, or Lake People, which does not seem to be identifiable with any ofthe above. This last may be the band called by Henry (1809) Those-who-have-water-for-themselves-only. The following bands cited by Henry are whollyunidentifiable: Red River, Rabbit, Eagle Hills, Saskatchewan, Foot, and SwampyGround Assiniboin.History.?According to tradition, this tribe separated from theWazikute band of Yanktonai. The separation evidently took placebefore contact with the Whites, but there is evidence that whenEuropeans first heard of the tribe they were south of their later habitat,probably in the vicinity of the Lake of the Woods and Lake Nipigon.Thence they moved northwest toward Lake Winnipeg and later tothe banks of the Assiniboin and Saskatchewan Rivers. In the mean-time they had allied themselves with the Cree and had become enemiesof their own southern relatives with whom they were afterward almostconstantly at war. This northward movement and alliance with theCree was due in large measure to the establishment of British postson Hudson Bay and the desire of the Assiniboin Indians to have accessto them and thus supply themselves with firearms and other Europeanarticles. The Assiniboin in the United States were gathered underthe Fort Belknap and Fort Peck agencies ; those in Canada under theBattleford, Edmonton, and Assiniboin agencies, at Moose Mountain,and on Stoney Reservation.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated that there were 10,000Assiniboin in 1780. In 1829 Porter gave 8,000, and Drake {in Church,1825) thought that there were 10,000 before the smallpox epidemicof 1836, when 4,000 died. The United States Indian Office Reportof 1843 gave 7,000; in 1890 they numbered 3,008; and in 1904, 1,234in the United States, and 1,371 in Canada, a total of 2,605. Thecensus of 1910 gave 1,235 in the United States, and the United StatesIndian Office Report for 1923 gave 1,400, while there was an approxi-mately equal number in Canada. The United States Census of1930 gave 1,581. In 1937, 2,232 were returned in the United States.Connections in which they have become noted.?The Assiniboinattained prominence during the dealings of explorers and traders withthe Indians along the upper Missouri. As Assiniboin or Assiniboine,the name has been adopted for an important affluent of the RedRiver of the North in Manitoba and Saskatchewan Provinces. MountAssiniboin is in the Rocky Mountains near the boundary betweenBritish Columbia and Alberta, about 20 miles south of Banff.
SWANTONJ INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 389Atsina. Probably from Blackfoot fit-se'-na, supposed to mean "^tpeople." Also called:Acapatos, by Duflot de Mofras (1844).A-re-tear-o-pan-ga, Hidataa name.Bahwetego-weninnewug, Chippewa name, signifying "fall people."Bot-k'in'ago, signifying "belly men."Fall Indians, common early name.Gros Ventres des Plaines, derived from an incorrect interpretation of thetribal sign and the qualifying phrase "des Plaines" to distinguish themfrom the Hidatsa, the Gros Ventres de la Riviere.Haaninin or Aa'nin^na, own name, said to signify "white-clay people,"
"lime-men," or "chalk-men."His-tu-i'-ta-ni-o, Cheyenne name.Hitiingna, Arapaho name, signifying "beggars" or "spongers."Minnetarees of the Plains, Minnetarees of the Prairies, so called to avoidconfusion with the Hidatsa (q. v. under North Dakota).Rapid Indians, from Harmon (1820).Sa'pani, Shoshoni name, signifying "bellies."Sku'tani, Dakota name.Connections.?The Atsina were a part of the Arapaho, of whichtribe they are sometimes reckoned a division, and both belong to theAlgonquian linguistic family.Location.?On Milk River and adjacent parts of the Missouri,in what is now Montana, ranging northward to the Saskatchewan.(See also Canada.) SubdivisionsKroeber (1908 b) has recorded the following names of bands or clans, some ofwhich may, however, be duplications:Names of clans whose position in the camp circle is known, beginning at thesouth side of the opening at the east: Frozen or Plumes, "Those-who-water-their-horses-once-a-day"; Tendons, "Those-who-do-not-give-away," or "Buffalo-humps"; Opposite (or Middle) Assiniboin, "Ugly-ones or Tent-poles worn smooth[from travel]"; Bloods, "Fighting-alone."Other clan names: Berry-eaters. Breech-cloths, CofTee, Dusty-ones, Gray-onesor Ash-colored, Ka?hutyi (the name of a chief). Night-hawks, Poor-ones, Torn-trousers, Weasel-skin headdress.History.?If the Arapaho once lived in the Red River country, theAtsina were probably with them. At least, the languages of bothpoint to the region of the Algonquian tribes northeast of the Plainsfor their origin. At the same time Kroeber (1900 b) thinks thatthey must have been separated for at least 200 years. According toHayden (1860), they were south of the Saskatchewan about 1800.In 1818 they joined the Arapaho and remained with them until 1823when they returned to the location given above in the neighborhoodof Milk River. For a long time they maintained an alliance with theBlackfeet but later joined the Crow against them and in the course
390 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145
of the ensuing war, in 1867, suffered a severe defeat. Later they wereplaced on Fort Belknap Reservation, Mont., with the Assiniboin.Popvlation.?Mooney (1928) estimates that the Atsina numbered3,000 in 1780. In 1904 there were 535. The census of 1910 reported510, and the United States Office of Indian Affairs in 1923 reported586; 631 were reported by the census of 1930, and 809 in 1937.Bannock. The Bannock ranged into the western part of the State.(See Idaho.)Cheyenne. The Cheyenne frequently entered the eastern part ofMontana and the Northern Cheyenne were ultimately assigned a re-servation within the State. (See South Dakota.)Chippewa. The Chippewa had little contact with the region nowincluded in Montana until very recent times when a considerablenumber came to live there, 486 according to the census of 1910.(See Minnesota.)Cree. The original homes of the Cree were north of the presentUnited States, though their war parties frequently came into theterritory now occupied by this country to iBght the Dakota, Black-foot, and other tribes. In comparatively late times a number, givenby the census of 1910 as 309, settled in Montana, and others werereported from Washington (91), Michigan, Oregon, North Dakota,Idaho, Kansas, and Minnesota. (See also Canada.)Crow. A translation, through the French gens des corbeaux, of theirown name Abs4roke, "crow-, sparrowhawk-, or bird-people." AlsocaUed:Hahderuka, Mandan name.Haideroka, Hidatsa name.Hounena, Arapaho name, signifying "crow men."Issa.ppo', Siksika name.Kangitoka, Yankton Dakota name.Ka'-xi, Winnebago name.Kihnatsa, Hidatsa name, signifying "they who refused the paunch," andreferring to the tradition regarding the separation of these two tribes.Kokokiwak, Fox name.Long-haired Indians, by Sanford (1819).O-e'-tun'-i-o, Cheyenne name, signifying "crow people."Par-is-ca-oh-pan-ga, Hidatsa name, signifying "crow people" (Long,1823).St6mchi, Kalispel name.St6mtchi, Salish name.Stimk, Okinagan name.Yaxka'-a, Wyandot name, signifying "crow."Connections.?The Crow belonged to the Siouan linguistic stock andwere most closely related to the Hidatsa, from whom they claim tohave separated.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 391Location.?On the Yellowstone River and its branches, extending asfar north as the Musselshell and as far south as Laramie Fork on thePlatte, but centering particularly on three southern tributaries ofYellowstone River, the Powder, Wind, and Big Horn Rivers. (Seealso Wyoming and Canada.) SubdivisionsThere were formerly three local divisions, known to the people themselves asMine'sepere, Dung-on-the-river-banks?, or Black Lodges; the A'^c'araho', Many-Lodges; and the Erarapl'o, Kicked-in-their-bellies. The first of these is calledRiver Crow by some writers and the last two collectively Mountain Crow. Theywere also divided into 12 clans arranged in pairs.History.?As stated above, the Crow tribe claims to have separatedfrom the Hidatsa, a tradition shared by the Hidatsa. It is at leastcertain that the two are more closely related linguistically than iseither to any other Siouan group. Their separation into bands musthave occurred in the first quarter of the nineteenth century at latest.In 1804 they were found in their historic seats and have been inapproximately the same region ever since, the reservation to whichthey were finally assigned being on the Big Horn River.Population.?Mooney's (1928) estimate for the year 1780 is 4,000Crow. In 1804 Lewis and Clark estimated 350 lodges and 3,500 souls.In 1833 there were said to be 1,200 warriors and a population of from3,250 to 3,560. In 1890 a total population of 2,287 was reported,and in 1904, 1,826. The census of 1910 gave 1,799, and the UnitedStates Indian Office Report for 1923, 1,777. The census of 1930,reported 1,674, and the Indian Office Report for 1937, 2,173.Connections in which they have become noted.?The Crow tribe wasprominent in the early history of the Northwest, though not to theextent of the Dakota and Blackfeet. The Indian form of the name,Absarokee, is borne by a post village of Stillwater County, Mont. ; inthe form Absaraka it appears as the name of a place in Cass County,N. Dak.; and as Absaroka, more prominently, as the name of a rangeof mountains and a National Forest in the Yellowstone National Park.Dakota. The Dakota entered Montana at times to hunt and fightthe Crow but were not permanent residents of the State. (SeeSouth Dakota.)Hidatsa. Together with the Arikara and Mandan, in 1869 and 1880the Hidatsa took part in treaties ceding territory in southeasternMontana to the United States Government. (See North Dakota.)Kalispel. This tribe probably visited the westernmost parts ofMontana at times and most of them finally settled upon the Flat-head Reservation in that State. Some of them, together with theSalish and Kutenai, ceded Montana lands in 1855. (See Idaho.)
392 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [B0ll. 145Kiowa. According to tradition, the Kiowa at one time lived in thesoutheastern part of this State. (See Oklahoma.)Kutenai. Said to be from a term applied to this tribe by the BlackfootIndians and believed by Turney-High (1937) to have come origi-nally from the name of a Kutenai tribe or division called Tunaha.Also called:Flatbows, the name given often to the Lower Kutenai, the origin of whichis unknown.Kuspglu, their Nez Perc6 name, signifying "water people."Sdn'ka or asdn'ka, own name, significance unknown.Shalsa'ulk?, by the Sinkiuse and said to be from a place name, but see below.Skelsd-ulk, Salish name, signifying "Water People."Slender Bows, name sometimes given as an interpretation of their ownname, but erroneously.Connections.?The Kutenai were placed by Powell in a distinctstock called Kitunahan, but some linguists regard them as remoterelatives of the Algonquians and Salishans.Location.?On Kootenay River, Kootenay Lake, Arrow Lake, andthe upper course of the Columbia River, except for the bend betweenDonald and Revelstoke; in southeastern British Columbia; north-western Montana; northeastern Washington; and the northern tip ofIdaho. In modern times they have settled as far southeast as Flat-head Lake. (See also Canada.)SubdivisionsThe Kutenai were separated into two general divisions, the line between ex-tending roughly from north to south through Libby, Mont. The Upper Kutenailay to the east on upper Kootenay River and depended more upon hunting, es-pecially of the bison, while the Lower Kutenai were largely fishermen. Turney-High (1937) gives the following bands: (1) Tundxa, whose original home was onthe Plains and who have now been destroyed and their descendants incorporatedwith the other bands; (2) Tobacco Plains or People-of-the-Place-of-the-Flying-Head, esteemed to be the mother band of the tribe (on Kootenay River at theInternational Boundary Line?the Fernie Band was a subdivision) ; (3) JenningsBand (about Jennings, Mont.) ; (4) Libby Band (at Libby, Mont.) ; (5) Bonner'sFerry Band (at Bonner's Ferry, Idaho) ; (6) Fort Steele Band (at Steele, B. C.)
;
(7) Creston Band (at Creston, B. C.) ; (8) Windermere Band (a very modern bandat Windermere, B. C). To these may be added the very modern Dayton-ElmoBand on Flathead Lake drawn from the Jennings and Libby bands.History.?From information collected by Turney-High (1937),it would seem that the Kutenai formerly lived east of the RockyMountains, extending at least as far as MacLeod, Alberta. Theiroldest settlement in their present territories would seem to have beenat Tobacco Plains whence they gradually spread to the north, west,and south, and in recent times to the southeast. Their country wastraversed early in the nineteenth century by David Thompson (1916)
8WANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 393in the interest of the Northwest Company, and Kootenai House wasestablished in 1807. With the running of the International Boundary,their country was divided between the Dominion of Canada and theUnited States to the considerable inconvenience of the tribe. Mis-sionary work among them, particularly work among the Upper Ku-tenai, has been very successful.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated the Kutenai population tobe 1,200 in 1780. In 1890 those in the United States were estimatedat 400 to 500. In 1905 they numbered 554, and those in British terri-tory the year preceding were enumerated at 553. The census of 1910gave 538 in the United States. The Report of the Canadian Depart-ment of Indian Affairs for 1924 returned about 450, and that of theUnited States Indian Office only 129 under that name. The latterfigure is evidently defective, as the Census of 1930 returned 287 ofwhom 185 were in Montana and 101 in Idaho. In 1937 there were118 in Idaho.Conneciions in which they have become noted.?The Kutenai are notedfor their peculiar language, which differs from the speech of all theirneighbors and has been given an independent position as the Kitu-nahan stock. They have given their name to Kootenay or KootenaiRiver, also called the Flat Bow or MacGillivray, which flows throughBritish Columbia, Montana, and Idaho; to Kootenay Lake in BritishColumbia; to Kootenai Mountains, and Kootenai Falls, Mont.;Kootenai County, Idaho; and to a post village, Kootenai, in BonnerCounty, Idaho.Mandan. The Mandan were parties to treaties made in 1869 and 1880ceding their claims to land in southeastern Montana. (See NorthDakota.)Nez Perce. Individuals belonging to this tribe sometimes enteredthe southwestern part of Montana. (See Idaho.)Piegan. The Piegan were the southernmost subtribe of the Siksika(q. v.).Salish, Probably a place name, the last syllable, -ish, "people."Also called:A-shu'-e-ka-pe, Crow name, signifying, "flatheads."A-too-ha-pe, Hidatsa name.Flatheads, widely so called because, in contradistinction to the tribeswest of them, they left their heads in the natural condition, flat on top,instead of sloping backward to the crown.Ka-ka-i-thi, Arapaho name, signifying, "flathead people."Ka-ko'-is-tsi'-a-ta'-ni-o, Cheyenne name, signifying, "people who flattentheir heads."Ko-toh'-spi-tup'-i-o, Siksika name.Nebagindibe, Chippewa name, signifying, "flat head."
394 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Pa O-bde'-ca, Yankton Dakota name, signifying, "heads cornered oredged."Tfites-Piates, common French term.Connections.?The Salish belonged to the interior division of theSalishan linguistic family, to which they have given their name.Location.?In western Montana originally, extending from theRocky Mountains on the west; south to the Gallatin; east to CrazyMountain and Little Belt Ranges, north to some hilly country northof Helena. Later they were centered farther west around FlatheadLake. (See also Idaho.) SubdivisionsIt is said that there was a distinct band of Salish Indians on a river near Helena,another band near Butte, another somewhere east of Butte, and another some-where in the Big Hole Valley; and there are traditions of still others.History.?According to Teit (1930) the Salish once extended fartherto the east, and there were related tribes in that region which he callsSematuse and Tunahe. As Turney-High (1937) has pointed out,however, the Tunahe were evidently a Kutenai division; and theSematuse, if not mythical, seem to have been an alien people inpossession of this country before the Salish entered it. Teit statesthat these Salish were driven westward out of the Plains by theBlackfoot, particularly after that tribe obtained guns. Turney-High,on the other hand, regards the Salish as rather late intruders into thePlains from the west. However, the pressure of tribes westward bytheir neighbors to the east as soon as the latter obtained guns is sucha common story that it hardly seems probable that the Salish couldhave escaped its effects. Just how far the SaUsh retired westwardmay be a matter of argument, nor does it affect the theory of anearlier eastward migration if such a movement can be substantiatedon other grounds. Salish relations with the Whites were alwaysfriendly and they were successfully missionized by Roman Catholicsunder the lead of the famous Father De Smet. By the treaty ofJuly 16, 1855, they ceded all of their lands in Montana and Idahoexcept a reserve south of Flathead Lake and a second tract in BitterRoot Valley which was to be made into a reserve for them if it wereconsidered advisable. It was, however, not so considered, and actingupon an Act of Congress of June 5, 1872, the Salish were removed tothe former reservation, where they still live.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated that there were 600 Salishin 1780, evidently accepting the figure given by Lewis and Clark for1806. Teit (1930) considers this much too low, the data collectedby him indicating a SaHsh population of perhaps 3,000, but thiswould seem to err in the opposite direction. The Indian OflBicefigure for 1905 is 557 and that for 1909, 598. The census of 1910
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 395
reported 486, of whom 400 were in Montana, 46 in Washington, 27in Oregon, 6 in Idaho, 6 in Nebraska, and 1 in Kansas. The censusof 1830 reported 2,036 Interior Salish from Montana, but did notgive separate figures for the tribe under discussion. The UnitedStates Office of Indian Affairs reported 3,085 in 1937,Connections in which they have become noted.?It was among theSalish Indians that the noted Father De Smet worked as a missionary.The large group of languages to which this tribe belongs is known toethnologists as the SaUshan linguistic family. Flathead or SelishLake, Flathead Pass, and Flathead County, all in Montana, alsoderive their names from the Salish or "Flathead" Indians.Sematuse (phonetically SEmte'use). Signifying "foolish" accordingto some, derived from an old place name according to others.Teit (1930) identified the Sematuse as a former tribe of the Salishanstock, closely related to the Salish tribe. According to his in-formants, one band of these people was on Big Blackfoot River,another at a place later known as "Big Camas," or "Camas Prairie,"and some thought that a smaller band had headquarters nearDeer Lodge, and there may have been one at Phillipsburg. Otherswere said to have been on the Little Blackfoot and Salmon-TroutRivers but may not have constituted a band. Turney-High(1937), however, thinks that this tribe was mythical or else thatit was the name of a non-Salishan people who preceded the Salishin western Montana.Shoshoni. Before European weapons reached the eastern tribes,bands of Shoshoni ranged over a considerable part of easternMontana as far north as Milk River. (See Idaho.)Siksika. A native word signifying "black feet," by which term thetribe is best known. By some they are said to be called Blackfeetfrom the discoloration of their moccasins by the ashes of prairiefires, but more probably their moccasins were dyed black. Alsocalled
:
Ah-hi'-ta-pe, former name for themselves, signifying "blood people."Ayatchinini, Chippewa name.Ayatchiyiniw, Cree name, signifying "stranger," or "enemy."Beaux Hommes, so given by Dobbs (1744).Carmeneh, Crow name.Choch-Katit, Arikara name.Ish-te-pit'-e, Crow name.I tsi sf pi sa, Hidatsa name, signifying "black feet."Katce, Sarsi name.Ka-wi-'na-han, Arapaho name, signifying "black people."Makadewana-ssidok, Chippewa name.M&makat&'wana-si'ta'-ak, Fox name.
396 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Mkatewetit^ta, Shawnee name.Mukkudda Ozitunnug, Ottawa name (Tanner, 1830).Netsepoy^, sometimes used by the Confederacy and signifying "peoplewho speak our language."Pah-kee, Shoshoni name.Po'-o-mas, Cheyenne name, signifying "blankets whitened with earth."Saha'ntla, Kutenai name, signifying "bad people."Sawketakix, name sometimes used by themselves, signifying "men of theplains."S'chko6, or S'chkoeishin, Kalispel name, from ko^i, "black."Sica'bfi, Kansa name.Si-ha'-sa-pa, Yankton Dakota name, signifying "black feet."Skuafshgni, Salish name, signifying "black feet."Stxuafxn, Okinagan name, signifying "black."Tofikofiko, Kiowa name, signifying "black legs."Tuhu'vti-6mokat, Comanche name.Wateni'hte, Arapaho name.Connections.?The Siksika belong to the Algonquian linguistic stock,forming the most aberrant of all the well-recognized tongues of thatfamily except Arapaho and Atsina.Location.?In the territory stretching from North SaskatchewanRiver, Canada, to the southern headstreams of the Missouri inMontana, and from about longitude 105* W. to the base of theRocky Mountains. SubdivisionsThe Siksika are divided into the following subtribes: The Siksika or Blackfeetproper, occupying the northern part of the above territory ; the Kainah or Bloodssouth of the preceding; and the Piegan, south of the Kainah, the one best repre-sented in the United States.Each of the above divisions was subdivided into bands as follows:Siksika bands: Istsikainah.Aisikstukiks. Mameoya.Apikaiyiks. Nitikskiks.Emitahpahksaiyiks. Saksinahmahyiks.Motahtosiks. Siksahpuniks.Puhksinahmahyiks. Siksinokaks.Saiyiks. Piegan bands:Siksinokaks. Ahahpitape.Tsiniktsistsoyiks. Ahkaiyikokakiniks.Kainah or Blood bands: Apikaiyiks.Ahkaiksumiks. Esksinaitupiks.Ahkaipokaks. Inuksikahkopwaiks.Ahkotashiks. Inuksiks.Ahkwonistsists. Ipoksimaiks.Anepo. Kahmitaiks.Apikaiyiks. Kiyis.Aputosikainah. Kutaiimiks.Inuhksoyistamiks. Kutaisotsiman.Isisokasimiks. Miahwahpitaiks.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 397Miawkinaiyiks. Nitotsiksisstaniks.Mokumiks. Sikokitsimiks.Motahtosiks. Sikopoksimaiks.Motwainaiks. Sikutsipumaiks.Nitakoskitsipupiks. Susksoyiks (Hayden, 1862).Nitawyiks. Tsiniksistsoyiks.Nitikskiks.History.?According to certain traditions, the Siksika movedinto their present territory from the northeast, and it is at least evi-dent that they had gravitated westward, their movement probablyaccelerated by the acquisition of horses. They were at war withnearly all of their neighbors except the Athapascan Sarsi and theAtsina; both of these tribes usually acted with them. They were onrelatively friendly terms with the English of the Hudson's Bay postsin Canada, upon whom they depended for guns and ammunition, butwere hostile to the Whites on the American side, in large measurebecause through them their enemies received the same kind of sup-plies. They were several times decimated by smallpox but sufferedless than many tribes not so far removed from White influences, andhave never been forced to undergo removal from their home country.They are now gathered under agencies on both sides of the Inter-national Boundary and are slowly adapting themselves to Whitemodes of life.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates that in 1780 there were15,000 Blackfeet. Mackenzie (1801) gave 2,250 to 2,500 warriors for1790, which would reduce Mooney's (1928) figures by about one-half,but in the meantime the smallpox epidemic of 1780-81 had occurred.The oflBcial Indian Report for 1858 gave 7,300 and another estimateof about the same period, said by Hayden (1862) to have been made
"under the most favorable circumstances," reported 6,720. In 1909the official enumeration of those in the United States was 2,195, andof those in Canada 2,440, a total of 4,635. The census of 1910 gave2,367 in the United States, all but 99 of whom were Piegan. TheUnited States Indian Office Report for 1923 gives 3,124 Blackfeetand the Report of the Canadian Department of Indian Affairs for1924, 2,236; total, 5,360. The United States census of 1930 reported3,145. In 1937 the Office of Indian Affairs reported 4,242.Connections in which they have become noted.?The Siksika werepeculiar (1) as one of the largest and most warlike tribes of the north-ern Plains, next to the Dakota alone in prominence; (2) as speakingone of three highly specialized languages of the Algonquian stock;(3) as among the bitterest opponents of explorers and traders on theAmerican side of the International Boundary; and (4) as having giventhe name Blackfoot to a considerable town in Idaho, capital of Bing-
398 BUKEAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY IBull. i46ham County, to a creek in the same county, to mountains in Idahoand Alberta, to a river in Montana, and to a village in GlacierCounty, in the same State.Spokan. Some Spokan probably entered western Montana at timesand, in 1910, 134 were reported as residents of the State. (See Wash-ington.)Tnnahe (Tuna'xe). Given by Teit (1930) as the name of an extinctSalishan tribe hving in west central Montana, but identified byTurney-High (1937) as a former eastern or plains band of theKutenai Indians, that band, in fact, from which the name Kutenaiis derived. IDAHOBannock. From their own name Bana'kwiit. Also called:Diggers, by many writers.Ogoize, by the Kalispel.Panai'ti, form of name given by Hoffman (1886).Pun-nush, by the Shoshoni.Robber Indians, by Ross (1855).Ush-ke-we-ah, by the Crow Indians.Connections.?The Bannock belonged to the Shoshonean branch ofthe Uto-Aztecan linguistic stock, being a detached branch of theNorthern Paiute.Location.?In historic times their main center was in southeasternIdaho, ranging into western Wyoming, between latitude 42? and 45?North and from longitude 113? West eastward to the main chain ofthe Rocky Mountains. At times they spread well down Snake River,and some were scattered as far north as Salmon River and even intosouthern Montana. (See also Colorado, Oregon, and Utah.)SubdivisionsA few local group names have been preserved, such as the Kutsshundika orBuffalo-eaters, Penointikara or Honey-eaters, and Shohopanaiti or CottonwoodBannock, but these are not well defined.History.?Bridger met the Bannock Indians in the country aboveindicated as early as 1829, but contacts between them and the Whitesbecame much more intimate with the establishment of Fort Hall in1834. In 1869 Fort Hall Reservation was set aside for them and theShoshoni, but they were in the habit of wandering widely and it wasa long time before they were gathered into it. They claimed theterritory in southwestern Montana in which are situated Virginia Cityand Bozeman, and it is probable that they were driven across themoimtains into the Salmon River Valley at a comparatively recentperiod. Before 1853 they were decimated by the smallpox and were
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 399finally gathered under the Lemhi and Fort Hall agencies. Loss oftheir lands, failure of the herds of buffalo, and lack of prompt reliefon the part of the Government occasioned an uprising of the tribe in1878, which was suppressed by General O. O. Howard.Population.?Bridger, in 1829, stated that the Bannock had 1,200lodges, or a population of about 8,000, but he evidently included theneighboring Shoshoni. Mooney (1928) estimated that in 1845 therewere about 1,000, but Forney, in 1858 (p. 213) gave only 400 to 500.In 1870 Jones estimated 600 and Mann 800 "Northern Bannocks."In 1901 they numbered 513 but were so intermixed with Shoshoni thatthe figure is uncertain. The census of 1910 reported 413, all but 50of whom were in Idaho, and the census of 1930 gave 415, including313 in Idaho. In 1937, 342 were reported.Connections in which they have become noted.?The only prominenceattained by the Bannock was for a brief period during the BannockWar. The name is perpetuated by a river, a range of mountains, anda county. There is also a place named Bannock in Belmont County,Ohio, and another in Butler County, Ky.,but these are probably notconnected with the tribe,Kalispel. From a native term said to mean "Camas"; they weregiven the name Pend d'Oreilles, because when they were first metby Europeans nearly all of them wore large shell earrings. Alsocalled:Ak-min'-e-shu'-me, by the Crow and meaning "the tribe that uses canoes".Camas People, a translation of Kalispel.Earring People, an English translation of Pend d'Oreilles.Hanging Ears, English translation of Pend d'Oreilles.Ni-he-ta-te-tup'i-o, Siksika name.PapshpAn'lgma, Yakima name, signifying "people of the great fir trees."Connections.?The Kalispel belonged to the interior division of thegreat Salishan family.Location.?On Pend Oreille River and Lake, Priest Lake, and thelower course of Clark's Fork. They were said to have extended east-ward to Thompson Lake and Horse Plains and to have hunted oversome of the Salmon River country, Canada, and were formerly saidto have extended to Flathead Lake and Missoula. (See also Montanaand Washington.) Subdivisions(1) Upper Kalispel or Upper Pend d'Oreilles (in Montana from Flathead Lakeand Flathead River to about Thompson Falls on Clark Fork of the Pend OreilleRiver, including the Little Bitterroot, southward about to Missoula and north-ward to the International Boundary), with bands at Flathead Lake, near Kalispel,at or near Dayton, near Poison at the foot of the lake, and possibly one at Colum-bia Falls; some wintered on the Bitterroot and a large band at St. Ignatius.
400 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull, 145(2) Lower Kalispel or Lower Pend d'Oreilles or Kalispel proper (from Thomp-son Falls down Clark Fork, Pend Oreille Lake, Priest Lake, and Pend OreilleRiver nearly to the International Boundary and hunting territories along SalmonRiver, British Columbia).(3) The Chewelah (in the country west of the Calispell or Chewelah Mountainsin the upper part of the Colville Valley).The Lower Kalispel also included several minor bands, the Chewelah apparentlytwo. The Chewelah subdivision spoke a slightly different dialect and waesometimes regarded as an independent tribe.History.?The Kalispel were visited by Lewis and Clark in 1805,and in 1809 a post was established on Pend Oreille Lake by theNorthwest Company and another on Clark Fork the same yearcalled Salish House. Emissaries of the American Fm- Companyreached them later, and in 1844 they were missionized by the RomanCatholic Church. July 16, 1855, the Upper Kalispel, Kutenai, andSalish surrendered all of their lands except an area about FlatheadLake which became the Jocko Reservation. The greater part of theKalispel settled here, but part of the Lower Kalispel were gatheredon Colville Reservation with the Okanagon, Colville, and a numberof other tribes.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated that the Kalispel numbered1,200 in 1780, but Teit (1930) considered that the prehistoric popu-lation must have been between 5,000 and 6,500, an estimate whichwould seem to be excessive. In 1805 Lewis and Clark estimated thatthere were 30 lodges of these people and a population of 1,600. In1905 there were 640 Upper and 197 Lower Pend d'Oreilles under theFlathead Agency (Jocko Reservation) and 98 under the ColvilleAgency. The census of 1910 reported 386 from Montana, 157 fromWashington, 15 from Idaho, and 6 from three other States. Theywere not separately enumerated in 1930, but the United States Officeof Indian Affairs reported 97 in 1937.Connections in which they have become noted.?The name Kalispelis preserved in that of the banking city of Kalispell, county seat ofFlathead County, Mont., by CalispeU Lake, and by the CalispellMountains. The name Pend d'Oreilles is preserved in Pend OreilleLake in northern Idaho and in Pend OreiUe River in Montana, Idaho,3,nd Washington.Kutenai. This tribe occupied the extreme northern part of Idaho.(See Montana.)Nez Perce. A French appellation signifying "pierced noses." Alsocalled:A'dal-k'ato'igo, Kiowa name, signifying "people with hair cut acrossthe forehead."Aniporspi, Calapooya name.A-pa-o-pa, Atsina name (Long, 1823).
8WANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 401
A-pu-pe', Crow name, signifying "to paddle," "paddles."Blue Muds, name applied by traders.Chopunnish, Lewis and Clark.Green Wood Indians, Henry-Thompson Journal.I'-na-cp6, Quapaw name.KamQ'inu, own name.Ko-mun'-i-tup'-i-o, Siksika name.Mikadeshitchfsi, Kiowa Apache name.Nimipu, own name, signifying "the people."Pa ka'-san-tse, Osage name, signifying "plaited hair over the forehead."Pe ga'-zan-de, Kansa name.Pierced Noses, English translation of name.Po'-ge-hdo-ke, Dakota name.Sa-6ptin, Okanagon name.Shi'wanlsh, Tenino name for this tribe and the Cayuse, signifying "strangersfrom up the river."Tchaxsukush, Caddo name.Thoig'a-rik-kah, Shoshoni name, signifying "louse eaters(?)."Tsuharukats, Pawnee name.Tsutpgli, own name.Connections.?The Nez Perc6 Indians were the best known tribe ofthe Shahaptian division of the Shapwailutan hnguistic stock, to whichthey gave the name commonly apphed to them by Sahsh tribes.Location.?The Nez Perc6 occupied a large part of central Idaho, andsections of southeastern Washington and northeastern Oregon. (Seealso Montana and Oklahoma.)SubdivisionsThe following bands are given by Spinden (1908):Alpowe'ma, on Alpaha (Alpowa) Creek.Atskaaiwawixpu, at the mouth of the northern fork of Clearwater River.Esnime, Slate Creek Band, the Upper Salmon River Indians.Hasotino, at Hasutin, opposite Asotin City, Wash.Hatweme, on Hatweh Creek.Hcswdiwewipu, at the month of Asotin Creek.Hinsepu, at Hansens Ferry on the Grande Ronde.Imndma, on Imnaha River.Inantoinu, at the mouth of Joseph Creek.Is&wisnemepu, near Zindels, on the Grande Ronde.Iwatoinu, at Kendrick on Potlatch Creek.Kamiaxpu, at Kamiah, at the mouth of Lawyer's Creek; this band also calledUyame.Lamtdma, on Salmon River.Lapweme, on Lapwai and Sweetwater Creeks.Makapu, on Cottonwood or Maka Creek.Painima, near Peck, on Clearwater River.Pipu'Inlmu, on Big Canon Creek.Saiksaikinpu, on the upper portion of the Southern Fork of Clearwater River.Sakdnma, between the mouth of Salmon River and the mouth of Grande Ronde.Sdlwepu, on the Middle Fork of Clearwater River, about 5 miles above Kooskia,Idaho.
402 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Boll. 145Saxsano, about 4 miles above Asotin City, Wash., on the east side of Snake River.Simlnekempu, at Lewiston, Idaho.Taksehepu, at Agatha on Clearwater River.Tamanmu, at the mouth of Salmon River.Tewepu, at the mouth of Oro Fino Creek.Toiknimapu, above Joseph Creek on the north side of the Grande Ronde.Tsokolaikiinma, between Lewiston and Alpowa Creek.Tuke'llklikespu, at Big Eddy.Tukpame, on the lower portion of the South Fork of Clearwater River.Tunfehepu, at Juliaetta on Potlatch Creek.Walwdma, in Willowa Valley.WewI'me, at the mouth of the Grande Ronde.Witkispu, about 3 miles below Alpowa Creek, on the east side of Snake River.Yakt5'Inu, at the mouth of Potlatch Creek,Yat6lnu, on Pine Creek.The Nuksiwepu, Sahatpu, Wawawipu, Almotipu, Pinewewewixpu, Tokalatoinu,and other bands extended about 80 miles down Snake River from Lewiston.History.?In 1805 Lewis and Clark passed through the territory ofthe Nez Perc6 Indians. The first friction between this tribe andthe Whites followed upon the discovery of gold in the West and theconsequent influx of miners and settlers. By treaties concluded in1855 and 1863 they ceded all of their lands to the United StatesGovernment with the exception of one large reservation. The occu-pants of Wallowa Valley refused to agree to the final cessions, and theNez Perc^ war of 1877 resulted, distinguished by the masterly retreatof Chief Joseph toward the Canadian line, which was almost attainedby him before he was overtaken. Joseph and his followers to thenumber of 450 were sent to Oklahoma, but they lost so heavily fromdisease that in 1885 they were removed to the Colville Reservation,Wash., where a few still hve.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates a population of 4,000Nez Perce in 1780. In 1805 Lewis and Clark computed the totalnumber at 6,000, if we deduct the estimated population of the twotribes later reckoned as distinct. Wilkes (1849) gives 3,000 and Gibbs(1877) estimates more than 1,700 in 1853. In 1885 the official figurewas 1,437. In 1906 there were 1,534 on Lapwai Reservation and 83on Colville Reservation, Wash. The census of 1910 reported 1,259,of whom 1,035 were in Idaho. The Report of The United StatesIndian Office for 1923 gave 1,415 and the report for 1937, 1,426. In1930 the Shahaptian division of the Shapwailutan stock numbered4,119.Connections in which they have become noted.?The Nez Perc6 haveclaims to remembrance, (1) as the largest and most powerful tribeof the Shapwailutan stock, (2) as having given a name applied to themto the principal division of the formerly independent Shahaptian
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 403family. From this tribe Nez Perce County, Idaho, and the post villageof Nezperce in Lewis County derive their names.Paiute, Northern. Indians of this group entered the southwesternpart of Idaho at times. (See Nevada.)Palouse. This tribe extended up the Palouse River into Idaho. (SeeWashington.)Salish, or Flathead. The present State of Idaho was visited to someextent by Indians of this tribe. (See Montana.)Shoshoni, Northern. Significance of the word Shoshoni is unknown.Also called:Aliatan, a name taken originally from that of the Ute and subsequentlyapplied to many Shoshoni tribes, including the Shoshoni proper.Bik-ta'-she, Crow name, signifying "grass lodges."E-wu-h"a'-wu-si, Arapaho name, signifying "people that use grass or bark fortheir houses or huts."Gens du Serpent, by the French.Ginebigonini, Chippewa name, signifying "snake men."Kinebikowininiwak, Algonkin name, signifying "serpents."Ma-buc-sho-roch-pan-ga, Hidatsa name.Mikd-ati, Hidatsa name, signifying "grass lodges."Mi'kyashe, Crow name, signifying "grass lodges."Pezhi'-wokeyotila, Teton Dakota name, signifying "grass-thatch dwellers."Pi-ci'-kse-ni-tup'i-o, Siksika name.Sin-te'-hda wi-ca-sa, Yankton Dakota name, signifying "rattlesnake Indians."Sisfzhanin, Atsina name signifying "rattlesnake men."Snake Indians, common English name.Sn6a, Okanagon name.Wdkidohka-numak, Mandan name, signifying "snake man."W6s'anikaci?ga, Omaha and Ponca name, signifying "snake people."Zuz^ca widdsa, Teton Dakota name, signifying "snake people."Connections.?The Northern Shoshoni belonged to the Shoshoni-Comanche dialectic group of the Shoshonean division of the Uto-Aztecan linguistic family.Location.?The Northern Shoshoni occupied eastern Idaho, exceptthe territory held by the Bannock; western Wyoming; and north-eastern Utah. SubdivisionsTheir only subdivisions were a number of bands headed by popular chiefs, themake up of which was constantly shifting.VillagesLemhi and Central Idaho
:
Bohodai, near the junction of Middle Fork with the Salmon, and an unnamedsite on upper Salmon River where a few famihes from Sohodai sometimeswintered.Guembeduka, about 7 miles north of the town of Salmon.Padai, scattered along Lemhi River about Salmon.
404 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Boll. 145Pagadut,. on Red Rock Creek, about Lima, Mont. ; possibly a few families livednear Dillon, Mont.Pasasigwana, at a warm spring in the mountains north of Clayton.Pasimadai, on Upper Salmon River.Sohodai, on the upper Middle Fork of Salmon River, near Three Rivers.Fort Hall Shoshoni:No band names given.Bannock Creek (Kamdiika) Shoshoni (Pocatello's Band)
:
Biagamugep, the principal village, near Kelton.Cache Valley (Pangwiduka) Kwagunogwai:Along the Logan River above its junction with the Little Bear River.Salt Lake Valley:There are said to have been bands in the Ogden, Weber, and Salt Lake Valleys,but their names have not been preserved; they are sometimes called Ute, butSteward is certain that they were affiliated with the Shoshoni.History.?At one time the Northern Shoshoni extended farthereastward into the Plains but there is no reason to suppose that theydid not at the same time retain the mountain territories later held bythem. They were affected only indirectly by the Spanish settlementsto the south and southwest. In 1805 they were met by Lewis andClark who were guided by a famous woman of their nation, Sacagawea,and from that time on contact with the Americans became fairlycommon. The Northern Shoshoni, particularly those under the famouschief Washakie, were unusually friendly to the Whites. They werefinally gathered upon the Lemhi and Fort Fall Reservations in Idahoand the Wind River Reservation in Wyoming. By the Treaty ofFort Bridger, July 3, 1868, the eastern bands of the Shoshoni andBannock ceded aU rights to their territories in Wyoming and Idahoexcept the Wind River Reservation in the former state for the Sho-shoni and a reservation to be set apart for the Bannock whenever theydesired it. On July 30, 1869, Fort Hall Reservation was set asidefor the Bannock but subsequently occupied in part by the Shoshoni.February 12, 1875, the Lemhi Reservation was established for thesetwo tribes and the Sheepeater band of Western Shoshoni.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated 4,500 in the year 1845,including the Western Shoshoni. The United States Census of 1910gave 3,840 '^Shoshoni," of which number about 2,000 appear to havebelonged to this division. The Report of the OfRce for Indian Affairsof 1917 indicated about 2,200. The census of 1930 reported 3,994for the Northern and Western Shoshoni combined, but in 1937 theUnited States Office of Indian Affairs reported 3,650 NorthernShoshoni alone.Connections in which they have become n<oted.?The Northern Sho-shoni are the most prominent and strongest tribe of the upper plateau.They were also distinguished by the fact that their name was employedby Gallatin (1936) and later adopted by Powell (1891) for appUcation
SWANTONJ INDIAN TRIBES OP NORTH AMERICA 405to a linguistic stock, a stock now considered a branch of a much largergroup, the Uto-Aztecan. The Shoshoni came into prominence inthe last century (1) because Sacagawea or Bird Woman, the famousguide and interpreter of Lewis and Clark in their expedition to thePacific, was a member of this tribe; and (2) because of the ability ofchief Washakie and his constant friendship for the Whites. The nameShoshone has been applied to rivers and mountains in Wyoming andNevada; to a lake in Yellowstone National Park; to the ShoshoneFalls of Snake River; to a county in Idaho; and to places in InyoCounty, Calif.; Lincoln County, Idaho; White Pine County, Nev.;and Fremont County, Wyo.Shoshoni, Western. Significance of the word Shoshoni is unknown.Connections.?The same as for the Northern Shoshoni.Location.?Central and western Idaho, northwestern Utah, centraland northeastern Nevada, and a small territory in California north ofand about Death and Panamint Valleys.SubdivisionsThe names of a great many local groups have been recorded, usually signifyingthat they were "eaters" of certain kinds of food, but most of these seem to havebelonged to territories rather than people, the "eaters" in each being subjectto change. A few of these have, however, acquired special interest and somemeasure of permanence as, for instance, the Tukuarika, Tukuaduka, or SheepEaters, extending from the Yellowstone National Park to the middle course ofSalmon River; the Gosiute of northern Utah and eastern Nevada and the Pana-mint or Koso, the Californian representatives of the division.VillagesSteward (1938) gives the following villages under the several natural areasoccupied by these Indians:Lida and vicinity:Clayton Valley.Kamuva, or Wipa, several miles east of Goldfield.Montezuma.Old Camp, on the north side of Gold Mountain.Pauwaha' (Lida).Tumbasai'uwi, at Stonewall Mountain.Eastern California:Saline Valley:Isha'mba (Waucoba Spring).Ko (Saline Valley).Navadu, at the Springs in Cottonwood Canyon which runs west from DeathValley.Tuhu, at Goldbelt Spring.Little Lake and Koso Mountains:Mua'ta (Coso Hot Springs).Pagunda (Little Lake).Pakwa'si (at Alancha).Uyuwu'mba, about 5 miles south of Darwin.
406 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Panamint Valley:No villages given.Northern Death Valley:Mahunu (springs in Grapevine Canyon and probably Grapevine Springs).Ohyu, at Surveyor's Well.Panuga (Mesquite Springs).Central and Southern Death Valley:Tumbica, at the several springs at Furnace Creek.Village (perhaps) some 15 miles south of Furnace Creek.Beatty and Belted Mountains (camps) :
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Howell Ranch, near Springdale.Hunusu, at Burn's Ranch,Indian Camp, at the head of Oasis Valley.Mutsi, in the vicinity of the water holes marked merely "Tanks" on the U. S.Geol, Surv. map.Sivahwa, a few miles north of the last.Tunava, at Whiterock Springs.Takanawa, at Hick's Hot Springs,Sakainaga, at the mouth of Beatty Wash on the Amagrosa River.Panavadu, somewhere near the last.Wuniakuda, 2 or 3 miles east of the Ammonia Tanks.Wiva, at Oaksprings.Kuikun (Captain Jack Spring).Tupipa, at Tippipah Springs.Pokopa, at Topopah Spring.Pagambuhan (Cane Spring),lone Valley, Reese River, and Smith Creek Valley:Reese River Valley (camps)
:
''Wiyunutuahunupi, at the first creek south of Austin.Angasikigada, 1 mile from the last.Tutumbihunupi, 1}4 miles from the last,Ohaogwaihunupi, 1 mile from the last.Bambishpahunupi, about 2 miles from last.Songwatumbihun, about 1]4 miles from the last,Gunuvijep, about 1^ miles from the last.Biahunupi, at Big Creek, west of Kingston,Mezaguahunupi, 2 miles from the last,Oapihunupi, 2 miles from the last.Tudupihunupi, IH niiles from the last,Yudigivoihunupi, 2 miles from the last.Aihyuhunupi, about 2 miles from the last,Navahodava, 3 miles from the last,Guvadakuahunupi, 2 miles from the last or about halfway between Austinand Bell's Ranch,Baiambasahunupi, about 1 mile from the last.Kwinahunupi, 2 miles from the last.Tosakuahunupi, 3 miles from the last.Asunguahunupi, 1 mile from the last.Wakaihunupi, 1 mile from the last.Boyuwihunupi, 3 miles from the last.Yumbahunupi, 3 miles from the last.Onihunupi, about 2H miles from the last.
' Oamps given in order of location; names not alphabetized.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 407Adumbihunupi, about 2)4 miles from the last.Bukwiyohunupi, about 4 miles from the last and a little south of Bell's RanchReese River Valley (winter sites) : 'Sunungoi, about 10 miles northwest of Austin and slightly north of MountAiry.Sova, a spring near the summit of Mount Airy.Tuosava, 2 or 3 miles south of the last.Yutomba, 1 mile from the last.Evimba, 3 or 4 miles from the last.Dumboi, 2 or 3 miles from the last.Hukumba, about 2 miles from the last.Kosiva, 3 miles from the last.Wupayagahunupi, 3 miles from the last.Dawishiwuhunupi, 2 miles from the last.Kunuvidumbihunupi, about IH miles from the last.Pazuyohoi, 4 miles from the last.Wangodusikihunupi, 2 miles from the last.Ava, 2 miles from the last.Bohoba, a spring 3 miles from the last.Dongwishava, slightly south of lone, west of the Bell Ranch.There is also a camp southwest of Berlin Peak at a spring called Wanzi awa.Great Smoky Valley and Monitor Valley:No villages given.Kawich Mountains (winter camps):Breen Creek.Hot Creek, about 10 miles north of Tybo.Hot Springs, to the south, had several winter encampments.Hugwapagwa (Longstreet Canyon or Horse Canyon)
.
Kunugiba (Tybo Creek).Reveille Mill,Tuava (Rose Spring).Little Smoky Valley and vicinity:Little Smoky Valley:Dzishava (Moore Station).Indian Creek (Bagumbush?), 6-7 miles north of Kwadumba.Kwadumba (Snowball), 8 miles north of Sapava.Kwatsugu (Fish Creek).Sapava (Hick's Station), 12 miles north of Morey.Tutoya, at a spring 4 or 5 miles south of Morey, on the west side of the valley.Fish Springs Valley:Butler's Place, about 20 miles north of Wongodoya.Udulfa (Hot Creek).Wongodoya, at a spring in the hills west of Fish Springs.Railroad Valley (camps in north end of valley):Akaraba, or probably also Watoya, at a spring west of Mount Hamilton.Bambasa, on the west side of Mount Hamilton.Bauduin (Warm Spring).Bawazivi (Currant Creek).Biadoyava, at Blue Eagle Springs.Nyala, native name unknown,Suhuva (Duckwater).Wongodupijugo, southeast of Green Spring.
* Winter sites'giTen In order of location; names not alphabetized.
408 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Boll. 145Steptoe Valley:
"There were . . . villages at Ely, on Duck Creek, about 8 miles northwest ofMcGill, and at Warm Spring, Schellbourne, Egan Canyon, and CherryCreek."Spring, Snake, and Antelope Valleys:Spring Valley:Aidumba, at a spring west of Aurun.Basamba, slightly up the hill west of Sogowosugu.Basiamba, in vicinity of Oceola,Basawinuba, either 3 or 4 miles northwest of Aurun.Basawinuba (Mud Springs), about 7 miles south of Aurun.Basonip, about 7 miles (?) south of Cleveland Ranch.Bauumba, near Shoshone.Biabauwundu, at Cleveland Ranch.Haiva, about 6 miles north of Cleveland or two canyons south ofWongovitwuninogwap.Sogowosugu, at Aurun.Supuva, at Anderson's Ranch.Taiwudu, on west slope of Snake Mountains.Toziup, on west slope of Mount Moriah.Tuhuva, between Yellen's and Cleveland Ranches.Tupa, about 7 miles north of Anderson's Ranch.Wongovitwuninogwap, on Valley Creek, about 10 miles north of ClevelandAntelope Valley:Bohoba, at Mike Springs south of the villages in Antelope Valley.Hugapa, at Chinn Creek.Kwadumba, at a spring about 3 miles south of Tippetts.Suhuva, at a spring near Kwadumba.Toiva, at a spring at north end of valley.Wadoya, at a spring 15 miles north of Toiva.Snake Valley:Bauwunoida, at the present Baker.Biaba, at Big Spring.Tosakowaip, at Silver Creek.Tunkahniva, near a cave near Lehman Cave in the canyon west of Baker.Cave Valley, south of Steptoe Valley:Daint.Gosiute Shoshoni:A cave on the north end of the Skull Valley Mountains a short distance fromthe present highway.Haiyashawiyep, near present town called losepa.lowiba, in mountains just east of Skull Valley Reservation.Ongwove, a few miles south of Orr's Ranch.Suhudaosa, at the present Orr's Ranch (?)
.
Tiava, on present reservation.Tozava, at a spring on west side of Lakeside Range.Tutiwunupa, on west slope of the Cedar Mountains, just east of Clive.Utcipa, south of Tutiwunupa on west slope of Cedar Mountains.Wanapo'ogwaipi, at Indian Springs, south of Ongwove.Pine Creek and Diamond Valley:Bauwiyoi, a group of at least 6 encampments at the foot of the RobertsMountains.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 409Todzagadu, on the west side of the Sulphur Spring Mountains.Tupagadu, west of the Alkali flat in Diamond Valley.Ruby Valley and Vicinity:A settlement on south side of Spruce Mountains.A village on the east slope of the Pequop Mountains.Baguwa, in the flats near Overland.Butte Valley, at north end on a canyon called Natsumbagwic.Medicine Spring, on the west slope of the Cedar Mountains, east of FranklinLake.Suhuwia, on the headwaters of Franklin River.Toyagadzu (Clover Valley),Waihamuta, on the creek against the hills, west of the Neff Ranch.Wongogadu, on north side of Spruce Mountains.Yuogumba or Sihuba (Long Valley).Humboldt River (districts):A village in a valley a little south of Elko.A village somewhere on upper Huntington Creek.Banadia, scattered along both sides of Lamoille Creek.Badukoi, village about 3 miles below Carlin.Elko, preferred site for village being at the mouth of the South Fork.Independence Valley, in the valley of what is called Magpie or Maggie Creek.Kinome, 5 miles north of Huntington.Palisade, people lived near here along Humboldt River.Sahoogep, at Lee.The valley of North Fork.Toyagadzu, at Wells.Tukwampandai, at Deeth.Battle Mountain and Vicinity:There was a concentration of population between Battle Mountain and IronPoint.Snake River (three villages between Hagerman and Bruneau)
:
Ototumb, near Bliss.Pazintumb, about 8 miles below Hagerman.Saihunupi, about 4 miles below Hagerman.Boise River and Vicinity:No village names recorded.Grouse Creek:Kuiva, on Raft River, probably near Lynn and Yost.O'o or Podongoe, a little southwest of Lucin.Paduyavavadizop (Dove (?) Creek).Tusaid or Angapuni (Grouse Creek).Promontory Point (Hukundu"ka):Nagwituwep, on Blue Creek, north of the old railroad.Nanavadzi, near Little Mountain, east of Promontory Point.Sudotsa, scattered along valley of Bear River from near Bear River City toDeweyville.Tongishavo, on the west side of Promontory Point near Mount Tarpey.The following names, derived from various sources, may be appended:Kaidatoiabie (with 6 subbands), in northeastern Nevada.Nahaego, in Reese River Valley, and about Austin, Nev.Pagantso (with 3 subbands), in Ruby Valley, Nev.
410 BUREAU OP AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Boll. 145Sunananahogwa, on Reese River, Nev.Temoksee, in Reese River Valley, Nev.Toquimas, in lower Reese River Valley, Nev.History.?The history of the Western Shoshoni was practicallyidentical with that of the Northern Shoshoni and Northern Paiute,except that their territory was somewhat more remote from the pathsfollowed by American explorers in the north and Spaniards in thesouth. In 1825 Jedidiah Smith made several journeys across Nevadaand may have been preceded by Old Greenwood. In 1847 theMormons settled Nevada and came in contact with some of theeastern representatives of this Shoshonean division. Narratives ofexplorers generally waste few words on these Indians or the neighboringPaiute, classing them indiscriminately as "diggers" and dismissingthem all with a few contemptuous words. They were affected mate-rially by the discovery of the Comstock Lode. Although it was notin their territory, prospectors penetrated everywhere, stock was intro-duced which sorely affected the food supplies of the natives, and theresulting friction affected first the Northern Paiute and somewhatlater the Shoshoni. Steward says:By 1865, Shoshoni of Battle Mountain and Austin were involved. Mean-while south of the Great Salt Lake in Utah and in eastern California, Sho-shoni, especially those known as Gosiute, were committing depredations againstimmigrants, raiding the pony express and attacking the stage line which ranthrough this territory. . . . For protection, Fort Ruby in Ruby Valley was builtin 1862. ... An army unit massacred a large number of Shoshoni in SteptoeValley in 1862, but by 1865 the strife was ended. In 1869 the railroad across thecontinent was completed and the native period was at an end. Shoshoni ofcentral Nevada and of the more remote valleys seem to have kept pretty well outof the conflict. The treaty of 1863 included all the Shoshoni of northern Nevada.They were given the Western Shoshone or Duck Valley Reservation in 1877 (byExecutive Order of April 16), but by no means all Shoshoni went to it. A few ofthe more westerly Shoshoni joined Paiute on reservations in western Nevada, butmost Shoshoni remained near their native haunts, gradually abandoning theirnative economy and attaching themselves to ranches or mining towns. (Steward,1938, p. 7.)The Carlin Farms Reservation northwest of Elko was set aside byExecutive Order of May 10, 1877, but restored to the pubHc domainby Executive Order of January 16, 1879.Population.?Mooney (1938) estimated that there were 4,500Northern and Western Shoshoni together in 1845. The United StatesCensus of 1910 gave 3,840, a figure which included about 1,800Western Shoshoni. The United States Indian Ofl5ce Report for 1917indicated perhaps 1,500. The census of 1930 raised this figure intothe neighborhood of 2,000, but in 1937 the Indian Office returnedonly 1,201.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 411Skitswish. From their own name; significance unknown. Alsocalled:Coeur d'Alene, a French appellation meaning "awl heart," said to have beenused originally by a chief to indicate the size of a trader's heart.Q'ma'shpftl, Yakima name, meaning "camas people."Pointed Hearts, derived from the word Coeur d'Alene.Connections.?The Skitswish belonged to the inland division of theSalishan stock, their closest relatives being the Kalispel or Pendd'Oreilles, and other eastern tribes.Location.?On the headwaters of Spokane River from a little aboveSpokane FaUs to the sources, including Coeur d'Alene Lake and all itstributaries, and the head of the Clearwater.Subdivisions and VillagesTeit (1930) reports the following divisions and villages, noting that the last inreality may have included two sections, the Coeur d'Alene Lake Division and theSpokane River Division:St. Joe River Division:Ntcaamtsen (.ntcaa'mtsEn), at the confluence of the St. Joe and St. MariesRivers.Stiktakeshen (.3ti'q?takEcEn?), near the mouth of St. Joe River, on the river,or nearby on the lake.Stotseawes (stotsEawEs), on St. Joe River, at the place now called Fish Trap bythe Whites.Takolks (ta'x.olks) (?), on upper Hangman's River, at a spring near the footof the hill just south of De Smet.Tcatowashalgs (tcat'owacalgs), on St. Joe River a little above Stotseawes.Tcetishtasheshen (tceti'ctacEcEn), probably on the lake, near the Stiktakeshen,on the north or east side, not far from the mouth of the river.Coeur d'Alfine River Division:Athlkwarit (alqwarit), at Harrison.Gwalit (gwa'ltt), near the lake and close to Harrison.Hinsalut (hinsa'lut), on Coeur d'Alfine River a little above Smakegen.Kokolshtelps (qoqolc'telps), a little above Nestagwast.Nalstkathlkwen (nalstqa'lxwcn), a little above Senshalemants.Neatskstem (ne'atsxstEm), on Coeur d'AlSne River a little above Athlkwarit.Nestagwast (nest'a'gwast), at Black Lake, at a tributary river and lake here.Senshalemants (sEnca'lEmants), a little above Hinsalut.Smakegen (sma'qEgen), at Medimont.Skwato (sk'wat'o'), at old mission.Tclatcalk (tcla'tcalxw), on Coeur d'Alfine Lake, close to the mouth of Coeurd'Alfine River.Coeur d'Alfine Lake and Spokane River Division.Ntaken (nt'a'q'En) Hayden Lake), north of Coeur d'Alfine Lake.Tcelatcelitcemen (tcdlatcelltcEmEn), halfway down Coeur d'Alfine Lake, on theeast side.Ntcemkainkwa (ntc'Eraqa'inqwa), at Coeur d'Alfine City,Smethlethlena (smElEle'na), near the last on the same side.Tpoenethlpem, very near the preceding, on the same side.
412 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Nsharept (nca'rEpt), a little below the next to the last.Stcatkwei (stcatkwe'i), a little below the last.Kamilen (q'ami'len), at Post Falls.Hinsaketpens (hinsaq'a'tpEns), about one mile above the Spokane bridge.Newashalks (ne'Ewa'calqs), a little below the preceding.Ntsetsawolsako (ntsetsakwolsa'ko?) , on Tamarack Creek, toward the moun-tains.Neshwahwe (nesxwa'xxwe) , on the river a little below the last two.Nesthlihum (nesli'xum) , a little below the last.Tcanokwaken (tcanokwa'kEn?), a little below the last.Mulsh (mu'lc), at Green Acres.Tcatenwahetpem (tcatenwa'xetpEm), a short distance below Green Acres,and about 20 mUes above Spokane City.History.?There is no tradition of any Skitswish migrations. Likeso many other tribes in the region, the Skitswish were first broughtclearly to the attention of Whites by Lewis and Clark. Althoughsuffering the usual heavy losses following contact with Europeans,they continued to live in the same country and were finally allotteda reservation there bearing their name.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated that the Skitswish may havenumbered 1,000 in 1780, but Teit (1930) raises this to from 3,000 to4,000. In 1905 the United States Indian Office returned 494, all on theone reservation. The census of 1910 gave 293, probably below thetrue figure, as the United States Indian Office reported 601 on thereservation, including probably some Spokane, and in 1937 it returned608.Connections in which they have become noted.?Coeur d'Alene Lake innorthern Idaho and a town on its shores preserve the memory of theSkitswish, as they bear the name given this tribe by the French.Snakes, see Paiute, Northern.Spokan. The Spokan extended a few miles into this State along itswestern boundary. (See Washington.)WASHINGTONThe State of Washington was occupied by a great number of Indiantribes formerly very populous, particularly those along the coast.There are few traditions regarding migrations and those which wehave apply almost entirely to the interior people. After the Whitescame it was unlikely that the Indians would move eastward in theface of the invasion and impossible for them to move westward;hence we do not have to trace various stages of long migrations due todisplacement by the Whites and the overland retreat which followed,so marked in the history of the eastern Indians. Contrary to an olderview, which held that SaUshan tribes formerly extended to the lowerColumbia and were driven north by Shahaptians, pushed forward in
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 413turn by Shoshonean peoples, it seems that the relative positions ofSalishans and Shahaptians has been unchaaged for an uncertainperiod of time and that, as a matter of fact, the Shoshoneans havebeen pushed southward although this movement was very recent.The Athapascan Kwalhioqua must represent a comparatively lateinvasion although that may not have been so recent as their anoma-lous position would lead one to suppose. There is also evidence of amuch earlier movement when the Salishans came down upon thecoast. The earliest European to meet any of the peoples of Wash-ington was probably Juan de Fuca, a Greek navigator sailing underthe Spanish jflag, who, in 1592, visited the straits which now bearhis name. Other Spanish explorers followed, and were later succeededby English and Americans. The continual resort of trading vesselsto Nootka on the west coast of Vancouver Island served to distributeEuropean commodities and had a considerable influence among thetribes of Washington. In the latter part of the eighteenth centurytraders of the Hudson Bay and Northwest Companies made theirappearance, but the Washington peoples first come squarely outupon the stage of history with the descent of the Columbia by Lewisand Clark in 1805-6. These pioneers gave the first general descrip-tion of the region, enumerated the aboriginal peoples found in occu-pancy, and attempted estimates of their numbers. For some timeafterward the territory was dominated by representatives of Britishcompanies and the land was claimed by England, while the onlyattempt to exploit it on the part of Americans, the settlement ofAstoria, was soon abandoned. Following upon the acceptance ofthe 49th parallel of latitude as the International Boundary, however,and still more the discovery of gold in California and the openingup of the "Oregon traU," settlers from the Eastern States began topour in in numbers. It was thereafter inevitable that friction shoulddevelop between the newcomers and the aborigines. There werewars with the Nez Perc6, Yakima, and other tribes, but the Indianssuffered less in this way than from European diseases, particularly thesmallpox, which began their ravages before Lewis and Clark appeared,from spirituous liquors, and from a general dislocation of their aborig-inal adjustments. The destruction was greatest in the ColumbiaVaUey, which as the main artery of travel and trade was peculiarlyexposed to epidemics, and within a few years the greater part of theonce teeming populations of the lower valley were practically wipedout of existence. Roman Catholic missions sprang up at an earlydate in the eastern part of the temtory, and were soon followed bythose of Protestant denominations, notable among which was thatconducted among the Cayuse by Marcus Whitman (1838-47). Asin other parts of the United States, the Indians gradually parted
414 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145
with their lands and were placed upon reservations, though in mostcases they were not removed so far from their original homes as inthe eastern parts of the Union.The above sketch will show enough of the history of most of thetribes in this area, though some details have been added in certaincases (i. e., in connection with the Cayuse, Chilluckittequaw, Chi-makum, Chinook, Klickitat, and Yakima. (See Ray, 1932, andSpier and Sapir, 1930.)Cathlamet. Significance unknown. Also called:Guasdmas, or Guithlamethl, by the Clackamas.Kathlamet, own name.Kwillu'chini, by the Chinook.Connections.?The Cathlamet belonged to the Chinookan stock.The dialect to which they have given their name was spoken as far upthe Columbia River as Ranier.Location.?On the south bank of Columbia River near its mouth,claiming the territory between Tongue Point and the neighborhoodof Puget Island, and on the north bank from the mouth of GraysBay to a little east of Oak Point.VillagesIka'naiak, on the north side of the Columbia River at the mouth of Coal CreekSlough just east of Oak Point.Ilo'humin, on the north side of Columbia River opposite Puget Island and nearthe mouth of Alockman Creek.Kathla'amat, on the south side of Columbia River about 4 miles below PugetIsland.Ta'nas ilu', on Tanas Ilahee Island on the south side of the Columbia River.Wa'kaiyakam, across Alockman Creek opposite Ilo'humin.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated 450 Cathlamet in 1780.In 1805-6 Lewis and Clark gave 300. In 1849 Lane reported 58.They are now extinct as a separate group.Connection in which they have become noted.?The capital of Wahkia-kum County, Washington, perpetuates the name of the Cathlamet.Cathlapotle. Meaning "people of Lewis (Na'ploLx.) River."Connections.?The Cathlapotle belonged to the Chinookan lin-guistic stock and were placed by Spier (1936) in the Clackamasdivision of Upper Chinook but by Berreman (1937) apparently withthe Multnomah.Location.?On the lower part of Lewis River and the southeastside of the Columbia River, in Clarke County.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 415
VillagesThe main village of the Cathlapotle was Nahpooitle, at the mouth of LewisRiver, but to this should perhaps be added Wakanasisi, opposite the mouth ofWillamette River.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated 1,300 Cathlapotle in 1780;Lewis and Clark, 900 in 1806.Connection in which they have become noted.?Lewis River was onceknown by the name of Cathlapotle.Cayuse. The Cayuse were located about the heads of Wallawalla,Umatilla, and Grande Ronde Rivers, extending from the BlueMountains to Deschutes River, Washington and Oregon. (SeeOregon.)Chehalis. Meaning "sand," the name derived originally, accordingto Gibbs (1877), from a village at the entrance of Grays Harbor.Also called:Atchixe'lish, Calapooya name.Ilga't, Nestucca name.Lower Chehalis, name used by Spier (1927).Staq-tdbc, Puyallup name.Connections.?The Chehahs belonged to the coastal division of theSalishan linguistic family, being most intimately related to theHumptulips, Wynoochee, and Quinault.Location.?On the lower course of Chehalis River, especially on thesouth side, and on the south side of Grays Bay. In later times theChehalis occupied territory to and about Willapa Bay that had for-merly been held by the Chinook.VillagesChehalis (Gibbs, 1877), on the south side of Grays Harbor near \ estport, incountry earlier occupied by the Chinook.Chiklisilkh (Gibbs), at Point Leadbetter, Willapa Bay, in territory earlier occu-pied by Chinook.Hlakwun (Curtis, 1907-9), near Willapa on Willapa River in territory earlieroccupied by the Chinook.Kaulhlak (Curtis), at the head of Palux River, earlier in Chinook country.Klumaitumsh (Gibbs and Boas personal information), given doubtfully as thename of a former band or village on the south side of Grays Harbor at itsentrance.Nai'yasap (Curtis), on Willapa River in territory earlier occupied by Chinook.Nickomin (Swan 1857 and Boas, personal information), on North River whichflows into Willapa Bay, in territory earlier occupied by the Chinook.Noohooultch (Gibbs), on the south side of Grays Harbor.Noosiatsks (Gibbs), on the south side of Grays Harbor.Nooskoh (Gibbs), on a creek opposite Whishkah River.Qyan (Gairdner, 1841), on the north point of Grays Harbor.
416 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Talal (Gibbs), at Ford's Prairie on the Chehalis River near Centralia, and there-fore far outside of the Chehalis territory proper.Willapa, on Willapa River and in earlier Chinook country.The following villages were originally occupied by Chinook but seem to haveshifted in population or language or both so as to become Chehalis: Hwa'hots,Nutskwethlso'k, Quela'ptonlilt, Quer'quelin, Tske'lsos.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated a population of 1,000 inthe year 1780 for the Lower and Upper Chehalis, the Cowlitz, theHumptulips, and related tribes, but the number had sunk to 170 by1907. However, the census of 1910 gives 282 for the same groupexclusive of the Cowlitz. In 1923 the United States Indian Officereturned 89, and in 1937, 131.Connections in which they have become noted.?A river, county, andcity in Washington preserve the name of the Chehalis. There is aChehalis in Minnesota but its name probably has no connection withthat of the Washington tribe.Chelan. The name is derived from Chelan Lake.Connections.?An interior Salish tribe speaking the Wenacheedialect and separated tentatively from that tribe by Spier (1927).Location.?At the outlet of Lake Chelan.Population.?No data.Connections in which they have become noted.?The name Chelan Isshared not only by the lake above mentioned but by Chelan Falls, arange of mountains, a county, and two post villages, Chelan andChelan Falls.Chilluckittequaw. Significance unknown.Connections.?The Chilluckittequaw belonged to the Chinookanlinguistic stock.Location.?As reported by Lewis and Clark, the Chilluckittequawlay along the north side of Columbia River, in the present Klickitatand Skamania Counties, from about 10 miles below the Dalles to theneighborhood of the Cascades. Spier (1936) thinks they may havebeen identical with the White Salmon or Hood River group of Indiansand perhaps both. In the latter case we must suppose that theyextended to the south side of the Columbia.Subdivisions and VillagesItkilak or Ithlkilak (occupied jointly with Klickitat), at White Salmon Landing.Nanshuit (occupied jointly with Klickitat), at the present Underwood.Smackshop, a band of Chilluckittequaw extending from the River Labiche (HoodRiver ?) to the Cascades.Tgasgutcu (occupied jointly with Klickitat), said to be about yi mile west of along, high mountain opposite Mosier, Oreg., and at the same time about amile above White Salmon Landing, an apparent inconsistency.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 417Thlmieksok or Thlmuyaksok, )4 mile from the last; in 1905 the site of the BurketRanch.Historical Note.?According to Mooney (1928), a remnant of theChilluckittequaw lived near the mouth of the White Salmon Riveruntil 1880 when they removed to the Cascades, where a few still residedin 1895.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated 3,000 for this tribe in 1780.In 1806 Lewis and Clark placed the figure at 1,400, besides 800Smackshop, or a total of 2,200.Chimakum. Significance of the name is unknown. Also called:Aqokulo, own name.Port Townsend Indians, popular name.Connections.?The Chimakum, the Quileute, and the Hoh (q. v.)together constituted the Chimakuan linguistic stock, which in turnwas probably connected with the Salishan stock.Location.?On the peninsula between Hood's Canal and PortTownsend.History.?The Chimakum were constantly at war with the Clallamand other Salish tribes and, being inferior in numbers, suffered verymuch at their hands. They were included in the Point-no-PointTreaty of 1855 and placed on the Skokomish Reservation, where theygradually diminished in numbers until, in 1890, Boas was able to findonly three individuals who could speak their language, and then butimperfectly.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates 400 Chimakum in 1780,and Gibbs (1877), 90 in 1855. The census of 1910 enumerated 3.Connection in which they have become noted.?Attention was calledto the Chimakum in early days by their warlike character and theuniqueness of their language.Chinook. From Tsinuk, their ChehaUs name. Also called:Ala'dshush, Nestucca name.Flatheads, a name shared with a number of other tribes in the region fromtheir custom of deforming the head.Thldla'h, Clackama name.Connections.?The Chinook belonged to the Lower Chinook divisionof the Chinookan family.Location.?On the north side of the Columbia River from its mouthto Grays Bay (not Grays Harbor), a distance of about 15 miles, andnorth along the seacoast to include Willapa or Shoalwater Bay. Ray(1938) makes a separate division to include the Shoalwater Chinookbut it will be more convenient to treat them under one head. It isunderstood that they differed not at all in dialect.
418 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOQT [Bull. 145Towns(As given by Ray (1938), except as otherwise indicated)Clamoitomish (Sapir, 1930), in Grays Bay.Hakelsh, at the mouth of Smith Creek on the northeast shore of Willapa Bay.Hwa'hots, at a former settlement called Bruceport about 3 miles north of themouth of Palix River.Ini'sal, on Naselle River where it enters the arm of Willapa Bay.Iwa'lhat, at the mouth of Wallicut River, which bears its name in a corrupted form.Kalawa'uus, on the peninsula at Oysterville Point.Killaxthokle (Lewis and Clark, 1905-6), probably on Willapa Bay.Kwatsa'mts, on Baker Bay at the mouth of Chinook River, north side of theColumbia.Lapi'lso, on an island in an arm of Willapa Bay below the mouth of Naselle River.Ma'hu, at the mouth of Nemah River below the present town of Nemah.Mo'kwal, at the mouth of Deep River on Grays Bay.Nahume'nsh, on the west side of North River at its mouth on the north shore ofWillapa Bay.Namla'iks, at Goose Point.Na'mstcats, at a site now called Georgetown between Tokeland and North Cove.Nokska'itmithls, at Fort Canby on Cape Disappointment.No'skwalakuthl, at Ilwaco, named after its last chief.Nu'kaunthl, at Tokeland, named after its chief.Nu'patstcthl, at the site of Nahcotta, on the peninsula opposite the mouth ofNemah River.Nutskwethlso'k, on Willapa Bay west of Bay Center.Nuwi'lus, on the site of Grayland on the coast.Quela'ptonlilt (Swan, 1857), at the mouth of Willapa River.Querquelin (Swan), at the mouth of Querquelin River, which flows into PalixRiver from the south near the mouth of the latter.Se'akwal, on the north bank of the Columbia a short distance below Mo'kwal.Tokpi'luks, at the mouth of Palix River.Tse'yuk, at Oysterville on the peninsula north of Nahcotta.Tske'lsos, on Willapa River between South Bend and Raymond.Ya'kamnok, at Sandy Point 3 miles south of Goose Point, the extreme north pointat Bay Center.History.?Though the Chinook had been known to tradei"s for anindefinite period previously, they were first described by Lewis andClark, who visited them in 1805. From their proximity to Astoriaand their intimate relations with the early traders, they soon becamewell kno\vn, and their language formed the chief Indian basis for theChinook jargon, first employed as a trade language, which ultimatelyextended from California to Alaska. In the middle of the nineteenthcentury they became mixed with the Chehalis with whom they ulti-mately fused entirely, dropping their own language. The Chinookof later census returns are composed of a number of other tribes ofthe same stock.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates that there were 800 of theseIndians in 1780, "including the Chinook and Killaxthokl." In 1805Lewis and Clark gave 400 on Columbia River alone. In 1885 Swan
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 419
states that there were 112. They are now nearly extinct thoughRay (1938) discovered three old people still living as late as 1931-36.Connection in which they have become noted.?The name of theChinook tribe became famous (1) because of intimate dealings be-tween the Chinook and British and American traders, (2) on accountof the extension of their name to the related tribes now classed inthe Chinookan stock, (3) because the name was also extended tothe Chinook jargon or Oregon Trade Language known throughoutthe entire Northwest, (4) because of its application to the Chinookor Pacific wind, and (5) from its application to towns in PacificCounty, Wash., and Blaine County, Mont.Clackamas. Placed on both sides of the Columbia, but I preferto follow Berreman (1937) in limiting the term to groups living onthe Oregon side. (See Oregon.)Clallam. Meaning "strong people." Also spelled Nu-sklaim, S'Klal-1am, Tla'lem.Connections.?The Clallam were a tribe of the coastal division ofthe Salishan linguistic stock most closely connected with the Songish.Location.?On the south side of the Strait of Juan de Fuca, betweenPort Discovery and Hoko River. Later the Clallam occupied theChimakum territory also and a small number hved on the lower endof Vancouver Island. VillagesEhvah, at the mouth of Elwah River.Hoko, at the mouth of Hoko Creek.Huiauulch, on the site of modern Jamestown, 5 miles east of Dungeness.Hunnint or Hilngrngit, on the east side of Clallam Bay; this town and Klatlawastogether were called Xainafit by Erna Gunther (1927).Kahtai, at Port Townsend, occupied after the destruction of the Chimakum.Kaquaith (or Skakwiyel), at Port Discovery.Klatlawas, the Tiatiawai'is of Curtis (1907-9), on the west side of ClallamBay; see Hunnint.Kwahamish, a fishing village on the Lyre River.Mekoos, on Beecher Bay, Vancouver Island, B. C.Pistchin, on Pysht Bay.Sequim or Suktcikwiifl, on Sequim Bay or Washington Harbor.Sestietl, Upper Elwah.Stehtlum, at new Dungeness.Tclanuk, on Beecher Bay, Vancouver Island, B. C.Tsako, at the former mouth of Dungeness River.Tsewhitzen, on Port Angeles Spit, 2 or 3 miles west of the old town of Stehtlum.Yennis, at Port Angeles or False Dungeness.Population.?Mooncj (1928) estimated 2,000 Clallam in 1780. In1854 Gibbs estimated 800. In 1855, 926 were reported. In 1862Eells estimated 1,300 but gave 597 in 1878. In 1881 he reduced this
420 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bdll. 145to 485. In 1904, 336 were returned. By the census of 1910, 398were reported; by the United States Indian Office in 1923, 535, andin 1937, 764.Connections in which they have become noted.?The name Clallam isperpetuated by its application to a bay, a county, a river, and aprecinct in the State of Washington.Clalskanie. (See Oregon.)Columbia or Sinkiuse-Columbia. So called because of their formerprominent association with Columbia River, where some of the mostimportant bands had their homes. Also called:Bo'tcaced, by the Nez Perce, probably, meaning "arrows" or "arrow people."Isle-de-Pierre, a traders' name, perhaps from a place in their country or fora band of the tribe.Middle Columbia Salish, so called by Teit (1928) and Spier (1930 b).Papspe'lu, Nez Perc6 name, meaning "firs," or "fir-tree people."
.sa'ladebc, probably the Snohomish name.Sinkiuse, the name applied to themselves and most other neighboring Salishtribes, and said to have belonged originally and properly to a band whichonce inhabited Umatilla Valley.Suwa'dabc, Snohomish name for all interior Indians, meaning "inland people,"or "interior people."
.swa'dab.c, Twana name for all interior Indians, meaning "inland people."
.swa'namc, Nootsak name for all interior Indians, meaning "inland people."Ti'attluxa, Wasco Chinook name.
.tskowa'xtsEnux or .skowa'xtsEnEx, applied by themselves, meaning hassomething to do with "main valley."Connections.?The Sinkiuse-Columbia belonged to the inlanddivision of the Salishan linguistic stock, their nearest relatives beingthe Wenatchee and Methow.Subdivisions or Bands(According to Teit, 1930)
.nkee'us or .s.nkeie'usox (Umatilla Valley).Stata'ketux, around White Bluffs on the Columbia.
.tskowa'xtsEnux or .skowa'xtsEnEx, also called Moses-Columbia or Moses Bandafter a famous chief (Priest's Rapids and neighboring country).Curtis (1907-9) gives the following: "Near the mouth of the sink of Crab Creekwere the SlnkiimkQn2,tkuh, and above them the Sinkolkoluminuh. Then came insuccession the Stapl'skuuh, the Skukul2,t'kuh, the Skodhchnuh, the Sklhlklntnuh,and, finally, the SkultaqchI'mh, a little above the mouth of Wenatchee River."Spier (1927) adds that the Sinkowarsin met by Thompson in 1811 might have beena band of this tribe.Location and History.?The Sinkiuse-Columbia lived on the eastside of Columbia River from Fort Okanogan to the neighborhood ofPoint Eaton. Later a reservation was created for them known asColumbia Reservation. In 1870 Winans placed them "on the eastand south sides of the Columbia River from the Grand Coulee down
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 421
to Priest's Rapids." They are row under the jurisdiction of ColviUeAgency and one band, the Moses-Columbia Band, is in the southernpart of Colville Reservation.Population.?The Sinkiuse-Columbia are estimated by Mooney(1928) to have numbered 800 in 1780, but were probably considerablymore numerous as Teit (1927) considers that this tribe and the Pisquowtogether must have totaled something like 10,000 before the smallpoxreached them. In 1905, 355 were reported; in 1908, 299; and in 1909,perhaps including some others, 540 were returned. The census of1910 gave 52.Colville. The name is derived from Fort Colville, a post of theHudson's Bay Company at Kettle Falls, which was in turn namedfor the London governor of the company at the time when the postwas founded, i. e., in 1825. Also called:Basket People, by Hale (1846).Chaudiere, French name derived from the popular term applied to them.Kettle Falls Indians.Kettle Falls Indians, as above.Salsxuyilp, Okanagon name.Skuy^lpi, by other Salish tribes.Whe-el-po, by Lewis and Clark, shortened from above.Connections.?The Colville belonged to the inland division of theSalishan linguistic stock and to that branch of the latter which includedthe Okanagon, Sanpoil, and Senijextee.Location.?On Colville River and that part of the Columbia betweenKettle Falls and Hunters.Villages and Subdivisions(From Ray, 1932)Kakalapia, home of the Skakalapiak (across from the present town of Harvey, atthe point where the ferry now crosses).Kilumaak, home of the Skilumaak (opposite the present town of Kettle Falls,about 1J4 miles above Nchumutastum).NchaUam, home of the Snchalik (about IH miles above the present town ofInchelium).Nchumutastum, home of the Snchumutast (about 6 miles above Nilamin).Nilamin, home of the Snilaminak (about 15 miles above Kakalapia).Nkuasiam, home of the Snkuasik (slightly above the present town of Daisy, onthe opposite side of the river).Smichunulau, home of the Smichunulauk (at the site of the present State bridgeat Kettle Falls).History.?The history of the Colville was similar to that of theneighboring tribes except that Kettle Falls was early fixed upon asthe site of an important post by the Hudson Bay Company andbrought with it the usual advantages and disadvantages of Whitecontact.
422 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Boll. 145Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated the number of the Colvilleat 1,000 as of 1780, but Lewis and Clark placed it at 2,500, a figurealso fixed upon by Teit (1930). In 1904 there were 321; in 1907, 334;and in 1937, 322.Connections in which they have become noted.?The name Colville wasapplied to an important Indian Reservation and later to a town, thecounty seat of Stevens County, Wash., but the original, of course,was not Indian.Copalis. Significance unknown.Connections.?The Copalis belonged to the coastal division of theSalishan linguistic family.Location.?Copalis River and the Pacific Coast between the mouthof Joe Creek and Grays Harbor.Population.?Lewis and Clark in 1805 estimated a population of200 Copalis in 10 houses. The 5 individuals assigned to a "Chepalis"tribe in an enumeration given by Olson of the year 1888 probablyrefers to them.Connections in which they have become noted.?The name Copalis isperpetuated in that of Copalis River, and in the post villages of CopalisBeach and Copalis Crossing, Grays Harbor County, Wash.Cowlitz. Significance unknown. Also called:Nu-so-lupsh, name given by Indians not on the Sound to Upper Cowlitzand Upper Chehalis.Connections.?The Cowlitz belonged to the coastal division of theSalishan linguistic family, yet shared some peculiarities with theinland tribes.Location.?Most of the lower and all the middle course of CowlitzRiver. Later they were divided between Chehalis and PuyallupReservations. TownsRay (1932) gives: Awi'mani, at the mouth of Coweman River, south of Kelso,and Manse'la, on site of Longiew. (See Curtis, 1907-9.)Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated the number of the Cowlitz,along with the Chehalis, Humptulips, and some other tribes, at 1,000in 1780. In 1853 Gibbs stated that they and the Upper Chehaliscounted not more than 165. About 1887 there were 127 on PuyallupReservation. The census of 1910 returned 105, The United StatesIndian Office Report of 1923 gives 490, probably including othertribes.Connections in which they have become noted.?The name Cowlitz isperpetuated by Cowlitz River and Cowlitz Pass ; by Cowlitz Glacier,which radiates from Mount Ranier; and by Cowhtz County, Cowhtz
8WANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 423Park, Cowlitz Chimney, Cowlitz Cleaver, and some small towns inthe same region.Duwamish. A place name.Connections.?The Duwamish belonged to the Nisqually dialecticgroup of the coast division of the Salishan linguistic stock.Subdivisiona and Villages(According to Smith, 1940)A. The Duwamish River from its mouth up to and including the Black and CedarRivers, with the following villages:Dsidsila'letc, at Yesler Way and Jackson St., Seattle.Duwe'kwulsh, at Maple Valley.Kati'lbabsh, at the present town of Renton.Sakwe'kwewad, on Cedar River about 2 miles from Renton.Skwa'lko, where the Black and White Rivers join to form the Duwamish.Tkwabko', at south end of Lake Washington.Tola'ltu, below Duwamish Head, Seattle.Tupa'thlteb, at the mouth of the easternmost estuary of the Duwamish.Tuduwa'bsh, at the mouth of the Duwamish River.B. From where the Black River flows into the Duwamish to the junction of theWhite and Green Rivers, including these villages:Stak and Tcutupa'lhu, on the east bank of the White River between its junc-tion with the Black River and the mouth of the Green River.C. The Green River villages:Ila'lkoabsh, at the junction of the Green and White Rivers.Su'sabsh, on Suise Creek,Perhaps several groups of houses: (1) on the upper Green River, includingTskoka'bid (at the bend now spanned by the highway bridge about 4 mileseast of Auburn); (2) on the north bank of the Robert Wooding Place; (3) onthe Du Bois Place, and (4) at the mouth of Newaukum Creek.D. The White River village, Sbalko'absh (on White River near a small stream atthe southeast corner of the present Muckleshoot Reservation and to the easton Boise Creek).E. The Lake Washington people, including the Thluwi'thalbsh (at Union Bay),the Sammamish (at the mouth of Sammamish River) , and the peoples of SalmonBay. In 1856 they were removed to the eastern shore of Bainbridge Islandbut as the place lacked a fishing ground they were shortly afterward taken toHolderness Point, on the west side of Eliot Bay, which was already a favoriteplace for fishing. They are now under the Tulalip School Superintendency.Population.?The Duwamish were estimated by Mooney (1928),with the Suquamish and other tribes, at 1,200 in 1780. About 1856they are variously given at from 64 to 312. The census of 1910returned 20.Connections in which they have become noted.?The Duwamish will beremembered mainly as one of the tribes formerly located on the siteof Seattle, and one of the two of which the Indian who gave his nameto that city was chief. The name Duwamish itself is preserved inDuwamish River and in the name of a small town.
424 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY I Bull. 145Hoh. Significance unknown.Connections.?The Hoh spoke the Quileute language and were oftenconsidered part of the same tribe, constituting one division of theChimakuan linguistic stock and more remotely connected with theSalishan family.Location.?On Hoh River on the west coast of Washington.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates 500 in the Hoh and theQuileute together in 1780. In 1905 the Hoh numbered 62.Connection in which they have become noted.?The name Hoh is pre-served in that of the Hoh River.Humptulips. Said to signify "chilly region."Connections.?The Humptuhps belonged to the coastal division ofthe Salishan linguistic stock, being connected most closely with theChehaHs.Location.?On the Humptuhps River, and part of Grays Harbor,including also Hoquiam Creek and Whiskam River.
VillagesHli'mttmi (Curtis, 1907-9), near North Cove.Hoquiam, on Hoquiam Creek.Hooshkal (Gibbs), on the north shore of Grays Harbor.Kishkallen (Gibbs), on the north shore of Grays Harbor.Klimmim (Gibbs), 1877).Kplelch (Curtis), at the mouth of North River.Kwapks (Curtis, 1907-9), at the mouth of North River.Mo'nilQmsh (Curtis), at Georgetown.Nooachhummik (Gibbs), on the coast north of Grays Harbor.Nookalthu (Gibbs), north of Grays Harbor.Nu'moihanhl (Curtis), at Tokeland.Whishkah, on Whishkah River.These are placed under the Humptulips only on account of their locations asdescribed.Population.?See Chehalis. In 1888 according to Olsen 18 Hump-tuhps were reported. In 1904 there were 21.Connection in which they have become noted.?Humptulips River anda village in Grays Harbor County preserve the name of the Hump-tulips Indians.Kalispel. The Kahspel extended over into the eastern edge of theState from Idaho (q. v.).Klickitat. From a Chinook term meaning "beyond" and havingreference to the Cascade Mountains. Also called:Awi-adshi, Molala name.LAk'-a-tatt, Puyallup name.Mdhane, Umpqua name.Ml-Clauq'-tcu-wAn'-ti, Alsea name, meaning "scalpers."
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 425Mtln-an'-n6-qu' t<inn6, Naltunnetunne name, meaning "inland people."Qwll'lh-hwai-ptlm, own name, meaning "prairie people."Tlakal'tat, Okanagon name.Ts6 la'kayat amfm, Kalapuya name.Tiuwanxa-ikc, Clatsop name.Wahnookt, Cowlitz name.Connections.?The Klickitat belonged to the Shahaptian division ofthe Shapwailutan linguistic family.Suhditrisions and VillagesPossibly the Atanum or Atanumlema should be added to the Klickitat. Mooney(1928) reports that their language was distinct from, though related to, bothKlickitat and Yakima.The following villages are mentioned:Itkilak or Ithlkilak, at White Salmon Landing, which they occupied jointly withthe Chilluckquittequaw.Nanshuit (occupied jointly with the Chilluckquittequaw) , at Underwood.Shgwaliksh, not far below Memaloose Island.Tgasgutcu (occupied jointly with the Chilluckquittequaw), said to be about Hmile west of a long high mountain opposite Mosier, Oreg., and about 1 mileabove White Salmon Landing but the exact location seems to be in doubt.Wiltkun (exact location unknown).History.?The original home of the KUckitat was somewhere southof the Columbia, and they invaded their later territory after theYakima crossed the river. In 1805 Lewis and Clark found themwintering on Yakima and Klickitat Rivers. Taking advantage of theweakness of the Willamette tribes following upon an epidemic of feverbetween 1820 and 1830, the Klickitat crossed the Columbia and forcedtheir way as far south as the valley of the Umpqua but were sooncompelled to r&cire to their old seats. They were active and enter-prising traders, profiting by their favorable location to become middle-men between the coast tribes and those hving east of the Cascades.They joined in the Yakima treaty at Camp Stevens, June 9, 1855, bywhich they ceded their lands to the United States, and most of themsettled upon the Yakima Reservation.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated that the Klickitat, includ-ing the Taitinapam, numbered 600 in 1780. In 1805 Lewis and Clarkplaced their total population at about 700. The census of 1910returned 405Connections in which they have become noted.?The Klickitat wereearly distinguished from other tribes of central Washington owing totheir propensity for trading. The name is perpetuated in that of asmall affluent of the Columbia and in the name of the county, and apost village in the county.
426 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Kwaiailk. Meaning unknown. Also called:Kwu-teh-ni, Kwalhioqua name.Nu-s6-lupsh, by Sound Indians, referring to the rapids of their stream.Stak-ta-mish, a name for this and other inland tribes, meaning "forestpeople."Upper Chehalis, common name.Connections.?The Kwaiailk belonged to the coastal division of theSalishan linguistic family but a part of them were associated with theinland tribes by certain peculiarities of speech. Their nearest relativesseem to have been the Cowlitz and Chehalis.Location.?On the upper course of Chehalis River.Subdivisions and VillagesCloquallum, on Cloquallum River.Population.?In 1855, according to Gibbs (1877), the Kwaiailknumbered 216 but were becoming amalgamated with the Cowhtz.(See Chehalis.)Kwalhioqua. From their Chinook designation, meaning "a lonelyplace in the woods." Also called:Axwe'lapc, "people of the Willapa," by the Chinook and Quinault Indians.Gila'qlulawas, from the name of the place where they usually lived.Owhillapsh or Willapa, applied to this tribe erroneously.TkulhiyogoS'ikc, Chinook name.Connections.?The Kwalhioqua belonged to the Athapascan lin-guistic stock.Location.?On the upper course of Willopah River, and the southernand western headwaters of the ChehaUs. Gibbs (1877) extends theirterritory eastward of the Cascades, but Boas (1892) doubts thecorrectness of this. SubdivisionsSuwal, on headwaters of the Chehalis.Wela'pakote'li, on Willapa River.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated 200 in 1780; Hale (1846)gives about 100, but in 1850 it is said that only 2 males and severalfemales survived, which indicates that an error had been made by oneor the other.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Kwalhioqua weredistinguished almost solely by the fact that they belonged to thegreat Athapascan group yet were the only tribe of that stock in theState of Washington in historic times, having become entirely isolatedfrom their relatives.
SWANTONJ INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 427Lummi. Significance unknown. Also spelled Ha-lum-mi, Nuh-lum-mi, and Qtlumi. Also called:Nukhl^sh, by the Skagit, who also included the Clallam in the designation.Connections.?The Lummi belonged to the coastal division of theSalishan linguistic family and spoke, according to Boas (1911), thesame dialect as the Songish of Vancouver Island.Location.?On the upper part of Bellingham Bay and about themouth of Nooksack River. Formerly the Lummi are said to have re-sorted at times to a group of islands east of Vancouver Island. Theywere finally placed on Lummi Reservation.Villages(According to Stern, 1934)Elek, near the upper end of Bellingham Bay.Hwetlkiem, near the upper end of Bellingham Bay west of Nooksack River.Kwakas, on the north side of Nooksack River.Momli, near the mouth of Nooksack River.Skalisan, north of Point Francis and opposite Lummi Island.The following fishing stations are also cited:Hoholos, a point on Orcas Island south of Freeman Island.Hwitcosang, in Upright Channel south of Shaw Island,Hwtcihom or Bee Station, north of Sandy Point.Skalekushan or Village Point, on Lummi Island.Skoletc, on Lopez Island opposite Lopez.Tceltenem, Point Roberts.Tlkwoloks, on Orcas Island.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates the number of Lummi at1,000 in 1780, including the Samish and Nooksack, In 1905 therewere 412; according to the census of 1910, 353; according to the UnitedStates Indian OflBce Report for 1923, 505; and according to that for1937, 661.Connection in which they have become noted.?Lummi River, Wash-ington, preserves the name.Makah. Meaning "cape people." Also called:Ba-qa-6, Puyallup name.Cape Flattery Indians, from their location.Classet, Nootka name, meaning "outsiders."Kwe-net-che-chat, own name, meaning "cape people."Tla'asath, Nootka name, meaning "outside people."Connections.?The Makah belonged to the Nootka branch of theWakashan linguistic family.Location.?About Cape Flattery, claiming the coast east as faras Hoko River and south to Flattery Rocks, besides Tatoosh Island.Later they were confined to the Makah Reservation.
428 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145
VillagesWinter towns:Baada, on Neah Bay.Neah, on the site of the old Spanish fort, Port Nufiez Gaona, Neah Bay,Waatch, at the mouth of Waatch Creek, 4 miles from Neah Bay,Summer villages:Ahchawat, at Cape Flattery.Kehsidatsoos, location unknown.Kiddekubbut, 3 miles from Neah Bay.Tatooche, on Tatoosh Island, off Cape Flattery,Population.?Together with the Ozette, the Makah were estimatedby Mooney (1928) to number 2,000 in 1780, a figure evidently basedon that given by Lewis and Clark in 1805, In 1905 there were 435;the census of 1910 gave 360, and the United States Indian OfficeReport for 1923 gave 425, including the people of Ozette, In 1937,407 were returned besides the Ozette Indians,Connection in which they have become noted.?The Makah and theOzette are peculiar as the only tribes of the Nootka group and theWakashan stock in the United States,Methow. Meaning unknown. The Battle-le-mule-emauch of Ross(1847, p, 290),Connections.?The Methow spoke a dialect belonging to the interiordivision of the Salishan linguistic stock.Location.?On Methow River. A detached band called Chilowhistwintered on the Okanogan River between Sand Point and Malott.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated that this band and theColumbia Indians, or rather Moses' band of Columbia Indians,numbered 800 m 1780. In 1907 there were 324.Conn?ction in which they have become noted.?Methow River andValley and a post village perpetuate the name of the Methow Indians.Mical. Significance unreported.Connections.?The Mical were a branch of the Shahaptian tribecalled Pshwanwapam.Location.?On the upper course of NisquaUy River.Population.?No separate data.Muckleshoot. From the native word o'kelcul, significance unknown.Connections.?The Muckleshoot belonged to the Nisqually dialecticgroup of the coastal division of the Salishan linguistic family.Location.?On White River, their territory extending from Kent east-ward to the mountains, but it seems also to have included Green River,SubdivisionsThe following names appear applied to bands in their territory:Sekamish, on White River.Skopamish, on upper Green River.Smulkamish, on upper White River
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 429Smith (1940) adds Dothliuk, at South Prairie below where Cole Creek entersSouth Prairie Creek, an affluent of Carbon River.Population.?The Muckleshoot are probably included in the 1,200
"Nisqually, Puyallup, etc." estimated by Mooney (1928) as in exist-ence in 1780. The Skopamish numbered 222 in 1863 and the Smul-kamish about 183 in 1870. Mooney estimated a total of 780 in 1907for the group above given. In 1937 the United States Ofl&ce of IndianAfTairs reported 194 Indians of this tribe.Connection in which they have become noted.?The name of theMuckleshoot is preserved in that of Muckleshoot Indian Reservation.Neketemeuk. A supposed Salishan tribe placed by Teit's informantsat an early period near and above the Dalles. Ray (1932) , however,discredits the existence of an independent tribe of this name.Nespelem, a division of the Sanpoil (q. v.).Nez Perce. The Nez Perc6 occupied territory in the extreme south-eastern part of the state. (See Idaho.)Nisqually. From Skwale'absh, the native name of Nisqually River.Also spelled Quallyamish, and Skwalliahmish. Also called:Askwalli, Calapooya name.Ltsxe'als, Nestucca name.Suketl'kenuk, Sukoti'kenuk, by Columbia Indians along with all other coastpeople, meaning "people of the other side," with reference to theCascades.Ts6 Skua'lli ami'm, Luckamiut Kalapooian name.Connections.?They gave their name to one dialectic division of thecoastal division of the Salishan linguistic stock.Location.?On Nisqually River above its mouth and on the middleand upper courses of Puyallup River.Subdivisions and VillagesBasha'labsh, on Mashell Creek and neighboring Nisqually River, the town on ahighland below Eatonville on Mashell Creek.Sakwi'absh, Clear Creek and neighboring Nisqually River, the main settlementon a hill near the junction of Clear Creek and the Nisqually River.Sigwa'letcabsh, on Segualitcu River, the main settlement where Dupont Creekenters the Sqwualitcu River.Tsakwe'kwabsh, on Clarks Creek and neighboring Puyallup River, the mainsettlement where Clarks Creek empties into Puyallup River, but seems to haveincluded also Skwa'dabsh, at the mouth of a creek entering Wappato Creekabove the Wappato Creek village.Sta'habsh, where the Stuck River enters the Puyallup.Tsuwa'diabsh, on what is now the Puyallup River above its junction with theCarbon, and just below the site of the Soldiers' Home.Tuwha'khabsh, above Ortig where Vogt Creek enters the Carbon River.Yisha'ktcabsh, on Nisqually Lake, the principal settlement being at the mouthof a sizable creek.
430 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Yokwa'lsshabsh, on Muck Creek and the neighboring parts of Nisqually River,the main settlement located where Muck Creek enters Nisqually River, and adivision on Clover Creek.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated that in 1780 there wereabout 3,600 Nisqually of whom, in 1907, between 1,100 and 1,200survived. About 1,100 were returned in the census of 1910, but theIndian Office Report for 1937 gives only 62, evidently a minor tribewhich gave its name to the larger body.Connection in which they have become noted.?The memory of theNisqually tribe, or cluster of bands, has been preserved in the nameof Nesqually or Nisqually River, and in the post village of Nisquallyin Thurston County.Nooksack. Meaning "mountain men." Also spelled Nooksak andNootsak.Connections.?The Nooksack belonged to the coastal division of theSalishan linguistic family. Hill-Tout (1902) says they separated fromthe Squawmish of British Columbia and speak the same dialect.Location.?On Nooksack River, Whatcom County. (See alsoCanada.)Population.?In 1906, 200 Nooksack were officially returned, butHill-Tout (1902) states that in 1902 there were only about 6 truemale members of the tribe. The census of 1910 gives 85 under thisname, and the Report of the United States Office of Indian Affairs for1937 returned 239. (See Lummi.)Connection in which they have become noted.?Nooksack River andNooksack town in Whatcom County, Washington, preserve the name.Ntlakyapamuk. The southern bands of this tribe hunted over in theterritory now embraced in Washington. (See Canada.)Okanagon. From the native term Okana'qen, Okanaqe'nix, orOkina'qen. The name is derived from some place on the OkanoganRiver, near Okanogan Falls at the mouth of the Similkameen, whereis said to have been the headquarters of a large band of the tribeand is even given as the place of origin of the entire tribe. Alsocalled
:
Akenuq'la'lam or KokEnu'k'kS, by Kutenai (Chamberlain, 1892).Isonkuafli, own name, meaning "our people."Kank.'utla'atlam, Kutenai name, meaning "flatheads" (Boas, 1911).KEnake'n, by Tobacco Plains Band of Klickitat.OtcEnake', OtcEna.qai'n, or UtcEna'.qai'n, by the Salish and their allies.Soo-wan'-a-mooh, Shuswap name.
.SoqEnaqai'mEx, Columbia name.Tcutzwa'ut, TcitxAa'ut, Tsawa'nEmux, or OkEna.qai'n, Ntlakyapamuknames.WEtc.naqei'n, Skitswish name.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 431Connections.?The Okanagon belonged to the interior division ofthe Salishan stock, but their closest relatives were the Sanpoil,Colville, and Senijextee.Location.?On Okanagan River above the mouth of the Similkameento the Canadian border and in British Columbia along the shores ofOkanagan Lake and in the surrounding country; in later times theyhave displaced an Athapascan tribe and part of the Ntlakyapamukfrom the Similkameen Valley. (See also Canada.)Subdivisions and VillagesThe Similkameen Okanagon were divided into three bands, the Okanagonproper into four; with the villages belonging to each, they are as follows:Upper Similkameen Band:Ntkaihelok (Ntkai'?el6x), about 11 miles below Princeton, north side ofSimilkameen River.Snazaist (Snazai'st), on the north shore of Similkameen River, a little eastof Twenty-mile Creek and the town of Hedley.Tcutcuwiha (Tcutcu'ni'jfa) or Tcutcawiha (Tcutcawi'xa), on the north sideof Similkameen River, a little below the preceding.Ashnola Band:Ashnola (Acnu'16x), on the south side of Similkameen River, near the mouthof Ashnola Creek.Nsrepus (Nsre'pus) or Skanek, .sa'nEX, a little below the Ashnola, but onthe north side of Similkameen River.Lower Similkameen Band:KekerEmyeaus (KekerEmye'aus), across Similkameen River from Keremyeus.Keremyeus (KerEmye'us), on the north side of Similkameen River, nearKeremeos.Nkura-elok (Nkurae'165), on the south side of Similkameen River and about4 miles below KerEmyeaus.Ntleuktan (Ntleuxta'n), on the south side of Similkameen River, oppositeSkemkain.Skemkain (Skemquai'n), a short distance below Nkuraelok.Smelalok (Smela'lox), on the south side of Similkameen River, about 10 milesbelow Nsrepus.To the villages listed above must be added the following old Similkameen villagesites in Washington:Hepulok (Xe'pul6x).Konkonetp (Ko'nkonetp), near the mouth of Similkameen River.Kwahalos (Kwaxalo's), a little back from Similkameen River, below Hepulok.Naslitok (Na.sli'tok), just across the International Boundary in Washington.Skwa'nnt, below Kwahalos.Tsakeiskenemuk (Tsakei'sxEnEmux), on a creek along the trail betweenKeremeous and Penticton.Tseltsalo's, below Kwahalos.Douglas Lake Band:Kathlemik (Ka.'lEmix), near Guichons, at the mouth of the Upper NicolaRiver, where it falls into Nicola Lake.Komkonatko (Komkona'tko) or Komkenatk (KomkEna'tkk), at Fish Lakeon the headwaters of the Upper Nicola River.Kwiltcana (Kwiltca'na) at the mouth of Quilchene Creek.Spahamen (SpS'yamEn) or Spahamen (Spa'?EmEn), at Douglas Lake.
432 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Komaplix or Head of the Lake Band:Nkamapeleks (Nkama'pElEks) or Nkomapeleks (Nkoma'pElEks), near thehead of Okanagan Lake, about 8 miles north of Vernon.Nkekemapeleks (Nkekema'pElEks), at the head of Long Lake, a little over amile from Vernon.Nkokosten (Nxok.o'stEn), a place near Kelowna, and also a general name forthe district around there and Mission.Skelaunna (SkEla'un.na), at Kelowna, near the present town.Sntlemukten (SntlEmuxte'n) , (Black Town), a little north of the head ofOkanagan Lake.Stekatelkeneut (Stekatel?ene'ut), a little above Mission(?) on Long Lakeopposite Tselotsus.Tseketku (Tse'kEtku), at a small lake a little north of Black Town.Tselotsus (TsElo'tsus), at the narrows of Long Lake.Tskelhokem (TsxElho'qEm), near the lower end of Long Lake about 19 milessouth of Vernon.Penticton Band:Penticton (Penti'ktEn), Penticton, near the foot of Okanagan Lake.Stekatkothlkneut (StEkatkolxne'ut) or Stekatethlkeneut (StEkatElxEne'ut),on the opposite side of Long Lake from Mission.Nkamip Band:Nkamip (Nkaml'p), on the east side of the upper end of Osoyoos Lake.Sci'yus, near Haynes or the old customhouse just north of the American line.Skohenetk (Sxo?:ene'tku"), at the lower end of Dog Lake.To the villages listed above must be added the following names of old village siteson Okanagan River south of the Canadian line:Milkemahituk (MilkEmaxi-tuk) or Milkemihituk (MilkEmixi'tuk), a generalname for the district around the mouth of Similkameen River and of theriver itself.Okinaken (Okina'qen), an old name for Sathlilk.Sathlilk (Sali'lx"), near the mouth of Similkameen River.SmElkammin (Smelkammi'n), thought to be the old name of a place at themouth of Similkameen River.History.?The history of the Okanagon differed Httle from that ofthe Ntlakyapamuk and other neighboring tribes except that they wereaffected by the fact that a part of them were on the south side of theInternational Boundary. During the last two centuries, however,there has been a steady movement of the tribe northward, wherethey have displaced the Shuswap, who once hunted down to the headof Okanagan Lake and in the hinterland on the east side of it down tothe latitude of Penticton. They have also displaced the Stuwik(?)and the Ntlakyapamuk in the Similkameen Valley.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated that there were about 2,200Okanagon in 1780. Teit (1900) gives the population as between 2,500and 3,000. In 1905, according to the Canadian and United StatesDepartments of Indian Affairs, there were 1,516 Indians belonging tothis tribe, including 824 in Canada and 692 in the United States.In 1906 the numbers were given as 824 and 527, respectively.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 433Connections in which they have become noted.?The name of theOkanagon in the form Okanogan has been given to a county, a townin that county, a precinct, and a river in the State of Washington, andin the form Okanagan to a lake and a town in British Columbia.Ozette. Significance unknown.Connections.?The Ozette were a southern branch of the Makahand belonged to the Nootka branch of the Wakashan linguistic family.Location.?On the Ozette Lake and Ozette River in ClallamCounty. VillagesOzette, at Flattery Rocks.Sooes, 4 miles south of the Makah village of Waatch.Population.?(See Makah.) A single Ozette Indian was reportedm 1937.Connections in which they have become noted.?An island, a lake, ariver, and a village are named Ozette after them.Palouse. Significance unknown. Also called:Pallotepellows, by Lewis and Clark in 1806.
.spalu'.sox, so called by Sinkiuse, said to be from a place name.Connections.?The Palouse belonged to the Shahaptian division ofthe Shapwailutan linguistic stock, and were most closely connectedwith the Nez Perce.Location.?In the valley of Palouse River in Washington and Idahoand on a small section of Snake River, extending eastward to thecamas grounds near Moscow, Idaho. The Palouse were included inthe Yakima treaty of 1855 but have never recognized the treatyobligations and have declined to lead a reservation life.Subdivisions and VillagesAlmotu, on the north bank of Snake River about 30 miles above the mouth ofPalouse River.Chimnapum, on the northwest side of Columbia River near the mouth of SnakeRiver and on lower Yakima River.Kasispa, at Ainsworth, at the junction of Snake and Columbia Rivers, Wash.Palus, on the north bank of Snake River just below its junction with the Palouse.Sokulk or Wanapum, on Columbia River above the mouth of Snake River.Tasawiks, on the north bank of Snake River, about 15 miles above its mouth.History.?The Palouse are said to have separated from the Yakima.Population.?Estim&ted by Mooney (1928) at 5,400 in 1780. In1805 Lewis and Clark gave 1,600. In 1854 they were said to number500. The census of 1910 returned 82.
434 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bcll. 145Connection in which they have become noted.?Palouse or PelouseRiver, in Idaho and Washington, and the city of Palouse in VvTiitmanCounty, Washington, preserve the name of the Palouse Indians.Pshwanwapam. Meaning "the stony ground." Also called UpperYakima.Connections.?The Pshwanwapam belonged to the Shahaptiandivision of the Shapvvailutan linguistic family, and probably were mostclosely connected with the Yaldma.Location.?On the upper course of Yakima River.Pujallup. From Pwiya'lap, the native name of Puyallup River.Connections.?The Puyallup belonged to the Nisqually dialecticgroup of the Coastal division of the Salishan linguistic family.Location.?At the mouth of Puyallup River and the neighboringcoast, including Carr Inlet and the southern part of Vashon Island.Subdivisions and VillagesEsha'ktlabsh, on Hylebos Waterway.Kalka'lak, at the mouth of Wappato Creek.Klbalt, at Glencove.Puyallup or Spwiya'laphabsh, on Commencement Bay and Puyallup River asfar up as the mouth of Clarks Creek, including the main settlement of the samename at the mouth of Puyallup River.Sha'tckad, where Clay Creek empties into the Puyallup River.Sko'tlbabsh, on Carr Inlet, including a Sko'tlbabsh settlement on Carr Inletabove the town of Minter.Skwapa'bsh, on the south part of Vashon Island and the land west of the Narrows,including a town of the same name at the mouth of a stream at Gig Harbor.Skwlo'tsid, at the head of Wollochet Bay.Steilacoom, on Steilacoom Creek and the neighboring beach, the main village onthe present site of Steilacoom.Tsugwa'lethl, at Quartermaster Harbor.Tule'lakle, at the head of Burley Lagoon, Carr Inlet.Twa'debshab, at the mouth of a creek formerly entering Commencement Bayand now covered by Tacoma.Population.?(See Nisqually.) The report of the United StatesOffice of Indian Affairs for 1937 gave 322 Puyallup.Connections in which they have become noted.?The name Puyallup ispreserved by a river, an Indian reservation, a glacier, an importanttown in Pierce County, and in the ridge called Puyallup Cleaver.Queets or Quaitso. Significance unlaiown.Connections.?The Queets belonged to the Coastal division of theSalishan linguistic family and were most intimately related to theirneighbors to the south, the Quinault.Location.?On Queets River and its branches.Population.?Lewis and Clark in 1805 estimated that the Queetsnumbered 250. They then occupied 18 houses. Mooney (1928)
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 435
estimated that in 1780 they and the Quinault together numbered 1,500,but Olson (1936) regards this figure as too high. Olson prints anestimate of 82 as their present population, including 23 males over 18,32 females over 14, and 16 children between 6 and 16. In 1909 therewere 62.Connection in which they have become noted.?The name of theQueets is perpetuated in that of Queets River.Quileutc. Meaning unkno\Mi.Connections.?Together with the Hoh and Chimakum, the Quileateconstituted the Chimakuan linguistic family which is possibly moreremotely related to Wakashan and Salishan.Location.?On Quilayute River, on the west coast of Washington,They are now on the Quileute and Makah Reservations.Population (including the Hoh).?Mooney (1928) estimates that in1780 there were of the Quileute and the Hoh 500 Indians. Olson(1936) quotes a figure of 64 in 1888. The census of 1910 returned 303and the United States Office of Indian Affairs in 1937 gave 284.Connections in which they have become noted.?The towTi of Quillayutein Clallam County, preserves the name of the Quileute and it wasformerly that of Soleduck River. Otherwise the tribe is particularlynoted on account of the uniqueness of its language, which was spokenby no other known tribes except the Hoh and Chimakum (q. v.).Quinault. "A corruption of kwi'nail, the name of the largest settlementsituated at the present site of the village (Taholah)" at the mouthof the Quinault River.Connections.?The Quinault belonged to the coastal division of theSahshan hnguistic family.Location.?The valley of Quinault River and the Pacific coastbetween Raft River and Joe Creek.SubdivisionsLewis and Clark mention a division or associated band called Calasthocle.Towns(Olson's (1936) list modified phonetically)A'alatsis, 3 miles below Lake Quinault.Djagaka'lmik, }4 mile above Nosklako's.Djekwe'ls, on the north bank of Quinault River about 400 yards above Thlathle'-lap).Gutse'lps, 6 miles below Lake Quinault.Hagwi'shtap, about 1)^ miles above Cook Creek.He'shnithl or Kuku'ranithl, on the south bank of Quinault River about 500 yardsabove Pini'lks.Kwakwa'h, not far from Hagwi'shtap.
436 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bdll. 145Kwakwa'nikatctan, 4 miles below Lake Quinault.Kwatai'tamik, 3 miles above Kwakwa'h.Kwatai'tumik, on the south bank about 500 yards above Kwi'naithl.Kwikwa'la, perhaps J4 mile above Sunuksunu'ham.Kwi'naithl, at present site of Taholah.Lae'lsnithl, on north bank a mile or less above Heshnithl.La'lshithl, perhaps a mile above Djagaka'lmik on Quinault River.Ma'atnithl, 1 mile below the fork of upper Quinault River.Magwa'ksnithl, 300 yards above Kwikwa'la.Me'tsugutsathlan, on south bank of Quinault River at its mouth.Nago'olatcan, not far from Nossho'k.Negwe'thlan, at the mouth of Cook Creek.Nokedja'kt or Thla'a'lgwap, on south bank a few hundred yards above Tonans.Nomi'lthlostan, just above Kwakwa'h.No'omo'thlapsh, at mouth of Moclips River, which bears its name in a corruptedform.No'omo'thlapshtcu, not far above Magwa'ksnithl.No'skathlan, a few miles above Kwi'naithl, on the north bank of Quinault River.Noskthlako's, on south bank of Quinault River perhaps 1 mile above No'skathlan.Nossho'k, not far above Nokedja'kt.No'sthluk, not far from Djekwe'ls.Pina'alathl, located where the upper Quinault River enters Lake Quinault.Pini'lks, close to La'lshithl.Pino'otcan tci'ta, on the upper Quinault below Ma'anithl.Po'iks, on the upper Quinault above Finley Creek.Pote'lks, 1 mile above Tsimi'sh.Sunuksunu'ham, not far from Nomi'lthlostan.Tamo'ulgutan, just below No'omo'thlapshtcu.Tci'tano'sklakalathl, at the outlet of Lake Quinault.Thlathle'lap, at the mouth of Quinault River and on the north bank.To'nans, less than J^ mile above He'shnithl.Tsi'i'sh, 2 miles above Magwaksnithl.Population.?Lewis and Clark in 1805 estimated 800 Quinault properand 200 Calasthocle. Mooney (1928) estimated 1,500 in 1780 in-cluding the Quaitso, but Olson (1936) suggests 800 and regards that astoo high if anything. This would reduce Mooney's figure consider-ably since the Quaitso were a much smaller tribe. A tabulation re-covered by Olson but believed to be from some Indian agent gave 95Quinault in 1888. The Indian Office figure for the two tribes in 1907was 196. The census of 1910, however, returned 288, presumablyincluding the Quaitso. In 1923 the Indian Office returned 719 on theQuinault Reservation, perhaps representing several tribes, but that for1937 gave 1,228 of the Quinault alone.Connection in which they have become noted.?Quinault Lake andRiver and a small town, all in Grays Harbor Coimty, preserve thename of the Quinault.Sahehwamish. Meaning unknown but evidently that of a locality.Connections.?The Sahehwamish belonged to the Nisqually dialecticgroup of the coastal division of the SaHshan linguistic stock.
S WANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 437Location.?On the innermost inlets of Puget Sound as indicated bythe positions of the subdivisions given below.SubdivisionsElo'sedabsh, on Medicine Creek and the lower reaches of Nisqually River, in-cluding a main settlement at the mouth of Nisqually River and Tuda'dab, at themouth of McAllister or Medicine Creek.Sahehwamish or Sahe'wabsh, on Shelton Inlet, including the main settlement ofSahe'wabsh, at Arcadia, and a village opposite the town of Shelton.Skwayaithlhabsh, on Mud Bay or Eld Inlet.Statca'sabsh, on Budd Inlet, with its principal settlement at Tumwater.Tapi'ksdabsh, with its main settlement on Oyster Bay or Totten Inlet below thetown of Oyster Bay.Tutse'tcakl, on South Bay or Henderson Inlet, between the creek at the head andthat on the south.Population.?The group to which this tribe belonged is estimatedby Mooney (1928) to have numbered 1,200 in 1780, and he gives 780for the year 1907.Samish. Signification unknown.Connections.?The Samish belonged to the coastal division of theSalishan linguistic family.Location.?On Samish Bay and Samish Island, Guemes Island,and the northwest portion of Fidalgo Island. The Samish were laterplaced on Lummi Reservation. VillagesAtse'ked, on the south side of the slough at Edison on Samish Bay.Dikwi'bthl.Gunguna'la, on Guemes Island facing west toward Cypress Island.Hwaibathl, at Anacortes.Kwalo'l, at Summit Park on Fidalgo Bay.Nukhwhaiimikhl, on the southwest side of Guemes Island.The name of the last village listed above is from Gibbs (1877) and may beanother name for Gunguna'la, and Gibbs' Aseakum is perhaps Atse'ked.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates the Samish tribe, togetherwith the Lummi and Nooksack, at 1,000 in 1780. No later estimateis given.Connection in which they have become noted.?Samish River, SamishBay, Samish Island, and a post hamlet on Bellingham Bay perpetuatethe name of the Samish Indians.Sanpoil. A native word in spite of its French aspect; meaning un-known. Also called:Hai-ai'-nlma, by the Yakima.Ipoilq, another Yakima name.Nesilextci'n, .n.selixtci'n, by Sanpoil, and probably meaning "Salish-speaking."N'poch-le, a shortened form of the name.
438 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Connections.?The Sanpoil belonged to the inland division of theSalishan linguistic stock, and were related most closely to its easternsection.Location.?On Sanpoil River and Nespelem Creek and on theColumbia below Big Bend. They were later placed on Sanpoil andColville Reservations. Subdivisions and VillagesThe Nespelim of Nespelem Creek were often given indep>endent status. Raygives the following villages and camps:Nespelim villages:Haimisahun, a summer settlement of the Suspiluk, on the north bank of Co-lumbia River about a half mile above the mouth of Nespelem River.Masmasalimk, home of the Smasmasalimkuwa, approximately a mile and ahalf above Skik.Nekuktshiptin, home of the Snekuktshiptimuk, at the site of the presentCondon's Ferry, on the north side of the river.Nspilem, home of the Snspiluk, on the lower Nespelem from the falls to themouth of the river.Salkuahuwithl, home of the Salkuahuwithlau, across the river from the presenttown of Barry.Skik, home of the Skik, about a mile above Salkuahuwithl on the same side ofthe river.Skthlamchin, fishing grounds of the Salkuahuwithlau, across the river from themouth of the Grand Coulee.Sanpoil villages:Enthlukaluk, about a mile and a half north of the mouth of the river.Hahsulauk, home of the Shahsulauhuwa, near Plum.Hulalst, home of the S-hulalstu, at Whitestone, about 8 miles above Npuiluk.Hwatsam, a winter camp, about 3 miles above Snukeilt.Kakarnkam, on the islands in the Sanpoil River a short distance above themouth.Kathlpuspusten, home of the Kathlpuspustenak, about a mile above Plum, onthe opposite side of the river.Ketapkunulak, on the banks of the Columbia just east of the Sanpoil River.Naak, home of the Snaakau, about a mile below Plum but on the north side ofthe river.Nhohogus, fishing grounds of the S-hulalstu.Npokstian, a winter camp, about 2 miles above Hwatsam.Npuiluk, home of the Snpuiluk, at the mouth of Sanpoil River, made up of thefollowing camps: Snkethlkukwiliskanan, near the present landing of theKeller ferry; a branch of the last called by the same name, several hundredyards north of the first between the clifif and the Sanpoil River, on the westside; Kethltselchin, on the first bench above the Columbia, west of theSanpoil River.Nthlahoitk, a winter camp of the Snpuiluk, about halfway between Skthlam-chin and Naak.Saamthlk, home of the Saamthlk, on the opposite side of the river from Kathl-puspusten.Skekwilk, on the west side of Sanpoil River about a mile above the mouth.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 439Snputlem, on the east bank of Sanpoil River, about an eighth of a mile abovethe mouth.Snukeilt, home of the Snukeiltk, on the west side of Columbia River about }^mile above the mouth of Spokane River.Tkukualkuhun, home of the Stkukualkuhunak, at Rodger's Bar just acrossthe river from Hunters.Tsaktsikskin, a winter camp of the Snpuiluk, about a half mile below Naak.Wathlwathlaskin, home of the Swathlwathlaskink, }i mile up the river fromNthlahoitk.Temporary camp sites of the Sanpoil on Sanpoil River; beginning with the firsttemporary camp beyond Npuiluk:Enluhulak, about 3 miles above the mouth of the river.Ksikest, on the west side of the river about halfway between the ColumbiaRiver and Keller.Aklaiyuk, H mile above Ksikest.Snkloapeten, a short distance below Keller.Pupesten, at the present site of Keller.Nmhoyam, about a quarter of a mile north of Keller.Nhwiipam, a mile above Alice Creek on the east side of the river.Seaachast, at Alice Creek.Achhulikipastem, about half a mile north of Alice Creek.Nloklokekuelikten, about 2 miles south of Cash Creek.Nhatlchinitk, on the west side of the river at Cash Creek.Snthulusten, on the east side of the river at the foot of a cliff, about }i mile aboveCash Creek.Nlupiam, 1^ miles above Snthulusten, on the same side of the river.Slakumulemk, directly across the river from Nlupiam.Nklakachin, on the east side of the river, at Thirty-mile Creek.Malt, J^ mile above Thirty-mile Creek.Lulukhum, at Devil's Elbow.The following possible camp sites are higher up:Akthlkapukwithlp, 8 miles below West Fork.Kthliipus, at the present site of Republic.Tkwiip, near the creek at West Fork.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates 800 Sanpoil in 1780 butRay (1932) raises this to 1,600-1,700, and considers that there wereabout 1,300 immediately following the middle of the nineteenthcentury. In 1905 the United States Indian Office returned 324Sanpoil and 41 Nespelim; in 1910 the census gave 240 and 46; in1913, as the result of a survey, the Office of Indian Affairs returned202 and 43.Connection in which they have become noted.?Sanpoil River, anorthern tributary of the Columbia, perpetuates the name of theSanpoil. Nespelem River is named for the subgroup, and a town.Satsop. Significance unknown.Connections.?The Satsop belonged to the coastal division of theSalishan linguistic family, and have usually been classed with theLower Chehalis.
440 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Location.?On Satsop River, a branch of the Chehalis.Population.?The population of the Satsop is usually given withthat of the Chehalis (q. v.), but in 1888 a census of the Satsop alone,obtained by Olson (1936), gave 12.Connections in which they have become noted.?Satsop River and avillage called Satsop in Grays Harbor County preserve the name ofthe Satsop.Semiahmoo. Significance unknown. Also called:Birch Bay Indians, from a place occupied by them.Connections.?The Semiahmoo belonged to the coastal division ofthe Salishan linguistic stock.Location.?About Semiahmoo Bay in northwest Washington andsouthwest British Columbia.Population.?In 1843 the Semiahmoo numbered 300; in 1909 therewere 38 in British Columbia; none were enumerated on the Americanside of the line.Connections in which they have become noted.?The name of theSemiahmoo is preserved in Semiahmoo Bay and a township in What-com County, Wash.Senijextee. Significance unknown. Also called:Lake Indians, a popular name for them because they lived on the ArrowLakes.Connections.?The Senijextee belonged to the inland division of theSalishan Hnguistic stock, and were most closely connected with theSanpoil.Location.?On both sides of the Columbia River from Kettle Fallsto the Canadian boundary, the valley of Kettle River, KootenayRiver from its mouth to the first falls, and the region of the ArrowLakes, B. C. The Lake Indians on the American side were placedon Colville Reservation.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates their numbers at 500 in1780. In 1909 the United States Office of Indian Affairs reported ^342on ColviUe Reservation. The census of 1910 identifies them withthe Colville and returns 785.Sinkaietk. Significance unknown; an Anghcized form of their ownname.Connections.?The Sinkaietk are sometimes classed with theOkanagon, and called Lower Okanagon, both constituting a dialecticgroup of interior SaHshan Indians.Location.?Okanagan River from its mouth nearly to the mouth ofthe Similkameen.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 441SubdivisionsKartar, from the foot of Lake Omak to the Columbia River.Konkonelp, winter sites, from about 3 miles above Malott to the turn of theOkanagan River at Omak.Tonasket, from Riverside upstream to Tonasket.Tukoratum, winter sites, from Condon's Ferry on the Columbia to the mouthof the Okanagan River and up the latter to about 4 miles above Mouse, Wash.Ray (1932) mentions four villages belonging to the Kartar and TukoratumBands.Population.?Included with the Okanagon (q. v.).Sinkakaius. Meaning "between people."Connections.?The Sinkakaius belonged to the interior division ofthe Salishan linguistic stock and were composed largely of peoplefrom the Tukoratum Band of Sinkaietk and the Moses Columbiapeople.Location.?Between Columbia River and the Grand Coulee in thelatitude of Waterville.Skagit. Significance imknown. Also called:Hum-a-luh, own name, meaning "the people."Connections.?The Skagit belonged to the coastal division of theSalishan linguistic stock.Location.?On Skagit and Stillaguamish Rivers except about theirmouths. Subdivisions and Villages(Smith, 1941)Base'lelotsed, on Skagit River from Van Horn to roughly 3 miles above Rock-port and Sauk River almost to the mouth of Suiattle, including the village ofTca'gwalk, at the mouth of Sauk River.Baska'dsadsiuk, on the south bank of Skagit River from Hamilton to Birdsview,including a village opposite Hamilton.Baske'kwiuk, on Skagit River above Rockport, including a village at MarbleMount at the mouth of the Cascade River.Baslo'halok, on the north bank of the Skagit from Hamilton to Birdsview, includ-ing a settlement at Hamilton.Duwa'ha, on the mainland drainages from South Bellingham to Bayview includ-ing part of Lake Whatcom, Lake Saniish and Samish River, including the villageof Batsla'thllaos, at Bayview on Padilla Bay.Nookachamps. on Skagit River from Mount Vernon to Sedro WooUey and Nooka-champs River drainage including Big Lake, including a village back of MountVernon just below the concrete bridge, and Tsla'tlabsh on Big Lake.Sauk, on Sauk River above the confluence of the Suiattle River, including a settle-ment on Sauk prairie above Darrington.Sba'leuk, on Skagit River from above Birdsview to above Concrete, including avillage at Concrete.Sikwigwi'lts, on Skagit River from Sedro Woolley to below Lyman, including avillage on the flats near Sedro Woolley.
442 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Stillaguamish, on Stillaguamish River from Arlington up, including villages atArlington and Trafton.Suiattle, on Suiattle River, including a village not far about the mouth ofSuiattle River.Tcubaa'bish, on Skagit River from Lyman to below Hamilton, including DayCreek drainage, and including a village at the mouth of Dry Creek.Population.?The Skagit population is given by Mooney (1928),with the Swinomish and some other tribes, as 1,200 in 1780. Gibbs(1877) estimated there were 300 Skagit proper in 1853. The censusof 1910 returned 56 under this name. In 1923 the Um'ted StatesIndian Office entered 221 "Swinomish" in their returns, includingevidently the Skagit and some other tribes; in 1937 it gave an estimateof 200 Skagit.Connection in which they have become noted.?Skagit River, whichflows into Puget Sound, Skagit County, and a post hamlet preservethe name of the Skagit Indians.Skilloot. Significance unknown.Connections.?The Skilloot belonged to the Clackamas dialecticdivision of the Chinookan linguistic family.Location.?On both sides of Columbia River above and below themouth of Cowlitz River. (See also Oregon.)Subdivisions and VillagesCooniac (at Oak Point on the south si4e of Columbia River, below the mouthof the Cowlitz, in the present Columbia County, Oregon) was their principal villagein later times. The HuUooetell, reported to Lewis and Clark as a numerousnation north of Columbia River on Cowlitz and Lewis Rivers, may have been asubdivision, although perhaps Salishan. The Seamystj', at the mouth of CowlitzRiver before 1835, were undoubtedly a Skilloot band, and the Thlakalama andTlakatlala of Boas (1901, and personal information 1905), at the mouth ofKalama River, about 3 miles above Oak Point, had best be added.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates the number of SkiUoot at3,250 in 1780 including 250 Tlakalama. In 1806 Lewis and Clarkgive 2,500 and in 1850 Lane places the Skilloot population at 200.They have now entirely disappeared as an independent group.Skin. Taken from a town name.Connections.?The Skin belonged to the Shahaptian division of theShapwailutan linguistic stock.Location.?On Columbia River from The Dalles to a point about 75miles above. VillagesKa'sawi, on the Columbia opposite the mouth of Umatilla River.Skin, opposite the mouth of Deschutes River.Uchi'chol, on the north bank of the Columbia in Klickitat County.Waiya'mpam, about Celilo.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 443Eneeshur is used by Lewis and Clark for part of the above people, perhaps allof them.Population.?Mooney (1928) includes the Skin in a group underthe general name Tapanash, which he estimates to have numbered2,200 in 1780.Snohomish. Meaning unknown but evidently the name of a place.Also called:Ashnuhumsh, Kalapuya name.Connections.?The Snohomish belonged to the Nisqually dialecticgroup of the coastal division of the Salishan linguistic stock.Location.?On the lower course of Snohomish River and on thesouthern end of Whidbey Island.Subdivisions and VillagesSdugwadskabsh, the south portion of Whidbey Island, including villages oppositeMukilteo on Whidbey (Neg"a'sx) Island and at Newell on Useless Bay.Skwilsi'diabsh, from Preston Point, above Everett, to the southern tip of CamanoIsland, including a village at Marysville and Tcatcthlks opposite Tulalip onTulalip Bay.Snohomish, Port Gardner Bay and Snohomish River as far up as Snohomish,including Tctlaks at Everett on the south side of the mouth of Snohomish Riverand Hibolb on the north side of its mouth.Tukwetlbabsh, on Snohomish River from Snohomish to Monroe, including vil-lages at Snohomish at the mouth of Pilchuck Creek and below Monroe 2 milesfrom the confluence of the Skykomish and the Snoqualmie.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated the population of theSnohomish, the Snoqualmie, the Tulalip, and some others at 1,200 in1780. In 1850 there were 350 Snohomish. The census of 1910 gives664, evidently including other bands, and the United States Office ofIndian Affairs, 667 in 1937.Connections in which they have become noted.?The name of theSnohomish is perpetuated in Snohomish River, Snohomish County,and a city in that county.Snoqualmie. From the native word sdo'kwalbiuq".Connections.?The Snoqualmie belonged to the Nisqually branchof the coastal division of the Salishan linguistic family.Location.?On Snoqualmie and Skykomish Rivers.Subdivisions and VillagesSkykomish, on Skykomish River above Sultan, and on the same below Goldbar.Snoqualmie, on Snoqualmie River, including villages at Cherry Valley, on Sno-qualmie River opposite the mouth of Tolt River; at Fall City; and below Sno-qualmie Falls.Stakta'ledjabsh, on Skykomish River as far up as Sultan, including Sultan Creek,including villages above Monroe at the mouth of Sultan Creek and on SultanCreek 4 miles above its mouth.
444 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Population.?(See Snohomish.) The population of the Snoqualmiealone was reported as 225 in 1857.Connections in which they have become noted.?The name of thtSnoqualmie is perpetuated by Snoqualmie River and a town upon itin King County.Spokan. Phonetically Spoke '.n or Spo.qe'in) ; said by some to signify"Sun (people)," though this origin is doubtful. Also called:LecLe'cuks, Wasco name probably intended for this tribe.Lar-ti-e-lo, by Lewis and Clerk in 1806.SEnoxami'naEx, by the Okanagon, from their principal division.SEntutu' or Ssnoyma'n, by the Upper Kutenai from the Salish names forthe Middle and Little Spokan respectively.Connections.?The Spokan belonged to the inland division of theSalishan linguistic stock, and were most closely connected with theKahspel, Fend d'Oreilles, Sematuse, and Salish.Location.?On the Spokane and Little Spokane Rivers, southwardto, and perhaps including, Cow Creek, and northward to include all ofthe northern feeders of the Spokane. (See also Idaho and Montana.)SubdivisionsThe Lower Spokan (about the mouth and on the lower part of Spokane River,including the present Spokane Indian reserve), the Upper Spokan or LittleSpokan (occupying the valley of the Little Spokane River and all the countryeast of the lower Spokane to within the borders of Idaho), the South or MiddleSpokan (occupying at least the lower part of Hangmans Creek, extending southalong the borders of the Skitswish)
.
History.?Like so many other tribes of the Columbia region, theSpokan enter the arena of history with the appearance of Lewis andClark in their territory in 1805. Teit (1930) thinks it possible thatthe several bands were once so many distinct tribes which have becomefused in course of time, but of this there is no certainty. The Lower andmost of the Middle Spokan, and part of the Upper Spokan, were finallyplaced under the Colville Agency ; the rest are on the Flathead Reser-vation in Montana.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated that about 1780 theremight have been 1,400 Spokan, but Teit's figures would raise this tosomething like 2,500. In 1806 Lewis and Clark thought there were600 but they may have included only one of the three divisions. In1905 the United States Indian Office gave 277 Lower Spokan and 177Middle and Upper Spokan under the Colville Agency and 135 on theFlathead Reservation; in 1909 it gave 509 all together under the Col-ville Agency and 138 on the Flathead Reservation. The United StatesCensus of 1910 returned 643 all told; the Indian Office Report for1923, 669; and the Indian Office Report for 1937, 847.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 445Connections in which they have become noted.?The fame of the Spokanwill rest in the future mainly upon the importance of the Washingtoncity of Spokane. Their name is also attached to a river in Idaho andWashington, and to the county of which Spokane is the metropolis.It has also been applied to post hamlets in Custer County, S. Dak.;in Christian County, Mo.; and in Trumbull County, Ohio; also toSpokane Bridge, Spokane County, Wash.Squaxon or Squakson. Their owti name.Connections.?The Squaxon belonged to the Nisqually branch of thecoast division of the Salishan linguistic family.Location.?On North Bay, Puget Sound,VillagesOn North Bay at the mouth of Coulter Creek and at Allyn at the mouth ofMason Creek.Population.?With the Skokomish and Toanho (Twana), Mooney(1928) estimated that there were 1,000 Squaxon in 1780. In 1909there were 98 under this name, and in 1937, 32.Suquamish. From a native place name.Connections.?They belonged to the Nisqually branch of the coastaldivision of the Sahshan linguistic stock, their closest connections beingwith the Duwamish. The famous Seattle was chief of both tribes.Location.?On the west side of Puget Sound, according to Paige(1857) claiming the territory from Applegate Cove to Gig Harbor.Subdivisions and VillagesSaktabah, on Sinclair Inlet, Dyes Inlet, and southern Blakely, Blakely Island,with villages at Bremerton and on Eagle Harbor.Suquamish, on Liberty Bay, at Port Madison, and on the northern part of BlakelyIsland, with villages at Suquamish, above Poulsbo, and at Point Monroe.Population.? (See Duwamish.) The Suquamish numbered 441 in1857, 180 in 1909, and 307 in 1910, according to the census of that year.The United States Indian OflGice returned 204 "Susquamish" Indiansin 1910, probably meaning this tribe. In 1937 it returned 168"Suquamish."Connection in which they have become noted.?The name Suquamishis applied to a iovm. in Kitsap County, Wash.Swallah. A name applied by Eells (1889). Also called:Swalash, by Mallet (in Ind. Aflf. Rep., 1877, p. 198).Connections.?The Swallah belonged to the coastal division of theSalishan linguistic family.Location.?On Orcas Island and San Juan Island and the group towhich they belong.
446 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145
VillagesHutta'tchl, on the southeast end of Orcas Island.Klala'kamish, on the east side of San Juan Island.Lemaltcha, on Waldron Island.Stashum, on Waldron Island.Swinomish. A place name.Connections.?The Swinomish belonged to the coastal division of theSalishan linguistic family, and are sometimes called a subdivision ofthe Skagit.Location.?On the northern part of Whidbey Island and about themouth of Skagit River. Subdivisions and VillagesHo'baks, on the upper end of Penn's Cove, not far from San de Fuca, Batsa'dsaliat Coupeville, Ba'asats between Coupeville and Snaklem Point west of LongPoint, and Tcubaa'ltced on the north side of Snaklem Point about 4 miles fromCoupeville.Kikia'los, on Skagit Bay from the South Fork of Skagit River to the north tip ofCamano Island, with a village at the mouth of Carpenter Creek betweenConway and Fir, and another called Atsala'di at Utsalady on Camano Island.Kwa'dsakbiuk, on the lower reaches of Stillaguamish River and Port Susan, witha village at the mouth of the Stillaguamish.Skagit, on Whidbey Island, from Oak Harbor south to Snaklem Point, with avillage at Oak Harbor.Skwada'bsh, on the North Fork of the Skagit River and the eastern part of WhidbeyIsland lying north of Oak Harbor, with Skwi'kwikwab at the mouth of theNorth Fork of the Skagit, and Tcotab on a point across Skagit Bay.Swinomish (on southern Padilla Bay, Swinomish Slough which joins Padilla Bayand Skagit Bay, Skagit Bay from Sullivan Slough north, and the southeastportion of Fidalgo Island), with the following villages: Kale'kut (not far fromWhitney at the highway bridge), Sde'os (near Lone Tree Point, Shuptada'tci(on Swinomish Slough 3 miles from La Conner), and another village (on SullivanSlough just east of La Conner).Population.?The Swinomish are usually enumerated with theSkagit (q. v.). The Skagit and Swinomish together numbered 268in 1909. In 1937 there were 285 Swinomish reported.Taidnapam. Also called Upper CowUtz.Connections.?The Taidnapam belonged to the Shahaptian divisionof the Shapwailutan linguistic family.Location.?On the headwaters of Cowlitz River and perhaps ex-tending over into the headwaters of the Lewis River.Population.?Mooney estimates the population of the Taidnapamand the Klickitat together at 600 in 1780, but extinct as independenttribes by 1907.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 447Twana. Said to signify "a portage," referring to that between theupper end of Hoods Canal and the headwaters of Puget Sound.Also called:Tu-a'd-hu, own name.Skokomish, from the name of a principal division.Wi'lfa Ampa'fa ami'm, Luckiamute-Kalapuya name.Connections.?The Twana constituted one dialectic group of thecoastal division of the Salishan stock.Location.?On both sides of Hoods Canal. Later they were placedon Skokomish Reservation.Subdivisions and VillagesEels (1877) gave the following:Kolsid, on Quilcene and Dabop Bays.Skokomish, around Annas Bay and the drainage area of Skokomish River.Soatlkobsh, on both sides of the canal from Seabeck and Oak Head to PortGamble and Squamish Harbor opposite.Smith (1941) lists the following villages:Habha'b, at Eldon on the Canal at the mouth of the Hammerhammer River.Li'liwap, at Lilliwap on the Canal.Skoko'bsh, at the mouth of the Skokomish River.Tule'lalap, at the east branch of the Canal at the mouth of Mission Creek.Two towns at Duckabush and Brinnon.Population.?Mooney (1928) gives the Twana, Skokomish, andSquaxon together a population of 1,000 in 1780. In 1853 they wereestimated to total about 265. The census of 1910 gave 61 Twanaand 195 Skokomish, and the United States Office of Indian Afi'airsreturned 206 Skokomish in 1937.Wallawalla. Meaning "Httle river"; called Walula by Spier (1936).Connections.?The Wallawalla language belongs to the Shahaptiandivision of the Shapwailutan linguistic stock and is very closelyrelated to the Nez Perc6.Location.?On the lower Wallawalla River, except perhaps for anarea around Whitman occupied by Cayuse, and a short span alongthe Columbia and Snake Rivers near their junction, in Washingtonand Oregon. They are now on Umatilla Reservation, Oregon.Population.?Mooney (1928) gives 1,500 for the Wallawalla and theUmatilla together in 1780. In 1805 Lewis and Clark estimated 1,600but they included other bands now known to be independent. Thecensus of 1910 gave 397, the Report of the United States Office ofIndian Affairs for 1923, 628, and that for 1937, 631, the two lastevidently including some other peoples.
448 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Connections in which they have become noted.?The name Walla-walla is perpetuated in that of the city of Walla Walla, Wash.;Walla Walla County ; Walla Walla River, which flows through Oregonand Washington; and appears in the name of a small place in Illinois.Wanapam. Significance unknown.Connections.?The Wanapam belonged to the Shahaptian diyisionof the Shapwailutan linguistic stock and were connected closely withthe Palouse.Location.?In the bend of Columbia River between Priest Rapidsand a point some distance below the mouth of Umatilla River, andextending east of the Columbia north of Pasco.SubdivisionsThey seem to have included two branches, the Chamnapum and Wanapamproper.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates their population as 1,800 in1780.Watlala. The Watlala occupied the north side of Columbia Riverfrom the Cascades to Skamania and perhaps to Cape Horn, but alarger territory on the south side. (See under Oregon.)Wauyukma. Significance unknown.Connections.?They belonged to the Shahaptian division of theShapwailutan linguistic family and were very closely related to thePalouse.Location.?On Snake River below the mouth of the Palouse.Population.?Unknown but probably included with the Palouse,which Mooney (1928) estimates to have numbered 1,800 in 1780.Wenatchee (Wina't;ca). So called by the Wasco, and it has becomea popular name for them. Also called:Awena'tchela, by the Klickitat, meaning "people at the coming-out orsource," said to refer to the fact that they occupied the country at theheads of the rivers or above the Yakima.Pisquow, from .s.npeskwau'zux, their own name, variants of which appearin the appelations given them by other Salish tribes in the neighborhood.Tso'kwob.c, by the Snohomish.Connections.?The Wenatchee belonged to the inland division ofthe Salishan linguistic family, their nearest relations being the Sinkiuse-Columbia Indians. Subdivisions(From Curtis (1907-9) and Ray (1932))Sinia'lkumuk, on the Columbia between Entiat Creek and Wenatchee River.Sinkumchi'muk, at the mouth of the Wenatchee.Sinpusko'isok, at the forks of the Wenatchee, where the town of Leavenworthnow stands.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 449Sintia'tkumuk, along Entiat Creek.Stske'tamihu, 6 miles down river from the present town of Wenatchee.Minor divisions mentioned are the foliowing:Camiltpaw, on the east side of Columbia River.Shanwappom, on the headwaters of Cataract (Klickitat) and Tapteel Rivers.Siapkat, at a place of this name on the east bank of Columbia River, aboutBishop Rock and Milk Creek, below Wenatchee River.Skaddal, originally on Cataract (Klickitat) River, on the west bank of YakimaRiver and later opposite the entrance to Selah Creek.Location.?On Methow and Wenatchee Rivers and Chelan Lake.The Wenatchee are now under the Colville Agency.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated there were 1,400 Wenatcheein 1780, but Teit (1928) considers this considerably too low. Thefour bands of this tribe mentioned by Lewis and Clark in 1805 totaled820. The census of 1910 gave 52.Connection in which they have become noted.?Wenatchee River,Lake Wenatchee, and Wenatchee Mountain preserve the name, asalso the town of Wenatchee, county seat of Chelan County.Wishram. From Wu'cxam, the name given them by the Yakima andKlickitat Indians. Also cnlled:E-che-loot, by Lewis and Clark in 1806, from their own name.Ila'xluit, their own name and from this called Tlakluit.Connections.?They belonged to the Chinookan stock, and spokethe same dialect as the Wasco.Location.?On the north side of Columbia River in Klickitat County.VillagesAtatathlia itcagitkok, on a small island near Celilo Falls, or more likely Ten-MileRapids.Chalaitgelit, a short distance east of The Dalles.Gawilapchk, a winter village below The Dalles.Gawishila, a fishing station above The Dailes.Hladakhat, about 10 miles below The Dalles.Hliluseltshlikh, below Big Eddy.Kwalasints, opposite The Dalles.Nayakkhachikh, a winter village below Gawilapchk.Niukhtash, at Big Edd3\Shabanahksh, 1 mile below Wishram (?).Shgwaliksh, perhaps Klickitat, about 12 miles (?) below The Dalles.Shikeldaptikh, about a half mile below The Dalles.Shkagech, below Crate's Point.Shkonana, opposite Crate's Point.Shkukskhat, below The Dalles.Tsapkhadidlit, a wintering place below Nayakkhachikh.Waginkhak, below The Dalles and the lowest Tlakluit town on the river.Wakemap, above Wishram.Wasnaniks, below Skukskhat.Wayagwa, above The Dalles, the easternmost town.Wishram (properly called Nixliiidix'), about 5 miles above The Dalles.
450 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated that in 1780 there wereabout 1,500 Wishram, but Spier and Sapir (1930) suggest 1,000 about1800. The latter figure is the one given by Lewis and Clark in 1806.The census of 1910 returned 274, and in 1937, under the designation"Upper Chinook," the United States Office of Indian Affairs gave 124.Connection in which they have become noted.?A town in KlickitatCounty preserves the name of the Wishram.Wynoochee. Significance of word is unreported.Connections.?The Wynoochee were closely connected with theChehalis Indians and belonged to the coastal division of the Salishanlinguistic stock.Location.?On the Wynoochee, an affluent of Chehalis River.Yakima. Meaning "runaway." Also called:Cuts-sdh-nem, by Clark in 1805 in Lewis and Clark Journals (1904-5).Pa' kiut'lgma, own name, "people of the gap."Shanwappoms, from Lewis and Clark in 1805.Stobshaddat, by the Puget Sound tribes, meaning "robbers."Waptai'lmln, own name, "people of the narrow river." Both of theirnames for themselves refer to the narrows in Yakima River at UnionGap where their chief village was formerly situated.Connections.?The Yakima belonged to the Shahaptian division ofthe Shapwailutan linguistic family.Location.?On the lower course of Yakima River.Subdivisions(As given by Spier (1936), quoting Mooney and Curtis)Atanum-lema, on Atanum Creek.Nakchi'sh-hlama, on Naches River, and hence possibly Pshwa'nwapam.Pisko, about the mouth of Toppenish Creek.Se'tas-lema, on Satus Creek.Si'-hlama, on Yakima River above the mouth of Toppenish Creek.Si'la-hlama, on Yakima River between Wenas and Umtanum Creeks,Si'mkoe-hlama, on Simcoe Creek.Tkai'waichash-hlama, on Cowiche Creek.Topinish, on Toppenish Creek.Waptailmin, at or below Union Gap.It is quite possible that under the term Yakima several distinct tribes were in-cluded.History and location.?The Yakima are mentioned by Lewis andClark under the name of Cutsahnim, but it is not known how manyand what bands were included under that term. In 1855 the UnitedStates made a treaty with the Yakima and 13 other tribes of Shap-wailutan, Salishan, and Chinookan stocks, by which these Indiansceded the territory from the Cascade Mountains to Palouse andSnake Rivers and from Lake Chelan to the Columbia. The Yakima
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 451Reservation was established at the same time and upon it all theparticipating tribes and bands were to be confederated as the YakimaNation under the leadership of Kamaiakan, a distinguished Yakimachief. Before this treaty could be ratified, however, the YakimaWar broke out, and it was not until 1859 that its provisions werecarried into effect. The Palouse and certain other tribes have neverrecognized the treaty or come on the reservation. Since the estab-Ushment of the reservation, the term Yakima has been generallyused in a comprehensive sense to include all the tribes witliin itslimits, so that it is now impossible to estimate the number of trueYakima.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated the Yakima proper at3,000 in 1780. In 1806 Lewis and Clark give an estimated populationof 1,200 to their Cutsahnim (see above). The census of 1910 gives1,362 "Yakima," and the Report of the United States Indian Officefor 1923, 2,939, but as already stated, this name now covers manypeople beside the true Yakima tribe. In 1937 the population of thesame body of Indians was given as 2,933.Connections in which they have become noted.?The Yakima firstattained prominence on account of the extension of their name overa number of related, and some unrelated, peoples as above mentioned,and its use to designate the Yakima Reservation. It has attainedgreater permanence as the designation of a branch of ColumbiaRiver, a county in Washington, and a town in the same County andState. OREGONThe history of the Oregon Indians was similar to that of the Indiansof Washington. The coast tribes seem to have been affected little ornot at all by the settlements of the Spaniards in California, andthose of the interior were influenced only in slightly greater measureby them through the introduction of the horse. Nor were thesetribes reached so extensively by the employees of the great fur com-panies. Contact with such advance agents of civilization was prin-cipally along the valley of the Columbia River, and Astoria willalways be remembered as bearing witness to the transient attemptsof the American Fur Company to establish a permanent tradingorganization in this region under the American flag. As in the caseof Washington, Oregon and its tribes were first brought to the acquaint-ance of our Eastern States in an intimate way by the expeditionof Lewis and Clark in 1805-6. Here also settlement was delayed untilthe fixation of the International Boundary line and the rush westwardfollowing upon the discovery of gold in California. From the middleof the nineteenth century onward, however, the native tribes wererapidly dispossessed, placed upon reservations, and reduced in
452 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145
numbers. At a later period the decrease became less marked, butit has continued nevertheless, partly as an actual extinction of theaboriginal population and partly as an absorption in the dominantrace. Most of the Chinookan tribes were finally placed upon "WarmSprings and Grande Ronde Reservations and on Yakima Reservationin Washington ; all of the Athapascan tribes upon the Siletz Reserva-tion, except the Umpqua, who went to Grande Ronde; the Kusan andYakonan tribes upon the Siletz Reservation; the Salishan peoplesof Oregon upon the Grande Ronde and Siletz Reserves; most of theKalapooian peoples upon the Grande Ronde, though a few on theSiletz; most of the Molala upon the Grande Ronde; the Klamathupon Klamath Reserve; the Modoc mostly on Klamath Reserve buta few upon the Quapaw Reservation in Oklahoma; the Shahaptiantribes of Oregon upon the Umatilla Reservation; and the NorthernPaiutes upon the Klamath Reservation.Ahantchuyuk. Own name, significance unloiown. Also called:French Prairie Indians, by early settlers.Pudding River Indians, by various authors, and adopted by Berreman(1937).Connections.?The Ahantchuyuk belonged to the Kalapooian lin-guistic stock.Location.?On and about Pudding River, which empties into theWillamette from the east about 10 miles south of Oregon City.Population.? (See Calapooya.) Not given separately.Alsea. A corruption of Als^, their own name, meaning unknown.Also called:K<inis't<inn6, Chastacosta name.Paifan amfm, Luckiamute Kalapuya name.Si ni'-t6-U tunng, Naltunne name, meaning "flatheads."Tcha ydxo amim, Luckiamute Kalapuya name.Tghayesdtlu, Nestucca name.Connections.?The Alsea belonged to the Yakonan linguistic stock.Location.?On Alsea River and Bay.VillagesChiink, on the south side of Alsea River.Kakhtshanwaish, on the north side of Alsea River.Kalbusht, on the lower course of Alsea River.Kauhuk, on the south side of Alsea River.Kaukhwan, on the north side of Alsea River at Beaver Creek.Khlimkwaish, on the south side of Alsea Rivef.Khlokhwaiyutslu, on the north side of Alsea River.Kutauwa, on the north side of Alsea River at its mouth.Kwamk, on the south side of Alsea River.Kwulisit, on the south side of Alsea River.
SwANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 453Kyamaisu, on the north side of Alsea River at its mouth.Panit, on the south side of Alsea River.Shiuwauk, on the north side of Alsea River.Skhakhwaiyutslu, on the south side of Alsea River.Tachuwit, on the north side of Alsea River.Thlekuhweyuk, on the south side of Alsea River.Thlekushauk, on the south side of Alsea River.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates the number of Indiansbelonging to the Yakonan stock at 6,000 in 1780. The census of 1910returned 29 Indians under this name, and that of 1930 only 9 underthe entire Yakonan stock.Connection in which they have become noted.?Alsea or Alseya River,Alsea Bay and the village of Alsea, Benton County, Oreg., preservethe name of the Alsea Indians.Atfalati. Meaning unknown. Often shortened to Fallatahs. Some-times spelled Tualati, or Tualatin (Berreman, 1937). Also knownas: Tualatin, Palmer in Ind. Aff. Rep., p. 260, 1859.Wapato Lake Indians, a common name used by travelers.Connections.?The Atfalati belonged to the northern dialectic branchof the Kalapooian linguistic family.Location.?On the Atfalati plains, the hills about Forest Grove andthe shores and vicinity of Wapato; they are also said to have ex-tended as far as the site of Portland.Villages and BandsChachambitmanchal, 3}^ miles north of Forest Grove.Chachamewa, at Forest Grove, 6 miles from Wapato Lake.Chachanim, on Wapato Lake prairie.Chachif, on Wapato Lake.Chachimahiyuk, between Wapato Lake and Willamette River, WashingtonCounty.Chachimewa, on or near Wapato Lake, Yamhill County.Chachokwith, at a place of the same name north of Forest Grove, WashingtonCounty.Chagiudueftei, between Hillsboro and Sauvies Island, Washington County.Chahelim, in Chchelim Valley, 5 miles south of Wapato Lake, Yamhill County.Chakeipi, about 10 miles west of Oregon City.Chakutpaliu, northeast of Hillsboro, Washington County.Chalal, near the outlet of Wapato Lake.Chalawai, southeast of Wapato Lake.Chamampit, on Wapato Creek at the east end of Wapato Lake.Chapanaghtin, north of Hillsboro, Washington County.Chapokele, 4 miles west of Wapato Lake.Chapungathpi, at Forest Grove, Washington County.Chatagihl, at the upper end of Wapato Lake.Chatagithl, at the upper end of Wapato Lake.Chatagshish, in Washington County.Chatakuin, 7 miles north of Hillsboro, Washington County.
454 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Chatamnei, 10 miles north of Wapato Lake, in Washington County.Chatilkuei, 5 miles west of Wapato Lake, in Yamhill County.Chawayed, west of Forest Grove, in Washington County.Population.? (See Calapooya.) The census of 1910 returned 44Atfalati.Connection in which they have become noted.?The name Atfalati ispreserved in the form Tualatin by a town in Washington County,Bannock. The Bannock came over into the eastern borders of thestate between Powder and Owyhee Rivers in more recent times.(See Idaho.)Calapooya. Meaning unknown. Also called:Kait-ka, by the Umpqua.Tsanh-alokual amfm, by the Luckiamute Kalapuya.Connections.?The Calapooya belonged to the Calapooya dialecticdivision of the Kalapooian linguistic stock.Location.?On the headwaters of Willamette River includingMcKinzie, Middle, and West Forks.Subdivisions or BandsAmpishtna, east of upper Willamette River.Tsanchifin, on the site of Eugene City.Tsanklightemifa, at Eugene City.Tsankupi, at Brownsville, Lynn County.Tsawokot, north of Eugene City.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates the population of the entireKalapooian stock at 3,000 in 1780. The Kalapooian bands on GrandeRonde Reservation numbered 351 in 1880; 164 in 1890; 130 in 1905.The census of 1910 returned 5 of the Calapooya tribe by itself, and 106in the entire stock; and that of 1930, 45 individuals in the stock.Connections in which they have become noted.?The Calapooya tribe isof note (1) because its name has been used for all the tribes of thestock; and (2) from its later appHcation to Calapooya River, a branchof the Willamette; Calapooya Creek, an affluent of the Umpqua; andthe Calapooya Mountains.Cayuse. Significance unknown.Haf'luntchi, Molalla name.Waiietpu, cwn name.Connections.?The Cayuse were placed by Powell (1891) in theWaiilatpuan linguistic stock along with the Molala (q. v.), butthis is now recognized as a branch of the Shapwailutan family.Location.?About the heads of Wallawalla, Umatilla, and GrandeRonde Rivers and extending from the Blue Mountains to DeschutesRiver, Washington and Oregon.
SWANTONJ INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 455History.?Anciently the Cayuse are said to have had their head-quarters on the Upper Grande Ronde but to have extended west laterto the region of Deschutes River, where they may have met the Molala.They entered the historical arena with the expedition of Lewis andClark and were afterward well known to explorers, hunters, andsettlers. In 1838 a mission was established among them by the notedMarcus Whitman at the site of the present town of Whitman, but in1847 smallpox carried off a large number of the tribe, and the Indians,believing the missionaries to be the cause, murdered Whitman and anumber of other Whites and destroyed the mission. By 1851 theywere much reduced in numbers and had become partially mergedin the Nez Perc^. In 1853 they joined in the treaty by which UmatillaReservation was formed and made their homes upon it from that timeforward. Their language is now nearly extinct.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates 500 Cayuse in 1780. In1904, 404 were officially reported; the census of 1910 gave 298, whilethe United States Indian Office in 1923 returned 337. The census of1930 reported 199 Cayuse and Molala, and the United States IndianOffice of Cayuse alone in 1937, 370.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Cayuse werereputed one of the most warlike tribes of Washington and Oregon.Horses were early bred among them and an Indian pony came to beknown to the white settlers as a "cayuse." There is a place calledCayuse in Umatilla County, Oreg.Chastacosta. From Shista-kwusta, their own name, significanceunknown. Also called:Atchdshti ame'nmei, by the Atfalati Kalapuya.Atchashti iimim, another form of the Kalapuya name.Katuku, by the Shasta.Wdlamskni, by the Klamath.Wdlamswash, by the Modoc.Connections.?The Chastacosta belonged to the Athapascan stock.Location.?On the lower course of Illinois River, both sides ofRogue River for some distance above its confluence with the Illinois,and on the north bank somewhat farther.VillagesDorsey recorded the following:Chetuttunne. Chuttushshunche.Chunarghuttunne, east of the junction Khloshlekhwuche.of Rogue River and Applegate River. Khotltacheche.Chunsetunneta. Khtalutlitunne.Chunsetunnetun. Kthelutlitunue, at the junction of RogueChushtarghasuttun. River and a southern affluent.Chusterghutmunnetun, the highest on Kushlatata.Rogue River. Mekichuntun.
456 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Boll. 145Musme. Tachikhwutme, above the mouth ofNatkhwunche. Illinois River.Nishtuwekulsushtun. Takasichekhwut.Sechukhtun. Talsunme.c . Tatsunye.Senestun. /^ Thethlkhuttunne.S^^^^y^- Tisattunne.Setsurgheake. Tsetaame, east of the junction of RogueSilkhkemechetatun. River with Applegate River.Sinarghutlitun. Tsetutkhlalenitun.Skurgnut. Tukulittatun.Sukechunetunne. Tukwilisitunne.Surghustesthitun. Tuslatunne.Twenty of these at least were on the north side of Rogue River. The follow-ing may be synonymous with some in the above list: Klothchetunne, on or in thevicinity of Rogue River; Sekhatsatunne, on the north bank of Rogue River;Tasunmatunne, in the Rogue River country.Drucker (1937) merely gives the "Chasta Costa (cista kwusta)" as one town nearthe Rogue-Illinois confluence divided into three parts called Tleattll'ntun, Tcetci'-wut, and Setla'tun.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates the population of the Chas-tacosta and 10 other Athapascan tribes in the vicinity at 5,600. In1856 the remnant which was removed to Siletz Reservation numberedbut 153, and the census of 1910 returned only 7. The 1930 censusreturned a total Athapascan population in Oregon of 504. The UnitedStates Office of Indian Affairs reported 30 Chastacosta in 1937.Chelamela. Significance unknown. Also called:Long Tom Creek Indians.Connections.?The Chelamela belonged to the Calapooya dialecticdivision of the Kalapooian linguistic stock.Location.?On Long Tom Creek, a western tributary of the Wil-lamette River.Population.? (See Calapooya.)Chepenafa. Significance unknown. Also called:Api'nefu, or Pineifu, by the other Kalapuya.Marys River Indians, the ofBcial and popular name.Connections.?The Chepenafa belonged to the Calapooya dialecticdivision of the Kalapooian linguistic stock, and were sometimes re-garded as a subdivision of the Luckamiut (q. v.).Location.?At the forks of St. Marys Creek, near CorvaUis.Population.? (See Calapooya.) The census of 1910 returned 24.Chetco. Own name, meaning "close to the mouth of the stream."Connections.?The Chetco belonged to the Athapascan linguisticstock and differed little in culture from the other Athapascan groupsinrnaediately north of them and the Tolowa to the south.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 457Location.?On each side of the mouth of Chetco River and about14 miles up it as well as on Winchuck River. (See also California.)VillagesAs recorded by Dorsey (in Hodge, 1907):Chettanne, Khuniliikhwut, Nukhsuchutun, Setthatun, Siskhaslitun, andTachukhaslitun, on the south side of Chetco River.Chettannene, on the north side of Chetco River.Nakwutthume, on Chetco River above all the other villages.Thlcharghiliitun, on the upper course of a south branch of Chetco River.As recorded by Drucker (1937):Hosa'tun, at the mouth of Winchuck River.Natltene'tun, about where the modern town of Brookings stands.Shri'choslintun, on Chetco River a little above the following.Tcagitli'tun, on Chetco River at the mouth of the north Fork.Tcet or Tcetko, at the mouth of Chetco River, really a town on each side.Tume'stun, near Shri'choslintun.Drucker adds that "the coast town which Parrish calls Wishtenatan (Waterman, xustene'ten) may have been affiliated more closely with Chetco Riverthan with the Lower Rogue River group."Population.?See Chastacosta. In 1854, a year after the Chetcohad been removed to the Siletz Reservation, they numbered 241.In 1861 they numbered 262. In 1877 there were only 63 on the reser-vation. The census of 1910 returned 9.Connection in which they have become noted.?A river and a posthamlet in Curry County, Oregon, perpetuate the name of the Chetco.Clackamas. From their own name, Guithla'kimas, significanceunknown.Also spelled Tiaklmlsh, and called:A'kimmash, by the Atfalati Kalapuya.Gita'q'.emas, by the Clatsop.Nsekau's or Ns tiwat, by the Nestucca.Tu'hu tane, by the Umpqua.Connections.?The Clackamas belonged to the Chinookan linguisticstock and to a dialectical division to which they have given theu- name.Location.?On Clackamas River, claiming the country on the eastside of Willamette River from a few miles above its mouth nearly toOregon City and east as far as the Cascade Mountains. (See alsoWashington.)Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates that the Clackamas num-bered 2,500 in 1780. In 1806 Lewis and Clark set down their probablenumber as 1,800. In 1851 there were 88; the 1910 census returned 40;and United States Office of Indian Affairs in 1937, 81. The census of1930 reported a total of 561 Indians in the Chinookan stock.Connection in which they have become noted.?The name Clackamas isperpetuated by a river, a county, and a town in Oregon.
458 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Clatskanie. Significance unknov/n. Also spelled A'latskn6-i, Clack-star, Klatskanai, Tlatskanai, etc.Connection.?The Clatskanie belonged to the Athapascan linguisticstock.fjonrtimi.? According to Gibbs (1877) the Clatskanie at one timeowned the prairies bordering Chehalis River, Washington, at themouth of SkookiimciiMck River, but on the failure of game, crossed theCoIumd)ia and occupied the mountains about Clatskanie River, theirbest-known historic seat. For a long time they exacted toll of all whopassed going up or down the Columbia.Popvlation.?Mooney (1928) estimates 1,600 Clatskanie in 1780.In 1851 they were reduced to three men and five women. The censusof 1910 returned thi-ee. (See Chastacosta.)Cornedion in which they have become noted.?Like the Kwalilioqua,the Clatskanie are noted for their isolation from other branches ofthe Athapascan stock. Their name is preserved by Clatskanie Creekand Clatskanie town in Columbia County, Oreg.Clatsop. From a native word meaning "dried salmon."Connection.?The Clatsop belonged to the Lower Chinook dialecticdivision of the Chinookan linguistic stock.Location,?The Clatsop centered about Cape Adams, on the southside of Columbia River, extending up the latter as far as Tongue Point,and southward on the Pacific coast to Tillamook Head.VillagesAs far as known these were:Konope, near the mouth of Columbia River.Neacoxy, the principal winter village, at the site of Seaside, at the mouth ofNeacoxie Creek.Neahkeluk, at Point Adams.Niakewankih, south of Point Adams at the mouth of Ohanna Creek.Neahkstowt, near the present Hammond.Necotat, at the site of Seaside.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates 300 Clatsop in 1780, In1806 Lewis and Clark gave 300. In 1875 the few survivors were movedto Grande Ronde Reservation, where the census of 1910 returned 26.(See Clackamas.)Connection in which they have become noted.?Clatsop County andthe town of Clatsop, Oreg., preserve the name.Clowwewalla. Significance unknown. Phonetically GiLa'wewalamt.Also called
:
Fall Indians, Tumwater Indians, popular names.Willamette Indians, Willamette Falls Indians, popular names.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 459Connections.?The Clowwewalla belonged to the Clackamas divisionof the Chinookan linguistic stock.Location.?At the falls of Willamette River.SubdivisionsThe Clow'wewalla may have included the Cushooks, Chahcowahs, and Nemal-quinner of Lewis and Clark.Population.?The Clowwewalla, or a part of them, were calledCushook by Lewis and Clark, who estimated that they numbered 650in 1805-6. On this basis Mooney (1928) estimated there might havebeen 900 in 1780. They were greatly reduced by the epidemic of 1829and in 1851 numbered 13. They are now apparently extinct.Dakubetede. Own name, significance unknown. Also called:Applegate River Indians, from their habitat.Nl'ckitc hItcKim, Alsea name, meaning "people far up the stream."Ts'tl-qAs-li'-qwQt-me' tunne, Nalt<lnnetllnne name.Connections.?The Dakubetede belonged to the Athapascan hn-guistic stock, using a dialect identical with that of the Taltushtuntude.Location.?On Applegate River.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates the Dakubetede, theNahankhotane (part of the Umpqua), the Taltushtuntude, and theUmpqua to have numbered 3,200 in 1780. They are nowhere sepa-rately enumerated. (See Chastacosta.)Hants. Own name, significance unknown.Connections.?The Hanis formed one dialectic group of the Kusanlinguistic family, the other being Miluk. It is probable that this stockwas connected with the Yakonan.Location.?On Coos River and Bay.VillagesAnaaitoh, on the south side of Coos Bay.Melukitz, on the north side of Coos Bay.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates that the Hanis and theMiluk together numbered 2,000 in 1780. In 1805 Lewis and Clarkestimated 1,500 Hanis. The census of 1910 returned 93 for the entirestock and that of 1930, 107, while, again for the stock, the UnitedStates Office of Indian Affairs reported 55 in 1937.Klamath. A word of uncertain origin but probably used first byColumbia River or other outside tribes. Their own name is maklaks,meaning "people," "community." They are also called:Afgspaluma, abbreviated to Afgspalo, Afspalu; Nez Perc6 name for allIndians on Klamath Reservation and in the vicinity, meaning "peopleof the chipmunks."
460 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Aldmmimakt ish (from ala'mmig, "Upper Klamath Lake")i said to be theAchomawi name.AthMmeth, Calapooya name.Aiiksiwash, in Yreka dialect of Shasta.Dak'-ts!a?m-al-a' or Dak'-ts!a?w-an-a'', "those above the lakes," by theTakelma.fi-ukshik-ni mdfclaks, meaning "people of the lakes," also their own name.Makaftserk, by the western Shasta.Plaikni, collective name for Klamath, Modoc, and Snakes on Sprague River.Sdyi, Northern Paiute name.Tapdadji, Ilmawi name.Wols, name given by the Latgawa.Connections.?Together with the Modoc (q. v.), the Klamath con-stituted the Lutuamian division of the Shapwailutan linguistic family.Location.?On Upper Klamath Lake, Klamath Marsh, and William-son and Sprague Rivers.Subdivisions and VillagesThese are given as follows by Spier (1930), maintaining his order:
I. a'ukckni (the Klamath marsh?Williamson River group), with the followingvillages: mtl'tcuia'ksi (near the bridge toward the eastern end of Klamath marsh),k'Etaiwa's (along the eastern side of the marsh), gupgua'ksi, (east side of Klamathmarsh south of last), i'wal (along a southeastern tongue of the marsh), kla'dj6lj;si(ibid.), du''flktit (on the south shore of Klamath marsh), awa'lwaskin (west ofpreceding), wa'ktale's (on the higher ground where Williamson River leaves themarsh), la'laks (ibid.), lob6'ksts6ksi (on the bluff on the left bank of the SpragueRiver at the railroad bridge) called by Gatschet (1891 b) ktai-tu-pakshi), an un-named site (on the south side of Sprague River below the dam), k!6tcw5'6ts (about2 miles above the dam on the south bank of Sprague River), koma'gksi (on bothsides of Sprague River south of Braymill, 4 miles from Chiloquin), Va'umkJn(about 6 miles above last), [Yainax] (settlements of some sort near here), hlcdlc-luS'lukc (west of Gearhart Mountain), bEztlkse'was (on the right bank of William-son River below the mouth of Sprague River), takalma'kcda (on the right bank ofWilliamson River below preceding), k'tai'di (on a fiat opposite last mentioned),djlgia's (below last two on both sides of river), klo'ltawas (on both banks belowpreceding but principally on left bank), at'awlkc (below last, principally on rightbank), ya'ak (right bank below preceding), tsa'k'wi (below last, principally onright), wita'mtimpsi (on a high bluff on the right bank above an eddy in the sharpbend in the river), goyEmske'EgIs or kiEke'tsQs (on right bank below last), WEla'lksi(on the eastern shore of Agency Lake), loli'o'gtit (on the higher land near AgencyLake by a little warm spring), tcS'klalumps (overlooks the lake where the Chilo-quin road meets the Agency Lake highway), "other towns may have been atya'mzi, on the western side of Yamsay Mountain, and kokena'oke. Spring Creek,a large northern affluent of Klamath marsh."II. kowa'cdikni, perhaps part of the first division, occupying: kowa'cdi (onAgency Lake).III. du'kwakni (on the delta of Williamson River), affiliated most closely withthe next division, and including: mo'aksda (on the left bank of Williamson Rivernearly a mile above the mouth), wlckimdi (below the preceding on the right bank),la'wa'lstSt (on the point forming the right side of the mouth of Williamson River),
SWANTONl INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 461
mo'giTjkiinks (on the left bank of Williamson River a quarter of a mile above themouth), djlt/gtls (at a spring on the lake front to the east of the mouth of William-son River).IV. gu'mbOtkni (on Pelican Baj' and the marsh to the north) including: sle'tsksi(on the west side of Seven Mile Creek near its mouth), wud^'kin (in the marsh amile from the last and east of Seven Mile Creek), iwOnau'ts (on the western sideof a little creek emptying into Klamath Lake 2 miles east of Recreation P. O.,and extending along the marsh shore to the northern side of Pelican Bay), dQnO'ksi(an open space overlooking the northern end of Pelican Bay), e'o'lj:ai (a few hun-dred yards up Four Mile Creek on the left bank), wa'16'kdi (above the last men-tioned on the opposite side of the creek), waij'a'k (south of the high ridge southof Odessa), gai'l6ks or gaila'lljs (on the point south of Odessa, or more probablybetween Howard and Shoalwater Bays), stS'kmatc (at Eagle Point); to whichshould perhaps be added: e'o'kalj: (on Wood River, toward the mountains), ande'ukwa'lksi (on the east side of Wood River, and possibly the same site as theother).V. iu'la'lojjkni (the people of Klamath Falls (Link River) and the eastern shoreof Klamath Lake), including the following villages: kEtlai'ksi (extending south-ward from a promontory 2 miles or so northwest of Modoc Point), suwiaka'fiks(at Modoc Point), iula'u (on the east side of Klamath Lake), diu'wiaks (at therailroad point Ouxy), kau'6m6t (a half mile south of the preceding on the lakeshore), dl'tklaks (at a hot spring known as Barclay Spring near the last men-tioned), kOlwa'l (at Rattlesnake Point at Algoma), wulj;!o'twas (on Buck Islandin Klamath Lake), lama'tcksi (on the point east of Buck Island), kisu'nk.'si (three-fourths of a mile south of the preceding on the shore of Klamath Lake), iwau'wOne(on both sides of Link River at the highway bridge), iu"lalo77e (at the mouth ofKlamath River), w6lja'61s (on the shore of Klamath Lake a mile west of themouth of Klamath River), wut!ana'k5ks (at one end of a little marsh (nowdrained) on the west side of Klamath Lake), iupla'tQna (at the other end of thesame marsh), woksa'lks (on the north shore of Wokas marsh near Klamath Lake),dg'ktcOi/ks (on the west shore of Klamath Lake opposite Buck Island), sa'stltlja'-wals (at Squaw Point).Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated the KJamath at 800 in 1780but Spier (1930) raises this to 1,200. In 1905, including former slavesand members of other tribes more or less assimilated with them,they numbered 755. The census of 1910 returned 696. In 1923 therewere 1,201 Indians under the Klamath Superintendency includingKlamath, Modoc, and other Indians. In 1930, 2,034 were returnedas Klamath and Modoc. In 1937 the United States Office of IndianAffairs reported 1,912 Klamath.Connection in which they have become noted.?The name Iflamath isperpetuated by Klamath Lake, Klamath County, and the town ofKlamath Falls, Klamath County, Oreg.; by Klamath River, Oreg.and Calif. ; and by a village in Humboldt County, Calif.Kuitsh. Significance unknown. Also called:Ci-sta'-qwdt-ml' tunn?', Mishikwutmetunne name, meaning "peopledwelling on the stream called Shista."Lower Umpqua, or Umpwua, popular name.Tu'kwil-ma'-k'i, Alsea name.
462 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Connections.?The Kuitsh belonged to the Yakonan linguistic stock,though so remotely connected that Frachtenberg (1911, p. 441)thought of placing them in an independent family, the Siuslawan.Location.?On Lower Umpqua River.VillagesAccording to Dorsey these were:Chitlatamus. Paiuiyunitthai.Chukhuiyathl. Skakhaus.Chukukh. Takhaiya.Chupichnushkuch. Thukhita.Kaiyuwuntsunitthai. Tkimeye.Khuwaihus. Tsalila.Kthae. Tsetthim.Kuiltsh. Tsiakhaus,Mikulitsh. Tsunakthiamittha.Misun. Wuituthlaa.Ntsiyamis.Population.?The Kuitsh are usually classed with the Siuslaw.Mooney (1928) estimates the entire Yakonan stock at 6,000 in 1780,and by 1930 this had been reduced to 9. The Kuitsh are nowhereseparately enumerated.Latgawa. Signifying "those living in the uplands." Also called:Walumskni, by the Klamath.Connections.?With the Takelma proper, the Latgawa constitutedthe Takilman linguistic family which, in turn, was probably aflSliatedwith the Shastan stock.Location.?On Upper Rogue River eastward about Table Rock andBear Creek and in the neighborhood of the present town of Jack-sonville. VillageSapir (1915) records one village belonging to this tribe known by the tribal nameand also called Latgauk.Population.?See Takelma.Lohim. Significance unknown. (See Paiute, Northern.)Connections.?Reported as a band of Shoshoneans which enteredOregon at a late period.Location.?On Willow Creek, a southern affluent of the Columbia.Population.?In 1870 the number of Lohim was reported as 114,but the name has not appeared in recent official reports. They havegenerally been regarded as renegades belonging to the Umatilla Reser-vation, and Ray's (1938) informants denied the presence of Sho-shoneans here, asserting that the name was applied to Yakima.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 463Luckiamute, Lakmiut. Significance unknown.Alakema'yuk, Atfalati name.Suck-a-mier, Chelukiniaukes, forms appearing in Reports of the Office ofIndian Affairs.Connections.?The Luckiamute belonged to the Calapooya dialecticdivision of the Kalapooian linguistic stock.Location.?The Luckiamute River.Subdivisions or BandsAmpalamuyu, on Luckiamute River.Mohawk, on Mohawk River.T.salakmiut, on Luckiamute River.Tsanaak, near Luckiamute River.Tsantatawa, south of Luckiamute River.Tsantuisha, on Luckiamute River.Population.?(See Calapooya.) The number of Luckiamute wasgiven as 28 in 1905. The census of 1910 returned only 8.Connection in which they have become noted.?This tribe has given itsname to Luckiamute River, Oreg.Miluk. Significance unknown; also called Lower Coquille.Connections.?The Miluk spoke the southern of the two dialects ofthe Kusan linguistic family, and were related more remotely to theYakonan stock.Location.?At the mouth of Coquille River.VillagesMiluk or Mulluk, on the north side of the Coquille River at the site of the presenttown of Randolph.Nasumi, on the south side of Coquille River on the coast of Oregon, near the siteof the present Bandon.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated 2,000 in 1780 for theMiluk and Hanis together. In 1910 they numbered 93. (See Hanis.)In 1937 the population of the "Kus" Indians was given as 55.Mishikhwutmetunne. Signifying "people who live on the streamcalled Mishi." Also called:Coquille, or Upper Coquille, from their habitat.De-d'd ten6, Tutuni name, meaning "people by the northern water."Ithal6 t6ni, Umpqua name.Kukwil', Alsea name (from Coquille).Connections.?The Mishikhwutmetunne belonged to the Atha-pascan linguistic stock, their relations being particularly close withthe Tututni.Location.?On upper Coquille River.
464 BURIL\U OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY IBcll. 145
ViilagesThe follo\Ning were recorded by J. O. Dorsey (18S4):Chockreletan, near the forks of Coquille Sunsunnestunne.River. Sushltakhotthatunne.Chuntshataatunne. Thlkwantiyatunne.Dvildulthawaiame. Thltsharghiliitunne.Enitunne. Thltsusmetunne.Ilsethlthawaiame. Thlulchikhwutmetunne.Katomemetunne. Timet hit unne.Khinukhtunne. Tkhlunkhastunne, next to the KusanKhweshtunne, next above Coquille City. people and below Coquille City.Kimestunne. TsatarghekhetunneKthukhwestunne. Tthinatlitunne, at the site of Coquille.Kthunataachuntunne. Tulwutmetunne.Meshtshe. Tuskhlustunne.Nakkituntunne Tustatunkhuushi.Nakhochatunne. Druoker i,1937) recorded besides:Natarghiliitunne. Hweshtun (perhaps partlj' Kusan).Natsuahltatunne. Natgrilitun.Xilestunne. Stonerutltutl, a suburb of Natgrilitun.Rghoyinestunne. Tlunhoshtun, said to have come fromSathlrekhtun. Umpqua.Sekhushtunt unne.Population.?(See Chastacosta.) The census of 1910 returned15 Mishild^^v-utmetunne under the name Upper Coquille.Modoc. From Mdatokni, meaning "southerners." Also called:Algspaluma, Xez Perce name for all Indians on Klamath Reservation andin the vicinity.La-la-cas. said to be the original name.Lutm^\\-i, by a part of the Pit River Indians.Lutuami, Ilmawi name.Px^r.ai, Yreka Shasta name.Saidoka, Shoshoni name.Conneetions.?Wnh the Klamath (q. v.), the Modoc constitutedthe Lutuamian division of the Shapwailutan linguistic stock.Location.?On Little Klamath Lake, Modoc Lake, Tule Lake, LostRiFer Valley, and Clear Lake, extending at times as far east as GooseLakg. (S^? also California aiid Oklahoma.)SubdivisionsThe most important bands of the Modoc are said to have been at Little KlamathLake, Tule Lake, and in the valley of Lost River.VillagesAgawesh, on lower Klamath Lake, Calif., and on Hot Creek.Chakawech, near Yaneks, on Sprague River, Klamath Reservation.Kalelk, on the north shore of Tule or Rhett Lake.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 465Kawa, at Yaneks on Sprague River.Keshlakchuis, on the southeast side of Tule (Rliett) Lake, Calif.KeuchLshkcni, on Hot Creek near Little Klamath Lake, Calif.Kumljatuash (with Klamath), southwest of Tule (Rhett) Lake, Calif., extendingfrom the lake shore to the lava beds.Leush, on the north side of Tule (Rhett) Lake, Oreg.Nakoshkeni, at the junction of Lost River with Tule Lake.Nushultkagakni, at the headwaters of Lost River near Bonanna.Pashka, on the northwest shore of Tule (Rhett) Lake.Shapashkeni, on the southeast side of Little Klamath Lake, Calif.Sputuishkeni, on Lower Klamath Lake, Calif.Stuikishkeni, on the north side of Little Klamath Lake.Waisha, on Lost River, 3 or 4 miles northwest of Tule Lake, and near the hillsthat culminate in Laki Peak.Wachamshwash, on Lost River near Tule (Rhett) Lake, in Klamath County.Welwashkeni, on the southeast side of Tule Lake, at Miller's Farm, Calif.Wukakeni, on the east side of Tule Lake, Calif.Yaneks (with Klamath and Shoshoni), along middle Sprague River, Lake County.Yulalona (with Klamath), at the site of the present Linkville.History.?The Modoc came into contact with the Whites in com-paratively late times, and acquired an unfortunate reputation fromfrequent conflicts with v\'hite immigrants in which atrocities werecommitted on both sides. In 1864 the Modoc and the Klamathtogether ceded their temtory to the United States and retired toKlamath Reservation, but they were never contented there and madepersistent efforts to return to their old country. Finally, in 1870, achief named Kintpuash, better known to the Wliites as Captain Jack,led the more turbulent element of the tribe back to the Californiaborder and refused to return. The first attempt to bring the run-aways back precipitated the Modoc War of 1872-73. The Modocretreated to the lava beds of northern California and for severalmonths resisted ail attempts to dislodge them, but they were finallyovercome and Kintpuash and five other leaders hanged in October ofthat year. Part of the tribe was then sent to Indian Territory andplaced on the Quapaw Reservation and the remaindeir oja the KlamathReservation.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates that there were 400 Modocin 1780, but Kroeber (1925), with whom Spier (1930) seems to concur,allows twice as many. In 1905 there were 56 on the Quapaw Reser-vation and 223 on the Klamath Reservation. Xb<i census of 1910returned 282, of whom 212 were in Qregoia, 33 i^ Oklahoma, 20 inCalifornia, and the remainder scattered am.ong 5 ot)ier States. In 193031 were in Oklahoma. (See Klamath.) In 1937^ 329 wore reported.Connections in which they have become noted.?The chief claim of theModoc to remembrance is on account of the remarkable defensivewar they maintained in the lava beds of California, as above stated.A California county is named for them and places called Modoc are
466 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145
to be found in Phillips County, Ark.; in Emanuel County, Ga.; inLouisiana; in Ohio; and in McCormick County, S. C; RandolphCounty, 111.; and Randolph County, Ind.; also in the name of ModocPoint, Oreg.; in Scott County, Kans.; and in the name of the ModocLava Beds, Calif.Molala. Derived from the name of a creek in the Willamette Valleyfrom which one of their bands drove the original inhabitants. Alsocalled:Amol^lish, by the Kalapuya.Kuikni, by the Klamath.Ldti-u or La'tiwg, their own name.Ya'-ide'sta, by the Umpqua.Connections.?Together with the Cayuse, the Molala constitutedthe Waiilatpuan division of the Shapwailutan linguistic stock. Ac-cording to Cayuse tradition, the Molala formerly lived with them andwere separated and driven westward in consequence of wars with hos-tile tribes.Location.?At an early date the Molala are believed to have beenin the valley of the Deschutes River and to have been driven west,as above intimated, into the valleys of the Molala and SantiamRivers. Either part of them subsequently went south to the head-waters of Umpqua and Rogue Rivers or they were separated from therest in the movement above mentioned, as Berreman (1937) thinks.SubdivisionsThe following are said to have been Molala bands or settlements:Chakankni, on the headwaters of Rogue River, northwest of Klamath Lake,absorbed later by the neighboring tribes, particularly the Klamath.Chimbuiha, on the headwaters of Santiam River.Mukanti, on the western slope of the Cascade Mountains.Population.?Mooney (1928) believes the Molala were still with theCayuse in 1780, whose numbers he fixes at about 500. In 1849 theMolala were estimated at 100. In 1877 Gatschet found severalfamilies living on the Grande Ronde Reservation, and in 1881 therewere said to be 20 individuals in the mountains west of KlamathLake. The census of 1910 returned 31, all but 6 of whom were inOregon. (See Cayuse.)Connection in which they have become noted.?The Molala are note-worthy in the first place for the uniqueness of their language, whichis closely related only to Cayuse. Molalla River or Creek and apost village, both in Clackamas County, Oreg., bear the name.Multnomah. Significance unknown. Also called:Wappato, originally the Cree or Chippewa name of a bulbous root (Sagit'taria variabilis) used as food by the Indians of the west and northwestIt means literally "white fungus." It passed into the Chinook jargon
SwANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 467
with the meaning "potato" and became applied to Sauvies Island inColumbia River, at the mouth of the Willamette, and the Indian tribesliving on or near it. It was so used by Lewis and Clark, though therewas little or no political connection between the numerous Joands sodesignated.Connections.?The Multnomah belonged to the Clackamas divisionof the Chinookan linguistic stock.Location.?As above indicated, on and near Sauvies Island.Subdivisions or BandsCathlacomatup, on the south side of Sauvies Island on a slough of WillametteRiver.Cathlacumup on the west bank of the lower mouth of the Willamette River andclaiming as their territory the bank of the Columbia from there to Deer Island.Cathlanaquiah, on the southwest side of Sauvies Island.Clahnaquah, on Sauvies Island.Claninnata, on the southwest side of Sauvies Island.Kathlaminimin, at the south end of Sauvies Island, later said to have becomeassociated with the Cathlacumup and Nemoit.Multnomah, on the upper end of Sauvies Island.Nechacokee, on the south bank of Columbia River a few miles below Quicksand(Sandy) River.Nemalquinner, at the falls of the Willamette but with a temporary house on thenorth end of Sauvies Island.Shoto, on the north side of Columbia River, a short distance from it and nearlyopposite the mouth of the Willamette.Population.?Mooney (1928) gives the population of all of thesebands of the Multnomah as 3,600 in 1780. Their descendants areprobably included among the 315 Indians returned as Chinook bythe census of 1910. (See Clackamas.)Connection in which they have become noted.?There is a county,town, and river channel of the name in Oregon. The name " Wappato"secondarily applied to the Multnomah besides its former use as aname of Sauvies Island, is given, with the spelling Sapato, to a lakeand place near Portland in Oregon?the latter in Multnomah County,the former between Yamhill and Washington Counties?and to aplace in the State of Washington.Naltunnetunne, a small Athapascan tribe between the Tututni andChetco, apparently included by later writers under the former.Nez Perce. They extended into northeastern Oregon. (See Idaho.)Paiute, Northern. These people occupied the southeastern part ofOregon and formerly extended far enough north to include thevalley of Powder River and the upper course of John Day River ofwhich they were dispossessed by Shahaptians. (See Nevada.)Santiam. Significance unknown. Also called:Aha'lpam, by the Atfalati Kalapuya.
468 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Connections.?The Santiam belonged to the Calapooya dialecticdivision of the Kalapooian linguistic stock.Location.?Santiam River.Subdivisions or BandsChamifu, on Yamhill Creek.Chanchampenau, east of Willamette River.Chanchantu, location not specified.Chantkaip, below the junction of the Santiam forks.Population.? (See Calapooya.) In 1906 there were 23 Santiam onGrande Ronde Reservation. The census of 1910 returned 9.Connection in which they have become noted.?The name Santiam isperpetuated in Santiam River, a branch of the Willamette.Shasta. The Shasta extended at least into the territory watered byJenny Creek from their main seats in California (q. v.).Siletz. Significance unknown. Also called:Tsa Shnddsh amfm, Luckiamute Kalapuya name.Connections.?The Siletz belonged to the Salishan linguistic stock.Location.?On Siletz River,Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates the population of all of theSalishan tribes of Oregon as 1,500 in 1780. They are not now sepa-rately recorded, but in the census of 1930, 72 Sahshan Indians werereturned from Oregon besides the Tillamook.Connections in which they have become noted.?The Siletz are of noteas having been the southernmost of the Salishan linguistic family.Siletz River and a post village, both in Lincoln County, Oreg.,preserve the name.Siuslaw. Significance unknown. Also called:K'gu-qwIc'tQnng, Naltunne name.K'qlo-qwec t6nn6, Chastacosta name.Tsand-uta amfm, Luckiamute Kalapuya name.Connections.?The Siuslaw belonged to the Siuslawan division ofthe Yakonan linguistic stock.Location.?On and near Siuslaw River.VillagesDorsey (1884) gives the following:Chimuksaich. Khalakw.Hauwiyat, Kumiyus.Hilakwitiyus. Kumkwu.Khachtais. Kupimithlta.Khaikuchum, Kuskussu.Khaiyumitu. Kwsichichu (south of Eugene City).Khakhaich. Kwulhauunnich.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 469Kwultsaiya. Stthukhwich.Kwunnumis. Thlachaus.Kwuskwemus. Thlekuaus.Matsnikth. Tiekwachi.Mithlausmiutthai. Tsahais.Paauvvis. Tsatauwis.Pia. Tsiekhaweyathl.Pilumas. Waitus.Pithlkwutsiaus. Wetsiaus.Skhutch. Yukhwustitu.Population.? (See Alsea.) The census of 1910 reported 7 Siuslaw.Connection in which they have become noted.?The name Siuslaw ispreserved by Siuslaw River, in Lane County, Oreg.Skilloot. The Skilloot occupied part of Oregon opposite the mouthof Cowlitz River. (See Washington.)Snake. (See Northern Paiute under Nevada.)Takelma. Own name, meaning "those dwelling along the river."Kyu'-kiltc hitclilra, Alsea name meaning "people far down the stream(or country)."Lowland Takelma, of Berreraan (1937).Na-tcte tdnnS, Naltunne name.Rogue River Indians, from their habitat.Connections.?Together with the Latgawa (q. v.), the Takelmaconstituted the Takilman linguistic stock. It is possible that this isdistantly connected with the Shastan stock of northern California.Location.?On the middle course of Rogue River from aboveIllinois River to about Grant's Pass and on the northern tributariesof Rogue River between these limits and the upper course of CowCreek; also south nearly to the California boundary.VillagesThe following names were recorded by J. O. Dorsey mainly in one of the Atha-pascan dialects of the region:Hashkushtun, on the south side of Rogue River.Hudedut, at the forks of Rogue River and Applegate River.Kashtata, on the south side of Rogue River above Leaf Creek and Galice Creek.Kthotaime, on the south side of Rogue River.Nakila, on the south side of Rogue River about 10 miles above Yaasitun.Salwahka, near the mouth of Rlinois River or one of its tributaries.Seethltun, on the south side of Rogue River, the village nearest the Chastacosta.Sestikustun, on the south side of Rogue River.Sewaathlchutun, ibid.Shkashtun, ibid.Skanowethltunne, ibid.Talmamiche, ibid.Talotunne, ibid.
470 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Tthowache, on the south side of Rogue River near "Deep Rock".Yaasitun, on the south side of Rogue River.Yushlali, ibid.The following names, probably covering in part the same towns, were recordedby Dr. Edward Sapir in 1906, and are enumerated from the Latgawa countrydownstream:Hatil, east of Table Rock.Gelyalk, below Table Rock.Dilomi, near the falls of Rogue River.Gwenpunk.Hayaalbalsda.Daktgamik.Didalam, on the present site of Grant's Pass, the county seat of Josephine County.Daktsasin or Daldanik, on Rogue River near Jump Off Joe Creek.Hagwal, on Cow Creek.Somouluk.Hatonk.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates the entire Takilman stockat 500 in 1780. Only 1 was returned under that name by the censusof 1910, but under the general head of "Rogue River" the IndianOffice Report for 1937 gives two bodies of Indians numbering 58 and46 individuals, respectively.Connection in which they have become noted.?Together with theLatgawa, the Takelma are remarkable for the peculiarity of theirlanguage, accentuated by the fact that they are almost entirelysurrounded by Athapascan peoples. A post village called Takilmain Josephine County, Oreg., perpetuates the name.Taltushtuntude. Own name, meaning unknown. Also called:Galice Creek Indians, from their habitat.KG-lIs'-kitc hltc'lAm, Alsea name.Connections.?The Taltushtuntude belonged to the Athapascanlinguistic stock, and spoke the same dialect as the Dakubetede butculturally had become assimilated with the Takelma.Location.?On Galice Creek.Population.?In 1856, 18 Taltushtuntude were reported living onthe Siletz Reservation. Under the name "Galice Creek" 42 Indianswere reported in 1937.Tenino. Significance unknown. Also called:M6li'-16ma, own name.Warm Springs Indians, the common official designation.Connections.?The Tenino constituted a division of the Shahaptianbranch of the Shapwailutan linguistic stock.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OP NORTH AMERICA 471Subdivisions and VillagesKowasayee, on the north bank of Columbia River nearly opposite the mouth ofthe Umatilla.Ochechote or Uchichol, on the north bank of Columbia River, the exact regionbeing uncertain though they derive their name from a rock near the mouth ofthe Deschutes River.Skinpah, on the north bank of Columbia River above the mouth of the Deschutes.Tapanash, on the north bank of Columbia River, near the mouth of the Deschutesand a little above Celilo, the name being later extended over most of the abovebands.Tilkuni, between White and Warm Springs Reservations.Tukspush on John Day River, and hence called often John Day Indians.Wahopum, on the north bank of Columbia River near the mouth of Olive Creek.Waiam, near the mouth of the Deschutes River.History.?The Tenino were mentioned by Lewis and Clark in 1805.By the treaty of 1855 they gave up their lands and settled, along withother Shahaptian tribes and some Salishan tribes, on Yakima Reser-vation, Washington. Since then they have not had separate officialrecognition.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated that in 1780 there were3,600 including the Atanum of the Yakima and the Tyigh. TheUnited States Office of Indian Affairs reported 460 in 1937 of theYakima and associated bands.Connection in which they have become noted.?A town in ThurstonCounty, Wash., perpetuates the name.Tillamook. A Chinook term meaning "people of Nekelim (or Neha-lem). Also spelled Calamox, Gillamooks, Killamook, etc.Higgahaldahu, Nestucca name.Kyaukw, Alsea name.Nsietshawas, so called by Hale (1846).Si ni'-t6-ll, Mishikwutmetunne name for this tribe and the Alsea, mean-ing "flatheads."Connections.?The Tillamook were the principal tribe in Oregonbelonging to the Salishan linguistic family, coastal division.Location.?The coast from the Nehalem to Salmon River.Subdivisions and VillagesNehalem, on Nehalem River.Nestucca, on Nestucca Bay and the streams flowing into it.Salmon River, on the river of that name.Tillamook, on Tillamook Bay and the streams flowing into it, including thefollowing villages enumerated by Lewis and Clark: Chishucks (at the mouth ofTillamook River), Chucktin (the southernmost Tillamook village, on a creekemptying into Tillamook Bay), Kilherhursh (at the entrance of TillamookBay), Kilherner (on Tillamook Bay, at the mouth of a creek 2 miles fromKilherhursh), Towerquotten (on a creek emptying into Tillamook Bay).
472 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Population.?See Siletz. Lewis and Clark estimated 2,200 Tilla-mook in 1805. In the reports of the Wilkes Exploring Expedition(1845) their number is given as 400, and by Lane in 1849 as 200. Thecensus of 1910 returned 25, and that of 1930, 12.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Tillamook seemto have been the most powerful tribe on the coast of Oregon. Abay, and also a county and its capital in the former country of thetribe preserve the name; also a cape, Tillamook Head.Tututni. Meaning unknown. Also called:H'lilush, Nestucca name.Lower Rogue River Indians, or Rogue River Indians, from their habitat.Tdlgmaya, Umpqua name.Ta-qu'-q<ic-c6, Chetco name, meaning "northern language."Connections.?The Tututni belonged to the Athapascan linguisticstock, and were related closely with the Mishikhwutmetunne.Location.?On lower Rogue River and the Pacijfic coast north andsouth of its mouth. VillagesJ. O. Dorsey (1884) gave the following villages or bands:On the north coast of Rogue River:Chemetunne, popularly called Joshuas, just north of Rogue River.Kaltsergheatunne, at Port Orford.Kosotshe, between Port Orford and Sixes Creek, perhaps earlier on Flores Creek.Kwatami, on or near Sixes River.Kthukwuttunne.Kthutetmeseetuttun, just north of Rogue River.Kwusathlkhuntunne, said to have been at the mouth of Mussel Creek, 5 milessouth of Mount Humbug.Natutshltunne, between Coquille River and Flores Creek.Niletunne, the first village south of the Miluk village of Nasumi, south ofCoquille River.Yukichetunne, on Euchre Creek.On Rogue River:Chetlesiyetunne, on the north side.Enitunne, near the mouth of a southern affluent of Rogue River.Etaatthetunne.Kunechuta.Kushetunne, on the north side.Mikonotunne, on the north side 14 miles from its mouth.Nakatkhaitunne, on the north side of Rogue River.Targheliichetunne, on the north side.Targhutthotunne, near the coast.Testthitun, on the north side.Thechuntunne, on the north side.Thethlkhttunne, or Chastacosta, on the north side.On or near the coast south of Rogue River:Aanetun.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 473Chetleschantunne, on Pistol River and the headlands from the coast 6 milessouth of Rogue River..Khainanaitetunne.Kheerghia, about 25 miles south of Pistol River.Khwaishtunnetunne, near the mouth of a small stream locally called Wish-tenatin, after the name of the settlement, that enters the Pacific about 10miles south of Pistol River, at a place later known as Hustenate.Natthutunne, on the south side of Rogue River.Nuchumatuntunne, on the north side of Rogue River near the mouth.Sentethltun, on the south side of Rogue River and perhaps at its mouth.Skumeme, on the south side of Rogue River near its mouth.Tsetintunne, the highest of 4 villages on a stream emptying into Rogue Rivernear its mouth.Tsetuttunne.Drucker (1937) gives the following village names:On Rogue River:Gwi'sat huntun, on Mussel Creek near Sixes River and sometimes separated asthe Sixes tribe.Kusu'me, on what is now called Flores Creek.Kwataime, a short distance north of last.Kwuse'tun, near and possibly a suburb of Megwino'tun, on the coast.Megwino'tun, a few miles up river.Skame'me, between Pistol River and mouth of Rogue River; Waterman placesit at Hunter's Creek.Sukwe'me or Sukwe'tce, at mouth of Sixes River.Tagrili'tun, a suburb of Tu'tutun.Tce'metun or Tce'me, really two towns, one on each side of the river's mouth.Tce'tlersh tcuntun, on Pistol River, perhaps belonging to the Chetco.Tu'tutun, 5 to 6 miles from the river's mouth, divided into two parts calledTatre'tun, "downriver," and Na'gutretun "upriver."YukwI'tce or Yu'gwitce, on what is now called Euchre Creek.Berreman (1937) makes seven major divisions as follows: Kwatami or SixesRiver; Euchre Creek (Yukichetunne) ; Mikono tunne; Pistol River (Chetles-chantunne); Joshua; Tututunne (Tututni); Kwaishtunne or Khustenete.Population.?(See Chastacosta.) In 1854 the Tututni populationwas 1,311. The census of 1910 returned 383, but in 1930 the UnitedStates Indian Office gave oaly 41 under this name, 55 under that of"Meguenodon" (see above), and 45 under that of "Joshua"(Tce'metun).Tyigh. Significance unknown. Also spelled Attayes, lyich, Ta-ih,Thy, Tyh, etc.Tedxtkni, or T61knikni, Klamath name.Ts6 Amingma, Luckiamute Kalapuya name.Connections.?The Tyigh belonged to the Tenino branch of theShahaptian division of the Shapwailutan linguistic stock.Location.?The country about Tygh and White Rivers.
474 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Subdivisions and VillagesNo names are recorded.History.?The history of the Tyigh was identical with that of theTenino (q. v.).Population.?With the other Oregon tribes of the Tenino group,the Tyigh numbered 1,400 in 1780 according to Mooney's (1928)estimate. In 1854 they were said to number 500 and in 1859, 450;but both of these figures must be overestimates. They are not nowenumerated separately from the Warm Spring Indians, placed at 550by the census of 1910.Connection in which they have become noted.?Tygh Creek and aplace called Tygh Valley in Wasco County, Oreg., bears the name ofthe Tyigh.Umatilla. Significance unknown.Connections.?The Umatilla belonged to the Shahaptian division ofthe Shapwailutan linguistic stock.Location.?On Umatilla River and the banks of Columbia Riveradjacent to the mouth of the Umatilla.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates this tribe and the Walla-walla together at 1,500 in 1780. The census of 1910 returned 272,the United States Indian Office Report for 1923, 145, and the IndianOffice Report for 1937, 124.Connections in which they have become noted.?An Indian reservationhas received the name Umatilla, and it has also been apphed to ariver, a county, and a post village, all in Oregon; also to a place inLake County, Fla.Umpqua. Signific'ance unknown.Amgdtsuish, Shasta name.Cacta?'-qw<lt-me't<lnn6, Naltunne name.Ci-cta'-qwQt-me'ttlnn6, Tututni name, meaning "Umpqua River people."Ci-sta'-qwtit, Chastacosta name.Etn^mitane, own name (Gatschet, 1877).Tsan Ampkua amfm, Luckiamute Kalapuya name, meaning "people onthe Umpqua."Upper Umpqua, Berreman (1937).Ya'gali', Takelma name.Connections.?The Umpqua belonged to the Athapascan linguisticstock.Location.?On upper Umpqua River, east of the Kuitsh.SubdivisionsThe Umpqua on Cow Creek are often spoken of separately under the nameNahankhuotana. Parker (1840) mentions a people called Palakahu which wasprobably an Athapascan or Yakonan tribe but cannot now be identified, and alsothe Skoton and Chasta, probably parts of the Chastacosta or Tututni. This is
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 475
all the more likely as he includes the Kwataini band of the Tututni and theentirely independent Chilula of California. Their chief village was Hewut.Population.? (See Dakubetede.) Hale (1846) says that in his timethe Umpqua were supposed to number not more than 400. In 1902there were 84 on Grande Ronde Reservation. The census of 1910returned 109. In 1937, 43 Indians are given under this name. (SeeChastacosta and Dakubetede.)Connection in which they have become noted.?Umpqua River, and thesettlement of Umpqua or Umpqua Ferry in Douglas County, preservethe name.Wallawalla. The Wallawalla extended somewhat into northeasternOregon. (See Washington.)Walpapi. Significance unknown. Commonly called Snakes. A partof the Northern Paiute. (See under Nevada.)Wasco. From a native word wacq!6, "cup or small bowl of horn," thereference being to a cup-shaped rock a short distance from the mainvillage of the tribe; from this the tribal name Galasq'6, "thosethat have the cup," is derived and variations of it frequently appearin the literature. Also called:Affilakin, by the Kalapuya.Ampxankni, meaning "where the water is," by the Klamath.Awdsko ammim, by the Kalapuya.Sdxlatks, by the Molala.Connections.?They belonged to the upstream branch of the Chi-nookan linguistic stock, their closest relatives being the Wishram onthe opposite side of the river.Location.?In the neighborhood of The Dalles, in the present WascoCounty. Villages and Fishing StationsThe following are given by Sapir (1930) in order from east to west: Hlgahacha,Igiskhis, Wasco (a few miles above the present town of The Dalles), Wogupan,Natlaialaik, Gawobumat, Hliekala-imadik, Wikatk, Watsokus, Winkwot (at TheDalles), Hlilwaihldik, Hliapkenum, Kabala, Gayahi.sitik, Itkumahlemkt, Hlgak-tahlk, Tgahu, Hliluktik, Gahlentlich, Gechgechak, Skhlalis.Population.?Morse (1822) estimated the number of Wasco at 900.The census of 1910 returned 242, and the United States OflBce ofIndian Affairs, 227 in 1937. (See Clackamas and Watlala.)Connections in which they have become noted.?The Wasco were thestrongest Upper Chinook tribe and that which ultimately absorbedthe rest. The name is preserved by Wasco County, Oreg., and atown in Sherman County in the same State; also places in KernCounty, Calif., and Kane County, 111.
476 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Watlala. Significance of word is unknown. Also called:Cascade Indians, the popular English name.Gila'xicatck, by the Chinook.Katlagakya, own name.Shahala, from Chinook saxala, meaning "above," by Chinook.Connections.?The Watlala belonged to the Chinookan linguisticstock and the Clackamas dialectic group.Location.?At the Cascades of Columbia River and extending downto the mouth of the Willamette River.SubdivisionsThe following names have been applied by various writers to the Indians inthis neighborhood and may be subdivisions of this tribe, or perhaps refer to theentire tribe itself:Cathlakaheckit, at the Cascades.Cathlathlala, just below the Cascades.Clahclellah, near the foot of the Cascades.Neerchokioon, on the south side of Columbia River a few miles above SauviesIsland.Washougal, near Quicksand River.Yehuh, just above the Cascades.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates that the Watlala and theWasco together numbered 3,200 in 1780. In 1805-6 Lewis and Clarkestimated that there were 2,800. In 1812 the two first-mentionedbands were estimated to number 1,400. They are no longer enumer-ated separately and are probably incorporated at the present timewith the Wishram and the Wasco.Yahuskin. One of the two chief peoples in Oregon belonging to theNorthern Paiute division of the Shoshonean and therefore Uto-Aztecan linguistic stock. (See Nevada.)Yamel. Significance unknown, often spelled Yam Hill. Also called:Ycha-yamel-amim, by the Atfalati Kalapuya.Connections.?The Yamel belonged, along with the Atfalati, to thenorthern dialectic division of the Kalapooian linguistic stock.Location.?Yamhill River. SubdivisionsGatschet (1877) records these as follows:Andshankualth, on a western tributary of the Willamette.Andshimmampak, on Yamhill River.Chamifu, in the forks of Yamhill River.Chamiwi, on Yamhill River.Champikle, on Dallas (La Creole) Creek.Chinchal, on Dallas Creek.Population.?(See Calapooya.) The census of 1910 returned 5Yamel.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 477Connection in which they have become noted.?The name of the Yamel,in the form Yamhill, is perpetuated by an affluent of the Willametteand by the county through which it flows.Yaquina. Significance unknown.Sa-dkl, Nestucca name.Sls'-q<ln-me't<lnn6, Chetco name.Tcha y^kon amim, Luckiamute Kalapuya name.Connections.?The Yaquina were one of the tribes of the Yakonanlinguistic stock to which they gave their name.Location.?About Yaquina River and Bay.VillagesThe following list is from J. O. Dorsey (1884):On the north side of Yaquina River:Holukhik.Hunkkhwitik.Iwai.Khaishuk.Khilukh.Kunnupiyu.Kwulaishauik.Kyaukuhu.Kyuwatkal.Mipshuntik.On the south side of the river:Atshuk.Chulithltiyu.Hakkyaiwal.Hathletukhish.Hitehinsuwit.Hiwaitthe.Kaku.Khaiyukkhai.Khitalaitthe.Kholkh.Khulhanshtauk.Kilauutuksh.Kumsukwum.Kutshuwitthe.Kwaitshi.Kwilaishauk.Kwulchichicheshk.Kwullaish.
Mittsulstik.Shash.Thialkhaiuntik.Thlekakhaik.Tkhakiyu.Tshkitshiauk.Tthilkitik.Ukhwaiksh.Yahal.Yikkhaich.Kwullakhtauik
.
Kwutichuntthe.Mulshintik.Naaish.Paiinkhwutthu.Pikiiltthe.Pkhulluwaaitthe.Pkuuniukhtauk.Puuntthiwaun.Shilkhotshi.Shupauk.Thlekwiyauik.Thlelkhus.Thlinaitshtik.Thlukwiutshthu.Tkulmashaauk.Tuhaushuwitthe
.
Tulshk.Population.? (See Alsea.) The census of 1910 returned 19 Yaquina.Connecton in which they have become noted.?The name of this tribeYaquina, was given some scientific prominence by its use, in the form
478 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Yakonan, for a small linguistic stock in the Powellian classification.It is preserved in Yaquina River, Yaquina Bay and a town calledYaquina in Lincoln County.Yoncalla. From Ayankeld, or Tch'Ayanke'ld, "those living atAyankeld," own name.Connections.?The Yoncalla were the southernmost tribe of theKalapooian linguistic stock, forming one of the three dialectic divi-sions.Location.?On Elk and Calapooya Creeks, tributaries of UmpquaRiver. SubdivisionsAccording to Gatschet (1887), there were two bands, called Chayankeld andTsantokayu by the Luckiamute, but it seems likely that the former name (Teh'AyankS'ld) is merely the native tribal name.Population.? (See Calapooya.) The census of 1910 returned 11Yoncalla.Connection in which they have become noted.?Yoncalla, a postvillage of Douglas County, Oreg., preserves the name.CALIFORNIAThe territory of the present State of CaHfornia was discovered in1542 by a Portuguese navigator in the Spanish service, J. R. CabriUo.In 1578 Sir Francis Drake landed at Drake's Bay, opened communi-cation with the natives, and took possession of the coimtry in thename of England, calling it New Albion. It was explored by theSpaniard S. Viscayno in 1602, but no attempt was made at coloniza-tion until the Franciscan Fathers established a mission at San Diegoin 1769. Within the next 50 years they founded 21 missions andgathered 20,000 Indians about them, but the number of neophytescontinually fell off and the power of the missions declined with them,especially after Mexican government had succeeded to Spanish.Transfer of the country to the United States and the rush of immi-grants following upon the discovery of gold in 1848 was still moredisastrous to the Indians and this disaster extended to parts of theState which the Spaniards had not reached. From this time on thehistory of the Indians of this area is one long story of debaucheryand extermination. Reservations were set aside for most of the tribes,but the greater part of the survivors live scattered through thecountry as squatters or on land purchased by themselves.In dealing with the tribes of California, I have adopted the namesgiven by Dr. Eo-oeber in his Handbook of the Indians of Cahfornia(1925). An inspection of these shows us at once, however, that thetribal concept in most parts of the State is one imposed upon the
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 479Indians as a result of ethnological investigation rather than somethingrecognized by themselves. It has a dialectic rather than a govern-mental or ceremonial base, but it is the best that can be done unlesswe adopt the impracticable alternative of treating each village groupas a tribe. It is to be understood that, from the ordinary pointof view as to what constitutes a tribe, this expedient is largely arti-ficial. Under these circumstances it has seemed best not to followa strictly alphabetic system tliroughout, or rather, to enter thosetribes defined by their names as parts of larger groups under the morecommon group names, the qualifying word following, as: Paiute,Northern, and Yuki, Coast, instead of Northern Paiute and CoastYuki.Connections in which they have become noted.?That few namesof California tribes have found permanent lodgment in the geographyof the region is not surprising when we consider the small numberof names of this kind at all prominent. This is in keeping with thefact that tribal organizations as they were known in eastern NorthAmerica were wanting over much of the State, and that where theyexisted they were generally small and insignificant. It also happensthat a few real tribal names, or names that have been used to covertribal groups, include peoples which extended into neighboring Statesand have been treated elsewhere. Under this head come the namesof Modoc County, Klamath River, Mohave River, Mono County andLake, and Piute Peak. Still other names are derived from villages andsmall tribes, mere subdivisions of the main bodies. Among thesemay be mentioned Tuolumne County, Mokelumne Peak and River,Cosumnes River, Kaweah River. While the designation of theShasta is a conspicuous one it is rather the mountain which hasgiven name to the tribe than the tribe to the mountain, though in factboth are derived from a chief of the Shasta people. Following fromthe use of the term for Mount Shasta we have Shasta River, Shasta,Shasta Retreat, Shasta Springs. The history of the name Hupahas been somewhat similar. It has remained attached to the valleyto which it was originally applied and to the tribe secondarily.Nevertheless, the valley name now serves to preserve in memory thatof the people who occupied it.Achomawi. From adzuma or ach6ma, "river."Ko'm-maidum, Maidu name, meaning "snow people."Shawash, Yuki name for the Achomawi taken to Round Valley Reservation.Connections.?The Achomawi were originally classed with theAtsugewi as one stock under the name Palaihnihan, the Achomawanstock of Merriam (1926), and this in turn constitutes the eastern branch
480 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145
of the Shastan stock, which in turn is now placed under the widelyspread Hokan family.Location.?In the drainage area of Pit River from near MontgomeryCreek in Shasta County to Goose Lake on the Oregon line, with theexception of the territory watered by Bumey, Hat, and Horse or DixieValley Creeks. SubdivisionsKroeber (1925) gives the following:Achomawi, on Fall River.Astakiwi, in upper Hot Springs Valley.Atuami, in Big Valley.Hamawi, on the South Fork of Pit River.Hantiwi, in lower Hot Springs Valley.Ilmawi, on the south side of Pit River opposite Fort Crook.Madehsi, the lowest on Pit River along the big bend.C. H. Merriam (1926) says that Achomawi is the Madehsi name for the Astakiwiwhich occupied all of Hot Springs Valley, and he adds the names of two othertribes between the last mentioned and Goose Lake, the Ko-se-al-lak'-te, and,higher up, at the lower end of the lake, the Ha'-we-si'-doc.Population.?Together with the Atsugewi, the Achomawi are esti-mated by Kroeber (1925) to have numbered 3,000 in 1770; in 1910there were 985. According to the census of 1930, the entire Shastanstock numbered 844, and in 1937, 418 "Pit River" Indians were enu-merated, only a portion of the stock apparently.Aiiiklik. Designation bestowed by the Ventureno Chumash; mean-ing unknown.Connections.?The Aiiiklik belonged to the Californian group of theShoshonean division of the Uto-Aztecan linguistic stock, their closestrelatives probably being the Serrano.Location.?On the upper Santa Clara River.VillagesAkavavi Kashtu, Etseng, Huyang, Kiivung, and Pi'idhuku (on Piru Creek, thelast mentioned at Piru) ; Kamulus (on Castac Creek) ; Kashtuk Tsawayung (ona branch of Castac Creek).Population.?The Aiiiklik together with the Serrano, Vanyume, andKitanemuk, numbered 3,500 in 1770 and 150 in 1910. The census of1930 returned 361 southern California Shoshoneans.Atsugewi. Their own name or that which the Achomawi applied tothem; significance unknown.Adwanuqdji, Ilmawi name.Hat Creek Indians, popular English name.Tcunoiyana, Yana name.
SwANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 481Connections.?With the Achomawi, the Atsugewi constituted thePalaihnihan or eastern group of the Shastan- stock, more recently-placed by Dixon and Kroeber (1919) in the Hokan family.Location.?On Burney, Hat, and Dixie Valley or Horse Creeks.SubdivisionsKroeber (1925) gives: Apwarukei (Dixie Valley people), Hat Creek people(native name unknown), and Wamari'i (Burney Valley people). C. G. Merriam(1926) calls the Hat Creek people collectively At-soo-ka'-e (Atsugewi) and treatsmost of the Burney Valley Indians as part of the Atsugewi proper.Population.?Kroeber estimates that in 1770 there were 3,000 ofthe Atsugewi and the Achomawi together. The Shastan Indiansnumbered S44 in 1930.Bear River Indians. A body of Indians living along Bear River inthe present Humboldt County for whom no suitable native namehas been preserved. Also called:Ni'ekeni', name they applied to themselves and to the Mattole.Connections.?The Bear River Indians belonged to the Athapascanlinguistic family, and were most closely connected with the Mattole,Sinl5:yone, and Nongatl tribes to the south and east.Location.?As given above. (See North Carolina for a tribe simi-larly named.) VillagesFrom the mouth of Bear River inland as given by Nomland (1938):Tcalko', at the mouth of Bear River.Chilshgck, on the site of the present Capetown.Chilenchg, near the present Morrison Ranch.Selsche'ech, on a site marked by a large red rock 3-4 miles above the last.Tlanko, abore the preceding.Estakana, at Gear's place, on the largest fiat in the upper valley above Tlanko.Sehtla, about 7 miles above Capetown.Me'sseah, name for a natural amphitheater, the training place for shamans,about which lived a few families.Population.?Included with the Nongatl (q. v.). 1,129 were returnedin the census of 1930. The United States Oflfice of Indian Affairsreported 23 "Bear River" Indians in 1937.Cahuilla. A name perhaps of Spanish origin, but its significance isunknown. Also spelled Kawia.Connections.?The Cahuilla belonged to the southern Californiagroup of the Shoshonean division of the Uto-Aztecan stock.Location.?Mainly in the inland basin between the San BernardinoRange and the range extending southward from Mount San Jacinto.
482 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145SubdivisionsDesert Cahuilla, at northern end of the Colorado Desert.Mountain Cahuilla, in the mountains south of San Jacinto Peak.Western or Pass Cahuilla, centering in Palms Springs Canyon.VillagesDuasno, on or near the Cahuilla Reservation.Juan Bautista, in San Bernardino County.Ekwawinet, at La Mesa, 2 miles south of Coachella.Kavinish, at Indian Wells.Cahuilla, on the Cahuilla Reservation.Kwaleki, in the San Jacinto Mountains.Lawilvan or Sivel, at Alamo.Malki, on the Potrero Reservation in Cahuilla Valley east of Banning.Pachawal, at San Ygnacio.Palseta, at Cabezon.Paltewat, at Indio in Cahuilla Valley.Panachsa, in the San Jacinto Mountains.Sechi, in Cahuilla Valley.Sokut Menyil, at Martinez.Sapela, at San Ygnacio.Temalwahish, at La Mesa.Torres, on Torres Reservation.Tova, at Agua Dulce.Wewutnowhu, at Santa Rosa.Population.?Kroeber (1925) estimates 2,500 Cahuilla in 1770; in1910 there were about 800. (See Alliklik.)Connection in which their name has become noted.?The name Ca-huilla is preserved in that of a village called Kaweah in Tulare County.Chemehuevi. The Yuman name for this tribe and for the Paiute;significance unknown. Also called:Ah'alakat, Pima name, meaning "small bows."Mat-hat-e-vdtch, Yuma name, meaning "nortlierners."Ta'n-ta'wats, own name, meaning "southern men."Connectiona
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?The Chemehuevi were a part of the true Paiute andwere associated with them and the Ute in one linguistic subdivisionof the Shoshonean division of the Uto-Aztecan linguistic stock.Location.?Anciently in the eastern half of the Mohave Desert.At a later date the Chemehuevi settled on Cottonwood Island, inChemehuevi Valley, and at other points on Colorado River.Subdivisions(So far as known)Hokwaits, in Ivanpah Valley.Kauyaichits, location unknown.Mokwats, at the Kingston Mountains.Moviats, on Cottonwood Island.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 483Shivawach or Shivawats, in the Chemehuevi Valley, perhaps only the name of alocality.Tiimpisagavatsits or Timpashauwagotsits, in the Providence Mountains.Yagats, at Amargosa.Population.?Kroeber (1925) estimates between 500 and 800Chemehuevi in ancient times. In 1910, 355 were returned of whom260 were in Cahfornia.Chetco. The Chetco extended slightly across into northern Californiafrom its home in Oregon (q. v.).Chilula. An American rendering of Ym-ok Tsulu-la, "people ofTsulu," the Bald Hills.Connections.?With the Hupa and WhLlkut, the Chilula formed onegroup of the Athapascan linguistic stock.Location.?On or near lower Redwood Creek from near the inlandedge of the heavy redwood belt to a few miles above Minor Creek.VillagesThe following are known and are given in order beginning with the one farthestdown Redwood Creek: Howunakut, Noleding, Tlochime, Kingkyolai, Kingyu-kyomunga, Yisiniug'aikut, Tsinsilading, Tondinunding, Yinukanomitseding,Hontetlme, Tlocheke, Hlichuhwinauhwding, Kailuhwtahding, Kailuhwchengetld-ing, Sikingchwungmitahding, Kinahontahding, Misme, Kahustahding.Population.?Kroeber (1925) estimates 500 to 600 Chilula beforeWhite contact. Now reduced to two or three families and a fewpersons incorporated with the Hupa. (See Bear River Indians.)Chimariko. From the native word chimar, "person." Also called:Kwoshonipu, name probably given them by the Shasta of Salmon River.Meyemma, given by Gibbs (1853).ConTiections
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?Originally considered a distinct stock, the Chimarikoare now classed in the Hokan linguistic family.Location.?On the canyon of Trinity River from about the mouthof New River to Canyon Creek.VillagesChalitasum, at the junction of New and Trinity Rivers.Chichanma, at Taylor Flat.Himeakudji, at Big Creek.Hodinakchohoda, at Cedar Flat.Maidjasore, at Thomas.Paktunadji, at Patterson.Tsudamdadji, at Burnt Ranch.Population.?The Chimariko were estimated by Kroeber (1925) at250 in 1849; only a few mixod-bloods are now living.
484 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Chumash. A term originally applied to the Santa Rosa islanders.Also called:Santa Barbara Indians, a popular name.Connections.?At first considered a distinct linguistic stock, theChumash are now included in the larger Hokan family.Location.?The Chumash occupied the three northern islands of theSanta Barbara group, the coas^, from Malibu Canyon to Estero Bay,and extended inland to the range that divides the drainage of the greatvalley from the coast, except on the west where their frontier was thewatershed between the Salinas and the Santa Maria and short coaststreams, and on the east where some small fragments had spilled overinto part of the most southerly drainage of the San Joaquin-Kernsystem. SubdivisionsBarbareno Chumash, on the coast from Point Conception nearly to VenturaRiver.Cuyama Chumash, in the valley of Cuyama River and the upper valley of theSanta Maria River.Emigdiano Chumash, beyond the coast range in the southernmost extremity ofthe great valley of California.Island Chumash, on San Miguel, Santa Rosa, and Santa Cruz Islands.Obispeno Chumash, on the coast from a point a little north of Santa Maria Riverto Salinan territory.Purisimeno Chumash, on the coast between the lands of the Obispeno and Bar-barefio divisions.Santa Ynez Chumash, inland along Santa Ynez River between the Barbareno andCuyama divisionsVentureno, on the coast from the Ventura River to the end of Chumash territoryon the southeast and the drainage areas of Ventura River, Calleguas Creek, andmost of that of Santa Clara River inland.
VillagesA'hwai (at Ojai).Ala-hulapun, at Santa Ynez Mission.Alka'ash, on the coast west of Santa Barbara.Alpincha, at Santa Barbara.Alwatalam, in the Goleta marsh.Amolomol, on the coast close to Santa Barbara.Amuwu, at Mission Purisima near Santa Ynez River.Anawupu, on a small stream emptying into the Pacific at Gaviota.Antap, near Ventura.Awawilashmu, near the Canada del Refugio.Chikachkach, at the mouth of Ventura River.Ch'oloshush, at the west end of Santa Cruz Island.Ch'vishu, on the north shore of Santa Cruz Island.Chwayiik, on the coast west of Ventura River.Elhelel, on the coast east of Santa Barbara.Elhiman, in the Goleta marsh.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 485Hahas, on the north shore of Santa Cruz Island toward the eaat end.Hanawani, on the south shore of Santa Cruz Island.Halam, on Jalama Creek near the coast.Hanaya, northeast of Santa Barbara Mission.Heliok, on the coast southwest of Goleta.Helo, on the coast south of Goleta.Hipuk, inland on Maliba Creek.Honmoyanshu, near Ventura.Ho'ya or Huya, said to have been the name of a village on Santa Cruz Island.Humkaka, at Point Conception.Ishwa, at the mouth of Santa Clara River.Kachyoyukuch, near Ventura.K'ahii, on the coast between Canada del Refugio and Dos Pueblos Canyon.Kamupau, inland on San Emigdio Creek.Kashiwe, inland northeast of Santa Susana.Kashwa, northeast of Santa Barbara Mission.Kasil, at the mouth of Cafiada del Refugio.Katstayiit, on the coast west of Gaviota.Kayewush, inland on Calleguas Creek.Kichiiwiin, on the northeast coast of Santa Rosa Island.Kinapuich', near Ventura.Kohso, a short distance inland from the mouth of Ventura River.Kolok, at Carpinteria.K'shiuk'shiu, on the northeast coast of Santa Rosa Island.Kulalama, near Santa Barbara Mission.Kuyamu, near the mouth of Dos Pueblos Canyon.L'aka'amu, on the north coast of Santa Cruz Island near its west end.L'alalii, on the north coast of Santa Cruz Island.Lapau, on the Cafiada de los Uvas north of Old Fort Tejon.Liyam, on the south shore of Santa Cruz Island.Lu'upsh, near the east end of Santa Cruz Island.Mahalal, at San Cayetano.Mah'auh, inland near the middle course of Calleguas Creek.Maliwu, at the mouth of Maliba Creek.Mashch'al, on the east coast of Santa Cruz Island.Masuwiik, near Los Alamos.Ma'tilha, inland on Matilija Creek.Mich'iyu, on the coast east of Gaviota.Mikiw, at the mouth of Dos Pueblos Canyon.Mishopshno (near Carpinteria), near Santa Ynez River above Cachuma Creek.Mishtapalwa, near Ventura.Mismatuk, in Arroyo Burro near Santa Barbara Mission.Mispu, on the coast southwest of Santa Barbara.Mitskanakan, at Ventura Mission.Nupu, at Santa Paula.Nushvim, on the coast between Ventura Mission and Carpinteria.Muwu, on the coast near the mouth of Calleguas Creek.Nahayalewa, on the headwaters of Santa Ynez River northwest of ChismahooMountain.Nawani, on the west coast of Santa Rosa Island.Niakla, on the north coast of Santa Rosa Island.Nila'lhuyu, on the south coast of Santa Rosa Island.Nimalala, on the north coast of Santa Cruz Island.
486 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Niimkulkul, on the north coast and near the west end of Santa Rosa Island.Onohwi, on Nojoqui Creek, a branch of Santa Ynez River.Onomyo, at Gaviota.Sahpilil, on the coast southwest of Goleta.Salnobalkaisikw, a short distance west of Ojai.Sati'k'oi, at Saticoy on Santa Clara River.Sek'spe, at Sespe.Shalawa, on the coast north of Santa Barbara.Shawa, on the west coast of Santa Cruz Island.Shimiyi, at Simi on Calleguas Creek.Shisholop, on the coast near Point Conception.Shisholop, a second town of the name at Ventura Mission.Shishwashkui, on the coast south of Rincon Creek.Shtekolo, at the Cienega near Santa Barbara Mission.Shuku, at the mouth of Rincon Creek.Shushuchi, on the coast west of the Cafiada del Refugio.Shuwalashu, on the coast at the lower end of Sycamore Canyon.Siliwihi, on the north coast of Santa Rosa Island.Simo'mo, at the mouth of Calleguas Creek.Sis'a, on Sisar Canyon northwest of Santa Paula.Sitoptopo, inland northeast of Ojai.Siuhtun, at Santa Barbara Mission.Skonon, in Arroyo Burro near Santa Barbara Mission.S'ohmiis, inland on the middle course of Calleguas Creek.Swahiil, at the eastern point of Santa Cruz Island.Swetete, on the coast east of Santa Barbara.Ta'apu, inland north of Santa Susana.Takuyo, inland on Tecuya Creek, northwest of old Fort Tejon.Tashlipunau, inland on San Emigdio Creek north of San Emigdio Mountains.Teneknes, at Carpinteria.Tenenam, near Santa Barbara Mission.Tokin, near Santa Barbara Mission.Tuhmu'l, on the coast east of Gaviota.Upop, near Point Conception.Ushtahash, inland northwest of Santa Barbara Mission.Wene'me, at Hueneme.Wichachet, on the coast east of the mouth of Calleguas Creek.Cabrillo's sixteenth century relation gives the names of a number of villages,part of which Kroeber (1925) has been able to identify, at least with a fair degreeof probability, while some are evidently duplications. Eliminating the. duplica-tions, we have the following additional village names:Aguin. Nacbuc (or Anacbuc).Anacot. Nocos.Asimu. Olesino.Bis. Opia (or Opistopia).Caacat (or Caacac), though this last Potoltuc (Paltate, Partocac, or Pal-may be a synonym for Ciucut tocac).(Siuhtun). Quiman.Gua (or Quannegua). Sopono (Misesopono, or Garomisopona).Maquinanoa. Xotococ.Misinagua. Yutum.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 487Population.?The number of Chumash has been estimated byKroeber (1925) at 10,000 in 1770; at the present time a mere remnantis left, given as 38 in the census of 1910 and 14 in that of 1930.Costanoan. From Spanish Costanos, "coast people." Also called:Mutsun, Gatschet extended this term over these and other peoples.Connections.?The Costanoan formed one division of the Penutianlinguistic stock.Location.?On the coast between San Francisco Bay and Point Sur,and inland probably to the Mount Diablo Range.SubdivisionsMonterey Costanoan, from Pajaro River to Point Sur and the lower courses of thelatter stream and Salinas and Carmel Rivers.Saclan Costanoan, between San Francisco and San Pablo Bays.San Francisco Costanoan, between San Francisco Bay and the Pacific Ocean.San Juan Bautista Costanoan, along San Benito River and San Felipe Creek.Santa Clara Costanoan, on Coyote and Calaveras Creeks.Santa Cruz Costanoan, on the coast between Pescadero and Pajaro River.Soledad Costanoan, on the middle course of Salinas River.VillagesAs far as Kroeber has been able to locate them, they are as follows:Ahala-n, south of Martinez.Altah-mo, on the west shore of San Francisco Bay.Aulin-tak, on the coast close to Santa Cruz Mission.Ausai-ma, on San Felipe Creek.Awas-te, near San Francisco.Chatu-mu, near Santa Cruz Mission.Hotochtak, just west of the preceding.Huchiu-n, northeast of Oakland.Huime-n, near San Pablo.Huris-tak, at the junction of San Felipe and San Benito Creeks.Imuna-kan, northeast of Salinas.Kakon-ta-ruk, near Point Sur.Kalinta-ruk, at the mouth of Salinas River.Kino-te, inland south of San Francisco Bay.Matala-n, inland south of San Francisco Bay.Mus-tuk, inland east of the mouth of Salinas River.Mutsu-n, at San Juan Bautista Mission.Olho-n, south of San Francisco.Orbiso-n, at San Jose Mission.Paisi-n, on San Benito River.Posol-mi, near the south end of San Francisco Bay.Romano-n, south of San Francisco.Rumse-n, on Carmel River.Saho-n, on Salinas River south of Salinas.Sakla-n, south of Martinez.SaLso-n, at San Mateo.Sirhin-ta-ruk, on the coast north of Point Sur.
488 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Boll. 145Sokel, at Aptos, east of Santa Cruz.Tamie-n, on Coyote River near Santa Clara Mission.Tamo-tk, near Monterey.Tulo-mo, south of San Francisco.Uiis-tak, on Coyote River north of Santa Clara Mission.Urebure, near the west shore of San Francisco Bay.Wacharo-n, near Soledad Mission on Salinas River.Werwerse-n, inland east of San Jos6.Wolwo-n, inland northwest of Mt. Diablo.Population.?Kroeber (1925) estimates that there were about 7,000Costanoan in 1770. Today there are only a few mixed-blood descend-ants remaining. The census of 1910 returned 10; that of 1930, none.Cupeno. From Kupa, the name of one of their towns.Connections.?The Cupeno spoke a dialect belonging to the Luiseno-Cahuilla branch of the Shoshonean division of the Uto-Aztecanlinguistic stock.Location.?A mountainous district on the headwaters of San LuisRey River, not over 10 by 5 miles in extent.VillagesKupa, near the famous hot springs of Warner's Ranch.Wilakal, at San Ysidro,Population.?Kroeber (1925) estimates not over 500 in 1770, and in1910, 150. (See AUiklik.)Dakubetede. An Athapascan tribe of Oregon which extendedslightly beyond the northern border of California. (See Oregon.)Diegueno. Derived from the name of the Mission of San Diego.Connections.?The Diegueno belonged to the Central division of theYuman linguistic group, being most closely connected with the Kamiaand Kiliwa, but that is reckoned a branch of the Hokan stock.SubdivisionsNorthern Diegueno, in the eastern part of San Diego County and extendingan indefinite distance southward into the Mexican State of Baja California,Southern Diegueno, in the modern districts of Campo, La Posta, Manzanita,Guyapipe, and La Laguna, and some territory in Baja California.VillagesAha-hakaik, at La Laguna.Akmukatikatl, inland on San Dieguito River.Ahta ("cane") or Hapawu, at Carrizo.Ahwat, in Baja California.Amai'-tu, at La Posta.Amat-kwa'-ahwat, on the stream aoove Campo.Amotaretuwe, inland between San Diego and Sweetwater Rivers.Anyaha, at the headwaters of San Diego River.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 489Atlkwanen, on the head of San Dieguito River.Awaskal, location unknown.Ekwiamak, on the head of Sweetwater River.Ennitl-kwatai, at Campo.Ewiapaip, at Guyapipe.Hakum, in or near Jacunaba Pass.Hakutl, south of San Marcos Creek.Hamacha, on the middle course of Sweetwater River.Hamul, at the head of Otay River.Hanwi, location uncertain.Hapai, south of San Dieguito River.Hasasei, location uncertain.Hasumel, location uncertain.Hata'am, location uncertain.Hawai, location uncertain.Hawi, at Vallecitos.Inomasi, location uncertain.Inyahkai, at La Laguna.Kamachal, location uncertian.Kohwat, location uncertain.Kokwitl, location uncertain.Kosmit, at the head of San Diego River.Kosoi, at San Diego.Kwalhwut, location uncertain.Kulaumai, on the coast near the mouth of San Dieguito River.Kwatai, at the head of Cottonwood Creek.Maktati, location uncertain.Maramoido, location uncertain.Mat-ahwat-is, location uncertain.Matamo, location uncertain.Met-hwai, southwest of San Ysidro Mountain.Meti, location uncertain.Mitltekwanak, on San Felipe Creek and the head of San Dieguito River.Netlmol, location uncertain.Nipawai, on lower San Diego River.Otai, about Otai Mountain.Pamo, between the heads of San Dieguito and San Diego Rivers.Paulpa, at the north end of San Diego Bay.Pauwai, inland between San Dieguito and San Diego Rivers.Pokol, location uncertain.Pu-shuyi, inland east of San Diego.Sekwan, on the middle course of Sweetwater River.Setmunumin, southeast of Mesa Grande.Shana, location uncertain.Sinyau-pichkara, on the middle course of San Dieguito River.Sinyau-tehwir, at the head of San Diego River.Sinyeweche, northeast of San Diego.Suapai, location uncertain.Tapanke, location uncertain.Tawi, west of San Ysidro Mountain.Tlokwih, near North Peak.Totakamalam, at Point Loma.Tukumak, at Mesa Grande.
490 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Wemura, location uncertain.Witlimak, on a head branch of San Diego River.Population.?Kroeber (1925) estimates 3,000 Diegueno and Kamiatogether in 1770; in 1925, between 700 and 800. The census of 1930gave 322.Esselen. Probably the name of a village; significance unknown.Connections.?Originally given the status of a distinct stock, theEsselen are now placed in the Hokan linguistic family, their affinitiesbeing rather with the Yuman division, to the south, and with thePomo, Yana, and other groups to the north than with their closerneighbors of this stock, the Salinan and Chumash tribes.Location.?On the upper course of Carmel River, Sur River, andthe coast from Point Lopez almost to Point Sur.VillagesEchilat, 12 miles southeast of Mission Carmelo.Ekheya, in the mountains.Ensen, at Buena Esperanza.Ichenta, at San Jos4.Pachhepes, near the next.Xaseum, in the sierra.Population.?Kroeber (1925) estimates 500 Esselen in 1770; theyare now extinct.Fernandeno. So-called from San Fernando, the name of one of thetwo Franciscan missions in Los Angeles County.Connections.?The nearest relatives of the Fernandeno were theGabrielino and both belonged to the California section of the Sho-shonean Division of the Uto-Aztecan linguistic stock.Location.?In that part of the valley of Los Angeles River aboveLos Angeles. VillagesHahann.o, north of Los Angeles.Kawe, northwest of Los Angeles.Mau, north of Los Angeles.Pasek, at San Francisco Mission.Population.?Kroeber (1925) estimates that, with the Gabrielinoand Nicoleno, the Fernandeno numbered 5,000 in 1770; they arenow practically extinct.Gabrielino. Derived from San Gabriel, one of the two missions inLos Angeles County. Also called:Kizh, reported by Gatschet (1876); Hale (1846) has Kij.Playsanos, a name which seems to be applied to the California Shoshoneansliving in the lowlands, especially near the coast in the region of LosAngeles.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 491Tobikhars, said to mean "settlers," but probably from Tobohar, themythical first man.Tumangamalum, Luisefio name.Connections.?The nearest connections of the Gabrielino were theFernandeno; both belonged to the Cahfornia branch of the ShoshoneanDivision of the Uto-Aztecan stock.Location.?In the drainage area of the San Gabriel River, theterritory about Los Angeles, and all the country southward to includehalf of Orange County, also Santa Catalina Island and probablySan Clemente. VillagesAhau, near Los Angeles River north of Long Beach.Akura, near San Gabriel Mission.Akura-nga, at La Presa.Aleupki-nga, at Santa Anita.Apachia, just east of Los Angeles.Asuksa, west of Azusa.Awi, between Pomona and the San Gabriel River.Chokish-nga, at Jabonerla.Chowi, near San Pedro.Engva, near Redondo.Hout, south of San Gabriel Mission.Hutuk, inland on Santa Ana River.Isantka-nga, at Mission Vieja.Kinki or Kinkipar, on San Clemente Island.Kukamo, southwest of Cucamonga Peak.Lukup, near the mouth of Santa Ana River.Masau, on the coast near San Pedro.Moyo, on the coast south of the mouth of Santa Ana River.Nakau-nga, at Carpenter's.Pahav, southeast of Corona.Pasino, southeast of Pomona.Pimoka-nga, at Rancho de los Ybarras.Pimu or Pipimar, on Santa Catalina Island.Pubu, inland on San Gabriel River, east of Long Beach.Saan, on the coast south of Santa Monica.Sehat, inland near the middle course of San Gabriel River.Shua, near Long Beach.Siba, at San Gabriel Mission.Sisitkan-nga, at Pear Orchard.Sona-nga, at White's.Sua-nga, near Long Beach.Tibaha, north of Long Beach between Los Angeles and San Gabriel Rivers.Toibi, at Pomona.Wenot, at Los Angeles.Population.?Kroeber (1925) estimates 5,000 Gabrielino, Fernan-deno, and Nicoleno in 1770; they are now practically extinct.
492 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Halchidhoma. On the middle Colorado. (See Arizona.)Huchnom. The name applied to this tribe by the Yuki and appar-ently by themselves ; said to signify "mountain people." Also called:Redwoods, a popular name.Ta'-tu, by the Porno of Potter Valley.Connection.?The Huchnom belonged to the Yukian linguisticstock, though resembling the Pomo somewhat more closely in culture.Location.?In the valley of South Eel River from Hullville nearly toits mouth, together with the valley of its affluent, Tomki Creek, andthe lower course of the stream known as Deep, or Outlet Creek.VillagesBa'awel, name in Pomo; on South Eel River a couple of miles from Ukumna (q. v.).Hatupoka, on Tomki Creek below the village of Pukemul.Komohmemut-kuyuk, on South Eel River between Lilko'ol and Mumemel.Lilko'ol, on South Eel River between Ba'awel and the preceding.Mot, on South Eel River between Yek and Mupan.Mot-kuyuk, on South Eel River at the mouth of Tomki Creek.Mumemel, on South Eel River just below the forks at Hullville.Mupan, on South Eel River between Mot and Mot-kuyuk.Nonhohou, on South Eel River between Shipomul and Yek.Pukemul, on Tomki Creek above the village of Hatupoka.Shipomul, on South Eel River at the mouth of Outlet Creek.Ukumna, near the head of the eastern source of Russian River.Yek, on South Eel River between Nonhohou and Mot.There is one village of uncertain name and possibly Yuki on the headwaters ofthe South Fork of Eel River.Population.?The Huchnom were estimated at 500 in 1770 byKroeber (1925); the census of 1910 returned 7 full-bloods and 8 half-breeds. (See Yuki.)Hupa. Derived from the Yurok name of the valley, Hupo. Alsocalled:Cha'parahihu, Shasta name.Hfch'hu, Chimariko name.Kishakevira, Karok name.Nabiltse, given by Gibbs (1877) and translated "man."Natinnoh-hoi, own name, after Natinnoh, "Trinity River."Num-ee-muss, Yurok name.Trinity Indians, translation of their own name.Connections.?The Hupa belonged to the Athapascan linguisticstock, forming one closely knit linguistic group with the Chilula andWhilkut.Location.?On the middle coiu-se of the Trinity River and itsbranches, particularly a beautiful stretch of 8 miles known as Hupa(or Hoopa) Valley, and on New River. C. H. Merriam (1926) treats
SwANTONl INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 493these latter as a distinct tribe of Shastan affinities, but J. P. Harrington(personal information) states that they were Hupa,VillagesAheltah, name perhaps Yurok; said to be in the upper part of Hupa territory.Cheindekotding, on the west bank of Trinity River between Kinchuhwikut andMiskut.Dakis-hankut, on the west bank of Trinity River between Honsading and Kin-chuhwikut.Djishtangading, on the east bank of Trinity River between Howunkut andHaslinding.Haslinding, in the "Sugar Bowl" above Hupa Valley.Honsading, the village farthest down Trinity River and on the east bank.
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Howunkut, on the west side of Trinity River between Medilding and Djishtan-gading.Kachwunding, on Trinity River near the mouth of Willow Creek.
'Kek-kah'-na-tung, at Martha Ziegler's place on the lower part of New River.Kinchuhwikut, on the east bank of Trinity River between Dakishankut andCheindekotding.Ki-oo?''-wet-tung, at Sally Noble's place on New River, about a quarter of a milebelow the mouth of Panther Creek.Klo-neS-tung, at the present site of Quinby on New River.Medilding, on the east bank of Trinity River between Totltsasding and Howunkut.Me-yemma, possibly belonging to this tribe, but more likely Chimariko, onTrinity River just below the mouth of New River.Mingkutme, on Trinity River near the mouth of Willow Creek.Miskut, on the east bank of Trinity River between Cheindekotding and Taki-mitlding.Sehachpaya, the name perhaps Yurok; said to have been in the upper part ofthe Hupa territory.Sokeakeit, ibid.Takimitlding, on the east bank of Trinity River between Miskut and Tsewen-alding.Tashuanta, the name perhaps Yurok; said to have been in the upper part of theHupa territory.Tlelding, at the forks of the Trinity River.Tl'okame, a subsidiary settlement of the preceding, 5 miles up the South Forkof Trinity River.Totltsasding, on the west bank of Trinity River between the preceding andMedilding.Tsa-nah'-ning-ah'-tung, on the bar or flat at New River Forks, at the junction ofEast Fork with main New River.Tsewenalding, on the east bank of Trinity River between Takimitlding andTotltsasding.WauguUewatl, the name perhaps Yurok; said to have been in the upper part ofthe Hupa territory.Population.?Kroeber (1925) places the number of Hupa at 1,000in 1770; the census of 1910 returned 500. In 1937 the United StatesOffice of Indian Affairs returned 575. (See Bear River Indians.)Connection in which they have become noted.?A village in HumboldtCounty, preserves the name of the Hupa.
494 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Juaneno. Derived from the mission of San Juan Capistrano. Alsocalled:Gaitchim, given by Gatschet (1876).Netela, given by Hale (1846), meaning "my language."Connections.?The Juaneno belonged to the Shoshonean branch ofthe Uto-Aztecan linguistic stock, their speech being a variant ofLuiseno.Location.?From the Pacific Ocean to the crest of the southerncontinuation of the Sierra Santa Ana. Southward, toward the Lui-seno, the boundary ran between the San Onofre and Las Pulgas; onthe north, toward the Gabrielino, it is said to have followed AlisosCreek. VillagesAhachmai, on the lower course of San Juan Creek below tlie mission of San JuanCapistrano.Alona, north of the Mission of San Juan Capistrano.Hecbmai, near the coast south of Arroyo San Onofre.Humai, on the middle course of San Juan Creek.Palasakeuna, at the head of Arroyo San Mateo.Panhe, near the mouth of Arroyo San Mateo.Piwiva, on San Juan Creek above San Juan Capistrano.Pu-tuid-em, near the coast between San Juan and Aliso Creeks.Population.?The Juaneno were estimated by Kroeber (1925) at1,000 in 1770; the census of 1910 returned 16. (See Alliklik.)Kamia. From their own term Kamiyai or Kamiyahi, which theyapplied also to the Diegueno. Also called:Comeya, common synonym used by Bartlett in 1854 and adopted inHandbook of American Indians (Hodge, 1907, 1910).I'-um O'-otam, Pima name for Kamia and Diegueno.New River Indians, from their location.Quemayd, so called by Garc^s in 1775-76.Tipai, own name, also meaning "person."Yum, same as I'-um.Connections.?They belonged to the Yuman stock of Powell nowconsidered a subdivision of the Hokan family, their closest afl&nitiesbeing with the eastern Diegueno who were sometimes considered onetribe with themselves.Location.?In Imperial Valley, and on the banks of the sloughsconnecting it with Colorado River. (See also Mexico.)VillagesThere were no true villages.Population.?Gifford (1931) says there could not have been morethan a few hundred Kamia in aboriginal times. Heintzelman (1857)gives 254 under the chief Fernando in 1849. (See Diegueno.)
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 495Connection in which they have become noted.?Whatever notorietythe Kamia, an inconspicuous tribe, has attained is due entirely to thefame of their valley home.Karok. Properly Karuk, signifying in their own language "upstream,"but not used as a tribal designation.Ara, given by Gatschet (1890), signifying "man."Ivap'i, Shasta name.Orleans Indians, a name sometimes locally used, especially downstreamfrom the Karok territory.Petsikla, Yurok name, meaning "upstream."Connections.?Originally considered an independent stock, theKarok are now classsed in a much larger linguistic connection knownas the Hokan family. Their closest relatives are the Chimariko andShasta.Location.?On the middle course of Klamath River between theYurok and Shasta and all of the branches of the Klamath except theupper course of Salmon River.SubdivisionsThe Karok were divided into the Upper Karok above Independence Creekand the Lower Klamath below that stream.
VillagesAftaram, on Klamath River, probably above the mouth of Salmon River.Ahoeptimi, 10 to 12 miles above Ashipak (q. v.).Akoteli, a village or portion of a village near the mouth of Salmon River.Amaikiara, on the west side of Klamath River below a fall about a mile below themouth of Salmon River.Aranimokw, Yurok name of a Lower Karok town on Klamath River.Ashanamkarak, at the fall just mentioned,, and on the east side of KlamathRiver.Ashipak, on Klamath River a few miles above the mouth of Salmon River.Asisufunuk, at Happy Camp, at the mouth of Indian Creek.Aukni, Shasta name for a village above Happy Camp.Ayis, some distance above the mouth of Salmon River.Chamikininich, on the south or east bank of Klamath River in the Orleans district.Chiniki, on Klamath River below Camp Creek.Chinits, at Sims Ferry on Klamath River.Inam, at the mouth of Clear Creek.Inoftak, a village or section of a village near the mouth of Salmon River.Ishipishi, opposite Katimin, the Karok center of the world just above the mouthof Salmon River.Iwatak, a village or section of a village near the mouth of Salmon River.Katipiara, on the east bank of Klamath River above the flat at Orleans.Kaus, a village or section of a village near the mouth of Salmon River.Kumawer, Yurok name of a village above the mouth of Salmon River.Nupatsu, Shasta name of a village below Happy Camp.Oler, Yurok name of a village below Camp Creek.
496 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bdll. 145Panamenik, on the flat at Orleans.Sanipa, on Klamath River below Camp Creek.Segoashkwu, Yurok name of a village below Camp Creek.Shavuram or Sahwuram, on Klamath River above Tu'i.Tachanak, on the west bank of Klamath River at the mouth of Camp Creek.Ti, 10 to 12 miles above Ashipak.Tishrawa, a village or section of a village near the mouth of Salmon River.Tsofkaram or Tasofkaram, at Pearch on Klamath River.Tu'i, Yurok name of a village on Klamath River below Camp Creek.Unharik, a village or section of a village near the mouth of Salmon River.Ussini, Shasta name of a village at the mouth of China Creek.Wetsitsiko or Witsigo, Yurok name of a village in the Orleans district.Wopum, the Karok village farthest down Klamath River opposite Red CapCreek.Yutuirup, a neighbor or suburb of Ishipishi (q. v.).Population.?The number of Karok were estimated by Kroeber(1925) at about 1,500 in 1770. In 1905, 576 were returned, and in1910, 775, but the latter figure is probably too high, though the censusof 1930 returned 755.Kato. A Pomo place name meaning "lake." Also called:Batem-da-kai-ee, given by Gibbs (1853).Kai Po-mo, given by Powers (1877).Laleshiknom, Yuki name.Tlokeang, own name.Connections.?The Kato belonged to the Athapascan linguisticstock, and spoke a dialect peculiar to themselves.Location.?On the uppermost course of the South Fork of Eel River.VillagesThere are said to have been nearly 50 of these, probably an overestimate, butnone of their names are known.Population.?Kroeber (1925) estimates 500 Kato in 1770; about 50persons, mostly full-bloods are still reckoned as Kato. (See BearRiver Indians.)Kawaiisu. So-called by the Yokuts; the signification of the word isunknown.Connections.?The Kawaiisu belonged to the Shoshonean branch ofthe Uto-Aztecan linguistic family, and were a more immediate off-shoot, apparently, of the Chemehuevi.Location.?In the Tehachapi Mountains.Population.?Kroeber (1925) estimates an aboriginal Kawaiisupopulation of perhaps 500 and a present (1925) population of nearly150. (See Alliklik.)Kitanemuk. Perhaps from the stem ki, "house,"; other synonymsare Kikitanum, and Kikitamkar.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 497Connections.?The Kitanemuk belonged to the Shoshonean divisionof the Uto-Aztecan linguistic stock and to a subgroup which includedalso the Alliklik, Vanyume and Serrano.Location.?On upper Tejon and Paso Creeks, the streams on therear side of the Tehachapi Mountains in the same vicinity and thesmall creeks draining the northern slope of the Liebre and SawmillRange, with Antelope Valley and the westernmost end of the MohaveDesert. VillagesThe present principal Kitanemuk village is called Nakwalki-ve, and is situatedwhere Tejon Creek breaks out of the hills. (Other names given do not seemunquestionably those of villages).Population.?Kroeber (1925) estimates that in 1770 there were3,500 Serrano, Vanyume, Kitanemuk, and Alliklik, and that thesewere represented by about 150 in 1910. (See Alliklik.)Konomihu. Their own name, significance unknown.Connections.?The Konomihu was the most divergent of the Shastangroup of tribes of the Hokan linguistic family.Location.?Territory centering about the forks of Salmon River.VillagesThe principal Konomihu village, called, apparently by the Karok, Shamnam,was between the forks of Salmon River in Siskiyou County, on the right side ofthe south branch just above the junction.Population.?Together with the Chimariko, New River Shasta, andOkwanuchu, the Konomihu are estimated by Kroeber (1925) to havenumbered about 1,000 in 1770; they are not now enumerated sepa-rately from the Shasta, of whom 844 were returned in 1930.Koso. Significance unknown.Ke-at, given by Gatschet (Wheeler Survey, p. 411, 1879).Panamint, name more often used.Connections.?The Koso formed the westernmost extension of theShoshoni-Comanche branch of the Shoshonean division of the Uto-Aztecan linguistic stock.Location.?On a barren tract of land in the southeastern part ofthe State between the Sierra and the State of Nevada, and includingOwens Lake, the Coso, Argus, Panamint, and Funeral Mountains andthe intervening valleys.Population.?Kroeber (1925) estimates an aboriginal Koso popula-tion of not over 500; since 1880 they have been placed at about 100to 150.
498 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Lassik. The name derived from that of a chief.Connections.?The Lassik belonged to the Athapascan linguisticfamily and were connected very closely with the Nongatl, who layjust to the north.Location.?On a stretch of Eel River, from a few miles above themouth of the South Fork not quite to Kekawaka Creek; also DobbinsCreek, an eastern affluent of the main stream, and Soldier Basin atthe head of the North Fork; to the east they extended to the headof Mad River.Population.?Kroeber (1925) estimates that in 1770, along with theNongatl and Sinkyone, the Lassik numbered 2,000, and in 1910, 100.(See Alliklik.)Luiseiio. From the name of the Mission of San Luis Rey de Francia.Also called:Ghecham or Khecham, from the native name of San Luis Rey Mission.Connections.?The Luiseno belonged to the Shoshonean division ofthe Uto-Aztecan linguistic family.Location.?In the southwest part of the state from the coast towardbut wholly west of the divide that extends south from Mount SanJacinto; bounded northward by the cognate Juaneno, Gabrielino, andSerrano and south by the Diegueno.VillagesAhuya, near the upper course of San Luis Rey River.Akipa, near Kahpa.Alapi, south of the middle course of the San Luis Rey River.Awa', on a head branch of Santa Margarita River.Hurumpa, west of Riverside.Huyulkum, on the upper course of San Luis Rey River.Ikaimai, near San Luis Rey Mission.Kahpa, on the middle course of San Luis Rey River.Katukto, between Santa Margarita and San Luis Rey Rivers, north of San LuisRey.Keish, south of San Luis Rey Mission.Keweyu, on the upper course of San Luis Rey River.Kolo, near the upper course of San Luis Rey River.Kuka, on the upper course of San Luis Rey River.Kwalam, on the lower course of San Luis Rey River.Malamai, northeast of Pala.Meha, on Santa Margarita River northwest of Temecula.Mehel-om-pom-pauvo, near Escondido.Ngorivo, near the headwaters of San Luis Rey River.Pa'auw, near Ta'i.Paiahche, on Elsinore Lake.Pala, at Pala.Palamai, on the coast between Buena Vista and Agua Hedionda Creeks.Panakare, north of Escondido.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 499Pashkwo, near the headwaters of San Luis Rey River.Paumo, east of Pala.Pu-chorivo, on the upper course of San Luis Rey River.Saumai, south of the middle course of San Luis Rey River.Shakishraai (Luisefio or Diegueno), on the boundary line between the two peoples.Shikapa, west of Escondido.Sovovo, east of San Jacinto.Taghanashpa, east of Pala.Takwi, at the head of Santa Margarita River.Takwishpo-shapila, near Palomar Mountain.Ta'i, close to Palomar Mountain.Tapomai, north of Katukto.Temeku, east of Temecula.Tomkav, west of Pala.Ushmai, near the mouth of Santa Margarita River.Wahaumai, on San Luis Key River above San Luis Rey.Wiawio, at the mo\ith of San Luis Rey River.Wissamai, east of San Luis Rey.Woshha, near the upper course of San Luis Rey River.Yami, near Huyulkum.Population.?Kroeber (1925) estimates 4,000 to be a liberallyallowed maximum for the Luisefio in 1770. The United States IndianOffice returned over 2,500 in 1856; 1,300 in 1870; 1,150 in 1885; andin recent returns, less than 500. (See Alliklik.)Maidu. A native term meaning "person," Also called:Wawdh, Paiute name for all Sacramento River tribes.Connections.?Formerly considered an independent stock, theMaidu have now been placed in the Penutian linguistic family.Location.?In the drainage areas of the Feather and AmericanRivers. SubdivisionsThe Maidu are divided, mainly on dialectic grounds, into the Nishinam orSouthern Maidu (holding the whole of the American drainage plus that of theBear and Yuba Rivers), the Northeastern Maidu (on the upper reaches of theNorth and Middle Forks of Feather River), and the Northwestern Maidu (belowthe high Sierra, part in the foothills where the South, Middle, North, and WestBranches of Feather River converge, and on upper Butte and Chico Creeks andpart in the open Sacramento Vallej' along the lower courses of the same streams)
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VillagesSouthern Division:Bamo, southwest of Placerville.Bushamul, on Bear River below the foothills.Chapa, between the South and Middle Forks of American River.Chikimisi, on a branch of the North Fork of Cosumnes River.Chuemdu, on Bear River below the foothills.Ekele-pakan, west of Placerville.Helto, on an east branch of Feather River.Hembem, on the North Fork of American River.
500 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Homiting, on Bear River below the foothUla.Honkut, on Feather River north of Marysville.Hoko, on Feather River below Marysville.Indak, at Placerville.Intanto, on Bear River below the foothills.Kaluplo, on Bear River below the foothills.Kapaka, on Bear River below the foothills.Kolo-ma, on the South Fork of American River.Kulkumish, at Colfax.Kushna, on the South Fork of Yuba River.Lelikian, on Bear River below the foothills.Lidlipa, on Bear River below the foothills.Mimal, on Feather River just south of Marysville.Molma, at Auburn.Mulamchapa, on Bear River below the foothills.Okpa, on Feather River below Marysville.Ola, on the east bank of Sacramento River above the mouth of Feather River.Oncho-ma, south of Placerville.Opelto, on Bear River below the foothills.Opok, on the North Fork of Cosumnes River.Pakanchi, on Bear River below the foothills.Pan-pakan, on a south branch of Yuba River.Pitsokut, northwest of American River midway between Auburn and Sacra-mento.Pulakatu, on Bear River below the foothills.Pushuni, northeast of Sacramento.Seku-mni, on the lower course of American River.Shokumimlepi, on Bear River below the foothills.Shutamul, on Bear River below the foothills.Sisum, on Feather River below Marysville.Siwim-pakan, inland between the Middle and South Forks of American River.Solakiyu, on Bear River below the foothills.Taisida, southeast of Marysville.Talak, on Bear River below the foothills.Tomcha, on the east side of Feather River above Marysville.Tonimbutuk, on Bear River below the foothills.Toto, on an east branch of Feather River.Tsekankan, at Grass Valley.Tumeli, on the South Fork of American River northeast of Placerville.Usto-ma, east of Grass Valley.Wapumni, near the middle course of Cosumnes River.Wokodot, on a south branch of Yuba River northeast of Grass Valley.Woliyu, on Bear River below the foothills.Yalisu-mni, on the lower course of the South Fork of American River.Yamakii, near the junction of the South Fork of American River with the mainstream,Yikulme, on Feather River above the junction of Bear River.Yodok, at the junction of the South Fork of American River with the mainstream.Yokolimdu, on Bear River below the foothills.Yiikiilii, on the lower course of the South Fork of American River.Yupu, close to Marysville.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 501Northeastern Division:Hopnom-koyo, on a north branch of Indian Creek.Ko-tasi, north of the middle course of Indian Creek.Nakangkoyo, on the headwaters of the North Fork of Feather River.Oidoing-koyo, on the headwaters of the North Fork of Indian Creek.Silong-koyo, at Quincy.Tasi-koyo, on the middle course of Indian Creek.Yota-moto, on the middle course of Indian Creek.Northwestern Division:Bahyu, on a west branch of the North Fork of Feather River.Bauka. on the west side of Feather River below Oroville.Bayu, on the west side of Feather River below Oroville.Benkiimkiimi, inland between the Middle and North Forks of Feather River.Botoko, on the west bank of Feather River below Oroville.Eskini, on a branch of Sacramento River southeast of Chico.Hoholto, near the lower course of the Middle Fork of Feather River.Hokomo, near the lower course of the Middle Fork of Feather River.Kalkalya, near the lower course of the Middle Fork of Feather River.Konkau, near the lower course of the North Fork of Feather River.Kulayapto, near the lower course of the Middle Fork of Feather River.Michopdo, southeast of Chico.Nim-sewi, northeast of Chico.Ololopa, west of Oroville.Otaki, northeast of Chico.Paki, north of Chico.Tadoiko, south of Chico.Taichida, on the west bank of Feather River below Oroville.Taikus, on a west branch of the North Fork of Feather River, near its lowercourse.Toto-ma, on the lower course of the North Fork of Feather River.Tsaktomo, at the junction of the Middle and South Forks of Feather River.Tsam-bahenom, near the lower course of the Middle Fork of Feather River.Tsuka, near the South Fork of Feather River.Tsulum-sewi, a considerable distance northeast of Chico.Yauku, northeast of Chico.Yuma, at Oroville.Yunu, east of Chico.Helto, Toto, Honkut, and Tomcha should perhaps be included in the laatdivision instead of among the Nishinam.Inhabited sites not included among the above were Hoktem, Kiski, Kphes,Natoma, Tankum, Tsamak, Wesnak, and Will.The following list of Northwestern Maidu "districts" or "tribelets" was givento Dr. Kroeber by a Wintun half-breed, who had spent most of his life associatedwith the Chico Maidii:ShI'da-wi, between Sacramento River and lower Pine Creek.Mu'll, on the Sacramento between Pine and Chico Creeks.Ts'^no or Ch'6'no, on the west side of the river about opposite the mouth of ChicoCreek.Su"nijsi, on the Sacramento from Chico Creek to the Llano Seco or Parrott grantabout opposite Jacinto or a couple of miles above.Batsi', near Jacinto, on the west side, opposite and perhaps including the LlanoSeco grant.
502 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Pi'nhuk, the principal settlement, at Butte City, of a tribelet covering a con-siderable extent of country.Micho'pdo, from Dayton to Chico east of Little Chico Creek.O'da-wi, from Chico City water tank to the foothills and from Edgar slough toSandy Gulch.E'sken, from Durham to the foothills and Butte Creek to Clear Creek.Shi'udu, from Clear Creek to Feather River and from near Oroville to past Liveoak.Ku'lu, east of Shi'udu from Feather River toward the foothills about as far asthe Oroville branch of the Southern Pacific Railroad and from Oroville inclu-sive south not quite to Marysville.Yu'pu, from the Southern Pacific bridge over the Feather River north of Marys-ville to about 2 miles south of the city and from a short distance west of theFeather to the foothills (this was a Nishinam village).Dr. Kroeber (1925) attempts to reconstruct the names of the Nishinam orSouthern Maidu tribelets as follows: Following downstream: Yupu (at mouth ofYuba into Feather River), Kochuk or (and) Yokol-Liman-Hokok, Wolok or Ola(at efflux of Feather into Sacramento), Leuchi, Wijuna, Totola or Nawean,Pujune (on American River just above its mouth), Sek or Sekumne, Kadema andperhaps others up American River, Sama (below Sacramento city). This isincomplete.Population.?Kroeber (1925) estimates that 9,000 Maidu about theyear 1770 would be a liberal estimate; the census of 1910 returned1,100, and that of 1930 only 93.Mattole. Perhaps from the name of a village. Also called:Tul'bush, Wailaki name, meaning "foreigners."Connections.?The Mattole constitute one of the primary divisionsof those Indians of the Athapascan stock living in California.Location.?On Bear River and Mattole River drainages; also on afew miles of Eel River and its Van Dusen Fork immediately abovethe Wiyot.Population.?Kroeber (1925) estimates that there were 500 Mattolein 1770; the census of 1910 returned 34, including 10 full-bloods.(See Bear River Indians.)Miwok. The native word signifying "people."Connections.?Originally a distinct stock in the classificatory systemof Powell, Miwok has now been made a subdivision of the Penutianlinguistic family.Location.?The Miwok lived in three detached groups as follows:(1) The main body on the long western slope of the Sierra Nevadabetween Fresno and Cosumnes Rivers and in that part of the valleywhich is intersected by the winding arms of the deltas of the SanJoaquin and the Sacramento; (2) the Coast Miwok from the GoldenGate north to Duncan's Point and eastward to Sonoma Creek; and (3)the Lake Miwok in the basin of Clear Lake, including the drainage of
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 503two small streams flowing into the lowest mile or two of Clear Lake,and the southern bank of Cache Creek, the lake outlet, for a shortdistance beyond. SubdivisionsApart from the natural groups indicated above, the following dialectic subdivi-sions may be made out:The Lake Miwok, identical with the geographical group just described.The Bodega Miwok, about Bodega Bay in the coastal area.The Coast Miwok, occupying the rest of the coastal area.The Plains Miwok, in the deltas of the San Joaquin and Cosumnes Rivers.The Northern Miwok, in the upper valleys of Mokelumne and Calaveras Rivers.Central Miwok, in the upper valleys of the Stanislaus and Tuolumne.The Southern Miwok, along the headwaters of the Merced and Chowchilla andon Mariposa Creek.The Lake Miwok were furthermore subdivided into two, or possibly three,district or tribal groups: (1) about the present Lower Lake, (2) on the head-waters of Putah Creek, and perhaps (3) in Pope Valley.
VillagesLake Miwok:Kado' i'-yomi-pukut, Cookman Ranch, toward Lower Lake.Kai-yomi-pukut, in Pope Valley at the limit of Miwok territory.Kala'u-yomi, in Coyote Valley.Kawi-yomi, a town reported by Barrett (1908 b) on north frontier of Miwok,perhaps originally Pomo.Kilinyo-ke, at Eaton Ranch in Coyote Valley.Ki'tsin-pukut, Gamble, in Coyote Valley.Laka'h-yomi, on Weldon's ranch a mile and a half from Middletown and onPutah Creek.La'lmak-pukut, at north end of Middletown.Ole'-yomi, on the Berry place in Coyote Valley on Putah Creek.Sha'lshal-pukut and Shandk-yomi-pukut, at Asbill in Coyote Valley.Tsitsa-pukut, according to Barrett (1908 b), a site at the north end of Miwokterritory but believed by Kroeber's informants to have been occupied byMiwok only in late times.Ts6k-yomi-pukut or Shdkomi, 3 miles below the store or town of Pope Valley.Tsu'keliwa-pukut, "at the new Siegler swimming resort."Tu'bud or Tu'bul, on Asbill property toward Lower Lake.Tule'-yomi, 2-3 miles south of the American town of Lower Lake.Tumi'stumis-pukut, given by Barrett (1908 b).Wi'lok-yomi, near the present rancheria or reservation but may have beenWappo.Wodi'daitepi, in Jerusalem Valley.Yawi'-yomi-pukut, above Tsu'keliwa-pukut in a canyon.Coast Miwok:Amayelle, on San Antonio Creek.Awachi, at the mouth of Estero Americano.Awani-wi, at San Rafael.Bauli-n, on Bolinas Bay.Chokeche, near Novato.Echa-kolum, on Tomales Bay south of Marshall.
504 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bdll. 145Echa-tamai, at Nicasio.Etem, at Petaliima.Ewapalt, near Valley Ford.Ewu, north of San Rafael.Helapattai, on Bodega Bay.Hime-takala, on Bodega Bay.Ho-takala, on Bodega Bay.Huchi, at Sonoma.Kennekono, at Bodega Corners.Kotati, at Cotati.Likatiut, on Petaluma River north of Petaluma.Liwanelowa, at Sausalito.Lumen-takala, northeast of Cotati.Meleya, on San Antonio Creek southwest of Petaluma.Olema-loke, at Olema.Olompolli, northwest of Novato.Oye-yomi, near Freestone.Pakahuwe, near Freestone.Patawa-yomi, near Freestone.Payinecha, west of Cotati.Petaluma, east of Petaluma River and the present Petaluma.Pulya-lakum, on the ocean near the mouth of Salmon Creek.Puyuku, south of Ignacio.Sakloki, opposite Tomales Point.Shotokmo-cha, southeast of Ignacio.Shotomko-wi, on Tomales Bay near the mouth of San Antonio Creek.Susuli, northwest of Petaluma.Suwutenne, north of Bodega Corners.Temblek, west of Sonoma.Tiwut-huya, on the coast outside of Bodega Bay.Tokau, on Bodega Bay.Tuchayelin, northwest of Petaluma.Tuli, northwest of Sonoma.Tulme, northwest of Petaluma.Uli-yomi, at the head of Estero Americano.Utiimia, near Tomales.Wotoki, on the south side of Petaluma River.Wugilwa, on Sonoma Creek.Valley Miwok:Plains Division:Chuyumkatat, on Cosumnes River.Hulpu-mni, on the east bank of Sacramento River 4Delow Sacramento.Lel-amni, on Mokelumne River.Lulimal, near Cosumnes River.Mayeman, on Cosumnes River.Mokel(-umni), on Mokelumne River.Mokos-umni, on Cosumnes River.Ochech-ak, on Jackson Creek.Sakayak-umni, on Mokelumne River.Sukididi, on Cosumnes River.Supu, on Cosumnes River.Tukui, on Cosumnes River.Umucha, near Cosumnes River.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 505Yomit, on Cosumnes River.Yumhiii, near Cosiunnes River.Northern Division:Apaiitawilii, between Mokelumne and Calaveras Rivers.Chakane-sii, on Jackson Creek?Kechenii, at the head of Calaveras River.Heina, between Mokelumne River and the head of Calaveras River.Huta-sii. at San Andreas.Kaitimil, at the head of Calaveras River.Ketina, between Mokelumne and Calaveras Rivers.Ktiniisii, near Mokelumne River.Mona-su, on the headwaters of Calaveras River.Noma, near the South Fork of Cosumnes River.Omo, near the South Fork of Cosumnes River.Penken-svi, inland south of Mokelumne River.Pola-su, near Jackson.Seweu-sii, on Jackson Creek?Sopochi, between Mokelumne River and Jackson Creek.Tukupe-su, at Jackson.Tumuti, on the headwaters of Jackson Creek.Upiisiini, on Mokelumne River.Yule, south of Cosumne River.Yuloni, on Jackson Creek.Central Division:Akankau-nchi, two towns of the name, (1) near Sonora, (2) a considerabledistance to the southwest.Akawila, between a branch of Tuolumne River and Stanislaus River.Akutanuka, northwest of Stanislaus River.Alakani, east of San Andreas.Chakachi-no, southwest of Sonora.Hangwite, on the South Fork of Stanislaus River.Hechhechi, on the headwaters of Tuolumne River.Hochhochmeti, on Tuolumne River.Hmnata, on a branch of Calaveras River.Hunga, northeast of Sonora.Kapanina, southwest of Sonora.Katuka, on a branch of Calaveras River.Kawinucha, near the North fork of Stanislaus River.Kesa, a short distance east of Sonora.Kewe-no, on Stanislaus River.Kosoimuno-nu, between Stanislaus River and San Andreas.Kotoplana, a short distance west of Sonora.Kulamu, on a branch of Tuolumne River.Kuluti, at Sonora.Loyowisa, near the junction of the Middle and South Forks of StanislausRiver.Newichu, between Stanislaus River and ahead branch of Calaveras River.Olawiye, east of Sonora.Oloikoto, on Stanislaus River.Pangasema-nu, on a northern branch of Tuolumne River.Pasi-nu, on Tuolumne River southeast of Sonora.Pigliku (Miwok pronunciation of "Big Creek"), south of Tuolumne River.Pokto-no, a short distance west of Sonora.
506 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Pota, a short distance northwest of Sonora.Sala, just south of Pigliku.Sasamu, almost due east of San Andreas.Shulaputi, just southeast of the preceding.Siksike-no, south of Sonora near Tuolumne River.Singawii-nu, at the head of a branch of Tuolumne River.Sopka-su, southwest of Sonora between Stanislaus and Tuolumne Rivers.Suchumumu, southwest of Sonora.Sukanola, southeast of Sonora.Sukwela, east of Sonora.Sutamasina, on the South Fork of Stanislaus River.Takema, on the Middle Fork of Stanislaus River.Telese-no, northeast of Sonora.Tel'ula, northeast of Sonora.Tipotoya, on Stanislaus River.Tulana-chi, on Stanislaus River.Tulsuna, between the South and Middle Forks of Stanislaus River.Tunuk-chi, northeast of Sonora.Tuyiwii-nu, on Stanislaus River.Waka-che, southwest of and near Sonora.Wokachet, on the South Fork of Stanislaus River.Wolanga-su, south of the junction between the South and Middle Forks ofStanislaus River.Wuyii, on, Stanislaus River.Yungakatok, near the junction of the North and Middle Forks of StanislausRiver.Southern Division:Alaula-chi, on Merced River.Angisawepa, on Merced River.Awal, on Merced River.Awani, close to Yosemite.Hikena, on Merced River.Kakahula-chi, on Merced River.Kasumati, near Mariposa.Kitiwana, on Merced River.Kuyuka-chi, on Merced River.Nochu-chi, near Mariposa.Nowach, on the headwaters of Chowchilla River.Olwia, on the headwaters of Chowchilla River.Owelinhatihti, on Merced River.Palachan, on a southern branch of Merced River.Sayangasi, between the middle courses of Merced and Tuolumne Rivers.Siso-chi, on Merced River.Sope-nchi, on a northern branch of Merced River.Sotpok, on a southern branch of Merced River.Wasema, near the head of Fresno River.Wehilto, on the upper waters of Fresno River.Wilito, on Merced River.Yawoka-chi, on Merced River.Many other village names have been recorded, but the above list contains allthose which are well authenticated independent settlements.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 507Population.?Kroeber (1925) estimates that in 1770 there wereabout 500 Lake Aliwok, 1,500 Coast Miwok, and 9,000 Plains andSierra Miwok, bringing the total to 11,000. The census of 1910returned 670, but Kroeber estimates about 700 of the Plains andSierra Miwok alone. The census of 1930 returned 491.Modoc. This tribe extended into the northern part of the State.(See Oregon.)Mohave. The Mohave occupied some territory in the neighborhoodof the Colorado River. (See Arizona.)Nicoleno. From San Nicolas, the most eastward of the Santa BarbaraIslands.Connections.?They belonged to the Shoshonean Division of theUto-Aztecan linguistic stock, but their more immediate affiliationsare uncertain.Location.?On the island above mentioned.Population.?Kroeber (1925) gives an estimate of their populationin conjunction with the Gabrielino and Fernandeno (q. v.). (Seealso Alliklik.)Nongatl. Significance unknown. Also called:Saia, by the Hupa, along with other Athapascans to the south; meaning "faroff."Connections.?The Nongatl belonged to the Athapascan linguisticfamily and were closely connected with the Lassik (q. v.).Location.?In the territory drained by three right-hand affluents ofEel River?Yager Creek, Van Dusen Fork, and Larrabee Creek?andon the upper waters of Mad River.Population.?The Nongatl were estimated by Kroeber (1925) tonumber in 1770, along with the Sinkyone and Lassik, 2,000, and 100in 1910. (See Bear River Indians.)Okwanuchu. Significance unknown.Connections.?The Okwanuchu belonged to the Shastan Division ofthe Hokan linguistic stock.Location.?On the upper Sacramento from about the vicinity ofSalt and Boulder Creeks to its headwaters; also on the McCloudRiver and Squaw Creek from about their junction up.Population.?See Chimariko and Shasta.Paiute, Northern. The Northern Paiute occupied part of the Sierrain the southeastern part of the State and the desert country east ofit and also a strip of land in the extreme northeast. (See Nevada.)Patwin. Signifying "person" in their own language.Connections.?The Patwin formed the southernmost and most
508 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145diverse dialetic division of the former Wintun (or Copehan) linguisticfamily, now considered part of the Penutian stock.Location.?On the western side of Sacramento Valley, and extendingfrom San Francisco Bay to a point a little south of WUlows, occupyingboth sides of Sacramento River from a few miles above its junctionwith Feather River to the northern boundaries of their territory.Subdivisions, or "Tribelets," and Villages(As given by Kroeber, 1932)River Patwin:Colusa Dialect:Katsi'l, less than a mile below the present Katsi'l Reservation.Ke'ti', on the site of the present Princeton.Koru', in Colusa city, named from it.Kukui, one and a half miles below Koru'.S6ma, 2 miles below modern Katsi'l, somewhat off the river, and not certainlyan independent unit.Tatno, perhaps 2 miles above Colusa.Ts'a', 3 miles below Princeton.Wa'itere, 2 or 3 miles above the present Katsi'l, or "Colusa rancheria."Grimes Dialect:Ko'doi(-dihi), a mile below Saka, on the J. Brown place.Kus6mpu, on the east side of Sacramento River, perhaps a mile belowNo'matsapin.Lo'klokma-ti'nbe, in the southern outskirts of Grimes.No'matsapin, about 5 miles downstream from Saka.Nowi(-dihi), 1 mile below Lo'klokma-ti'nbe.P'alo, 1 or 2 miles downstream from Tsaki, some 3 miles above Kirkville.Saka, little more than 100 yards from last, at Eddy's Ferry.Tsaki, 7 or 8 mUes below Saka.T'inik(-dihi), on the east side about opposite Ko'doi, status uncertain.Yali, opposite Saka, on east bank.Knight's Landing Dialect (only ones remembered)
:
Hololum (?), between Kirkville and Knight's Landing.Yo'doi, at Knight's Landing giving name to Yolo.Hill Patwin (from south to north):South of Cache no names of tribelets are known but villages called Suskol,Tuluka, Ula-to, Topai-dihi, and Liwai-to.On Lower Cache Creek Barrett places Pulupulu, Churup, Kachituli, also Moso(at Capay).C. H. Merriam (1929) gives Kopa' (Kope) (in the broad flat part of CapayValley near Brooks), and Kroeber (1932) Hacha (3 miles below Capay).Kisi, a village upstream on Cache Creek, may have been a tribal center.Imil, a village apparently in a tribal territory (near Guinda), and Suya, avillage (half a mile north of Guinda), besides 16 inhabited sites mentionedby one informant.Lopa and Tebti (on or near Cache Creek), villages probably belonging to atribelet.Sukui-sel, whose principal village was Sukui (2-3 miles above Sulphur Creek).Kuikui, a village was Sukui (2-3 miles above Sulphur Creek).
SWANTov] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 509Kuikui, a village (on Cache Creek 2 miles below the mouth of Bartlett), andOpi, a village (on Cache Creek at the mouth of Bartlett), probably in atribelet.Tebti-sel, including the villages of Tebti (on Bartlett Creek at the mouth ofLong Valley Creek), and Helu'supet or Helu'sapet (downstream within2 or 3 miles of Cache Creek).Lol-sel, located at village of A'li-ma-ti'nbe (some 5 miles up Long Valley Creek).Loli (either on Bartlett Creek 3 miles from Tebti or in Indian Valley) was avillage in an unnamed tribelet.Wor-pa'ntibe, one of whose villages was Wa'i-taluk (in Morgan Valley southof Cache Creek).Tsuhel-mem or Chuhel-mem, a village on Indian Creek above Ladoga andKabal-mem or Kabel-mem, a later village.A tribelet called Edi' or EdI'la.A tribelet with villages at Bahka(labe) (not far from the mouth of IndianCreek).Kula'(-la) (some miles up), and Dikikala'i (downstream from Bahka).Yakut (on Sand Creek), perhaps a tribelet by itself.Wa'ikau-sel, with villages at Let(-labe) (near Cortina Creek).Wa'ikau (on main Cortina Creek), and perhaps Kotu (V/i or 2 miles upstreamfrom Wa'ikau).A tribelet at Pone (on Grapevine Canyon or Road, three or more miles northof Sites)
.
Potba-sel, or a village called Potba(-labe), (at a spring in a galley half a dozenmiles north of the last.Population.? (See Wintun.)Pomo. From the native ending -porno or -poma, placed after thenames of village or local groups, the exact meaning of which isunknown. Also called:Nokonmi, Yuki name.Connections.?The Pomo were originally placed in a distinct lin-guistic stock (Kulanapan) but are now attached to the widely scatteredHokan family.Location.?The Pacific Coast between Cleone and Duncan's Point,and inland, with some interruptions, as far as Clear Lake; there wasa detached group on Stony Creek.SubdivisionsThe Pomo were divided dialectically into the following groups:Salt Pomo or Northeastern Pomo, on the headwaters of Stony Creek.Eastern Pomo, on the northern and southern affluents of Clear Lake.Southeastern Pomo, about Lower Lake.Northern Pomo, from the northern boundary of Pomo territory to NavarroRiver and some distance above Ukiah on Russian River.Central Pomo, from the above boundaries to Gualala on the coast and a pointnorth of Cloverdale on Russian River.Southern Pomo or Gallinomero, in the inland portion of the remaining Pomoterritory.Southwestern or Gualala Pomo, on the coast section of the remaining territory.
510 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Boll. 145Certain divisions larger than villages were recognized in an indefinite way by thepeople themselves. Village CommunitiesNortheastern Porno:Bakamtati, at Stony Ford.Cheetido, at the salt deposit.Turururaibida, above the forks of Stony Creek.The status of the last two of these is somewhat uncertain.Eastern Porno:Bidamiwina, Nonapotl, and Shabegok were names of three places which wereat different times centers of a community called Habe-napo or "rock people,"around Kelseyville.Danoha, some miles up an eastern afflluent of lower Scott Creek, connectedwith which was Badonnapoti on Bloody Island in Upper Lake off the mouthof Scott Creek and Behepel or Gabehe between the two.Howalek, on Middle Creek near Upper Lake town.Kashibadon, at Lakeport on the west side of the lake.Shigom, on the east side of main Clear Lake.Yobutui, on the opposite side of lower Scott Creek from the northern Pomovillage of Mayi.Southeastern Pomo:Elem, on Rattlesnake or Sulphur Bank Island in the Bay known as East Lake.Kamdot or Lemakma, on Buckingham Island near the entrance to Lower Lake.Koi, Hoyi, Shutauyomanok, or Kaubokolai, on an island near the outlet of thelake.Northern Pomo:Bakau, at Little Lake north of Willits.Buldam, at the mouth of Big River.Chomchadila, on the West Fork near CalpeUa.Chauishak, near Willits.Dapishu or Kachabida, in Redwood Canyon.Kachake, on Mill Creek, separate position uncertain.Kadiu, at the mouth of Novo River.Kalaili, at the mouth of Little River.Katuli, above Navarro River at Christine.Komli, at Ukiah.Kulakai, at a lake south of Sherwood.Lemkolil, on Anderson Creek near Boonville.Masut or Shiyol, on the West Fork of Russian River near the mouth of SewardCreek.Mato, northwest of Sherwood.Mayi, on Scott Creek near Tule Lake, not far from the town of Upper Lake.Nabo or Nato, near Willits.Naboral, on Scott Creek northwest of Lakeport.Pomo, in Potter Valley downstream from Sedam.Shabakana, Bitadanek, and Kobida, three sites successively inhabited by onegroup, whose home was on Forsythe Creek.Sedam, in Potter Valley downstream from Shanel.Shachamkau, Chamkawi or Bomaa, downstream?, in Coyote Valley.Shanekai, in a small elevated valley between the heads of an affluent of south-ern Eel River and a tributary of Middle Creek which drains into the headof Clear Lake.
SWANTO.N] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 511Shanol or Seel or Botel, at the north end of Potter Valley on the East Fork ofRussian River.Shotsiu, east of Willits.Tabate, below Philo on Navarro River.Tsakamo, on Russian River at the mouth of Cold Creek.Tsamornda, west of Willits.Tsiyakabeyo, on a tributary of Middle Creek which drains into the head ofClear Lake, probably only a part of Shanekai.On the North Fork of Navarro River were three sites, Chaida, Chulgo, andHuda, which may have constituted a community.Central Pomo:Danokeya, name uncertain, on Rancheria Creek.Kahwalau, Russian River at the mouth of Pieta Creek.Kodalau, on Brush Creek.Koloko, Russian River at the mouth of Squaw Creek.Lachupda, on the upper waters of the North Fork of Gualala River.Lema, on McNab Creek a mile or two up from Russian River.Pdahau or Icheche, on Lower Garcia River.Shanel, near the mouth of McDowell and Feliz Creeks, in Hopland Valley.Shepda, on Russian River at the entry of Wise Creek.Shiego, on Russian River at the mouth of McNab Creek.Shokadjal, on Russian River in Ukiah Valley.Tatem, downstream from the last and in the same valley.Southern Pomo or Gallinomero:Batiklechawi, at Sebastopol at the head of the slough known as Laguna deSanta Rosa, an important village and probably the head of a district.Hiwalhmu, a village and probably the head of a community on the GualalaRiver drainage.Hukabetawi, near Santa Rosa City and perhaps the head of a community.Kalme, a community in the Russian River drainage.Kubahmoi, a village and probably the head of a community on the GualalaRiver drainage.Makahmo, on the Russian drainage at the mouth of Sulphur Creek.Ossokowi, a village and probably the center of a community on Russian Riverextending from the mouth of Elk Creek halfway up to Geyserville.Shamli, a village on Gualala River drainage, perhaps the head of a community.Shawako, on Dry Creek at the mouth of Piiia Creek.Wllok, at the head of Santa Rosa Creek.Wotokkaton, head of a community in the vicinity of Healdsburg.Southwestern or Gualala Pomo:Ashachatiu, a village at the mouth of Russian River connected probably withChalanchawi.Chalanchawi (see Ashachatiu).Chiti-bida-kali, north of Timber Cove.Danaga, at Stewart's Point.Hibuwi, on the Middle Fork of the Gualala.Kowishal, at Black Point.Meteni, perhaps the name of a group at the site of Fort Ross, though anothername, Madshuinui is also mentioned.Potol, on Haupt and Hopper Creeks, perhaps the center of a group.
512 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Population.?Kroeber (1925) estimates 8,000 Porno in 1770; thecensus of 1910 returned 777, but this figure perhaps does not includeall, as Kroeber gives 1,200 for the same year. According to the censusof 1930, there were then 1,143.Salinan. From Salinas River which drains most of their territory.Connections.?Formerly considered a distinct linguistic stock, theyare now connected with the Hokan linguistic family.Location.?From the headwaters of the Salinas?or perhaps onlyfrom the vicinity of the Santa Margarita Divide?north to SantaLucia Peak and an unknown point in the valley somewhere south ofSoledad; and from the sea presumably to the main crest of the CoastRange. SubdivisionsOn linguistic grounds the Salinan have been divided into the San Miguel Salinason the upper course of Salinas River, the San Antoaio Salinas below the precedingto Costanoan territory, and the Playano along the coast.VillagesSan Antonio Division:Chahomesh, at the head of San Antonio River.Chohwahl, near the mouth of San Antonio River.Chukilin, at the head of Nacimiento Creek.Holamna Jolon, southeast of San Antonio Mission.Nasihl Pleyto, on lower San Antonio River.Sapewis, below the preceding.Skotitoki, north of San Antonio Mission.Tesospek, on San Antonio River above San Antonio Mission.Tetachoya Ojitos, on lower San Antonio River.San Miguel Division:Cholame, probably on Cholame Creek or at the mouth of Estrella Creek.Teshaurais, on the upper course of Cholame Creek.Teshaya, at San Miguel Mission.Trolole, near Cholame or near Santa Margarita.Playano:Ehmahl, located conjecturally near Lucia.Lema, perhaps lower down the coast than the preceding.Ma'tihl'she, located conjecturally still farther south.Tsilakaka, placed conjecturally near San Simeon.Population.?KroehcT (1925) estimates that there may have been3,000 Salinan in 1770 but that 2,000 is a safer estimate; about 40remain. The census of 1910 returned 16; that of 1930, none.Serrano. A Spanish word, meaning "mountaineers." Also called:Banumints, Chemehuevi name.C6w-ang-a-chem, own name (Barrows 1900).Cuabajdi, applied by Mohave to those about Tejon Creek.Genigueches, by Carets in 1776.Gikidanum, or Gitanemuk, Serrano of upper Tejon and Paso Creeks in theSan Joaquin Valley drainage.
SWANTONI INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 513Hanakwiche, by some Yuman tribes.Hanyuveche, Mohave name.Kaiviat-am, given by a native as their own name, from kai-ch, "mountain."Kuvahaivima, Mohave name for those about Tejon Creek.Marangakh, by their southern and other neighbors.Marayam, Luisefio name.Mayintalap, southern Yokuts name for Serrano of upper Tejon, Paso, andpossibly Pastoria Creeks, meaning "large bows."Mohineyam, name for themselves, given by Mohave River Serrano.Panumits, Chemchuevi name for Serrano north of the San BernardinoRange, toward Tehachapi iNIountains.Pitanta, Chemehuevi name for those Serrano north of San BernardinoRange in Mohave Desert and on Tejon Creek.Takhtam, by Gatschet (in Wheeler Surv., vol. 7, p. 413, 1879), meaning"men."Tamankamyam, by the related Aguas Calientes.Witanghatal, Tubatulabal name for the Tejon Creek Serrano.Connections.?The Serrano belonged to the Shoshonean Division ofthe Uto-Aztecan linguistic stock.Location.?In the San Bernardino Range; a tract of unknownextent northward; the San Gabriel Mountains or Sierra Mad re westto Mount San Antonio; and probably a tract of fertile lowland southof the Sierra Madre, from about Cucamonga east to above Mentoupand as far as San Gorgonio Pass.VillagesThe following place names have been recorded and many of these probablywere names of villages:Acha-va-t, east of Bear Lake.Aka-va-t, west of Banning.Arhangk, near Colton.Atan-pa-t, northeast of Acha-va-t.Hikavanii-t, west of Colton.Hisaku-pa, on the outlet of Bear Lake.Hunga-va-t, in San Timotec Canyon.Kayah-pia-t, at Bear Lake.Kotaina-t, on Santa Ana River east of San Bernardino.Malki, northeast of Banning.Maronga, on Morongo Creek.Musku-pia-bit, northwest of San Bernardino.Nilengli, near San Bernardino Peak.Nanamii-vya-t, at the head of Mohave River.Padjudju-t, at the head of Mohave River.PuwipuTvi, near San Gorgonio Mountain.Toloka-bi, in San Timoteo Canyon.Wacha-vak, where San Timoteo Canyon comes out on Santa Ana River.Wahinu-t, in Cajon Canyon.Yamiwu, perhaps Cahuilla, north of San Jacinto Peak.Population.?Kroeber gives 1,500 Serrano as an ample allowance inaboriginal times; the census of 1910 returned 118. (See Alliklik.)
514 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Shasta. Probably from a chief called Sasti. Also called:Ekpimi, Ilmawi name.Mashukhara, Karok name.Wiilx, Takelma name, meaning "enemies."Connections.?The Shasta constituted part of the Shastan divisionof the Hokan linguistic stock.Location.?On Klamath River from a point between Indian andThompson Creeks to a spot a few miles above the mouth of FallCreek; also the drainage areas of two tributaries of the Klamath
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Scott River and Shasta River?and a tract on the north side of theSiskiyous in Oregon on the affluents of Rogue River known as StewartRiver and Little Butte Creek.SubdivisionsAhotireitsu, in Shasta Valley.Cecilville Indians, about Cecilville; they spoke a distinct dialect; the Indianscalled by Merriam (1926) Haldokehewuk.Iruaitsu, in Scott Valley.Kahosadi, on the affluents of Rogue River.Kammatwa or Wiruhikwairuk'a, on Klamath River.The term New River Shasta is incorrectly used since there were no Shasta onNew River. VillagesAhotiretsu Division:Ahawaiwig, Asta, Ihiweah, Ikahig, Kusta.Iruaitsu Division:Itayah and Crowichaira the only ones known.Kammatwa Division (in order up stream)
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Chitatowoki (north side), Ututsu (N.), Asouru (N.), Sumai (N.), Arahi (S.),Harokwi (N."), Kwasuk (S.), Aika (N.), Umtahawa (N.), Itiwukha (N.), Ishui(N.), Awa (N.), Waukaiwa (N.), Opshiruk (N.), Ishumpi (N.), Okwayig (N.),Eras (S.), Asurahawa (S.), Kutsastsus (N.).Population.?Kjoeber (1925) estimates that there were about 2,000Shasta in 1770; in 1910 there were only about 100. The entire Shas-tan stock numbered 844 according to the returns of the 1930 census,and in 1937, 418 "Pit River" Indians were enumerated, a portion ofthis stock.Connections in which they have become noted.?Mount Shasta, ShastaCounty, and a place in the county preserve the name of the ShastaIndians.Sinkyone. From Sinkyo, the name of the South Fork of Eel River.Connections.?The Sinkyone were one of the tribes of the southernCalifornia group of the Athapascan family.Location.?On the South Fork of Eel River and its branches and theadjacent coast from near Four Mile Creek to Usal Lagoon.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 515Land Areas(Given by native informants to Nomland (1935) instead of villages)Anse'ntakuk, the land south of Briceland.Chashinguk, the ridge north of Briceland.Senke'kuk, to the South Fork from Garberville.Shusashish'ha, the region north of Garberville.Totro'be, the land around Briceland.Yenekuk, an area southeast of Briceland.Yese', coast area to the Mattole boundary at Four Mile Creek.Yese'kuk, the Mattole River area.Population.? (See Lassik and Bear River Indians).Tolowa. So-called by the Yurok. Also called:AqGsta, by Dorsey (MS.); meaning "southern language," NaltuimctLinnename.Lagoons, by Heintzleman {in Ind. Aff. Rep., 1857, p. 392; 1858).Lopas, by Heintzleman (op. cit.).Connections.?The Tolowa constituted one of the divisions intowhich the California peoples of the Athapascan linguistic stock aredivided, but they were closely connected with the Athapascan tribesof Oregon immediatel}'' to the north.Location.?On Crescent Bay, Lake Earl, and Smith River.Villages(According to Drucker, 1937)Etculet, at end of point in Lake Earl.Ha'tsahothwut, long abandoned site.Kehosli'hwut, on east bank, lower course of Smith River.Mestlte'tltun, on Crescent Bay.Mi'Htcuntun, on middle course of Smith River.Mu'nsontun, on east bank, on lower course of Smith River.Munshrl'na taso', long abandoned site.Muslye', on North Fork of Smith River.Na'kutat, a suburb of Tatftun,Numore'tun, long abandoned site.Sitragi'tum, on the west bank of Smith River below Mill Creek.Ta'gestlsatun, on coast at mouth of Wilson Creek, mixed with Yurok.Ta'tatun, on Crescent Bay.Tati'tun, on shore of Crescent Bay near north end.Tcestu'mtun, on South Fork of Smith River.Tcunsu'tltun, on east bank of Smith River at mouth of Mill Creek.Te'nitcuntun, between North and South Forks of Smith River at junction.Tltru'ome, on Crescent Bay toward south end.Tro'let, a small suburb of Yotokut near mouth of Smith River.Tunme'tun, on a small branch of the North Fork of Smith River.Tushroshku'shtun, on peninsula between two arms of Lake Earl.Yoto'kut, on coast south of mouth of Smith River.Population.?Kroeber estimates "well under" 1,000 Tolowa in 1770and indicates a possible modification to 450; the census of 1910 re-
516 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY IBcll. 145turned 121. In 1930 the "Oregon Athapascans," including the Tol-owa, were reported to number 504.Tiibatulabal. A Shoshonean word meaning "pine-nut eaters." Alsocalled
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Bahkanapiil or Pahkanapll, own name, said to refer to all those who speaktheir language.Kern River Indians, popular name.Pitanisha, the usual Yokuts name, from Pitani-u, the place-name of theforks of Kern River.Wateknasi, by Yokuts, meaning "pine-nut eaters."Connections.?Under the name of Kern River Shoshoneans, theTiibatulabal are given a position as one of the major divisions of theShoshonean branch of the Uto-Aztecan linguistic family.Location.?In the upper part of the valley of Kern River.SubdivisionsBankalachi, on west slopes of Greenhorn Mountains.Palagewan, on Kern River above mouth of South Fork.Tiibatulabal, on lower reaches of South Fork of Kern River.VillagesE. W. Voegelin (1938) gives the following:Palagewan sites:Holit, near mouth of Bull Run Creek, SW. quar., sec. 4, T. 25 S., R. 33 E.Pashgeshtap, at hot spring on east edge of Hot Springs Valley, SE. quar.,sec. 31, T. 26 S., R. 33 E.Tcuhkayl, at hot springs in foothills, SE. quar. sec. 26, T. 25 S., R. 33 E.Tiibatulabal sites:Hahalam, South Fork Kern River, NW. quar., sec. 16, T. 26 S., R. 34 E.Kolokum, near springs on Fay Creek, NE. quar., sec. 22, T. 25 S., R. 34 E.Omomip, (1) on north bank of South Fork Kern River, NW. quar., sec. 3, T.26 S., R. 35 E. (2), north bank of South Fork of Kern River, SW., quar.,sec. 4, T. 26 S., R. 35 E.Padazhap, below and above spring, in foothills south of South Fork Valley, SW.quar., sec. 31, T. 26 S., R. 34 E.Tcebunun, south bank of South Fork of Kern River, SW. quar., sec. 35, T. 25 S.,R. 35 E.Tushpan, on floor of South Fork Valley, SW. quar., sec. 14, T. 26 S., R. 34 E.Umubflap, below spring on flat, near west end of South Fork Valley, SE. quar.,sec. 12, T. 26 S., R. 33 E.Uupulap, on flat west side of South Fork of Kern River, NW. quar., sec. 21,T. 25 S., R. 35 E.Yftiyamup, at springs in foothills, north edge of South Fork Valley, SE. quar.,sec. 35, T. 25 S., R. 34 E.Yowolup, at spring on floor of South Fork Valley.Name unknown, on South Fork of Kern River, NE. quar., sec. 18, T. 26 S.,R. 34 E.History.?From the speciaHzation of their language, Kjoeber (1925)inferred that these people had occupied their country for a long time
SwANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 517but later researches by Whorf (1935) make this less certain. The firstwhite person to visit them was Father Garc^s in 1776 and during thenext 50 years they were brought in contact with the San BuenaventuraMission, founded in 1782 near Ventura. By 1846 white settlers hadestablished ranches in South Fork Valley, and in 1857 the Kern Rivergold rush began in Palagewan territory. During 1862 a few Tii-batulabal joined the Owens Valley Paiute in hostilities against theWhites, and about this time a group of Koso Indians settled in theTubatulabal area, intermarrying chiefly with the Kawaiisu, however.In 1863, 35-40 Tubatulabal and Palagewan men were massacred nearKernville by American soldiers. Between 1865 and 1875 the Tuba-tulabal began to practice agriculture and in 1893 the majority of themand a few Palagewan survivors were allotted land in South Forkand Kern Valleys.Population.?Kroeber (1925) makes an estimate of 1,000 Tiiba-tulabal for the year 1770 but Voegelin (1938) regards this as "probablytoo high." Henley in 1854 gives a figure of 100 which seems toapply to the Tiibatulabal and Palagewan Bands, but Voegelin pointsout that it may be necessary to double this on account of a bandtemporarily absent from the country, and the same writer estimatesthat Henley indicates a band of perhaps 50 which may have been theBankalachi. A village site estimate obtained by Voegehn (1938)from native informants suggested a total about 1855-60 of 228Tiibatulabal, and 65 Palagewan, or 293 combined. An estimate for1863 based on the total of adult males indicates a population of 220.The United States Census of 1910 returned 105 and a field censustaken by Voegelin in 1832 including all mixtures, 145.Vanyume. Name applied by the Mohave; significance unknown,though it is probably related to the term Panamint given to theKoso.Convections.?The Vanyume belonged to the Shoshonean Divisionof the Uto-Aztecan linguistic stock, their closest connections beingprobably with the Kitanemuk, and secondly with the Serrano.Location.?On Mohave River.Population.? (See Alliklik.) They are now extinct as a tribe.Wailaki. A Wintun word meaning "north language," applied toother Wintun groups and to some foreign groups. Also called:Kak'-wits, Yuki name, meaning "northern people."Connections.?The Wailaki belonged to the Athapascan linguisticstock and to the southern Cahfornia group.Location.?On Eel River from the Lassik territory to the BigBend, several affluents on the west side, Kekawaka Creek on theeast side, and the whole of the North Fork except the head.
518 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Subdivisions and Village Communities^On main Eel River
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Sehlchikyo-kaiya, on the east side, Big Bend Creek to McDonald Creek.Ninkannich-kaiya, opposite Sehlchikyo-kaiya.Nehlchikyo-kaiya, on the east side downstream to the mouth of North Fork.Sehlchikyo-kaiya, on the east side downstream.Tatisho-kaiya, on the west side opposite the mouth of North Fork.Bas-kaiya, on the east side below Sehlchikyo-kaiya.Sla-kaiya, on the east side below Bas-kaiya.Chisko-kaiya, on the east side below Sla-kaiya.Seta-kaiya, on the west side below Tatisho-kaiya.Kaikiche-kaiya, on the west side below Seta-kaiya.Dahlso-kaiya, Set'ahlchicho-kaiya, K'andang-kaiya?in order downstream onthe west side.Ihikodang-kaiya, on the west side below Chisko-kaiya.Kasnaikot-kaiya, on the east side at the mouth of Kakawaka Creek.On the lower part of North Fork:Setandong-kiyahang, Secho-kiyahang, Kaiye-kiyahang?in order upstream.Higher up North Fork:T'odannang-kiyahang, on the North Fork below Hull Creek.T'okyah-kiyahang, upstream on North Fork.Chokot-kiyahang, on and above Red Mountain Creek.Ch'i'ankot-kiyahang, on Jesus Creek.Population.?The Wailaki were estimated by Kroeber (1925) as1,000 about 1770; they were given as 227 in the census of 1910. (SeeBear River Indians.)Wappo. An Americanization of Spanish Guapo. "brave," given themon account of their stubborn resistence to Spanish military ag-gression. Also called:Ash-o-chl-mi, a name given by Powers (1877).Soteomellos or Sotomieyos, names given by Taylor (1860-63).Connections.?The "Wappo language constituted a very divergentform of speech of the Yukian linguistic family.Location.?On the headwaters of Napa River and Pope and PutahCreeks, and a stretch of Russian River.Subdivisions and VillagesFollowing are their dialectic divisions and the villages in each, the namesin italic being principal towns in as many village communities:Southern Wappo:Anakota-noma, at St. Helena.Kaimus, at Yountville.Tsemanoma, northeast of St. Helena.Wilikos, near the head of Sonoma Creek.Central Wappo:Maiyakama, south of Calistoga.Melka'wa-hotsa-noma, at site of Middletown?Driver.Muiistul, between the Napa River and Russian River drainage.Nihiektsonoma, north of Calistoga.Tselmenan, north of Calistoga.
? Arranged in order of location; not alphabetized.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 519Northern Wappo:Lok-noma, northeast of Middletown.Petinoma, north of Middletown.Uyuhanoma, east of Middletown.Western Wappo:Ashaben, near Lytton.Gayechin, near Lytton.Hol-tcu'kolo, location unknown.Koloko, on Russian River below Geyserville.Malalachahl, at Lytton.Nets-tul, northeast of Tsimitu-tsonoma.Oso'ytlk-eju, west of Russian River and southeast of Geyserville.Owotel-p6ti, east of Tsimitutsonoma.Pipoholma, on Russian River below Geyserville.Shei-kana, location unknown.Shimela, on Russian River below Geyserville.Tsi'mitu-tso-noma, on the east bank of Russian River some miles below Geys-erville.Tekenan-tso-noma, near Geysers in Sulphur Creek drainage.Unutsa'wa-holma-noma, north of Tsi'mitu-tso-noma.Lile'ek Wappo:Daladan, on Cole Creek.Kabetsawam, on Cole Creek.Driver (1939) adds the following names of camp sites, presumably in thecountry of the Western Wappo: Halish-wahtik-holma, Ho'lko-mota, Hut-mitul,Nuya-hotsa, Tcano-nayuk, Ts'awo-tul, Tikomota, Walma-pesite.Population.?Kjoeber (1925) estimates 1,000 Wappo in 1770 as amaximum; the census of 1910 returned 73. (See Yuki.)Washo. The range of this tribe extended over considerable Caiifor-nian territory about the angle in the eastern boundary line of theState. (See Nevada.)Whilkut. From Hupa Hoilkut-hoi. Also called:Redwood Indians, the popular name for them.Connections.?The Whilkut belonged to the Hupa dialectic groupof the Athapascan linguistic family.Location.?On the upper part of Redwood Creek above the ChilulaIndians and Mad River, except in its lowest course, up to the vicinityof laqua Butte.Population.?Kroeber (1932) estimates about 500 Whilkut inaboriginal times; the census of 1910 returned 50 full-bloods and somemixed-bloods.Wintu. The native word meaning "people."For synonyms see Wintun.Connections.?The Wintu were the northernmost division of theCopehan stock of Powell, later called Wintun by Kroeber (1932) andnow regarded as part of the Penutian family.
520 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Location.?In the valleys of the upper Sacramento and upperTrinity Rivers north of Cottonwood Creek and extending from CowCreek on the east to the South Fork of the Trinity on the west.Suhdivisions(As given by Du Bois (1935) but placing the native name first)Dau-nom, "in-front-of-west" (Bald Hills), a flat valley area at the foot of the hillssouth of Reading and east of the coastal range.Dau-pom, "in-front-of-place" (Stillwater), comprising the plateau to the northof Reading.Elpom, "shore place" (Keswick), extending from a point somewhat south ofKennett on the Sacramento chiefly along the west bank southward almost toReading, and including the former Indian settlements around the miningtown of Old Shasta.Hayfork Wintu, on the Hayfork branch of Trinity River and on Trinity Riverabout Junction City, extending also from about Middletown westward to theSouth Fork of the Trinity.Klabalpom (French Gulch), on the upper reaches of Clear Creek.Nomsus, "west-dwelling" (Upper Trinity), on the East Fork of Trinity Riverand Trinity River proper as far south as Lewiston.Nomtipom, "west-hillside-place" (Upper Sacramento), along the precipitousreaches of the upper Sacramento above Kennett.Waimuk, "north inhabitant(?)," in the narrow valley of the upper McCloudRiver.Winimen, "middle-water" (McCloud), in the McCloud and lower Pit Valleys.Du Bois (1935) mentions Nomkentcau and Nomkali as two villages in WatsonGulch,Population.?(See Wintun.)Wintun. The word for "people" in the northern Wintun dialects.Also called:Waw^h, Mono name for all Sacramento River tribes, meaning "strangers."Xd.tukwiwa, Shasta name for a Wintun Indian.Connections.?The Wintun were formerly considered a part ofPowell's Copehan stock and the Wintun of Kroeber (1932) but arenow placed in the Penutian family.Location.?On the west side of the Sacramento Valley from theriver up to the coast range, but falling short of this in spots and ex-tending beyond it in others, and from Cottonwood Creek on the northto about the latitude of Afton and Stonyford on the south.Wintun Tribelets(Generally south to north)Dahchi'mchini-sel, in a village called Dahchi'mchini (upstream of Brisco Creekand 4 miles above Elk Creek).Toba, reported by Barrett (1919) as a town at the mouth of Brisco Creek.A tribelet probably located at Tolokai or Doloke (at the mouth of Elk Creek)
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Pomtididi-sel, at the village of Pomtididi (where Grindstone Creek enters StonyCreek).
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 521A tribelet at a village called Kalaiel (on the North Fork of Stony Creek).Soninmak (at a"butte" named Son-pom down Stony Creek).Pelti-kewel (reported north of preceding by one informant).A tribelet at the villages of Sohu's-labe (3 or 4 miles south of Fruto) and Nom^'l-mim-labe (2 or 3 miles farther south still).Nom-kewel or Nom-laka, with their village, Lo-pom (south of Thomas Creek).Walti-kewel, with villages called Noitikel, Kenkopol, and Saipanti (close togetheron the north side of Thomas Creek below Nom-kewel).Olwenem-wintun, at O'hvenem (near the mouth of Thomas Creek on the Sacra-mento) .A tribelet at Ml'tenek (at Squaw Hill Ferry).Pelmem-we, at Pelmem (near Vina and the mouth of Deer Creek)
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Teh^met, (at Tehama).Da-mak (where Redbank Creek comes in below Red Bluff).Wai-kewel (on Elder Creek).A tribelet at Chuidau (on the South Fork of Cottonwood Creek).Population.?Kroeber (1932) estimates 12,000 Wintun in 1770 andabout 1,000 in 1910. The census of 1930 returned 512 Wintun, Wintu,and Wappo,Wiyot. Properly the name of one of the three Wiyot districts butextended by most of their neighbors over the whole people. Alsocalled:Dilwishne, Sinkyone name.Humboldt Bay Indians, pojDular term.Sulatelik, used by the Wiyot to designate their language, and approachinga tribal designation in its usage.Wishosk, probably a misapplication of the Wiyot name for their Atha-pascan neighbors.Connections.?In the Powellian classification the Wiyot were givenan independent position as the Wishoskan stock. Later Californiainvestigators combined them with the Yurok under the name Ritwanbut still later believed that they had established a relationshipbetween them and the great Algonquian family of the east. Thisallocation is, however, questioned by other ethnologists.Location.?On lower Mad River, Humboldt Bay, and lower EelRiver. SubdivisionsBatawat, on lower Mad River.Wiki, on Humboldt Bay.Wiyot, on lower Eel River. VillagesBimire, on the lower part of Humboldt Bay.Dakduwaka, or Hiluwitl(?), on the southern point at the entrance to HumboldtBay.Dakwagerawakw, on Eel River.Dulawat, on an island in Humboldt Bay.Hakitege (?), at the junction of Eel and Van Duzen Rivers.Ho'ket (?), near the mouth of Eel River.
522 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Kachewinach (?), on Mad River.Kotsir (?), at the northern end of Humboldt Bay.Kumaidada, on Freshwater Creek.Legetku (?), at the southern end of Humboldt Bay.Ma'awor, Yurok name; at the mouth of Mad River.Osok, Yurok name; on Mad River,Potitlik, Cherokigechk, of Pletswak (?), opposite the entrance of Humboldt Bay.Tabagaukwa (?), at the mouth of Mad River.Tabayat or Witki (?), on Humboldt Bay.Tokelomigimitl (?), north of Humboldt Bay.Watsayeriditl (?), on Eel River.We'tso (?), on the south side of Mad River.Wuktlakw (?), on the north side of Eel River.Yachwanawach, at the end of Humboldt Bay.Population.?Kroeber (1932) estimates 1,000 Wiyot in 1770 and100 in 1910. The census of 1930 gives 236 but probably includesIndians of other connections.Yahi. Meaning "person" in their own language.Connections.?The Yahi constituted the southernmost group of theYanan division of the Hokan linguistic stock.Location.?On Mill and Deer Creeks.VillagesBushkuina, Tolochuaweyu, and Tuliyani were on or near Mill Creek; Bopmay-huwi, Gahma, K'andjauha, Puhiya, and Yisch'inna on or near Deer Creek.Population.?Included in the Yana (q. v.).Yana. Meaning "person" in their own language. Also called:Kom'-bo, Maidu name.N6-si or N6-zi, a name given by Powers (1877).Tisaiqdji, Ilmawi name.Connections.?The Yana were originally considered an independentlinguistic stock but are now placed in the larger Hokan family.Location.?Including the Yahi, the Yana extended from Pit Riverto Rock Creek, and from the edge of the upper Sacramento Valley tothe headwaters of the eastern tributaries of Sacramento River.SubdivisionsAside from the Yahi (q. v.), they embraced three dialectic subdivisions, a north-ern (on the drainage of Montgomery Creek into Pit River and that of CedarCreek, an affluent of Little Crow Creek), a central (the entire Cow Creek drain-age and Bear Creek), and a southern (on Battle, Payne, and Antelope Creeks andone or two smaller streams)
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VillagesNorthern Division:Djewintaurik'u, south of Montgomery.Djitpamauwid'u, on Cedar Creek.K'asip'u, south of Round Mountain.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 523Central Division:Badjiyu, on Clover Creek.Ban'ha, inland between the two forks of Cow Creek.Djichitpemauna, on Bear Creek.Hamedamen, at Millville.Haudulimauna, near the South Fork of Cow Creek.Hodjinimauna, on the North Fork of Bear Creek.Luwaiha, on Old Cow Creek.Pawi, on Clover Creek.Pulsu'aina, near the North Fork of Cow Creek.Ship'a, between Little Cow Creek and Oak Run.Unchunaha, between the North Fork of Cow Creek and Clover Creek.Wamarawi, west of Shingletown.Wichuman'na, on the South Fork of Cow Creek.Southern Division:K'uwiha, on Battle Creek.Population.?Kroeber (1932) estimates 1,500 Yana in 1770 includ-ing the Yahi, and states that there are less than 40 full- and mixed-bloods today, all of the Northern and Central Divisions. Only 9appear under the head of Yanan in the census of 1930.Yokuts. The name for "person," or "people," in many of the dialectsof the group. Also called:Mariposan, a name derived from Mariposa County, and applied to thestock to which these people were originally assigned by Powell.Noche, a name used by Carets in 1775-76 (1900).Connections.?The Yokuts were originally considered a distinctlinguistic family but have now been made a part of the large Penutianstock.Location.?On the entire floor of San Joaquin Valley from themouth of San Joaquin River to the foot of Tehachapi, and the ad-jacent lower slopes or foothills of the Sierra Nevada, up to an altitudeof a few thousand feet, from Fresno River south.Subdivisions and VillagesThese were as follows:Buena Vista Group:Tulamni (on Buena Vista Lake), including the villages of Tulamniu (on tiewest or northwest shore of the lake) , and Wogitiu (at McKittrick)
.
Hometwoli or Humetwadi (on Kern Lake), including the villages of Halau(near the entrance of Kern River into the channel connecting Kern andBuena Vista lakes).Loasau (somewhere on the north side of Kern Lake), and Sihetal Daal orPohalin Tinliu (on the south shore).Tuhohi, Tohohai, or Tuohayi (among the channels and tule-lined sloughs oflower Kern River, perhaps ranging as far as Grass Lake), including thevillage of Tahayu (location unknown).Peso Creek Group:Paleuyami, Padeuyami, Peleuyi, or Paluyam (on Poso Creek and neighborii.-?parts of Kern River), including the villages of Altau (just south of Poso
524 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Creek), Bekiu (in Poso Flat), Shikidapau (in Poso Flat), Holmiu (in Linn'sValley) and Kumachisi, Komechesi, Kometsicsi, or Kumachesi (centeredabout Hoschiu on White River), including the villages of Hoschiu (on WhiteRiver), and Kelsiu (just south of White River).Tule-Kaweah Group:Yaudanchi, Yaulanchi, or Nutaa (Tule River in the foothills especially theNorth and Middle Forks) , including the villages of Shawahtau (above Spring-ville), and Ukun'ui (above Daunt), and perhaps Uchiyingetau (at the paintedrocks)
.
Bokninuwad, or Bokninwal (on Deer Creek in the foothills), including K'eyau(near the valley), and perhaps Hoin Tinliu (not far from Deer Creek Hot
. Springs, though this may have been Bankalachi), and Uchiyingetau (seeabove)
.
Wiichamni, Wikchamni, or Wikchomni (on Kaweah River and the adjacenthills).Yokod or Yokol (west of the latter and south of Kaweah River) , their principalvillage being on a flat near Kaweah Railroad Station, and on the south sideof Kaweah River, north of Exeter.Gawia or Kawia (on the north side of Kaweah River), including a settlementon the north side of Kaweah River and Chidepuish (at Calvin Hill on BigDry or Rattlesnake Creek).Kings River Group:Choinimni (on Kings River), including the village of Tishechu (on the southside of Kings River at the mouth of Mill Creek).Michahai (on Mill Creek), including the village of Hehshinau (on the northside of the stream on a fiat at the foot of the pine covered ridge).Chukaimina (in Squaw Valley on a small southern affluent of Mill Creek), in-cluding the villages of Dochiu (at the north side of the valley), and Mashtinau(on the east side of the valley).Toihicha (below the Choinimni on the north side of Kings River), includingthe villages of Tanaiu (at Hughes Creek), and Bochiptau (location uncertain).Aiticha (farther down Kings River on the south side), including the village ofK'ipayu (somewhat nearer Centerville than to Tishechu).Kocheyali (location and even existence uncertain as the name is given as asynonym for the last).Gashowu (on Big Dry Creek and Little Dry Creek), including the villages ofPohoniu (below Letcher on Big Dry Creek), Yokau (on Auberry Valley onLittle Dry Creek), and Ochopou (possibly belonging to the Kechayi).Northern Group of the Foothill Division:Toltichi (the Yokuts tribe farthest up the San Joaquin, possibly Mono), includ-ing the village of Tsopotipau (at the electric power site on the large bend ofthe river below the entrance of the North Fork).Kechayi (holding the south bank of the San Joaquin for some miles aboveMillerton), including Kochoyu and Kowichkowicho (farther up).Dumna (on the north side of the San Joaquin about opposite the Kechayi),including the village of Dinishneu (at Belleville).Dalinchi (on Fine Gold Creek), including the villages of Moloneu (on thiscreek), and Dalinau (over the divide in the Coarse Gold Creek drainage).Chukchansi, Shukshansi, or Shukshanchi (on Coarse Gold Creek and the headof Cottonwood Creek), including the villages of Hapasau (near FresnoFlats), Chukchanau or Suksanau (well up on Fresno River), Tsuloniu (nearthe headwaters of Coarse Gold Creek), Kowoniu or Kohoniu (on Picayune
SWANT6N] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 525Creek), Kataniu (the present Picayune rancheria), and Ch'cyau (on Cotton-wood Creek near Bates).Southern Group of the Valley Division:Yauelmani (a strip of territory between Tejon Ranch on Paso Creek and PosoCreek), including the villages of Tinliu (below the Tejon Ranch House),Woilo (at Bakersfield), K'ono-ilkin (on Kern River), Shoko (on Kern River),but Shoko and K'ono-ilkin were shared, however, with the Paleuyami, so thatit is not known which claimed ownership.Tsineuhiu (a short distance above Bakersfield on Kern River), and Kuyo (on achannel draining toward Kern Lake), and the people of this subdivision alsolived at times at Hoschiu on White River and at Chididiknawasi (in the DeerCreek country).Koyeti (on lower Tule River from Porterville down), including the village ofChokowisho (Porterville).Choinok (probably on Deep and Outside Channels of Kaweah River), includingthe village of Ch'iuta (somewhere south of Tulare).Wo'lasi or Wo'ladji (at and below Farmers ville, perhaps on Cameron channel).Telamni (at Visalia and Goshen), including the village of Waitatshulul (about7 miles north of Tulare City).Wechihit (about Sanger on lower Kings River), including the village of Musahau(in the low bottoms opposite Sanger), and perhaps Wewayo (on WahtokeCreek) although this latter was rather a kind of no-man's-land,Nutunutu (south of lower Kings River), including the villages of Chiau (a littlesouth of Kingston), and Hibek'ia (location uncertain).Wimilchi (on the north side of lower Kings River), including the town of Ugona(southwest of Kingston).Wowol (on the southeastern shores of Tulare Lake), including the village ofSukuwutnu or Dulau (on an island off the eastern shore of the lake),Chunut (the Tulare Lake shore in the Kaweah Delta region), including thevillages of Miketsiu and Chuntau which cannot be definitely located.Tachi (the tract from northern Tulare Lake and its inlet or outlet Fish Sloughwest to the Mount Diablo chain of the Coast Range), including the villages ofUdjiu (downstream from Coalinga), Walna (where the w^esteru hills approachthe lake). Colon (Huron), Chi (west of Heinlen), and Waiu (on MusselSlough).Apiachi (north of Kings River and east of its outlet slough), including thevillage of Wohui (beyond Telweyit or Summit Lake, in the direction ofElkhorn).Northern Group of the Valley Division:Pitkachi or Pitkati (on the south side of the San Joaquin), including the villagesof Kohuou (near Herndon or Sycamore), Weshiu (on a slough), and Gawachiu(still farther downstream).Wakichi (on the south side of San Joaquin River above the last), including thevillage of Holowichniu (near Millerton).Hoyima (on the north side of the San Joaquin opposite the Pitkachi), includingthe villages of K'eliutanau (on a creek entering the San Joaquin from thenorth), and Moyoliu (above the mouth of Little Dry Creek).Heuchi (on Fresno River at least on its north side), including the village ofCh'ekayu (on Fresno River 4 miles below Madera).Chauchila or Chaushila, or Toholo (on the several channels of Chauchilla River),including a village at Shehamniu (on Chowchilla River apparently at theedge of the plains some miles below Buchanan), and perhaps Halau (nearBerenda), although this may have been Heuchi.
526 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Boll. 145Nupchinche or Noptinte (not located).Tawalimnu (probably on Tuolumne River).Lakisamni (perhaps about Takin rancheria at Dents of Knights Ferry on theStanislaus River).Siakumne (location uncertain).Hannesuk (location uncertain).Coconoon (on Merced River).Chulamni (about Stockton, their territory extending at least some miles downthe San Joaquin and up the Calaveras, and possibly as far -west as MountDiablo), including the villages of Yachik and Wana (both near Stockton).Population.?KroeheT (1932) estimates 18,000 Yokuts in 1770 and600 in 1910, based on the census report of 533. The census of 1930returned 1,145.Yuki. Derived from the Wintun language and meaning "stranger,"or "foe." Also called:Chu-mai-a, Porno name.Noam-kekhl, Wintun name, meaning "west dwelling," or "western tribe."Connections.?The Yuki constituted an independent stock calledYukian,Location.?All the land lying in the drainage of Eel River abovethe North Fork, except for a stretch on South Eel River where theallied Huchnom were situated.SubdivisionsHuititno'm, on the South Fork of Middle Eel River.Onkolukomno'm, from the forks of the South Eel River to their sources.Sukshaltatano'm, on the North Fork of Middle Eel River.Ta'no'm, on main Eel River.Ukomno'm, about Round Valley on the north side of Middle Fork.Utitno'm, about the forks made by the Middle and South Eel Rivers.Witukomno'm, on the south side of Middle Eel River, especially on its branches.VillagesThe following villages constituted a group in the northern portion of RoundValley west of the agency: Chochhanuk, Mameshishmo U'wit, Hake, Son, andthere were still others whose names have been forgotten.There was another group in the northern part of Round Valley east of theagency and northeast over the hills to include Williams Valley: Pomo, in RoundValley, and, in successive order upstream in Williams Valley, Mo't-huyup,Kilikot, Lelhaksi, Nonakak, Yukuwaskal, Moyi.A third group was in the northeastern corner of Round Valley and eastward toMiddle Eel River, as follows: Titwa or Ona?s, Sonkash, Molkus, (all in RoundValley), and other villages east of the valley toward the river, whose names andsites are not known.The names of six subdivisions of the Ta'no'm are known: Kichilpitno'm,Kasha?sichno'm, Pomaha^no'm, Ma?tno'm, Ha"chhotno'm, and Ulamolno'm.Probably these corresponded to the Ukonno'm groups. Names of places are:Kasha?sich, Pomaha", and Hanchhot.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 527The following names belong to settlements or communities in various parts ofthe Yuki territory:Alniukino'm, in the northwest part of Round Valley.K'ilikuno'm, in the north or lower end of Eden Valley.Witukomno'm, a village near the head of Eden Valley.Sukano'm, Sonla?lno'm, Chakomno'm, and Chahelilno'm?names of parts of agroup of unknown designation, between the Ukomno'm and the Witukomno'm.Liltamno'm and Nonlachno'm (perhaps synonymous), at Bluenose north ornortheast of Round Valley.Ukachimno'm, in Poorman's Valley, northeast of Round Valley.Shipima"ino'm and Kichilukomno'm, in Williams Valley; one of these may be thename of the second group given above, in Round Valley.Ma?Ichalno'm, at one of the heads of Middle Eel River.Onkolukomno'm, in Gravelly Valley near HuUville.Hunkalich, a village near HuUville.Matamno'm, a group perhaps belonging to the Witukomno'm division.Population.?KroeheT (1932) estimates 2,000 Yuki in 1770; thecensus of 1910 returned 95, and that of 1930, 177, including the Yuki,Coast Yuki, and Huchnom.Yuki, Coast; or Ukhotno'm. (See Yuki.) The second name isapplied to them by the interior Yuki, signifying "ocean people."Connections.?The Coast Yuki believe themselves to be an offshootfrom the Huchnom but linguistic examination seems to place themnear the Yuki.Location.?The Pacific coast from Cleone to a point halfwaybetween Rockport and Usal and inland to the divide between thecoast streams and Eel River. VillagesThese have not been recorded but the following places were probably inhabited
:
On the coast from north to south:On-chil-ka or On-chil-em, beyond Rockport.Es'im, at Rockport or Hardy Creek.Melhom-i'iken (Warren Creek).Hisimel-auhkem (the next creek).Lil-p'in-kem (De Haven).Shipep or Shipoi (Westport).K'etim, Chetman Gulch.Lilim, Mussel Rock.Ok'omet or Shipoi, Kabesilah.Methuyak-olselem (the creek north of Ten Mile River).Metkuyaki or Metkuyakem (the mouth of Ten Mile River and also the river).Mil-hot-em (Cleone).Sus-mel-im, at the mouth of Pudding Creek.01-hepech-kem (Noyo River),Nehkinmelem (Casper).Onp'otilkei (in Sherwood Valley).Ukemim (near Willits).
528 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Population.?Kroeber (1932) estimates that in 1770 and 1850 therewere 500 Coast Yuki; the census of 1910 reported 15. (See Yuki.)Yuma. This tribe extended into the extreme southeastern corner ofthe State along the Colorado River. (See Arizona.)Yurok. Signifying "downstream" in the language of the neighboringKarok. Also called:Kiruhikwak, by the Shasta of Salmon River.Weitchpec, a name sometimes locally used, especiallj' in Hupa and Karokterritory, to which Weichpec is at present the nearest Yurok village.Connections.?The Yurok were originally regarded as an independ-ent stock, later combined with the Wiyot into the Ritwan family, andstill later identified by Kroeber and Sapir as a part of the greatAlgonquian family of the east. This last identification has not,however, met with entire acceptance.Location.?On the lower Klamath River and along the coast tothe north and south of it. SubdivisionBTwo dialects differing but little from each other may be distinguished; onespoken in the southernmost coast section, the districts of the Big Lagoon andTrinidad; the other, in the remainder of Yurok territory.VillagesAyotl, above the mouth of Blue Creek.Erner, at the mouth of Blue Creek.Ertlerger, at the mouth of Trinity River on the west side.Espau, on the coast north of Redwood Creek.Hergwer, on Stone Lagoon.Himetl, on the north side of Klamath River.Ho'pau, on Klamath River a few miles from the coast.Keihkem, 2 towns: (1) on Big Lagoon; (2) on the north side of Klamath River.Kenek, on the south side of Klamath River.Kenekpul, on the south side of Klamath River, a short distance below Kenek.Kepel, on the north side of Klamath River.Ko'otep, on the north side of Klamath River.Lo'olego on the north side of Klamath River above the mouth of the Trinity.Ma'ats, on Big Lagoon.Merip, on the north bank of Klamath River.Meta, on the south or west bank of Klam.ath River.Metskwo, at the mouth of Little River.Murekw, on the north bank of Klamath River.Nagetl, on the south or west side of Klamath River opposite the mouth of BlueCreek.Nohtskum, on the south bank of Klamath River.Omen, on the coast north of Klamath River.Omenhipur, on the coast north of Klamath River.Opyuweg, between Big Lagoon and the coast.Orau, on Redwood Creek.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 529Orekw, on the south side of Redwood Creek at its mouth.Osegen, on the coast south of Klamath River.Oslokw, on the east side of Big Lagoon.Otmekwor, on the north side of the mouth of Redwood Creek.Otsepor, on the south side of Klamath River below the mouth of Bluff Creek.Otwego, on the south side of Klamath River near its mouth.Pa'ar, near the north end of Big Lagoon.Pekwan, on the north side of Klamath River.Pekwututl, on the south side of Klamath River at the mouth of the Trinity.Rekwoi, on the north side of the mouth of Klamath River.Sa'a, on the south side of Klamath River.Sa'aitl, on the north side of Klamath River some miles above its mouth.Serper, on the north side of Klamath River.Sregon, on the north or east side of Klamath River.Tlemekwetl, on the north side of Klamath River below Blue Creek.Tmeri, just below Requa.Tsahpekw, on the west side of Stone Lagoon.Tsetskwi, on the north or east side of Klamath River.Tsotskwi, near the south end of Stone Lagoon.Tsurau, near Trinidad.Turip, on the south side of Klamath River a few miles from the coast.Wa'asel, on the north side of Klamath River.Wahsekw, on the north or east side of Klamath River below Weitchpeg.Weitspus, opposite the mouth of Trinity River.Wetlkwau, on the south side of the mouth of Klamath River.Wohkel, on the south side of Klamath River a short distance above its mouth.Wohkero, on the north side of Klamath River.Wohtek, close to the preceding.Yohter, on the south or west side of Klamath River.Population.?Kroeber (1932) estimates 2,500 Yui'ok in 1770; thecensus of 1910 returned 668, and that of 1930, 471.ALASKAAhtena. Signifying "Ice People." Also called:Copper River Indians, popular name.Intsi Dindjich, Kutchin name, meaning "men of iron."Ketschetnaer or Kolshina, Russian name meaning "ice people."Mednofski, Russian name meaning "copper river people."Yellowknife Indians, by Ross (quoted by Dall, 1877).Yullit, Ugalakmiut name.Connections.?The Ahtena belonged to the Athapascan linguisticstock. Physically they are said to bear a close resemblance to theKoyukukhotana. (See Koyukan.)Location.?In the basin of Copper River.SubdivisionsAccording to Allen (1887):Miduusky, on Copper River from its mouth to Tazlina River, and its branches.Tatlazan, above the Tazlina.
530 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145According to Hoffman (ms.):Ikherkhamut, near the mouth of Copper River.Kangikhlukhmut, at the head of Copper River.Kulchana, about headwaters of the Kuskokwim and extending probably intothe valley of Copper River, but Osgood (1936) calls this "an erroneousgeneralized extension of the Ahtena people."Kulushut, on Copper River next above the Ikherkhamut.Shukhtutakhlit, on Copper River next above the Kangikhlukhmut.Vikhit, next below the Kulchana (?).VillagesAlaganik, with Ugalakmiut near the mouth of Copper River.Batzulnetas, near upper Copper River where the trail for Tanana River begins.Liebigstag, on the left bank of Copper River, latitude 61?o7' N., longitude145?45' W.Miduuski, on the east bank of Copper River below the mouth of Tonsina Creek,Skatalis, near the mouth of Copper River, probably the original Alaganik.Skolai, on Nizina River near the mouth of Chitistone River, latitutde 61?21' N.,longitude 143?17' W.Slana, at the confluence of Slana and Copper Rivers.Titlogat, probably of the Kulchana division. (But of. Osgood above.)Toral, on Copper River at the mouth of Chitina River.History.?The mouth of Copper River was discovered by Nagaieffin 1781, but expeditions into the interior met with such consistenthostilitj'- on the part of the natives that for a long time they werea simple record of failure. The attempts of Samoylof in 1796,Last6clildn in 1798, KJimoffsky in 1819, and Gregorief in 1844 all endedin the same way. Serebrannikof ventured up the river in 1848, buthis disregard for the natives cost him his life and the lives of threeof his companions. In 1882 after the cession of Alaska to the UnitedStates, a trader named Holt ascended as far as Taral but on a sub-sequent visit he was killed by the natives. In 1884 Lt. Abercrombieexplored a part of the river, and in 1885 a thorough exploration of thewhole region was made by Lt. Allen, who visited the Ahtena villageson Copper River and on its principal tributaries. From that timeon intercourse between the river people and Whites has been increas-ingly intimate.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated 500 Ahtena for the year1740. Petroff (1884) placed their numbers in 1880 at not more than300. Allen (1887) gave 366 on the river and its branches. The censusof 1890 returned 142, and that of 1910, 297. In 1920 the totalnative population of Alaska speaking Athapascan dialects was 4,657
;
in 1930, 4,935.Aleut. A name of unknown origin but traced with some plausibilityto the Chukchi word aliat, meaning "island," which is supposed to
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 531have been bestowed upon the inhabitants of the Aleutian Islandsthrough a misunderstanding. Also called:Takhayuna, Knaiakhotana, name according to Petroff (1884).U-nung'tin, own name, according to Dall (1886).Connections.?The Aleut constituted the only widely divergentbranch of the Eskimauan linguistic stock, the remainder of the tonguesof that family being closely related.Location.?On the Aleutian Islands, the Shumagin Islands, and thewestern part of Alaska Peninsula.SubdivisionsThere were two main subdivisions distinguished by difference in dialect: (1) theAtka, on Andreanof, Rat, and Near Islands; and (2) the Unalaska on the Fox andShumagin Islands and Alaska Peninsula.VillagesI. Atka Division*Attn, on Holt Bay (Chichagof Harbor ?), Attu Island.Korovinski, at Korovin Bay, on Atka Island.Kazan, on Atka Island.Unalga, on Unalga Island, Andreanof group;The following ruined places on the single island of Agattu : Agonakagna, Atku-lik, Atkigyin, Hachimuk, Hamnulik, Hanilik, Hapkug, Higtiguk, Hilksuk,Ibin, Imik, Iptugik, Isituchi, Kakuguk, Kamuksusik, Kaslukug, Kigsitatok,Kikchik, Kikun, Kimituk, Kitak, Kuptagok, Magtok, Mukugnuk, Navisok,Sik.satok, Sunik, Ugiatok, Ugtikun, Ugtumuk, Ukashik,II. Unalaska Division:Akutan, on Akutan Island, close to Unalaska Island.Avatanak, on Avatanak Island, between Unalaska and Unimak Islands.Belkofski, near the end of Alaska Peninsula.Biorka, on Biorka Island near Unalaska.Chernofski, on Unalaska Island.Eider, on Captain Bay, Unalaska Island.Iliuliuk, on Unalaska Island.Kashiga, on Unalaska Island.Korovinski, on Korovin Island.Makushin, on Makushin Bay, Unalaska Island.Mashik, at Port Moller, Alaska Peninsula.Morzhovoi, at the end of Alaska Peninsula, formerly at the head of Morzhovoiand later on Traders Cove which opens into Isanotski Bay.Nateekin, on Nateekin Bay, Unalaska Island.Nikolaief, on Alaska Peninsula north of Belkofski.Nikolski, on Umnak Island.Pavlof, at Selenie Point, Pavlof Bay, Alaska Pensinsula.Pogromni, near Pogromni volcano, on the north shore of Unimak Island.Popof, at Pirate Cove, Popof Island, one of the Shumagins.Saint George, on St. George Island, Pribilof group.Saint Paul, on Saint Paul Island, Pribilof group.Sannak, on Sannak Island.Unga, on Unga Island, Shumagin group.Vossnessenski, on Vossnessenski Island, in the Shumagin group.
532 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145
Villages reported by later writers:Agulok, on Unalaska Island.Akun, on Akun Island, between Unalaska and Unimak.Artelnof, on Akun Island.Beaver, on Unalaska Island.Chaliuknak, on Beaver Bay, Unalaska Island.Ikolga, on Unalaska Island.Imagnee, on Summer Bay, Unalaska Island.Itchadak, on one of the east Aleutian Islands.Kalekhta, on Unalaska Island.Kutchlok on Unalaska Island.Riechesni, on Little Bay, Akun Island in the Krenitzin group.Sercdka, on Seredka Bay in Akun Island.Sisaguk, on Unimak Island.Takamitka, on Unalaska Island.Tigalda, on Tigalda Island, one of the east Aleutians.Totchikala, on Unalaska Island..Tulik, on Umnak Island, near a volcano of the same name.Ugamitzi, on Unalaska Island.Uknodok, on Hog Island, Captains Bay, Unalaska.Veselofski, at Cape Cheerful, Unalaska.History.?The Aleut became known to the Eussians immediatelyafter the voyages of Chirikoff and Bering in 1741, the discovery ofthe islands themselves being attributed to Mikhail Nerodchikof,September 1745. Though the natives at first resisted the exactionsof the foreign traders with courage, their darts were no match forfirearms, and they were not only cruelly treated themselves but wereforced into the service of their masters as allies in attacks upon moredistant peoples. It is said they were soon reduced to one-tenth oftheir former numbers. In 1794-1818 the Russian Governmentinterfered to protect them from exploitation, and their conditionwas somewhat improved, but most of the improvement they experi-enced at Russian hands was due to the noted missionary Veniaminoff,who began his labors in 1824. Through his efforts and those of hisfellow missionaries of the Greek Church, all of the Aleut were soonconverted, and they were to some extent educated. In 1867 they,with the rest of the population of Alaska, passed under the controlof the United States.Population.?IMooney (1928) estimated that in 1740 there were16,000 Aleut. Veniaminoff (1840) gave the Atka population as 750in 1834 and the Unalaska population as 1,497. In 1848 FatherShaiesnekov enumerated 1,400 all told, a figure w^hich was reducedto 900 as a result of the smallpox epidemic of that year. Dall (1877)estimated that there were about 2,000, and according to the censusof 1890 there were 1,702, including 734 mixed-bloods. The census of1910 returned 1,451. The native Alaskan population speakingEskiraauan dialects was 13,698 in 1920 and 19,028 in 1930.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 533Connection in which they have become noted.?The name of the Aleutis perpetuated in that of the Aleutian Islands, and from their languageis derived the word Alaska, applied to Alaska Territory, and to AlaskaPeninsula, which such a large number of the Aleut inhabit.Dihai-kutchin. Signifying "Kutchin farthest downstream."Connections.?The Dihai-kutchin were a band or tribe of theKutchin division of the Athapascan linguistic stock. They are addedto Osgood's (1936) list of true Kutchin tribes on the authority ofRobert McKennan (1935).Location.?The Diliai-kutchin lived about the north fork of Chan-dalar River, and the Middle and South Forks of the Koyokuk River,Alaska.Population.?The Dihai-kutchin were never numerous and are nowextinct as a separate body of Indians.Eskimo. All of the coast lands of Alaska from Kayak Island near themouth of Copper River to the Canadian boundary on the Arcticcoast were fringed with Eskimo settlements except the upper endof Cook Inlet and that part of Alaska Peninsula which, with theAleutian Islands, was occupied by the cognate Aleut. (SeeAleut and Canada.)Haida. A part of this tribe settled on Prince of Wales and DallIslands early in the eighteenth century and are locally known asKaigani. (See Haida under Canada.) The Kaigani populationin 1910 numbered 530; in 1920, 524; and in 1930, 588.Han. Signifying "those who dwell along the river."Connections.?Athapascan linguistic stock.Location.?The Yukon River drainage between latitude 64? and66" N., in east central Alaska and Yukon Territory, Canada.SubdivisionsKatshikotin or Eagle group (about the village of Eagle on Yukon River),including Johnny's Village and probably also Charlie's Village or Tadush (nearthe mouth of Kandik River), Takon of Nuklako (centering at the confluence ofthe Klondike and Yukon Rivers), and perhaps a third, Fetutlin (near the mouthof Forty Mile Creek.).Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates that there were 200 Hanin 1740.Ingalik. Name given by the Eskimo but widely used as appliedto these Indians.Connections.?The Ingalik were one of the westermnost divisions ofthe Athapascan linguistic stock.Location.?Between Anvilc and Holy Cross on the lower YukonRiver, including the drainage of the AnvLk River and the region
534 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bdll. 145
southeast to the Kuskokwim River, including its drainage aboveGeorgetown. SubdivisionsOsgood (1934) makes the following subdivisions:(1) Anvik-Shageluk group, centering around the villages bearing these names.(2) Bonasila group, centering around the village of the same name.(3) Holy Cross-Georgetown group, centering around the villages bearing thosenames.(4) McGrath group, the people of the drainage of the upper Kuskokwim River;this group somewhat arbitrarily constructed.Villages Reported in this AreaAkmiut, a litte above Kolmakof on Kuskokwim River.Anvik, at the junction of Anvik and Yukon Rivers.Chagvagchat, near the headwaters of Anvik River.Inselnostlinde, on Shageluk River.Intenleiden, on the east bank of Shageluk River.Khugiligichakat, on Shageluk River.Khunanilinde, near the headwaters of Kuskokwim River.Koserefski, on the left bank of the Yukon near the mouth of Shageluk Slough,later an Ikogmiut Eskimo village.Kuingshtetakten, on Shageluk River.Kvigimpainag, on the east bank of Yukon River, 20 miles from Kvikak.Napai, on the north bank of Kuskokwim River.Palshikatno, on Innoko River.Tigshelde, on Innoko River.Tlegoshitno, on Shageluk River.Vagitchitchate, near the mouth of Innoko River.Population.? (See Ahtena.)Koyukon. A contraction of Koyukuldaotana, "people of KoyukukRiver."Connections.?The Koyukon belonged to the Athapascan linguisticstock.Location.?On the drainage of the Yukon River south of the mouthof the Tanana to about latitude 63? N., including the drainage of theInnoko River north of the latitude named, and of the Koyukuk Riverin west central Alaska. SubdivisionsKaiyuhkhotana, on Yukon River between the Anvik and Koyukuk, including thedrainage of Innoko River north of latitude 63? N.Koyukukhotana, the drainage of the Koyukuk River.Yukonikhotana, the drainage of Yukon River south of the mouth of the Tananato the mouth of the Koyukuk. Villages(1) Kaiyuhkhotana villages:Anilukhtakpak, on Innoko R,iver.Chinik, on the east bank of Yukon River at the junction with the Talbiksok.Iktigalik, on Unalaklik River.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 535Innoka, on Tlegon River.Ivan, on the divide between Unalaklik and Yukon Rivers,Kagogagat, on the north bank of Yukon River at the mouth of Medicine Creek.Kaiakak, on the west bank of Yukon River.Kaltag, on the left bank of Yukon River.Khogoltlinde, on Yukon River.Khulikakat, on Yukon River.Klamaskwaltin, on the north bank of Yukon River near the mouth of KaiyuhRiver.Kunkhogliak, on Yukon River.Kutul, on Yukon River 50 miles above Anvik.Lofka, on the west bank of Yukon River.Nulato, on the north bank of Yukon River about 100 miles from Norton Sound.Taguta, on the north bank of Yukon River 15 miles below the mouth of theKaiyuh.Takaiak, east of Yukon River near Nulato.Talitui, on Tlegon River.Tanakot, on the right bank of Yukon River near the mouth of Melozi River.Terentief, on the Yukon below Koyukuk River.Tutago, on Yukon River at the mouth of Auto River.Wolasatux, on the east bank of Yukon River on a small stream north of KaiyuhRiver.(2) Koyukukhotana villages:Batza, on Batza River.Bolshoigor, on Yukon River 25 miles above the mouth of Koyukuk River.Dotle, on Koyukuk River.Hussliakatna, on the right bank of Koyukuk River, 2 miles above the southend of Dall Island.Kakliaklia, on Koyukuk River at the mouth of Ssukloseanti River.Kaltat, on an island in Yukon River not far from its junction with KoyukukRiver.Kanuti, on Koyukuk River in latitude 66?18' N.Kautas, on Koyukuk River.Kotil, at the junction of Kateel River with Koyukuk River.Koyukuk, near the junction of Koyukuk and Yukon Rivers.Mentokakat, on the left bank of Yukon River 20 miles above the mouth ofMelozi River.Nohulchinta, on the South Fork of Koyukuk River 3 miles above the junction.Nok, on the west bank of Koyukuk River near its mouth.Notaloten, on Yukon River 20 miles above the mouth of Koyukuk River.Oonigachtkhokh, on Koyukuk River.Soonkakat, on the left bank of the Yukon River below Nulato.Tashoshgon, on Koyukuk River.Tlialil, on Koyukuk River.Tok, on an island at the junction of Koyukuk River with the Yukon.Zakatlatan, on the north bank of Yukon River, in longitude 156?30' W.Zogliakten, on the east bank of Koyukuk River.Zonagogliakten, on the east bank of Koyukuk River.(3) Yukonikhotana villages:Chentansitzan, on the north bank of Yukon River 30 miles below the mouth ofMelozi River.Medvednaia, on the south side of Yukon River.Melozikakat, on Melozikakat River.
536 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Noggai, on Yukon River.Nowi, on the south side of Yukon River at the mouth of Nowikakat River.Tohnokalong, on the north bank of Yukon River in longitude 154?25' W.Tuklukyet, on the north bank of Yukon River 15 miles below the mouth ofTozi River.History.?Russian influences began to penetrate the country of theKoyukon after the establishment of the Russian settlement of Kodiakbefore any settlements had been made on the Kuskokwim or Yukon.In 1838 the most important Russian settlement on the lower Yukonwas made at Nulato, and this was the center of one of the very fewnative uprisings. The post was attacked by neighboring Indians in1851 and most of the inmates butchered. With American ownershipin 1867 the influences of civilization began to increase, and the currentwas swollen still further by the discovery of gold, though this lastwas hardly to the advantage of the aborigines. (See Ahtena.)Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated that there were 1,500Koyukon in the year 1740. In 1890, 940 were returned.Kutcha-kutchin. Signifying ''those who dwell on the flats," calledYukon Flats Kutchin by Osgood (1936). They have also beencalled as follows, but the Eskimo terms are applicable to anyKutchin:Fort Indians, Ross (MS).Ik-kil-lin, Gilder quoted by Murdoch (1892).Itchali, 11th Census, Alaska, p. 154.It-ka-lya-ruin, Dall (1877, p. 30) ; Nuwukmiut Eskimo name.Itkpe'lit, Petitot (1876, Vocab., p. 42).Itku'dlifi, Murdoch (1892).Lowland people, Whymper (1868, p. 247).Na-Kotchp6-tschig-Kouttchin, Petitot (1891, p. 361).O-tU'-tin, Dawson (1888, p. 202B).Youkon Louchioux Indians, Ross (MS.).Connections.?The Kutcha-kutchin were a tribe belonging to theKutchin division of the northern section of the Athapascan linguisticfamily.Location.?Along the valley of the Yukon from the widening of theriver a few miles above Circle to about Birch Creek below Fort Yukon.VillagesOne at Fort Yukon and one at Senati, on the middle Yukon.History.?The history of all the Kutchin tribes had best be treatedin one place. They were first brought into contact with Europeanswhen Alexander Mackenzie met some of them in 1789 during hisdescent of the river which bears his name. This became moreintimate with the establishment of the first Fort Good Hope in 1847.Until Alaska passed into the hands of the United States practically
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 537
all of the relations which the Kutchin tribes had with Europeans werethrough the Hudson's Bay Company. Since then influences from thewest have been more potent. The discovery of gold in the Klondikeregion and the rush which followed marked the opening of a new erafor these people, but one in which the bad for a long time outweighedthe good.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated that there were about 500of these Indians in 1740. The Kutcha-kutchin and the Tranjik-kutchin may be put together as Kutchin in the census of 1910, whichenters 359. The Hudson's Bay Co.'s census of 1858 gave 842 Kutchinbelonging to six tribes as resorting to Fort Yukon. Osgood (1936),who quotes this, believes that the entire Kutchin population at thatdate might be set down at 1,200. (See Ahtena.)Connection in which they have become noted.?The Kutchin tribes werenoted for their greater energy and more warlike character, as comparedwith neighboring Athapascans, and for a peculiar three-caste systemin their social organization.Nabesna. From the name of Nabesna River, the meaning of whichis unknown.Connections.?The Nabesna belonged to the Athapascan linguisticfamily.Location.?In the entire drainage area of the Nabesna and ChisanaRivers, including the tributaries of the Tanana River, which theyform at their confluence, as far down as the Tok River; the upperWhite River, including its tributaries the Beaver and the Snag, andthe headwaters of the Ladue; together an area roughly enclosed be-tween latitude 61?3r and 63?30' N., and longitude 141?30' and 143?30'W. (Dr. Robert C. McKennan thi-ough Osgood, 1936).SubdivisionsAccording to McKennan (1935), including the following "extremely fluid bands:"(1) Ranged about Last Tetling Lake and the Tetling River.(2) Ranged about the mouth of the Nabesna River.(3) Ranged from the head of the Nabesna through the upper Chisana Riverto the White.(4) Ranged from Scottie Creek to the Snag.The first of these evidently includes the Nutzotin of earlier writers with theirvillages of Nandell near Wagner Lake and Tetling, and the third the Santotin.Khiltats, at the mouth of Nabesna River, must have belonged to the seconddivision. VillagesAllen (1887) mentions the village of Khiltats at the mouth of the NabesnaRiver.History.?White contact with these people was made in 1885 and asettlement established at Chisana in 1913.
538 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Niska. This is a tribe of the Chimmesyan linguistic family whichlived just beyond the boundaries of Alaska to the southeast and attimes hunted over some of its territory. It belonged properly toBritish Columbia. (See Canada.)Natsit-kutchin. Signifying "those who dwell off the flats [i, e.,Yukon River]." Also called:Gens du Large, by Ross (MS), from which came the name of ChandelarRiver.Natche'-Kutchin, by Dall (1877, p. 430).Neyetse-kutchi, by Richardson (1851, vol. 1, p. 399).Tpe-ttchie-dhidi6-kouttchin, by Petitot (1891).Connections.?The Natsit-kutchin were one of the tribes of theKutchin group of the northern division of the Athapascan linguisticstock.Location.?On Chandelar River.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated 200 Natsit-kutchin as ofthe year 1740. The census of 1910 returned 177. (See Eutcha-kutchin.)Tanaina. Own name, meaning "people" exclusive of Eskimo andEuropeans. Also called Knaiakhotana.Connections.?The Tanaina belonged to the Athapascan linguisticstock.Location.?According to Osgood (1934) : "The drainage of Cook Inletnorth of Seldovia (59?20' N. lat.), the north half of Iliamna Lake andits drainage, including Clark Lake. Since contact, possibly slightincursions have been made into territory formerly occupied by theEskimo, notably Seldovia Bay and portions of Iliamna Lake."SubdivisionsOsgood (1936) gives the following:(1) Lower Inlet (Seldovia and Kachemak Bay).(2) Middle Inlet (Tustamena, Skilak, and Kenai Lakes and the adjacentcoast)
.
(3) Upper Inlet (Knik arm of Cook Inlet and its drainage).(4) Susitna (Susitna River and drainage)
.
(5) Tyonek (west coastal region of Cook Inlet).(6) Iliamna (region of the north part of Iliamna Lake and its drainage).(7) Clark Lake (the region about Clark Lake).VillagesChinila, on the east side of Cook Inlet near the mouth of Kaknu River.Chuitna (not given by Osgood), on Cook Inlet at the mouth of Chuit River.Eklutna, at the head of Knik Arm.Iliamna, near the mouth of the Iliamna River.Kasilof, on the east coast of Cook Inlet at the mouth of Kasilof River.Kasnatchin, at Anchor Point, Kenai Peninsula.Kenai, on the east side of Cook Inlet at the mouth of Kaknu River.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 539Kilchik (not noted by Osgood), on Lake Clark.Knakatnuk, opposite Nitak on the west side of Knik Arm, at the head of CookInlet.Knik, near the mouth of Knik River.Kultuk, on the east side of Cook Inlet near Nikishka.Kustatan, on the west side of Cook Inlet below Tyonek.Nikhkak, on Lake Clark.Nikishka, near East Foreland at the head of Cook Inlet.Ninilchik, on the east coast of Cook Inlet south of the mouth of Kasilof River.Nitak, on the east side of Knik Bay at the head of Cook Inlet and near Eklutna.Skilak, on the south side of Skilak Lake, Kenai Peninsula.Skittok, on Kaknu River and forming part of the Kenai settlement.Susitna, on Susitna River, Cook Inlet.Titukilsk, on the east shore of Cook Inlet and near Nikishka.Tj'onek, on the west side of Cook Inlet.Zdluiat, on the east side of Knik Bay south of Nitak.History.?Cook Inlet received its name from Captain Cook whoentered it in May 1778, but all of the natives met by him seem tohave been Eskimo. The Russian settlement of Kodiak in 1784marked an important event for the history of the region because theRussians, assisted by Aleut hunters, at once began to exploit theanimal wealth of the neighboring region, and Cook Inlet was a prin-cipal scene of their activities. In July 1786, Portlock and Dixonwent to the very head of Cook Inlet and must have had dealings withthe Tanaina because they met with considerable success in their trad-ing operations. Captain Douglas visited the inlet in 1788. Russianownership gave place to ownership b}^ the United States in 1867, butCook Inlet was exploited relatively little until the railroad line wasbuilt from Seward to Fairbanks and skirted the head of the inlet formany miles. The Tanaina Indians were one of the last groups inAlaska to receive attention from ethnologists.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated that there were about 1,200Tanaina in 1740. In 1818, 1,471 natives were enumerated in CookInlet. In 1825 Baron Wrangell returned 1,299. Veniaminoff (1840)gave 1,628 and in 1860 the Holy Synod returned 937. In 1869 Halleckand Colyer returned the grossly exaggerated estimate of 25,000. Thecensus of 1880 returned 614 and that of 1890, 724. Mooney esti-mated 890 in 1900. (See Ahtena.)Tanana. Named from the Tanana River.Connections.?The Tanana belonged to the northern division of theAthapascan linguistic family. They were formerly erroneouslyclassed among the Kutchin tribes.Location.?"The drainage of the lower Tanana River below theTok River, the region about the confluence of the Tanana and Yukon,
540 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BntL. 14Band the region along the latter river above the confluence." [Osgood,1936.] Subdivisions and VillagesClatchotin, on Tanana River.Huntlatin, on Tanana River.Minchumina Lake people, around the lake of that name.Nuklukayet, a rendezvous for various tribes, on the north bank of the Yukonjust below the mouth of the Tanana.Nukluktana, on Tanana River just below Tutlut River.Tatsa, on Yukon River.Tolwatin, on Tanana River.Tozikakat, north bank of the Yukon at the mouth of Tozi River.Tutlut, at the junction of Tutlut and Tanana Rivers.Weare, at the mouth of Tanana River.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates a possible population of 500in 1740 including the Nabesna. Richardson (1851) cut this estimateto 100. Dall (1870) made it 500, Petroff (1884), 300-700, Allen(1887) 600, the census of 1890, 373. In 1900, 370 were given andby the census of 1910, 415. (See Ahtena.)Tennuth'kutchin. Meaning "middle people." Also called:Birch Creek Kutchin, Osgood (1934, p. 172).Birch River Indians, Whymper (1868, p. 255).Gens de Bouleaux, Dall (1870 p. 431).Connections.?The Tennuth-Kutchin were a tribe of the Kutchingroup of the northern division of the Athapascan stock.Location.?In the region of Birch Creek.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated that there were about 100Tennuth-Kutchin in 1740. They have long been extinct having beenswept away in 1863, according to Dall (1870), by an epidemic ofscarlet fever. (See Kutcha-kutchin.)Tlingit (literally Lingi't). Signifying "people," in their own language.Also called:Koluschan, a name given to them as a linguistic family by Powell (1891),originally a Russian or Aleut term referring to the labrets worn by theirwomen.Connections.?The Tlingit were originally constituted into onelinguistic stock by Powell, but show resemblances to the Athapascandialects and to Haida which have induced Sapir (1915) to class thethree together as the Na-d6n6. The exact nature of the relationshipis still disputed.Location.?All of the coast and islands of Alaska from YakutatBay inclusive southward with the exception of the southern ends ofPrince of Wales and DaU Islands and Annette Island, though these
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 541latter have been alienated from them only in comparatively recenttimes. Subdivisions and VillagesAuk, on Stephens Passage and Douglas and Admiralty Islands, including thefollowing villages:Anchguhlsu, opposite the north end of Douglas Island.Tsantikihin, on the site of the present Juneau.Chilkat, about the head of Lynn Canal, including these villages:Chilkoot, on the northeast arm of Lynn Canal.Deshu, at the head of Lynn Canal.Dyea, at the modern place of the same name.Katkwaahltu, on Chilkat River about 6 miles from its mouth.Klukwan, on Chilkat River 20 miles from its mouth.Skagway, at the site of the modern town of that name at the head of LynnCanal.Yendestake, at the mouth of Chilkat River.Gonaho, at the mouth of Alsek River.Hehl, on Behm Canal.Henya or Hanega, on the west coast of Prince of Wales Island between TlevakNarrows and Sumner Strait, including the following villages:Klawak, on the west coast of Prince of Wales Island.Sbakan, a summer village on the northwest coast of Prince of Wales Island.Tuxican, on a narrow strait on the northwest coast of Prince of Wales Island.Huna, on Cross Sound, encamping in summer northward beyond Lituya Bay, withthese villages:Akvetskoe, a summer village on Lituya Bay.Gaudekan, the chief town, now usually called Huna, in Port Frederick on thenorth shore of Chichagof Island.Hukanuwu, on the north side of Cross Sound between the mainland andChichagof Island.Klughuggue, given by Petroff (1884) as a town on Chichagof Island but probablyidentical with one given by Krause (1885) on the opposite mainland, andperhaps the same as Tlushashakian.Kukanuwu, on the north side of Cross Sound.Tlushashakian, on the north side of the west entrance to Cross Sound.Hutsnuwu, on the west and south coasts of Admiralty Island, with these villages:Angun, north of Hood Bay, Admiralty Island.Killisnoo, on Killisnoo Island near Admiralty Island.Nahltushkan, on Whitewater Bay, on the west coast of Admiralty Island.Kake, on Kupreanof Island, the designation being sometimes extended to coverKuiu and Sumdum, and including a village of the same name.Kuiu, on Kuiu Island, with a village of the same name in Port Beauclerc.Sanya, about Cape Fox, their village being called Gash, at Cape Fox.Sitka, on the west coasts of Baranof and Chichagof islands, with these villages:Dahet.Keshkunuwu.Kona.Kushtahekdaan.Old Sitka, a summer camp on Baranof Island.Sitka, site of the modern town.Tlanak.
542 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY IBdll. 145Tluhashaiyikan, as indicated by the native word straight opposite MountEdgecombe.Silver Bay, a summer camp.Stikine, on Stikine River and the neighboring coasts, with these villages:Kahltcatlan, a place called also Old Wrangell.Katchanaak, on the site of modern Wrangell.Shakes' Village, on Etolin Island.Sumdum, at Port Houghton, the village and location being the same.Taku, on Taku River and Inlet, Stevens Channel, and Gastineau Channel, withthe following villages:Sikanasankian, on Taku Inlet.Takokakaan, at the mouth of Taku River, as the name itself implies.Tongass, at the mouth of Portland Canal, on the north side, with a village of thesame name on Tongass Island, Alexander Archipelago.Yakutat, principally about Yakutat Bay but extending westward in later timesto the mouth of Copper River, including these villages:Chilkat, a village or group of villages on Controller Bay.Gutheni, north of Dry Bay.Hlahayik, on Yakutat Bay behind an island called Hlaha which gave it thename.Yakutat, on Yakutat Bay.History.?According to native tradition, some Tlingit familiescame into their present territories from the coast farther south whUeothers entered from the interior. In 1741 Chirikoff and Bering dis-covered the Tlingit country, and they were soon followed by otherRussian explorers as well as by explorers and traders from Mexico,England, France, and New England. Among the noteworthy eventsof this period was the visit of La P^rouse to Lituya Bay in 1786 andthe tragic loss of two of his boats loaded with men in the tide rips atits entrance. In 1799 the Russians built a fort near the present Sitka.In 1802 the Sitka Indians rose upon this post, kOled part of its inmates,and drove the rest away, but 2 years later Baranoff drove them fromtheir fort in turn and established on its site a post which grew into thepresent Sitka, the capital successively of Russian America andAlaska Territory until 1906. Russian rule was so harsh that there werefrequent outbreaks among the natives so long as the territory remainedunder their control. In 1836 to 1840 occurred a terrible epidemic ofsmallpox, brought up from the Columbia River, which swept away hun-dreds of Indians. In 1840 the Hudson's Bay Company took a lease fromthe Russian American Company of all their lands between Cape Spen-cer and latitude 54? 40' N. In 1867 the Tlingit were transferred withthe rest of the Alaskan people to the jurisdiction of the United Statesand since then they have been suffering ever more rapid transformationunder the influences of western civilization.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated that there were 10,000Tlingit in 1740. Veniaminoff (1840) gave 5,850 for the year 1835,and an enumeration made by Sir James Douglas 4 years later showed
SwANTOX] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 5435,455 exclusive of the Yakutat. In 1861 Lt. Wehrman of the RussianNavy reported 8,597 as the result of a census. Petroff (1884) in thecensus of 1880 gave 6,763, but the census of 1890 showed only 4,583,not counting the Tlingitized Ugalakmiut. The census of 1910 re-turned 4,426; that of 1920, 3,895; and that of 1930, 4,462.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Russian capitaland the first American territorial capital Sitka was on Tlingit land,as is the later and present territorial capital Juneau. The ports ofthis tribe, especially those in the Chilkat country, figured prominentlyin the great Klondike rush.Tranjik-kutchin. Signifying "one who dwells along the river [i, e.,the Black River]." Also called:Black River Kutchin, by Osgood (1936).Cache River People, by Cadzow (1925).Connections.?The Tranjik-kutchin belonged to the Kutchin groupof tribes of the northern division of the Athapascan linguistic stock.Location.?In the country around Black River.History.? (See Kutcha-kutchin.)Population.? (See Kutcha-kutchin.)Tsimshian. The home of the Tsimshian is on Skeena River, BritishColumbia, and the coast to the southward. In 1887, however.Rev. William Duncan, missionary of the Church of England atMetlakatla, 15 miles south of Port Simpson, having becomeinvolved in difficulties with his superiors, moved to Annette Island,Alaska, with the greater part of the Indians who had been underhis charge. A grant of land was subsequently obtained from theUnited States Government, and the Tsimshian have continued inoccupancy. The census of 1910 reported 729; that of 1920, 842;and that of 1930, 845. (See Canada.)Vunta-kutchin. Signifying "those who dwell among the lakes."Also called:Crow River Kutchin, by Osgood (1934, p. 173), from a stream in theircountry.Gens des Rats, by Dall (1877, p. 31).Rat People, by Dall (1869, p. 261).Zj6n-ta-Kouttchin, by Petitot (1891, p. 361), meaning "muskrat people,"a name probably based on a legend, though a tributary of the Porcupineis called Rat River.Connections.?The Vunta-kutchin are one of the group of Kutchintribes belonging to the northern division of the Athapascan linguisticfamily.Location.?On the middle course of Porcupine River and the countryto the northward, including Old Crow Creek.
544 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bcll. 145Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated that the Vunta-Kutchintogether with the Tukkuth-kutchin, and "Tutcone-kutchin" com-prised a population of 2,200 in 1670, but they had been reduced to1,700 in 1906 and the census of 1910 returned only 5 under thisname by itself. (See Kutcha-kutchin.)CANADAAlgonkin. Significance uncertain, but Hewitt (Hodge, 1907) suggestsMicmac algoomeaking or algoomaking, "at the place of spearingfish or eels [from the bow of a canoe]." It was applied originallyto one band, the Weskarini.Connections.?The Algonkin were the easternmost division of theChippewa group of the Algonquian linguistic stock.Location.?On Ottawa River but particularly its northern trib-utaries. SubdivisionsAbitibi, about Lake Abitibi.Barri^re, about Barriere and Kakabong Lakes.Dumoine, on Dumoine River and Lake, Ontario.Kichesipirini, on Allumette Island in Ottawa River and hence often calledAlgonkins of the Island.Kipawa, on Kipawa River, Maganasibi River, and the north bank of OttawaRiver opposite Mattawa.Lac des Quinze, Lac des Quinze and to the north and east.Maniwaki or River Desert, from the upper course of the Riviere Lievre to BlackRiver.Ononchataronon, between St. Lawrence and Ottawa Rivers and near Montreal.Sagaiguninini, southwest of Ottawa River in 1640, perhaps not of this group, asnearly all the other bands are on or northeast of the Ottawa River.Timiskaming, on and near Lake Timiskaming.Weskarini, on the north side of Ottawa River below Allumette Island and onGatineau River. VillagesEgan, Maniwaki township, Ottawa County, Quebec.Hartwell, in Ottawa County, Quebec.Isle aux Tourtes, mission, for Algonkin and Nipissing, probably on Ottawa Riverbut soon removed to Oka.History.?The Algonkin were encountered by the French when thatnation first settled Canada and became firmly attached to them.In the war between the French and Iroquois many bands were drivenout of their country, some uniting with the Ottawa, while others fledto the north and east and drifted back into their old territories on thecessation of hostilities. They have since continued in the same regionthough suffering steady modification in culture and manner of lifefrom contact with Europeans.
SwANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 545Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated that in 1600 there were 6,000in the Algonkin and Ottawa bands combined. In 1884, 3,874 werereturned from Quebec Province and eastern Ontario. The total popu-lation of the bands recognized as Algonkin in 1900, but including a fewIroquois, was 1,536.Connection in which they have become noted.?The principal claim ofthese people to notoriety rests on the fact that they, or rather one oftheir bands, first bore the name Algonldn from which the name of thegreat Algonquian linguistic stock was derived, as well as a multitude ofnames of places and terms of various sorts.Arapaho. This tribe probably occupied Canadian territory in pre-historic times in southern Saskatchewan and perhaps in southernManitoba. (See Wyoming.)Assiniboin. A tribe of the Siouan linguistic family which separatedfrom the Dakota in the late prehistoric period, living first, it isthought, about Rainy Lake and Lake of the Woods but, from about1675, on Assiniboin and Saskatchewan Rivers west of Lake Winni-peg. Their lands extended southward to the Missouri and a partof the tribe were finally placed on reservations in Montana. (SeeMontana.)Atsina. Theae were a branch of the Arapaho and were popularlyknown as Gros Ventres, or, in order to distinguish them from an-other tribe so called, Gros Ventres of the Plains. They were some-times known as Fall Indians from the circumstance that they weresupposed formerly to have lived at the falls of the SaskatchewanRiver, near the junction of its north and south branches. (SeeMontana.)Bellabella. An Indian corruption of the word Milbank taken backinto English. Also called:Elk'ba'sumH, Bellacoola name.Hs'iltsuq, own name.Milbank Sound Indians, popular name.Connections.?Dialectically the Bellabella were closely related to theKwakiutl south of them and more remotely to the Nootka of the westcoast of Vancouver Island and Cape Flattery, Washington, the wholeconstituting the Wakashan linguistic family.Location.?The coast of British Columbia from Rivers Inlet to Doug-las Channel inclusive. SubdivisionsHaisla Dialect:Kitamat, on Douglas Channel.Kitlope, on Gardiner Canal.
546 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bdll. 145Heiltsuk Dialect:Bellabella proper, embracing the Kokaitk on the north shore of Milbank Sound,Oealitk on the south shore of Milbank Sound, and the Oetlitk on the middlesection of Milbank Sound.China Hat, on Tolmie Channel and Mussel Inlet.Nohuntsitk, at the lower end of Wikeno Lake.Somehulitk, at the north end of Wikeno Lake.Wikeno, on Rivers Inlet. VillagesThe Wilkeno had the following, all with one possible exception, on Riversnlet: Niltala, Nuhitsomk, Somhotnechau, Tlaik, Tsiomhau, Wikeno.History.?Bodega and Maurelle passed along the coast occupied bythe Bellabella in 1775, and they were immediately afterward visitedby English and American explorers and traders. The Hudson's Baypost of Fort McLoughlin was established in their territory in 1833, butthe foundation of Victoria in 1843 probably had greater influence onthe lives of these people. The traders were soon followed by mission-aries and permanent white settlers.Population,?Mooney (1928) estimated that in 1780 there were2,700 Indians of the Bellabella group. In 1906 there were 852.Connection in which they have become noted.?These people are in-teresting as exhibiting an apparent replacement of a patrilineal systemof descent by a matrilineal system.Bellacoola. A name applied by the Kwakiutl; significance unknown.Phonetic form of name Bi'lxula. Also called:Tallion Nation, from the name of a town, in early reports of the CanadianIndian Office.Connections.?They are an isolated body of Indians belonging to theSalishan linguistic family.Location.?On North Bentinck Arm, South Bentinck Arm, DeanChannel and River, and Bella Coola River, B. C.SubdivisionsAt the present time there are but two bodies of Bellacoola: The Kimsquit, onDean Inlet; and the Bella Coola, at the mouth of Bella Coola River. Older writersspeak of the Nuhalk, which was the name of Bella Coola Valley; Taliomk, at thehead of South Bentinck Arm, abandoned about 20 years ago; and the Nooth-lakamish, reported by Tolmie and Dawson (1884) on North Bentinck Arm.Villages(as given by Mcllwraith)Aimats, north of Anutskwakstl near the Peisela River.Aketi, on the south side of Dean River about 1 mile from the sea.Anutlitlk, near the mouth of Dean River, still occupied.Anutskwakstl, an eastern extension of Tlokotl.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 547
Aseik, on a stream flowing into a bay at the southwest end of South BentinckArm.Asenane, on the shore of a bay on the south side of Bella Coola River.Asktlta, at Salmon House on Upper Dean River.Atlklaktl, near the south bank of Peisela River about J^-mile from the sea.Ikwink, on Dean River 28 miles from the sea.Kadis, on the east side of South Bentinck Arm, about J4-mile from Nuik River.Kameik, on the west bank of Necleetsconnay about J^-mile from the sea.Kankilst, on the east side of South Bentinck Arm "slightly north of the islandopposite the hot springs on the west side of the fiord."Koapk, on the east side of the mouth of a creek entering the head of South Ben-tinck Arm from the south.Komkutis, the upper (eastern) continuation of Stskeitl.Kwiliutl, on the north side of the Atnarko a few hundred j^ards above the forks.Nuekmak, near some stagnant pools on the north side of Bella Coola River ashort distance above Snoonikwilk.Nuhwilst, on the shore of Dean Channel six miles from Satsk.Nuiku, on a raised mound on South Bentinck Arm south of the mouth of NuikRiver.Nukaakmats, on the north shore of Bella Coola River about a mile above Tsilkt.Nukits, on the south side of Bella Coola River 11K miles from the sea.Nuskapts, on the south bank of Dean River about 25 miles from the sea.Nuskek, on the shore of North Bentinck east of the creek that flows into it atGreen Bay.Nuskelst, on the north side of Bella Coola River opposite the mountain of thesame name.Nutal, on the bank of Dean River at the bottom of the canyon.Nutltleik, 200 yards from Bella Coola River on a creek flowing in from the northand about 31 miles from the sea.Nutskwatlt, on the south side of Dean River about l}^-miles from the sea.Okmikimik, at the present village of Hagensburg 1 1 miles from the sea.Ososkpimk, on the north shore of Bella Coola River about ^-mile above Aimats,Satsk, at the mouth of the Kimsquit River.Senktl, on the south side of Bella Coola River opposite Tciktciktelpats.Setlia, on the east side of South Bentinck Arm about J-^-mile from its junctionwith North Bentinck.Siwalos, on the north side of Dean River about 35 miles from the sea, where thetrail to the interior left the river valley.Skomeltl, on the south side of Bella Coola River about 3 miles from the sea.Snoonikwilk, on a curving promontory on the south bank of Bella Coola Riverabout 4 miles from the sea.Snutele, on the south bank of Bella Coola River above Nukaakmats.Snutlelelatl, on the north side of the Atnarko about 10 miles from the forks.Stskeitl, on the south bank of Bella Coola River about J^i-mile from the sea.Stuik, on the point between the Atnarko and Whitewater Rivers, which join toform the Bella Coola.Talio, on the west side of the mouth of the river, last location, which was fre-quently changed.Tasaltlimk, on the shore of North Bentinck Arm west and north of the mouth ofthe Necleetsconnay.Tciktciktelpats, some distance from the north bank of the Bella Coola River, theriver course having changed.Tlokotl, above Atlklaktl on Peisela River.
548 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Boll. 145Tsaotltmem, on the east side of South Bentinck Arm about 4 miles from Kankilst.Tsilkt, on the north shore of Bella Coola River above Tsomootl.Tsomootl, the upper continuation of Skomeltl.Boas (1898) gives also the following names, most of which are probably syn-onyms for some of the above: Koatlna, Nusatsem, Osmakmiketlp, Peisela, Sakta,Selkuta, Slaaktl, Sotstl, Tkeiktskune, Tskoakkane.History.?Alexander Mackenzie entered the country of the Bella-coola after crossing the Rocky Mountains in 1793 at about the sametime that they began to have dealings with vessels of European ex-plorers and traders. The rest of their history has been the usual oneof modification in customs, missionization, supervision by IndianOffice officials, and at least temporary decline.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates that there were 1,400 Bella-coola in 1780; in 1902 only 311 were returned.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Bellacoola arenoted particularly for their isolated position, a Salishan island amongKwakiutl Indians, for their peculiar cosmologic system recorded byBoas (1897), and as having given their name to Bella Coola River.Beothuk. Probably from a native word signifying "man," or "humanbeing." Also called:Macquaejeet or Uln6 mequaegit, Micmac name, signifying "red man,"and evidently a translation of the popular English name.UlnObah, Abnaki name.Connections.?While certain Algonquian elements are to be foundin the remnants of the Beothuk language which have been preserved,the greater part of it is so different that these Indians have been placedin an independent linguistic stock, the Beothukan.Location.?When first brought to the knowledge of Europeans, theBeothuk seem to have occupied all of the island of Newfoundlandexcept possibly the northernmost extremity.History.?The Beothuk were probably first met by Europeans underJohn Cabot in 1497, and from that time forward were frequentlyvisited by explorers and fishermen. Differences having arisen be-tween them and the French, they were gradually reduced in numbers,and the Micmac, who had settled meanwhile in the southern part ofthe island, drove them north until they were confined to some terri-tory near Exploits River. In 1810 Sir Thomas Duckworth issued aproclamation for their protection, but in 1827 when Carmack's expe-dition, conducted on behalf of the Beothuk Institution for the civiliza-tion of the native savages, made a careful search for them, not onewas encountered. The last of them may have crossed the Strait ofBelle Isle to unite with the Algonquian Indians of Labrador. (SeeHodge, 1907, article on Beothukan family.)
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 549Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates the total Beothuk popula-tion in 1600 to have been 500.Connections in which they have become noted.?The Beothuk werenoted for their great use of red ocher, from which came the nameusually bestowed upon them by Europeans; for their linguistic distinc-tiveness; and for the mystery surrounding their connections with othertribes and their ultimate fate.Carriers. The name was derived from a native custom whereby awidow was obUged to carry about with her in a basket for 3 yearsthe ashes of her deceased husband. Also called:AtlSshimih, Bellacoola name.Takulli, by several Athapascan tribes, and said to mean "people who goupon the water."Connections.?The Carriers spoke an Athapascan dialect.Location.?Around Eutsuk, Francis, Babine, and Stuart Lakes andthe headwaters of the Fraser River as far south as the neighborhoodof Quesnel. SubdivisionsThe lists collected by diflferent investigators vary to some extent. The followingnames are adapted from Morice (1906):Southern Ctirriers:Tautin, on Fraser River about old Fort Alexander.Naskotin, in Chentsithala and Nesietsha villages, on Fraser River near themouth of Blackwater.Tanotenne, at the junction of Stuart and Nechako Rivers.Ntshaautin, on Blackwater River and upper Nechaco River.Natliatin, inhabiting Natleh and Stella, at either end of Fraser Lake.Northern Carriers:Nikozliautin, on the southern half of Stuart Lake and on Pintce River, in twovillages, Nakraztli at the outlet of Stuart Lake, and Pintce on Stuart Lakeat the mouth of Pintce River.Tatshiautin, at the head of Stuart Lake and on Tachi River and Thatlah,Tremblay, and Connolly Lakes, in the following villages: Kezche on Tach6River, Sasthut on Connolly Lake, Tachy at the mouth of Tachd River,Tsisli at the mouth of Tatlah River, Tsisthainli on Lac Trembleur, Yucucheat the head of Stuart Lake and on the portage between it and Sabine Lake,and probably Saikez south of Nechaco River.Babines:Nataotin, on middle Babine River and Babine lake, in two towns: Latha-krezla (on the north side of Babine Lake) and Neskollek (on Babine Lake).Hwotsotenne, on Bulkley River, hunting as far as Francis Lake, and occupyingthe following villages:Hagwilget, on Bulkley River 3 miles southeast of Hazleton.Hwotat, on the east side of Babine Lake near its outlet.Keyerhwotket, on Bulkley River.Lachalsap, on Bulkley River.Tsechab, on Bulkley River.Tselkazkwo, on Bulkley River.
550 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Boll. 145Dawson (1880 b) makes the people of Kezche distinct from the Tatshiautinunder the name of Kustsheotin, the people of Tachy distinct from the rest of theTatshiautin under the name Tatshikotin, and the people of Stella distinct fromthe other Natliatin under the name Stelatin.History.?The Carriers were visited in 1793 by Alexander Mackenziewhen on his way from Athabaska Lake to the Pacific Ocean. WhenFort McLeod was built in the Sekani country by Simon Fraser in1805, it served for a time as a trading point for the Carriers, but in1806 Fort St. James was established in their own country, near theoutlet of Stuart Lake. Missionary work was begun among them in1843 by the Roman Catholic priest, Father Demers, and proved verysuccessful. After that time white traders, miners, and settlers camein increasing numbers, and finally the country was penetrated by theCanadian transcontinental railroad to Prince Rupert.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates that the Carrier tribenumbered 5,000 in 1780. It was given as 2,625 in 1839. Morice(1889) gave an estimate of 1,600, while the Canadian Office of IndianAffairs reported 1,551 in 1902 and 1,614 in 1909.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Carriers attractedattention at an early period on account of the peculiar custom towhich they owe their Dame. Later they were particularly com-mended to the attention of ethnologists as furnishing an excellentillustration of the manner in which cultures spread on account of themixture of coastal and interior features, and for the very thoroughstudies of them made by Rev. A. G. Morice.Chilcotin. More phonetically rendered Tsilkotin, meaning "peopleof young man's [Chilcotin] river."Connections.?^The Chilcotin belong to the Athapascan linguisticstock.Location.?Chiefly in the valley of Chilcotin River.SubdivisionsIn later years a distinction has grown up between the reservation Chilcotinand those who have continued their aboriginal customs at a distance from thereservations, the latter being called the "Stone Chilcotin" or "Stonies." Theformer Morice (1889) divides into the Tlathenkotin (in flothenka village onChilcotin River) , Tleskotin (in the village of Tlesko on Chilcotin River near itsjunction with Fraser River), and Toosey (near Williams Lake Agency).History.?Alexander Mackenzie (1801) passed through their terri-tory in 1793, and Fort Chilcotin was established among them in 1829.To employees of the Hudson's Bay Company soon succeeded minersand more permanent settlers.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates that in 1780 there were 2,500Chilcotin. In 1906 they were placed at 450.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 551Connection in which they have become noted.?The name of the Chil-cotin is perpetuated by Chilcotin River, Chilko River, and ChilkoLake.Chippewa or Ojibwa. Bands of this immense tribe extended fromLake Nipissing westward along the north shore of Lake Superior,and in later times they settled in southern Manitoba, in the northernpart of the present States of Minnesota and North Dakota andalong the southern shore of Lake Superior. The Saulte Ste. Mariewas considered by them their ancient center of dispersion. North-ward they reached the upper course of Albany River. (See Min-nesota.)Chipewyan. From a Cree word meaning "pointed skins," referringto the pointed parkas or shirts which they wore. Also called:Montagnais, French name.Mountaineers, English name.Yatche6-thinyoowuc, Cree name, meaning "strangers."Connections.?The Chipewyan formed a dialectic division of theAthapascan linguistic stock.Location.?The boundaries of this group of Indians have changedconsiderably but in general their territory lay north of ChurchillRiver, between Great Slave Lake and Slave and Athabaska Riverson the west and Hudson Bay on the east.SubdivisionsThe principal subdivisions seem to have been as follows:Athabaska, between Lake Athabaska and Great Slave Lake and in the territoryeastward.Desnedekenade, along Slave River, near Fort Resolution.Etheneldeli or Caribou-Eaters, mainly about Lakes Caribou, Axe, and Brochet.Thilanottine, in later times on the shores of Lacrosse Lake and between ColdLake and Fort Locha.The Tatsanottine or Yellow Knives, sometimes considered a subdivision,Jenness (1932) believes to have been independent. It is doubtful whether thedistinction represented by these divisions was more than temporary. (See thesection on History.)History.?Petitot (1876 a) states that the Chipewyan tribe wasliving on Peace River in 1718, that after the Cree had obtained gunsthey drove the Etchaottine or Slaves from their hunting groundsalong Slave River, but that they were attacked in turn by the Chipe-wyan and expelled from the country, the Chipewyan taking theirplaces. Jenness wholly discredits this tradition, however, andgives the following summary of events bearing on the relative positionof Chipewyan and Cree tribes during this period: He thinks thatwhen the fur-trading posts were established on Hudson Bay the
552 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Chipewyan already occupied the country from the Great Slave Lakeand Lake Athabaska eastward
?
. . . but that the intense fusion resulting from the fur trade obliterated the oldsubdivisions into tribes or bands and broke down also dialectic differences. Thenthe Cree pushed northward and seized the country between Lake Athabaska andGreat Slave Lake [the Slave River], driving the Beaver up the Peace River [theBeaver and Cree together driving the Sekani into the Rockies] and confining theChipewyan or Northern Indians to the territory designated by Hearne. Thencame the smallpox epidemic that decimated both Cree and Chipewyan, butparticularly the Cree, who were forced to withdraw a little from Chipewyanterritory, allowing the latter to reoccupy Lake Athabaska, the Slave River, andthe southern and eastern shores of Great Slave Lake, though a few Cree stilllingered on Lake Athabaska and on the Slave River. This was the condition inMackenzie's day, who defines the territory of the Chipewyans as extending from100?-110? W. by 60?-65? N., although his unpublished MS. and that of RodericMackenzie make them the principal inhabitants of Lake Athabaska, especiallyits eastern end. The establishment of posts on Lake Athabaska broke the Chipe-wyans up into two groups, an eastern that still traded at the posts on HudsonBay, and a western that traded at Lake Athabaska. Subsequently the Creerecovered a little and penetrated this western country in greater numbers, sothat today there are practically no Chipewyans near the Mackenzie River exceptat Fond du Lac, at the east end of Lake Athabaska, and at Fort Resolution andaround the south shores of Great Silver Lake. Slave River is occupied by Cree,as is also Fort Chipewyan; and the Cree dwell all along the Peace River up toPeace River Landing, and have a large colony at Hudson Hope. [Jenness.-iThe Athabaska division consisted simply of those Chipewyan whochose to trade at Lake Athabaska. The Athabaska or " Athapuskow"Indians of Hearne (1795) were Cree.Population.?Alexander Mackenzie (1801) estimated that therewere about 400 Athabaska Chipewyan, and Mooney (1928) that therewere 3,500 Chipewyan in all, including 1,250 Caribou-eaters, in 1670.In 1906 there were 2,420, of whom 900 were Caribou-eaters.Connection in which they have become noted.?From one of theirChipewyan bands, the Athabaska, has come the term Athapascanselected by Powell (1891) for the designation of the hnguistic stock towhich the Chipewyan belong, although, curiously enough, the namedoes not appear to be Athapascan at all.Comox. Significance unknown; so called by the Lekwiltok. Alsocalled
:
CatlO'ltx, own name.Connections.?The Comox constituted a dialetic group of the coastaldivision of the Salishan linguistic family.Location.?On the east coast of Vancouver Island including bothsides of Discovery Passage, between the Puntlatch and Kwakiutl.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 553SubdivisionsClahoose, on Toba Inlet.Comox, on both sides of Discovery Passage between Chancellor Channel andCape Mudge.Eeksen, about Oyster Bay.Homalko, on the east side of Bute Inlet.Kaake, on the southeast coast of Valdes Island.Kakekt, at Cape Lazo.Sliammon, on Malaspina Inlet.Tatpoos, on the eastern part of Valdes Island.History.?The Comox were visited by Europeans somewhat laterthan the Cowichan (q. v.), otherwise their history has been the same.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated that in 1780 there were 400Comox on Vancouver Island and 1,400 on the mainland. In 1906 hegives 59 and 265 respectively.Connection in which they have become noted.?An important port onVancouver Island is named after the Comox.Cowichan. Significance unknown.Connections.?The Cowichan were one of the principal dialecticgroups of the coastal division of the Salishan linguistic stock. Theywere closely connected with the Salishan Indians, who occupied thevalley of Fraser River from its mouth nearly to Spuzzum. (See Stale.)Location.?On the southeast coast of Vancouver Island betweenNanoos Bay and Saanich Inlet.SubdivisionsClemclemalats, in Cowichan Valley.Comiakin, in Cowichan Valley.Hellelt, on Chimenes River.Kenipaim, in Cowichan Valley.Kilpanlus, in Cowichan Valley.Koksilah, in Cowichan Valley.Kulleets, on Chimenes Bay.Lilmalche, on Thetis Island.Malakut, on Saanich Inlet.Penelakut, on Kuper and Galiano Islands.Quamichan, in Cowichan Valley.Siccameen, on Oyster Bay.Somenos, in Cowichan Valley.Tateke, on Valdes Island, southeast of Vancouver Island and north of GalianoIsland.Yekolaos, on Thetia Island.History.?These people (the Cowichan) may have been visited byJuan de Fuca in 1592 and were certainly met by several later expedi-tions to the northwest coast by Spaniards, English, and Americans.Early in the nineteenth century Hudson's Bay Company tradersbegan to come into the country, and, most important for the history
554 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145
of the native people, was the founding of Victoria in 1843. The rushof miners came a few years later and the subsequent history of theCowichan has been that of most tribes subjected to continuouscontact with Europeans, though they have never been driven entirelyout of their ancient territories.Population.?Mooney's (1928) estimate of the Vancouver IslandCowichan for the year 1780 is 5,500 as against a population of 1,298in 1907.Connection in which they have become noted.?The name of the Co-wichan has been given to a lake, river and valley on Vancouver Island.Cree. Contracted from Kiistinaux, the French form of Kenistenoag,given as a name they appHed to themselves. Also called:Ana, Annah, Ennas, Eta, various forms of an Athapascan word, meaning
"foes."lyiniwok, or Nehiyawok, own name, meaning "those of the first race."Nathehwy-within-yoowuc, meaning "southern men" (Franklin, 1823).Nehiyaw, Chippewa name.O'pimmitish Ininiwuc, meaning "men of the woods."Shahe', Hidatsa name.Saie'kuQn, Siksika name.Sha-i-yd, or Shi-6-ya, Assiniboin name, meaning "enemies."Shi-e-d-la, Dakota name.Southern Indians, by the Hudson Bay traders.Connections.?The Cree are one of the type people of one of the twogreatest divisions of the Algonquian linguistic family.Location.?When the Cree first came to the knowledge of Europeansthey extended from James Bay to the Saskatchewan, the Tete deBoule of the upper Ottawa forming a detached branch. For theirlater extensions see History below.SubdivisionsA major distinction is usually drawn between the Paskwawininiwug (PlainsCree) and Sakawininiwug (Woodland Cree). The former are subdivided into theSipiwininiwug (River Cree) and Mamikininiwug (Lowland Cree). Hayden (1862)gives the following band names, nearly all said to have been derived from the nameof a chief: Apistekaihe, Cokah, Kiaskusis, Mataitaikeok, Muskwoikakenut,Muskwoikauepawit, Peisiekan, Piskakauakis, Shemaukau, Wikyuwamkamu-senaikata. These are probably identical in part with the following bands of PlainsCree given by Skinner (1914): Katepoisipi-wiinuto (Calling River (Qu'Appelle)Band) also called Kagiciwuinuwuk (Loud Voices Band, from their famous chief),Wabuswaianilk (Rabbit Skins), Mamakitce-wiinulik (Big Gizzard People),Paskokopa-wiinu<ik (Willow People), Nutimi-iniuAk (Poplar People), Cipi-winiuAk (River People), Saka-winouiik (Bush People), Masnipiwiniulik (Paintedor Pictured People), "Little Dogs," (Piapot's Band), Asinskau-winiullk (StonePeople), Tcipoaian-winiutik (Chipewyan People), NiopwatAk (Cree-Assmiboine),Sakbwatsllk (Bush Assiniboine) . Skinner (1914) expresses uncertainty as towhether the names of the last three were nicknames due to intimacy between thebands so designated and the foreign tribes mentioned, or whether the tribesthemselves were of mixed ancestry. For the following names of bands of the
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 555Woodland Cree I am indebted to Dr. John M. Cooper (personal information):Barren Ground Cree (on the west side of James Bay at its entrance), Fort AlbanyBand (on the lower course of Albany River), Kesagami Lake Band (at the southernend of James Bay), Moose Factory Band (the Monsoni proper), on the lower courseof Moose River, Northern T^te de Boule (at the head of St. Maurice River),Southern Tete de Boule (on the middle course of St. Maurice River). This listis incomplete, leaving out of consideration particularly the bands later formedtoward the west, though two of these latter were the Sakittawawininiwug (Creeof Cross Lake) and the Ayabaskawininiwug (Athabaska Lake Cree). It mustnot be supposed that any of these have had a connected history from early times.They represent, for the most part, the later rearrangement following on theestablishment of trading posts. However, the location of some of them was nodoubt determined in the first instance by that of the old bands or by the samegeographic advantages originally responsible for them. (See section on History.)History.?The Cree were known to French traders and missionariesas early as the first half of the seventeenth century, and about the endof that century they rose to a position of importance owing to the usemade of them as guides and hunters in the prosecution of the furtrade. The Enghsh first came in contact with them through the postsof the Hudson's Bay Company established in their territory on HudsonBay beginning in 1667 and for a time there was great rivalry betweenthe French and Enghsh for their favor and patronage. At an earlyperiod the Cree formed an alhance with the Assiniboin, who wished tobe on good terms with them so that they could have access to theHudson Bay posts where they could obtain guns and powder to assistthem in their wars with their kindred, the Dakota. This alhancealso enabled the Cree to push southward as far as Red River andterritories of the present United States. Acquisition of rifles and theimpetus given by the fur trade also induced them to undertake adven-turous journeys to the west and north. A party of Cree reached thedelta of the Mackenzie River just before Sir Alexander Mackenzie,and other Cree bands were raiding the Sekani up the Peace River intothe Rocky Mountains at the same time. Today there are many ofthe Cree descendants in the north and west, around Little Slave Lake,at Hudson Hope on Peace River, along the Lower Peace, and onLake Athabaska and Slave River down to Great Slave Lake. Thetrails they blazed in their raids were followed by Mackenzie and otherfur-traders. There is a little band among the Sarsi, and they havemingled their blood with every Plains tribe, even including theBlackfeet.^Their later history has been closely bound up with the activities ofthe Hudson's Bay and Northwest Fur Companies, and though Euro-peans and European influence have steadily filtered into their country,
1 For much of this information I am indebted to Mr. D. Jenness, formerly Chief of the AnthropologicalDivision of the National Museum of Canada, Ottawa, Canada.
556 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145the utility of the Cree in the promotion and preservation of the furtrade has prevented that displacement and depletion so commonamong the tribes of the United States.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated 20,000 Cree at the periodof first white contact, including 5,000 Monsoni and related peoples in1600 and 15,000 Cree proper and Maskegon in 1670. This agreesvery closely with another estimate for the year 1776. At the presentday they are supposed to number all told about 10,000.Connection in which they have become noted.?The principal claim ofthe Cree to notoriety has been in connection with the activities of theHudson's Bay Company and the fur trade.Crow. A tribe of the Siouan linguistic family which may have livedon the north side of the International Boundary in late prehistorictimes in the region indicated on the map, though this is uncertain.(See Montana.)Dakota. A well-known tribe of the same family as the Crow. Asalready noted, the Assiniboin branched from them in prehistorictimes, but some bands of Dakota, notably that of Sitting Bull, re-sorted to Canadian territory at a later period. (See South Dakota.)Eskimo. Said to be from Abnaki Algonquian Esquimantsic, orpossibly from its Chippewa equivalent Ashkimeq, signifying "eatersof raw flesh." This may be described as the traditional interpre-tation, but Dr. Thalbitzer, an eminent authority on tbe Eskimo,believes it to have been derived from a term applied to them bythe French missionaries, signifying "the excommunicated ones"(Thalbitzer, 1950), from which he also derives the place nameEscoumains. Also called:A'lvaye'lilit, Chukchi name, meaning "those of alien language."Anda-kpoen, Kutchin name.Ara-k'e, Bastard Loucheux (Kutchin) name.En-na-k'e, Kawchodinne name, meaning "enenaies."En-na-k'i6, Slave name, meaning "enemies."Eshkibod, Chippewa form given by Baraga.HQsky, by Hudson's Bay Company employees.Innuit, Innuin, etc., own name, meaning "people."Kaladlit, name adopted for themselves by Greenland Eskimo, said to be acorruption of Skandinavian Skraeling,Nottaway, term used by most Algonquian people for all enemies, meaning
"snakes."Ot'el'nna, Montagnais name.Seymds, term used by sailors of the Hudson's Bay Company's ships, andderived from a native term of greeting, said to be Seymo or Teymo.Skraellingar, Scandinavian name, meaning "small people."Ta-kutchi, Kutchin name, meaning "ocean people."Tci6"k-run6?, Seneca name, meaning "seal people."Ultsehaga, Kenai name, meaning "slaves."
SwANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 557Connections.?The Eskimo constituted one linguistic stock, thedialects of which were in general very close together, but the Aleut(q. V.) of Alaska formed a somewhat divergent group. Chiefly onphysical grounds they are usually set apart from all other aboriginesof America.Location.?The Eskimo are known to have extended anciently fromMingan opposite Anticosti Island, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, aroundthe entire northeastern and northern coasts of Canada to the Alaskanboundary except for the southwest coast of Hudson Bay, and to haveoccupied Baffin Land and many of the other Islands of the ArcticArchipelago, both sides of Smith Sound, and the entire west coastand most of the east coast of Greenland. In later times they retiredfrom northeastern Greenland, from the north coast of the Gulf of St.Lawrence, and from part of the west coast of Hudson Bay. Theiroccupancy of the Mingan section of Labrador appears to have beenbrief. They fringed the coast of Alaska almost completely to CopperRiver and in part a little beyond, and had settled along the north coastof Siberia. (See also Alaska.)SubdivisionsThe Eskimo were subdivided into a very large number of local groups alwayschanging, and any list of these is highly conventional. The following is believedto include the most important names and is based upon the best authorities availa-ble. The enumeration is from east to west, except for Greenland, omitting ofcourse those territories occupied in early historic times and now abandoned.I. Labrador Eskimo:Aivitumiut, about Rigolet.Avitumiut, about Hopedale.Chuckbuckmiut, in Saglek Bay.Itivimiut, on the east coast of Hudson Bay.Kanithlualukshuamiut, on George River.Kigiktagmiut, on the Belcher Islands and other islands oflf the east shore ofHudson Bay.KUlinunmiut, at Cape Chidley.Koksoakmiut, between Whale and Payne Rivers, especially on Koksoak River.Konithlushuamiut, Okkak.Netcetumiut, about Cartwright, in Sandwich Bay.Nunenumiut, about Nain.Nuvugmiut, at Cape Wolstenholme.Puthlavamiut, in Battle Harbor, Labrador.Unavamiut, at Hopes Advance.IL Central Eskimo:Aivillirmiut, in Wager Inlet and along the coast from Cape Fullerton to CapePenrhyn.Akudnirmiut, from Home Bay to Scott Inlet,Akuharmiut, from Icy Cape to beyond Amadjuak Bay.Akulliakatagmiut, on the south shore of Dolphin and Union Straits.Arveqtormiut, in BeUot Strait.Arviligyuarmiut, from Committee Bay nearly to Rae Strait.
558 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Asiagmiut, opposite Melbourne Island.Ekaluktogmiut, from Dease Strait to Denmark Bay.Haneragmiut, on the north shore of Dolphin and Union Straits west of the last.Haningayormiut, on the upper course of Backs River.Harvaqtormiut, on Mistake Bay.Hauheqtormiut, from Pistol Bay to Rankin Inlet.Iglulirmiut, on Fury and Hecla Straits.Iluilermiut, on Adelaide Peninsula and King William Island.Kanghiryuachiakmiut, in Minto Inlet.Kanghiryuarmiut, on the south coast of Banks Island and Prince Albert Sound.Kiglinirmiut, on the eastern end of Victoria Island.KUusiktomiut, on Bathurst Inlet, on the mainland.Kingnaitmiut, over most of the northern shore of Cumberland Sound.Kogloktogmiut, on the lower course of Coppermine River.Nagyuktogmiut, on the north shore of Coronation Gulf.Nedlungmiut, between Jones' Sound and Norwegian Bay, EUesmere Land.Nenitagmiut, on Arctic Sound.Netsilingmiut, on Boothia Peninsula,Noahonirmiut, at Cape Krusenstern.Nugumiut, in Frobisher Bay.Padlimiut, two groups: (1) from Cape Dier to Home Bay; (2) from CapeEsquimaux to Ferguson River on the west coast of Hudson Bay.Pilingmiut, at the end of Fox Channel (?).Pingangnaktogmiut, on the south shore of Coronation Gulf.Puivlirmiut, on the north shore of Dolphin and Union Strait west of LadyFranklin Point.Qaernermiut, Chesterfield Inlet.Qaumauangmiut, from Resolution Island to Icy Cove, Baffin Island.Qinguamiut, at the head of Cumberland Sound.Sagdlirmiut,. on the south coast of Southampton Island.Saumingmiut, between Cape Mercy and Exeter Sound.Sikosuilarmiut, about King Charles Cape.Sinimiut, on Pelly Bay.Talirpingmiut, on the south shore of Cumberland Sound and Netilling Lake.Tununerusirmiut, in Admiralty Inlet.Tununirmiut, in Ponds Inlet and Eclipse Sound and on both sides of LancasterSound at its east end.Ukkusiksaligmiut, on the lower part of Backs River.Wallirmiut, from Rae River to Dease Bay on Great Bear Lake.III. Mackenzie Eskimo:Avvagmiut, between Franklin Bay and Liverpool Bay.Kigirktarugmiut, from the mouth of the Mackenzie River into Alaska.Kittegaryumiut, on the west side of Mackenzie Delta.Kurugmiut, on Hutchison Bay.Nuvorugmiut, from Anderson River to Cape Brown.IV. The Greenland tribes are as follows, these divisions being named for the mostpart for modern places:Agto. Disko.Ameralik. Egedesminde.Anarkat. Fiskernaes.Angmagsalingmiut. Frederikshaab.Arsuk. Godhavn.
Sw ANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 559Godthaab. Nugsuak (two groups (1) on the southHolstensborg. side of Nugsuak Peninsula; (2) fromIgdlorssuit. Melville Bay to Cape Shackleton).Ita Eskimo. Pamiagdluk.Ivigtut Pisigsarfik.Jakobshavn. Proven.Julianehaab. Puisortok.Kangamiut. Sukkertoppen.Kangatsiak. Tasiusak, about the place so-called.Kangerdlugsiatsiak. Tingamirmiut.Karajak. Umanak.Nanortalik. Upernivik, about Upernivik.V. Alaskan Eskimo tribes and towns:Aglemiut, from the mouth of Nushagak River to Heiden Bay, including thesevillages:Igagik, at the mouth of Ugaguk River.Ikak, near Naknek Lake.Kingiak, on the north side of the mouth of Naknek River, Bristol Bay.Paugwik, with Aleut, at the mouth of Naknek River, on the south side.Ugashik, at the mouth of Ugashik River.Unangashik, at Heiden Bay, Alaska Peninsula.Chingigmiut, in the region of Cape Newenham and Cape Peirce; villages:Aziavik, near Cape Peirce.Kinegnak, on Cape Newenham.Tzahavak, near Cape Newenham.Chnagmiut, on the shore of Pastel Bay, in the Yukon Delta, and on both banksof Yukon River as far as Razboinski; villages:Aiachagiuk, on the right bank of the Yukon near the head of the delta.Aimgua, near the mouth of Yukon River.Alexeief, in the Yukon Delta.Andreafski, on the north bank of Yukon River 5 miles above a formerRussian redoubt of that name.Ankachak, on the right bank of the lower Yukon, perhaps identical withKenunimik.Apoon, on Apoon Pass, the northern mouth of the Yukon River.Ariswaniski, on the right bank of the lower Yukon.Avnulik, the exact location not given.Chatinak, near the mouth of Yukon River.Chefoklak, near the head of Yukon Delta.Chukchuk, in the Yukon Delta.Claikehak, on the north bank of Yukon River above Tlatek.Fetkina, on the north arm of Yukon Delta.Ingichuk, in the Yukon Delta.Kanig, on the north bank of Yukon River near its mouth.Kashutuk, on an island in the Yukon Delta.Kenuninuk, given as 15 miles above Andreafski on the right bank but per-haps identical with Ankachak,Komarof, on the north bank of Yukon River.Kotlik, on Kotlik River.Kusilvak, on Kusilvak Island at the mouth of Yukon River.Kwiahok, at the southern mouth of the Kwikluak Pass of the Yukon River.Nigiklik, at the head of the Yukon Delta.
560 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Ninvok, near the Yukon Delta.Nokrot, near Cape Romanzof on the coast of Norton Sound.Nunapithlugak, in the Yukon Delta, on the right bank of Apoon Pass.Onuganuk, at the Kwikluak mouth of the Yukon.Pastoliak, on the right bank of Pastoliak River near the southern shore ofNorton Sound.Razboinski, on the right bank of the Yukon near the head of the delta.Starik, on the south bank of Yukon River above the head of the delta.Takshak, on the north bank of the Yukon near Razboinski.Tiatiuk, in the Yukon Delta.Tlatek, on the north bank of Yukon River 35 miles above Andreafski.Chugachigmiut, from\the western extremity [of^ Kenai Peninsula to the deltaof Copper River; villages:Ingamatsha, on Chenega Island, Prince William Sound.Kanikluk, on the north shore of Prince William Sound.Kiniklik, on the north shore of Prince William Sound.Nuchek, where the Russians established a stockade and trading post knownas Fort Konstantine, at Port Etches, Hinchinbrook Island, Prince WilliamSound.Tatitlek, on the northeastern shore of Prince William Sound.Ikogmiut, on both banks of Yukon River from the territory of the Chnagmiutas far inland as Makak; villages:Asko, on the right bank of the lower Yukon below Anvik.Bazhi, on the Yukon at the upper mouth of Innoko River.Ignok, on the right bank of the Yukon near Koserefski.Ikatlek, on the Yukon 30 miles below Anvik.Ikogmiut, also called "Mission," on the Yukon near its southernmost bend.Ikuak, on the Yukon at its southernmost bend.Ingrakak, on the right bank of the Yukon near longitude 161?30' W.Katagkak, on Innoko River above its junction with the Yukon.Khaik, on the northern bank of Yukon River nearly opposite Koserefski;given once apparently as Claikehak.Kikhkat, on the north bank of Yukon River near Ikogmiut.Kochkok, on the right bank of Yukon River near the Kuskokwim portage.Koko, on the north bank of the Yukon below Ikogmiut.Koserefski, formerly Kaiyuhkhotana, on the left bank of the Yukon near themouth of Shageluk slough.Kuyikanuikpul, on the right bank of Yukon River below Koserefski.Kvikak, formerly Kaiyuhkhotana, on Yukon River 30 miles above Anvik.Makak, on the right bank of the Yukon below Anvik.Nukluak, on the left bank of the Yukon opposite Ikogmiut Mission.Nunaikak, on the Yukon opposite Koserefski, perhaps the same as Ukak.Nunaktak, on Yukon River above Anvik.Paimiut, on the southern bank of the Yukon 38 miles above Ikogmiut, lati-tude 62?10' N., longtitude 160?10' W.Pogoreshapka, on the right bank of the Yukon about 20 miles from Koseref-ski.Ribnaia, on the right bank of the Yukon above Ikogmiut.Staria Selenie, on the Yukon River below Ikogmiut.Uglovaia, on the right bank of the lower Yukon between Ikogmiut and Raz-boinski.Ukak, on the Yukon nearly opposite Koserefski, perhaps the same as Nunai-kak.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 561Imaklimiut, on Big Diomede Island in Bering Strait in U. S. S. R. territory.Inguklimiut, on Little Diomede Island in Bering Strait; their village calledInalik.Kagmalirmiut, on the lower course of Colville River but not extending to itsmouth.Kaialigmiut, north of the Kuskwogmiut, between Kuguktik River and CapeRomanzof and on Nelson Island; villages:Agiukchuk, opposite the southern shore of Nelson Island.Anogok, on the coast just west of Kuskokwim Bay; given by Porter (1893) asMagemiut but actually Kaialigmiut.Asiknuk, on Hooper Bay near Cape Romanzof.Chichinak, on a small river flowing into Etolin Strait.Kaialik, in the Yukon Delta near Azun River.Chalit, on the left bank of Kuguklik River, northwest of Kuskokwim Bay.Igiak, inland from Scammon Bay and near Magemiut territory.Kashigalak, in the center of Nelson Island.Kashunuk, near the Kaskunuk outlet of the Yukon River.Kenachananak, on the coast opposite Nunivak Island.Kuskunuk, on Hooper Bay.Kvigatluk, in the lake district northwest of Kuskokwim River.Nuloktolok, on the south side of Nelson Island,Nunvogulukhluguk, in the Big Lake region.Nushanamut, south of Hooper Bay.Sfagauuk, between Dall Lake and Etolin Strait.Ukak, on Hazen Bay.Ukuk, on Nelson Island.Unakagak, at the head of Hazen Bay.Kaniagmiut, on Kodiak Island and the mainland coast from Iliamna Lake toUgashik River, and the southern coast to longitude 159? W.; villages:Afognak, comprising 3 settlements on Afognak Island.Aiaktalik, on one of the Goose Islands near Kodiak.Akhiok, on Alitak Bay, Kodiak Island.Aleksashkina, on Wood Island in St. Paul Harbor, Kodiak Island.Alexandrovsk, on Graham Harbor.Ashivak, near Cape Douglas.Chiniak, at the east end of Kodiak Island.Fugitive, at Hobson Harbor, Sitkalidak Island near Kodiak.Igak, on Afognak Island east of Afognak.Kaguyak, on the southwestern coast of Kodiak Island.Kaluiak, on Chignik Bay.Kanatak, on Shelikof Strait.Karluk, on the northern coast of Kodiak Island.Katmai, on the southeastern coast of Alaska Peninsula.Kattak, on Afognak Island east of Afognak.Kiliuda, on the eastern coast of Kodiak Island.Kodiak, established by the Russians, on the eastern end of Kodiak Island.Kuiukuk, on the southeastern coast of Alaska Peninsula.Kukak, on Kukak Bay on the coast of Alaska Peninsula.Liesnoi, on Wood Island near Kodiak.Mitrofania, on Mitrofania Island, south of Chignik Bay.Nauklak, 15 miles east of Naknek Lake, Alaska Peninsula.Nunamiut, on Three Saints Harbor, Kodiak Island.Nunikiak, on the southwestern shore of Afognak Island.
562 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY I Bull. 145Orlova, at Eagle Harbor, Ugak Bay, Kodiak Island,Ostrovki, on Kachemak Bay, on the coast of Kenai Peninsula.Seldovia, on the south side of Kachemak Bay, on the west coast of KenaiPeninsula.Sutkum, on Sutwik Island oflf the southern coast of Alaska Peninsula.Three Saints, on the site of the oldest Russian settlement in Alaska, KodiakIsland.Uganik, on the northern coast of Kodiak Island.Uhaskek, on the southeastern coast of Kodiak Island.Ukshivikak, on the southwestern coast of Kodiak Island.Uyak, near the salmon canneries on Uyak Bay, Kodiak Island.Uzinki, on Spruce Island, Kodiak group.Yalik, on Nuka Bay, eastern coast of Kenai Peninsula.Yelovoi, on Spruce Island, Kodiak group.Kanianermiut, on the headwaters of Colville River.Kaviagmiut, on the southern part of Seward Peninsula westward from NortonBay, many wintering on the eastern shore of Norton Sound; villages:Aiacheruk, near Cape Nome.Akpaliut, on Norton Sound west of Golofnin Bay.Anelo, at Port Clarence.Anlik, on Golofnin Bay.Atnuk, near Darby Cape.Aziak, on Sledge Island.Chaik, on the shore of Norton Sound.Chainruk, at Port Clarence.Chinik, on Golofnin Bay.Chiukak, on the peninsula enclosing Golofnin Bay.Iknetuk, on Golofnin Bay.Imoktegokshuk, at Cape Nome.Kachegaret, at Port Clarence.Kalulek, at Port Clarence.Kaveazruk, at Port Clarence.Kaviak, southeast of Port Clarence.Kogluk, at Cape Nome.Kovogzruk, at Port Clarence.Metukatoak, at Port Clarence.Netsekavvik, on Golofnin Bay.Okinoyoktokawik, on the coast opposite Sledge Island.Opiktulik, on the north shore of Norton Sound.Perebluk, at Port Clarence.Senikave, on the mainland opposite Sledge Island.Shinnapago, at Port Clarence.Siningmon, on Golofnin Bay.Sitnazuak, west of Cape Nome.Sunvalluk, on the coast opposite Sledge Island.Takchuk, east of Port Clarence.Tubuktolik, on the north shore of Norton Sound.Uinuk, at the mouth of Nome River.Ukivok, on King Island.Ukodlint, on Golofnin Bay.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 563Kevalingamiut, on the coast of the Arctic Ocean from Cape Seppings andCape Krusenstern inland to Nunatak River. Later they moved farthernorth, expelling the Tikeramiut from Port Hope and the district beyond;villages:Ipnot, at Point Thomson.Kechemudluk, at Cape Seppings.Kivualinak, near Port Hope.Ulezara, near Cape Kruzenstern.Kiatagmiut, on Kvichivak River and Iliamna Lake; villages:Chikak, on Iliamna Lake.Kakonak, on the south shore of Iliamna Lake.Kaskanak, on Kvichak River where it flows from Lake Iliamna.Kichik, on Kichik Lake east of Iliamna Lake.Kogiung, on Bristol Bay at the mouth of Kvichak River.Kvichak, on Kvichak River.Nogeling, on the outlet of Lake Clark.Kigirktarugmiut, between Manning Point and the mouth of the MackenzieRiver.Killinermiut, on the middle course of Colville River.Kinugumiut, on Seward Peninsula in the region about Cape Prince of Wales;villages:Eidenu, at Cape Prince of Wales.Kigegen, inland from Cape Prince of Wales.Mitletukeruk, location unknown.Nuk, at Port Clarence.Pikta, near Cape Prince of Wales,Shishmaref, at Shishmaref Cape.Sinauk, on the north shore of Port Clarence.Niktak, on Cape Prince of Wales.Kowagmiut, on Kowak River east of Kotzebue Sound; villages:Kikiktak, at the mouth of Hotham Inlet, Kotzebue Sound.Kowak, at the mouth of Kowak River.Umnokalukta, on Black River, a branch of Kowak River.Unatak, on Kowak River.Sheshalek, on the north shore of Kotzebue Sound, near the mouth of NoatakRiver, a trading settlement for several towns.Kukparungmiut, on the Arctic Ocean between Point Belcher and Cape Beaufort;village
:
Kokolik, at Point Lay.Kunmiut, on Kuk River above Wainright Inlet; village:Kilimantavie, on the Arctic coast west of Wainright Inlet.Kuskwogmiut, on the shores of Kuskokwim Bay and the banks of KuskokwimRiver as far inland as Kolmakof ; villages:Agomekelenanak, in the Kuskokwim district.Agulakpak, near Kuskokwim River.Aguliak, on the eastern shore of Kuskokwim Bay.Agumak, location not given.Akiachak, on Kuskokwim River.Akiak, on Kuskokwim River.Aklut, on Kuskokwim River at the mouth of the Eek.Akmiut, on Kuskokwim River 10 miles above Kolmakof, also given as aTaiyanyanokhotana (Koyukon) village, perhaps Eskimoized in later time .Anagok, on the coast near Cape Avinof.
564 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bdll. 145Apahiachak, location uncertain,Apokak, near the mouth of Kuskokwim River.Atchaluk, location uncertain.Bethel, a Moravian Mission, close to Mumtrelek.Chimiak, on Kuskokwim River.Chuarlitilik, on Kanektok River.Ekaluktaluk, location uncertain.Etoluk, location uncertain.Igiakchak, location uncertain.Iliutak, on Kuskokwim Bay.Kahmiut, location uncertain.Kakuiak, on Kuskokwim River.Kaltshak, on the right bank of Kuskokwim River about longitude 161?(159? ?) W.Kaluktuk, location uncertain.Kamegli, on the right bank of Kuskokwim River above Bethel.Kanagak, location uncertain.Kanak, location uncertain.Kenachananak, on the coast opposite Nunivok Island.Kiktak, on an island in Kuskokwim River 25 miles above Bethel.Kinak, on the north bank of the Kuskokwim River.Kinegnagak, location uncertain.Klchakuk, on the east side of the entrance to Kuskokwim Bay.Kleguchek, on the right bank of Kuskokwim River at its mouth.Klutak, location uncertain.Kolmakof , a Moravian mission consisting of Eskimo mixed with Athapascans,200 miles from the mouth of the Kuskokwim River.Kongiganak, near the entrance to Kuskokwim Bay.Kuilkluk, on the left bank of Kuskokwim River, perhaps identical with atown given as Quieclohchamiut or Quiechochlogamiut.Kukluktuk, on the left bank of Kuskokwim River 30 miles below Kolmakof.Kulvagavik, on the west shore of Kuskokwim Bay.Kuskok, on Kuskokwim River near its mouth.Kuskovak, on the west bank of Kuskokwim River near its mouth.Kweleluk, on a small river in the tundra north of Kuskokwim Bay.Kwik, on the right bank of Kuskokwim River 10 miles above Bethel.Kwikak, on upper Kuskokwim River.Kwilokuk, location uncertain.Kwinak, on the east side of Kuskokwim River near its mouth.Lomavik, on the left bank of Kuskokwim River.Mumtrak, on Good News Bay.Mumtrelek, on the west bank of lower Kuskokwim River.Nak, on the north bank of Kuskokwim River.Nakolvakik, on the left bank of Kuskokwim River near the mouth.Napai, mixed with Athapascans, on the bank of Kuskokwim River a littleabove Kolmakof.Napaiskak, on the left bank of Kuskokwim River about 4 miles belowBethel.Napakiak, on the right bank of Kuskokwim River about 10 miles belowBethel.Nochak, on Chilitna River.Novotoklak, location uncertain.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 565Okaganak, on the south bank of Kuskokwim River.Oknagak, on the north bank of Kuskokwim River.Oyak, on the east shore of Kuskokwim Bay, just north of the mouth ofKanektok River.Papka, on the north shore of Kuskokwim Bay.Shevenak, on the left bank of Kuskokwim River.Shiniak, on the east shore of Kuskokwim Bay at the end of deep-waternavigation.Shokfak, on a lake in the tundra north of Kuskokwim Bay.Takiketak, on the east shore of Kuskokwim Bay.Togiaratsorik, on the left bank of Kuskokwim River.Tuklak, on Kuskokwim River below the Yukon portage.Tuluka, on the right bank of Kuskokwim River.Tuluksak, on the left bank of Kuskokwim River 40 miles above Bethel.Tunagak, location uncertain.Ugovik, on the right bank of Kuskokwim River.Uknavik, on Kuskokwim River 10 miles below the Yukon portage.Ulokak, location uncertain.Vinasale, a trading post on the upper Kuskokwim.Yakchilak, near the mouth of Kuskokwim River.Magemiut, in the lake country of Alaska from Cape Romanzof almost to theYukon River, villages:Anogok, see Kaialigmiut.Chefoklak, on the left bank of Yukon River at the head of the delta.Gilak, near Cape Romanzof.Kipniak, at the mouth of the southern arm of Yukon River.Kweakpak, in the tundra south of the Yukon Delta.Kwikak, on the coast of the Yukon Delta, south of Black River.Nanvogaloklak, on one of the lakes connected with Kvichivak River.Nunochok, in the Big Lake region.Tefaknak, south of the Yukon Delta.Tiengak, on Kvichavak River.Malemiut, on the coast of Norton Sound north of Shaktolik, and on the neckof Seward peninsula; villages:Akchadak-kochkond, location uncertain.Atten, near the source of Buckland River.Chamisso, on Chamisso Island in Eschscholtz Bay.Inglutaligemiut, on Inglutalik River.Kongik, on Buckland or Konguk River.Koyuktolik, on Koyuk River.Kugaluk, on Spafarief Bay on the shore of Kotzebue Sound.Kungugemiut, on Buckland River.Kviguk, at the mouth of Kviguk River, on the shore of Norton Sound.Kvinkak, on Kvinkak River at the upper end of Norton Sound.Kwik, two villages: (1) on a stream near the head of Norton Sound; (2) onthe west side of Bald Head, Norton Bay.Nubviakchugaluk, on the north coast of Norton Sound.Nuklit, near Cape Denbigh, Norton Sound.Shaktolik, on the east coast of Norton Sound.Taapkuk, at Cape Espenberg, Kotzebue Sound.Ulukuk, on Ulukuk River east of Norton Sound.Ungalik, at the mouth of Ungalik River at the eastern end of Norton Sound.
566 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Noatagmiut, on the lower course of Noatak River; villages:Aniyak, on the Arctic coast just north of Kotzebue Sound (?).Noatak, on the lower course of Noatak River.Nunatagmiut, on the upper course of Noatak River.Nunivagmiut, occupying the greater part of Nunivak Island and a small dis-trict about Cape Vancouver on Nelson Island; villages:Chulik, on Nunivak Island, in 1880 comprising two villages called Chuligmiutand Upper Chuligmiut.Inger, on Nunivak Island.Kaliukluk, south of Cape Vancouver on Nelson Island.Koot, near Cape Etolin, Nunivak Island.Kwik, on the southern shore of Nunivak Island.Tanunak, near Cape Vancouver, Nelson Island.Nushagagmiut, on the banks of Igushik, Wood, and Nushagak Rivers and theshores of Nushagak Bay; villages:Agivavik, on Nushagak River.Akak, location uncertain.Akuliukpak, on Pamiek Lake.Akulivikchuk, on Nushagak River.Anagnak, on Wood River.Angnovchak, location uncertain.Annugamok, on an eastern tributary of Nushagak River.Ekuk, near the mouth of Nushagak River.Golok, location uncertain, perhaps the same as Kalignak.Igivachok, location uncertain.Igushik, on Igushik River.Imiak, at the outlet of Aleknagik Lake.Insiachak, location uncertain.Kakuak, 60 miles up Nushagak River.Kalignak, on a tributary of Nushagak River. _Kanakanak, on Nushagak Bay.Kanulik, on the left bank of Nushagak River near its mouth.Mulchatna, on Mulchatna River, a branch of Nushagak River.Stugarok, on Nushagak Bay.Tikchik, on Lake Tikchik, on the Kuskokwim portage.Trinachak, location uncertain.Vuikhtulik, on the northern shore of Lake Alaknakik.Yaoherk, location uncertain, perhaps identical with Ekuk.Nuwukmiut, at Point Barrow; villages:Isutkwa, on the site of the United States Signal Station at Point Barrow.Nuwuk, at Point Barrow.Pernyu, on the western shore of Elson Bay, close to Point Barrow.Ongovehenok, on Kugrua River near Point Barrow.Selawigmiut, on Selawik Lake east of Kotzebue Sound:Sidarumiut, west of Point Barrow; villages:Atnik, near Point Belcher.Attenok, on Seahorse Islands.Charnroruit, on Seahorse Islands.Nunaria, near Point Belcher.Perignak, on Seahorse Islands.Pinguishuk, on Seahorse Islands.Sidaru, between Wainwright Inlet and Point Belcher.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 567Tikeramiut, at Point Hope; village:Tikera or Nuna, at Point Hope.Togiagmiut, about Togiak Bay and River; villages:Aguliukpak, on lake of same name at head of Wood River.Eklik, on Togiak River near its mouth.Kashaiak, on Togiak River near its junction with the Kashaiak River.Kassiank, on Togiak River.Kulukak, on Kukulak Bay.Togiak, at the mouth of Togiak River.Tuniakpuk, on lower Togiak River.Ualik, on Kulukak Bay.Ugalakmiut, at the mouth of Copper River and on Kayak Island; in lateryears they became thoroughly altered by contact with the Tlingit so thatthey were often classed with the latter people. Village:Eyak, at the entrance of Prince William Sound.Unaligmiut, extending from the eastern shore of Norton Sound inland to thecoast range; villages:Anemuk, on Anvik River.Iguik, on Norton Sound.Kiktaguk, on the southern coast of Norton Sound.Pikmiktalik, near the mouth of Pikmiktalik River, just north of CapeRomanzof.Tachik, on St. Michael Island, near the Russian redoubt, and now includedin the town of St. Michael.Topanika, on the eastern coast of Norton Sound.Unalaklik, at the mouth of Unalalik River.Utkiavinmiut, on the Arctic coast west of Point Barrow; villages and summercamps:Ernivwin, inland from Point Barrow.Imekpung, near Point Barrow.Ipersua, not accurately located.Kuosugru, on a dry place inland from Point Barrow,Nakeduxo, not accurately located.Nunaktuau, close to Refuge Inlet.Pengnok, near Cape Smythe.Sakamna, inland from Point Barrow.Sinyu, inland from Point Barrow.Utkiavi, at Cape Smythe.Walakpa, not located definitely.Utukamiut, originating at Icy Cape; they later ranged along the Arctic coastfrom Point Hope to Wainright Inlet, and inland to Colville River; villages:Kaiaksekawik, on the north side of Icy Cape.Kelemanturuk, near Icy Cape.Utuka, at Icy Cape.Yuit, around East Cape, Indian Point, and Cape Chukotsky, Siberia, and onSt. Lawrence Island, Alaska; and divided into:(1) The Nookalit, at East Cape; villages:Enmitahin, north of East Cape.Nabukak, on East Cape.Ulak, inhabited in part by Chukchi, just north of East Cape.(2) The Aiwanat, about Indian Point; villages:Avak, near Cape Chukotsky.Imtuk, near Indian Point.
568 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Napakutak, on an island near Indian Point (?).Nasskatulok, at the head of Plover Bay.Rirak, in Plover Bay.Tesik, occupied partly by Chukchi, on the vi'est shore of Chechin Bay.Unisak, on Indian Point.(3) The WuteeHt, at Cape Ulakhpen; villages:Chenlin, including Chukchi, west of the next.Cherinak, near Cape Ulakhpen.(4) The Eiwhuelit. on St. Lawrence Island; villages:Chibukak, at Northwest Cape.Chitnak, on the south coast.Kialegak, near Southeast Cape.Kukuliak, on the north coast.Puguviliak, at Southwest Cape.Punuk, on Punuk Island, east of St. Lawrence Island.History.?The Norse settlers of Greenland were the first white mento come in contact with Eskimo, though it is probable that the latterhad relatively little to do with the extermination of the Em-opeancolonists as was once thought. They were rediscovered byFrobisheror perhaps even earlier explorers and contact between White and Eski-mo was continuous from that time forward. In the eighteenth cen-tury the Danes began to resettle Greenland, and about the same timerelations were opened between the western Eskimo and the Russians.The Eskimo of Labrador were missionized by Moravians, whose effortsamong them are famous in the annals of missionary work. The centralEskimo were not reached until much later than those of the east andwest, the first Europeans to come in contact with them being usuallywhalers, though some of the eighteenth-century explorers, such asHearne (1795), reached them overland from the south. Many oftheir tribes were scarce!}'' known at all until the recent explorations ofStefansson (1914) and Jenness (1922, 1923).Population.?Mooney (1928) gives an estimate of 3,600 Eskimo inLabrador in 1600 and 22,300 in the rest of Canada in 1670; 10,000 inGreenland in 1721 ; and 40,000 in Alaska in 1740. As Mooney in pre-paring the data for each of his areas selects a date just before contactwith the Whites made itself felt appreciably, we may assume that thefigures given had remained relatively stationary for a considerableperiod and add them together for our total, which is 75,900. For theentire Eskim.o population we must add 1,200 living in Asia, which givesus 77,100. To obtain the population of the linguistic stock we mustincrease this by the munber of the Aleut, 16,000, making 93,100.Jenness thinks Mooney's estimates are much too high. He has kindlysupplied me ^vith the following figures for the present population:Canada, 6,184 (Ann. Rep. Dept. Ind. Aff. for 1927); Greenland, 14,066(Statistisk Aarbog for 1922, Copenhagen, 1922), including, however,
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 569about 300 Europeans; Alaska, 13,698 (census of 1920); Labrador(from an estimate before it was entirely united to Canada), probablynot over 1,200 since a large part of the Peninsula was included inCanada. This gives a total of approximately 35,000.Connection in which they have become noted.?From the time whenthey were first known to Europeans, the Eskimo were marked off fromall other peoples in the minds of the former by their peculiar physicaltype, and the unique character of their customs and manner of life.They are distinguished as having been the first of all people of Americato encounter Europeans, and they have earned an honorable name forthemselves through the assistance they have rendered to Arcticexplorers at all periods. They may be called the one people who didnot have to discover America, since they lived on both sides of BeringStrait and hence in both the New and the Old Worlds.Etchaottine. Significance unknown. Also called:Awok^nak, Cree name, meaning "slaves."Brushwood Indians, by Franklin (1823).Slaves, Slavey, by traders by translation of the Cree term.Connections.?The Etchaottine belonged to the Athapascan linguisticstock, their closest relatives having been, apparently, the Kawchottine.Location.?In the valley of Mackenzie River between Great SlaveLake and Fort Norman. SubdivisionThe following names are mainly from Petitot (1891)
:
Desnedeyarelottine, on the banks of upper Mackenzie River.Eleidlinottine, at the confluence of Liard and Mackenzie Rivers, their territoryextending to La Martre, Grandin, and Tach6 Lakes.Etchaottine, between Liard River and the Divide, along Black, Beaver, andWillow Rivers.Etcheridiegottine, on the middle course of Liard River.Etechesottine, between Great Slave and La Martre Lakes.Klodesseottine, on Hay River.Petitot speaks of another band at Fort Norman, but appUes no special name to it.History.?Petitot (1891) states that the Etchaottine anciently ex-tended as far south as Lake Athabaska but that the Cree, on obtainingguns, drove them out of that region and, when they had taken refugein the islands in Great Slave Lake, pm-sued them thither and slaught-ered many. Although it is by no means certain that the Etchaottineever extended as far as Lake Athabaska (see history of the Chipe-wyan), they no doubt suffered, like other Athapascan tribes of theregion, from the invasion of the Cree. In 1789 Mackenzie passedthrough the entire length of the country and trading posts soon fol-lowed. They have since continued to occupy the territory aboveindicated while it has gradually been metamorphosed by the activitiesof the Hudson's Bay Company and the missionaries.
570 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated that in 1670 there were1,250 Etchaottine.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Etchaottine haveappeared in history principally under the name of "Slaves" owing tothe dominating position which the Cree obtained over them and thecontemptuous attitude of that tribe toward them in consequence.Haida. Their own name, meaning "people."Connections.?The Haida constitute the Skittagetan linguisticfamily, the speech of which has certain structural resemblances withthat of the Tlingit and Athapascans, with which Sapir (1915) com-bined it under the term Na-d6n4.Location.?Originally on the Queen Charlotte Islands, but earlyin the eighteenth century a part of the Haida settled on the southernpart of Prince of Wales Island, Alaska, where they came to be knownas Kaigani, from a summer camp where they were in the habit ofgathering to meet trading vessels.Subdivisions and VillagesThe following are large local groups perhaps entitled to the appellation oftribes:Chaahl, on the northwest coast of Moresby Island.Cumshewa, at the north entrance of Cumshewa Inlet, Moresby Island.Dadens, on the south coast of North Island, fronting Parry Passage.Gahlinskun, on the east coast of Graham Island, north of Cape Ball.Haena, on the east end of Maude Island, Skidegate Inlet.Hlielung, on the right bank of Hi-ellen River, at its mouth, Graham Island.Howkan, on Long Island, Alaska, facing Dall Island.Kaisun, on the northwest coast of Moresby Island.Kasaan, on Skowl Arm of Kasaan Bay, east coast of Prince of Wales Island.Kayung, on the east side of Masset Inlet just above Masset.Kiusta, on the northwest coast of Graham Island, opposite North Island.Klinkwan, on Cordova Bay, Prince of Wales Island, Alaska.Kloo, at the east end of Tanoo Island.Kung, at the mouth of Naden Harbor, Graham Island.Kweundlas, on the west coast of Long Island, Alaska.Masset, on the east coast of Masset Inlet near its entrance.Naikun, Rose Spit or Nekoon, at the northeast angle of Graham Island,Ninstints, on Anthony Island at the south end of Moresby Island.Skedans, on a point of land which extends into Hecate Strait from the east end ofLouise Island.Skidegate, on the north shore of Skidegate Inlet near its entrance.Sukkwan, on Cordova Bay, Alaska.Tiun or Tigun, on the west coast of Graham Island south of Point Lewis.Yaku, on the northwest coast of Graham Island opposite North Island.Yan, on the west side of Masset Inlet near its mouth.Small towns and camps so far as known are as follows:Aiodjus, on the west side of Masset Inlet at its mouth.Atana, on House or Atana Island off the east coast of Moresby Island.Atanus, on the northeast coast of Hippa Island.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 571Chaahl, on the east coast of North Island.Chatchini, near Kasaan, Prince of Wales Island.Chets, on an island at the mouth of Tsooskahli, Masset Inlet.Chuga, near Houston Stewart Channel and the town of Ninstints.Chukeu, on the southwest coast of Moresby Island.Dadjingits, on the north shore of Bearskin Bay, Skidegate Inlet.Dahua, north of Lawn Hill at the mouth of Skidegate Inlet.Daiyu, on Shingle Bay, east of Welcome Point, Moresby Island.Djigogiga, legendary town on Copper Bay, Moresby Island.Djigua, legendary town on the north shore of Cumshewa Inlet.Djihuagits, on a creek just south of Rose Spit, Graham Island.lildjao, around Edjao Hill at the east end of Ma.sset Village.Gachigundae, on the northeast shore of AUiford Bay, Moresby Island.Gado, two towns: (1) traditional, on the south side of De la Beche Inlet, MoresbyIsland; (2), on the east side of Lyeli Island.Gaedi, on the northeast shore of a small inlet just northeast of Houston Inlet.Gaesigusket, on Murchison Island at a point opposite Hot Springs Island.Gaiagunkun, legendary, near Hot Springs Island.Gaodjaos, on the south shore of Lina Island, Bearskin Bay.Gasins, on the northwest shore of Lina Island, Bearskin Bay.Gatgainans, on Hippa Island.Gitinkalana, on the north shore of Masset Inlet where it expands into the innerbay.Guhlga, legendary, on the north shore of Skidegate Inlet one mile above SkidgateVillage.Gulhlgildjing, on the south shore of Alliford Bay, Moresby Island.Gwaeskun, at Gwaeskun, the northernmost point on the Queen Charlotte Islands.Hagi, on or near the largest of the Bolkus Islands.Heudao, on the east side of Gull Point, Prevost Island.Hlagi, on an island near the east end of Houston Stewart Channel.Hlakeguns, on Yagun River at the Head of Masset Inlet.Hlgadun, on Moresby Island facing Anthony Island.Hlgaedlin, on the south side of Tanoo Island.Hlgahet, near Skidegate.Hlgai, at the head of Skedans Bay.Hlgaiha, north of Dead Tree Point at the entrance of Skidegate Inlet.Hlgaiu, south of Dead Tree Point at the entrance of Skidegate Inlet.Hlgihla-ala, north of Cape Ball, on the east shore of Graham Island.Hlkia, on the outer side of Lyell Island.Hluln, in Naden Harbor.Hotao, legendary, on the southwest coast of Maude Island.Hotdjohoas, on Lyell Island near the north end of Darwin Sound.Hoyagundla, on a stream of the same name a short distance south of Cape Fife.Huados, near Hlgihla-ala, north of Cape Ball.Kadadjans, on the northwest end of Anthony Island.Kadusgo, at the mouth of a creek of the same name on Louise Island, flowinginto Cumshewa Inlet from the south.Kae, on Skotsgai Bay above Skidegate.Kaidju, on Hewlett Bay, east coast of Moresby Island.Kaidjudal, on Moresby Island opposite Hot Springs Island.Kaigani, at the southeast end of Dall Island, Alaska.Kasta, legendar}', on Copper Bay, Moresby Island.
572 BUREAU OP AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Katana, on Louise Island.Kesa, on the west coast of Graham Island.Ket, on Burnaby Strait, Moresby Island.Kil, on Shingle Bay, Skidegate Inlet.Koagoagit, on the north shore of Bearskin Bay.Koga, on McKay Harbor, Cumshewa Inlet.Kogalskun, on Masset Inlet.Kostunhana, a short distance east of Skidegate.Kundji, 2 towns: (1) legendary, on the south shore of Copper Bay, MoresbyIsland; (2), on the west side of Prevost Island.Kungga, on the south shore of Dog Island.Kungielung, on the west side of the entrance to Masset Inlet.Kunhalas, just inside of Cumshewa Inlet.Kunkia, on the north coast of North Island.Kuulana, in Naden Harbor.Lanadagunga, south of Tangle Cove, Moresby Island.Lanagahlkehoda, on a small island opposite, Kaisun, Moresby Island.Lanahawa, 2 towns: (1) on the west coast of Graham Island opposite HippaIsland; (2) on the west coast of Burnaby Island south of Ket.Lanahilduns, on the southwest side of Rennell Sound, Graham Island.Lanaslnagai, 3 towns: (1) on the east coast of Graham Island south of Cape Ball,(2) on the west side of Masset Inlet where the inner expansion begins; (3) onYagun River.Lanaungsuls, on Masset Inlet.Nagus, in an inlet on the southwest coast of Moresby Island.Sahldungkun, on the west side of Yagun River at its mouth.Sakaedigialas, traditional, on or near Kuper Island.Sgilgi, in an inlet on the southwest coast of Moresby Island.Sindaskun, near the south end of the islands.Sindatahls, near Tsoo-skahli, an inner expansion of Masset Inlet.Singa, on the north side of Tasoo Harbor, west coast of Moresby Island.Skae, close to Cape St. James at the south end of the Queen Charlotte IslandsSkaito, on the west coast of Moresby Island near Gold Harbor.Skaos, at the entrance of Naden Harbor.Skena, legendary, just south of Sand Spit Point, Moresby Island.Skudus, on the north side of Lyell Island.Stlindagwai, in an inlet on the west coast of Moresby Island.Stunhlai, on the northwest coast of Moresby Island.Sulustins, on the east coast of Hippa Island.Ta, on the east coast of North Island.Te, on the west coast of Graham Island opposite Frederick Island.Tlgunghung, on the north side of Lyell Island.Tlhingus, on Louise Island.Tohlka, on the north coast of Graham Island just west of the entrance to MassetInlet.Widja, on the north coast of Graham Island just west of the entrance of MassetInlet.Yagun, on the north coast of Graham Island.Yaogus, on the southwest side of Louise Island.Yastling, in Naden Harbor, Graham Island.Yatza, on the north coast of Graham Island between North Island and ViragoSound.Youahnoe, given as a Kaigani town, perhaps identical with the town of Kaigani.
SwANTovV INPTAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 573History.?According to native traditions, the oldest Haida settle-ments wore on the mainland side of the islands. The Haida towns inAlaska date back to the early part of the eighteenth century, i. e.,their establishment was almost within the historic period. So far asis known, the Spanish Ensign Juan Perez in the corvette Santiago wasthe first white man to visit the islands. This was in the year 1774.In 1775 Bodega and Maurelle touched there. La Perouse coastedthe shores of the group in 1786 and Dixon spent a month about themin 1787. He was followed by Douglas, Ingraham, Marchand, Van-couver, and numerous explorers and traders whose names have notbeen preserved. The Hudson's Bay Company located a post atMasset and mission stations were established at Masset and Skidegateby the Church of England and the Methodists respectively. Small-pox, consumption, liquor, and immorality depleted the native popula-tion rapidly even before any Whites settled upon the islands, but theremnant of the people now seems to have reached an adjustment tothe new conditions.Population.?Mooney (1928), estimated that in 1780 there were8,000 Haida on the Queen Charlotte Islands and 1,800 in Alaska. Adetailed enumeration made between 1836 and 1841 gave 6,593 and1,735 respectively, a total of 8,328. Dawson (1880) thought thatthere were between 1,700 and 2,000 on the Queen Charlotte Islandsand in 1888 the Canadian Office of Indian Affairs estimated 2,500,bat the next year, when an actual census was taken of all but onesettlement, the total was 637, and in 1894, when all were included, itwas only 639. In 1895 there were reported 593; in 1902, 734; and in1904, 587. In 1880 Petroff (1884) gave 788 Kaigani but Dall (1886)estimated 300. In 1890, 391 were returned and in 1905 the numberwas estimated as 300. The United States Census of 1910 gave 530;that of 1920, 524; and that of 1930, 588.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Haida have beennoted for much the same things as the Tsimshian; beautiful carvings,peculiar social and ceremonial customs, and large and well-madedugouts. The slate from which so many artistic objects have beenmade is all obtained at one spot in their country. They are usuallyregarded as the typical totem-pole people.Hidatsa. Like their relatives, the Crow, the Hidatsa may have livedon the north side of the International Boundary in late prehistorictimes, but this is as yet uncertain. (See North Dakota.)Huron. When Canada was first settled, the Huron lived in the regionof Lake Simcoe, Ontario, but a hundred years earher part of themoccupied the lower St. Lawrence Valley. (See Wyandot under Ohio.)
574 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Iroquois. Bands belonging to the tribes of the Iroquois Confederacylived in Canada at various times and some are there at the presentday. (See New York.)Kawchottine. Signifying "people of the great hares." Also called:Hare Indians, English appellation derived from their own name.Kkpayttchare ottin6, Chipewyan name.Nouga, Eskimo name, meaning "spittle."Peaux-de-LiSvres, French appellation from their own name.Rabbitskins, English appellation derived from their own name.Connections.?The Kawchottine belonged to the Athapascanlinguistic family, being most intimately connected with the tribeshigher up Mackenzie River.Location.?West and northwest of Great Bear Lake.SubdivisionsPetitot (1893) gives the following:Chintagottine, also called Katagottine, on Mackenzie River north of Fort GoodHope and between the river and Great Bear Lake.Etatchogottine, north and east of Great Bear Lake and on Great Cape.Kawchogottine, on the border of the wooded region northeast of Fort Good Hope.Kfwetragottine, south of Fort Good Hope along Mackenzie River.Nellagottine, on Lake Simpson and along Anderson River.Nigottine, also given as a part of the Kawchogottine, along the outlet of GreatBear Lake.Satchotugottine, immediately north of Great Bear Lake, omitted from a later list.History.?The country of the Kawchottine was reached by Alexan-der Mackenzie in 1789. The establishment of Fort Good Hope in1804 and Fort Norman in iSlO brought them in closer touch withEuropeans, and the intimacy has increased steadily from that day tothe present.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated that there were 750 Kaw-chottine in 1670. In 1858 Ross (1858) gave their number as 467.Kitksan. Their own name, meaning "people of Skeena River."Phonetically rendered Gyitkshan.Connections.?The Kitksan constituted one of the three greattribes or tribal groups of the Chimmesyan linguistic family.Location.?On the upper waters of Skeena River.Subdivisions and Villages(The second name, where there are two, is the one given by Barbeau, 1929)Kispiox or Kispayaks, at the junction of Kispiox and Skeena Rivers.Kitanmaiksh or Gitenmaks, at Hazelton.Kitgargas or Kisgagas, on the north bank of Babine River, 3 or 4 miles above itsjunction with the Skeena.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 575Kitsognkla or Gitsogyukla, on Skeena River between Hazelton and Kitwanga.Kitwancool or Gitwinlkul, 14 miles above Kitwanga on the Grease trail to theNass.Kitwanga, on the north bank of Skeena River about 150 miles from the coast.Kuldo or Qaldo, near the headwaters of Skeena River.Meamskinisht, a modern mission village founded in 1889.History.?According to Barbeau (1929), many of the leadingfamilies of the Kitksan came from the north, from among the interiorAthapascans and from the Tlingit, within the last two centuries.Contact with the Whites became intimate after the establishmentof Fort Kilmaurs (Babine) in 1822, Fort Connolly in 1826, andFort Stager, and European influences began to come up the riverwith greater strength after the foundation of Fort Simpson in 1831and Fort Essington in 1835.Population.? (See Tsimshian.) In 1904 there were 1,120 Kitksan.Connection in which they hare become noted.? (See Tsimshian.)Kutchin. The Kutchin occupied the entire central portion of Yukonterritory and extended lo the lower course of the Mackenzie, whichthey occupied on both sides from New Fort Good Hope to thedelta. (See Nakotcho-kutchin, Takkuth-kutchin, Tatlit-kutchin,and Alaska.)Kutenai. The Kutenai were located on Kootenay River and Lakeand extended into the United States, occupying the northern partsof Montana and Idaho. In later prehistoric times they extendedsome distance into the Plains. (See Montana.)Kwakiutl. Own name, signifying according to themselves, "smokeof the world," but probably meaning "beach at the north side ofthe river."Connections.?With the Bellabella (q. v.), the Kwakiutl constitutedone grand division of the Wakashan linguistic family, the Nootkaforming the other.Location.?On both shores of Queen Charlotte Sound, and thenorthern end of Vancouver Island.SubdivisionsThe bands or septs, with the relations which they bear to one another, areindicated in the following list, based upon information obtained by Boas(1897):Koskimo Subdialect:Klaskino, on Klaskino Inlet, Vancouver Island.Koprino, at the entrance of Quatsino Sound.Quatsino, at the entrance of Quatsino Sound, Vancouver Island.Nawiti Subdialect:Nakomgilisala, originally at Cape Scott, Vancouver Island.Tlatlasikoala, formerly at the northeast end of Vancouver Island.
576 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bn.L. 145Kwakiutl Subdialed:Awaitlala, on Knight Inlet.Goasila, on Smith Inlet.Guauaenok, on Drury Inlet.Hahuamis, on Wakeman Sound.Koeksotenok, on Gilford Island.Kwakiutl, including Guetela, Komkutis, Komoyue, Matilpe, and Walas I^wakiutlmost of whom lived at Fort Rupert.Lekwiltok, between Knight and Bute Inlets.Mamalelekala, on Village Island.Nakoaktok, on Seymour Inlet.Nimkish, on and near Nimkish River.Tenaktak, on Knight Inlet.Tlauitsis, on Cracroft Island.Tsawatenok, on Kingcombe Inlet.An extinct band was called Hoyalas.VillagesAwaitlala and Tenaktak: Kwatsi, at Point Macdonald, Knight Inlet. (SeeTsawatenok.)Goasila: Waitlas, at the mouth of Samo River, Smith Inlet.Guauaenok: Hohopa, on the west coast of Baker Island; Kuustamish, on theeast side of Clayton Bay, Wells Passage. (See Tsawatenok.)Hahuamis. (See Tsawatenok.)Koeksotenok: Kwakwakas, on the west coast of Gilford Island.Koeksotenok and Mamalelekala: Memkumlis, on Village Islands, at the mouthof Knight Inlet.Lekwiltok: Husam, at the mouth of Salmon River; Tatapowis, on HoskynInlet; Tsaiiyeuk, at the entrance of Bute Inlet; Tsakwalooin, near CapeMudge.Mamalelekala. (See Koeksotenok).Matilpe: Etsekin, on Havannah Channel.Nakoaktok: Awuts, on the lagoon above Shelter Bay; Kikwistok, on the lowerpart of Seymour Inlet; Mapakum, on Deserter's Island of the Walker Group.Quatsino: Owiyekumi, on Forward Inlet, Quatsino Sound; Tenate, on thenorth shore of Forward Inlet.Tenaktak: (See Awaitlala.)Tlauitsis: Kalakowis, on the west end of Tumour Island.Tsawatenok: Hata, at the head of Bond Sound; Kwae, at the head of KingcombeInlet.Tsawatenok, Hahuamis, and Guauaenok together: Kwaustums, on Gilford Island.History.?If the voyage of Fuentes in 1640 is authentic, he wasprobably the first European to encounter any of the Kwakiutl Indians.Bodega and Maurelle passed along their coast in 1775, and from thistime on they were visited by English and American explorers andtraders at frequent intervals. The establishment of a Hudson's Baypost at Victoria in 1843 marked an epoch in their dealings with theWhites which since then have been more and more intimate. Missionwork among the Bellabella was very successful but the southernbranches of the family held on to their ancient customs with moretenacity.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBE8 OF NORTH AMERKA 577Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated that in 1780 there were4,500 southern Kwakiiitl Indians. In 1906 there were 1,257. TheReport of the Canadian Department of Indian Affairs for 1909 gives2,090 Kwakiiitl.Connection in which they have become noted.?These tribes are note-worthy for the very complete studies of their social organization andpotlatch customs made by Boas (1897), assisted by George Hunt,and the important part these studies have played in the developmentof general theories of exogamy and totemism.Lillooet. Signifying 'Vild onion." The name seems to have beengiven originally to a part of the Lower Lillooet. Also called:Stla'tliimiH, own name, applied properly to the Upper Lillooet.Connections.?The Lillooet belong to the interior division of theSalishan linguistic family, their nearest relatives being the Shuswapand Ntlakyapamuk.Location.?On the upper part of Harrison Lake, Lillooet River,Bridge River, and part of Fraser River above and below the mouthof the latter stream and between tlie Shuswap and Ntlakyapamuk,and on the heads of some of the streams flowing into the Gulf ofGeorgia. SvbdivisionKThe Lillooet are divided primarily into the Lower Lillooet and thp FpperLillooet, each consisting of two principal bands as follows:Lower Lillooet: Lillooet River or Douglas (on Little Harrison Lake and the lov.erLillooet River up to Lower or Little Lillooet Lake), Peinberton (on LillooetLake, PemVjerton Meadows, Pole River, Upper Lillooet River, Green Lake,etc.).Upper Lillooet: Lake (on Anderson and Seaton Lakes, Cayuge River to DuffeyLake and westerly to the headwaters of the streams flowing into Jervis Inletand the northwest sources of Bridge River), Fraser River (from about 5 milesbelow the mouth of CayiJse Creek to a few miles below the mouth of PavilionCreek, a few miles \^p Cayuse Creek, in Three Lake Valley and on tlie neigh-boring hills between the Fraser River and Hat Creek, lower Bridge River andnorthwest to near the head of Big Creek).ViUagfi*Lillooet River:Hahtsa or (by Whites) Douglas, on Little Harrison Lake, about 4 miles fromTipella on Great Harrison Lake.Kwehalaten, on Little Lillooet Lake.Lalakhen, on Lower Lillooet River, 10 miles above Douglas.Samakum, on Lower Lillooet River about 25 miles above Douglas.Sektcin or (by Whites) Warm Springs, near Lower Lillooet River about 23miles from Douglas.Shomeliks, near Lower Lillooet River, 10 miles above Douglas.Skatin or (by Whites") Skookum Chuck, on Lower Lillooet Pjver about 17 or 18miles above Douglas.Sraeraits, a short distance above Lalakher.
578 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Pemberton:HazQkwa, at head of slough, 1 mile above Nkimsh.Lakemitc, less than 1 mile above Hazilkwa.Nkimsh, on Upper Lillooet River, a little above the head of Lillooet Lake.Stlalek or Stlaluk or (by Whites) Pemberton, near the big bridge across UpperLillooet River, about 1 mile above Lakemitc.Sulpauthltin, on Upper Lillooet River, about 2 miles above Stlalek.Lake:Heselten, about one-third up Seaton Lake on the north side.Nkaiot, at the foot of Anderson Lake.Nkuatkwa, at the head of Anderson Lake.Skemkain, at the foot of Seaton Lake, about 4 miles from Lillooet.Slaus, at the head of Seaton Lake.Tcalethl, about two-thirds up Seaton Lake on the north side.Fraser River:Hahalep or Fountain, on the east side of Fraser River near Fountain Creek andabout 9 miles above Setl.Nhoisten, on the upper side of the mouth of Bridge River, about 4 miles aboveSeti.Setl or Lillooet village, just west of Lillooet tov.n, on the west side of FraserRiver.Skakethl, on the west side of Fraser River about 3^ miles above Setl.Skulewas or Skulewes, on the south side of the mouth of Cayuse River.Tseut, on the east side of Fraser River about 2 miles above Setl.History.?The first white man to penetrate the country of theLillooet was probably Simon Fraser in 1809. Contact with traderswas practically continuous from that time forward and with theminers from 1858. The Lillooet suffered more than any other tribefrom the great smallpox epidemic of 1863.Population.?Mooney's (1928) estimate of Lillooet population as ofthe year 1780 is 4,000, perhaps copied from that of Teit (1900). Thereport of the Canadian Office of Indian Affairs of 1904 seems to give978 Lillooet, but there are probably omissions, as Teit's estimate ofabout the same time is 900 Lower Lillooet and 700 Upper Lillooet, atotal of 1,600.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Lillooet have giventheir name to Lillooet Lakes and Lillooet River.Malecite. Many explanations of the name have been offered but themost probable is that of Chamberlain (MS.), who says it is fromMalisit, the Micmac term for them, which means "broken talkers."Also called:Etchemin, perhaps from tchinem, "men."
"Muskrats," by some of their neighbors.Wula'stegwi'ak, meaning "Good River People," name used by themselves,referring to the St. John.Connections.?The Malecite belonged to the Algonquian linguisticfamily, their nearest relatives being the Passamaquodd3% and after
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 579them the Penobscot, Abnaki, and Pennacook. They were frequentlyclassed with these under the general name Abnaki.Location.?In the valley of St. John River, New Brunswick, butextending slightly into the northeastern corner of Maine.SubdivisionsMaurault (1866) makes a distinction between Malecite and Etchemin, but
I here seems to have been no valid foundation for this.VillagesMedoctec, about 10 miles below Woodstock, N. B.Okpaak, on the middle course of St. John River, N. B.Saint Anne, on an island near Frederickton, N. B.Viger, in Viger township, TemiscOuata County, Quebec Province.History.?Like the Abnaki, the Malecite trace their origin to someregion in the southwest. Early in the sixteenth century some of themwere probably encountered by French and English explorers andfishermen, but they were first referred to specifically by Champlainin 1604, though his "Etechemins" were on the St. Croix River andwere perhaps Passamaquoddy. Some years later Fort La Tour wasbuilt on St. John River, and it became a noted resort for members ofthis tribe. After the English gained possession of Malecite territory,certain lands were assigned to the Indians. In 1856, according toSchoolcraft (1851-57), these had become reduced to the valley of
"the Tobique river, and the small tract at Madawaska, MeducticPoint, and Kingsclear, with their small rocky islands near St. John,containing 15 acres." The descendants of the Malecite live partlyin New Brunswick and partly in the province of Quebec, while a fewappear in the population statistics of the State of Maine.Population.?The Malecite population is estimated by Mooney tohave been 800 in 1600. In 1884 there were 767 (584 in New Bruns-wick; 183 in Quebec); in 1904, 805 (702 in New Brunswick; 103 inQuebec). The United States Census of 1910 returned 142 living onthe south side of the International Boundary, of whom 138 were inMaine.Connection in which they have become noted.?The name of the Male-cite is preserved in that of a small town called Maliseet in NewBrunswick, and one of its synonyms in Etchemin River, Province ofQuebec.Micmac. From the native term Migmac, meaning "allies." Alsocalled:Matu-6s'-wi skitchi-nu-Qk, Malecite name, meaning "porcupine Indiana,"on account of their use of porcupine quills in ornamentation.ShSnSck, Beothuk name, meaning "bad Indians."Souriquois, name by which they were known to the French.
580 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bdll. 145Connections.?The Micmac belonged to the Algonquian linguisticstock and to that part of the Central Algonquian group representedtypically by the Cree, though their speech diflfered in some strikingparticulars. Their closest relatives, however, were the Malecite,Passamaquoddy, Penobscot, and Abnaki.Location.?Nova Scotia, Cape Breton Island, Prince Edward Island,the eastern shore of New Brunswick as far north as Restigouche, thehead of the Bay of Fundy, and, in later times, Newfoundland.SubdivisionsRand (1894) states that the Micmac distinguished seven districts, PrinceEdward Island where the head chief lived, constituting one of these. The othersix consisted of two groups of three each: one, called Sigunikt, including thedistricts of Memramcook, Pictou (at the north end of Nova Scotia), and Resti-gouche (in northern New Brunswick and neighboring parts of Quebec) ; the other,called Kespoogwit (south and east Nova Scotia), including Annapolis (in south-west Nova Scotia), Eskegawage (in east Nova Scotia from Canso to Halifax), andShubenacadie (in north central Nova Scotia).VillagesAntigonishe (?), probably on or near the site of the present Antigonishe, NovaScotia.Beaubassin, a mission, probably Micmac, site unknown.Boat Harbor, near Pictou, Nova Scotia.Chignecto, Nova Scotia.Eskusone, on Cape Breton Island.Indian Village, near Lake Badger, Fogo County, Newfoundland.Isle of St. Johns, probably in Nova Scotia.Kespoogwit, given by one authority as a village, see under subdivisions.Kigicapigiak, on Cascapediac River, Bonaventure County, Quebec.Le Have, near the mouth of Mercy River, about Lunenberg, Nova Scotia.Maria, in Maria township, Bonaventure County, Quebec.Minas, in Nova Scotia.Miramichi, on the right bank of Miramichi River at its mouth.Nalkithoniash, perhaps in Nova Scotia.Nipigiguit, Bathurst, at the mouth of Nipisiguit River, New Brunswick.Pictou, at the north end of Nova Scotia.Pohomoosh, probably in Nova Scotia.Restigouche, on the north bank of Restigouche River near its mouth, BonaventureCounty, Quebec.Richibucto, at the mouth of Richibucto River, Kent County, New Brunswick.Rocky Point, on Prince Edward Island.Shediac, at Shediac on the east coast of New Brunswick.Shubenacadie, at the head of Shubenacadie River, Nova Scotia.Tabogimkik, probably in Nova Scotia.History.?Some Micmac may have been encountered by Norsevoyagers about A. D. 1000. They were probably seen next by JohnCabot in 1497, and from that time on they were constantly visited byexplorers and even more by fishing vessels from France and England.During this period they acted as middlemen between the Europeans
SWANTOM INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH" AMERICA 581and the Indians farther west and south and found this profitable.Early in the seventeenth century they were missionized by the Frenchand became so devoted to French interests that after the cession ofAcadia to England in 1713 disputes and difficulties between them andthe English continued until 1779. Since then they have been peacefuloccupants of the territory with which they have always been associatedand have gradually adopted the ways and customs of Europeancivilization.Population.?Mooney's (1928) estimate for the Micmac applying tothe year 1600 is 3,500. This seems to be based on Biard's 1611estimate of 3,000 to 3,500. (See Jesuit Relations, 1858.) In 1760they were reported to number sonewhat under 3,000 but after thatdate they increased and in 1884 were ofllcially reported as 4,037. TheCanadian Report of Indian Affairs for 1904 gives 3,861, but it does notinclude the Micmac of Newfoundland.Connections in which they have become noted.?The Micmac areremarkable (1) as having been one of the earliest Indian tribes of theNorth American continent, if not the very earliest, to be encounteredby Europeans, and (2) that, in spite of that fact and contrary to thegeneral impression, they suffered no permanent decline in numbersand continued to occupy the territories, or at least a part of theterritories, in wliich they had been found.Montagnais-Naskapi. The first component, a French w^ord meaning
"mountaineers," and so called from the character of their country;and the second, a term of reproach applied by the Montagnaisthemselves to their more northern kindred. Also called:Chauhagu^ronon, Huron name.Kebikg, said to have been so named on account of their warning cry of
"Kebik!" when approaching in canoes the rapids of the St. Lawrencenear Quebec.Ne-e-no-il-no, a name used by themselves, meaning "perfect people."ShOudamQnk, Beothuk name, meaning "good Indians."Tshe-tsi-uetin-euerno, a name used by themselves and said to signify
"people of the north-northeast."UssagSne'wi, Penobscot name, meaning "people of the outlet."Ussaghenick, Malecite name.Connections.?The Montagnais-Naskapi belong to the Algonquianlinguistic stock, their nearest relatives being the Cree from whom theyare set off by certain phonetic peculiarities.Location.?Between St. Maurice River and the hinterland of Labra-dor, and from the River and Gulf of St. Lawrence to James Bay,including also the entire interior of the Labrador Peninsula. TheLabrador division has sometimes been made independent under thename "Nascapee" (Naskapi) but without sufficient justification.
582 PURKAIJ op AMKHICAN KTHNOLOCY IRttll. 145BandsThe southern bands of this group were encountered by Europeans early in theseventeenth century while the northern ones, except for some on James Bay, werebut little known until the nineteenth century. To this circumstance, more thananything else, we owe the two names Montagnais and Naskapi. Bands whichprobably existed in some form or other in 1G50, although not necessarily underthe names given, were the following:Bersimis, on Bersimis River.Chicoutimi, at Chicoutimi and northward.Chisedec, on Seven Islands and Moisie River.Escoumains, on and near Escoumains River.Godbout, on Godbout River.Mistassini, about Lake Mistassini.Nichikun, about Nichikun Lake.Ouchestigouetch, at the heads of Manikuagan and Kaniapiskau Rivers.Oumamiwek or Ste. Marguerite, on Ste. Marguerite River and to the westward.Papinachois, at the head of Bersimis River and eastward.Tadousac, on the west side of the lower Saguenay River.By 1850 (following Speck, 1942) we find that some of these, including theChisedec, Oumamiwek, and Papinachois, have disappeared or been renamed, andthe following added:Barren Ground, on the middle course of George River.Big River, on Great Whale and Fort George Rivers.Davis Inlet, south of the Barren Ground band.Eastmain, on and to the northward of Eastmain River.Kaniapiskau, at the head of Kaniapiskau River.Michikamau, around Mishikamau Lake.Mingan, on Mingan River.Musquaro or Romaine, on Olomanoshibo River.Natashkwan, on Natashkwan River.Northwest River, north of Hamilton Inlet and on Northwest River.Petisikapau, on Petisikapau Lake and in the surrounding countr}'.Rupert House, on Rupert Bay and River.St. Augustin, on St. Augustin River.Shelter Bay, on Shelter Bay River, a modern subdivision.Ungava, southwest of Ungava Bay.Waswanipi, on Waswanipi River.White Whale River, between Lake Minto and Little Whale River and eastward toKaniapiskau River or even to Whale River.The territory of the Kaniapiskau and Petisikapau seems to be within that ofthe earlier Ouchestigouetch. The Shelter Bay band is of very recent origin andseems to have been in the land of the Oumamiwek. The Mingan, Musquaro orRomaine, Natashkwan, Northwest River, and St. Augustine bands are in a regionformerly occupied by Eskimo. VillagesAppeelatat, on the south coast of Labrador.Assuapmushan, a mission, probably at the entrance of Ashuapmouchouan Riverinto Lake St. John.Bonne Esperance, at the mouth of Eskimo River on the north coast of the Gulfof St. Lawrence.
SwANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 583Chicoutimi, a mission, on the right bank of the Saguenay at the present place ofthe same name, Quebec Province.Esquimaux Point, on the north shore of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, about 20 mileseast of Mingan.Godbout, on the north shore of St. Lawrence River at the mouth of GodboutRiver.Itamameou, a mission, on the north bank of St. Lawrence River ea.st of Nalash-quan.Islets de Jeremie, probably Montagnais, on lower St. Lawrence River.Mingan, on the north shore of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, near the mouth ofMingan River.Moisie, a summer village of Montagnais and Naskapi, at the mouth of .VIoisieRiver.Mushkoniatawee, on the south coast of Labrador.Musquarro, on the north shore of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, opposite AnticostiIsland.Nabisipi, on the north shore of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, opposite Anticosti Island.Natashkwan, on the north shore of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, at the mouth ofNatashkwan River.Pashasheebo, on the north shore of the Gulf of St. Lawrence.Romaine, at the mouth of Oloinanoshibo River on the north shore of the Gulf ofSt. Lawrence.St. Augustine, with Naskapi, on the north shore of the Gulf of St. Lawrence.History.?Montagnais were met by Champlain in I6O0 at the moutliof the Saguena}^ Missionary work was begun among them in 1615and they remained firm friends of the French. During the wars be-tween the French and Iroquois, the latter drove some Montagnaisbands out of their old seats, but they reoccupied them again on therestoration of peace. The first explorers of the Gulf of St. Lawrencefound its northern shore as far west as Mingan in possession of theEskimo, but the latter people soon retired from this region and theMontagnais took their places. They have gradually adjusted them-selves to the new conditions brought about by European colonization,the fur trade serving to protect them from the expropriation sufferedso much by the Indians farther south.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates the Montagnais and Naskapitogether as numbering 5,500 in 1600. In 1812 they were supposed tototal 1,500; in 1857 the}^ were estimated at 1,100; and in 1884 theywere officially reported at 1,395, but this figure includes only sevenbands. In 1906 the Montagnais in the same territory, together withthe Naskapi, numbered 2,183.Nahane. Signifying "people of the west." Also called:Gonana, Tlingit name (applied to all interior Indians).Connections.?The Nahane form a major division of the Athapascanlinguistic stock.
584 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLt. 145Location.?In northern British Columbia and the Yukon Territorybetween the coast range and the Rocky Mountains and latitude 57?and 60? N., some bands extending to the Mackenzie River in Macken-zie Territory. SubdivisionsThere is no consistency in the lists given by various writers, and Jenness reportsa great deal of displacement since the early nineteenth century. The followingbands or tribes may, however, be enumerated:Esbataottine, in the valleys of Beaver, Nahanni, and North Nahanni Rivers.Etagottine, in the valleys of Gravel and Dahachuni Rivers.Kaska, on the upper Liard River.Pelly River Indians, the country in the vicinity of Ross and Perry Rivers.Tagish, about Tagish and Marsh Lakes.Takutine, on Teslin River and Lake and upper Taku River.Titshotina, between the Cassiar Mountains and Liard and Dease Rivers, BritishColumbia.The Tahltan (q. v.) are sometimes regarded as a Nahane band.History.?Some of the easternmost bands of Nahane may havebeen met by Mackenzie in 1789. Fort Simpson, at the junction ofthe Liard and Mackenzie Rivers became the base of operations forexploitation of the Nahane country. This was established at the verybeginning of the nineteenth century and shortly afterward Fort Liardat the junction of the Liard and Black Rivers and Fort Nelson onthe south branch of the Liard, now Fort Nelson River, brought theHudson Bay factors still farther into Nahane territory. The last-mentioned fort was destroyed by the Indians but reestablished in1865. Fort Halkett, on the upper Liard, and in the very heart ofNahane territory, was estabhshed soon after the union of the North-west and Hudson's Bay Companies, which took place in 1821. Fortyor fifty years later it was abandoned but a smaller post called ToadRiver was built some time afterward, halfway between the site ofHalkett and Fort Liard. In 1834 Chief Trader John M. McLeodpushed up through the mountains and discovered Dease River andDease Lake. In 1838, a trading post was established on the latterby Robert Campbell, a Scotch officer, and m the summer of that yearhe pushed across the Pacific slope to the headwaters of the Stikine.His post excited the hostility of the coast Indians, however, who hadenjoyed a monopoly of trade with the Athapascans, and Campbellwas forced to abandon it, and it was burned by the coast Indians. In1840 he went north from Fort Halkett as far as PeUy River. In 1842he built a fort at Lake Francis and Pelly Banks and in 1848 FortSelkirk at the junction of the Pelly and Lewis Rivers. Two yearsafterward this latter was destroyed by the Chilkat, whose trademonopoly it threatened. In the meantime European influences hadbeen working inland through the medium of the same coast tribes,
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 585from the Russian and from British and American trading vessels, andlater on through the Hudson's Bay Company along the passagewaymarked by the Stikine River. The Nahane were powerfully affectedby the Klondike rush, and since then European influences have beengrowing ever stronger.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates that there were about 2,000Nahane in the present British Columbia in 1780 and 800 in the YukonTerritory in 1670, besides 400 "Mountain Indians" (Tsethaottine).A few hundred must be added for the Nahane in Mackenzie District.In 1906 there were 374 Nahane in British Columbia, 600 in YukonTerritory, and 250 in Mackenzie District. This total, 1,224, agreesfairly well with the 1,000 estimate of Morice (1904).Nakotcho-kutchin. Signifying "those who dwell on the flats." Alsocalled:Gens de la Grande Riviere, by Ross (MS.).Loucheux, by Franklin (1823, p. 261).Mackenzie Flats Kutchin, by Osgood (1934, p. 174).Mackenzie's River Louchioux, by Ross (MS.).Connections.?The Nakotcho-kutchin were one of the tribes of theKutchin group of the northern division of the Athapascan linguisticstock.Location.?On the lower course of Mackenzie River north of theKawchodinneh and extending to the head of the Mackenzie Delta.Population.?With two neighboring tribes, Mooney (1928) esti-mates a population of 800 Nakotcho-kutchin in 1670. In 1906 hoestimates there were 600. (See Kutcha-kutchin under Alaska.)Nanaimo. A contraction of Snanaimux, meaning "people of Snonowas(Nanoose)."Connections.?The Nanaimo belonged to the Cowichan branch of thecoastal division of the Salishan linguistic family.Location.?On the east coast of Vancouver Island about NanaimoHarbor and Nanoose Bay. SubdivisionsNanaimo, about Nanaimo Harbor.Snonowas, about Nanoose Bay.History.?The history of the Nanaimo was practically identicalwith that of the Cowichan.Population.? (See Cowichan.) In 1906 there were 161 Nanaimoand in 1909, 14 Snonowas.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Nanaimo havegiven their name to an important port, owing its existence largely tothe lignite coal deposits in the vicinity.
586 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Neutral. This name was applied to a confederacy of Iroquoian tribesfound by the Whites in occupancy of the southern part of Ontario,the western extremity of New York, and portions of Michigan andOhio. (See New York.)Niska. Significance unknown. Phonetically spelled Niska'. Alsocalled:Nass River Indians, from their habitat.Connections.?The Niska were one of the three tribes or tribalgroups constituting the Chimmesyan linguistic family.Location.?On Nass River and the neighboring coast. (See alsoAlaska.) Subdivisions and VillagesThere were four divisions or tribes which, including the village or villages of each,are as follows
:
Kithateh or Gitrhatin, including the villages of Kincolith, on Nass Inlet, andLakkulzap or Greenville.Kitgigenik or Gitwinksilk, including the village of Lahanla or Lakungida, nearthe mouth of Nass River.Kitwinshilk, including the village of Lahulyans or Underleaf.Kitanwilksh, including the village of Kitlakdamik or Gitlarhdamks, above thecanyon of Nass River, and Aiyansh, on the lower course of Nass River.The following names of villages are also given by various writers:Kitaix, near the mouth of Nass River.Gwinwah, on Nass River.Kisthemuwelgit or Willshilhunhtumwillwillgit, on the north side of Nass Rivernear its mouth.Qunahhair, on the south bank of Nass River just below the canyon.Sheaksh, on the south bank of Nass River, 5 miles above the canyon.Kitahon, Kitangata, ' Kitlakaous, and Andeguale may be additional towns orsynonymous names for some of the above.Emmons {in Hodge, 1910) divides the Niska into the Kitkahteen (Kithateh),including those below the canyon, and the Kitanweliks (Kitanwilksh), thoseabove the canyon.History.?The history of the Niska was almost the same as that ofthe Tsimshian (q. v.), though the resort of so many tribes to NassRiver during the eulachon run may have given them a more cosmo-politan character than the other Chimmesyans.Population.? (See Tsimshian.) In 1902 the population of the Niskatowns was given as 842, in 1906 as 814.Connection in which they have become noted.?Besides the connec-tions mentioned in treating of the Tsimshian, the Niska were note-worthy from the fact that the territory they occupied included NassInlet, which was a place of resort for tribes from all sections duringthe eulachon season, and that the myths of many of these tribes cen-ter around it. Perhaps it was owing to this circumstance that the
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 587Nass River seems to have been the center of the northwest culturalarea.Nooksak. A tribe, living mainly in the State of Washington, whichis said to have branched otf from the Squawmish of BritishColumbia. (See Washington.)Nootka. Significance unknown. The name was originally appliedto a tribe also known as Mooachaht living at Nootka Sound butwas afterward extended to all of the tribes of the same group evenincluding the Makah of the State of Washington, though the latterare more often treated independently. (See Makah under Wash-ington.) Also called:Aht, from the endings of their divisional names.Tc'eca'atq, Skokomish name.Connections.?The Nootka constituted one of the two great branchesof the Wakashan linguistic family, the other being the Kwakiutl.Location.?All the Nootka are located on the west coast of Van-couver Island from Cape Cook on the north to beyond Port San Juan,except the Makah and Ozette, who live about Cape Flattery, inthe State of Washington.S^ibdivisions or TribesAhousaht, about Clayoquot Sound.Chaicclesaht, on Ououkinsh and Nasparte Inlets.Clayoquot, on Meares Island and Torfino Inlet.Ehatisaht, on Esperanza Inlet.Ekoolthaht, on Barclay Sound.Hachaaht, on or north of Barclay Sound.Hesquiat, on Hesquiat Harbor.Kelsemaht, on Clayoquot Sound.Klahosaht, north of Nootka Sound.Kwoneatshatka, toward the north end of Vancouver Island.Kyuquot, on Kyuquot Soimd.Makah, about Cape Flattery.Manosaht, at Hesquiat Point.Mooachaht, on the north side of Nootka Sound.Muchalat, on Muchalat Arm of Nootka Sound.Nitinat, on the tidal lake of Nitinat near the southwest coast of Vancouver Island.Nuchatlitz, on Nuchalitz and Esperanza Inlets.Oiaht, on Barclay Sound.Opitchesaht, on Alberni Canal, Somass River, and neighboring lakes.Pacheenaht, on San Juan Harbor.Seshart, on Barclay Sound and Alberni Canal.Toquart, on the north shore of Barclay Sound.Uchucklesit, on Uchucklesit Harbor, Barclay Sound.Ucluelet, at the north entrance of Barclay Sound.
588 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145
VillagesExclusive of the Makah and Ozette towns (see Washington), the names ofthe following Nootka villages have been recorded:Acous (Chaicclesaht). Mahcoah (Toquart).Ahadzooas (Oiaht). Mahktosis (Ahousaht).Ahahsuinnis (Opitchesaht). Nuchatl (Nuchatlitz).Aktese (Kyuquot). Oke (Ehatisaht).Carmanah (Nitinat). Pacheena (Pacheenaht).Cheshish (Muchalat). Tsahahch (Seshart).Clo-oose (Nitinat). Tsooquahna (Nitinat).Elhlateese (Uchucklesit). Wyah (Nitinat).Heshque (Hesquiat). Yahksis (Kelsemaht).Ittatso (Ucluelet). Yucuatl (Mooachaht).Kukamukamees (Kyuquot).History.?Juan de Fuca (1592) is the first white man known tohave visited the Nootka country. Fuentes, if he and his voyage benot myths, was among these people, or at least near them, in 1640.Ensign J\ian Perez is believed to have anchored in Nootka Sound in1774, and the next year Bodega and Maurelle passed along the Nootkacoasts on their way south. From March to April 1778, Captain Cookwas at Nootka Sound, and we owe one of our oldest accounts of theIndians there to him. In 1786 English vessels under Captains Hanna,Portlock, and Dixon visited them and from that time on British andAmerican trading vessels constantly resorted to them, usually callingat Nootka Sound. Between 1792 and 1794 Capt. George Vancouvervisited the country. In 1803 the Boston, from the New England portof that name, was destroyed by Nootka Indians and all on boardkilled except two persons, one of whom, John Jewett (1815), has leftus an important account of his captivity and his captors. A new erawas opened with the settlement of Victoria in 1843 and since thenabsorption in European culture has gone on apace. The Nootka havebeen missionized principally by the Roman Catholic Church.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated that, in 1780, there were6,000 Nootka proper and 2,000 Makah. In 1906 there were 2,159and 435 respectively.Connections in which they have become noted.?The claim of theNootka to special recognition rests, (1) on the fact that, with theexception of a few of their neighbors, they were the only Indians onthe Pacific coast who hunted whales; and, (2) from the part plaj^ed byNootka Sound in the early history of the northwest coast.Ntlakyapamuk. From their own name NLak'a'pamux. Also called:Cl'qtamux (c= sh), Lillooet name, from their name for Thompson River.Knife Indians, by the employees of the Hudson's Bay Company.Tviikatimu'x, Okanagon name.Nko'atamux, Shuswap name.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 589
Salic, Okanagon name.Sema'mila, by the Cowichan of Fraser River.Thompson River Indians, popular name given by the Whites.Connections.?The Ntlakyapamuk were a tribe of the interior divi-sion of the Salishan linguistic stock.Location.?On Fraser and Thompson Rivers, B. C. (See alsoWashington.) Subdivisions and VillagesLower Thompson, on Fraser River from a short distance below Spuzzum nearly toCisco:Chetawe, on the east side of Fraser River about lQ}i miles above Yale.Kalulaadiek, on the east side of Fraser River about 24 miles above Yale.Kapachichin, on the west side of Fraser River about 28 miles above Y'ale.Kapaslok, on Fraser River above Suk.Kimus, on the east side of the Fraser between Yale and Siska.Kleaukt, on Fraser River below North Bend.Koiaum, on the east side of Fraser River 25 miles above Yale.Nkakim, near Spuzzum, on Fraser River.Nkattsim, on the east side of Fraser River about 38 miles above Yale and nearKeefer's Station.Nkoiam, on Fraser River below Cisco.Noieltsi, on the west side of Fraser River about 23 miles above Yale.Npiktim, on the east side of Fraser River about 30 miles above Yale.Ntsuwiek, on the west side of Fraser River 27 miles above Y^ale.Sintaktl, on the west side of Fraser River 30 to 40 miles above Yale.Skohwak, on the west side of Fraser River about 15 miles above Yale.Skuzis, on Fraser River above Spuzzum.Skwauyik, on the west side of Fraser River.Spaim, on the east side of Fraser River.Spuzzum, on the west side of Fraser River below Spuzzum Station.Stahehani, on the east side of Fraser River between Keefer's Station and Cisco.Suk, on the east side of Fraser River below Keefer's Station.Takwayaum, on Fraser River below North Bend.Tikwalus, on the east side of Fraser River 13 miles above Yale.Tliktlaketin, on the east side of Fraser River 3 miles below Cisco.Tzauamuk, on Fraser River 6 or 7 miles above Boston Bar.Upper Thompson; Lytton band (Lytton and vicinity):Anektettim, on the east side of Fraser River, 3 miles above Lytton.Cisco, on Fraser River 8 miles below Lytton.Kittsawat, near Lytton.Natkelptetenk, on the west side of Fraser River about 1 mile above Lytton.Nchekchekokenk, on the west side of Fraser River, 15 miles above Lytton.Nehowmean, on the west side of Fraser River, IH miles above Lytton.Nikaomin, on the south side of Thompson River, 10 miles above Lytton.Nkoikin, on the east side of Fraser River, 8 miles above Lytton.Nkya, on the west side of Fraser River, 2 miles below Lytton.Noot, on the west side of Fraser River, 12 miles above Lytton.Npuichin, on the west side of Fraser River, 8 miles above Lytton.Ntlaktlakitin, at Kanaka Bar, Fraser River, about 11 miles below Lytton.Staiya, on the east bank of Fraser River just below Lytton.
590 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Boll. 145Stryne, on the west side of Fraser River, 5 miles above Lytton.Tlkamcheen on the south side of Thompson River at its junction with theFraser.Tuhezep, on the east side of Fraser River about 1 mile above Lytton.Upper Fraser Band, from the territory of the Lytton band up Fraser River for adistance of 40 miles:Ahulka, on Fraser River just below Siska.Nesikeep, on the west side of Fraser River, 38 miles above Lytton.Nkaktko, on the west side of Fraser River 28 miles above Lytton.Nthppaem, on the west side of Fraser River 22 miles above Lytton.Skekaitin, on the west side of Fraser River 43 miles above Lytton.Tiaks, at Fosters Bar on the east side of Fraser River, 28 miles above Lytton.Spences Bridge band, from the territory of the Lytton band up Thompson Rivernearly to Ashcroft:Atchitchiken, on the north side of Thompson River 3 miles back in the moun-tains from Spences Bridge.Klukluuk, on Nicola River 8 miles from Spences Bridge.Nkamchin, on the south side of Thompson River at its junction with the Nicola,about 2434 miles above Lytton.Nkoeitko, on the south side of Tliompson River 30 miles above Lytton.Nokem, at Drynoch, on the south side of Thompson River 16 miles aboveLytton.Nskakaulten, on the south side of Thompson River, ^ mile below SpencesBridge.Ntekem, on the north side of Thompson River about 1 mile back from thestream and 39 miles above Lytton.Nukaatko, on the north side of Thompson River 43 miles above Lytton.Pekaist, on the south side of Thompson River, 32 miles above Lytton.Pemainus, on the south side of Thompson River 28 miles above Lytton.Semehau, on the north side of Thompson River 32 miles above Lytton.Snapa, on the south side of Thompson River, IH miles back from the streamand 42 miles above Lytton.Spatsum, on the south side of Thompson River, 35 miles above Lytton.Stlaz, at Cornwalls near Ashcroft, 1 mile back from Thompson River.Tlotlowuk, on Nicola River about 8 miles from Spences Bridge.Zakhauzsiken, on the south side of Thompson River, half a mile back fromthe stream and 31 miles above Lytton.Nicola band, in the valley of Nicola River:Hanehewedl, near Nicola River, 27 miles above Spences Bridge.Huthutkawedl, near Nicola River, 23 miles above Spences Bridge.Koiskana, near Nicola River, 29 miles above Spences Bridge.Kwilchana, on Nicola Lake.Naaik, near Nicola River, 39 miles above Spences Bridge.Nchekus, about 1 mile back in the mountains from Kwilchana.Nsisket, near Nicola River a few miles from the west end of Nicola Lake.Nrstlatko, near Nicola River a few miles from the west end of Nicola Lake.Petutek, on Nicola river about 41 miles above Spences Bridge.Shahanik, near Nicola River, 16 miles above Spences Bridge.Tsulus, near Nicola River about 40 miles above Spences Bridge.Zoht, near the west end of Nicola Lake, 50 miles above Spences Bridge.History.?Simon Fraser passed through the territory of theNtlakyapamuk in 1809 and was followed by numerous employees of the
SWAMONJ INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 501Northwest and Hudson's Bay Companies. More injurious to thewelfare of the Indians b}- far was the invasion of the miners in 1858.In 1863 the tribe was decimated by smallpox, and this and otherepidemics have cut down numbers of them at various periods. Theyhave continued to live in their ancestral territories though crowdedinto narrower quarters by the invasion and settlements of the AMiites.Population.?^Mooney (1928) estimates that in 1780 there were 5,000Ntlakyapamuk. The report of the Canadian Department of IndianAffairs for 1902 gives 1,826 and that for 1906, 1,776.Okanagon. A tribe living on Okanagan Lake and later in theSimilkameen Valley, and extending southward on the west side ofOkanogan River to old Fort Okanogan in the State of Washington.(See Washington.)Ottawa. This tribe occupied Manitoulin Island and bands belongingto it extended eastward toward Ottawa River. At a very earlyperiod they made settlements in the southern peninsula of Michigan.(See Michigan.)Passamaquoddy. A tribe affiliiited with the Malecite, living onPassamaquoddy Bay and St. Croix River, in New Brunswick andMaine. (See Maine.)Puntlatsh. Phonetically rendered Pentlatc, significance unknown.Connections.?The Puntlatsh constituted a dialectic group of thecoastal division of the Salishan linguistic family.Location.?On the east coast of Vancouver Island between theCowichan and Comox tribes. SubdivisionsHwahwatl, on Englishman River.Puntlatsh, on Baynes Sound and Puntlatsh River.Saamen, on Kwalekum River.History.?^The history of the Puntlatsh is practically the same as thatof the Cowichan (q. v.).Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates 300 Puntlatsh in 1780; re-duced to 13 in 1906.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Puntlatsh havegiven their name to Puntlatsh River, B. C.Sarcee or Sarsi. From the Siksika (Blackfoot) words sa arsi, "notgood." Also called:Castors des Prairies, by Petitot, (1891, p. 362).Circee, by Franklin, (1824, vol. 1, p. 170).Ciri^s, by Gairdner in 1835 (1841. p. 257).Isashbahdtsg, by Curtis (1907-9, p. 180), meaning "bad robes": Crowname.
592 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FBull. 145Mauvais Monde des Pieds-Noirs, by Petitot (1891).Sussee, by Umfreville in 1790 (1859, p. 270).Suesekoon, by Henry, Blackfoot MS. vocab., 1808: Siksika name.Tc5'k5, or Tsu'qos, by Chamberlain (1892, p. 8): Kutenai name.Ts6-0ttind, by Petitot (1891, p. 362), meaning "people among the beavers".Ussinnewudj Eninnewug, by Tanner (1830, p. 316), meaning "stone moun-tain men": Ottawa name.Connections.?The Sarcee were connected with the Sekani andTsattine divisions of the Athapascan linguistic family and probablyseparated from the latter.Location.?When first known to Europeans, the Sarcee were usuallyfound on the upper courses of the Saskatchewan and Athabaska Riverstoward the Rocky Mountains.SubdivisionsJenness (1938) states that the tribe is constituted of the following five bands atthe present time :(1) Bloods, Klowanga or Big Plume's band, of mixed Sarcee and Blood (Blackfoot)descent.(2) Broad Grass, Tents Cut Down, or Crow-Child's band, mixed Cree andSarcee, hence their name, signifying that they came from the north where thegrass is thick and long.(3) People who hold aloof or Crow-Chief's band, nearly all pure Sarcee.(4) Uterus or Old Sarcee's band, part Blackfoot, part Sarcee.(5) Young Buffalo Robe or Many Horses' band, occasionally called also "Thosewho keep together."History.?The Sarcee evidently drifted to the Saskatchewan Riverfrom the north and, as Jenness (1938) thinks, "possibly towards theend of the seventeenth century." They are first mentioned by Mat-thew Cocking in 1772-73, but the erection of a trading fort at Cum-berland House, followed by others farther up North SaskatchewanRiver, soon made them well-known to the traders. Early in thenineteenth century the Indians of the section acquired horses andguns, intertribal warfare was increased to such an extent that severaltribes united for mutual protection, and the Sarcee allied themselvesfor this purpose with the Blackfoot. Nevertheless, they continuedto suffer from attacks of the Cree and other tribes, and their numberswere still farther reduced by epidemics, particularly the smallpoxepidemics of 1836 and 1870 and one of scarlet fever in 1856. In 1877,along with the Blackfoot and Alberta Assiniboine, they signed atreaty ceding their hunting grounds to the Dominion Government,and in 1880 submitted to be placed upon a reservation, where theydeclined steadily in numbers until 1920.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated that there was a Sarceepopulation of 700 in 1670. Mackenzie (1801) estimated that therewere 120 Sarcee warriors in 1801 and that their tents numbered 35.
SWAMONJ INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 593Thompson (1916 ed.) and Henry (1801 ed.) allowed 90 tents, 150warriors and about 650 souls. Sir John Franklin (1824) estimatedthat they had 100 tents. WTien their reservation life began Jenness(1938) believes that they numbered between 400 and 450, but theyseem to have declined steadily and in 1924 there were 160 on thereserve, "all commonly considered Sarcee though an uncertain pro-portion were originally Cree and Blackfoot."Connection in which they have become noted.?The Sarcee are notedas the only northern Athapascan band which is known to have becomeaccustomed to life on the Plains, though it is probable that theymerely represent a recent case of Plains adaptation such as took placeat an earlier period with the Apache and Kiowa Apache successively.Seechelt. From their own name Siciatl (c=sh). Also called:Niciatl, Comox name.Connections.?The Seechelt constituted a distinct dialectic groupof the coastal division of the Salishan linguistic family.Location.?On Jervis and Seechelt Inlets, Nelson Island, and thesouthern part of Texada Island, B. C.SubdivisionsAnciently there were four divisions or septs of the Seechelt, as follows:Kunechin, at the head of Queen's Reach, Jervis Inlet.Skaiakos, with no fixed abode.Tsonai, at Deserted Bay at the junction of Queen's Reach and Princess RoyalReach, Jervis Inlet.Tuwanek, at the head of Narrow's Arm, Seechelt Inlet,The Kunechin and Tsonai are said to be descended from Kwakiutl from FortRupert. Later all Seechelt came to live in one town called Chatelech, on TrailBay, at the neck of Seechelt Peninsula.History.?As above noted, two of the original four septs of theSeechelt trace their origin to Kwakiutl Indians from Fort Rupert.On physical grounds Hill-Tout (1902) thought them to be relatedto the Lillooet. Their history after the coming of Europeans hasbeen similar to that of their neighbors. They were converted toRoman Catholicism by Bishop Durieu.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates that there were 1,000Seechelt in 1780. In 1902 Hill-Tout gave a population of 325 butthe Canadian Department of Indian AflFairs only 236. The latterauthority has 244 in 1909.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Seechelt havegiven their name to Seechelt Inlet.Sekani. Signifying "dwellers on the rocks." Also called:Al-ta-tin, by Dawson (1888, p. 192 B).Lhtaten, by Morice (1889, p. 118), meaning "inhabitants of beaver dama";applied also to Nahane.
594 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Rocky Mountain Indians, by Bancroft (1886-90, vol. 1, p. 35, map).Sastotene, by Teit quoted by Jenness (1937, p. 5): Kaska name for certainbands, meaning "black bear people".Th6-k6-n6, by Petitot (MS.), meaning "dwellers on the mountains."Tsekennd, by Morice (1889, p. 112), meaning "inhabitants of the rocks."["people of the contorted rocks," according to James Teit (1900)].Tseloni, by Teit quoted by Jenness (1937, p. 5) : Kaska name for certainbands, meaning "mountain top people".T'set'sa'ut, by Jenness (1937, p. 5): so called by the Indians on Skeenaand Nass Rivers.Connections.?The Sekani formed a group of bands or tribes of theAthapascan linguistic stock, and were dialectically afiihated with theTsattine and Sarcee.Location.?On the headwaters of Peace and Liard Rivers and someof the neighboring western slopes of the Rocky Mountains.SubdivisionsJenness (1937) gives the following:(1) Sasuchan or Sasuten, occupying all of the basin of Finlay River from themouth of the Omineca north and west, including Thutade and Bear Lakes.(2) Tsekani, occupying the country from McLeod Lake south to the divide, andeast to the edge of the prairies.(3) Tseloni, occupying the plateau country between the headwaters of Finlayand Liard Rivers, the Fox in its upper reaches, and the Kechika or MuddyRiver flowing through the center of their domain.(4) Yutuwichan, in the country from the north end of McLeod Lake down theParsnip and Peace Rivers to Rocky Mountain canyon and westward to theheadwaters of the Manson and Nation Rivers, including Carp Lake and theupper reaches of Salmon River.Morice (1889) counted nine bands, but he extended the name Sekani over theTsattine and Sarcee and included three minor groups whose independent positionis uncertain, and which have probably resulted from later mixtures.History.?Jenness (1937) believes that the Sekani were driven intothe Rocky Mountains as a result of the westward thrust of the Cree.Morice (1889) tells us that the first Sekani encountered by Europeanswere evidently the band met by Alexander Mackenzie on June 9,1793, when on his way to the Pacific Ocean. One of these guided himto the head of Parsnip River but deserted shortly before they cameto the Fraser. In 1797 James Finlay ascended the river which nowbears his name. A few" years later James McDougall penetrated theSekani country, and in 1805 Simon Fraser established Fort McLeodon McLeod Lake for the Sekani trade. Since then the contact of thetribe with the Whites has been continuous and cumulative. Traderswere followed by miners and missionaries and all the influences of amore complicated civilization.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated that there were 3,200Sekani in 1780, not counting the Esbataottine, of whom he thought
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 595there might have been 300 in 1670. Drake (1848), estimated 1,000in 1820, and Morice 500 in 1887 and 1893. Mooney (1928) estimatedthere were 750 in 1906, including 250 Esbataottine, but a census takenby the Canadian Department of Indian Affairs in 1923 returnedonly 160.Senijextee or Lake Indians. These were a Salish people living on theArrow Lakes and across the International Boundary in the Stateof Washington as far down the Columbia as Kettle Falls. (SeeWashington.)Shuswap. From Suxwa'pmux, their own name, meaning unknown.Also called:Atena or Atna, from a Carrier word, meaning ''stranger."Tlik'atewu'mtlat, Kutenai name, meaning "without shirts or trousers.Connections.?The Shuswap belong to the interior division of theSalishan linguistic stock.Location.?The Shuswap occupied a territor}'- on the middle courseof the Fraser River, a second section of the Fraser near its head,the drainage of Thompson River above Kamloops Lake, and alarge part of the valley of the upper Columbia above the Arrow Jjakes.SubdivisionsStlemhulehamuk (Si^mxu'lExamujf), in the valley of Fraser River from High Barto Soda Creek, including the people of Clinton.Setlemuk (Se'tLmux), or Setlomuk (Set'Lomux) west of the Fraser, from aboutChurn Creek to beyond Riskie Creek.Stietamuk (Stie'tamu.-s), the interior of the plateau between Fraser and NorthThompson Rivers.Tekkakalt (Texqa'kallt) or Tekkekaltemuk (TExqe'kalltemux), people of theNorth Thompson region.Skstellnemuk (Sxste'UnEmux), on the Upper South Thompson, Shuswap Lake,and Spallumcheen River.Stkamlulepsemuk (Stkamlu'lEpsEmu^) or, sometimes, Sekwapmukoe (Sexwap-mux'o'e), the people of Kamloops and Savona.Zaktcinemuk (Zaxtci'nEmu>^), in the valley of the Bonaparte River to iioar Ash-croft on the main Thompson, Cache Creek, Loon Lake, thn lower part of HatCreek, through Marble Canyon to Pavilion, and on both sides of Fra.ser Rivernear that point. Bands and the Principal Village of EachFraser River Division: Soda Creek (Hatsu'thl or Ha'tsu'thl), Buckskin Creek(Tcukkehwank), Williams Lake or Sugar Cane (Pethltcoktcitcen), Alkali Lake(Skat), Dog Creek (Ratltem or Ratlt), Canoe Creek (Teawak), Empire Valley(Tcekweptem or Tcekiuptem), Big Bar (Stekauz), High Bar (Thlenthlenaiten),Clinton (Pethlteket).Canon Division: Riskie Crock (Pek), North Cafion (Snhahalaus), South Cafion(Snhahelaus), Chilcotin Mouth (Tekhoilups).
596 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Lake Division: Lake la Hache (Hatlinten or Hallinten), Canim Lake (Tskasken),Green Timber (Pelstsokomus).North Thompson Division: Upper Thompson (Pesskalalten), Lower NorthThompson (Tcoktcekwallk), Kinbaskets.Bonaparte Division: Pavilion (Skwailak), Bonaparte River (Nhohieilten), MainThompson.Kamloops Division: Savona or Deadman's Creek (Sketskitcesten or Stskitcesten),Kamloops (Stkamluleps).Shuswap Lake Division: South Thompson (Halaut), Adams Lake, Shuswap Lake(Kwaut), Spallumcheen (Spelemtcin), Arrow Lake.History.?This tribe was encountered by Alexander Mackenzie in1793 and Simon Fraser in 1808. Mackenzie is thought to have beenthe first white man to meet any of them and Fraser was the first toexplore the northern and western parts of their country. They werefollowed by fur traders of the Hudson's Bay Company, among thema band of Iroquois who came about the year 1816. The appearanceof miners in 1858 introduced much greater changes into their liveswhich have since undergone rapid alterations though they have not,as in the case of so many Indian tribes of the United States, beendriven out of their ancient territories.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated that in 1780 the populationof the Shuswap was 5,300. Teit (1909) obtained an estimate froman intelligent old Indian which would give a population in 1850 of7,200. The returns of the Canadian Indian Office for 1903 were2,185; for 1906, 2,236.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Shuswap havegiven their name to a lake and hamlet in British Columbia.Siksika (Blackfoot). In historic times this tribe was on the uppercourse of the Saskatchewan River and extended southward into thepresent State of Montana. Their eastern boundary was in theneighborhood of the 150th meridian, and they stretched westwardto the Rocky Mountains. At an earlier period all seem to havebeen some distance north of the International Boundary. (SeeMontana.)Songish. Name given to the principal band of the group by theWhites, who adopted it, in a corrupt form, from the name of asept, the Stsa'nges. Also called:Etzamish, by the tribes of the south part of Puget Sound.Lku'ngEn, own name.Connections.?The Songish constituted one of the dialectic groupsof the coastal division of the Salishan linguistic family.Location.?At the southern end of Vancouver Island and on thewest coast of San Juan Island, State of Washington.
SwANTo.N] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 597SubdivisionsThere were three principal bands or tribes: the Sanetch, Songish, and Sooke.The Sanetch consisted of the following septs or bands: Mayne Island, Panque-chin, Tsartilp, Tsawout, Tsehump, to which the Saturna Island Indians shouldbe added.The following are Songish bands or septs: Chikauach (at McNeill Bay, Van-couver Island), Chkungen (at McNeill Bay, Vancouver Island), Kekayeken(between Esquimalt and Beecher Bay, Vancouver Island), Kltlasen (at McNeillBay), Ksapsem (at Esquimalt), Kukoak (at McNeill Bay), Kukulek (at CadboroBay, Vancouver Island), Lelek (at Cadboro Bay, Vancouver Bay), Sichanetl(at Oak Bay, Vancouver Island), Skingenes (on Discovery Island off VancouverIsland), Skuingkung (at Victoria), Stsanges (between Esquimalt and Beecher Bay)
.
History.?The Songish were probably iirst encountered by the Greekpilot Juan de Fuca in 1592, when he discovered the straits bearing hisname. Spanish, English, and American exploring and trading vesselsvisited their country in ever-increasing numbers but the greatestchange in their lives followed upon the settlement of Victoria, first asa Hudson's Bay Company post, in 1843. As this rose to be thecapital of the province of British Columbia, it became a rendezvousof Indian tribes from all quarters and for all classes of Whites. It wasat the same time a potent cause of the civilizing of the Songish andof their decline.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates that there were 2,700 peopleof the Songish group in 1780; they had become reduced to 488 in 1906.Connection in which they have become noted.?The only claim of theSongish to special recognition is the fact that Victoria, the provincialcapital of British Columbia, was founded in their country. The nameof the Sanetch, a Songish band, is perpetuated in Saanich Peninsulaand that of another Songish band, the Sooke, in Sooke Inlet.Squawmish. Significance unknown. Phonetically spelled Sk'qo'mic.Connections.?Together with the Nooksak of Washington, theSquawmish constituted a subdialect of the coastal division of theSalishan linguistic stock.Location.?On Howe Sound and Burrard Inlet, north of the mouthof Fraser River. VillagesChakkai, on the east side of Howe Sound.Chalkunts, on Gambier Island.Chants, on Burrard Inlet.Chechelmen, on Burrard Inlet.Chechilkok, at Seyniour Creek, Burrard Inlet.Chekoalch, on Burrard Inlet.Chewas, on the west side of Howe Sound.Chiakamish, on Chiakamish Creek, a tributary of Squawinisht River.Chichilek, on Burrard Inlet.Chimai, on the left bank of Squawmisht River.Chukchukts, on the left bank of Squawmisht River.
59S bttrp:att of American ethnology rBnrx. 145Ekuks, on the right bank of Squawmisht River.Etleuk, on the right bank of Squawmisht River.Hastings Saw Mill Indians.Helshen, on Burrard Inlet.Homulschison, at Capilano Creek, Burrard Inlet.Huikuayaken, on Howe Sound.Humelsom, on Burrard Inlet.lalmuk, at Jericho, Burrard Inlet.Ikwopsum, on the left bank of Squawmisht River.Itliok, on the left bank of Squawmisht River.Kaayahunik, on the west bank of Squawmisht River.Kaksine, on Maraukum Creek, left bank of Squawmisht River.Kapkapetlp, at Point Grey, Burrard Inlet.Kauten, on the right bank of Squawmisht RiverKekelun, on the west side of Howe Sound.Kekios, on the right bank of Squawmisht River.Kekwaiakin, on the left bank of Squawmisht River.Kelketos, on the east coast of Howe Sound.Ketlalsm, on the east side of Howe Sound.Kiaken, on the left bank of Squawmisht River.Kiaken, on Burrard Inlet.Kicham, on Burrard Inlet.Koalcha, at Linn Creek, Burrard Inlet.Koekoi, on the west side of Howe Sound.Koikoi, on Burrard Inlet.Kolelakom, on Bowen Island, Howe Sound.Komps, on the right bank of Squawmisht River.Kotlskaim, on Burrard Inlet.Kuakumchen, on Howe Sound.Kukutwom, on the east side of Howe Sound.Kulatsen, on the east side of Howe Sound.Kulaten, on Burrard Inlet.Kwanaken, on Squawmisht River.Kwichtenem, on the west side of Howe Sound.Kwolan, on the right bank of Squawmisht River.Male, shared with the Musqueam, north of Sea Island in the delta of Fraser River.Mitlmetlelch, on Passage Island, Howe Sound.Nkukapenach, on the right bank of Squawmisht River.Nkuoosai, on Howe Sound.Nkuoukten, on Howe Sound.Npapuk, on the east side of Howe Sound.Npokwis, on the right bank of Squawmisht River.Nthaich, on the right bank of Squawmisht River.Papiak, on Burrard Inlet.Poiam, on the right bank of Squawmisht River.Pokaiosum, on the left bank of Squawmisht River.Sauktich, Hat Island, Howe Sound.Schilks, on the east side of Howe Sound.Schink, at Gibson's Lodge, on the west side of Howe Sound.Selelot, on Burrard Inlet.Shemps, on the left bank of Squawmisht River.Shishaiokoi, on the east coast of Howe Sound.
Sw ANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 599Siechem, on the right bank of Squawmisht River.Skakaiek, on the right bank of Squawmisht River.Skauishan, on the right bank of Squawmisht River.Skeakunts, on Burrard Inlet.Skeawatsut, at Port Atkinson on the east side of Howe Sound.Skelsh, on Burrard Inlet.Sklau, on the left bank of Squawmisht River.Skoachais, on Burrard Inlet.Skumin, on the left bank of Squawmisht River.Skutuksen, on the east side of Howe Sound.Skwaius, on Burrard Inlet.Slokoi, on the right bank of Squawmisht River.Smelakoa, on Burrard Inlet.Smok, on the left bank of Squawmisht River.Snauk, at False Creek, Burrard Inlet.Spapak, on the right bank of Squawmisht River.Stamis, on the left bank of Squawmisht River.Stetuk, on Burrard Inlet.Stlaun, on Burrard Inlet.Stoktoks, on Howe Sound.Stotoii, on the right bank of Squawmisht River.Suntz, on Burrard Inlet.Sutkel, on Burrard Inlet.Swaiwi, on Burrard Inlet.Swiat, on the west side of Howe Sound.Thetsaken, on the east side of Howe Sound.Thetuksem, on the west side of Howe Sound.Thetusum, on the west side of Howe Sound.Thotais, on the right bank of Squawmisht River.Tktakai, on the right bank of Squawmisht River.Tlakom, on Anvil Island in Howe Sound.Tlastlemauk, in Burrard Inlet.Tleatlum, on Burrard Inlet.Toktakamai, on the right bank of Squawmisht River.Tseklten, on Howe Sound.Tumtls, on the east side of Howe Sound.Ulksin, on Burrard Inlet.Yukuts, on the right bank of Squawmisht River.There were a few more villages at the upper end of Burrard Inlet. Modernvillages are: Burrard Inlet, Xo. 3. Reserve; False Creek (same as Snauk,q. v.), Kapilano (see Homulchison), Seymour Creek (see Checkilkok), andSquamish (on Howe Sound).History.?The history of the Squawmish has been practicallyidentical with that of the other coast Salish tribes in their neighbor-hood.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates 1,800 Squa^vmish in 1780.In 1909, 174 were returned.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Squawmish havegiven their name to Squawmisht River, B. C.
600 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY rBnn, 145Stalo. Significance of name unknown. Also called:Cowichan of Fraser River, on account of their close linguistic connectionwith the Cowichan proper of Vancouver Island.Halkome'lem, said to be a name which they applied to themselves.Hue-la-muh or Hum-a-luh, said to be the name by which at least a part ofthem called themselves.Sa-chinco, Shuswap name for the upper Stalo, meaning "strangers."Te'it, name for those above Nicomen and Chilliwack Rivers, so-called bythe lower bands.Connections.?The Stalo belonged to the coastal division of theSalishan linguistic stock, their nearest relatives being the Cowichanof Vancouver Island with whom they are often classed.Location.?On the lower Fraser River from a point below Spuzzumto the mouth of the river.Subdivisions and VillagesChehalis, along the middle course of Harrison River.Chilliwack, on Chilliwack River; they formerly spoke Nooksak.Coquitlam, in Fraser River Valley just above the delta, but owning no landbecause practically slaves of the Kwantlen.Ewawoos, in a town called Skeltem, 2 miles above Hope, on Fraser River.Katsey, in villages called Seltsas and Shuwalethet, on Pitt Lake and River.Kelatl, in a town called Asilao, on Fraser River above Yale.Kwantlen, in villages called Kikait, Kwantlen, Skaiametl, Skaiets, and Wharnock,between Stave River and the mouth of the southern arm of Fraser River andSumass Lake.Musqueam, in the northern part of Fraser Delta.Nicomen, in villages called Skweahm and Lahuai, on Nicomen slough and at themouth of Wilson Creek.Ohamil, on the south side of Fraser River just below Hope.Pilalt, in villages called Chutil, Kwalewia, Skelautuk, Skwala, Schachuhil, andperhaps Cheam, on lower Chilliwack River and part of Fraser River.Popkum, in a town of the same name on lower Fraser River.Scowlits, in a town of the same name at the mouth of Harrison River.Sewathen, on the coast south of the mouth of Fraser River.Siyita, in a village called Skuhamen, at Agassiz on Fraser River.Skwawalooks, on Fraser River below Hope.Snonkweametl, in a village called Snakwametl, on Fraser River.Squawtits, on Fraser River between Agassiz and Hope.Sumass, on Sumass Lake and River.Tsakuam, in a town called Shilekuatl, at Yale.Tsenes, location uncertain.History.?The first visitors to the Stalo were probably Spaniards,possibly the companions of Juan de Fuca in 1592. In 1809 SimonFraser passed through their country, and his name is perpetuated inthat of the river upon which most of them lived. Afterward tradersconnected with the Northwest and Hudson's Bay Companies enteredtheir territory more and more frequently and posts were es-tablished. They were followed about the middle of the nineteenth
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 601
century by miners and the latter by more permanent settlers. Com-plete opening up of the country followed upon its penetration by theCanadian Pacific Railway and the consequent establishment of theport of Vancouver for trans-Pacific trade.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated that in 1780 there were7,100 Stalo and in 1907, 1,451.Stuwihamuk, So called by the Ntlakyapamuk Salish, significanceunknown. Also called:SEi'lEqamuo, another Ntlakyapamuk name, meaning "people of thehigh country."Smll6'kamuQ, a third Ntlakyapamuk name.Connections.?The Stuwihamuk belonged to the Athapascan stockbut to what particular branch of it is unknown.Location.?In Nicola Valley.History.?At some prehistoric period the Stuwihamuk forced theirway into the midst of the territory occupied by Salishan tribes andwere finally absorbed by the Ntlakyapamuk of Thompson River.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated that in 1780 there were 150Stuwihamuk, basing his conclusions on Boas' (1895) estimate of 120to 150 at a later period (1895).Tahltan. Properly, according to Morice (1904 b), "Thalhthan, acontraction of Tha-sselhthan," from tha or thu, "water," and saelh-than, a verb that refers to some heavy object lying thereon, whichseems to be confirmed by a myth reported to Emmons (1911),though some of the older people told the latter it was from a foreigntongue; some, however, derived it from "thaUa-a, point, the firstliving place on the rocky tongue of land between Stikine andTahltan Rivers; and still others claim that it originated from theexhibition or giving away of a piece of steel, thai, by a chief at agreat feast given at this point in early days, in celebration of thebringing out of his daughter."Connections.?The Tahltan belong to the Athapascan luiguisticfamily, and have usually been classed with the Nahane, but we followJeimess (1932) in treating them separately.Location.?In the drainage basin of Stikine River down to themouth of Iskut River, Dease Lake, and Dease River halfway toMcDane Creek (though anciently the head of Dease Lake was not intheir territory), the northern sources of the Nass and some of thesouthern branches of the Taku in Alaska and British Columbia.VillagesGikahnegah, a fishing village on the south bank of the Stikine opposite Nine Mileflat.Lakneip, a subdivision or village on the upper course of Nass River.
602 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Tahltan, called by themselves Goontdarshage, the modern village, 1^ milesnorthwest of the mouth of Tahltan River.Teetch-aranee, on the south bank of the Tahltan near its mouth.Thludlin, on Tahltan River some 12 miles above its mouth.Tratuckka, a fishing village at Nine Mile flat on the Stikine River.Tsaqudartsee, several miles beyond Teetch-aranee on the rock ledge separatingthe Stikine and Tahltan Rivers.There were some others of which the names have not survived.History.?The Tahltan claim descent from people from severaldifferent dii-ections?-the head of the Nass, Tagish Lake, the head-waters of the Taku, the Liard (or Peace) River, and also from thecoast. Intimate contact with the Whites was delayed until placer goldwas discovered in the river bottom below Glenora in 1861 when somedesultory prospecting began, but constant contact only followed on theCassiar gold excitement of 1874. They suffered in many ways from
"White contact, particularly during the smallpox epidemics of 1864and 1868.Population.?Mooney (1928) placed the entire Nahane populationincludmg this tribe at 2,000 in 1780. In 1909 there were 229 Tahltan.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Tahltan are notedas a tribe whose organization has been made over by contact withcoastal people.Takkuth-kutchin. Significance uncertain but possibly "squinters."Also called:Dakaz, by Morice (1906, p. 261).DakkadhS, by Petitot (1876, p. 20).Deguthee Dennee, by Franklin (1828, p. 40).Gens de rats, by Whymper (1868, 255).Klov6n-Kuttchin, by Petitot (1876).Kukuth-kutchin; by Bancroft (1886-90, vol. 1, p. 147).Lapiene's House Indians, by Kirkby in Hind (1863, vol. 2, p. 254).Louchieux Proper, by Ross (MS., p. 474).Nattsae-Kouttchin, by Petitot (1891, p. 361), meaning "marmot people."Porcupine River Indians, by Whymper (1868, p. 255).Quarrelers, by Mackenzie (1801, p. 51).Rat Indians, by Hardisty (1867, p. 311).Rat River Indians, by Whymper (1868, p. 255).Squint-Eyes, by Franklin (1824, p. 261).Takadh6, by Petitot (MS.).Ta-Kuth-Kutchin, by Hind (1863, p. 254).Tykothee-dinneh, by Franklin (1824, p. 261).Upper Porcupine River Kutchin, by Osgood (1934, p. 176).Yukuth Kutchin, by Bancroft (1886-90, vol. 1, p. 115).Connections.?The Takkuth-kutchin were the central and mostcharacteristic tribe of the Kutchin group of the northern division ofthe Athapascan linguistic stock.Location.?On the upper course of Porcupine River.
SwANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 603Population.?With the Vunta-kutchin and Tutcone, Mooney (1928)estimated that there were about 2,200 Takkuth-kutchin in 1670. In1866 they had been reduced to 15 hunters or 40 men in all. Dawson(1888) gave 337 of this tribe and the Tatlit-kutchin ; Morice (1906)estimated 150 in 1906. In 1910, 6 were livinj2: in Alaska. (SeeNakotcho-kutcbin, Tatlit-kutchin, and also Kutcha-kutchin underAlaska.)Tatlit-kutchin. Signifying "those who dwell at the source of theriver [i. e., the Peel KiverJ." Also called:Fon du Lac Loucheux, by Hooper (1853, p. 270).Gens du fond du lac, by Ross (MS)..Peel River Kutchin, by Osgood (1934, p. 174).Sa-to-tin, by Dawson (1888).Tpe-tliet-Kouttchin, by Petitot (1891, p. 361).Connections.?The Tatlit-kutchin belonged to the Kutchin groupof tribes of the northern division of the Athapascan linguistic family,being particularly closely connected with the Takkuth-kutchin.Location.?On Peel River and neighboring parts of the Mackenzie.Population.?Mooney (1928) gives 800 to the Tatlit-kutchin andthe Nakotcho-kutchin, together. In 1866, 30 hunters and 60 men inall were reported. (See Nakotcho-kutchin, Takkuth-kutchin, and alsoKatcha-kutchin under Alaska.)Tatsanottine. Signifying "people of the scum of water," "scum"being a figurative expression for copper. Also called:Copper Indians, from the fact that copper was obtained in their country.Couteaux Jaunes, French-Canadian name.Red-knife Indians, referring to copper.Yellow-knife Indians, referring to copper.Connections.?The Tatsanottine belonged to the Athapascan lin-guistic stock and were later classified with the Chipewyan, but theiroriginal position within the stock is unknown.Location.?On the northern shores and eastern bays of Great SlaveLake.History.?The Tatsanottine derived their name from the ore in alow mountain near Coppermine River which they formerly made intoknives, axes, and other cutting tools and traded at fabulous prices,until the introduction of articles of European manufacture broke themarket and they moved away from the mine toward trading posts inthe south.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates that there were 430 in 1670.In 1859 a census, which may, however, have been only partial, returned219. A later estimate by Morice (1906) gave 500.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Tatsanottine
604 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Boll. 145have become noteworthy merely on account of their association withthe copper deposit above mentioned.Thlingchadinne, signifying "dog-flank people." Also called:Atticmospicayes or Attimospiquaies, by La Potherie, and said to mean
"dog-ribs."Dog Ribs, popular English name from their own designation.Flancs-de-Chien or Plats-C6tes-de-Chien, French name derived from theirown designation.Lintcanre, nickname applied by their congeners.Connections.?The Thlingchadinne belonged to the Athapascanlinguistic stock.Location.?Between Great Bear Lake and Great Slave Lake butnot extending to the Mackenzie River.SubdivisionsPetitot (1891) gives the following divisions:Lintchanre, north and east of the northern arm of Great Slave Lake.Takfwelottine, southeast of Great Bear Lake and at the source of CoppermineRiver.Tsantieottine, on La Martre Lake and River.Tseottine, along the south shore of Great Bear Lake.History.?The name of the Thlingchadinne appears as early as1744. It is said that they were gradually forced northwest by theCree but it is probable that this was true of only a part of them, thegreater portion having occupied approximately the same territories.Their later history is bound up with that of the Hudson's Bay Com-pany, the purveyors of European civilization to most of the Indiansof northwestern Canada.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated that in 1670 there were1,250 Indians of this tribe. In 1858 Ross (1858) gave their totalpopulation as 926. Morice (1906) estimated 1,150.Tionontati, Signifying according to Hewitt {in Hodge, 1910), "therethe mountain stands". Also called:Gens du Petun, French name, meaning "tobacco nation," first used byChamplain (1616), on account of their agricultural activities.Quieunontati, a slightly diflferent form of Tionontati, meaning "where themountain stands," used by some early writers.Tobacco Indians, Tobacco Nation, popular English name.Connections.?The Tionontati belonged to the Iroquoian linguisticstock, being most closely connected probably with the Huron whosedesignation was sometimes extended over theno.Location.?In the highland south of Nottawasaga Bay, in Grey andSimcoe Counties, Ontario. (See also Wisconsin.)
SwANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 605
VillagesEhouae (mission of St. Pierre and St. Paul), Ekarenniondi (St. Matthieu),Etarita (St. Jean), St. Andre, St. Barthelemy, St. Jacques, St. Jacques et St.Philippe, St. Simon et St. Jude, St. Thomas.History.?The Tionontati were first visited by Europeans, theFrench, in 1616, and in 1640 the Jesuits estabhshed a mission amongthem. When the Huron villages were destroyed by the Iroquois in1648-49, many Hurons took refuge with this tribe, in consequence ofwhich the Iroquois turned against them, and attacked Etarita inDecember 1649, during the absence of the warriors, destroying themission and many of the inhabitants. In consequence the Tionontatiabandoned their country and followed the fortunes of the Huron,\\4th whom they subsequently became amalgamated. Hewittbelieved that they are represented to a greater extent in the Wyandotof Ohio than were the Huron proper. (See Wyandot under Ohio.)Population.?Mooney (1928) estimates that in 1600 the Tionontatihad a population of 8,000. They are no longer separable from theHuron.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Tionontati werenoted solely for the extent to which they cultivated tobacco.Tsattine. Signifying "dwellers among the beavers." Also called:Beaver Indians, English term derived from their own name.Connections.?The Tsattine belonged to the same branch of theAthapascan family as the Sekani and Sarcee.Location.?On the prairies south of Peace River and east of theRocky Mountains and on the upper part of Peace River.History.?The Tsattine and the Sekani were originally one people,the separation having come about by the gradual penetration of theSekani westward into the mountains. The Sarcee evidently branchedoff from the Beaver. The invasion of the Cree probably had some-thing to do with all this. Some of the Indians of this tribe resortedto the Hudson's Bay Company's posts before there was a post in theirown country. Mackenzie (1801) says that they first secured firearmsin 1782. This was perhaps a result of the establishment of a poston Athabaska River by Peter Pond for the Northwest Companyin 1778. It was abandoned a few years later and never rebuilt butother forts took its place, such as Athabaska Landing, Peace RiverLanding, Fort St. John, Fort Dunvegan, and a post on Little SlaveLake. Mackenzie spent the winter of 1792-93 with one band ofBeaver near Peace River Crossing before setting out for the Pacific.Goddard (1916) states that they are now divided into three groups,one trading at Fort St. John, a second living about Dunvegan, anda third near Vermilion. There is also a large band at Hudson Hope.
606 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Tsetsaut. Name given them by the Niska and signifying "peopleof the interior."Connections.?The Tsetsaut belonged to the Athapascan stock andwere usually considered as a Nahane tribe. Their dialect is said to besimilar to Tahltan, yet they are reported to have branched off fromthe Kaska.Location.?According to Teit, "their [the Tsetsaut's] country layin a strip from near Bradfield canal and the Iskut across the streamsflowing into Behm Canal perhaps to about the head of Boca deQuadra. They occupied all of the upper part of Portland Canal aroundStewart, and Salmon and Bear Rivers. They may have come downthe canal as far as Maple Bay. They occupied all the White Riverand Meziadin Lake basins and one of their original headquarters,especially for salmon fishing, was at Meziadin Lake. They stretchedacross the head of the Skeena River above Kuldo River over toBear and Sustut lakes" (Teit's Note in D. Jenness, 1932).History.?Once a large tribe they were almost exterminated bythe Lakweip and Tlingit about 1830. They once lived further downBehm Canal and were friendly with the Sanya Tlingit until theydiscovered that the latter had determined to kill them and enslavetheir women and children, when they emigrated to Portland Canaland, becoming reduced in numbers, fell under the control of the Niska,among whom the last of them found homes.Population.?About 1830 the Tsetsaut numbered 500; in ISQ^they were reduced to 12.Tsimshian. A native term meaning "people of Skeena River."Also called:Kilat, by the Masset Haida.Kilgat, by the Skidegate Haida.Kwe'tEla, Heiltsuk Kwakiutl name.Skeena Indians, an English translation of their own name.Ts'OtsqE'n, Tlingit name.Connections.?The Tsimshian are the largest of the three divisions ofthe Chimmesyan linguistic stock, to which they have given their name.Location.?On the lower course of Skeena River and the neighboringparts of the Pacific Coast. (See also Alaska.)Subdivisions and VillagesThe following are at the same time tribal or band, and town groups:Kilutsai, near Metlakatla.Kinagingeeg, near Metlakatla.Kinuhtoiah, near Metlakatla.Kishpachlaots, at Metlakatla.Kitlani, near Metlakatla.Kitsalthlal, between Nass and Skeena Rivera.
SwANTo.Ni INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 607
Kitunto, near the mouth of Skeona River.Kitwilgioks, near the mouth of Skeena River.Kitwilksheba, near Metlakatla and the mouth of Skeena River.Kitzeesh, near Metlakatla.These were the Tsimshian proper, but in a more extended sense the nameapplies to the Kitzilas, who occupied two towns in succession?Old Kitzilas justabove the canyon of Skeena River, and New Kitzilas just below, and Kitzimgay-luui, on the nortli side of Skeona Ri\ or below the canyon. In a still more extendedsense it covered the Kitkahta, on f^ouglas Channel; Kitkatia, on Porcher Island;and the Kittizou, on the .south side uf Swindle island, northwest of Milbank Sound.Modern towns are:New Metlakatla, at Port Chester on Annette Island, Alaska.Old Metlakatla, 15 miles south of Port Simpson.Port Essington, at the mouth of Skeena River.Port Simpson, between Old Metlakatla and the mouth of Nass River.History.?Traditional and other evidence indicates that the Tsim-shian formerly lived inland and have pushed do\vTi to the Pacific inrelatively late times, probably displacing the Tlingit. Spanishnavigators reached the latitude of their coast in very early times butit is questionable whether any actually touched there. In the latterpart of the eighteenth century English and American explorers andtraders met them and this contact became more intimate as time wenton. Later the Hudson's Bay Company's posts were established atFort Simpson in 1831 and at Fort Essington in 1835, and still latertheir country was overrun by miners and prospectors, particularlyduring the great Klondike rush. In 1857 Rev. William Duncanestablished a mission of the Church of England at Metlakatla, but,on account of differences with liis superiors over the conduct of thiswork, he removed to Annette Island, Alaska, in 1887 with the greaterpart of the Indians under his charge and obtained the grant of thisisland for his colony. A still closer contact between them and theoutside world resulted from the establishment of the terminus of theGrand Trunk (now the Canadian National Railway) among them atPrince Rupert.Population.?Mooney (1928) estimated that in 1780 there were5,500 Indians belonging to the Chimmesyan linguistic stock of whichthe Tsimshian were a part. In 1908 there were 1,840 Tsimshian, in-cluding 465 in Alaska.Connection in which they have become noted.?The Indians of thisstock, including the Tsimshian, are noted for their beaut iful carvings,equaled if at all only by those of the neighboring Haida. They andthe Haida together occupy the very center of the remarkable culturalarea of the north Pacific coast, and their social and ceremonial institu-tions have attracted particular attention. Their language occupies aunique position among tlie tongues of the northwest.
608 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Tutchone. Usually called Tutchone-kutchin, but their connectionwith the true Kutchin seems to be denied by later investigators;meaning of name "Crow People." Also called:Caribou Indians, by Dall (1877, p. 32).Gens de bois, by Whymper (1869, p. 255).Gens des Foux, by Dall (1870, p. 429).Klo-a-tsul-tshik', by Dawson (1889, p. 202).Mountain Indians, by Hardisty (1867, p. 311).Nehaunee, by Dall (1877, p. 32). (So called by Hudson's Bay Co. men.)Tatanchaks, by Colyer (1870, p. 593).Wood Indians, by Dawson (1889, p. 202). (So called by fur traders.)Connections.?The Tutchone belonged to the Athapascan stock andwere probably most closely related to the Han Indians on the YukonRiver to the north and the Nabesna Indians to the west.Location.?Between the Han Indians and the Nahane country.Population.?Hodge (1910), gives 1,100, on what authority is notstated, and it is uncertain how many other tribes may be included inwhole or in part. THE WEST INDIESINDIAN TRIBES OF HAITIBainoa.Connections.?So far as known, the Bainoa belonged io the Arawa-kan linguistic family.Location.?The Bainoa tribe or "province" included all of thepresent Republic of Haiti south of the San Nicolas Mountains,except that portion west of the River Savane, and also southwesternSanto Domingo to the River Maguana or San Juan.Subdivisions(As given by Peter Martyr (1912))Amaquei. Diaguo.Anninici. Guahabba.Atiec. Guarricco.Attibuni, on the River Artibonite. Honorucco.Azzuei. lacchi.Bauruco. lagohaiucho.Buiaz. Maccazina.Camaie. Maiaguarite.Caunoa. Neibaimao.Dabaigua. Yaguana.Dahibonici. Xaragua.However, 1 have omitted from his list Marien and Maguana, which I believeshould be considered distinct.Cahibo or Cibao.Connections.?The Cahibo belonged, so far as known, to the Ara-wakan linguistic family, except that a different language is said to
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 609have been spoken in the provinces of Cubana and Baiohaigua, butthe difference may have been dialectic. Peter Martyr's words renderit impossible to suppose the language of this entire tribe was distinctfrom the speech of the remaining Haitians.Location.?The northwestern mountain section of Santo Domingo,about the Desert Mountains or Cordilleras del Cibao.SubdivisionsBaiohaigua, Cotoy, Cubana, Cybaho, Dahaboon, Manabaho, and mountaiuousdistricts called Hazue, Mahaitin and Neibaymao.Caizcimu.Connections.?So far as known, all the Indians in this provincebelonged to the Arawakan linguistic family.Location.?The eastern part of the present Dominican Republic, ox-tending on the south side of the Bay of Samana to a point near themouth of the Juna River and on the south coast of the whole island tothe neighborhood of the mouth of the San Juan or Maguana. PeterMartyr (1912) defines it as reaching only to the coast just west of thepresent Ciudad Trujillo (formerly Santo Domingo City), but the sub-divisions he names indicate the greater extension given above.SubdivisionsPeter Martyr (1912), gives the following "districts or cantons"; Arabo, Ara-mana, Baguanimabo, Caicoa, Guanama, Guiagua, Hazoa, Higuey, Macorix,Reyre, Xagua, and the rugged district of Haiti to the north.Guaccaiarima.Connections.?Cave dwellers were reputed to live here, from whichcircumstance at least the western part of the territory indicated issometimes supposed to have been occupied by a people who precededthe Arawak, the Guanacahibes, who were also represented in westernCuba. No language of this province is known, however, distinct fromArawak.Location.?All of the southwestern peninsula of the Republic ofHaiti west of the River Savane.Subdivision.'iPeter Martyr gives the following "cantons": Ayqueroa, Cahaymi, Guabaqua,Habacoa, lanaizi, Little Bainoa, Manabaxao, Navicarao, Nimaca, Taquenazabo,Zavana.Hubabo (or Ciguayo)Connections.?Peter Martyr (1912) seems to say that the inhabitantsof this province spoke a language distinct from other Haitians, butthe wording is obscure and may refer to the province or tribe ofCahibo.
(310 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Location.?In the northern part of Santo Domingo between theYaqui del Norte and Juna Rivers and the Atlantic and from thePeninsula of Samana to about Point Blanco.SubdivisionsPeter Martyr knew only the following: Canabaco, Cubao, and Xamana. Ifmy interpretation of his words is correct, the people of this province were calledMacoryzes. Elsewhere they seem to be called Ciguana.MaguanaConnections.?The Maguana probably spoke an Arawakan dialectbut their position is uncertain. Peter Martyr gives this as a districtor canton of the Bainoa province, but his description of it extends itso far, and the importance of its chief was so great that I have thoughtit best to give it an independent status. It seems possible that thisis identical with the district of Magna assigned to the province ofCahibo.Location.?In the upper Artabonite Valley, and the valleys of SanTome and San Juan, and Constanza Valley, apparently as far as theBay of Samana. SubdivisionsNone are given.MarienConnections.?The Marien probably spoke an Arawak language andare attached to the province of Bainoa by Peter Martyr (1912), buttheir chief seems to have acted independently of all others, and Marienis sometimes called a "province."Location.?The northwestern coast districts of the present Domini-can Republic and the northern coast of Haiti from the site of Isabellato the Windward Passage. SubdivisionsNone are known. INDIAN TRIBES OF CUBA(After Lehmann, 1920)Baiii. Cubanacan.Baracoa. Cuciba.Barajagua. Guaimaro.Barbacoa. Guamahaya.Bayamo. Guanacahibe.Bayaquitiri. Guaniguanico.Boyaca. Havana.Camagiiey. flanamana.Cayaguayo. lagua.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 611
Macaca.Macorixe.Maguano.Maisi.Maiye.Manyrun.
iXDiAN TRIBES OF CUBA?ContinuedManiabon.Marion.Ornofay.Sabaneque.Sagua.Lucayans in Bahamas.Caribs in Lesser Antilles.
Agueynaba.Arecibo.Aymamon.Bayamo.Coanio.Guanica.Guarionex.Humacao.
Aguacadiba.Ameyao.Anaya.Guaygata.
INDIAN TUIBE.S OF PUKRTO KR'O(After Lehmann, 1920)Loaiza.XIabodamaca.Mayague.x.Urayoan.IJtuado.Yagueca.Yauco.
INDIAN TRIBES OF JAMAICAHueieo.Maynoa.Oristan.Vaquabo.MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICAThe latest and most detailed attempt to classify the languages ofMexico and Central America is that of Dr. J. Alden Mason assistedby Mr. Frederick Johnson (1940). Aside from some unaffiliatedfamilies and some languages of uncertain affiliations, these writersclassify the known languages of this area into 4 great phyla embracing15 stocks and under these in turn 28 families. In his table Dr.Mason also makes use of su( h divisions as subphyla, substock, sub-family, and groups, and he continues his classification down to lan-guages, varieties, dialects, and variations. For our purposes, the minordistinctions are unnecessary, many of them being uncertain and subjectto constant revision, but the phyla, stocks, and families it is useful tokeep in mind, and they may be indicated in small compass by repro-ducing the essential parts of the legend on Mr. Johnson's map, as
612 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145follows, merely changing Mosumalpan to Misumalpan, as in Mason'stext:
Phylum
SWANTON J INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 613This classification also omits one phylum, stock, and family men-tioned in the text, the Athapascan, disregarded evidently because itintruded into Mexico only at a late period and in fact had no perma-nent settlements there.The words "tribe," "band," and "division" will be employedrather indiscriminately in what follows. One of the lessons resultingfrom any attempt to classify or "give the number of" Indian tribes
?
a remark which might be made still more general?is the fact notedalready in the Introduction, that there is no specific definition of suchnames that will apply in all cases. Sometimes a tribe is a tribe becauseof its political unity, sometimes because of its dialectic unity, some-times from a mere "consciousness of kind" on the part of the indi-viduals composing it. A "band" is supposedly a subdivision of a
"tribe" but, the definition of a tribe being such as it is, it is frequentlyimpossible to say whether we have a tribe or a band. The word
"division" assumes, of course, a larger unit but there are divisionswhich would be tribes from one point of view and divisions or bandsfrom others. Still the application of a name to any group of Indianswhether by themselves or by outsiders means that they share some-thing in common whether that something be a common territory,a common language, a common or similar culture, or a common govern-ment. The common territory, language, culture, or government may,however, extend beyond the tribe. A common territory may beshared by two or more tribes, as for instance in the case of the Hidatsa,Mandan, and Arikara Indians of North Dakota. A common languageis shared by tribes bitterly hostile to each other, such as the Dakotaand Assiniboin and the Choctaw and Chickasaw. A common cultureis shared by numbers of Indians in California who differ in language,and a common government is shared by the five tribes of the IroquoisConfederacy and the several tribes of the Creek Confederation. Forall that, each tribal name means something and a knowledge of them,or at least directory to them, with some intimation as to their geo-graphical and linguistic position, as basal ordinarily to their culturalposition, is of distinct service to ethnologists and ethnographers.Only the names of the most important divisions have been placedupon the map.Abasopalme, a band of Concho Indians.Abra, a division ("province") of Guetare mentioned by Peralta(1895).Acasaquastlan, location of a division of Nahuatl in the Republic ofHonduras.Acaxee, a tribe belonging to the Taracahitian branch of the Uto-Aztecan linguistic stock, located on the headwaters of the
()14 BUREAll OF AMERICAN ETHNOI.OCiY IH. 1,1,14.1Culiacaii River and centering about the valleys of San Andresand Topia. Subdivisions: Acaxec, Sabaibo, and Tebaca; thePapudo and Tecaya are also mentioned.Accerri, a division ("province") of Guetarc mentioned by Peralta.Achire, a division of Guasave at the southern end of their territory,near the mouth of the Rio Lorenzo.Acolhua, one of the three Nahuatl tribes which formed the AztecConfederacy.Aguacatec I, a tribe belonging to the Quichoid division of the Mayanfamily, in the region of Aguacatan in the northeastern part ofthe Mam territory.Aguacatec II, in the Zoque subfamily of the Mizocuavean stock, locatedin the Quiche territory in southwestern Guatemala, in the regionof Aguacatan.Ahomama, a Lagunero band.Ahome, a division of the Guasave about the mouth of the Rio Fuerte.Ahuachapan, the location of a detached body of Pokomam in theeastern part of El Salvador.Aibine, a division of Xixime.Akwa'ala, or Paipai, a Yuman (Hokan) tribe which occupied an in-land territory at the northern end of the peninsula of Baja Cali-fornia.Alaguilac, a tribe whose language resembled Pipil and thereforebelonged to the Uto-Aztecan stock, located on the Rio Motaguain the eastern part of Guatemala.Alamama, a Lagunero band.Amusgo, or Amishgo, a tribe of the Miztecan family occupying awedge-shaped area between the states of Oaxaca and Guerrero,and extending to the Pacific Ocean.Anachiquaies (the Anacasiguais of Orozco y Berra, 1864), a Tamauli-pec tribe about Escand6n.Apache, name given to several Athapascan tribes which invadedMexico in post-Columbian times. (See New Mexico.)Apostata, a Tamaulipec tribe about Burgos.Ara, an unclassified tribe but supposed to be Chibchan.Aracanaes, the Anacana of Orozco y Berra (1864), a Tamaulipec tribeabout Altamira.Aretino, a Tamaulipec tribe mentioned by Orozco y Berra (1864).Aripa, a Waicuri division in the northwestern part of the Waicuriterritory.Atzinca, a division of the Matlatzinca at San Juan Acingo, Mexico.Aycalme, a band of the Concho.Aztec, the most prominent of all the Nahuatl tribes, located on thesite of the present City of Mexico.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRTBESl OF NORTH AMERICA 615Bachilmi, a Concho band.Baciroa, a tribe probably cognate with the Conicari and Tepahue andtherefore in the Taracahitian family, located south of the Conicariand between the Mayo and Tehueco.Bagaces, an Aztecoidan (Uto-Aztecan) tribe in the interior of Cost aRica northward from the head of the Gulf of Nicoya.Baimena, a division of the Zoe, in the southern part of the Zoe terri-tory.Baldam, a division of the Mosquito Indians near the Tuapi Lagoon.Bambana, a mixed Mosquito-Sumo tribe on the Rio Bambana ineastern Nicaragua.Bamoa, a tribe of Cahita south of the Rio Sinaloa.Baopapa, a Concho band.Bawihka, a Sumo tribe in the northern interior of Nicaragua, east ofWanks River near its mouth.Bayano, a Cuna tribe (Chibchan stock).Baymunana, a tribe of possibly Sumo affiliations (Misumalpan stock)south of Cape Gracias a Dios.Boa, a Sumo tribe on the headwaters of the Rio Grande near theMatagalpa Indians, central Nicaragua,Borrado, a Tamaulipec tribe near Dolores.Boruca, a Chibchan tribe on the Pacific coast in southeastern CostaRica about Coronado Bay.Bribri, a Chibchan tribe speaking the Talamanca language, andlocated on the upper course of the Rio Tarire in the territory ofthe present Republic of Panamd and adjacent parts of CostaRica.Burica, a Chibchan tribe of the Dorasque division located in thesouthwestern coiner of the Republic of Panamd and neighboringparts of Costa Rica.Burucaca, a Chibchan tribe related to the Boruca and living in theeastern part of Costa Rica in the interior.Cabecar, a Chibchan tribe of the Talamanca division located ineastern Costa Rica inland. A synonym for Chiripo.Cabezas, a tribe or band mentioned by Orozco y Berra (1864) andpossibly connected with the Toboso, who weie sometimes re-garded as belonging to the Athapascan family.Cacalote, a Tamaulipec tribe about Mier.Cacalotito, a Concho band (Uto-Aztecan stock).Cacaopera, a tribe speaking a Matagalpa dialect and living in theextreme northeastern part of P]l Salvador in the villages ofCacaopera and Lislique.Cadimas (Orozco y Berra (1864) has Cadinias), a Tamaulipec tribeliving about Guemes.
616 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Cahita, a Uto-Aztecan tribe of the Taracahitian family living in south-western Sonora and northwestern Sinaloa, principally in themiddle and lower portions of the valleys of the Rio Yaqui, RioMayo, Rio Fuerte, and Rio Sinaloa, and extending from theGulf of California to the Sierra Madre except for the coastaltract south of the Esto de Agiabampo. They included the Samoa(south of Rio Sinaloa), Sinalog or Cinaloa (on upper Rio Fuerte),Mayo (on Rio Mayo), Tehueco (on Rio Oteros), Yaqui (on RioYaqui), and Zuaque (on the lower course of the Rfo Fuerte).Caimanes, a Cuna tribe.Cakchiquel, a tribe belonging to the Quichoid division of the Mayanlinguistic stock located in central Guatemala between LakeAtitldn and the site of Guatemala City and southward to thePacific Ocean.Camaleones, a Tamaulipec tribe about SantUlana.Canaynes, given by Orozco y Berra (1864) as the name of a Tamaulipectribe.Caramariguanes, given by Orozco y Berra as the name of a Tamauli-pec tribe.Caramiguaies, given by Orozco y Berra as the name of a Tamauli-pec tribe.Carib, a tribe not entered upon the map because they were post-Columbian arrivals from the Lesser Antilles upon the northerncoast of Honduras whence they spread to the west coast of theGulf of Honduras and as far north as Stann Creek, BritishHonduras.Caribayes, given by Orozco y Berra (1864) as the name of a Tamaulipectribe.Carrizos, a Tamaulipec tribe about Camargo.Catapa, a Chibchan tribe of the Rama-Corobici subfamily.Caviseras, a Lagunero tribe.Cazcan, a tribe of the Nahuatlan (Aztecoidan) division of the Uto-Aztecan linguistic stock, located in the southernmost part of theState of Zacatecas, northern Jalisco, and perhaps a small partof Aguas Calientes, extending south to Lake Chapala and beyondthe Rio Grande de Santiago. The Cazcan proper were in thenorthern part of this territory, the Tecuexe in the southern part,and the Coca west of Lake Chapala.Chacahuaztli, a division of the Totonacan family.Chalchuapa, site occupied by a detached body of Pokomam Indians(Mayan stock) in the Pipil territory.Chaliva, a Chibchan tribe the minor affiliations of which are unknown.Chameleon, a valley near Naco, Honduras, where a band of NahuatlIndians lived.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 617Chanabal, a tribe forming one group with the Tzeltal, Tzotzil, Quelene,and Chuj in the Mayoid division of the Mayan linguistic stock.They were located in the southeastern part of Chiapas near theMexican-Guatemalan boundary.Changuena, a Chibchan tribe of the Dorasque division, located inthe westernmost part of the Republic of Panamd, inland andsouthwest of Rfo Tilorio.Chapagua, the site of a Nahuatl colony, northern Honduras.Chatino, a tribe belonging to the Zapotecan family living in thesouthern part of the State of Oaxaca between Oaxaca City andthe Pacific Ocean, and on the Rfo Verde.Chato, a Matagalpa (or possibly Lenca) tribe, perhaps identical withthe Dule and occupying part of the Tegucigalpa area, Honduras.Chiapanec, a tribe belonging to a family called Chiapanecan orChorotegan and centering about Tuxtla Gutierrez in westernChiapas but formerly occupying a much larger territory.Chicomuceltec, a tribe belonging to the Mayoid division of theMayan linguistic stock, located in the extreme southeastern partof Chiapas close to the Guatemalan frontier.Chilanga, a division of Lenca Indians in the northeastern part of theRepublic of El Salvador.Chinantec, a tribe constituting an independent stock, the Chinan-tecan, located in the district of Tuxtepec in the northern part ofthe State of Oaxaca, Mexico. Mason and Johnson (1940) givethe following dialectic varieties: Hume, Ojitlan, Wahmi, andYolox.Chinarra, an important subdivision of the Concho living between theRio Santa Maria and the Rio Conchos, State of Chihuahua,Mexico, in the northern section.Chinipa, a tribe placed by Mason and Johnson in the Varohio groupof the Taracahitian linguistic family and located on a river of thesame name, a branch of the Rio Fuerte, State of Chihuahua.Chiripo, a synonym for Cabecar (q. v.).Chiru, an "unassigned" tribe on the Gulf of Panama west of PanamdCity.Chizo, an important subdivision of the Concho living about the bigbend of the Rio Grande.Chocho (of Oaxaca), a tribe placed by Mechling (1912) in his Mazatecstock but by Mason and Johnson in the Popolocan family andOtomanguean stock; located in the northern part of the Stateof Oaxaca.Chocho (of Puebla), see Popoloca.
618 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Choi, a Mayan tribe including two divisions, the Choi Lacandon ofeastern Chiapas along the Rio Usumacinta and a second aboutthe head of the same.Cholo, a tribe placed by Mason and Johnson in the "unassigned"group but by Lehmann (1920) connected with the Choco Indiansof Colombia, in the extreme southeastern part of the Republic,of Panamd, on the Pacific coast.Cholutec, a tribe which has been called Alangue to the exclusion ofthe Diria and Orotina but are properly independent of butrelated to the Mangue. They have been united into one stockwith the Chiapanec called by Thomas (1911) Chiapanecan butby Mason and Johnson Chorotegan; Lehmann (1920) connectedthem with the Otomi. They lived in southern Honduras alongthe Gulf of Fonseca.Chontal, signifying in Nahuatl "stranger," (1) a Mayan tribe connectedclosely with the Tzeltal, Choi, and Tzotzil and occupying theentire eastern part of the State of Tabasco.Chontal (2), see Tequistlatec.Chorti, a tribe of the Choloid branch of the Mayan stock living inthe easternmost part of Guatemala and the neighboring Copandistrict of Honduras.Chuchures, a tribe living in the neighborhood of Point Manzanilloon the north coast of the Republic of Panamd, by some placedin the Nahuatlan (Aztecoidah) division of the Uto-Aztecanlinguistic family and by others connected with the Suma of theChibchan family.Chucunaque, a Cuna tribe belonging to the Chibchan stock.Chuj, or Chuje, a Mayan tribe closely connected with the Jacaltecand belonging to the same group as Choi, located in north-western Guatemala between Nenton and San Sebastian.Chumulu, a Chibchan tribe.Cinaloa, a Cahita tribe on the upper course of the Rio Fuerte, Stateof Sinaloa.Coahuiltecan tribes, the name given a great number of small tribes orbands in the State of Coahuila, Mexico, and also in Neuvo Le6n,Tamaulipas, and southern Texas as far as the River San Antonio.(See Texas.)Coano, a division of Cora Indians on the Rio Santiago, Nayarit,Mexico.Coca, a division of Cazcan Indians west of the Lago de Chapala,State of Jalisco, M6xico.Cochimi, a Yuman tribe in Baja California between latitude 26? N.and latitude 31? N.; Laymon is a northern division.Coco, a Sumo division.
SWANTON) INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 619Cocomacaque, a division of Pima Bajo north of the Rio de Sonora,State of Sonora, Mexico.Cocopa, an Arizona tribe which occasionally crossed into Sonora.(See Arizona.)Cocora, a tribe belonging to the Rama-Corobici subfamily of theChibchan stock, on the Rio Cocora in southeastern Nicaragua.Coiba, signifying "distant" (?), the western division of the Cunanbranch of the Chibchan linguistic stock located in the neighbor-hood of the present Panama Canal and westward.Colotlan, a tribe on the river of the same name, closely connectedwith the Teul and Tepecano Indians and therefore in the Pimandivision of the Uto-Aztecan linguistic stock.Comanito, a tribe placed by Mason and Johnson in the Tahue groupof their Cahitan linguistic subfamily and Taracahitian family ofthe Uto-Aztecan stock.Comecamotes, a Tamaulipec tribe about Soto la Marina.Comecrudo, a Coahuiltec or Tamaulipec tribe about San Fernando,Tamaulipas.Comopori, a division of the Guasave north of the Esto. de Agiabampo.Concho, a tribal division in the valley of the Rio Concho above itsmouth and extending westward to the neighborhood of the CasasGrandes. They are placed by Mason and Johnson in the Tara-cahitian division of the Uto-Aztecan linguistic stock. There weretwo major subdivisions, the Chinarra around the salt lakes andsand dunes of northern Chihuahua, and the Chizo cast of theConcho and near the big bend of the Rio Grande; and the follow-ing minor bands: Abasopalme, Aycalme, Bachilmi, Baopapa,Cacalotito, Concho, Conejo, Coyamit, Guamichicorama, Guelasi-guicme, Guiaquita, Julime, Mamite, Mesquite, Mosnala, Obone(or Oposine), Olobayaguame, Olojasme, Polacme, Posalme,Sucayi, Tatamaste, Tocone, Topacolme, Xiximole, Yacchicaua,Yaculsari, Yaochane (Ahuchan or Ochan), Yeguacat.Conguaco, or Popoluca, a tribe classed by Thomas (1911), followingJuarros (1824), with the Lenca but by Lehmann (1920), followeddoubtfully by Mason and Johnson, in the Xincan family. Theywere in the extreme southeastern part of Guatemala near thePacific coast.Conicari, a tribe connected by Sauer (1934) with the Cahita and there-fore assigned by Mason and Johnson to their Taracahitian familyof the Uto-Aztecan stock; they were located about the junction ofthe Mayo and Cedros Rivers.Cooc, given by Peralta (1895) as a "province" of the Guetare Indians.
620 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Cora, (1) calling themselves Nayarit or Nayariti, a tribe belongingto the Taracahitian division of the Uto-Aztecan linguistic family,located in the Sierra de Nayarit, on the middle course of theRio Grande de Santiago, State of Jalisco, and a section of the SanPedro, and including the coast of the present Nayarit. Sub-divisions: Coano (in the barrancas of Mochitiltic in the extremesouth), Huaynamota (on an east branch of the Rio Grande deSantiago), Zayahueco (south and southwest margins of Coracountry).Cora, (2) a subdivision of the Waicuri on the east coast of BajaCalifornia from about Dolores to the southeastern point of thepeninsula.Corobici, a Chibchan tribe closely related to the Guatuso and livingto the east of Lake Nicaragua in Costa Rica.Coto, or Cocto, a Chibchan tribe related to the Boruca and located inthe interior of Costa Rica north of the Gulf of Dulce.Coyamit, a band of Concho Indians.Cuahcomeca, a tribe of unknown affinities located in western Guerrero.Cuercos quemados, a Tamaulipec tribe about Revilla.Cuicatec, a major division of the Mixtecan linguistic family living inthe district of Cuicatlan on the northeastern border of the Mixtec,State of Oaxaca, Mexico.Cuitlatec, a people of unknown affiliations living in the present Statesof Guerrero and Michoacan between the country of the Tarascoand the Pacific Ocean.Cuna, the eastern branch of the Cunan family of the Chibchan stock,occupying all of the eastern part of the Republic of Panamaexcept some territory on the Pacific coast and a small enclave inthe interior.Cuyuteca, a tribe of unknown affiliations living in the State of Jalisco.Daparabopos, a band of Lagunero Indians.Desaguedero, a body of Indians believed to have belonged to theAztecoidan division of the Uto-Aztecan stock, located at themouth of the Rio San Juan between the present republics ofNicaragua and Costa Rice.Didd, a tribe in Baja California of uncertain location believed to havebelonged to the Waicurian family.Diegueno, a Yuman tribe occupying territory in southwestern Cali-fornia and the northwestern part of Baja California. (SeeCalifornia.)Diria, a division of the Mangue, belonging to the Chiapanecan orChorotegan linguistic stock, connected by Lehmann (1920) withthe Otomi. They were located between Lake Nicaragua and thePacific Ocean.
SwANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 621Doleguas, a Guaymi tribe on Rio Chiriqui, Republic of Panam^,.Dorasque, a tribe of the Chibchan linguistic stock living in thenorthwestern part of the Republic of Panama on the Atlanticcoast about the Bahia del Almirante and extending across to thePacific.Dudu, a Sumo tribe placed by Mason and Johnson in the Misumalpanlinguistic stock.Dule, a tribe, possibly identical with the Chato, placed somewhatdoubtfully in the Matagalpan family, and located in the area ofTegucigalpa, Honduras.Duy, a Chibchan tribe related to the Dorasque.Edu, a Baja California tribe of uncertain location but probablybelonging to the Waicurian family.Escoria, an "unassigned" tribe inland from the Gulf of Parita in thewestern part of the Republic of Panama.Estrella, a Chibchan tribe of otherwise uncertain position.Eudeve, a division of the Opata of the Uto-Aztecan linguistic stock,in the southern part of the Opata territory near the Jova.Garabito, given by Peralta (1895) as a Guetare "province," and hencefalling in the Chibchan linguistic stock.Gocoyome, a band of Toboso Indians and perhaps belonging to theAthapascan stock.Gotane, a tribe of the Chibchan stock and Rama-Corobici subfamily.Guachichile, a tribe or group of tribes regarded as connected with theHuichol and classed with the Aztecoidan division of the Uto-Aztecan linguistic family. They occupied a long strip of terri-tory extending from the borders of Michoac^n northward toSaltillo and lying between longitude 100? and 103? W.Gualaca, a Chibchan tribe otherwise "unclassified" living near themouth of Rio Chiriqui in the Gulf of Chiriqui.Guamichicorama, a band of the Concho.Guanexico, a tribe believed to belong to the Ulva group of the Sumanfamily and Misumalpan stock.Guarco, a Guetare band or "province" mentioned by Peralta.Guasapar, a tribe belonging to the Varohio division of the Taraca-hitian family and Uto-Azetcan stock, in the present state ofChihuahua midway between the Rio Oteros or Chlnipa and theRio Urique.Guasave, a tribe of the Cahita group, Taracahitian family and Uto-Aztecan stock located on the Pacific coast of the State of Sinaloabetween the Esto. de Agiabampo and the Rio San Lorenzo.Sauer (1934) gives the following subdivisions: Achire (at thesouthern end of the Guasave territory), Ahome (about the mouthof Rio Fuerte), Comopori (north of the Esto. de Agiabampo),
622 BHREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bri.L. 145and Vacoregue (between the Ahome and the Esto. de Agiabampo).The following names of settlements are also given: Pohui,Sisinicari, Tamazula, and Ure.Guatijigua, a settlement of Lenca Indians in the northeastern partof El Salvador.Guatinicamame, a Mazatec tribe belonging to the Popolocan familyand Otomanguean stock.Guatuso, a tribe which formed one group of the Chibchan stock withthe Corobici Indians, and lived in the interior of the Republicof Costa Rica south of Lake Nicaragua.Guaxiquero, a body of Lenca Indians living in Honduras.Guayma, a band of Seri Indians living on the Gulf of California nearGuaymas.Guaymi, signifying "man," a Chibchan tribe or group of tribes(Guaymi-Dorasque subfamily), in the Republic of Panama fromDavid Bay on the Pacific coast and the Rio Guaymi on the Atlan-tic side eastward to about the present Chame and Salud. Thefollowing are given as subdivisions or tribes: Doleguas (on RioCliiriqui), Move (east of Rio Chiriqui), Muoi (south of ChiriquiLagoon), Murire (about the Gulf of Chiriqui), Muite, Pariza (?),Penomeno (on the Gulf of Parita).Guelasiguicme, a Concho band.Guetare, a tribe belonging to the Talamanca division of the Chibchanlinguistic stock. Subdivisions: Besides Voto, the name of anindependent tribe, Peralta (1895) gives the following as "prov-inces": Abra, Accerri, Catapa, Cooc, Garabito, Guarco, Pacaca,Tayopan, Tice, Turriarba.Guiaquita, a Concho band.Guixolotes, a Tamaulipec tribe according to Orozco y Berra (1864).Halyikwamai, or Kikima, a Yuman tribe on the frontier betweenSonora and Arizona. (See Arizona.)Himeri, a division of Pima Indians of the Piman family and Uto-Aztecan stock living on and near the upper Rio Altar, Sonora.Hine, a Xixime division on the headwaters of the Rio Piaxtla.Hoeras, a Lagunero band.Huastec, the northernmost representatives of the Mayan linguisticstock in the northern part of the present State of Veracruz,southern Tamaulipas, and part of San Luis Potosi; Mason andJohnson mention Potosino and Veracruzano as dialects.Huave, a tribe belonging to the Mizocuavean stock, formerly consid-ered independent, living in the coastal parts of the districts ofJuchitlan and Tehuantepec, State of Oaxaca, Mexico.Huaynamota, a division of the Cora of Nayarit living on an eastbranch of the Rio Grande de Santiago.
SWANTO.N) INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 623Huichol, a tribe supposed to be closely related to the Guachichil andwith them forming a branch of the Aztecoidan (Nahuatlan) fam-ily and Uto-Aztecan stock, located in the mountains betweenthe State of Zacatecas and the territory of Nayarit. They aredivided into three principal districts with the villages of SantaCatarina, San Sebastian, and San Andres Coamiata as theirrespective seats of government.Huite, signifying "bowmen," a tribe placed by Mason and eJohnsonin one group with the Ocoroni and Nio and in the Taracahitianlinguistic family and Uto-Aztecan stock. They lived about thejunction of the Otero and Urique Rivers.Hume (1), a division of the Chinantec Indians, (liorotegan family.Hume (2), a division of the Xixime on the Presidio and BaluarteRivers.Icaiche, a Maya subdivision.Ika, a body of Indians in Baja California probably belonging to theWaicurian family.Inocoples, a Tamaulipec tribe about Hoyos.Intibucat, a body of Lenca Indians in the Republic of Honduras.Ipapana, given by Zembrano as a Totonac dialect spoken in themissions of the Augustines.Irritila, a Lagunero band; Orozco y Berra (1864) applied their nameto all of the Lagunero.Itza, a Maya tribe about Lake Pet^n, Guatemala.Itzuco, a tribe of unknown affiliations located in northern Guerrero.Ixcatec, a tribe of the Popolocan family and Otomanguean stockliving in the northern part of the Mixtec territory, State ofOaxaca, Mexico.Ixil, a Quichoid tribe of the Mayan linguistic stock living in an areaslightly west of the center of Guatemala, and including thepueblos of Nebaj, Cotzal, and Chajul as the chief towns.Izalco, a tribe belonging to the Aztecoidan branch of the Uto-Aztecanlinguistic stock, with a dialect regarded by Lehmann (1920) asthe oldest type of Pipil. They lived about Izalco, south of SanSalvador City, El Salvador.Iztepeque, a body of Pokomam Indians, Mayan linguistic family,living east of San Salvador City.Jacaltec, a Mayan tribe speaking a dialect allied to Motozintlec, andlocated around the pueblo of Jacaltenango, near the northwesternboundary of Guatemala.Janambre, on slight evidence Orozco y Berra (1864) was induced toseparate this tribe and the Pisone from the other tribes in Tama,u-lipas, and he has been followed by others without more reason.It is probable that these two tribes were Tamaulipecan or con-
624 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY f Bull. 145
nected with the Pame and Otorai. They Uved in the south-western part of the State of Tamaulipas.Jano, a predatory tribe on the northern frontier of Mexico constantlycomplained of in late seventeenth-century documents. Sauer(1934) believes that they were Apache and specifically possiblythe Mimbreno Apache. (See Apache under New Mexico.)Jicaque, signifying in Nahuatl "ancient person/' a tribe or group oftribes in northwestern Honduras retained for the present as anindependent linguistic stock though they have resemblances tothe languages of the Paya, Lenca, and Xinca. Mason andJohnson express uncertainty as to whether their language shouldbe classed with those to the south or those to the north. TheJicaque of Yoro and Jicaque of Palmar (or Sula) are mentionedas dialects by Lehmann (1920). Mason adds that of Leany Mulia.Jocome, a predatory tribe mentioned constantly in seventeenth-centurydocuments in conjunction with the Jano and said to have thesame speech. Sauer (1934) beheves they were Apache and seemsto suggest that they might have been the Chiricahua Apache.Jova, a tribe connected with the Opata and classed in the Taracahitianfamily and Uto-Aztecan stock. They occupied the upper partof the valley of the Rfo Yaqui, and the following Jova villagesare mentioned: Bacaniyagua, Baipoa or Baypon, Natora, Opar-rapa, Orasaqui, Sereba, and Setasura.Julime, a Concho band.Jumano, a tribe on the Rio Grande above the big bend, probably partof the Suma. (See Shuman under Texas.)Kabo, a division of the Mosquito Indians on the east coast of Nicara-gua, north of the mouth of the Rio Grande.Kamia, a Yuman tribe whose main seat was in the Imperial Valley,California, but which ranged across the international boundary.(See California.)Karawaka, a division of the Panameka.Kekchi, a tribe constituting with the Pokomam and Pokonchi onedivision of the Quichoid family of the Mayan stock, and livingon both sides of the upper Rio Cahab6n, extending westward tothe Rio Chixoy.Kikima. (See Halyikwamai.)Kiliwa, or Kiliwi, a Yuman tribe connected somewhat closely with theKamia and Diegueno and living in the Peninsula of Baja Cali-fornia on the west side of the Gulf of California near its head.Kiwahka, a mixed Mosquito-Sumo tribe.Kohuana, a tribe on the Rio Colorado, (See Arizona.)Ku, a Sumo tribe of the Misumalpan stock located on the middle courseof Wanks River, Nicaragua.
SWANTONJ INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 625Kukalaya, a mixed Mosquito-Sumo tribe.Lacandon, a Mayan tribe in the south central part of the Peninsula ofYucatan.Lagunero, from the Spanish signifying "lake people," a tribe or groupof tribes assigned somewhat doubtfully to the Aztecoidan branchof the Uto-Aztecan stock and living about the lakes of the table-lands of Mapimi. The following bands or subtribes are named byAlegre: Ahomamas, Alamamas, Caviseras, Daparabopos, Hoeras,Irritila, Maiconeras, Meviras, Miopacoas, Ochoes, Paogas, Vas-sapalles, Yanabopos.Lakus, a Sumo tribe (Suman family) living, with the Pispis Indians onthe Rio Uani, in Usabane, on the upper course of the Rio Pispisand on the Rio Bambana.Lari, an unclassified tribe but probably Chibchan,Laymon, a northern section of the Cochimi of the Yuman family,sometimes treated as independent.Lenca, a tribe or group of tribes usually placed in a family (the Len-can) independent of all others though the language containsresemblances to Xincan. It occupied the Valley of Olancho andextended westward into the departments of Tegucigalpa, Comay-agua, Intibuca, and Gracias and into the eastern part of ElSalvador east of the Lempa River. The following dialects arementioned: Guaxiquero, Intibucat, Opatoro, and Similaton inHonduras, and Chilanga and Guatijigua in El Salvador. Con-guaco is sometimes placed in this stock but Lehmann (1920)classes it with Xinca.Loreto, a site in Baja California occupied by Indians who constituteda division of the Cochimi of the Yuman family.Macoyahui, a tribe regarded by Sauer (1934) as "pretty certainly"related to the Cahita and therefore classed by Mason and John-son in their Taracahitian family of the Uto-Aztecan stock.They lived on the Rio Mayo above the Conicari and in the hillssoutheastward from the Mayo.Maiconeras, a Lagunero band.Maiinchenos, given by Orozco y Berra (1864) as a Tamauhpec bandor tribe.Mam, (1) a Quichoid tribe said to have spoken one of the most archaicof the Mayan dialects. They lived in southeastern Guatemalaand part of the district of Soconusco, Mexico.Mam, (2) a Mosquito tribe living about the Caratasca Lagoon,Honduras.Mamite, a Concho band.
626 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Manche, a Mayan tribe thought to belong to the Choloid groupunder the Mayoid division of the stock, and located at the headof the Bay of Honduras.Mandinga, a Cuna tribe, Chibchan stock.Mangue, a tribe of the Chorotegan family or substock located inNicaragua between Lake Managua and the Pacific Ocean.Divisions: Diria and Nagrandan.Maribichicoa-Guatajigiala, a small branch of the Maribio or Subtiabaof Nicaragua which in turn is believed to belong to the Hokanlinguistic stock. They lived in the northeastern part of ElSalvador.Mariguanes, a Tamaulipec tribe living about Horcasitas.Matagalpa, a tribe or group of tribes originally placed in an independ-ent stock of the same name, by Lehmann (1920) connected withthe Suma and Tawahka, Ulua, and Mosquito Indians, but putin their Misumaipan stock by Mason and Johnson. Theyoccupied the central part of Nicaragua, extending almost tothe northern end of Lake Nicaragua and north through southernHonduras to the northeastern corner of El Salvador. Accordingto Conzemius (1932), they formerly inhabited the western por-tion of the Mosquito coast. The Cacaopera constituted a sepa-rate dialect.Matlamc, a subdivision of the Matlatzinca which belonged to theOtomian linguistic family and Otomanguean stock.Matlatzinca, or Pirinda, a tribe belonging to the Otomian linguisticfamily and Otomanguean stock, occupying a narrow strip ofterritory south of the Mazahua, extending southwest from Toluca.The recorded subdivisions are: Atzinca (at San Juan Acingo),Ocuiltec (at Ocuila), and Quata.Maya, the type division of the Mayan linguistic family occupying allof the Peninsula of Yucatdn including the present British Hon-duras, northern Guatemala, and neighboring parts of Tabasco.Subdivisions or tribes were the following: Icaiche (east of theRio Hondo in the east central part of the peninsula), Itza (aboutLake Pet6n in northern Guatemala and in adjoining parts ofYucatan and British Honduras), Lacandon (in the south centralpart of the peninsula), Maya proper (in the greater part of thepeninsula and part of Tabasco), Mopan or Moapan (in thesouthern part of British Honduras and adjoining sections ofGuatemala), Santa Cruz (in the northeastern part of Yucatdn).Mayo, a Cahita tribe belonging to the Taracahitian family of theUto-Aztecan stock, living on the Rio Mayo, Sonora.
SwANTo.vJ INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 627Mazahua, a tribe of the Otomian linguistic family living in thewestern portion of the State of Mexico and probably occupyingsome adjoining territory in Michoacdn.Mazatec, a tribe in the northern part of the States of Oaxaca andGuerrero and extending into the State of Veracruz. Mechling(1912) made it the type tribe of a distinct stock but Lehmann(1920) afterward united it with Chinantec and Otomian whileMason and Johnson connect it primarily with Cuicatec and placeit in their Otomanguean stock, and they give the followingsubdivisions: Mazatec of Oaxaca, Guerrero, and Tabasco, andGuatinicamame.Melchora, a tribe of the Chibchan stock closely connected with theRama and located in the Republic of Nicaragua northeast ofLake Nicaragua.Mesquite, a band of Concho Indians.Meviras, a Lagunero band.Meztitlanec, a tribe of the Aztecoidan division of the Uto-Aztecanlinguistic stock located in the region north of Tezcuco betweenthe Sierra Madre and Huastec territory.Miopacoas, a Lagunero band.Mixe, one of the two main divisions of the former Zoquean linguisticfamily, now the Mizocuavean stock of Mason and Johnson, in thesierra northeast of the Zapotec in the States of Oaxaca, Veracruz,and Chiapas.Mixtec, a tribe or tribal group in the western part of the State ofOaxaca and neighboring parts of Guerrero and Puebla. Theywere formerly, but seemingly erroneously, placed in one stockwith the Zapotec. Mason and Johnson, who give them anindependent stock position, do, however, place them in one
"philum" with the Zapotec, Chinantec and Otomi. Theydistinguish the Mixteca Alta and Mixteca Baja as two mainsubdivisions.Mocorito, a tribe on the Rio Mocorito in the State of Sinaloa placedby Mason and Johnson in the Tahue group of the Taracahitianfamily.Monqui, a Waicurian division on the east coast of the Peninsula ofBaja California between Dolores and Loreto.Mopan, or Moapan, a Mayan tribe in the southern part of BritishHonduras and in adjoining sections of Guatemala.Mosnala, a Concho band.Mosquito, or Miskito, a group of tribes regarded by Thomas (1911) asforming an independent stock, connected by Lehmann (1920)with the Matagalpa, Ulua, and Sumo Indians, and through themwith the C^hibchan stock. Mason and Johnson, however, assign
628 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145them to their Misumalpan stock. They lived on the Atlanticcoast of Nicaragua north of Bluefields and on the Honduran coastas far west as Rio Patuca. Mason and Johnson give the followingas dialects: Baldam, Kabo, Mam, Tawira, Wanki.Motozintlec, a Mayan tribe belonging to the same dialectic group asthe Jacaltec and located about Motozintla in the southeasterncorner of Chiapas close to the Tapachula and Mam.Move, a Chibchan tribe of the Guaymi division, living on the Golfode los Mosquitos on the northwest coast of Panam^.Muite, a tribe belonging to the Guaymi division of the Chibchanlinguistic stock.Muoi, a tribe of the Guaymi division of the Chibchan stork locatedin the western part of the Republic of Panama.Murire, a tribe of the Guaymi division of the Chibchan stock locatedin the southwestern part of the Republic of Panama.Musutepes, a Suman tribe of the Misumalpan linguistic stock.Naco, see Chameleon.Nagrandan, a division of Mangue of the Chorotegan family.Nahuatl or Mexicano, popularly known as Aztec from the dominanttribe at the period of the Spanish conquest, a group of tribesbelonging to the Aztecoidan family of the Uto-Aztecan linguisticstock. They were located from Mexico City eastward to thecoast of the Gulf of Mexico near Veracruz and southeast alongthat coast to the eastern part of Tabasco, southward from MexicoCity nearly, if not quite, to the Pacific Ocean and in the coastdistricts of Michoacan. There was a detached area on the sea-coast of Chiapas and another at the mouth of Usumacinta River;also a number of others as indicated below. There were manytribes including the three allied tribes of Aztec, Acolhua, andTlacopan, and the Tlascaltec, Meztitlanec, Tepanec, the Sigua inPanama, the Desaguadero at the mouth of the Rio San Juan,Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, and the following detached groups inHonduras: Acasaguastlan, in the highlands of Olancho, in theChameleon Valley, Chapagua and Papayeca near Trujillo, andothers near Comayagua and Naco.Nahuatlato, an Aztecoidan tribe connected with the Pipil belongingto the Uto-Aztecan linguistic stock, and living on the east sideof the entrance to the Bay of Fonseca in the Republic of Nicaragua.(See Olomeca on map.)Nata, a tribe of unknown affiliations located on the Gulf of Parita, inthe western part of the Republic of Panama.Nebome, a division of Pima Bajo Indians living on both sides of theRfo Yaqui in the State of Sonora.
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 629Nicarao, an Aztecoidan tribe of the Uto-Aztecan linguistic stockaffiliated with the Pipil. They lived between Lake Nicaraguaand the Pacific Ocean in the present Republic of Nicaragua.(See Niquisan on map.)Nicoya, an Orotina tribe of the Chorotegan stock living on NicoyaPeninsula, Costa Rica.Nio, a tribe placed by Mason and Johnson in one linguistic group withthe Ocoroni and Huite in the Taracahitian family of the Uto-Aztecan stock. They lived on the Rio Sinaloa about the mouthof the Ocoroni.Niquisan, see Nicarao.Obone, or Oposine, a Concho tribe.Ochoes, a Lagunero band.Ocoroni, placed by Mason and Johnson in one group with the Nioand Huite tribes and hence in the Taracahitian family of the Uto-Aztecan linguistic stock. They lived on a river of the same name,a branch of the Rio Sinaloa.Ocuiltec, a division of the Matlatzinca Indians of the Otomianlinguistic family, occuping the eastern part of their territory.Ojitlan, a division of the Chinantec of the Chorotegan linguisticfamily.Olancho, location of a Nahuatl division in Honduras.Olive, a tribe said to have been brought from the country beyond theRio Grande by a returning Spanish expedition early in the six-teenth century, but to which of the Texas linguistic stocks theybelonged is unknown, though it was probably either the Coahuil-tecan or the Karankawan. They were settled by the Spaniardsin southern Tamaulipas.Olmec, an extinct people of uncertain affiliations but formerly ofgreat importance.Olobayaguame, a Concho band.Olojasme, a Concho band.Olomega, see Nahuatlato.Oluta, a division of the Popoloca of Veracruz belonging to the Mixebranch of the Mizocuavean linguistic stock.Opata, from Pima signifying "hostile people," "enemies," a tribe ortribal group belonging to the Taracahitian division of the Uto-Aztecan linguistic stock extending east and west from longitude109? to 111? W. and north and south from the InternationalBoundary of Mexico and the United States to the main forkof the Rio Yaqui, about latitude 28?30' N. The Eudeve, inthe southern part of Opata territory near the Jova were a sub-division. Villages were: Ac6nche, Aibin, Alamos, Arib^tzi,Arispe, Babiacora, Babispes, Bacad6vatzi, BacanAra, Bac6bitzi,
630 BUREAU OF AMERICAN KTHNOLOGY [Bi-M.. 14r.Banamitzi, Batsines, Batiico, Batzinei', Chinapa, Cuchuricac,Cucuripe, Cumupas, Cuquiaratzi, Debatzi, Matape, Nacori,Opp6sura, Oppotu, Saracatzi, Sauaripa, Setdsura, Teiiricatzi,Toapa, Tonitzi, Uasserac, U^paca, Vasdabas, Zenoquippe.Opatoro, a division of the Lenca living in the RepubHc of Honduras.Orosi, an Orotina division living south of Lake Nicaragua and belong-ing to the Chorotegan family.Orotina, u tribe living in the extreme western part of the presentRepublic of Costa Kica between Lake Nicaragua and the PacificCoast and connected with the Chorotegan family. Subdivisions:Nicoya (on Nicoya Peninsula) and Orosi (south of Lake Nica-ragua).Osa, a subdivision of Boruca Indians about the Gulf of Dulce on thePacific coast of Costa Rica.Otomi, the principal tribe of the Otomian linguistic family occupyingthe greater part of the States of Queretero and Guanajuato, thenorthwestern portion of Hidalgo and parts of the State of Mexico.A northern division of this tribe was known as Serrano, and adetached body is reported to have lived near the Pacific coastwest of Colima. The Mazahua (q. v.) are sometimes regardedas a subdivision.Pacaca, given by Peralta (1895) as a Guetare "province."Pachera, a subdivision of the Tarahumare at the extreme headwatersof the northern branch of the Rio Nonoava, under the munici-pality of Guerrero. They belonged to the Taracahitian family,Uto-Aztecan stock.Pame, a tribe constituting a very divergent branch of the Otomianlinguistic family. They were located mainly in the southeasternpart of San Luis Potosi but also in adjoining areas of Tamaulipasand Queretero and are said to have extended into Guanajuatoand to have included a mission (Cerro Prieto) in the State ofMexico. Pimentel gives three dialects, one spoken in San Luisde la Paz, one in the city of Maiz, and one in Purisima Concepci6nde Arnedo.Panamaka, a tribe of the Suman family, Misumalpan stock, locatedin the northern interior of Nicaragua. The following subdivisionsare mentioned: Karaw^ala, Panamaka, Tunki.Panguayes, mentioned by Orozco y Berra (1864) as a Tamauhpectribe.Pantasma, a tribe given a doubtful status in the Matagalpan family.Paogas, a Lagunero band.Papabuco, a division of the Chatino of the Zapotecan stock.Papago, a tribe in Sonora and Arizona. (See Arizona.)
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 63 JPapantla, a dialectic division of the Totonac, Totonacan stock.Paparos, a detached body of Indians classified by Lehmann (1920)in the Chocoan linguistic stock the main body of which lay alongthe Pacific coast of the Republic of Colombia. The territoryof this tribe lay on the eastern borders of the Republic of Panama-inland but nearer to the Atlantic than to the Pacific coast.Papayeca, a Nahuatl colony near Trujillo, Republic of Honduras.Papudo, a division of the Acaxee of the Taracahitian linguistic familyand Uto-Aztecan stock, not mentioned by Sauer (1934).Pasitas, according to Orozco y Berra (1864) a tribe of Tamaulipec.Patica, a Chibchan tribe belonging to the Rama-Corobici division.Paya, a tribe constituting an independent family and living betweenthe Rio Agu^n and the upper reaches of the Patuca, as alsoprobably on the Bay Islands. A modern division is called Seco.Penomeno, A Chibchan tribe of the Guaymi division located on thewest coast of the Gulf of Panama.Pericu, a tribe connected on circumstantial evidence with the Wai-curian family though only some proper names in their languageare known. They lived about Cape San Lucas and extendednorthward on the west coast of the Peninsula of Baja Californiato about latitude 23?30' N. No subdivisions are known, thoughthe Waicurian Cora have sometimes been connected with them.Piato, an Upper Pima (Pima Alto) tribe, Piman family and Uto-Aztecan stock, on the middle and lower Altar in Sonora. (SeePima under Arizona.)Pima Alto, see Pima under Arizona.Pima Bajo or Lower Pima, a tribe belonging to a linguistic familybearing their name, itself in turn a section of the Uto-Aztecanlinguistic stock and located in the Rio Yaqui region, Sonora, butextending eastward into Chihuahua and northward to aboutlatitude 30?. Sauer (1934) gives three main divisions: theYdcora, neighbors of the Varohio on the borders of Chihuahuaand Sonora; the Nebome, on both sides of the Rio Yaqui; andthe Ures, inhabiting the flood plain of the Rio Sonora below thegorge of Ures and downstream as far as water was available.He also enters on his map the Cocomacaque in the northernpart of Pima territory.Pipil, a tribe or group of tribes belonging to the Nahuatl branch ofthe Nahuatlan family, Uto-Aztecan stock. They occupied sev-eral separate areas, the largest chiefly along the Pacific coast inwestern Salvador and some adjacent parts of Guatemala; a seconda little farther west, east of Escuintla in Guatemala; a third alongthe upper Rio Motagua in eastern Guatemala between the Choi
632 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145and Pokomam, a small area in Honduras north of Comayagua,another on the Rio Chamelec6n, and a doubtful enclave betweenthe Jicaque and Paya.Pirinda, see Matlatzinca.Pisone, a tribe associated by Orozco y Berra (1864) with the Janam-bre. (See Janambre.)Pispis, a division of Sumo Indians.Pitas, a Tamaulipec tribe about Santander, perhaps identical withOrozco y Barra's Pintos.Pochutla, a tribe speaking one of the most aberrant dialects of theAztecoidan family, Uto-Aztecan stock, and located about PortoAngel on the Pacific coast of Oaxaca.Pocora, a tribe belonging to the Rama-Corobici branch of the Chib-chan linguistic stock.PocosI, a tribe connected with the Cabecar of the Talamanca divisionof the Chibchan stock, living in the neighborhood of the presentLim6n, Costa Rica.Pokomam, a Mayan tribe closely connected with the Pokonchi andbelonging to the Quichoid division. They occupied a consider-able region in southeastern Guatemala, including the capital, ex-tending northward to the Rfo Grande or Upper Motagua, andeastward to the boundary line between Guatemala and El Salva-dor. There were detached bodies in Pipil territory at Ahuacha-p^n, Chalchuapa, Iztepeque, and San Salvador.Pokonchi, a tribe forming with the Pokomam one linguistic group ofthe Quichoid division of the Mayan family. They extended overa fairly wide territory in the center of Guatemala about the head-waters of the Rfo Cahabon.Polacme, a Concho band.Popoloca (of Conguaco) , a body of Indians at the pueblo of Conguaconear the southeastern corner of the Republic of Guatemala.Juarros (1884), followed by Thomas (1911), places them in theLencan stock but Mason and Johnson incline to agree withLehmann (1920) that they should be classed as Xincan.Popoloca (of Oaxaca), see Chocho.Popoloca (of Puebla), a tribe which gives its name to the Popolocanfamily of the Otomanguean stock located in the southern partof the State of Puebla near Oaxaca.Popoloca (of Veracruz), a tribe assigned to the Mixe division of theMizocuavean stock of Mason and Johnson and located on thesouthern coast of the Bay of Campeche extending south to themountains in the Peninsula of Tehuantepec, Mexico.Posalme, a Concho band.
SWANTONI INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 633Potlapiqua, a tribe said to have branched off from the Pima thoughin Opata territory.Potosino, a body of Indians speaking a dialect of Huastec, Mayanlinguistic family.Prinzo, a body of Indians of the Uluan division of the Chibchanstock, located in the Republic of Nicaragua north of the RfoGrande.Quata, a tribe doubtfully classed in the Matlatzinca division of theOtomian linguistic family.Quepo, a division or tribe of Boruca Indians belonging to the Tala-manca division of the Chibchan hnguistic family and located onthe Pacific coast of Costa Rica centering about Quepos Point.Quiche, an important Mayan tribe belonging to the Highland divi-sion of the family which is given the name Quichoid by Masonand Johnson. They occupied considerable territory in centralGuatemala about the headwaters of Rio Motagua, extendingthence around the western side of Lake Atitldn and southwardto the Pacific Ocean.Quinicuanes, according to Orozco y Berra (1864), a Tamaulipec tribe.Rama, a tribe belonging to the Rama-Corobici division of the Chibchanlinguistic family. They occupied the southeasternmost part ofthe present Republic of Nicaragua between the Rfo San Juanand the Atlantic but the greater part of them are now on RamaKey in Bluefields Lagoon.Sabaibo, a division of the Acaxee.Sainoscos, a Tamaulipec tribe about Padilla.Salineros, a division of the Seri on the mainland of the State of Sonoraopposite Tibur6n Island.San Bias, a Cuna tribe of the Chibchan stock at San Bias on the northcoast of the Republic of Panamd.San Salvador, name given to a detached body of Pokomam of theQuichoid division of the Mayan family located about the capitalof the Republic of El Salvador.Santa Cruz, a division of Maya Indians in northeastern Yucatdn.Sayula, a division of the Popoloca of Veracruz.Sayultec, a tribe of the Aztecoidan division of the Uto-Azecan stockoccupying two areas, one on the Pacific coast in the southern partof Jalisco, and the other inland, south and southwest of the Lagode Chapala.Seco, a division of the Paya Indians (Payan stock).Seri, a tribe formerly placed in au independent stock but now classedwith the Yuman family and Hokan stock. They lived on Ti-burdn Island in the Gulf of Cahfornia and on the eastern coastof the latter from the Rfo San Jos4 nearly to the Altar, State of
634 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Soiiora. The following subdivisions are mentioned; Guayma (inthe southern part of the Seri territory), Salineros (on the main-land opposite Tibur6n Island), Tepocas (in the northernmostpart of the Seri territory), Tibur6n (on Tiburdn Island), Upan-guayma (near the Guayma).Serrano, a Seri division. (See Seri.)Serrano, a northern division of Otomi near the Rio Aloctezuma.Sibayones (1), a Tamaulipcc tribe about Aguayo.Sibayones (2), a Tamaulipec tribe on the Rio de los Infantes.Sigua, a Nahuatlan (Uto-Aztecan) tribe classed in the same group asthe Pipil and located on the Rio Telorio in the Bahia de AlmLrante,on the Atlantic coast of Panamd.Silam, a Sumo division belonging to the Misumalpan linguistic stockliving on the lower course of Wanks River, in the territory ofNicaragua and Honduras.Similaton, a dialectic division of the Lenca Indians (Lencan stock)located in the territory of the present Republic of Honduras.Sinacantan, a division of the Xinca Indians in southeastern Guate-mala.Sobaibo, a division of the Acaxee Indians in the southern part oftheir territory on the Rio San Lorenzo, State of Sonora.Soltec, a division of the Chatino of the Zapotecan linguistic stock.Subinha, a tribe of the Mayan linguistic stock believed to have beenrelated to the Jacaltec. All that is known of their language iscontained in a vocabulary in the Lenguas Indigenas de Centro-America en el Siglo XVIIl (Ferndndez, 1892.).Subtiaba, a tribe forming with the Tlapanec and Maribichicoa ofGuerrero the Supanecan linguistic family which has been con-nected with the Hokan stock. They lived in the region of Leon,Republic of Nicaragua, on the Pacific slope.Sucayi, a Concho band.Suerre, a tribe of the Talamanca division of the Chibchan linguisticstock located on the Atlantic slope of Costa Rica south of themouth of the Rio San Juan Bajo.Suma, a tribe or group of tribes which extended along the Rio Grandesouth of the present El Paso and westward to the Rio CasasGrandes. If, as is probable, Jumano is only another form of thename, their boundary would be carried down the Rio Grandebeyond the mouth of the Concho. (See Shuman under Texas.)Probably related to the Uto-Aztecan stock.Sumo, a tribe or group of tribes of the Suman family and Misumalpanlinguistic stock in the northwestern interior of the Republic ofNicaragua and a fringe of territory adjoining in Honduras.Subdivisions: Bawihka (east of Wanks River towards its mouth),
SwANToN] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 635Boa (near the head of the Rio Grande), Coco, Panamaka (onthe Rio Bokay and Rio Hamaca), and the Lakus and PispisIndians (on the Rio Uani, in Uasabane, on the upper course ofthe Rio Pispis, and on the Rio Bambana), and Wasabane. TheKu and Silam (on the middle course of Wanks River) shouldprobably be added.Sumo-Sirpe, a mixed Mosquito-Sumo tribe.Tagualilos, given by Orozco y Berra (1864) as the name of aTamauli-pec tribe.Tahue, a tribe of the Taracahitian family of the Uto-Aztecan linguisticstock on the Pacific coast northward of Mazatlan, extending tothe mouth of the Rio San Lorenzo and from that point in-land and northward to about latitude 25?30' N. The followingvillages are mentioned: Atamura, Ategualato, Culiacan, Diarea-cato, Guachimeto, Hiluruto, Naboloto, Teboloto, Teculimeto,Yebalito?all but the third situated below Culiacan.Talamanca, a tribe associated with the Bribri and located in centralCosta Rica. It gave its name to a division of the Chibchanlinguistic stock.Tamaulipec, a group of small tribes named from the State of Tamaul-ipas in the central and southeastern parts of which they lived.It is probable that they were related to the Coahuilteco andKarankawa (see Texas), but the merest fragment of any of theirlanguages survives. Tlu-ough the Coahuilteco they are con-jecturally connected with the Hokan stock. The Mexican Pub-licaciones del Archivo General de la Naci6n XV (Reyes, 1944)gives the following Tamaulipec tribes: Anachiguaies (aboutEscand6n), Apostatas (about Burgos), Aracanaes (about Alta-mira), Borrados (about Dolores), Cacalotes (about Mier),Cadimas (about Guemes), Camaleones (about Santillan), Carrizos(about Camargo), Comecamotes (about Soto la Marina), Co-mecrudo (about San Fernando), Cuercos quemados (about Revilla),Inocoples (about Hoyos), Mariguanes (about Horcasitas), Pitas(about Santander), Sainoscos (about Padilla), Serranos (aboutSanta Barbara), Sibayones (1) (about Aguayo), Sibayones (2)(about Rio de los Infantes), Tepemacas (about Laredo). Orozcoy Berra (1864) repeats some of these names, sometimes in analtered form, and adds: Aretines, Canaynes, Caramariguanes,Caramiguais, Caribayes, Guisolotes, Malinchenos, Panguayes,Pasitas, Pintos (= Pitas?), Quinicuanes, Tagualilos, Tamaulipecos.Tamazulteca, a tribe of unknown connections living in westernMichoac^n.
636 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Tapachultec (1), (or Tapachula) a detached branch of the Zoque andso, according to Mason and Johnson, in the Mizocuavean stock.They lived on the border between Mexico and Guatemala.Tapachultec (2), a tribe of unknown affiliations, but distinct from thepreceding, located on the Mexico-Guatemalan border.Tapixulapan, a division of the Zoque tribe of the Mizocuavean stock.Tarahumare, a hispanized form, according to Lumholtz (in Hodge,1910, p. 692) of the native name Ralamari which probably signi-fies "foot-runners," a large tribe belonging to the Taracahitianbranch of the Uto-Aztecan linguistic stock, living in the SierraMadre Mountains and on the headwaters of the San Pedro,Conchos, Urique, Otero, and Papigochic Rivers, southern Sonoraand Chihuahua. The Pachera (at the extreme headwaters ofthe northern branch of the Rio Nonoava, under the municipalityof Guerrero) are given as a subdivision.Tarasco, a tribe forming the Tarascan linguistic stock and occupyingalmost the whole of the State of Michoacan, except for the coastalsection, and some small areas outside.Tariaca, a division of Cabecar Indians of the Talamanca branch ofthe Chibchan linguistic stock living on the north coast of CostaRica southeast of Point Lim6n.Tatamaste, a Concho band.Tatimolo, a division of Totonac Indians (Totonacan stock).Tatiquilhati, a Totonac division of the Totonacan linguistic stock.Tawahka, a tribe of the Sumo group and Misumalpan linguistic stock,living on the upper course of Wanks River, Honduras andNicaragua. (See Tanaxka on map.)Tawira, a tribe of Mosquito Indians (Misumalpan stock) in north-eastern Nicaragua on the coast.Tayopan, given by Peralta (1895) as a Guetare "province."Tebaca, a division of the Acaxee of the Taracahitian family andUto-Aztecan stock, living in the southwestern part of the Acaxeeterritory on the Rio Culiacan.Tecaya, given as a division of the Acaxee.Teco-Tecoxquin, a tribe belonging to the Aztecoidan branch of theUto-Aztecan linguistic stock located inland in southern Nayaritand in two detached areas in western Michoacan.Tecual, a tribe placed by Sauer (1934) in one group with the Huicholand by Mason and Johnson in the Aztecoidan branch of theUto-Aztecan stock. There were two sections of this tribe, oneon the Rio Grande de Santiago and the other on the Rio SanPedro in Nayarit.Tecuexe, a division of the Cazcan Indians, Aztecoidan branch of the
SwANTOJJi INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 637Uto-Aztecan stock, living north of Lago de Chapala, State ofJalisco.Tedexenos, given by Orozco y Berra (1864) as the name of a Tamaul-ipec tribe.Tehueco, a tribe of the Cahita Indians on the Rio Oteros, State ofChihuahua.Teluski, a tribe whose exact affiliations are unknown but they probablybelonged to the Chibchan stock.Temori, a tribe assigned by Mason and Johnson to the Varohlo groupin the Taracahitian family and Uto-Aztecan stock. They livedbetween the Rio Chinipa or Oteros and the Rio Urique, State ofChihuahua.Tepahue, a tribe belonging to the Taracahitian family and Uto-Aztecan stock closely connected with the Cahita. They lived onthe Rio Cedros, a northern branch of the Rio Mayo, Sonora.Tepanec, a Nahuatl tribe.Tepecano, derived by Hrdli^ka (1903; in Hodge, 1910) from Nahuatltepetl, "mountain," and aco, "on top of," a southern Tepehuanedivision of the Piman family and Uto-Aztecan stock, living in thesierras of northern Jalisco.Tepehua, a tribe belonging to the Totonacan linguistic stock occupyinga small territory where the Mexican States of Veracruz, Hidalgo,and Puebla come together.Tepehuan, according to Buelna (1891) from Nahuatl tepetl, "moun-tain," and huan, "at the junction of," a tribe belonging to thePiman division of the Uto-Aztecan linguistic stock, locatedmainly in Durango, on the eastern slope of the sierra betweenlatitude 21? and 27? N., extending also into the States of Chi-huahua, and Zacatecas and from the headwaters of the RioFuerte to the Rio Grande de Santiago in Jalisco.Tepemacas, a Tamaulipec tribe about Laredo.Tepocas, a division of the Seri in the northernmost part of their terri-tory on the coast of the Gulf of California about latitude 30? N.Tequistlatec, often called Chontal, an Aztec word meaning "stranger,"a tribe in the districts of Yautepec and Tehuantepec on the Pacificcoast of the State of Oaxaca. It was originally made into anindependent linguistic stock, the Tequistlatecan from the nameTequistlateca suggested by D. G. Brinton (1891, p. 113).Brinton, however, classed it as a dialect of Yuman and this hasrecently been confirmed by Kroeber (1915), who allies itthrough that family with the Hokan stock.Terraba, a tribe belonging to the Talamanca division of the Chibchanlinguistic stock located in the extreme northwestern part of theRepublic of Panama, between Rio Tarire and Rio Telorio.
638 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Teshbi, a Chibchan tribe related to the T6rraba.Tetiquilhati, a Totonac division.Teul, a tribe in southern Zacatacas on the Rio Juchipila connectedwith the Tepecano and Tepehuan and through them with thePiman family of the Uto-Aztecan stock.Texixtepec, a division of the Popoloca (of Veracruz) connectedwith the Mixe and through them with the Mizocuavean stock.Tice, a tribe of the Rama-Corobici branch of the Chibchan linguisticstock.TIacopan, one of the three Nahuatl tribes in the Valley of Mexico,which formed the Mexican confederation.Tlacotepehua-Tepuzteca, an unclassified tribe centering aroundChilpancingo, Guerrero.Tlapanec, or Tlapaneco-Yopi, given by Orozco y Berra (1864) as aname applied to the Chocho Indians by the Indians of Guerrero,but made independent by Lebmann (1920), who connects theTlapanec with the Maribio and Subtiaba which would place itin the Hokan stock.TIascala, a Nahuatl tribe in the present State of Tlaxcala, Mexico,Toboso, the name of a predatory tribe living in the seventeenthcentury in the Bolson de Mapimi and extending northward atleast to the Rio Grande, State of Coahuila, Mexico. On circum-stantial evidence they have been classed as Athapascan butthis is not beyond question. Orozco y Berra's Cocoyome andCabezas should perhaps be classed with them.Tocone, a Concho band.Tojar, a Chibchan tribe related to the Terraba (Chibchan stock)and located on an island of the same name on the north coast ofPanama.Tolimeca, a tribe of uncertain aflBliations in western Guerrero.Topacolme, a Concho band.Toquegua, a tribe belonging to the Choloid branch of the Mayanlinguistic family and located in northwestern Honduras on thecoast of the Gulf of Honduras.Totonac, the principal tribe of the Totonacan linguistic stock whichis now regarded as independent though formerly thought to haveaffinities with the Mayan people. They lived in the northernpart of the State of Puebla and that part of Veracruz betweenthe City of Veracruz and latitude 21? N. Subdivisions: Masonand Johnson give three, the Coast, Papantla, and Sierra, butZembrano (1752) states that there were four dialects: Chaca-huaxtli (in the Pueblos of Xalpan and Pentepec), Ipapana(in the missions of the Augustines), Tatimolo (in the Pueblo ofNoalingo), and Tetiquilhati (in the high sierras).
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 639Totorame, a tribe closely connected with the Cora Indians andthrough them with the Aztecoidan branch of the Uto-Aztecanstock. They occupied the coast of Sinaloa from Mazatlansouthward.Trique, a tribe entered by Mason and Johnson as a substock of theirOtomanguean stock. Mechling (1912) connected them withMazatec and Lehmann (1920) with the Chiapanec and Otomi.They were in the midst of the Mixtec country west of the Cityof Oaxaca. The dialect of the town of Copala was said to differconsiderably from the rest.Tubar, a tribe placed by Mason and Johnson in the Tahue group ofthe Taracahitian linguistic family, Uto-Aztecan stock, and locatedin the hot river gorge between the debouchure of the Chlnipasand Urique Rivers.Tucurrique, a tribe believed to have been Chibchan but otherwiseof uncertain affiliations.Tule, a Cuna tribe in eastern Panama.Tungla, a mixed Mosquito-Sumo tribe.Tunki, a subdivision of the Panamaka.Turriarba, a Guetare tribe in southwestern Costa Rica.Turrin, a Rama-Corobici tribe of the Chibchan stock.Turucaca, a Chibchan tribe related to the Boruca living north of theGolfo Dulce, on the Pacific coast of the Republic of Panama.Tzeltal or Tzental, a tribe belonging to the Tzeltaloid division of theMayan stock and located in eastern Chiapas northeast of theChiapanec and between the Rio San Pedro and the Rio Grande,Mexico.Tzotzil (Quelene and Chamula probably synonyms), a tribe belongingto the Tzeltaloid division of the Mayan stock and located onthe Rio Grande in central Chiapas east of the Chiapanec.Tzutuhil, a tribe belonging to the Quichoid division of the Mayanstock, living around the southern shore of Lake Atitlan, Guatemala.Uchita, or Utciti, a division of the Waicuri on the west coast of thepeninsula of Baja California between latitude 24? N. and thePericu.Ulua, originally a type tribe of the Uluan linguistic stock, they wereconnected by Lehmann (1920) with the Tawahka, Yosko,Mosquito, and Matagalpa and all ultimately with Chibchan,Mason and Johnson, however, treat the Suman family as adivision of their Misumalpan stock and more remotely connectedwith the Chibchan tribes. They occupied much of the interiorof the present Republic of Nicaragua from the Bay of Fonsecaeastward to Lake Nicaragua and from the latter northward tothe lower Rio Grande and the Mosquito territory. The follow-
640 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145ing subdivisions are given: Guanexico (location not given),Prinzo (north of the Rio Grande), Ulua (on the Rio Grande andRio Signa).Upanguayma, a body of Seri Indians near Guaymas, Sonora.Uren, a Chibchan tribe not otherwise fixed as to status.Ures, a body of Pima Bajo on the flood plain of the Rio Sonora belowthe gorge of Ures and beyond, Sonora.Urinama, a Chibchan tribe connected with the Bribri.Urraca, a tribe of unknown affiliations living on the south coast of theRepublic of Panama.Uspanteca, a tribe of the Quiche group, Quichoid division, of theMayan linguistic family, located at the point of meeting of theQuiche, Ixil, and Pokonchi and in the great bend of the Chixoy(Rio Negro), Guatemala.Vacoregue, a division of the Guasave Indians of the Taracahitianfamily, Uto-Aztecan stock, on the Pacific coast north of themouth of the Rio Fuerte, Sonora.Varohio, by Mason and Johnson made the type tribe of a group belong-ing to the Taracahitian linguistic family and Uto-Aztecan stock.They were on the headwaters of the Rio Mayo on the boundarybetween Chihuahua and Sonora, Mexico.Vassapalles, a Lagunero band.Veracruzano, a Huastec dialectic division, Mayan stock.Viceita, a Chibchan tribe connected with the Bribri.Vigitega, a detached body of Indians near Tepic in Nayarit believedto have belonged to the Piman family and Uto-Aztecan stock.Voto, a tribe forming, with the neighboring Rama and Guatuso, onedialectic group of the Chibchan stock located in the northwesternpart of the present Republic of Costa Rica just south of the RioSan Juan.Wahmi, a division of the Chinantec, Chorotegan stock.Waicuri, the largest body of Indians belonging to the Waicurianlinguistic stock which Mason and Johnson classify conjecturallyunder the Hokan. They covered all of Baja California south oflatitude 26? N. except a small area in the extreme southwest.Subdivisions: Aripa (located by Orozco y Berra (1864) in theextreme northwestern part of Waicuri territory), Cora (on theeast coast from near Dolores to the southeastern point of thepeninsula), Alonqui (on the east coast between Dolores andLoreto), Uchita or Utciti (on the west coast between latitude24? N. and the Pericu), Waicuri (on the west coast from latitude24? to 25? N.). The Edu, Didu, and Ika, given by others as
SWANTON] INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 641Cochimi divisions, wore probably Waiciiri but tlioir locations areuncertain.Wanki, a Mosquito subdivision.Xilotlantzinca, an unclassified tribe in western Michoac^n.Xinca, a tribe placed in the Zoquean stock by Lelimann (1920) butpven independent status by Thomas (1911) and more recentlyby Mason and Johnson except that the last mentioned place itin their great Macro-Penutian phylum. They lived in theextreme southeastern part of Guatemala between two areas ofPipil Indians. There were three closely allied dialects spoken inthe pueblos of Sinacantan, Xupiltepec, and Xutiapa, to whichConguaco should probably be added, although Juarros (1824)and Thomas (1911) call it Lencan.Xixime, a tribe of the Taracahitian branch of the Uto-Aztecan stock,their nearest relatives apparently being the Acaxee. Theyoccupied the upper courses of the San Lorenzo, Piaxtla, Presidio,and Baluarte Rivers in the States of Durango and Sinaloa. Thefollowing subdivisions are reported: Aibinc, Iline (on the head-waters of the Rio Piaxtla), Hume (on the Presidio and BaluarteRivers).Xiximole, a Concho band.Xorrhue, an otherwise unidentified Chibchan tribe.Xupiltepec, a town whose inhabitants spoke a Xinca dialect. It islocated in Guatemala.Xurru, a tribe belonging to the Rama-Corobici branch of the Chibchanstock.Xutiapa, a town of Guatemala in which a dialect of the Xinca languagewas spoken.Yacchicaua, a Concho band.Yaculsari, a Concho band.Yanabopos, a Lagunero band.Yaochane (Ahuchan or Ochan), a Concho band.Yaqui, a tribe or tribal division of the Cahita living on the Rio YaquIin the State of Sonora, Mexico.Yasika, a Suman tribe belonging to the Misumalpan stock.Yecora, a division of Pima Bajo along the boundary line between thestates of Chihuahua and Sonora, Mexico.Yeguacat, a Concho band.Yolox, a division of the Chinantec, Chorotegan stock.Yosco, a tribe of the Misumalpan stock most closely connected withthe Sumo and Ulua people, in central Nicaragua on the RioLisauei and the Rio Ilamaka.
642 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bdll. 145Zacateco, a tribe related to the Cazcan of the Aztecoidan family andUto-Aztecan stock, occupying a large part of the State of Zaca-tecas and also part of Durango, Mexico.Zapotec, the type tribe of the Zapotecan family, occupying thegreater part of central Oaxaca and extending from the Chinanteccountry to the Pacific coast. Mason and Johnson give the fol-lowing major divisions: Zapotec of the Northern Mountains,Zapotec of the Southern Mountains, and Zapotec of the Valleys,and the following dialects: the Zapotec Cajono, Zapotec Etla,Zapotec Ixtepexi, Zapotec Nexitza, Zapotec Ocotlan, ZapotecZaachilla, and the Tehuantepec.Zayahueco, a division of the Cora Indians, Taracahitian family,Uto-Aztecan stock, living in the southern and southwesternmargins of the Cora country.Zegua, a Chibchan tribe, otherwise unclassified.Zhorquin, a Chibchan tribe, otherwise unclassified.Zoe, according to Buelna (1891), from tzoi, "wax," "pitch tree,"regarded by Sauer (1934) as belonging to the same group as theComanito Indians which were members of the Taracahitian familyand Uto-Aztecan stock. They lived in the rough hill countryof the Rio Fuerte above the Cahita and along the Sinaloa-Chihuahua boundary. Two related tribes are mentioned, theZoe proper and the Baimena.Zoque, the type tribe of the Zoquean linguistic family placed byMason and Johnson in their Mizocuavean stock. They livedin the extreme eastern part of Oaxaca, in northwestern Chiapas,and in the adjoining parts of Tabasco. Tapixulapan is givenas a dialect.Zuaque, a division of the Cahita Indians of the Uto-Aztecan stockliving on the lower course of the Rio del Fuerte, State of Sinaloa.Authorities.?Brinton, D. G., 1891; Buelna, 1891; Conzemius, 1932; Hrdlicka,1903; Johnson, 1940; Juarros, 1824; Kro&ber, 1925; Lehraann, 1920; Lumholtz,1894; Mason, 1940; Mechling, 1912; Mexico, Archive General de la Naci6n,Publicaciones, vol. XV (on Tamaulipas, 1944); Orozco y Berra, 1864; Peralta,1895; Peter Martyr, 1912; Sauer, 1934; Thomas, 1911; Zembrano, 1752;
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654 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Egede, Hans.1745. Description of Greenland. Trans, from the Danish. London.EisELET, LoREN C. See Speck, Frank G., and Eiselet, Loren C.EixARCH, TomIs. See Coues, 1900.Elvas, Narrative of a Gentlemen of. See Robertson, James A., TranslatorAND Editor; also Bourne, Edward Gatlord.Emmons, George T.1910. Articles on Niska and Tahltan in Handbook of American Indians,Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 30. (See Hodge, 1907, 1910.)1911. The Tahltan Indians. Univ. Pennsylvania Mas. Anthrop. Publ. vol. 4,No. 1.Emory, W. H.1848. Notes of a military reconnaissance from Fort Leavenworth in Missourito San Diego in California, made in 1846-47. Washington.ESCALANTE, FrAT SiLVESTRE VeLEZ DE.1882. In Duro, Cesareo F., "Don Diego de Penalosa y su descubrimientodel reino de Quivira." Madrid.EspEJo, Antonio de.1600. Viaje en el ano de 1583. In Hakluyt, Voyages. Reprint 1810.1871. Relaci6n del viage. In Col. Doc. In6dit., t. 15, pp. 163-189.EwiNG, Henry P.1892. Great Divide. Dec, p. 203.Fairbanks, C. R.1871. History of Florida, 1512-1842. Philadelphia.Fernandez, Le6n.1892. Lenguas indigenas de Centro-America en el Siglo XVIII. segun copiadel Archivo de Indias. San Jos6 de Costa Rica.Ferrel, Bartolom6.1879. Relation, or diary, of the voyage which Rodriguez Cabrillo made withtwo ships, from the 27th of June, 1542, until the 14th of April of thefollowing year. Wheeler Surv. Rep., vol. 7, pt. 1, app., Washington.(English translation in Bolton, H. E., "Spanish exploration in theSouthwest," pp. 13-39, New York, 1916.)Fbwkes, Jesse Walter.1897 a. Tusayan katcinas. 15th Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1893-94, pp.245-313.1897 b. Tusayan Snake ceremonies. 16th Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol.,1894-95, pp. 267-312.1900 a. Tusayan migration traditions. 19th Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol.,1897-98, pt. 1, pp. 573-633.1900 b. Tusayan Flute and Snake ceremonies. 19th Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer.Ethnol., 1897-98, pt. 2, pp. 957-1011.1903. Hopi katcinas, drawn by native artists. 21st Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer.Ethnol., 1899-1900, pp. 3-126.Fletcher, Alice C.1904. The Hako, a Pawnee ceremony. 22d Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol.,1900-1, pt. 2, pp. 5-368.Fletcher, Alice C, and La Flesche, Francis.1911. The Omaha tribe. 27th Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol., 1905-6, pp.17-654.
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656 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Boll. 145Garcilaso de la Vega.1723. La Florida del Inca. Historia del adalantado, Hernando de Soto.Madrid.Gatschet, Albert S,1877-80. The Timucua language. Proc. Amer. Philos. See, vols. 16-18,Philadelphia.1877-92. Der Yuma-Sprachstamm nach den neuesten handschriftlichenQuellen. Zeitschr. Ethnol., B. 9-24. Berlin.1883. The Shetimasha Indians of St. Mary's Parish, Southern Louisiana.Trans. Anthrop. Soc. Washington, vol. 2.1884, 1888. A migration legend of the Creek Indians. Vol. 1. Brinton'sLib. Aborig. Amer. Lit., No. 4. Philadelphia. Vol, 2,Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis, vol. 5, Nos. 1 and 2. St. Louis.1891 a. The Karankawa Indians, the coast people of Texas. Archaeol. andEthnol. Pap. Peabody Mus., vol. 1, No. 2, Cambridge.1891 b. The Klamath Indians of southwestern Oregon. Contr. N. Amer.Ethnol., vol. 2, pts. 1 and 2. Cambridge.MS. Wyandot MS., 1877, in archives of Bureau of American Ethnology.Gerard, Wm. R. See Hodge, F. W., 1907, 1910.GiBBs, George.1867. Notes on the Tinneh or Chepewyan Indians of British and RussianAmerica. 1. The eastern Tinneh, by Bernard Ross. 2. TheLoucheux Indians, by William Hardisty. 3. The Kutchin tribes,by Strachan Jones. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst, for 1866.1877. Tribes of western Washington and northwestern Oregon. Contr. N.Amer. Ethnol., vol. 1.GiFFORD, E. W.1931. The Kamia of Imperial Valley. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 97.1933. The Cocopa. Univ. Calif. Publ. Amer. Archaeol. and Ethnol., vol.31, No. 5, pp. 257-334.1936. Northeastern and Western Yavapai. Univ. Calif. Publ. Amer.Archaeol. and Ethnol. vol. 34, No. 4, pp. 247-354.1932. The Southeastern Yavapai. Univ. Calif. Publ. Amer. Archaeol. andEthnol., vol. 29, pp. 177-252.1932. The Northfork Mono. Univ. Calif. Publ. Amer. Archaeol. andEthnol., vol. 31, pp. 15-65.Giles, John.1869. Memoirs of Odd Adventures, Strange Deliverences, etc., in the Cap-tivity of John Giles, Esq., Commander of the Garrison on SaintGeorge River, in the District of Maine. Written by Himself.Originally published at Boston, 1736. Cincinnati.GiLMORE, MeLVIN R.1927. Notes on Arikara tribal organization. Mus. Amer. Ind., Heye Foun-dation, Indian Notes, vol. 4, No. 4, Oct., pp. 333-350.GoDDARD, Pliny Earle.1903. Life and culture of the Hupa. Univ. Calif. Publ., Amer. Archaeol.and Ethnol., vol. 1, No. 1.1914 a. Dancing societies of the Sarsi Indians. Anthrop. Pap. Amer. Mus.Nat. Hist., vol. 11, pt. 5.1914 b. Notes on the Chilula Indians of northwestern California. Univ.Calif. Publ. Amer. Archaeol. and Ethnol., vol. 10, pp. 265-288.
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658 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Hare, Lloyd C. M.1932. Thomas Mayhew, Patriarch to the Indians. New York and London.Hariot, Thomas.1893. Narrative of the first English plantation of Virginia. 1588 and 1590.Reprint. London.Harper, Francis. See Bartram, William, 1943.Harrington, John Peabodt.1908. A Yuma account of origins. Journ. Amer. Folk-lore, vol. 21, pp. 324-348.1910. On phonetic and lexic resemblances between Kiowan and Tanoan.Archaeol. Inst. Amer., School Amer. Archaeol., No. 12.Harrington, M. R.1913. A preliminary sketch of Lendpe culture. Amer. Anthrop., n. s., vol.15, pp. 208-235.Harris, Jack. See Ray, Verne F.Harris, John.1705. Naviganteum atque itinerantium bibliotheca, or a complete collectionof voyages and travels. 2 vols. London. (2d ed. London, 1764.)Harvey, Henry.1855. History of the Shawnee Indians, from the year 1681 to 1854, inclusive.Cincinnati.Hawkes, E. W.1916. The Labrador Eskimo. Canada Geol. Surv., Anthrop. Ser., Mem.91, No. 14.Hawkins, Benjamin.1848. A sketch of the Creek country, in 1798 and 99. Georgia Hist. Soc.Coll., vol. 3. Savannah.1916. Letters of Benjamin Hawkins 1796-1806. Georgia Hist. Soc. Coll.,vol. 9. Savannah.Hayden, Ferdinand V.1862. Contributions to the ethnography and philology of the Indian tribesof the Missouri Valley. Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc, n. s., vol. 12.Philadelphia.Haywood, John.1823. The natural and aboriginal history of Tennessee, up to the first settle-ments therein by the white people, in the year 1768. Nashville.Hearne, Samuel.1795. Journey from Prince of Wales' Fort in Hudson's Bay to the northernocean. London. (Reprint, Dublin, 1796.)Heckewelder, John G. E.1819. An account of the history, manners, and customs of the Indian nationswho once inhabited Pennsylvania and the neighboring states.Philadelphia. (Reprinted Mem. Hist. Soc. Pa., vol. 12. Phila-delphia, 1876.)1907. Narrative of the mission of the United Brethren among the Delawareand Mohegan Indians from its commencement in the year 1740 tothe close of the year 1808. W. E. Connelley, ed. Cleveland.Heinzelman, Maj. S. P.1857. In Indian afl'airs on the Pacific. Message from the President of theUnited States transmitting report in regard to Indian aflfairs. (Pp.34-53.) H. R. Ex. Doc. 76, 34th Congr., 3d sess., p. 44.
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662 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145
JotTTEL, Henri.1713. Journal historique du dernier voyage que M. de la Sale fit dans le golfede Mexique pour trouver 1' embouchure de la riviere de Mississippi.Paris. (Also in Margry, Pierre, 1875-86, vol. 3, pp. 89-534.)JuARROs, Domingo.1808-1818. Compendio de la Historia de la Ciudad de Guatemala, 1808-1818.1824. English edition of above entitled "A statistical and commercial historyof the Kingdom of Guatemala."Keating, William H.1824. Narrative of an expedition to the source of St. Peter's River, LakeWinnepeek, Lakes of the Woods, etc. Compiled from the notes ofMajor Long, Messrs. Say, Keating, and Calhoun. 2 vols. Phila-delphia. (Same, London, 1825.)Kelly, Isabel T.1932. Ethnography of the Surprise Valley Paiute. Univ. Calif. Publ. Amer.Archaeol. and Ethnol., vol. 31, No. 3, pp. 67-210.1934. Southern Paiute bands. Amer. Anthrop., n. s., vol. 36, No. 4, pp.548-560.Also see Park, Willard Z.Kendall, Edward Augustus.1809. Travels through the northern parts of the United States in the years1807 and 1808. 3 vols. New York.Ker, Henry.1816. Travels through the western interior of the United States, from theyear 1808 up to the year 1816. Elizabethtown.KiNiETz, W. Vernon.1940. The Indians of the Western Great Lakes 1615-1760. OccasionalContr. Mus. Anthrop. Univ. Michigan, No. 10. Univ. MichiganPress, Ann Arbor.Kino, Eusebius.1726. Tabula Californiae, Anno 1702. In Stocklein, Der Neue Welt-Bott,pt. 2, facing p. 74. Augspurg und Gratz.Krause, Aurel.1885. Die Tlinkit Indianer. Ergebnisse einer Reise nach der Nordwestkustevon America und der Beringstrasse. Auftrage der Bremer geograph-ichen Gesellschaft, 1880-81. Jena.Kroeber, Alfred L.1900. The Eskimo of Smith Sound. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 12,Art. 21, pp. 265-327.1902 a. Preliminary sketch of the Mohave Indians. Amer. Anthrop., n. s.,vol. 4, pp. 276-285.1902 b. The Arapaho. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 18.1903. The coast Yuki of California. Amer. Anthrop., n. s., vol. 5, pp. 729-730.1904. Types of Indian culture in California. Univ. Calif. Publ. Amer,Archaeol. and Ethnol., vol. 2, pp. 81-103.1907 a. Shoshonean dialects of California. Univ. Calif. Publ. Amer.Archaeol. and Ethnol., vol. 4, No. 3.1907 b. The religion of the Indians of California. Univ. Calif. Publ. Amer.Archaeol. and Ethnol., vol. 4, pp. 319-356.
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664 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Lapham, I. A., Blossom, L., and Dousman, G. D.1870. Number, locality, and times of removal of the Indians of Wisconsin.Milwaukee.La Salle, Nicolas de. See Margry, Pierre, vol. 1, pp. 547-570.La Salle, R6n6 Robert Cavelier, Sieur de.For account of La Salle's voyage, see Shea, John Gilmary, 1861, pp. 15-42.See also Cox, Isaac Joslin, Editor; and Delanglez, Jean.Las Casas. See Casas, BARTOLOMf Las.LaudonniIire, Ren?.1586. Histoire notable de la Florida situ4e fes Indes Occidentales, contenant,les trois voyages faits en icelle par certains capitaines et pilotesFrancois a laquelle a est6 adjouste un quatriesme voyage fait parle Captaine Gourgues, mise en lumiere par M. Basnier. Paris.(New ed., Paris, 1853.)Laughlin, H. H., and Ganong, William F., Translators and Editors. SeeChamplain, Samuel de, 1922-36.LaverdiJire, C. H. See Champlain, Samuel de, 1870.Lawson, John.1709. A new voyage to Carolina; containing the exact description andnatural history of that country; together with the present statethereof, and a journal of a thousand miles travel thro' severalnations of Indians. London.1714. History of Carolina, containing the exact description and naturalhistory of that country. London. (Reprint, Raleigh, 1860; Rich-mond, 1937.)Leclerq, Chretien.1691. Nouvelle relation de la Gasp^sie. Paris.1881. First establishment of the faith in New France; now first translatedwith notes by J. G. Shea. 2 vols. New York.1910. New relation of Gaspesia, with the customs and religion of the Gas-pesian Indians. Trans, by William F. Ganong. The ChamplainSociety. Toronto.Lederer, John.1912. The discoveries of John Lederer in three several marches from Virginiato the west of Carolina and other parts of this continent; begun inMarch 1669, and ended September 1670. Together with a generalmap of the whole territory which he traversed. Collected and trans-lated by Sir William Talbot, Baronet. In Alvord, Clarence W.,and Bidgood, Lee. (Note: Other eds. of op. cit. are London, 1672;in Harris, vol. 2, London, 1705; and Rochester, 1902.)Lehmann, Walter.1920. Die Sprachen Zentral-Amerikas. Zentral-Amerikas, pt. 1, 2 vols.Berlin.Le Motne, Jacques.1875. Narrative of Le Moyne, an artist who accompanied the French expedi-tion to Florida under LaudonniSre, 1564. Trans, from Latin of DeBry. Boston.Lenguas iNofGENAS DE Centro-America EN EL SiQLO XVIII segun copia delArchive de Indias hecha por Le6n Ferndndez y publicada por Ricardo Fernan-dez Guardia y Juan Fernandez Ferraz para el 9? Congreso de Americanistas.San Jos6 de Costa Rica. Tip. nacional, 1892.
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666 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145McIlwraith, Thomas F.1948. The Bella Coola Indians. Univ. Toronto Press, 2 vols.Mack, John. See Berry, Brewton, et al.McKennan, Robert.1935. Note "Anent the Kutchin Tribes." Amer. Anthrop., n. s., vol. 37,No. 2, p. 369.McKenney, Thomas L.1846. Vol. 1: Memoirs, official and personal; with sketches of travels amongthe northern and southern Indians; embracing a war excursion, anddescriptions of scenes along the western borders. Vol. 2: On theorigin, history, character, and the wrongs and rights of the Indians,with a plan for the preservation and happiness of the remnants ofthat persecuted race. (Two volumes in one.) New York.McKenny, Thomas L., and Hall, James.1933-34. The Indian tribes of North America. 3 vols. Edinburgh.Mackenzie, Alexander.1801. Voyages from Montreal, on the river St. Lawrence, through the conti-nent of North America, to the Frozen and Pacific Oceans; in theyears 1789 and 1793. London. (Reprint, Philadelphia, 1802.)MacNutt, Francis Augustus. See Anghiera, Pietro Martire d'.Maine Historical Society. Collections, vols. 1-6, Portland, 1831-59. Vol. 7,Bath, 1876. Vols. 8-10, Portland, 1881-91. 2d ser., vols. 1-10. Portland,1890-99.Marbury,1792. MS. A census taken by the State of Georgia.Margry, Pierre.1875-86. D^couvertes et 6tablissements des Frangais dans I'ouest et dans lesud de TAmfirique Septentrionale (1614-1754). M^moires et docu-ments originaux. Pts, 1-6. Paris.Marquette's map, 1673. See Jesuit Relations.Mason, J. Alden.1912. The ethnology of the Salinan Indians. Univ. Calif. Publ. Amer.Archaeol. and Ethnol., vol. 10, pp. 97-240.1940. The native languages of Middle America. In The Maya and theirneighbors (Tozzer Volume), pp. 52-87. D. Appleton-Century Co.,New York and London.Massachusetts Historical Society, Collections, vols. 1-10, Boston, 1792-1809(vol. 1 reprinted in 1806 and 1859; vol. 5 in 1816 and 1835). 2d ser., vols.1-10, Boston, 1814-23 (reprinted 1838-43). 3d ser., vols. 1-10, Boston,1825-49 (vol. 1 reprinted, 1846). 4th ser., 1-10, Boston, 1852-71.Maurault, J. A.1866. Histoire des Abenakis depuis 1605 jusqu'a nos jours. Quebec.Maximilian, Alexander P.1843. Travels in the interior of North America. Trans, from German byH. Evans Lloyd. London.Mayhew, Thomas, Jr.1928. In Territorial subdivisions and boundaries of the Wampanoag, Massa-chusetts, and Nauset, by Frank G. Speck. Ind. Notes and Monogr.,Misc. Ser., No. 44, p. 110. Mus. Amer. Ind., Heye Found. NewYork.
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668 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145MiLFORT, LE ClERC.1802. Memoire ou coup-d'oeil rapide sur mes differens voyages et mon sejourdans la nation Creek. Paris.MiULiNG, Chapman J.1940. Red Carolinians. Univ. N. C. Press, Chapel Hill, N. C.MiNDELEFF, CoSMOS.1900. Localization of Tusayan clans. 19th Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol.,1897-98, pt. 2, pp. 635-653'.Minnesota Historical Society. Collections. Vols. 1-11. St. Paul, 1872-1905.Mississippi Provincial Archives, French Dominions.Particularly vol. 3, ed. Rowland, Dunbar, and Sanders, Albert Godfrey,Jackson, Miss., 1932. See Bienville, Jean Baptiste le Moyne, Sieur de.Mooney, James.1895. The Siouan tribes of the east. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 22.1896. The Ghost-dance religion and the Sioux outbreak of 1890. 14th Ann.Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol., 1892-93, pt. 2, pp. 641-1110.1898. Calendar history of the Kiowa Indians. 17th Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer.Ethnol., 1895-96, pt. 1, pp. 129-445.1900. Myths of the Cherokee. 19th Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol., 1897-98,pt. 1, pp. 3-548.1907. -The Cheyenne Indians. Mem, Amer. Anthrop. Assoc, vol. 1, pt. 6.1928. The aboriginal population of America north of Mexico. SmithsonianMisc. Coll., vol. 80, No. 7.Morgan, Lewis H.1851. League of the Ho-de-no-sau-nee, or Iroquois. Rochester, New York,and Boston. (2d ed., New York, 1904.)Morice, a. G.1889. The Western D^n^s. Their manners and customs. Proc. Can. Inst.,3d ser., vol. 6, No. 2. Toronto.1895. Notes, archaeological, industrial and sociological, on the WesternD6nes. Trans. Can. Inst., vol. 4, 1892-93. Toronto.1904 a. History of the northern interior of British Columbia, formerly NewCaledonia. Toronto.1904 b. In Transactions of the Royal Canadian Institute, vol. 7, p. 518.1906. The Great Dene Race. Anthropos, vol. 1 and succeeding vols,Morse, Jedediah.1822. A report to the Secretary of War of the United States, on Indianaffairs, comprising a narrative of a tour performed in the summer of1820. New Haven, Conn.MoTT, Mildred.1938. The relation of historic Indian tribes to archaeological manifestationsin Iowa. Iowa Journ. Hist, and Politics, vol. 36, No. 3, pp. 227-327.(Published quarterly by the State Hist. Soc. of Iowa, Iowa City,Iowa.)MuLLAN, John.1855. Report on the Indian tribes in the eastern portion of Washingtonterritory, 1853. Pac. R.R. Rep., vol. 1, pp. 437-441. Washington.MuLLOY, William T. See Park, Willard Z.
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SWANTONI INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA 679SwANTON, John R.?Continued1911. Indian tribes of the Lower Mississippi Valley and adjacent coast ofthe Gulf of Mexico. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 43.1918. An early account of the Choctaw Indians. Mem. Amer. Anthrop.Assoc, vol. 5, pt. 2.1922. Early history of the Creek Indians and their neighbors Bur. Amer.Ethnol. Bull. 73.1928 a. Social organization and social usages of the Indians of the CreekConfederacy. 42d Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol., 1924-25, pp.23-472. 1928.1928 b. Religious beliefs and medical practices of the Creek Indians. 42dAnn. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol., 1924-25, pp. 473-672.1931. Source material for the social and ceremonial life of the ChoctawIndians. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 103.1942. Source material on the history and ethnology of the Caddo Indians.Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 132.1946. The Indians of the Southeastern United States. Bur. Amer. EthnolBull. 137.See also Thomas, Cyrus, and Swanton, John R,Tanner, John.1830. Narrative of captivity and adventures during thirty years' residenceamong the Indians in North America. Prepared for the press byEdwin James. New York.Taylor, Alexander S.1860-63. Indianology of California. Calif. Farmer and Journ. Useful Sci.,vols. 13-20, Feb. 22, 1860, to Oct. 30, 1863. San Francisco.Text, James.1900. The Thompson Indians of British Columbia. Mem. Amer. Mug. Nat.Hist., vol. 2, Publ. Jesup N. Pac. Exped., vol. 1, No. 4, Anthrop.vol. 1, pt. 4. New York.1906 a. Notes on the Tahltan Indians of British Columbia. In Boas anni-versary volume. Anthropological papers written in honor ofFranz Boas, Professor of Anthropology in Columbia University,on the twenty-fifth anniversary of his doctorate. New York.1906 b. The Lillooet Indians. Mem. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 4, pt. 6,Publ. Jesup. N. Pac. Exped., vol. 2, No. 5.1909. The Shuswap. Mem. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 4, pt. 7. Publ.Jesup N. Pac. Exped., vol. 2, No. 7.1928. The Middle Columbia Salish. Univ. Washington Publ. Anthrop., vol.2, No. 4, pp. 83-128. Seattle.Teit, James, and Boas, Franz.1930. The Salishan tribes of the Western Plateaus. 45th Ann. Rep. Bur.Amer. Ethnol., 1927-38, pp. 23-396.Teit, James A.; Haeberlin, H. K.; and Roberts, Helen H.1928. Coiled basketry in British Columbia and surrounding region, underdirection of Franz Boas. 41st Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol.,1919-24, pp. 119-484.Ten Kate, H.1884. Materiaux pour servir k I'anthropologie de la presqu'ile californienne.Bull. Soc. d' Anthrop., pp. 551-569.1885. Reizen en Onderzoekingen in Noord-Amerika. Leiden.
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INDEX'Aa'ninCna, see Atsina.A-ar-ke, see Hopi.A'-fi'tam, see Pima.A'a'tam d'kimtllt, see Pima.Aays, see Eyeish.Abasopalme, 613, 619Ab-boin-ug, see Dakota.Abercrombie, Lt. [W. R.], explorer, 530Abihka, 153, 157, 222, 228Abnaki, 13-15*, 16, 17, 18, 28, 44, 579,580joined by Pennacook, 18removal to Canada, 14, 18See also Delaware.Abra, 613, 622Absaroka, see Crow.Absaroke, see Crow.Absentee Shawnee, see Shawnee.Acapatos, see Atsina.Acarred Arms, see Cheyenne.Acasaqiiastlan, 613, 628Acaxee, 613-614, 631, 634, 636, 641Accerri, 614, 622Accohanoc, see Powhatan.Accorainta, see Pennacook.Achire, 614, 621Achomawi, 479-480*, 481Achuachapan, 614Acolapissa, 168, 174, 175, 192, 195-196*,200, 207, 208, 210, 211joined by Natchitoches, 206massacre of Natchitoches by, 206merged with Houma, 196, 200Acolhua, 614, 628
_Acoste, see Koasati.Acuera, 120*, 130, 131Acuy^, see Pecos.Adai, 196-197*, 201, 206, 212, 309, 314,315, 316, 318, 320probably joined Caddo, 197A da ka' da ho, see Arikara.A'dal-k'ato'igo, see Nez Perc6.Addle-Heads, see Menominee.Adshusheer, town of, 79, 84Adwanuqdji, see Atsugewi.Afulakin, see Wasco.Aguacadiba, 611Aguacaleyquen, see Utina.Aguacatec I, 614Aguacatec II, 614Agueynaba, 611A-gutch-a-ninne-wug, see Hidatsa.Ah'alakat, see Chemehuevi.Ahdlpam, see Santiam.Ahantchuyuk, 452*Ah-hi'-ta-pe, see Siksika.Ahihinin, see Pawnee.
'Asterisk indicates main account of tribe.
Ah-mo-kdi, see Hopi.Ahomama, 614, 625Ahome, 614, 621, 622Ah-pen-ope-say, see Arikara.Aht, see Nootka.Ahtena, 529-530*Ahuddjg, see Apache.Ahuchan, see Yaochane.Ahya'to, see Arapaho.Ai-a'-ta, see Apache.Aibine, 614, 641Afgspalo, see Klamath.Algspaluma, see Klamath, Modoc.Ais, 121-122*, 131, 133Afspalu, see Klamath.Aix, see Eyeish.Ai-yah-kin-nee, see Hopi.Ajoica mission, 135Akansa, see Quapaw.Ak'-ba-su'-pai, see Havasupai.Akenuq'la'lam, see Okanagon.Akhrakouaehronon, see Susquehanna.A'kimmash, see Clackamas.Ak-min'-e-shu'-me, see Kalispel.Akochakanen, see ^lahican.Akokisa, 198, 199, 307, 308, 324fate unknown, 199See also Atakapa.A-ko-t'as'-ki-ro're"', see Tuscarora.A-ko-tcil-ka'n6?, see Delaware.Alabama,' 122, 130, 134, 135, 139, 144,145, 153-156*, 157, 159, 167,168, 180, 197, 210, 224, 299, 304,307, 324joined by Muskogee, 204joined by Pawokti, 136, 154, 170joined by Tawasa, 154, 211member of Creek Confederacy, 299migrations, 155, 197, 299, 307relations with French, 154uniting of some with Seminole, 155Alabama language, 154, 160Alabama [State of] 153-174Abihka, 153Alabama, 153-156*Apalachee, 156Apalachicola, 156Atasi, 156Chatot, 156Cherokee, 156Chickasaw, 156Choctaw, 156Creek Confederacy, 156-157Eufaula, 157Fus-hatchee, 157Hilibi, 157Hitchiti, 157 683
684 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Alabama [State of]?ContinuedKan-hatki, 157Kealedji, 157Koasati, 157-159*Kolomi, 159Mobile, 159-160*Muklasa, 160*Muskogee, 160-168*Napochi, 168-169*Natchez, 169Okchai, 169Okmulgee, 169Osochi, 169Pakana, 170Pawokti, 170Pilthlako, 170Sawokli, 170-171*Shawnee, 171Taensa, 171Tohome, 171-172*Tukabahchee, 172*Tuskegee, 172-173*Wakokai, 173Wiwohka, 174Yamasee, 174Yuchi, 174Alachua, 140Ala'dshush, see Chinook.Alaguilac, 614Alah6, see Kansa.Alakgma'yuk, see Luckiamute.Alamama, 614, 625AMmmimakt fsh, see Klamath.Alarc6n, Hernando de, 349, 350, 354,357, 366, 369Alaska [Territory of], 529-544Ahtena, 529-530*Aleut, 530-533*Dihai-kutchin, 533*Eskimo, 533Haida, 533Han, 533*Ingalik, 533-534*Koyukon, 534-536*Kutcha-kutchin, 536-537*Nabesna, 537*Niska, 538Natsit-kutchin, 538*Tanaina, 538-539*Tanana, 539-540*Tennuth-kutchin, 540*Tlingit, 540-543*Tranjik-kutchin, 543*Tsimshian, 543Vunta-kutchin, 543-544* ?A'ldtskn6-i, see Clatskanie.Alcoholic liquors, effect on Indians, 99Aleut, 530-533*, 539, 557, 568Algonkin, 544-545*Algonquian tribes, 65, 66, 74, 77, 78, 80,82, 83, 246, 392, 545, 548Aliatan, see Shoshoni, Northern.Aliche, see Eyeish.Allebome, see Comanche.Alleghanys, see Cherokee.Allen, Lt. Henry T., explorer, 530, 540
Alligewi, see Cherokee.AUikUk, 480, 497Allouez, French priest, 242, 253Aln&nbal, see Abnaki.Als6, see Alsea.Alsea, 452-453*, 469Altamaha Yamasee, 113Al-ta-tin, see Sekani.A'lvayg'lUIt, see Eskimo.Amacano, 122, 128, 129Amacapiras, see Macapiras.Amadas and Barlowe, explorers, 82Amahami, 276Amayes, see Jemez.Ameias, see Jemez.Amejes, see Jemez.A-me-she', se? Hidatsa.Ameyao, 611Amgdtsuish, see Umpqua.Amishgo, see Amusgo.Amojave, see Mohave.Amol^lish, see Molala.Ampxankni, see Wasco.A'-mu-kwi-kwe, see Hopi.Amusgo, 614Ana, see Cree.Anacana, see Aracanaes.Anacasiguais, see Anachiquaies.Anachiquaies, 614, 635Anadarko, member of Hasinai Confed-eracy, 307, 316Anagonges, see Abnaki.Anahou, see Osage.Anakwanckl, see Delaware.Ananis, see Biloxi.Anaxis, see Biloxi.Anaya, 611Anda-kpoen, see Eskimo.Andaste, see Susquehanna.Andatahouats, see Ottawa.Ani'-Gu'sa, see Muskogee.Ani'-Kltu'hwagI, see Cherokee.Ani'-Na'tst, see Natchez.Aniporspi, see Nez Perc6.Ani'-SawS,nu'gI, see Shawnee.An-ish-in-aub-ag, see Chippewa.Ani'-Skala'll, see Tuscarora.Ani'-Suwa'li, see Cheraw.Ani'ta'gua, see Catawba.Ani'-Tsa'ta, see Choctaw.Ani'-Tsi'ksA, see Chickasaw.Ani'-Y<in'-wigS', see Cherokee.Ani'-Yu'tsI, see Yuchi.Annah, see Cree.Annocchy, see Biloxi.Ano's-anyotskano, see Arapaho.Anza, Lt. Col. Juan Bautista de, 370Apache, 292, 293, 296, 299, 307, 313,314, 319, 325, 326, 327-330*,335, 337, 339, 343, 348, 349, 363,365, 370, 593, 614, 624group of tribes, 299, 300, 301, 322,371Shuman destroyed by, 325See also Chiricahua Apache, KiowaApache, Mimbreno Apache.
INDEX 685Apaches, see Yavapai.Apaches de Nabaju, see Navaho.Apaches de Navaj6, see Navaho.Apache Mohaves, see Yavapai.Apalachee, 104, 112, 114, 115, 116, 119,122-125*, 128, 129, 135, 137, 140,144, 150, 152, 153, 156, 197, 210,299disappearance of, 124, 151migrations of, 123-124*, 156, 197relations with English, 104relations with Spaniards, 123Apalachicola, 104-105*, 107, 116, 125,128, 150, 156, 157, 169, 174relations with Spaniards, 105A-pa-o-pa, see Nez Perc6.Api'nefu, see Chepenafa.Apocynum cannabinum, 85Apostata, 614, 635Applegate River Indians, see Daku-betede.A-pu-pe', see Nez Perc6.Aqokulo, see Chimakum."Aqua Dulce" Indians, see Fresh WaterIndians.Aquannaque, see Abnaki.Aquelou pissas, see Acolapissa.Aqui, see Pecos.AqOsta, see Tolowa.Ara, 614See also Karok.Aracanaes, 614, 634A-rach-bo-cu, see Mandan.Ara-k'e, see Eskimo.Aranama, 308extinct by 1843, 308Arapaho, 260, 273, 278, 279, 280, 285,292, 295, 296, 299, 370, 372, 384-386*, 387, 389, 545Northern, 385, 386Southern, 299, 385, 386Arawak, 609, 610Archdale, Governor [John], 75Arecibo, 611A-re-tear-o-pan-ga, see Atsina.Aretino, 614, 635Arikara, 273-275*, 278, 285, 289, 387,391citizens of United States, 274Aripa, 614, 640Arizona [State of], 349-370Apache, 349Cocopa, 349*Halchidhoma, 349-350*Halyikwamai, 350-351*Havasupai, 351*Hopi, 351-353*Kohuana, 353-354*Maricopa, 354-356*Mohave, 356-357*Navaho, 357Paiute, 357Papago, 367-360*Pima, 360-363*Quahatika, 363-364*Sobaipuri, 364-365*
Arizona [State of]?ContinuedTonto, 365Walapai, 365-366*Yavapai, 367-369*Yuma, 36^370*Arkansas [State of], 212-215Caddo, 212Cahinnio, 212Cherokee, 212Chickasaw, 212Illinois, 212Kaskinampo, 212Michigamea, 213Mosopelea, see Ofo.Ofo, 213Osage, 213Quapaw, 213-215*Tunica, 215Yazoo, 215Arkansas, see Quapaw.Artaguiette, Diron d', 192Arthur, Gabriel, 74, 90, 102As-a-ka-shi, see Mandan.Asdn'ka, see Kutenai.Asay, see Hopi.Ascani, see Yscani.A'shiwi, see Zuni.Ashnuhumsh, see Snohomish.Ash-o-chl-mi, see Wappo.A-shu'-e-ka-pe, see Salish,Askwalli, see Nisqually.Assinay, see Hasinai Confederacy.Assiniboin, 275, 283, 386, 387-388*, 545,592allied with Cree, 388, 555separated from Dakota, 545Atakapa, 186, 193, 194, 197-199*, 205,208, 210, 307, 308, 314beHeved to be cannibals, 199X-tagui, see Lipan.Atanum, 471Atasi, division of the Muskogee, 156A-t'&s-ka-lo'-16?', see Tuscarora.Atchdshti ame'nmei, see Chastacosta.Atchasti dmim, see Chastacosta.Atchihwa', see Maricopa.Atchixe'lish, see Chehalis.Atcik-hata group. 111, 112, 113, 170Atcik-hata language, 104Atena, see Shuswap.Atfalati, 453-454*, 476Athabaska, see Cree.Athapascan Sarsi, see Sarsi.Athapascan tribes, 371, 452, 456, 570,575, 584Athapascans, Oregon, 516Athapuskow, see Cree.Athlimeth, see Klamath.Athlashimih, see Carriers.Atna, see Shuswap.Atokiiwe, see Apache.A-too-ha-pe, see Salish.At-pasha-shliha, see Hitchiti.Atra'kwae'ronnons, see Susquehanna.Atsina, 385, 386, 38^390*, 397, 545placed on Reservation, 390
686 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Atsistarhonon, see Potawatomi.Atsugewi, 479, 480-481*Attamuskeet, 80, 81*At'-ta-wits, see Kadohadacho.Attayes, see Tyigh.Atticmospicayes, see Thlingchadinne.Attimospiquaies, see Thlingchadinne.Attiwandaronk, see Neutrals.Attacks, Crispus, Negro-Massachusethalf-breed, 20Atzinca, 614, 626A6ksiwash, see Klamath.Auolasds, see Paiute, Southern.Autauga, 155A'-uya, see Kickapoo,Avoyel, 188, 194, 199-200*, 210disappearance of, 200Awahi, see Pawnee.Awahu, see Pawnee.Awdsko ammim, see Wasco.A-was-shetan-qua, see Cheyenne.Awdtch, see Apache.Awdtche, see Apache.Aweatsiwaenhronon, see Winnebago.Awena'tchela, see Wenatchee.Awi-adshi, see Klickitat.Aw6, see Pawnee.Awok^nak, see Etchaottine.Awp, see Apache.Axshihhay6-r6nu, see Chippewa.Axwe'lapc, see Kwalhioqua.Ayankeld, see Yoncalla.Ayatchinini, see Siksika.Ayatchiyiniw, see Siksika.Aycalme, 614, 619Ayllon, Vasques de, explorer, 84, 94, 103,109expedition under, 94-95Aymamon, 611Ayuhwa, see Iowa.Aztec, 614, 628Ba-akush', see Dakota.Bachilmi, 615, 619Baciroa, 615Bacon, Nathaniel, 70Bad-hearts, see Kiowa Apache.Bagaces, 615Bdgowits, see Navaho.Bdhakosin, see Cheyenne.Bahamas, Lucayans in, 611Bahkanapiil, see Tiibatulabal.Bahwetego-weninnewug, see Atsina.Baimena, 615, 642Bainoa, 608*, 610Bald Heads, see Comanche.Baldam, 615Bambana, 615Bamoa, 615, 616Bana'kwGt, see Bannock.Banabeouiks, see Winnebago.Bani, 610Baniatho, see Cherokee.Bankalachi, Tiibatulabal band.Bannock, 370, 372, 375, 386, 390, 398-399*, 404, 454
Bannock War, 399Banumints, see Serrano.Baopapa, 615, 619Ba-qa-6, see Makah.Baracoa, 610Barajagua, 610Baranoff, [Baranov, Aleksandr Andree-vich, first governor of Russ.-America], 542Ba-ra-shup'-gi-o, see Dakota.Barbacoa, 610Barnwell, Col. John, 75, 86, 95, 96, 98,100, 101, 103, 115Bartlett, J. R., American Commissioner,363Bartram, William, 135Bashaba, Penobscot chief, 16, 17Bashabas, see Abnaki.Basket People, see Colville.Batem-da-kai-ee, see Kato.Battle-le-mule-emauch, see Methow.Batts, Thomas, 72, 74Bawichtigouek, see Chippewa.Bawihka, 615, 634Bay Indians, see Winnebago.Bay River Indians, see Bear River Indians,Bayamo, 610, 611Bayano, 615Bayaquitiri, 610Baymunana, 615Bayogoula, 192, 196, 200-201*, 204, 208destroyed by Taensa, 200, 209joined Houma, 200Mugulasha, destroyed bv, 200, 208Bear River Indians, 74, 81, 83, 86, 481*,515Beaux Hommes, see Quapaw, Siksika.Beaver, 552Beaver Indians, see Tsattine.Bedzaqetcha, see Chippewa.Bedzietcho, see Chippewa.Bellabella, 545-546*, 575Bellacoola, 546-548*Belle-Isle, Simars de, French officer, 198Benavides, Alonso de, 325, 339Benoist, French commander, 179Beothuk, 548-549*disappearance of, 548, 549driven north by Micmac, 548Beranger, Captain [Jean], 198, 321Bering, [Vitus], explorer, 532, 542Beshde'ke, see Foxes.Be'shlltcha, see Kiowa.Bessebes, see Bashaba.B6tid66, see Arapaho.B6'-xai, see Jicarilla.Bidai, 197, 308, 324disappearance of, 308Biedma, Ix)uis Hernandez de, De Sotochronicler, 153Bienville, Jean Baptiste le Moyne, Sieurde, 128, 129, 136, 160, 175, 188,189, 191, 196, 197, 200, 201, 206,208, 211, 212, 225, 318, 319
INDEX 687Biernl'n, see Keresan Pueblos.Bik-ta'-she, see Shoshoni, Northern.Biloxi, 136, 174-176*, 188, 191, 201, 206,232, 299, 308, 323migrations, 175, 308Bi'lxula, see Bellacoola.Birch Bay Indians, see Semiahmoo.Birch Creek Kutchin, see Tennuth-kutchin.Birch River Indians, see Tennuth-kutchin.Bird Woman, see Sacagawea.Black Hawk, Sauk Chief, 252, 257, 266Black Hawk War, 251, 253, 256, 269Black Minqua, see Honniasont.Black Pawnee, see Wichita.Black River Kutchin, see Tranjik-kutchin.Blackfeet, 389, 390, 391, 394, 395, 555,593allied with Sarcee, 592See also Siksika.Blackhoof, Shawnee chief, 230Blande, Edward, explorer, 62, 64, 65, 84Blue Muds, see Nez Perc6.Blunt, Tom, Tuscarora chief, 87Boa, 615, 635Boas, Franz, 417, 548, 577, 601Bo'dalk' ifiago, see Comanche.Bodega and Maurelle, explorers, 546,573, 576, 588Boinug, see Dakota.Bokeaf, see Hopi.Bolton, Prof. H. E., 139Bone Indians, see Osage.Bornn, Colonel, (Byrd?), 63Borrado, 615, 635Borrados, see Shuman.Boruca, 615, 620, 633B5'tcaced, see Sinkiuse-Columbia.Bot-k'in'ago, see Atsina.Botshenins, see Occaneechi.Bow Indians, see Quapaw.Bowl, Cherokee chief, 223, 309, 319killed by Texans, 309Boyaca, 610Boyano, Pardo, chronicler, 118Bribri, 615, 635, 640Bridger, [James], 398, 399British. alHed with Cherokee, 222allied with Wyandot, 235Brotherton Indians, 28, 30, 31, 42, 43, 47joined by Montauk, 43removed to Wisconsin, 42Brushwood Indians, see Etchaottine.Buhk'h^rk, see Hopi.Bukfn, see Hopi.Bungees, see Chippewa.Burica, 615Burucaca, 615Byrd, William, 66Cabecar, 615, 617, 636Cabellos realzados, see Chippewa.Cabezas, 615, 638Cabot, John, 14, 20, 70, 548, 580
Cabrillo, Juan Rodriguez, 478Cacalote, 615, 635Cacalotito, 615, 619Cacaopera, 615Cache River People, see Tranjik-kutchin.Cacores, see Shakori.Cacta?'-qw<it-me't(lnn6, see Umpqua.Caddo, 54, 201, 205, 212, 214, 269, 289,299, 300, 325, 326Caddo Tribes, 309, 315, 316, 319, 320,324See also Adai, Natchitoches Con-federacy, Eyeish Confederacy,and Kadohadacho Confederacy.Cadimas, 615, 635Cahibo, 608-609*, 610Cahinnio, member of KadohadachoConfederacy, 212, 318Cahita, 615, 616, 619, 621, 625, 626,637, 641, 642Cahuilla, 481-482*Caimanes, 616Caizcimu, 609*Cajuenche, see Kohuana.Cakchiquel, 616Calamox, see Tillamook.Calapooya, 454*Calasthocle, Quinault tribe, 435, 436Calder6n, Captain, 137Calder6n [Gabriel Diaz Vara], Bishopof Cuba, 113, 115, 137, 139,150, 170California [State of], 478-529Achomawi, 479-480*Allikhk, 480*Atsugewi, 480-481*Bear River Indians, 481*Cahuilla, 481-482*Chemehuevi, 482-483*Chetco, 483Chilula, 483*Chimariko, 483*Chumash, 484-487*Costanoan, 487-488*Cupefio, 488*Dakubetede, 488Diegueno, 488-490*Esselen, 490*Fernandeno, 490*Gabrielino, 490-491*Halchidhoma, 492Huchnom, 492*Hupa, 492-493*Juaneno, 494*Kamia, 494-495*Karok, 495-496*Kato, 496*Kawaiisu, 496*Kitanemuk, 496-497*Konomihu, 497*Koso, 497*Lassik, 498*Luisefio, 498-499*Maidu, 499-501*Mattole, 501-502*Miwok, 502-507*
688 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145California [State of]?ContinuedModoc, 507Mohave, 607Nicoleno, 507*Nongatl, 507*Okwanuchu, 507*Paiute, Northern, 507Patwin, 507-509*Porno, 509-512*Salinan, 512*Serrano, 512-513*Shasta, 514*Sinkyone, 514?515*Tolowa, 515-516*Tiibatulabal, 516-517*Vanyume, 517*WaUaki, 517-518*Wappo, 518-519*Washo, 519*Whilkut, 519*Wintu, 519-520*Wintun, 520-521*Wiyot, 521-522*Yahi, 522*Yana, 522-523*Yokuts, 523-526*Yuki, 526-527*Yuki, Coast, or Ukhotno'm, 527-528*Yuma, 528Yurok, 528-529*Calu^a, see Okelousa.Calusa, 111, 121, 125-128*, 145, 152disappearance of, 127gold captured by, 126, 128noted for human sacrifice, 128relations with Americans, 127Camagiiey, 610Camaleones, 616, 635Camas People, see Kalispel.Campbell, Robert, Scotch officer, 584Canada and Greenland, 644-608Algonkin, 544-546*Arapaho, 645Assiniboin, 646Atsina, 545Bellabella, 545-546*Bellacoola, 546-648*Beothuk, 548-649*Carriers, 549-550*Chilcotin, 550-661*Chippewa or Ojibwa, 651*Chipewyan, 561-652*Comox, 562-553*Cowichan, 553-554*Cree, 554-566*Crow, 556Dakota, 566Eskimo, 556-569*Etchaottine, 569-670*Haida, 670-573*Hidatsa, 573Huron, 673Iroquois, 574Kawchottine, 674*Kitksan, 674-575*
Canada and Greenland?ContinuedKutchin, 675Kutenai, 575Kwakiutl, 575-577*Lillooet, 677-678*Malecite, 578-579*Micmac, 579-681*Montagnais-Naskapi, 681-683*Nahane, 683-586*Nakotcho-kutchin, 585*Nanaimo, 585*Neutral, 686Niska, 686-587*Nooksak, 587Nootka, 587-588*Ntlakyapamuk, 588-691*Okanagon, 691Ottawa, 591Passaraaquoddy, 591Puntlatsh, 591*Sarcee or Sarsi, 591-693*Seechelt, 693*Sekani, 593-595*Senijextee or Lake Indians, 595Shuswap, 595-596*Siksika (Blackfoot), 596*Songish, 596-597*Squawmish, 597-699*Stalo, 600-601*Stuwihamuk, 601*Tahltan, 601-602*Takkuth-kutchin, 602-603*Tatlit-kutchin, 603*Tatsanottine, 603-604*Thlingchadinne, 604*Tionontati, 604-605*Tsattine, 606*Tsetsaut, 606*Tsimshian, 606-607*Tutchone, 608*Canarsee, 54Canawese, see Conoy.Canaynes, 616, 636Cances, see Lipan.Cancey, see Kiowa Apache.Cango, Governor Mendez de, 121
_Cannon-gageh-ronnons, see Abnaki.Canoe Indians, see Mahican.Canton Indians, see Iroquois.Capachequi, 128Capaha, see Pacaha.Caparaz, 122, 128, 129Cape Fear Indians, 76, 97disappearance of, 75Cape Flattery Indians, see Makah.Capinans, 137, 176Capitanesses, possibly Biloxi, 175Capote, Ute band, 374Captain Ellick, Kasihta chief, 118Captain Jack, see Kintpuash.Caramariguanes, 616, 635Caramiguaies, 616, 636Carib, 611, 616Caribayes, 616, 635Caribou Indians, see Tutchone.Caribou-eaters, see Chipewyan.
INDEX 689Caribs in Lesser Antilles, 611Carmack, explorer, 548Carmeneh, see Siksika.Carriers, 549-550*origin of name, 549Carrizos, 616, 635Carson, Col. "Kit," 335Cartaya, Ensign [Juan R. de], 137Cartier, Jacques, explorer, 235, 236Carver, Jonathan, explorer, 256Casafias de Jesus Maria, Fray Fran-cisco, missionary, 326Casapullas, see Cusabo.Casas Grandes, mission, 325Cascade Indians, see Watlala.Cascangue, see Icafui.Casqui, see Kaskinampo.Castafieda, Carlos E., 331Castors des Prairies, see Sarcee.Cat Nation, see Erie.Catapa, 616, 622Catawba, 75, 76, 81, 89, 90, 90-92*,93, 96, 97, 100, 101, 102, 215joined by Cheraw, 76joined by Congaree, 93joined by Eno, 79, 96, 99joined by Pedee, 97joined by Wateree, 101may have been joined by Sewee, 99probably joined by Keyauwee, 81,96probably joined by Santee, 98probably joined by Sissipahaw, 84probably joined by Sugeree, 100relations with Whites, 91removal to reservation, 91treaty with Iroquois, 91Catawba dialectic group, 100Ca'-tha, see Comanche.Cathlamet, 414Cathlapotle, 414r-415*Catlin, George, 267, 278Qatlo'ltx, see Comox.Caviseras, 616, 625Cawina, see Kohuana.Cayaguayo, 610Cayuga, 40, 44, 72, 73adoption of Saponi by, 44, 57, 72adoption of Tutelo by, 44, 72, 73Cayuse, 376, 413, 414, 415, 447, 454-455*, 466horses adopted by, 455removed to reservation, 455Cazcan, 616, 618, 642C^loron Expedition, 178Cenepisa, see Acolapissa.Cenis, see Hasinai Confederacy.CS'qtamux, see Ntlakyapamuk.Cetguanes, see Yuma.Chacahuaztli, 616, 638Chacatos, see Chatot.Chahiksichahiks, see Pawnee.Chah'-ra-rat, see Dakota.Chah'-shm, see Apache.Chakchiuma, 176, 185, 187, 192Chalchuapa, 616
Chaliva, 616Chameleon, 616, 628Champlain, Samuel de, 14, 16, 21, 235,579, 583Chamuscado, Francisco Sanchez, 339,348Chafiabal, 617Changuena, 617Chaouanons, see Shawnee.Chapagua, 617, 628Cha'parahihu, see Hupa.Charles II, 138Charles V, Emperor, 125, 128Charleville, French trader, 227Charlevoix, Pierre F. X. de, 193, 196Chastacosta, 455-456*Chatino, 617, 630, 634Chato, 617, 621Chatot, 105, 115, 123, 128-129*, 137,156, 170, 191, 201disappearance of, 129, 201Chaudifere, see Colville.Chaugu6ronon, see Montagnais-Naskapi.Chauvignerie, [Mons.], 267Chawasha, 137, 201-202*, 207, 211, 212attacked by Negro slaves, 201, 202disappearance of, 202Chearhaw, see Chiaha.Chehalis, 415-416*, 418, 422, 424, 440,450joined by Chinook, 418Lower, 415, 416, 439Upper, 416, 422, 426See also Kwaiailk.Chehaw, see Chiaha.Chelan, 416*Chelamela, 456*Chelukimaukes, see Luckiamute.Chemegu^, Cuajdla, see Paiute, Southern.Chemehuevi, 357, 381, 482-483*, 496Chepalis, see Copalis.Ch^part, French commandant, 189Chepenafa, 456*Cheraw, 76-77*, 79, 80, 100, 102, 103Catawba joined by, 76Cherechos, see Keresan Pueblos,Cheroenhaka, see Nottaway.Cherokee, 61, 74, 77, 82, 91, 92, 101, 105106, 119, 156, 168, 173, 179, 185,212, 215-224*, 227, 229, 233, 263,292, 299, 309, 319allies of British, 222became citizens of Oklahoma State,223, 299effects of Civil War on, 223joined by Delaware, 223, 292joined by Natchez, 82, 190, 225, 301migrations of, 222-223relations with Whites, 221-223Cherokee alphabet, invented by Sequoia,222, 224Cherokee Nation, 54, 223, 228, 229, 292,303
690 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Chetco, 456-457*, 483removed to reservation, 457Che-wae-rae, see Oto.Cheyenne, 260, 275, 278-280*, 284, 285,292, 295, 296, 299, 370, 372, 385,386, 390Custer massacre, participated in by,280migrations of, 279, 285placed on reservation, 390Northern, 279, 280, 386, 390Southern, 279, 280, 299, 385Chiaha, 92, 93, 104, 105-107*, 113, 129,130, 133, 157, 169, 224Chiapanec, 617, 618, 639Chibchan tribes, 614, 615, 616, 617, 618,619, 620, 621, 622, 625, 626, 627,628, 631, 632, 633, 637, 638, 639,640, 641, 642Chickahominy, 71Chickanee, see Wateree.Chickasaw, 93, 107, 154, 156, 168, 176,177-180*, 187, 188, 190, 192, 195,196, 201, 209, 212, 222, 224, 227,229, 233, 299, 319allies of English, 178, 180, 196relations with French, 178relations with Spaniards, 178Chickasaw Government, merged withState of Oklahoma, 179, 299Chickasaw language, 159, 195Chickasaw Nation, 306, 307Chicktaghiks, see Illinois.Chicomuceltec, 617Chicora, 84, 100Chief Joseph, Nez Perc6 chief, 301, 402Chiguas, see Tiwa Pueblos,Chilanga, 617, 625Chilcotin, 550-551*Chilkat, 584Chilluckittequaw, 414, 416-417*Chilowhist, see Methow.Chilucan, possibly Timucuan, 129Chilula, 483*, 492Chimakum, 414, 417*, 419, 435at war with Clallam, 417Chimariko, 483*, 495, 497, 507Chinantec, 617, 623, 627, 629, 640, 641Chinarra, 617, 619Chine, 122, 123, 128, 129See also Chatot.Chine, possibly Chatot chief, 129Chinipa, 617Chinook, 417-419*, 467joined Chehalis, 418Chinook, Upper, 475See also Wishram.Chinook jargon, trade language, 418, 419Chipewyan, 551-552*, 603expelled Cree from country, 551Chippewa, 40, 230, 236, 240, 241, 243,244, 246, 247, 248, 250, 251, 256,260-264*, 265, 275, 279, 283, 292,298, 390, 544, 551migrations of, 263, 292, 298myths about, 264
Chiricahua Apache, 624ChirikoflF, explorer, 532, 542Chiripo, see Cabecar.Chiru, 617Chirumas, see Yuma.Chishye, see Apache.Chiska, see Yuchi.Chita, 618Chitimacha, 193, 197, 201, 202-204*206, 210noted as basket makers, 204war with French, 203Chiwere group, 258, 266, 270, 287Chizo, 617, 619Choch-Katit, see Siksika.Chocho, 617, 638Choco, 618See also Popoloca.Choctaw, 127, 128, 129, 136, 156, 159,176, 177, 180-185*, 187, 188, 191,194, 195, 204, 208, 212, 224, 299,309allied with French, 176, 183, 185,189became citizens of United States,299migrations of, 204, 309probably absorbed Mobile, 159, 172relations with English, 183, 184relations with United States Gov-ernment, 184, 185Tohome, absorbed by, 172Choctaw, Yowani, 309Choctaw language, 136, 144, 154, 159,160, 195, 200Choctaw Nation, 92, 175, 184, 194, 204Choi, 618Cholera, suffered by Indians, 280Cholo, 618Cholutec, 618Chonque, see Mosopelea.Chontal, 618See also Tequistlatec.Choptank, a subdivision of the Nanti-coke, 60Chopunnish, see Nez Perc6.Chorti, 618Choula, 185, 187Chouman, see Shuman."Chousa," see Sutaio.Chowan, 88Chowanoc, 77-78*disappearance of, 77treaty with English, 77"Christian Indians," see Munsee.Chuchures, 618Chucunaque, 618Chuj, 617, 618Chuje, see Chuj.Chu-mai-a, see Yuki.Chumash, 383, 484-487*, 490Chumulu, 618Church of England Missions, 573, 607Cibao, see Cahibo.Cibola, see Zuni.Ci-cta'-qwdt-me'ttlnng, see Umpqua.
INDEX 691Cicuj4, see Pecos.Ciguayo, see Hubabo.Cinaloa, 618Cintu-aluka, see Comanche.Circee, see Sarcee.Ciri^s, see Sarcee.Ci-sta'-q\vilt, see Umpqua.Ci-sta'-q\vut-me'tunn6', see Kuitsh.Civil War, 321Clackamas, 419, 457*, 459Clackstar, see Clatskanie.Clallam, 417, 419-420*at war with Chimakum, 417Clamcoets, see Karankawau Tribes.Classet, see Makah.Clatskanie, 458Clatsop, 425, 458*Clowwewalla, 458-459*apparently extinct, 459Club Indians, see Yuma.Coahuiltecan Tribes, 308, 309-312*. 321,618Coahuiltecan Tribes, list of, 309-311*Coahuilteco, 635Coamo, 611Coano, 618, 620See also Kohuana.Coaque, Karankawan tribe, 320Coast Yuki, See Yuki, Coast.Coca, 106, 616, 618Cochimi, 618, 625, 641Cocking, Matthew, 592Coco, see Coaque.Cocomacaque, 619, 631Cocomaricopa, see Maricopa.Coconino, see Havasupai.Cocopa, 349*, 350, 351, 354, 619Cocora, 619Cocoyome, 638Coeto, see Coto.Coeur d'Al^ne, see Skitswish.Cofitachequi, possibly Kasihta, 111, 165Cohpdp, see Maricopa.Coiba, 619Colapissas, see Acolapissa.Coligua, possibly a synonym of Koroa,187Colima, possibly a synonym of Koroa,187Colorado [State of], 370-372Apache, 370Arapaho, 370Bannock, 370Cheyenne, 370Comanche, 370Jicarilla, 370-372*Kiowa, 372Kiowa Apache, 372Navaho, 372Pueblos, 372Shoshoni, 372Ute, 372Colotlan, 619Columbia Indians, 420-421*, 429Colville, 400, 421-422*, 431, 440
Comanche, 285, 292, 295, 296, 299-300,312-314*, 319, 323, 330, 337, 370,372, 385, 386attacked Pecos, 337became citizens of United States, 300horses introduced to Indians by, 314placed on reservation, 314relations with Whites, 313-314Comanito, 619, 642Comecamotes, 619, 635Comecrudo, 619, 635Comeya, see Kamia.Comopori, 619, 621Comox, 552-553*Comstock Lode, effect on Indians, 410Concho, 614, 615, 617, 619, 620, 621,622, 624, 625, 627, 629, 632, 634,636, 638, 641Conejo, 619Conestoga, 40, 57, 58, 66, 70Meherrin adopted by, 62See also Susquehanna.Confederate Indians, see Iroquois.Congaree, 93joined Catawba, 93Conguaco, 619, 625, 641Conicari, 615, 619, 625Connecticut [State of], 29-33Mahican, 29Mohegan, 29-30*Niantic, Western, 30-31*Nipmuc, 31Pequot, 31-33*Wappinger, 33Conoy, 48, 57-59*, 61, 66, 74found by Captain John Smith andMaryland Colonists, 58migration of, 58Consumption, suffered by Indians, 573Cooc, 619, 622Cook, Captain [James], 539, 588Coosa, 93, 95, 96Coosawda, see Koasati.Copalis, 422*Copper Indians, see Tatsanottinc.Copper River Indians, see Ahtena.Coquille, see Mishikhwutmetunne.Lower, see Miluk.Upper, see Mishikhwutmetunne.Cora, 618, 631, 639, 640, 642Cora (1), 620, 622Cora (2), 620Coranine, see Coree.Cordova [Francis Hernandez de], ex-plorer, 126Coree, 78*, 81, 82, 86disappearance of, 78Corn eaters, see Arikara.Corobici, 620, 622Coronado, P>ancisco Vasquez de, 110,290, 294, 306, 329, 331, 333, 336,339, 343, 345, 347, 348, 352, 362.371Cosapuj-a, see Cusabo.Cosnino, see Havasupai.
692 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Costanoan, 487-488*Costanos, see Costanoan.Coste, see Koasati.Costehe, see Koasati.Goto, 620Coulapissas, see Acolapissa.Coupe-gorges, see Dakota.Coushatta, see Koasati.Couteaux Jaunes, see Tatsanottine.C6w-ang-a-chem, see Serrano.Coweta, 134 ftn., 166 'Cowichan, 553-554*, 585, 591, 600Cowichan of Fraser River, see Stalo.Cowlitz, 416, 422-423*, 426Cowlitz, Upper, 422See also Taidnapam.Coxe, Daniel, 173, 187, 232Coyamit, 619, 620Coyotes, see Oto.Craven, Governor [Charles], 115Cree, 254, 390, 551, 552, 554-556*, 569,570, 580, 581, 592, 593, 604Assiniboin allied with, 388, 555driven out by Chipewyan, 551Etchaottine driven out by, 551, 569migrations of, 390relations with fur traders, 655, 556Sekani raided by, 555, 594, 605wars with Dakota, 555Creek Confederacy, 104, 105, 106, 107,111, 113, 119, 142, 143, 156-157*,160, 165, 166, 170, 174, 299, 300,301, 307incorporated into State of Okla-homa, 167, 300Creek-American War, 122, 129, 131, 134,142, 143, 155, 160, 166, 168Creeks, 93, 96, 104, 105, 107-108*, 110,113, 114, 116, 118, 123, 129, 130,134, 136, 139, 145, 151, 157, 158,165, 166, 167, 169, 170, 179, 213,221, 227, 229, 300, 314joined by Natchez, 169, 190, 301joined by Osochi, 153, 169joined by Yamasee, 152, 174joined by Yuchi, 104, 118, 140, 152,307relations with colonists, 166See also Alabama, Chiaha, Hitchiti,Mikasukee, Muskogee, Oconee,Sawokli, Tawasa, and Yuchi.Creeks, Lower, 104, 105, 108, 111, 113,114, 115, 116, 118, 119, 124, 128,139, 156, 157, 166, 168, 169, 170See also Seminole.Creeks, Middle, 157Creeks, Upper, 116, 119, 142, 156, 157,158, 165, 166, 167, 174, 179, 227Croatan Indians, name erroneouslyapplied to Robeson County In-dians, 81possible indentification with theHatteras, 80remnants of Woccon united with, 90tribe so-called in North Carolina,101
Crow, 275, 295, 385, 386, 389, 390-391*,556, 573Grow River Kutchin, see Vunta-kutchin.Cruzados, see Yavapai.Gruzate, Spanish officer, 331Guabajd,i, see Serrano.Cuahcomeca, 620Cuba, 610-611Bani, 610Baracoa, 610Barajagua, 610Barbacoa, 610Bayamo, 610Bayaquitiri, 610Boyaca, 610Gamaguey, 610Gayaguayo, 610Cubanacan, 610Guciba, 610Guaimaro, 610Guamahaya, 610Guanacahibe, 610Guaniguanico, 610Hanamana, 610Havana, 610lagua, 610Macaca, 611Macorixe, 611Maguano, 611Maisi, 611Maiy6, 611Mangon, 611Maniabon, 611Marien, 611Ornofaj', 611Sabaneque, 611Sagua, 611Cubanacan, 610Guchan, see Yuma.Guciba, 610Cuercos quemados, 620, 635Guicatec, 620Cuitlatec, 620Cuming, Sir Alexander, 221Cuna, 615, 618, 620, 626, 633, 639Cupeiio, 488Gusabo, 94-96*, 98, 107, 108, 109, 110,111noted for relations with Whites, 96relations with English, 95Gushing, Frank Hamilton, 347, 348Gushook, see Clowwewalla.Custer [George A.], General, 283Custer massacre, 280, 283, 384Gutganas, see Kohuana.Guts-sdh-nem, see Yakima.Cut-throats, see Dakota.Guyuteca, 620Cwarennoc, see Coree.Dacdbimo, see Navaho.Da-da'-ze ni'-ka-ci?'-ga, see Paiute,Southern.Dakaz, see Takkuth-kutchin.Dakkadhfe, see Takkuth-kutchin.
INDEX 693Dakota, 192, 232, 250, 251, 259, 263,264, 265, 269, 274, 275, 280-284*,285, 286, 290, 295, 385, 386, 387,390, 391, 397, 545, 556Assiniboin separated from, 545Eastern, 283.joined by Cheyenne in Custer mas-sacre, 280Ottawa attacked by, 245uprising, 291wars with Cree, 555Western, 264, 283Dak'-ts!a*m-al-a?, see Klamath.Dak'-tsla'w-an-a'", see Klamath.Dakubetede, 459*, 488Dall, WiUiam H., 532, 540, 573Daparabopos, 620, 625Darazhazh, see Pawnee.d'Artaguiette, Diron, see Artaguiette,Diron d'.Da'sha-i, see Kadohadacho.DatsS-a?, see Comanche.DatQmpa'ta, see Kiowa.Davaxo, see Navaho.Davion, Father, Canadian missionary,193Dawson, George M., 573, 603Deadose, 197, 308, 314, 324Atakapa tribe, 314De Bry's map, 135De Crenay map, 175, 176, 192De-d'd. ten6, see Mishikhwutmetunne.Deguthee Dennee, see Takkuth-kutchin.Dekanawida, Iroquois chief, 39Delaware, 33, 42, 47, 48-55*, 57, 58, 59,60, 74, 91, 227, 228, 230, 235,237, 240, 269, 292, 298, 300, 301,326adoption of Wappinger, 47contact with Dutch, 54, 55contact with Swedes, 54joined Cherokee Nation, 223, 292,300relations with French, 54relations with Spanish, 54removal to reservations, 54, 237,292treaty with, at Greenville, 54, 237treaty with William Penn, 55use as scouts by Whites, 55Delaware, Lord, Governor of Virginia,48Delaware [State of], 57Delaware, 57Nanticoke, 57del Bosque, Fernando, explorer, 312Demers, Father, missionary, 550Desaguedero, 620, 628De Soto, Hernando, 76, 77, 95, 106, 107,111, 113, 115, 118, 120, 123, 124,128, 134, 135, 137, 138, 145, 150,151, 153, 154, 156, 158, 159, 160,165, 172, 176, 178, 180, 183, 187,189, 193, 201, 205, 207, 209, 212,213, 215, 221, 224, 225, 229, 315,316, 318, 325
Detseka'yaa, see Arapaho.de Vaca, Alvar Nufiez Cabeza, see NuiiezCabeza de Vaca, Alvar.De-w&-ka-nh&', see Chippewa.Dickenson, Jonathan, Quaker, 110, 121,131, 132Didii, 620, 640Diegueno, 353, 488-490*, 494, 498, 620,624Diggers, see Bannock and Paiute, Southern.Dihai-kutchin, 533*now extinct, 533Dfhit, see Ponca.Dilwishne, see Wiyot.Dil-zha, see Yavapai.Dil-zhay's, see Yuma.Dln^', see Navaho.Dirid, 618, 620, 626Dixon, Captain [George], explorer, 539,573, 588Djen6, see Navaho.Dobbs, Governor, 77Doegs, see Nanticoke.Dog Eaters, see Arapaho.Dog Indians, see Cheyenne.Dog People, see Mosopelea.Dog-Ribs, see Thlingchadinne.Do'gu'at, see Wichita.Do'kana, see Wichita.Doleguas, 621, 622Domingo Augustin, Jesuit missionary,110, 111Don Juan, Tacatacuru chief, 144Domay, Father Anastasius, 318Dorasque, 617, 621Dorsey, James O., 175, 258Douglas, Captain James, explorer, 539,542, 573Doustioni, member of NatchitochesConfederacy, 204Drake, Sir Francis, 478Drinkers of the Dew, see KeresanPueblos.Druilleyyes, French Missionary, 253Dshipowe-hdga, see Chippewa.Duckworth, Sir Thomas, 548Dudu, 621Dule, 617, 621Duncan, Rev. William, missionary, 543,607Durieu, Bishop, missionary, 593Dutch, contact with Delaware, 54, 55discovered Mahican, 41encounter with Susquehanna, 57guns sold to Indians by, 33, 39trade with Honniasont, 55war with Indians, (1640-45), 47Duwamish, 423*Duy, 621Dwa,-ka-n6?, see Chippewa.Dzltsi'stas, see Cheyenne.E-ar'-ke, see Hopi.Earring People, see Kalispel.Eastern Dakota, see Dakota.
694 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Eastern Niantic, see Niantic.Eastern Shawnee, see Shawnee.E-che-loot, see Wishram.Egija, Captain [Francisco Fernandez de],98, 99Eden, Governor [Charles], 76Edisto, 96Edii, 621, 640Eells, Myron, 420Eixarch, Tomds, 370Ekpimi, see Shasta.Eliot, John, missionary, 20Elk'ba'suniH, see Bellabella.Emejes, see Jemez.E-nagh-magh, see Tiwa Pueblos.England, territory ceded by France to,158English, 66at treaty of Greenville, 54encounter with Susquehanna, 57massacre by Indians under Ope-chancanough, 70, 71relations with Apalachee, 104relations with Chickasaw, 178, 180,196relations with Choctaw, 183, 184relations with Cusabo, 95relations with Sewee, 99treaty with Chowanoc, 77treaty with Iroquois, 70, 72treaty with Tuscarora, 83, 88war with Powhatan Indians, 70En-na-k'e, see Eskimo.En-na-k'i6, see Eskimo.Ennas, see Cree.Eno, 79*, 80, 83, 84, 96joined by Shakori, 84, 99joined Catawba, 79, 96, 99Entari ronnon, see Cherokee.E-nyae-va Pai, see Yavapai.E-pa, see Walapai.Epidemics, suffered by Indians, 26, 27,28, 91, 92, 137, 151, 276, 277, 280,308, 319, 327, 337, 397, 402, 413,425, 459, 532, 540, 542, 552, 578,591, 592, 602Equinipichas, see Acolapissa.firawika, see Kadohadacho.Erie, 33, 40, 48, 55, 230-231*, 235, 237destroyed by Iroquois, 231Erie Nation, 300Esbataottine, 594, 595Escalante, Fray Silvestre Velez de, 374,382Escoria, 621Eshkibod, see Eskimo.Eskiaeronnon, see Chippewa.Eskimo, 533, 539, 556-559*, 583relations with Whites, 568Espejo, Antonio de, 325, 333, 336, 339,343, 345, 348, 352, 368Esselen, tribe extinct, 490*Essequeta, see Kiowa Apache.Estevanico, Negro guide, 347Estrella, 621Eta, see Cree.
E-tah-leh, see Arapaho.E-tans-ke-pa-se-qua, see Assiniboin.Etchaottine, 551, 569-570*driven out by Cree, 551, 569Etechemin, possibly Passamaquoddy, 579See also Malecite.Etiwaw, see Cusabo.Etn6mitane, see Umpqua.Etocale, see Ocale.Etzamish, see Songish.Eucheeanna, 117Eudeve, 621, 629Eufaula, division of the Muskogee, 134,152, 157, 166fi-ukshik-ni milMaks, see Klamath.E-wu-ha'-wu-si, see Northern Shoshoni.Eyanini din6, see Hopi.Eyeish, 201, 212, 309, 314-315*, 316,318, 320joined Caddo Tribes, 315Fall Indians, see Atsina.Fall Indians, see Clowwewalla.Fallam and Batts, explorers, 73Fallatahs, see Atfalati.Farfan de los Godos, Marcos, 366, 368Fernandeno, 490*, 491, 507practically extinct, 490Fernando, Kamia chief, 494Finley, James, explorer, 594Fire Nation, see Potawatomi.Five Nations, see Iroquois.Flancs-de-Chien, see Thlingchadinne.Flatbows, see Lower Kutenai.Flathead Reservation, 391Flatheads, see Chinook, Choctaw, Salish,Waxhaw.Fletcher, Miss Alice, 286, 287Florencia, Spanish officer, 128Florida [State of], 120-153Acuera, 120*Aguacaleyquen, 120Ais, 121-122*Alabama, 122Amacano, 122Amacapiras, 122Apalachee, 122-125*Apalachicola, 125Calusa, 125-128*Caparaz, 128Chatot, 128-129*Chiaha, 129Chilucan, 129Chine, 129Creeks, 130Fresh Water Indians, 130-131*Guacata, 131*Guale, 131Hitchiti, 131-132Icafui, 132*Jeaga, 132-133*Koasati, 133Macapiras, or Amacapiras, 133Mikasuki, 133-134*M0C050 or Mucogo, 134*Muklasa, 134
INDEX 695Florida [State of]?ContinuedMuskogee, 134Ocale or Etocale, 134-135*Ocita, 135Oconee, 135Onatheaqua, 135Osochi, 135Pawokti, 135-136*Pensacola, 136-137*Pohoy, Pooy or Posoy, 137*Potano, 137-138*Saturiwa, 138-139*Sawokli, 139Seminole, 139-143*Surruque, 143*Tacatacuru, 144*Tawasa, 144-145*Tekesta or Tequesta, 145-146*Ucita, 146Utina, or Timucua, 146-151*Tocobaga, 146*, 150, 151Yamasee, 152Yuchi, 152Yufera, 152Yui, 152-153*Yustaga, 153*Fon du Lac Loucheux, see Tatlitkutchin.Fontaine, Huguenot explorer, 73Fontaneda, Hernando de Escalante.121, 125, 127, 131, 132, 135, 145Fort Indians, see Kutcha-kutchin.Foxes, 225, 240, 242, 243, 250-252*, 253,254, 256, 257, 264, 265, 269, 270,285, 291, 292, 298, 300, 302migrations of, 265origin of name, 250relations with French, 251France, territory ceded to England, 158Franciscan Friars, 95, 110, 132, 138,151, 196, 197, 478Franciscan Missions, 352Francisco of Chicora, Indian informant,84, 99, 100, 103, 115Franquelin, Johannes Ludovicus, 265Franklin, Sir John, 593Eraser, Simon, 550, 578, 590, 594, 596,600Freckled Panis, see Wichita.French, encounter with Susquehanna, 57relations with Chickasaw, 178relations with Choctaw, 176, 183,185, 189relations with Delaware, 54relations with Foxes, 251relations with Natchez, 189, 190,204-205relations with Quapaw, 214relations with Saturiwa, 139relations with Tacatacuru, 144relations with Taensa, 209relations with Tunica, 193, 194French and Indian War, 583French missionaries, 251French Prairie Indians, see Ahantchu-yuk.
French-English Wars, 40, 227Fresh Water Indians, 130-131Frobisher, [Martin], explorer, 568Fuca, Juan de, Greek navigator, 413,553, 588, 597, 600Fuentes, explorer, 576, 588Fur trade, effect on Indians, 583relation to Cree, 555, 556Fus-hatchee, division of the Muskogee,157Gabrielino, 490-491*, 498, 507practically extinct, 491Gadsden Purchase, 349, 363, 370Gahe'wa, see Kiowa.Gaitchim, see Juaneflo.Galasq'6, see Wasco.Galice Creek Indians, see Taltushtun-tude.Galisteo, 337, 344Gallegos, Baltazar de, Spanish oflBcer,120Galvez, 198Ganawese, see Coney.Ganniataratich-rone, see Nanticoke.Ga-qua'-ga-o-no, see Erie.Garabito, 621, 622Garc6s, Francisco, missionary, 349, 350,351, 354, 356, 357, 363, 366, 368,370, 517Garcfa de San Francisco, Fray, mission-ary, 334Garcilaso de la Vega, De Soto chroni-cler, 154, 155Garroteros, see Yuma.Gdta'ka, see Kiowa Apache.Gatsalghi, see Cheyenne.Gatschet, Albert S., 160, 175, 194, 196,198, 202, 203, 308, 312, 321, 466Gattacka, see Kiowa Apache.Geghdageghroano, see Illinois.Gemes, see Jemez.Genigueches, see Serrano.Gens de bois, see Tutchone.Gens de Bouleaux, see Tennuth-kutchin.Gens de la Grande Riviere, see Na-kotcho-kutchin.Gens de Rats, see Takkuth-kutchin,Gens des Foux, see Tutchone.Gens des Rats, see Vunta-kutchin.Gens des Vaches, see Arapaho.Gens du fond du lac, see Tatlit-kutchin.Gens du Large, see Natsit-kutchin.Gens du Petun, see Tionontati.Gens du Serpent, see Shoshoni, Northern.Gentlemen Indians, see Waco.Georgia [State of], 104-120Apalachee, 104Apalachicola, 104-105*Chatot, 105Cherokee, 105Chiaha, 105-107*Chickasaw, 107Creeks, 107-108Guale, 108-111*Hitchiti, 111*
696 IBUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Georgia [State of]?ContinuedKasihta, 111Oconee, 112*Okmulgee, 112-113*Osochi, 113Sawokli, 113Shawnee, 113Tamathli, 113-114*Timucua, 114Yamasee, 114-116*Yuchi, 116-120*Ghecham, see Luiseno.Ghost Dance religion, cause of Dakotauprising, 283, 284, 319Gi-aucth-in-in-e-wug, see Hidatsa.Gibbs, George, 402, 419, 422, 426, 442,458Gikidanum, see Serrano.Gila'qlulawas, see Kwalhioqua.GiLa'wewalamt, see Clowwewalla.Gila'xicatck, see Watlala.Gillamooks, see Tillamook.GIna's, see Kiowa Apache.Ginebigonini, see Shoshoni, Northern.Gitanemuk, see Serrano.Gita'qiemas, see Clackamas.Gfts'ajl, see Kichai.Gocoyome, 621Goddard, Pliny Earle, 605Gohun, see Yavapai.Gold, discovery of, 478, 536, 537, 585,602Gonana, see Nahane.Gorretas, see Manso.Gosiute, 372-373, 375Gosnold, [Bartholomew], explorer, 26Gotane, 621Gourgues, [Dominique] de, French com-mander, 139, 144Grand River, Ute band, 374Grant, Col. James, 222Grashoffer, Father Juan Bautista, 363Grasshopper Indians, see Ute.Gravier, J., 186, 195, 200Great Osage, see Osage.Greek Church, effect on natives, 532Green Wood Indians, see Nez Ferc6.Greenville, treaty with Delaware, 54treaty with English, 54Greenwood, Old, 380Gregorief, explorer, 530Grigra, adopted by Natchez, 185*, 189Gros Ventres, see Atsina, Hidatsa.Gros Ventres de la Rivifere, see Hidatsa.Gros Ventres des Plaines, see Atsina.Gros Ventres of the Plains, see Atsina.Guacata, 121, 131*disappearance of, 131Guacaya, see Waccamaw.Guaccaiarima, 609*Guachichile, 621, 623Guaes, see Kansa.Guaimaro, 610Gualaca, 621
Guale, 94, 108-111*, 116, 123, 131, 144,150, 165joined Yamasee, 110, 115 jkrelations with Spaniards, 165 ^Gualiba, see Walapai.Guamahaya, 610Guamichicorama, 619, 621Guanacahibes, 609, 610Guanexico, 621, 640Guanica, 611Guaniguanico, 610Guapo, see Wappo.Guarco, 621, 622Guarionex, 611Guasdmas, see Cathlamet.Guasapar, 621Guasave, 614, 619, 621, 640Guasco, 315Guatari, see Wateree.Guatijigua, 622, 625Guatinicamame, 622Guatuso, 620, 622, 640Guaxiquero, 622, 625Guaygata, 611Guayma, 622 634Guaymi, 621, 622, 628, 631Guelasiguicme, 619, 622Guerriers de pierre, see Assiniboin.Guetare, 619, 621, 622, 630, 639Gueza, 102Guiaquita, 619, 622Guichita, see Wichita.Guichyana, see Yuma.Guisoletes, 635Guithla'kimas, see Clackamas.Guithlamethl, see Cathlamet.Guixolotes, 622GA'ta'k, see Kiowa Apache.Guyandot, see Wyandot.Gyai'-ko, see Comanche.Gyitkshan, see Kitksan.Haaninin, see Atsina.Hahatonwan, see Chippewa.Hahatonway, see Chippewa.Hahderuka, see Crow.Hai-ai'-nlma, see Sanpoil.Haida, 533, 540, 570-573*noted for their arts, 573, 607Haideroka, see Crow.Haf'luntchi, see Cayuse.Hainai, 315Hdish, see Eyeish.Haiti, 608-610Bainoa, 608Cahibo or Cibao, 608-609Caizcimu, 609Guaccaiarima, 609Hubabo (or Ciguayo), 609-610Maguana, 610Marien, 610Halchidhoma, 349-350*, 354, 369, 492absorbed by Maricopa, 350Hale, Horatio, 426Halk5me'lem, see Stalo.
INDEX 697H^-lum-mi, see Lummi.Halyikwamai, 350-351*. 353, 622, 624Ha-ma-kaba-mitc kwa-dig, see Apache.Han, 533*, 608See also Atakapa.Hanakwiche, see Serrano.Hanamana, 610Hand Cutters, see Dakota.Hanging Ears, see Kalispel.Hanis, 459*, 463Hanna, Captain, 588Hano, member of Tewa Pueblos, 340,344, 353Hanyuveche, see Serrano.Hapeka, see Hopi.Harahey, see Pawnee.Har-dil-zhays, see Yavapai.Hare Indians, see Kawchottine.Harney, Colonel, 127.Harrington, John P., 493Harrison, Gen. W. H., 228, 240Hasinai, 316, 317, 318, 319, 320, 326Hasinai Confederacy, 201, 205, 206,212, 307, 309,"314, 315-317,* 323Hat Creek Indians, see Atsugewi.Hathawekela, see Shawnee.Hati'hshi'ru'nil, see Winnebago.Hatilsh^, see Yuma.HatindiaSointen, see Wyandot.Hatiwa?ta-runh, see Neutrals.Hatteras, 80, 81Havana, 610Havasupai, 351*, 366Hawdlapai, see Walapai.Hawkins, Benjamin, 114, 132, 169Haynokes, see Eno.'H'-doum-dei-kiH, see Kadohadacho.Head deformation, practiced by Indians,102, 185Hearne, Samuel, explorer, 568He'iltsuq, see Bellabella.Heintzelman, Major S. P., 349, 494Hencock, Tuscarora chief, 86, 87Henley, Thomas A., 517Henne'sh, see Choctaw.Henry, Alexander, 593Hewaktokto, see Hidatsa.Hewitt, J. N. B., 605Hiawatha, Iroquois chief, 39, 40Hiawatha, poem by Longfellow, 264Hich'hu, see Hupa.Hidatsa, 274, 275-276*, 277, 281, 387,390, 391, 573citizens of United States, 276Hfgabu, see Kickapoo.Higgahaldahu, see Tillamook.Hikanagi, see Mahican.Hilibi, division of the Muskogee, 157Hilton, Captain William, 75Himeri, 622Hindsso, see Wichita.Hine, 622, 641HiokQo'k, see Pecos.His-tu-i'-ta-ni-o, see Atsina.Hitanwo'Iv, see Arapaho.Hitasi'na, see Cheyenne.
Hitchcock, General E. A., 143Hitchiti, 104, 106, 111*, 112, 117, 122,130, 131-132, 133, 142, 157, 300member of Creek Confederacy, 300,301migrations of, 131-132Hitchiti language, 104, 113, 114, 131,144, 154Hitchiti-speaking people, 131, 132, 133139, 165Hitiingna, see Atsina.H'iwana, see Apache.H'lilush, see Tututni.Hoctatas, see Oto.Hodge, F. W., 339Hoeras, 622, 625Hogftpa'goni, see Southern Paiute.Hogiopas, see Cocopa.Hogologe, see Yuchi.Hoh, 417, 424*, 435Hohe, see Assiniboin.Holt, trader, 530Ho'-ma?-ha.?, see Omaha.Ho-ni'-i-taiii-o, see Pawnee,Honniasont, 55*, 74, 231destroyed by Susquehanna, 55joined Iroquois, 231trade with Dutch, 55Hook, 103Hopi, 340, 344, 346, 348, 351-353*famous for Snake Dance, 353relations with Spaniards, 353H6pitu, see Hopi.H6pitu-shlnumu, see Hopi.Hopohithli-yahola, Muskogee chief, 168Hostaqua, 135, 151Hotanka, see Winnebago.Hotcangara, see Winnebago.Hotl'nestako"', see Sauk.Houechas, see W^aco.Houma, 176, 185-186*, 193, 196, 199,200, 204, 207joined by Acolapissa, 196, 200joined by Bayogoula, 200migrations of, 186, 204Hounena, see Crow.Housatonic, see Stockbridges.Houston, Gen. Sam, 223How-mox-tox-sow-es, see Mandan.Hoxsiiwitan, see Wichita.Hua'amu'u, see Navaho.Huanchan6, see Waco.Huastec, 622Huave, 622Huaynamota, 620, 622Hubabo, 609-610*Huchnom, 492*, 527Hudson, Henry, discovered Wappinger,47Hudson's Bay Company, relations withIndians, 537, 542, 546, 550, 551,553, 555, 556, 569, 573, 576, 584,685, 591, 596, 597, 600, 604, 605,607Hue-la-muh, see Stalo.
698 BUREAU OF AMERICAiSr ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Huereo, 611Hughchee, see Yuchi.Huguenot colony, 95, 109, 138, 153destruction of bj' Spaniards, 95Huichol, 621, 623, 636Huite, 623, 629Hukwats, see Yuma.Humacao, 611Hum-a-luh, see Skagit.Hum-a-luh, see Stalo.Humano, see Shuman.Humboldt Bay Indians, see WiyotHume (1), 617, 623Hume (2), 623, 641Humptulips, 415, 416, 422, 424*Hunt, George, 21, 577Hunter, George, map of Cherokeecountry, 97Hupa, 483, 492-493*Huron, 33, 40, 43, 44, 48, 54, 233, 235,236, 245, 573, 604, 605attacked by Iroquois, 235, 245, 605joined by Ottawa, 245joined by Tionontati, 605iSee also Wyandot.Hiisky, see Eskimo.Hu-ta'-ci, see Lipan.Hutanga, see Kansa.Hu-iimui, see Omaha.Hiixul, see Lipan.Hyscani, see Yscani.lagua, 610liita-go, see Ute.Ibaja, see Guale.Iberville, Pierre le Moyne d', 160, 168,171, 172, 175, 186, 187, 189, 191,192, 196, 199, 200, 203, 208, 209,210, 211, 232, 267, 290Ibitoupa, 177, 185, 186-187*Icafui, 132*Icaiche, 626Icasqui, see Kaskinampo.Idaho [State of], 398-412Bannock, 398-399*Kalispel, 399-400*Kutenai, 400Nez Perc6, 400-403*Paiute, Northern, 403Paloos, 403Salish or Flathead, 403Shoshoni, Northern, 403-405*Shoshoni, Western, 405-410*Skitswish, 411-412*Snakes, see Paiute, Northern.Spokan, 412letan, see Ute.Igihua'-a, see Apache.Iguaja, see Guale.I'hl-den6, see Navaho.Ika, 623, 640.I'-ka-dfi', see Kickapoo.Ikanafaskalgi, see Seminole.Ikaniuksalgi, see Seminole.Ik-kil-lin, see Kutcha-kutchin.Ila'xluit, see Wishram.
Ilga't, see Chehalis.lUinois, 212, 213, 230, 231, 235, 237, 240,241-242*, 243, 252, 254, 258, 265,269, 292, 297, 300, 301destruction of, 243, 249, 253, 256Illinois [State of], 240-243Chippewa, 240Delaware, 240Foxes, 240Illinois, 241-242*Kickapoo, 242Miami, 243Ottawa, 243Potawatomi, 243Sauk, 243Shawnee, 243Winnebago, 243Wyandot, 243Ima, see Quapaw.Imaha, see Quapaw.Immorality, effects on Indians, 573I'-na-cpg, see Nez Perc6.Indd, see Comanche.Inde, see Apache.Indiana [State of], 236-240Chippewa, 236Delaware, 237Erie, 237lUinois, 237Iroquois, 237Kickapoo, 237Mesopelea, 240Miami, 237-240*Neutrals, 240Potawatomi, 240Seneca, 240Shawnee, 240Wyandot, 240Ingalik, 533-534*Ingraham, explorer, 573Ing-we-pi'-ra"-di-vi-he-ma?, see Kere-san Pueblos.Innuin, see Eskimo.Innuit, see Eskimo.Inocoples, 623, 635Interior Salish, see Salish.Intibucat, 623, 625Intsi Dindjich, see Ahtena.Inuna-ina, see Arapaho.In^aVape, see Yavapai.Iowa [State of], 265-269Chippewa, 265Dakota, 265Foxes, 265Illinois, 265Iowa, 265-268*Missouri, 268Moingwena, 268Omaha, 268Oto, 268Ottawa, 268Peoria, 268Ponca, 268Potawatomi, 268Sauk, 269Winnebago, 269
INDEX 699Iowa, 252, 258, 264, 265*, 269, 270,285, 287, 28S, 291, 292-293, 300migrations of, 267Ipapana, 623, 638Ipataragiiites, see Shuman.Ipoilq, see Sanpoil.Iroquois, 33-40*, 42, 43, 44, 47, 54, 56,57, 58, 60, 62, 66, 70, 72, 73, 76,87, 91, 168, 230, 231, 233, 237,240, 242, 252, 293, 300, 544, 545,574, 583, 596armed by Dutch, 33, 39attacked Huron, 235, 245, 605attacked Ottawa, 245, 256became citizens of United States,300conquest of Susquehanna by, 57Erie destroyed by, 231governmental organization of, 40joined by Honniasont, 231joined by Tuscarora, 44, 57, 87, 88,300migrations of, 40removal to reservations, 40treaty with Catawba, 91treaty with English, 70, 72Wvandot destroyed by, 236, 250,259Iroquois Confederacy, 78, 574, 586Iroquois Nation, 57Irritila, 623, 625Isashbahdtsg, see Sarcee.Ish-te-pit'-e, see Siksika.Isis, 307Isle-de-Pierre, see Sinkiuse-Columbia.Isleta del Sur, see Pueblos.Isonkuaili, see Okanagon.I-sonsh'-pu-she, see Cheyenne.Issa, see Catawba,Issippo', see Crow.Isti seminole, see Seminole.Iswa, see Catawba.Ita ha'tski, see Dakota.Ita-Iddi, see Arapaho.Italwa lako, see Apalachicola.Itasi'na, see Cheyenne.I-ta-su-pu-zi, see Cheyenne.Itchali, see Kutcha-kutchin.Ithal6 tQni, see Mishikhwutmetunne.It-ka-lya-ruin, see Kutcha-kutchin.Itkpe'lit, see Kutcha-kutchin.Itku'dliiS, see Kutcha-kutchin.I tsi sf pi 6a, see Siksika.Itza, 623, 626Itzuco, 623I'-um O'-otam, see Kamia.Ivap'i, see Karok.Ixcani, see Yscani.Ixcatec, 623Ixil, 623, 640lyich, see Tyigh.lyiniwok, see Cree.Izalco, 623Iztepeque, 623
Jacaltoc, 618, 623, 628, 634Jackson, Andrew, 133, 142, 166Jaguallapai, see Walapai.Jallicumay, see Halyikwamai.Jamaica, 611Aguacadiba, 611Arneyao, 611Anaya, 611Guaygata, 611Huereo, 611Maynoa, 611Oristan, 611Vaquabo, 611Jamajabs, see Mohave.Janambre, 623, 632Jano, 325, 624Jarosom.a, see Apache.Jeaga, 121, 132-133*Jece, see Ais.Jefferson, Thomas, report on Indians, 71Jefferys, Thomas, 80Jemez, 330-332*, 340, 344joined by Pecos, 332, 337relations with Spanish, 331Jenness, Diamond, 551, 555, 568, 592,593, 594, 601Jesuits, missions established by, 58, 70,110, 236, 605Jewett, John, 588Jicaque, 624Jicarilla, 293, 300, 307, 317, 322, 330,332, 370-372*relations with Spaniards, 371removed to reservation, 371-372See also Apache.Jocome, 325, 624Joliet [Louis], explorer, 224Joshua, see Tututni,Joso, see Hopi.Joutel, Henri, 318Jova, 024Juaneno, 494*, 498Julime, 619, 624Jumano, 624, 634See also Shuman.Jumpers, see Chippewa.Jum-pys, see Yavapai.Juni, see Zuni.Kabo, 624Kiidiko, see Tonkawan Tribes.Kadohadacho, 205, 206, 208, 317migrations of, 318-319Kadohadacho Confederacy, 201, 205.212, 309, 314, 315, 316, 317-320=*Kai Porno, see Kato.Kaibab, 383Kaigani, see Haida.Kaispa, see Dakota.Kait-ka, see Calatjooya,Kaiviat-am, see Serrano.Ka-ka-i-thi, see Salish.Ka-ko'-is-tsi'-a-ta'-ni-o, see Salish.Kak'-wits, see Wailaki.Kaladlit, see Eskimo.Kalapooian people, 452
700 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuU. 145Kalispel, 391, 399-400* 411, 424Lower, 400Ka-16X-la'-tce, see K^dohadacho.Kalu-xnd,dshu, see Kadohadacho.Kamaiakan, Yakima chief, 451Kamia, 488, 490, 494-495*, 624Kamiyahi, see Kamia.Kamiyai, see Diegueno, Kamia.Kamti'inu, see Nez Perc6.Ka'-nan-in, see Arikara.Kanawha, see Conoy.Ka'neaheS,wastsIk, see Cheyenne.Kangitoka, see Crow.Kan-hatki, division of the Muskogee,157Ka'nfna, see Havasupai.Kaninahoish, see Arapaho.Kanit', see Mandan.Kan'ka", see Ponca.Kank.'utla'atlam, see Okanagon.Kansa, 213, 270, 271, 286, 291, 293-294*,300removed to reservation, 300.Kansas, 286, 288Kansas [State of], 292-298Apache, 292Arapaho, 292Cherokee, 292Cheyenne, 292Chippewa, 292Comanche, 292Delaware, 292Foxes, 292Illinois, 292Iowa, 292-293Iroquois, 293Jicarilla, 293Kansa, 293-294*Kickapoo, 294Kiowa, 294-296*Kiowa Apache, 296-297*Miami, 297Missouri, 297Munsee, 297Osage, 297Oto, 297Ottawa, 297Pawnee, 297Potawatomi, 297-298Quapaw, 298Sauk, 298Seneca, 298Shawnee, 298Wyandot, 298Kantcati, 155Kantsi, see Kiowa Apache.K'd-patop, see Kiowa Apache.Karankawa, 308, 635Karankawan Tribes, 308, 309, 320-321*Karawala, 630Kariko, see Tonkawan Tribes.Karok, 495-496*Kasahd un<i?, see Chickasaw.Kasihta, division of Muskogee, 111, 118Kaska, 606Kaskaias, see Kiowa Apache.
Kaskaskia, 242, 300joined by Michigamea, 212Kaskinampo, 158, 212, 224-225*disappearance of, 225Kasseye'i, see Kadohadacho.Katce, see Siksika.Kathlamet, see Cathlamet.Katlagakya, see Watlala.Kato, 496*Kattera, see Tutelo.Katuku, see Chastacosta.Kaw, see Kansa.Kawaiisu, 496*, 517Kawchottine, 569, 574*Kawia, 357See also Cahuilla.Ka-wi-'na-han, see Siksika.Ka'-xi, see Crow.K?op-tagui, see Jicarilla.K'^u-qwic'tilnnS, see Siuslaw.Kealedji, division of the Muskogee, 157Ke-at, see Koso.Kebiks, see Montagnais-Naskapi.Keew-ahomomy, see Tuscarora.Kekchi, 624Keller, Padre Ignacio Javier, 363Kenake'n, see Okanagon.Kenistenoag, see Cree.Kentucky [State of], 229-230Cherokee, 229Chickasaw, 229Mosopelea, 230Shawnee, 230Yuchi, 230K'eres, see Keresan Pueblos.Keresan Pueblos, 332-334*, 340origin myth, 333Kerl6rec, Chevalier de, 160, 172Kern River Indians, see Tiibatulabal.Ketschetnaer, see Ahtena.Kettle Falls Indians, see Colville.Keyauwee, 66, 76, 77, 79, 80-81*, 96discovered by Lawson, 80probably joined Catawba, 81, 96Khecham, see Luiseno.Khoso, see Hopi.Kiawa, 96, 107Kichai, 300, 306, 321-322*joined Wichita, 322Ki'-i4i-ku'-jiuc, see Wichita.Ki-^i'-tcac, see Kichai.Kickapoo, 225, 231, 237, 238, 242, 243,250, 252-254*, 256, 269, 294, 301Mexican, 253, 301Kidder, Dr. A. V., archeologist, 337Kighetawkigh Roanu, see Illinois.Kihnatsa, see Crow.Kij, see Gabrielino.Kikima, see Halyikwamai.Kikitamkar, see Kitanemuk.Kikitanum, see Kitanemuk.Kiliwa, 488, 624Kiliwi, see Kiliwa, 624Kilat, see Tsimshian.Kilgat, see Tsimshian.Killamook, see Tillamook.
INDEX 701Killaxthokl, 418K'inahi-pfako, see Tonkawan Tribes.Kinebikovvininiwak, see Northern Sho-shoni.King Gilbert, Cusabo chief, 96King Haigler, Catawba chief, 91, 92King John, Cape Fear Indian chief, 75King Philip, see Metacomet.King Philip's War (1675-76), 18, 21,23, 24, 26, 28, 29, 30Kinipissa, see Acolapissa.Kino, Father Eusebius, missionary, 350,354, 356, 359, 362, 365, 370Kintpuash, Modoc chief, 465Kinva-inde, see Jicarilla.Kiowa, 279, 284, 286, 294-296*, 301,314, 322, 325, 330, 334, 339, 372,385, 386, 391, 392Kiowa Apache, 295, 296-297*, 301, 330,334, 372, 387, 593accompanied Kiowa, 372See also Apache.Kirikiris, see Wichita.Kirikurus, see Wichita.Kiruhikwak, see Yurok.Kishakevira, see Hupa.Klsinahls, see Kiowa Apache.Kispokotha, Shawnee band, 228Kitanemuk, 480, 496-497*, 517Ki'-tchesh, see Kichai.Kitikitish, see Wichita.Kitksan, 574-575*Kitsei, see Kichai.Kiwahka, 624Kiw6gapaw?, see Kickapoo.Kizh, see Gabrielino.Kkpayttchare ottine, see Kawchottine.Klamath, 452, 459-461*, 464, 465Klatskanai, see Clatskanie.Klickitat, 424-425*, 446settled with Yakima, 425Klimoflfsky, explorer, 530Klo-a-tsul-tshik', see Tutchone.Klov^n-Kuttchin, see Takkuth-kutchin.Knaiakhotana, see Aleut, Tanaina.Knife Indians, see Ntlakyapamuk.Koasati, 133, 134, 155, 157-159*, 168,187, 204, 224, 225, 301, 322joined Seminoles, 133, 158migrations of, 204, 301Koasati language, 154, 160K'odalpa-Kinago, see Dakota.Kohdtk, see Quahatika,Kohenins, see Yavapai.Kohnana, 624Kohoaldje, see Paiute, Southern,Kohuana, 350, 351, 353-354*merged with Maricopa, 354Kokokiwak, see Crow.Kokonino, see Havasupai.K'ok'-o-ro-t'a'-yu, see Pecos.Kolapissas, see Acolapissa.Kolomi, division of the Muskogee, 159Kolshina, see Ahtena.Koluschan, see Tlingit.Kom'-bo, see Yana.
Komkom^, see Tonkawan Tribes.Ko'm-maidiim, see Achomawi.Ko'mpabi'anta, see Kiowa.Komsdka-Ki'nahyup, see Arapaho.Ko-mun'-i-tup'-i-o, see Nez Perc6.Konkon^, see Tonkawan Tribes.Konomihu, 497*Kopano, Karankawan tribe, 321Koroa, 187-188*, 192, 194, 195, 204, 232Kosho, see Hopi.Koso, 375, 497* 517K'o-so-o, see Hopi.Ko-toh'-spi-tup'-i-o, see Salish.Koyukon, 534-536*attack on Russians by, 536Koyukukhotana, 529See also Koyukon.K'qlo-qwec ttinnC, see Siuslaw.Kristinaux, see Cree.Kroeber, Alfred L., 348, 350, 366, 478Ku, 624, 635Kiiikni, see Molala.Kuitare-i, see Pawnee.Kuitsh, 461-462*Kukalaya, 625Kukuth-kutchin, see Takkuth-kutchin.Kukwil', see Mishikhwutmetunne.Kul-hal-atsl, see Kadohadacho.Ktl-lis'-kitc hltc'ltlm, see Taltushtun-tude.Kiilua, see Koroa.Kdn, see Yuma.Ktlnis'unng, see Alsea.Kun na-nar-wesh, see Arapaho.Kunu-hdyanu, see Potawatomi.Kus, see Miluk.Kusan Tribes, 452Kiispglu, see Kutenai.Kiitaki, see Chippewa.Kutcha-kutchin, 536-537*Kutchin, 575Kutchin, Yukon Flats, see Kutcha-kutchin.Kutchin tribes, 533, 536, 537, 538, 539,543, 585, 602noted for social organization, 537Kutenai, 391*, 392-393, 398, 400, 575Lower, 392Upper, 393Ku-A'sha, see Muskogee.Kuvahaivima, see Serrano.Ku-we-v6-ka pai-ya, see Yavapai.Kwaiailk 426*Kwakiutl, 545, 548, 575-577*, 587, 593Kwalhioqua, 426*, 458Kwalhioqua, Athapascan, 413Kwe-net-che-chat, see Makah.Kwe'tEla, see Tsimshian.Kwillu'chini, see Cathlamet.Kwitc^dn", see Yuma.Kwoshonipu, see Chimariko.Kwowahtewug, see Mandan.Kwii'da, see Kiowa.Kwu-teh-ni, see Kwaiailk.Kyaukw, see Tillamook.Kyu'-kQtc hitcltlm, see Takelma.
702 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145La Flesche, Dr. Francis, 272, 287La Harpe, Bernard de, 185, 186, 193,196, 198, 199, 202, 206, 207, 304,306, 318, 319La P6rouse, explorer, 542, 573La Plais, see Connanche.La Purificacion Mission de la Tama, 113La Purfsima de Zuni, see Zuni.La Salle [Sieur de], murder of, 316, 317, 318La Salle, Nicholas, 118, 186, 188, 189,192, 195, 207, 208, 209, 210, 214,242, 279, 288, 296, 315, 316, 320,321Lacandon, 625, 626Lagoons, see Tolowa.Lagunero, 614, 616, 620, 622, 623, 625,627, 629, 630, 640, 641Lake Indians, see Senijextee.Lakmiut, see Luckiamute.Lakota, see Dakota.Lakus, 625, 635Lakweip, 606La-la-cas, see Modoc.Laleshiknom, see Kato.Lameco, see Chiaha.Lamhatty, Tawasa Indian informer, 145Lane, Joseph, 442, 472Lanos, see Manso.Lapiene's House Indians, see Takkuth-kutchin.Lari, 625La'-ri'hta, see Comanche.Lar-ti-e-lo, see Spokan.Lassik, 498*, 507, 515Last6chkin, explorer, 530Latgawa, 462*, 469Ldti-u, see Molala.Laudonniere, Reng, French writer, 120,135Lawson, John, explorer, 66, 72, 73, 74,78, 79, 80, 83, 84, 86, 88, 89, 90,93, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102execution of, 86Laymon, 618, 625Leapers, see Chippewa.L^CLe'cuks, see Spokan.Lederer, John, explorer, 64, 65, 72, 76,79, 84, 91, 101, 102, 118Lemhi Reservation, 399, 404Le Moyne, Jacques, 135, 143Lenca, 617, 619, 622, 624, 625, 630, 634Lenni Lenape, see Delaware.Leon, Ponce de, explorer, 126, 127, 131,150, 312, 320Le Page du Pratz, Antoine S., 187, 188,191, 192, 195, 199, 207, 210, 214Leroux, Joseph, 351, 357, 370Le Sueur [Pierre Charles], 264, 288Lewis, Meriwether, and Clark, \ym.,394, 400, 402, 404, 405, 412, 413,414, 418, 422, 425, 428, 433, 434,436, 442, 444, 447, 449, 450, 451,455, 457, 458, 459, 467, 471, 472,476I^wis, Prof. T. M. N., 117Lhtaten, see Sekani.
Lihit', see Ponca.Lillooet, 577-578*, 593Lower, 577, 578Upper, 578Lintcanre, see Thlingchadinne.Lipan, 296, 301, 307, 322-323*, 330, 334See also Apache.Liquor, effects on Indians, 573Little Crow, Dakota chief, 283Little Osage, see Osage.Little Taensa, see Avoyel.Little Turtle, Miami chief, 240Lku'ngEn, see Songish.Loaiza, 611Lohim, 462*disappearance of, 462Long Tom Creek Indians, see Chelamela.Longfellow, H. W., poem by, 264Long-haired Indians, see Crow,Lopas, see Tolowa.Loreto, 625Los Angeles, see Pecos.Los Mecos, see Comanche.Ix)ucheux, see Nakotcho-kutchin.Louchieux Proper, see Takkuth-kutchin.Louisiana [State of], 195-212Acolapissa, 195-196*Adai, 196-197*Alabama, 197Apalachee, 197Atakapa, 197-199*Avoyel, 199-200*Bayogoula, 200-201*Biloxi, 201Caddo, 201Chatot, 201Chawasha, 201-202*Chitimacha, 202-204*Choctaw, 204Doustioni, 204Houma, 204Koasati, 204Koroa, 204Mugulasha, 204Muskogee, 204Natchez, 204-205Natchitoches Confederacy, 205-207*Ofo, 207Okelousa, 207*Opelousa, 207-208*Ouachita, 208Pascagoula, 208Quapaw, 208Quinipissa, 208-209*Souchitioni, see Natchez Confed*eracv.Taensa, 209-210*Tangipahoa, 210-211*Tawasa, 211Washa, 211-212*Yatasi, 212Loup, see Delaware.Loups, see Mahican.Lower Rogue River Indians, see Tututni.Lowland People, see Kutcha-kutchin.Ltsxe'als, see Nisqually.
INDEX 703Lucayans, 611Luckamiut, 456Luckiamute, 463*Liiiseno, 498-499*L(ik'-a-tatt, see Klickitat.Liikatimii'x, see Xtlakyapamuk.Lummi, 427*, 437.Luna, Tristan de, 136, 150, 165, 168,172, 195Lutmdwi, see Madoc.Lutuami, see Madoc.Maastoetsjkwe, see Hopi.Mabila, see Mobile.Mabodamaca, 611Ma-buc-sho-roch-pan-ga, see Shoshoni,Northern.Macaca, 611Macapiras, 122, 133, 152Machapunsa, 62, 73, 74, 78, 80, 81*,86, 88Secotan adopted by, 81Machias Tribe, see Passamaquoddy.Macintosh, William, death of, 166Mackenzie, Alexander, explorer, 397,536, 548, 550, 552, 555, 569, 574,584, 592, 594, 596, 605Mackenzie Flats Kutchin, see Nkotcho-kutchin.Mackenzie's River Louchioux, seeNakotcho-kutchin.Mackenzie, Roderic, 552Macorixe, 611Macoyahui, 625Macquaejeet, sec Beothuk.Mactciiigeha wai?, see Ute.Maguana, 610*Maguano, 611Mahdn, see Comanche.Mahana, see Comanche.Mahane, see Klickitat.Maharineck, see Meherrin.Mahican, 18, 19, 28, 29, 30, 41*, 42, 44,47, 48, 54, 58, 60, 254, 293discovered by Dutch, 41war with Mohawk, 41-42See also Stockbridges.Mahocks, see Manahoac.Mahpiyato, see Arapaho.Mahwee, see Mauwehu.Maiaca, 131Maiconeras, 625Mai-d6c-klg-ne, see Jemez.Maidu, 499-501*Maine [State of], 13-17Abnaki, 13-15*Malecite, 15Passamaquoddy, 15-16*Pennacook, 16-17Maisi, 611Maiy6, 611Makadewana-ssidok, see Siksika.Makah, 427-428*, 433, 587, 588Makaftserk, see Klamath.Mdklaks, see Klamath.
Maldonado [Francisco], commander ofDe Soto's fleet, 136Malecite, 13, 15, 16, 17, 578-579*, 580,591Malinchenos, 625, 635Malisit, see Malecite,Mam (1), 625, 628Mam (2), 625Mamakata'wana-si'ta'-ak, see Siksika.Mamite, 619, 625Ma'-mo a^-ya-di, see Alabama.Ma'-mo ha?-ya, see Alabama.Manahoac, 61-62*, 63, 64, 70, 73, 74disappearance of, 62discovered by John Smith, 62Manchac, 209Manche, 626Mandan, 274, 276-278*, 281, 284, 387,391, 393citizens of United States, 277noted for light color, 278Mandinga, 626Man-eaters, see Tonkawan Tribes.Mangoac, see Nottaway.Mangon, 611Mangue, 618, 620, 626, 628Maniabon, 611Manso, 325, 334*Ma^tgra"', see Cherokee.Map, location of North American tribes,11Manrhoat, see Kiowa.Marangakh, see Serrano.Mar-an-sho-bish-ko, see Dakota.Marayam, see Serrano.Marchand, explorer, 573Mariames, see Muruam.Maribichicoa-Guatajigiala, 626Maricopa, 349, 350, 354-356*, 365, 369absorbed Ilalchidhoma, 350absorbed Kohuana, 354no treaty ever made with, 356Marien, 610*, 611Mariguanes, 626, 635Marintalap, see Serrano.Mariposan, see Yokuts.Marques, Pedro Menendez, missionary,146Marquette, Jacques (Pfere), missionary,214, 224, 242, 265, 270Marquette's map, 187, 193, 272, 287Martyr, Peter, historian, 84, 94, 609,610Maryland [State of] and District ofColumbia, 57-61Conoy, 57-59*Delaware, 59Nanticoke, 59-61*Powhatan, 61Shawnee, 01Susquehanna, 61Maryland Colonists, Conoy found by, 58Nanticoke found by, 60Marys River Indians, see Chepenafa.Mascouten, 254Ma'-seip'-kiH, see Kadohadacho.
704 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Mashukhara, see Shasta.Maskegon, 556Massachuset, 19-20*, 23, 24, 27contact with Captain John Smith,20Massachusetts [State of], 19-27Mahican, 19Massachuset, 19-20*Nauset, 21-22*Nipmuc, 22-23*Pennacook, 23Pocomtuc, 23-24*Wampanoag, 24-27*Massasoit, Wampanoag chief, 26, 27Massasoits, see Wampanoag.Mastutc'-kwe, see Hopi.Matagalpa, 615, 617, 626, 627, 639Matdv6k6-Paya, see Walapai.Mat-che-naw-to-waig, see Iroquois.Mat-hat-e-vdtch, see Chemehuevi.Matlame, 626Matlatzinca, 614, 626, 629, 632Matokatd.gi, see Oto.Mattapony, 71Mattapony, Upper, 71Mattole, 481, 501-502*Matu-6s'-wi skitchi-n6-<ik, see Micmac.Mauilla, see Mobile.Mauvais Monde des Pieds-Noirs, seeSarcee.Mauvila, see Mobile.Mauwehu, Pequot Indian, 47Mavila, see Mobile.Mawatani, see Mandan.Maximilian, Alexander P., 278Maya, 623, 626Mayaguex, 611Mayajuaca, 131Maynoa, 611Mayo, 615, 616, 625, 626Mazahua, 627, 630Mazatec, 622, 627, 639McDougall, James, explorer, 594McGillivray, Alexander, Scotch trader,166McLeod, John M., chief trader, 584Mednofski, see Ahtena.Meguenodon, see Tututni.Meherrin, 62-63*, 65, 73, 82Conestoga adopted by, 62Melchora, 627M6li'-I6ma, see Tenino.Menendez [Pedro], 131, 151Mengwe, see Nottaway.Menominee, 243, 244, 254*, 256Mepontsky, 62Merriam, C. Hart, 492Merrimac, see Pennacook.Meshingomesia's band, see Miami.citizens of Indiana, 239Mgshkwa kihug', see Foxes.Mesquite, 619, 627Metacom, see Metacomet.Metacomet, Wampanoag chief, 26Methodist Missions, 573Methow, 428*
Metitlanec, 627M^tutahanke, see Mandan.Meviras, 625, 627Mexicano, see Nahautl.Mexico and Central America, classifica-tion of the languages, 611-613tribes listed, 613-642Meyemma, see Chimariko.M^ziferes, Athanase de, 197, 306Meztitlanec, 628Miami, 54, 230, 231, 237-240*, 241, 242,243, 249, 255, 297, 300, 301citizens of Oklahoma, 239, 297Mical, 428*Michigamea, division of Illinois, 212united with Kaskaskia, 212See also Illinois.Michigan, [State of], 243-250Chippewa, 243Foxes, 243Kickapoo, 243Menominee, 243Miami, 243Neutrals, 243Noquet, 243-244*Ottawa, 244-246*Potawatomi, 247-250*Sauk, 250Wyandot, 250Michilimackinac, 235Ml-Clauq'-tcu-wun'-ti, see Klickitat.Micmac, 13, 548, 579-581*Beothuk driven north by, 548Mikd-atf, see Shoshoni, Northern.Mikadeshitchisi, see Nez Perc6.Mikasuki, 104, 107, 119, 129, 130, 133-134*, 301Miko Lusa (Black Chief), Chakchiumachief, 176Mikonopi, Oconee chief, 135Mi'kyashg, see Shoshoni, Northern.Millbank Sound Indians, see Bellabella.Miluk, 459, 463*Mimbreiio Apache, 624Mingwe, see Iroquois.Minitari, see Hidatsa.Minnesota [State of], 260-265Arapaho, 260Cheyenne, 260Chippewa, or Ojibwa, 260-264*Dakota, 264Foxes, 264Iowa, 264Missouri, 264Omaha, 264Oto, 264Ottawa, 265Ponca, 265Sauk, 265Winnebago, 265Wyandot, 265Minnetarees of the Plains, see Atsina.Minnetarees of the Prairies, see Atsina.Minnishupsko, see Dakota.Minqua, see Susquehanna.Miopacoas, 625, 627
INDEX 705Miruelo [Diego], explorer, 126Mishikhwutmetunne, 463-464*Mfskigiila, see Pascagoula.Mississippi [State of], 174-195Acolapissa, 174Biloxi, 174-176*Capinans, 176Chakchiuma, 176-177*Chickasaw, 177-180*Choctaw, 180-185*Choula, 185Grigra, 185*Houma, 185-186*Ibitoupa, 186-187*Koasati, 187Koroa, 187-188*Moctobi, 188Natchez, 188-190*Ofo or Ofogoula, 190Okelousa, 190Pascagoula, 190-191*Pensacola, 191Quapaw, 192Taposa, 192*Tiou, 192-193*Tunica, 193-194*Yazoo, 194-195*Missouri [State of], 269-273Caddo, 269Dakota, 269Delaware, 269Foxes, 269Illinois, 269Iowa, 269Kickapoo, 269Missouri, 269-271*Omaha, 271Osage, 271-273*Oto, 273Sauk, 273Shawnee, 273Missouri, 252, 255, 258, 264, 266, 267,268, 269-271*, 286, 287, 288,297, 301migrations of, 270See also Iowa, 255.Missouri River Sauk, see Sauk.MftsitA, see Witchita.Midxsgn, see Tonkawan Tribes.Miwok, 502-507*Coast, 502, 507Lake, 502, 507Plains, 507Sierra, 507Mixe, 627, 632Mixtec, 627Mkatewetit^ta, see Siksika.Moache, Ute band, 374Moapan, see Mopan.Moassones, see Abnaki.M6atokni, see Modoc.Mobile Indians, 136, 154, 159-160*,171, 172,180probably absorbed by Choctaw,159, 172
Mobile language, 159Mocama, see Timucua.Mochomes, sec Delaware.MocoQO, 134*relations with Spaniards, 134Mocorito, 627Moctobi, 175, 188, 191Modoc, 452, 461, 464-466*, 507relations with Whites, 465removed to Reservations, 465Modoc War, 465Mohave, 350, 354, 356-357*, 507Mohawk, 24, 32 40, 41war with Mahican, 41-42Mohegan, 23, 28, 29-30*, 31, 32, 41, 42Mohineyam, see Serrano.Moh-tau-hai'-ta-ni-o, see Ute.M6htawas, see Kansa.Moingwena, 242, 265, 268Moki, see Hopi.Molala, 452, 455, 466*Monacan, 61, 62, 63-64*, 72, 73, 74Monacan Confederacy, 72Monachi, see Paiute, Northern.Monasiccapano, see Saponi.Monasukapanough, see Saponi.Moneton, 61, 74*disappearance of, 74discovered by Thomas Batts, 74Mo-no'-ni-o, see Mandan.Mono-Paviotso, see Paiute, Northern.Monozi, see Paiute, Northern.Monqui, 627, 640Monroe, Eugene, surveyor, 381Monsoni, 556Montagnais, 581, 583See also Chipewyan,Montagnais-Naskapi, 581-583*Montana [State of], 387-398Arapaho, 387Arikara, 387Assiniboin, 387-388*Atsina, 389-390*Bannock, 390Cheyenne, 390Chippewa, 390Cree, 390Crow, 390-391*Dakota, 391Hidatsa, 391Kalispel, 391Kiowa, 392Kutenai, 392-393*Mandan, 393Nez Perc^, 393*Piegan, 393Salish, 39^-395*Sematuse, 395*Shoshoni, 395Siksika, 395-398*Spokan, 398Tunahe (Tuna'xe), 398Montauk, 42-43*, 44joined Brotherton Indians, 43Montigny, Dumont de, missionary, 192,194, 201, 209, 210
706 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 146Mooachaht, see Nootka.Moore, Col. James, 87, 114, 123, 124,151, 221Moosehead Lake Indians, see Penobscot.Mopan, 626, 627Moratok, 82*Moravian Indians, 47, 54Moravians, missionaries, 54, 568Morgan, Lewis H., 40Morice, Rev. A. G., 550, 594, 604Mormon missionaries, 92Morris, Robert, 87Morse, Jedediah, 191, 194, 308, 475Moscoso, successor to De Soto, 205, 211,315Moses-Columbia band, see Sinkiuse-Columbia.Moshome, see Navaho.Mosnala, 619, 627Mosopelea, 190, 213, 225, 230, 231-232*,240See also Ofo.Mosquito Indians, 615, 624, 625, 626,627-628, 636, 639Mosquito-Sumo, 615, 624, 625, 635, 639Motozintlec, 628Motutatak, see Oto.Mouilla, missionary, 151Mountain Comanche, see Apache.Mountain Indians, see Tsethaottine,Tutchone.Mountaineers, see Chipewyan.Move, 622, 628Muckleshoot, 428-429*Mucogo, see Mocogo.Mugulasha, 192, 200, 204, 208destroyed by Bayo?;oula, 200, 208possibly identical with Quinipissa,208Muite, 622, 628Mukkudda Ozitimnug, see Siksika.Muklasa, 134, 157, 160*, 301disappearance of, 160migration of, 160Muklasa language, 154Multnomah, 466-467*Mun-an'-ng-qu' ttlnng, see Klickitat.Munceys, 54Munsee, 42, 49, 54, 55, 255, 257, 292,293, 297, 301Muoi, 622, 628Murire, 622. 628Muruam, 326Muskogee, 104, 105, 108, 111, 130, 133, 134,139, 142, 155, 157, 159, 160-168*,169, 170, 204, 225, 301, 314, 323disappearance of, 204immigration of, 134, 142, 204joined Alabama, 204Muskogee language, 106, 111, 114, 132,134, 145, 160, 168, 169Muskrats, see Malecite.Muspa, see Calusa.Musutepes, 628MAtsfana-tanfu, see Kiowa Apache.Mutsun, see Costanoan.
Muxtsuhintan, see Apache.Nabedache, member of Hasinai Con-federacy, 316, 323Nabesna, 537*, 608Nabiltse, see Hupa.Nabuggindebaig, see Choctaw.Nacachau, member of Hasinai Con-federacy, 323Nacanish, member of Hasinai Con-federacy, 316, 323Nachittoos, see Natchitoches.Nachtichoukas, see Natchitoches.Nacitos, see Natchitoches.Naco, see Chameleon.Nacogdoche, member of Hasinai Con-federacy, 323Nactythos, see Natchitoches.Nadaco, member of Hasinai Confed-eracy, 323Nadchito, see Natchitoches.Nadiisha-dena, see Kiowa Apache.Nadouessioux, see Dakota, Iowa.Nadowa, see Iroquois, Wyandot.Nagaieff, explorer, 530Nagrandan, 626, 628Nahane, 583-585*, 601, 602Nahankhotane, 459Nahaunee, see Tutchone.Nahuatl, 614, 616, 617, 628, 631, 638Nahuatlato, 628, 629Nahyssan, 64*joined Saponi and Tutelo, 64Nai-t6'-zi, see Zuni.Na-izha'n, see Lipan.Naked Indians, see Miami.Naketosh, see Natchitoches.Nakota, see Dakota.Nakotcho-kutchin, 585*, 603Na-Kotchp6-tschig-Kouttchin, seeKutcha-kntchin.Naks'-at, see Mohave.Na"lani, see Com.anche.Na'la'ni, see Kiowa.Namidish, member of Hasinai Confed-eracy, 323Nanaimo, 585*Nanatsoho, member of KadohadachoConfederacy, 323Naniaba, 160, 172Na'nita, see Comanche.Nanoniks-karg'nlki, see Cheyenne,Nansemond, 71Nanticoke, 42, 47, 48, 57, 58, 59-61*, 74found by Maryland Colonists, 60migration of, 60Napgitachc, see Natchitoches.Napi'ssa, 195, 208Napochi, 165, 168-169*, 195, 208Naquitoches, see Natchitoches.Nar-a-tah, see Comanche.Narraganset, 19, 23, 24. 27*, 29, 31, 32,43joined in King Philip's War, 28Narsh-tiz-a, see Zuni.
INDEX 707Narvaez Expedition, 123, 124, 134, 136,151, 152Nar-wah-ro, see Delaware.Nascapec, see Montasnais-Naskapi.Nashi'tosh, see Natchitoches.Nashtefse, see Pima.Nashtezhf, see Ziini.Nasitti, see Natchitoches.Naskapi, 581, 583Nasoni, member of Hasinai Confeder-acy, 316, 318, 323Nasoni, tipper, member of Kadohada-cho Confederacy, 323Nass River Indians, see Niska.Ndsuia kwe, see Ute.Nata, 628Na'tia, sec Comanche.Natao, see Adai.Natche'-Kutchin, see Natsit-kutchin.Natchez, 82, 97, 101, 168, 169, 185, 188-190*, 192, 193, 201, 203, 204-205,206, 207, 209, 210, 225, 301adopted Grigra, 185, 189joined Cherokee, 82, 190, 225, 301joined Creeks, 169, 190, 301relations with French, 189, 190,204-205, 206, 207uprising, 176, 178, 187, 190, 192,194, 195. 201, 206, 232Natchitoches, 196, 204, 206, 317, 318,320joined Acolapissa, 206massacred by Acolapissa, 206Natchitoches Confederacy, 201, 204,205-207*, 212, 309,^315, 316Na-tcte tunn^, .s?e Takelma.Nathehwy-within-yoowuc, see Cree.Natinnoh-hoi, see Hupa.Natio Luporum, see Abnaki.Nation de la FoUe Avoine, see Menom-inee.Nation of the Willows, see Havasupai.Natni, see Dakota.Natnihina, see Dakota.Na'-to-wo-na, see Dakota,Natsdgana, see Abnaki.Natsit-kutchin, 538*Natsytos. see Natchitoches.Nattsae-Kouttchin, see Takkuth-ku-tchin.Nauset, 19, 21-22*, 24, 26, 27Christianized by missionaries, 21friendship with Pilgrims, 21Navaho, 327, 328, 331, 332, 334-336*,348, 357, 372, 373blankets, 335, 336wars with Whites, 335Navajo, see Navaho.Nav6ne, see Lipan.Nayarit, see Cora (1).Nayariti, see Cora (1).Nda kun-dadehe, see Karankawan tribes.Ndaton8atendi, see Potawatomi.Nde, see Apache.N^-a-ya-og, see Chippewa.
Nebagindibe, see Salish.Nebome, 628, 631Nebraska [State of], 285-291Arapaho, 285Arikara, 285Cheyenne, 285Comanche, 285Dakota, 285Foxes, 285Iowa, 285Kansas, 286Kiowa, 286Missouri, 286Omaha, 286-287*Oto, 287-289*Pawnee, 289-290*Ponca, 291*Sauk, 291Winnebago, 291Nechaui, member of Hasinai Confed-eracy, 323Nechegansett, see Pennacook.Neches, member of Hasinai Confed-eracy, 323Needham, James, 90Ne-e-no-il-no, see Montagnais-Naskapi.Ne-gd-tcC, see Chippewa.Negro slaves, attacked Chawasha, 201Nehiyaw, see Cree.Nehivawok, see Cree.Neketemeuk, 429*status uncertain, 429Ne'me' ne, see Comanche.N6mer(5xka, see Tonkawan Tribes.Ncrankamigdok, see Abnaki.Nerodchikof, Alikhail, explorer, 532Nesilextci'n, see Sanpoil.Netela, see Juaneno.Netsepoyfe, see Siksika.Neuse, see Neusiok.Neusiok, 82*Neutral Nation, 33, 48, 232, 240, 243,256alliance with Wenrohronon, 48Neutrals, 43-44*, 48, 232, 235, 240, 243,586destruction of, 44, 48Nevada [State of], 375-384Koso, 375Paiute, Northern, 375-381*Paiute, Southern, 381-383*Panamint, 383Pueblo, 3S3Shoshoni, 383Ute, 383Washo, 383-384*New Hampshire [State of], 17-18Abnaki, 17Pennacook, 17-18*New Jersey [State of], 48-55Delaware, 48-55*New Mexico [State of], 327-348Apache, 327-330*Comanche, 330Jemez, 330-332*Jicarilla, 332
708 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145New Mexico [State of]?ContinuedKeresan Pueblos, 332-334*Kiowa, 334Kiowa Apache, 334Lipan, 334Manso, 334*Navaho, Navajo, 334-336*Pecos, 336-337*Piro Pueblos, 337-339*Pueblo Indians, 339-340*Shuman, 340Tewa Pueblos, 340-344*Tiwa Pueblos, 344-346*Ute, 346Zuni, 346-348*New River Indians, see Kamia.New River Shasta, see Shasta.New York [State of], 33-48Delaware, 33Erie, 33Iroquois, 33-41*Mahican, 41-42*Mohegan, 42Montauk, 42-43*Neutrals, 43-44*Saponi, 44Tuscarora, 44Tutelo, 44Wappinger, 44-48*Wenrohronon, 48*Newport, Capt. [Christopher], explorer, 63Neyetse-kutchi, see Natsit-kutchin.Nez Perc6, 265, 301, 393, 400-403*,413, 429, 433, 455, 467removed to Reservation, 402See also Iowa, Oregon.Nez Perc6 War, 402, 413Nhikana, see Mahican.Niantic, Eastern, 19, 24, 27, 28-29*,30,31part in Pequot War, 31Western, 19, 24, 27, 30-31*, 32Nia'rhari's-kilrikiwa'ahtlski, see Arap-aho.Nicarao, 629Nl'chihing'na, see Kiowa.Nicholas, see Orontony.Niciatl, see Seechelt.Nl'ckitc hitcklm, see Dakubetede.Nicoleno, 490, 491, 507*Nicoya, 629, 630Ni'ekeni', see Bear River Indians.Niere'rikwats-kiini'ki, see Cheyenne.Ni-he-ta-te-tup'i-o, see Kalispel.Nimgnim, see Comanche.Nimipu, see Nez Percd.Nio, 623, 629Nipegon, see Winnebago.Nipmuc, 22-23*, 29, 31Niquisan, see Nicarao.Ni'ris-hari's-kl'riki, see Kadohadacho.Niska, 538, 586-587*, 606Nisqually, 429-430*Niutachi, see Missouri.Niza, Fray Marcos de, 347Nko'atamux, see Ntlakyapamuk.
Nktusem, see Dakota.Noam-kekhl, see Yuki.Noche, see Yokuts.Nokonmi, see Pomo.Nombre de Dios de Amacarisse, mission,116, 129Nongatl, 481, 498, 507*No-ochi, see Ute.Nooksack, 427, 430*, 437Nooksak, see Nooksack.Nootka, 433, 545, 575, 587-58S*noted as whale hunters. 588Nootsak, see Nooksack.Noquet, 243-244*, 256Norridgewock, destruction of, 15Nortenos, see Piro Pueblos.North Carolina [State of], 74-90Bear River Indians, 74*Cape Fear Indians, 75*Catawba, 76Cheraw, 76-77*Cherokee, 77Chowanoc, 77-78*Coree, 78*Eno, 79*Hatteras, 80*Keyauwee, 80-81*Machapunga, 81*Meherrin, 82Moratok, 82*Natchez, 82Neusiok, 82*Occaneechi, 83Pamlico, 83*Saponi, 83Sara, 84Shakori, 83-84*Sissipahaw, 84-85*Sugeree, 85Tuscarora, 85-88*Tutelo, 88Waccamaw, 88Wateree, 88Waxhaw, 88Weapemeoc, 88-89*Woccon, 89-90*Yadkin, 90*Yeopim, 90North Dakota [State of], 273-278Arapaho, 273Arikara, 273-275*Assiniboin, 275Cheyenne, 275Chippewa, 275Dakota, 275Hidatsa, 275-276*Mandan, 27&-278*Northern Arapaho, see Arapaho.Northern Cheyenne, see Cheyenne.Northern Paiute, see Paiute.Northern Shoshoni, see Shoshoni.Northwest Fur Company, 555, 584, 591,600, 605N6-si, see Yana.Nota-d, see Ute.Notch, see Ute.
INDEX 709Notchitoches, see Natchitoches.Nottaway, 62, 65*discovered by Virginia Colonists, 65See also Eskimo, 556.Nottoway, see Nottaway.Nouga, see Kawchottine.N6-zi, see Yana.N'poch-le, see Sanpoil.Nsekau's, see Clackamas,
.n.selixtcl'n, see Sanpoil.Nsietshawas, see Tillamook.Ns tiwat, see Clackamas.Ntlakyapamuk, 430, 432, 577, 588-591*, 601absorbed Stuwihamuk, 601Nuestra Seiiora de Guadalupe de losMansos, mission, 334Nuestra Seiiora de Guadalupe de Zuni,see Zuni.Nuestra Sefiora de la Candelaria dela Tama, mission, 113Nuestra Sefiora de la Luz, mission, 199Nuestra Sefiora de los Angeles dePorciuncula, see Pecos.Nuestra Sefiora de los Dolores, mis-sion, 315Nuestra Senora del Pilar de los Adaes,military post, 197Nuh-lum-mi, see Lummi.Nuktusem, see Dakota.Niima, see Paiute, Southern,Numakaki, see Mandan.Num-ee-muss, see Hupa.Nunez Cabeza de Vaca, Alvar, 198,312, 320, 321, 325, 326Nu-sklaim, see Clallam.Nu-so-lupsh, see Cowlitz, Kwaiailk.Nutaa, see Paiute, Northern.Nwa'-ka, see Chippewa, 260.Nyavapai, see Yavapai, 367.Obome, 619, 629Obwahnug, see Dakota.Ocale, 134-135*disappearance of, 135Occaneechi, 65-66*, 73, 74, 79, 80, 81, 83discovered by Lederer, 65united with Saponi and Tutelo, 66Ochan, see Yaochane.Ocheese, 117Ochesee, see Muskogee.Ocheti shakowin, see Dakota.Ochie'tari-ronnon, see Cherokee.Ochoes, 625, 629Ocita, see Pohoy.Ocklawaha, see Seminole.Oconee, 104, 112*, 123, 130, 135, 142migrations of, 112, 135Oconi, see Oconee.Ocoroni, 623, 629Octoctatas, see Oto.Ocuiltec, 626, 629Ocute, see Hitchiti.0-dug-am-eeg, see Foxes.O-e'-tun'-i-o, see Crow.
Ofo, 74, 188, 190, 194, 195, 207, 213,225, 231, 232united with Tunica.See also Mosopelea.Ofogoula, see Ofo.Ogden, Peter Skene, 380Oglethorpe, Governor [James Edward],118Ogoize, see Bannock.Ohio [State of], 230-236Chippewa, 230Delaware, 230Erie, 230-231*Honniasont, 231Illinois, 231Iroquois, 231Kickapoo, 231Miami, 231Mosopelea, 231-232*Neutrals, 232Ofo, 232Ottawa, 233Potawatomi, 233Seneca, 233Shawnee, 233Wyandot, 233-236*Ojibwa, see Chippewa.Ojitlan, 617, 629Okanagon, 400, 430-433*, 440, 441, 591Okchai, division of the Muskogee,169, 170Oke-choy-atte, see Alabama.Okelousa, 190, 202, 207*disappearance of, 207OkEna.qai'n, see Okanagon.Oklahoma [State of], 299-307Alabama, 299Apache, 299Apalachee, 299Arapaho, 299Biloxi, 299Caddo, 299Cherokee, 299Chevenne, 299Chickasaw, 299Choctaw, 299Comanche, 299-300Creeks, 300Delaware, 300Foxes, 300Hitchiti, 300Illinois, 300Iowa, 300Iroquois, 300Jicarilla, 300Kansa, 300Kichai, 300Kickapoo, 301Kiowa, and Kiowa Apache, 301Koasati, 301Lipan, 301Miami, 301Mikasuki, 301Missouri, 301Modoc, 301
710 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Oklahoma [State of]?ContinuedMuklasa, 301Munsee, 301Muskogee, 301Natchez, 301Nez Perc6, 301Okmulgee, 301Osage, 302Oto, 302Ottawa, 302Pawnee, 302Peoria, 302Piankashaw, 302Ponca, 302Potawatomi, 302Quapaw, 302Sauk, 302Seminole, 302Seneca, 302Shawnee, 302-303Tawakoni, 303*Tawehash, 303-304*Tonkawa, 304Tuskegee, 304Waco, 304-305*Wea, 305Wichita, 305-306*Wyandot, 307Yscani, 307*Yuchi, 307Okmulgee, 104, 107, 112-113*, 157, 169,301Creek tribe, 169, 301Okwanuchu, 497, 507*Olancho, 629Olive, 629Olmec, 629Olobavaguame, 619, 629Olojasme, 619, 629Olomega, see Nahuatlato.Oluta, 629Omaha, 213, 259, 264, 265, 268, 271,284, 285, 286-287, 291, 293citizens of United States, 286Omanominee, see Menominee.Onagungees, see Abnaki.Ouate, Juan de. Governor, 325, 329,333, 336, 339, 348, 349, 350, 351,352, 354, 356, 357, 368, 369Onatheaqua, 135Ondatawawat, see Ottawa.Oneida, 40, 57, 252, 256, 257Tuscarora adopted by, 87See Iroquois.Ongniaahra, 44Ongwano^sionni', see Iroquois.OnI'ha?, see Omaha.Onnogonges, see Abnaki.Onondaga, 40O-no'-ni-o, see Arikara.Ontponea, 62Ontwagana, see Shawnee.O-O'-ho-mo-i'-o, see Dakota.Oohp, see Navaho, Walapai.Oop, see Apache, Navaho.Op, see Apache.
Opata, 325, 621, 624, 629-630*, 633Opatoro, 625, 630Opechancanough, Powhatan chief, 70,71massacre of English by, 70, 71Opelousa, 197, 202, 207-208*disappearance of, 208O'pimmitisii Ininiwuc, see Cree.Opos(i)me, see Obome, 619, 629Oregon [State of], 451-478Ahantchuyuk, 452*Alsea, 452-453*Atfalati, 453-454*Bannock, 454Calapooya, 454*Cayuse, 454?455*Chastacosta, 455-456*Chelamela, 456*Chepenafa, 456*Chetco, 456-457*Clackamas, 457*Clatskanie, 458*Clatsop, 458*Clowwewalla, 458-459*Dakubetede, 459*Hanis, 459*Klamath, 459-461*Kuitsh, 461-462*I^atgawa, 462*Lohim, 462*Luckiamute, Lakmiut, 463*Miluk, 463*Mishikhwutmetunne, 463-464*Modoc, 464-466*Molala, 466*Multnomah, 466-467*Nez Perc6, 467*Paiute, Northern, 467Santiam, 467-468*Shasta, 468Siletz, 468*Siuslaw, 468-469*Skilloot, 469Snake, 469Takelma, 469-470*Taltushtuntude, 470*Tenino, 469-471*Tillamook, 471-472*Tututni, 472-473*Tyigh, 473-474*Umatilla, 474*Umpqua, 474-475*Wallawalla. 475Walpapi, 475Wasco, 475*Watlala, 476*Yahuskin, 476Yamel, 476-477*Yaquina, 477-478*Yoncalla, 478*Oristan, 611Orleans Indians, see Karok.Ornofay, 611Orontony, Wyandot chief, 235Orosi, 630Orotina, 618, 630
INDEX 711
Orliz, Juan, 134Orunges, see Mahican.Osa, 630Osage, 213, 214, 270, 271-273*, 286, 291,293. 294, 297, 302, 318, 319citizens of Oklahoma, 272Great, 272Little, 271, 272Osay, see Ilopi.Osceola, Seminole chief, 142Oshahak, see Dakota.Oshawanoag, see Shawnee.Osochi, 104, 107, 113, 114, 135, 153, 157,169*division of Lower Creeks, 113, 135settled among Creeks, 153, 169Ossachilc, see Timucua.Oj^sipe, see Mosopelea.Ostiagahoroones, see Chippewa.Ota's-itJi'niuw', see Kadohadacho.Otaydchgo, see Nanticoke.OtcKnake, see Okanagon.OtcEuii.qai'n, see Okanagon.Ot'el'nna, see Eskimo.Otermin, Governor, 324, 331, 339, 346O-til'-tin, see Kutcha-kutchin.Oto, 252, 256, 258, 264, 266, 267, 268270, 273, 287-289*, 297, 301, 302migrations of, 267, 270, 287, 302See also Iowa.Otomi, 618, 620, 624, 627, 630, 634, 639Ottawa, 233, 235, 240, 243, 244-246*,247, 248, 256, 259, 263, 265, 268,297, 298, 302, 544, 545, 591attacked by Dakota, 245attacked by Iroquois, 245, 256joined Hurons, 245Ouacha, see Washa.Ouachita, 206, 208member of Natchitoches Confed-eracy, 208Ouade, see Guale.Ouad6, Guale chief, 109Oudataouatouat, see Illinois, Ottawa.Ouesperie, see Mosopelea.Ouispe, see Mosopelea.Outitchakoik, see Kickapoo.Owaragees, see Pennacook.Owenagimgcs, see Abnaki.Owens Valley Paiute, see Paiute.Owhillapsh, see Kwalhioqua.OyadagahrcEnes, see Catawba.Oyata'ge'ron6n, see Cherokee.Ozette, 428, 433*Ozinies, 60Paanese, see Saponi.Pabiernl'n, see Keresan Pueblos.Pacaca, 622, 630Pacaha, 213Pacer band of Apache, see Kiowa Apache,Pachera, 630, 636Pajii" wasdbg, see Wichita.Padana, see Pawnee.Padani, see Arikara.
Padilla, Juan de, mis.sionary, 306, 352Padouca, see Comanche.Paego, see Pecos.Paequiu, see Pecos.Paoquiuala, see Pecos.Pagan avo, see Cheyenne.Pa'gonotch, see Paiute, Southern,Pdgowitch, see Navaho.Pahkanapil, see Tiibatulabal.Pah-kee, see Biksika.Pahodja, see Iowa.Pah-ru-sd-pd.h, see Paiute, Southern.Paifan amim, see Alsea.Palnyd, see Pima.Paipai, see Akwa'ala.Paiute, 357, 410, 482Northern, 375-381*, 383, 384, 403,410, 452, 467, -169, 475, 476, 507Owens Vallev, 517Southern, 373, 381-383*Pakana, 170, 204, 210, 215division of the Muskogee, 170, 323Pa ka'-san-tse, see Nez Perc6.Pa' kiut'lSma, see Yakima.Palachicola, see Apalachicola.Palagewaii Band, see Tubatulabal.Pallotcpellows, see Palouse,Paloos, 403Palouse, 433-434*, 448, 451Pambizimina, see Dakota.Pame, 624, 630Pamhco, 74, 81, 83*, 86, 88destroyed by Tuscarora, 83Pamunkeyi^ 70, 71Panai'ti, see Bannock.Pauamaka, 630, 635Paimmint, see Koso; Paiute, Northern.Panana, see Pawnee.Paneassa, see Wichita.Panguayes, 630, 635Pani, see Arikara.Panis noirs, see Wichita.Panis piqu6s, st'c Wichita.Pa?s falaya, see Choctaw.Pantasma, 630Panumits, see Serrano.Pdnyi \\'ac6we, see Wichita.Pa O-hde'-ca, see Salish.Paogas, 625, 630Paoneneheo, see Pawnee, 289Paoiiichtigouin, see Chippewa, 260Papabuco, 630Papa-o, 357-360*, 364, 630absorbed Sobaifiuri, 365Papantla, 631Paparos, 631Papayeca, 628, 631Papikaha, see Quapaw.Papitsinima, see Dakota.Papshpun'lfima, see Kaiispel.Papspe'lu, see Sinkiuse-Columbia.Papudo, 031P'a-qu-ldh, sec Pecos.Parachukla, see Apalachicola.Pardo, Juan, 76, 81, 91, 101, 106, 118,158, 165, 221, 224
712 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuU. 145Pareja, Francisco de, missionary, 139,151Par-is-ca-oh-pan-ga, see Crow.Pariza 622Pascagoula, 137, 175, 176, 188, 190-191*, 208, 323-324disappearance of, 208migrations, 191Pash6han, see Iowa.Pasitas, 631, 635Pasquotank, 89Passaconaway, Pennacook sachem, 20Passamaquoddy, 15*, 16, 17, 578, 579,580, 591Patarabueyes, see Shuman.Patica, 631Patiri, 308, 324Patshenins, see Occaneechi.Patwin, 507-509*Paviotso, see Paiute, Northern.Pawnee, 288, 289-290*, 297, 302, 321,385, 387citizens of United States, 290scouts furnished by, 290Skidi, 273, 274, 278, 285Pawokti, joined Alabama, 135*, 154, 170See also Alabama.Pdxuddo dmgti, see Walapai.Paya, 624, 631Pdyi", see Pawnee.Payupki people, 353P^ahko, see Pecos.Peaktinf, see Pecos.Peaux-de-Lievres, see Kawchottine.Pecos, 330, 332, 336-337*, 344attacked by Comanche, 337joined Jemez, 332, 337Pedee, 75, 97*, 101, 103joined Catawba, 97Pee Dee, 80Peel River Kutchin, see Tatlit-kutchin.Pe ga'-zan-de, see Nez Perc6.Peki'neni, see Potawatomi.Pend d'Oreilles, see Kalispel.Penicaut, M., 175, 191, 196Penn, William, council with Delaware,54treaty signed with Delaware, 55Pennacook, 13, 15, 16, 17-18*, 19, 20, 23,579union with Abnaki in Canada, 18Pennsylvania [State of], 55-57Delaware, 55Erie, 55Honniasont, 55-56*Iroquois, 56Saluda, 56Saponi, 56Shawnee, 56Susquehanna, 56-57*Tuscarora, 57Tutelo, 57Wenrohronon, 57Penobscot, 13, 15, 16*, 17, 579, 580Penomeno, 622, 631
Pensacola, 136-137*, 159, 191disappearance of, 136Pentagouet, see Penobscot.Peoria, 242, 265, 268, 300, 302See also Illinois.Pequawket, defeat of, 15Pequot, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31-33*, 43massacre by Whites, 32Pequot War, 31, 32, 33Perez, Juan, Spanish explorer, 573, 588Pericu, 631Perquiroan, 89Perrier, Governor, 201Perrin du Lac, F. M., 285Perrine, botanist, 127Pestilence, 20, 21, 22, 28, 43, 138, 139,150, 151, 214, 322, 332Petitot, Emile, 551, 569Petroff, Ivan, 530, 540, 543, 573Petsikla, see Karok.Pex'-g6, see Jicarilla.Peyote Cult, 319Pezhi'-wokeyotila, see Shoshoni, North-ern.Philip's Indians, see Wampanoag.Piankashaw, 54, 237, 239, 242. 297, 300,302See also Miami.Piato, 631Pichardo, Jos6 Antonio, 205Pi-ci'-kse-bi-tup'i-o, see Shoshoni,Northern.Picks, see Wichita.Piegan, 393Pierced Noses, see Iowa, Nez Percl.Pi'-ke-e-wai-i-ne, see Jicarilla.Pilgrims, 21, 26treaty with Wampanoag, 26Pilthlako, division of the Creeks, 170Pima, 356, 357, 359, 360-363,* 364,631, 633Pima Alto, 631Pima Bajo, 619, 628, 631, 640, 641Piman tribes, 325, 347, 637Pinaleno Apache, 365Pineifu, see Chepenafa.Pintos, 632, 635Pipatsje, see Maricopa.Pipil, 614, 628, 629, 631-632, 634, 641Piqua, band of Shawnee, 227, 228Pirinda, see Matlatzinca.Piro, 334, 344Piro Pueblos, 337-339*, 340Piscataway, see Conoy.Pishakulk, see Dakota.Pishenoa, possibly Bayogoula, 200Pisone, 623, 632Pisquow, see Wenatchee.Pispis, 625, 632, 635Pit River Indians, see Achomawi.Pi-ta'-da, see Pawnee.Pitanisha, see Tubatulabal.Pitanta, see Serrano.Pitas, 632, 635Pitchindvo, see Wichita.Pkiwi-16ni, see Miami.
INDEX 713Plalkni, see Klamath.Plaquemine, 203Plats-C6tes-de-Chien, see Thlingcha-dinne.Playsanos, see Gabrielino.Pleasant Porter, chief of Creek Nation,113Plymouth Company, 14P6anm, see Apache.Pocahontas, marriage to John Rolfe, 70Powhatan's daughter, 70, 71Pochutla, 632Pocomtuc, 19, 23-24*Pocora, 632Pocosi, 632Po'-ge-hdo-ke, see Nez Perc6.Pohoy, 133, 135, 137*, 146, 151Pointed Hearts, see Skitswish.Point-no-Point Treaty, 417Pokomam, 614, 616, 623, 624, 632, 633Pokonchi, 624, 632, 640Polacme, 619, 632Polu'ksalgi, see Biloxi.Pomo, 490, 509-512*Pomouik, see Pamlico.Ponca, 213, 214, 265, 268, 271, 284, 286,291*, 293,302, 327Pond, Peter, trader, 605P'6nin, see Apache.Pontiac, Ottawa chief, 242, 246Po'-o-mas, see Siksika.Pooy, see Pohoy.Popoloca, 617, 632, 633(of Oaxaca), 632(of Puebla), 632(of Veracruz), 632Popoluca, see Conguaco.Porcupine River Indians, see Takkuth-kutchin.Port Townsend Indians, see Chimakum.Porter, Robert T., 214Portlock, Captain, explorer, 539, 588Posalme, 619, 632Posoy, see Pohoy.Potano, 137-138*, 150disappearance of, 138relations with Spaniards, 138war with Utina, 138Potawatomi, 233, 235, 238, 240, 242,243, 244, 246, 247-250*, 254, 256,263, 265, 268, 292, 297-298, 302migrations of, 248-249, 253, 297-298Prairie, 292, 297, 298Potawatomi of the Woods, 297, 298, 302Poteskeet, 89Potlapiqua, 633Potomac, 71Potosino, 633Poualak, see Dakota.Pouanak, see Dakota.Powell, John Wesley, 197Powhatan, death of, 70Powhatan Indians, 48, 57, 61, 62, 64,6&-71*, 78, 88mixture with Negroes, 71
Powhatan Indians?Continuedwar with English settlers, 70iSee also Wahunsonacock.Prairie Apache, see Kiowa Apache.Prairie Potawatomi, see Potawatomi.Prickled Panis, see Wichita.Prinzo, 633, 640Protestant Missions, 413Pshwanwapam, 428, 434*Puants, see Winnebago.Pudding River Indians, see Ahan-tchuyuk.Pueblo of Isleta, mission, 325Pueblo Rebellion, 333, 339, 343, 346,348, 353Pueblos, 317, 324, 335, 339-340*, 339,383classification of, 339-340noted for housing, 340noted for Snake Dance, 340Puerto Rico, 611Agueynaba, 611Arecibo, 611Aymamon, 611Bayamo, 611Coamo, 611Guanica, 611Guarionex, 611Humacao, 611Loaiza, 611Mabodamaca, 611Mayaguex, 611Urayoan, 611Utuado, 611Yagueca, 611Yauco, 611Piik-tis, see Omaha.Pun-nush, see Bannock,Puntlatsh, 591*Puritans, 20Pushmataha, Choctaw chief, 168, 184Puyallup, 422, 429, 434*Px^nai, see Modoc.Pyramid Lake Indians, 381Q'ma'shpai, see Skitswish.Qtlumi, see Lummi.Quahatika, 363-364*cattle introduced among Pima by,364Quaitso, see Queets.Quakers, see Oto.Quallyamish, see Nisqually.Quapaw, 192, 193, 208, 212, 213-215*,232, 271, 286, 291, 292, 293, 298,302, 319, 324migrations, 214, 319now citizens of Oklahoma, 214relations with French, 214Quarrelers, see Takkuth-kutchin.Quasmigdo, see Bidai.Quata, 626, 633Quatokeronon, see Sauk.Quazula, see Ute.Queets, 434-435*Quglancouchis, see Karankawan Tribes.
714 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Quelene, 617Quemayil, see Kamia.Quepo, 633Querechos, see Apache.Quicama, see Halyikwamai.Quichais, see Kichai.Quiche, 633, 640Quichoid, 623, 625, 632, 633Quichuan, see Kiowa.Quidehais, see Kichai.Quieunontati, see Tionontati.Quigaltanqui, Natchez chief, 189Quigyuma, see Halyikwamai.Quileute, 417, 424, 435*Quinault, 415, 434, 435-436*Quinicuanes, 633, 635Quinipissa, 168, 200, 204, 208-209,* 210Quirasquiris, see Wichita.Quivira, see Wichita.Quoddy, see Passamaquoddy.Quokim, see Kohuana.Qwd'lh-hwai-pum, see Klickitat.Rabbitskins, see Kawchottine.Rahowacah, see Monacan.Rainsford, Giles, Church of Englandmissionary, 77Raldmaie, see Tarahumare, 636Raleigh, Sir Walter, 80, 82Raleigh Colony, 80, 81, 83, 89Rama, 633, 640Rama-Corobici, 638, 639, 641Ramon, Don Diego, missionary, 317Ranjel, De Soto chronicler, 115, 183Rapid Indians, see Atsina.Rappahannock, 71Rasles [Sebastian], missionary, 15Rat Indians, see Takkuth-kutchin.Rat People, see Vunta-kutchin.Rat River Indians, see Takkuth-kutchin.Raudauqua-quank, see Bear River In-dians.Ray, Verne F., 419Reatkin, see Yadkin.Red-knife Indians, see Tatsanottine.Red Shoes, Choctaw chief, 183Redwood Indians, see V/hilkut.Redwoods, see Huchnom.Ree, see Arikara.Reggio, French commander, 179Renni Reuape, see Delaware.Rhode Island [State of], 27-29Narraganset, 27-28*Niantic, Eastern, 28-29*Nipmuc, 29Pequot, 29Wampanoag, 29Ribault, Jean, 95, 138, 144, 151Richardson, John, 540Rickohockans, see Yuchi.Riggs, Rev. A. L., missionary, 283Rights, Dr. Douglas L., 90, 100Rfhit, see Ponca,Ritwan, 521River Indians, see Mahican, Monhegan.Roanoke tribe, 80, 81
Robber Indians, see Bannock.Robeson County Indians, 81Rocky Mountain Indians, see Sekani.Rogue River, Indians, see Takelma,Tututni.Rolfe, John, marriage to Pocahontas, 70Roman Catholic Missions, 413, 588, 593Romans, Bernard, 121, 127, 146Ross, Bernard, 604Rouillet, R^gis de, 160, 172Round town people, see Yuchi.Rsdrsavina, see Sobaipuri.Russell, Frank, 380Russian American Company, 542Russians, attacked by Koyukon, 536relations with Eskimo, 568Ruttenber, Edward M., 31S5.-dkl, see Yaquina.Sa-dptin, see Nez Perc6.Sabaneque, 611Sacagawea, Shoshoni Indian guide, 404,405Sachdagugh-roonaw, see Powhatan.Sa-chinco, see Stalo.Sacrifice, human, 209, 210Sd.dals6mte-k'iago, see Kiowa ApacheSagittaria variabilis, 466Sagua, 611Sdhagi, see Dakota.Saha'ntla, see Siksika.Sahehwamish, 436-437*Saia, see Nongatl.Saidoka, see Modoc.Saie'kutin, see Cree.Saikin6, see Maricopa, Pima.Saikinn6, see Papago.Sainoscos, 633, 635St, Cosme, missionary, 203, 206St. Croix Indians, see Passamaquoddy.St. Denis, Louis Juchereau de, command-er, 175, 196, 204, 206, 207St. Denis, Louis de, son of LouisJuchereau de St. Denis, 206St. Francis Indians, 15, 18St. Regis Indians, 40Sakonnet, 26, 27Sak'o'ta, see Cheyenne.Saktci homma, see Houma.
.sa'ladebc, see Sinkiuse-Columbia.Salazar, Governor, 124, 150Salic, see Ntlakyapamuk,Salinan, 490, 512*Salineros, 633, 634See also Piro Pueblos.Salish, 391, 393-395*, 403, 416, 599, 601Interior, 395, 416Middle Columbia, see Sinkiuse-Columbia.relations with Whites, 394removed to reservation, 394Salishans, 392, 413, 452, 468, 471Salsxuyilp, see Colville.Saluda, 56, 97-98*, 99
INDEX 715Samish, 427, 437*removed to Lummi Reservation,437Samoylof, explorer, 530San Agustfn de Ahumada, presidio, 199San Antonio de Anacape Mission, 131San Bias, 633San Buenaventura Mission, 129, 152,517San Diego Mission, 488San Fernando Mission, 490San Francisco de Potano Mission, 138San Gabriel Mission, 490San Ildefonso, Franciscan Mission, 308,324San Juan Capistrano Mission, 494San Juan de Guacara Mission, 135San Juan del Puerto Mission, 139San Luis, Mission, 120San Luis de Talimali, Spanish mission,125, 128San Luis Rey de Francia Mission, 498San Miguel de Grevavi Mission, 363San Miguel de Linares Mission, 196San Miguel de los Adaes Mission, seeSan Miguel de Linares.San Pedro de los Chines Mission, 129San Pedro Mocama Mission, 144, 153San Sabd Mission, 323, 326San Salvador, 633San Salvador de Maiaca Mission, 131San Xavier del Bac Mission, 363Sanakfwa, see Choctaw.Sanetch, Songish band, 597Sanish, see Arikara.Sdn'ka, see Kutenai.Sanko, see Comanche.Sanpoil, 431, 437-438*Sa?8hkid-a-riin6, see Miami.Santa Barbara Indians, see Chumash.Santa Catalina Mission, 135Santa Cruz de Sabacola Mission, 170Santa Cruz de Tarihica Mission, 135Santa Cruz Indians, 626, 633Santa Fe Mission, 137Santa Lucia Mission, 120Santa Maria de Sena Mission, 144Santee, 98*, 103discovered by Spaniards, 98probably joined Catawba, 98Santiam, 467-468*Santo Domingo Mission, 144Sdpa wichasha, see Ute.S&'pani, see Atsina.Saponi, 44, 56, 57, 62, 63, 64, 66, 66,71-73*, 74, 79, 80, 81, 83adoption by Cayuga, 44, 57, 72joined by Nahyssan, 64joined by Occaneechi, 66joined by Tutelo, 73Sara, 84Sarai, see Zufii.Sardn, see Zuni.Saraw, see Cheraw.Saray, see Zuni.
Sarcee, 591-593*, 594, 605allied with Blackfoot, 592Sargtika, see Arapaho.Sarsi, 555Athapascan, 397See also Sarcee.Sassacus, Pequot chief, 30, 32Sasti, Shasta chief, 514Sastotene, see Sekani.Satoeronnon, see Sauk.Sa-to-tin, see Tatlit-kutchin.Satsop, 439-440*Saturiwa, 13&-139*disappearance of, 139name of chief, 139relations with French, 139Sau'hto, see Comanche.Sauk, 225, 240, 242, 243, 250, 251, 252,253, 256-257*, 265, 269, 270, 273,291, 298, 300, 302migrations of, 256-257, 302Missouri River, 256Saulteaux, see Chippewa.Saulteurs, see Chippewa.Sa'u'ii, see Zuni.Sauvolle, 191Sauxpa, see Sissipahaw.Sawketakix, see Siksika.Sawokli, 104, 113, 114, 130, 139, 157,170-171*division of Creeks, 113, 139S^xlatks, see Wasco.Sdyi, see Klamath.Sayula, 633Sayultec, 633Scarlet fever, suffered by Indians, 540,592S'chko^, see Siksika.S'chkoeishin, see Siksika.Schockoores, see Shakori.Schoolcraft, Henry M., 264, 287, 579Scotuks, see Passamaquoddy.Seaside People, see Mohegan.Seattle, Duwamish chief, 423Seco, 631, 633Secoffee, Coweta chief, 134Second Tuscarora War, 87Secotan, adopted by Machapunga, 81Sedelmayr, 363Seechelt, 593*Segresser, Father FeHpe, 363SEi'lEqamuQ, see Stuwihamuk.Sekani, 550, 552, 555, 592, 593-595*, 605raided by Cree, 555, 594, 605Selakamp6m, see Comanche.Sema'mila, see Ntlakyapamuk.Sematuse, 394, 395*Semiahmoo, 440*Seminole, 107, 115, 116, 119, 127, 129,132, 133, 139-143*, 152, 166,253, 301, 302joined by Koasati, 133, 158joined by some Alabama, 155moved to reservation, 143, 302Nation, 112, 114, 135, 142Seminole language, 132, 134, 142
716 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BulL 145SemiBole War, 112, 115, 119, 127, 134135, 139, 140, 143, 152, 168, 302SemtS'use, see Sematuse.Seneca, 40, 55, 87, 228, 231, 237, 298,300, 302See also Iroquois.Senecd del Sur, see Pueblos.Senijextee, 431, 440*, 595Senoxamrnaex, see Spokan.SEDoyma'n, see Spokan.Sentutu', see Spokan.Sequoya, inventer of Indian alphabet,173, 222, 224Serebrannikof, explorer, 530Seretee, see San tee.Seri, 622, 633-634, 640Serrano, 480, 497, 498, 512-513*, 517,630, 634, 635Setd K6xniname, see Walapai.Seuel, Father, French missionary, 195Seven Cities of Cibola, see Zufii.Sewee, 98-99*relations with English, 99union with Catawba, 99Seym6s, see Eskimo.
.Shahala, see Watlala.Shahaptian tribes, 376, 412, 413, 434,452, 467, 471Shahe, see Cree.Sha-ho, see Cheyenne.Shaiesnekov, Father, missionary, 532Sha-i-y6, see Cree.Shake-kah-quah, see Kickapoo.Shakori, 66, 74, 79, 80, 81, 83-84*, 99,100, 103joined Eno, 84, 99Shaktci homma, see Chakchiuma.Shalsa'ulk", see Kutenai.Shdnaki, see Cherokee.Shdnana, see Dakota.Shdnnakiak, see Cherokee.Shanwappoms, see Yakima.Shasta, 468, 495, 507, 514*New River, 497Shateras, see Tutelo.Shati, see Koasati.Shawala, see Shawnee.Shawash, see Achomawi.Shawnee, 54, 56, 61, 73, 74, 91, 97, 99,103, 113, 118, 157, 167, 171, 179,224, 22&-229*, 230, 233, 235, 239,240, 243, 246, 273, 298, 302-303,324, 326Absentee, 228, 302citizens of Oklahoma, 228Eastern, 228joined Cherokee Nation, 223, 303migrations of, 99, 227, 228, 229relations with Whites, 227, 228united with some Yuchi, 118, 174Shi-e-d-la, see Cree.Shi-6-ya, see Cree.Shfgapo, see Kickapoo.Shi'Ini, see Lipan.Shikapu, see Kickapoo.
Shinnecock, see Montauk.ShIsh][n6wutz-hita'neo, see Comanche.Shis-Inday, see Apache.Shista-kwQsta, see Chastacosta.Shi'wanlsh, see Nez Perc6.ShOnack, see Micraac.Shoshonean people, 352, 413Shoshoni, 313, 370, 372, 375, 383, 385,386, 387, 395, 398, 399, 404, 405Northern, 387, 403-405*, 410Western, 373, 381, 383, 405-410*Shoudamtink, see Montagnais-Naskapi.Shuman, 305, 324-325*, 340, 624destroyed by Apache, 325Shuswap, 432, 577, 595-596*Sia Mission, 332Sibayones (1), 634, 635Sibayones (2), 634, 635Sibley, John, 197, 199, 210, 211, 214,303, 315, 319Sica'bfi, see Siksika.Siciatl, see Seechelt.Sickenames, see Pequot.Siete-Ciudades de Cibola, see Zuni.Sigua, 628, 634Si-ha'-sa-pa, see Siksika.Sik'-a-pu, see Kickapoo.Si'-ke-na, see Maricopa, Papago, Pima.Siksika, 393, 395-398*, 596Silam, 634, 635Siletz, 468*Similaton, 625, 634Sinacanton, 634, 641Sinaloa, 616Si ni'-t6-ll, see Tillamook.Si ni'-tS-lI tunng, see Alsea.Sinkaietk, 440-441*Sinkakaius, 441*Sinkiuse, see Sinkiuse-Columbia.Sinkiuse-Columbia, 420-421*Sinkyone 481, 498, 507, 514-515*Sin-te'-hda wi-ca-sa, see Shoshoni,Northern.Sioux, see Dakota.Sioux of the Rocks, see Assiniboin.SisizhanTn, see Shoshoni, Northern.Sis'-qtin-me't<inn6, see Yaquina.Sissipahaw, 83, 84-85*, 100probably joined Catawba, 84Sitting Bull, Dakota chief, 556Siuslaw, 462, 468-469*Six Nations, see Iroquois.Skacewanilom, see Abnaki.Skagit, 441-442*, 446Skaniadaradighroonas, see'^Nanticoke.Ska-ru'-r6?, see Tuscarora.Skaxshurunu, see Foxes.Skeena Indians, see Tsimshian.Skelsd-ulk, see Kutenai.Skidi Pawnee, see Pawnee.Skilloot, 442*, 469disappearance of, 442Skin, 442-443*Skitswish, 411-412*S'Klallam, see Clallam.Sko'-ki ha?-ya, see Muskogee.
INDEX 717Skokomish, 445, 447See also Twana.Skopamish, see Muckleshoot.
.skowa'xtsEnEx, see Sinkiuse-Columbia.Sk'qo'mic, see Squawmish.Skraellingar, see Eskimo.Skuafshgni, see Siksika.Skuakfsagi, see Foxes.Skunnemoke, Atakapa chief, 197Skunnemoke, see Atakapa.Sku'tani, see Atsina.Skuy61pi, see Colville.Skwalliahmish, see Nisquallv.Slaves, Indian, 32, 83, 86, 87, 93, 94, 98,103, 203, 204Negro, 121, 201, 202See also Etchaottine.Slavey, see Etchaottine.Slender Bows, see Kutenai.Smallpox, suffered bv Indians, 28, 83,91, 92, 99, 222, 223, 258, 274,276, 277, 278, 286, 327, 344, 397,398, 413, 455, 532, 642, 552, 573,578, 591, 592, 602Smet, Pierre J. de, missionary, 394, 395Smtlfe'kamuQ, see Stuwihamuk.Smith, Captain John, 20, 58, 62, 63, 72Smith, Jedediah, 380, 410Snake, see Paiute, Northern.Snake Diggers, see Paiute, Southern.Snake Indians, see Comanche; Shoshoni,Northern.Snakes, see Walpapi.Snanaimux, see Nanaimo.Sn6&, see Shoshoni, Northern.Snohomish, 443*Snonowas, see Nanaimo.Snoqualmie, 443-444*
.s.npeskwau'zux, see Wenatchee.Soacatino, 325Sobaibo, 634Sobaipuri, 364-365*merged with Papago, 365Solameco, see Chiaha.Soltec, 634Songish, 427, 59&-597*S6nik'ni, see Wichita.Sooke, Songish band, 597Soo-wan'-a-mooh, see Okanagon.
.SoqEnaqai'mex, see Okanagon.Sorrochos, see Surruque.Sosa, Castafio de, 346Soteomellos, see Wappo.Soto, Hernando de, see De Soto,Hernando.Sotoes, see Chippewa.Sotomieyos, see Wappo.Souchitioni, member of NatchitochesConfederacy, 209Souriquois, see Micmac.South Carolina (State of], 90-104Catawba, 90-92*Cherokee, 92Chiaha, 92Chickasaw, 93Congaree, 93*
South Carolina [State of]?ContinuedCreeks, 93Cusabo, 94-96*Eno, 96Keyauwee, 96Natchez, 97Pedee, 97*Saluda, 97-98*San tee, 98*Sewee, 9&-99*Shakori, 99Shawnee, 99Sissipahaw, 100Sugaree, 100*Waccamaw, 100-101*Wateree, 101-102*Waxhaw, 102*Winyaw, 102-103*Yamasee, 103Yuchi, 103-104South Dakota [State of], 278-285Arapaho, 278Arikara, 278Cheyenne, 278-280*Dakota, 280-284*Kiowa, 284Mandan, 284Omaha, 284Ponca, 284Sutaio, 285*Winnebago, 285Southern Arapaho, see Arapaho.Southern Cheyenne, see Cheyenne.Southern Indians, see Cree.Southern Paiute, see Paiute.Southern Shoshoni, see Shoshoni.Soyopas, see Mohave.Spain, King of, fealty sworn to, 352
.spalu'.soj, see Palouse.Spaniards, 70, 79, 114, 115, 119, 121,288Huguenot colony destroyed by, 96relations with Apalachicola, 106relations with Chickasaw, 178relations with Quale, 165relations with Hasinai Confederacy,316relations with Hopi, 353relations with Jicarilla, 371relations with M0C050, 134relations with Potano, 138relations with Tacatacuru, 144relations with Zuni, 347-348Spanish Government, relations withDelaware, 54Spanish missionary movement, 139Speckled Pawnee, see Wichita.Spokan, 398, 412, 444-445*Little, 444Lower, 444Middle, 444removed to reservations, 444Upper, 444Spoke'. n, see Spokan.SpO.qe'in, see Spokan.Spotswood, Gov. [Alexander], 72, 76, 79, 80
718 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuU, 145Spring Creeks, see Bidai.Squakson, see Squaxon.Squawmish, 587, 597-599*Squaxon, 445*, 447S'qQIes'tshi, see Ankara.Squint-Eyes, see Takkuth-kutchin.Stak-ta-mish, see Kwaiailk.Stalo, 600-601*Staq-ttibc, see Chehalis.Stdr-r4h-he', see Arikara.Stef^nsson, Vilhjalmur, explorer, 568Stegaraki, 62Stem, Jesse, 319St^mchi, see Crow.St^mtchi, see Crow.Stevenson, Matilda Coxe, 348Steward, Julian H., on Shoshoni.Stewart, Rev. Alex., missionary, 80, 81Stimk, see Crow.Stinkards, see Winnebago.Stla'thiumH, see Lillooet.Stobshaddat, see Yakima.Stockbridges, 254, 255, 257-258removed to Wisconsin, 42See also Mahican.Stone Indians, see Assiniboin.Stonies, see Assiniboin.Stono, 95, 96, 119Stuart, John, British Indian Agent, 214Stuwihamuk, 601*absorbed by Ntlakyapamuk, 601Stxuafxn, see Siksika.Suali, see Cheraw.Subinha, 634Subtiaba, 634Sucayi, 619, 634Suck-a-mier, see Luckiamute.Su'-dji6, see Kadohadacho.Suerre, 634Sugeree, 85, 100*, 102, 103probably united with Catawba, 100Suketi'kenuk, see Nisqually.Sukoti'kenuk, see Nisqually.Sulatelik, see Wiyot.SuUivan, Indian towns destroyed by,40, 73Suma, 618, 624, 626, 634See also Shuman.Sumo, 615, 621, 624,"^ 625, 627, 632,634-635, 636, 641Sumo-Sirpe, 635Sun caste, Natchez institution, 190Sunset Indians, see Natchez.Sa'nyitsa, see Zuni.Siinyltsi, see Zuni.Supai, see Havasupai.Suquamish, 445*Surruque, 143*probably joined Timucua, 143Susquamish, see Suquamish.Susquehanna, 33, 55, 56-57*, 58, 61, 62,64, 65, 74conquest by Iroquois, 57encounter with Dutch, 57encounter with English, 57encounter with French, 57
Susquehanna?ContinuedHonniasont destroyed by, 55massacred by Whites, 57Susquehannock, see Susquehanna.Sussee, see Sarcee.Sussekoon, see Sarcee.Sutaio, 278, 279, 280, 284, 285*migrations of, 285Suturees, see Sugeree.Suwa'dabc, see Sinkiuse-Columbia.Su^wa'pmu?, see Shuswap.
.swa'dab.c, see Sinkiuse-Columbia.Swalash, see Swallah.Swallah, 445-446*Swan, James G., 418
.swa'namc, see Sinkiuse-Columbia.Swedes, contact with Delaware, 54contact with Unalachtigo, 54Swinomish, 442, 446*Td-ashi, see Apache.T^a Ashiwani, see Zuni.Tabby, Ute Chief, 374Tabeguache, Ute band, 374Tabkgpdya, see Walapai.Ta-cdb-ci-nyu-mAh, see Navaho.Tacatacuru, 144*joined Timucua, 144relations with French, 144relations with Spanish, 144Tadirighrones, see Catawba.Taensa, 124, 171, 188, 197, 203, 205, 206,209-210*, 232destroyed Bayogoula, 200, 209disappearance of, 210human sacrifices made by, 209, 210migrations of, 171, 209, 210relations with French, 209Tagualilos, 635Td'gugala, see Kiowa Apache.Tagui, see Apache, Kiowa Apache.Tdgukerfeh, see Apache.Tdgukerish, see Kiowa Apache.TS'hana, see Ute.Td'hba, see Maricopa.Tdh'ba, see Papago.Ta'hli'mnin, see Navaho,Tahltan, 601-602*, 606Tahogal6wi, see Yuchi.Tahue, 635Taidnapam, 446*extinct as tribe, 446Ta-ih, see Tyigh, 473Taitinapam, 425Taiwi, see Tabby.Takadh6, see Takkuth-kutchin.Takelma, 469-470*Takelma, Lowland, see Takelma.Takhayuna, see Aleut.Takhtam, see Serrano.Takulli, see Carriers.Takkuth-kutchin, 602-603*Ta-kutchi, see Eskimo.Ta-Kuth-Kutchin, see Takkuth-kutchin.Talamanca, 615, 633, 634, 635, 636Td,16maya, see Tututni.
INDEX 719
Tali, 229Tallapoosa, 228See also Creeks.Talligewi, see Cherokee.Tallion Nation, see Bellacoola.Taltushtuntude, 459, 470*Talwa lako, see Apalachicola.Tama, see Tamathli.Tamahita, see Yuchi.Tamali, 104, 123Tamankamvam, see Serrano.Tamathli, 113-114*, 115Tamaulipec, 614, 615, 616, 620, 622, 623,626, 632, 633, 634, 635, 637Tamaulipecan family of Mexico, 309Tamazulteca, 635Tamenend, Delaware chief, 55Tamos, see Pecos.Tanaina, 53&-539*Tanana, 539-540*Taneks a?ya, see Biloxi.Tangipahoa, 195, 196, 210-211*disappearance of, 211Tani'bangn, see Kadohadacho.Tanish, see Arikara.Tan-nah-shis-en, see Jicarilla.Tano, see Tewa, Southern.Tanoan, 324, 339, 344, 352Ta'n-ta'wats, see Chemehuevi.Tapd,adji, see Klamath.Tapachula, see Tapachultec.Tapachultec (1), 636Tapachultec (2), 636Tapanash, see Skin.Tapixulapan, 636, 642Taposa, 177, 187, 192Td-qta, see Choctaw.Ta-qui'-q<ic-c6, see Tututni.Tarahumare, 630, 636Tarasco, 636Tariaca, 636TarOS, see Yavapai.Tarrateens, see Abnaki.Tasdmew6, see Navaho.Tdshash, see Kadohadacho.Tashin, see Apache, Kiowa Apache.Tashi'ne, see Jicarilla.Tassenocogoula, see Avoyel.Tatamaste, 619, 636Tatanchaks, see Tutchone,Tatimolo, 636, 638Tatiquilhati, 636Tatlit-kutchin, 603*Tatsanottine, 603-604*noted for possession of copper, 604Ta'-tu, see Huchnom.Taux, see Nanticoke.Tawa, see Ottawa.Tawachgudns, see Nanticoke.Tawahka, 626, 636, 639Tawakoni, 303*, 304, 305, 307, 325, 326joined Wichita, 303, 304, 325Tawasa, 130, 135, 136, 144-145*, 154,155, 157, 210, 211joined Alabama, 154, 211migrations, 145
I Tawatawas, see Miami.Tawehash, 303-304*, 306Tawira, 636Taxkdhe, see Apache.Tayopan, 622, 636Tca-ka'ne", see Delaware.Tcdlke, see Cherokee.Tca-qtd a?-ya-df, see Choctaw.Tcashtaldlgi, see Potawatorai.Tca-td, see Choctaw.Tc'eca'atq, see Nootka.Tce'metun, see Tututni.Tcerokidco, see Cherokee.Tchaktchdn, see Chickasaw.Tchaxstikush, see Nez Perc6.Tcha ydkon amim, see Yaquina.Tch'Ayanke'ld, see Yoncalla.Tcha ydxo amim, see Alsea.Tchidxsokush, see Ponca.Tchihogdsat, see Maricopa.Tchfkasa, see Chickasaw.Tcigok-rung", see Eskimo.Tci'-ka-sa', see Chickasaw.Tcingawiiptuh, see Ute.TcitxAa'ut, see Okanagon.Tco'ko, see Sarcee.Tcunoiyana, see Atsugewi.Tcutzwa'ut, see Okanagon.Tedxtkni, see Tyigh.Tebaca, 636Tebas, see Tiwa Pueblos.Tecaya, 636Teco-Tecoxquin, 636Tecual, 636Tecuexe, 616, 636-637Tecumseh, Shawnee chief, 166, 184, 228,229, 240death of, 228Tedexenos, 637Tghayesdtlu, see Alsea.Tehueco, 615, 616, 637Teit, James, 429, 578, 606Te'it, see Stalo.Tejano, see Coahuiltecan Tribes.T^kapu, see Kickapoo.Tekesta, 121, 145-146*removed to Cuba, 146Telamateno", see Wyandot.Te'h^mnim, see Navaho.Teluski, 637Temori, 637Tenino, 470-471*, 473, 474settled on reservation, 471Tennessee [State of], 215-229Catawba, 215Cherokee, 215-224*Chiaha, 224Chickasaw, 224Kaskinampo, 224-225*Mosopelea, 225Muskogee, 225Natchez, 225Ofo, 225Shawnee, 225-229*Tali, 229Tuskegee, 229
720 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuU. 145Tennessee [State of]?ContinuedYuchi, 229Tennuth-kutchin, 540*exterminated by scarlet fever, 540Tenskwdtawa, Shawnee medicine man,228, 229Teny6, see Navaho.Tepahue, 615, 637Tepanec, 628Te'pda', see Kiowa.Tepecano, 637, 638Tepehua, 637Tepehuan, 637, 638Tepemacas, 635, 637Tepki'nago, see Kiowa.Tepocas, 634, 637Tequesta, see Tekesta.Tequistlatec, 618, 637Teran, Domingo, explorer, 318T^rraba, 637, 638Teshbi, 638Tdte Pel^e, see Comanche.T^tes Plates, see Choctaw.T^tes-Plates, see Salish.Tetiquilhati, 638Teul, 638Tewa, 343, 344, 353Northern, 344Southern, 344Tewa Pueblos, 334, 340-344*Tewohomomy, see Tuscarora.Texas [State of], 307-327Akokisa, 307Alabama, 307Anadarko, 307Apache, 307Aranaroa, 308Atakapa, 308Bidai. 308Biloxi, 308Caddo Tribes, 309Cherokee, 309Choctaw, 309Coahuiltecan Tribes, 309-312*Comanche, 312-314*Creeks, 314Deadose, 314Eyeish, or Hdish, 314-315*Guasco, 315Hainai, 315Hasinai Confederacy, 315-317*Isleta del Sur, 317Jicarilla, 317Kadohadacho Confederacy, 317-320*Karankawan Tribes, 320-321*Kichai, 321-322*Kiowa, 322Koasati, 322Lipan, 322-323*Muskogee, 323Nabedache, Nacachau, Nacanish,Nacogdoche, Nadaco, Namidish,Nechaui, Neches, and Nasoni,323Nanatsoho, 323Nasoni, Upper, 323
Texas [State of]?ContinuedPakana, 323Pascagoula, 323-324Patiri, 324Pueblos, 324Quapaw, 324Senecu del Sur, 324Shawnee, 324Shuman, 324-325*Soacatino or Xacatin, 325Tawakoni, 325Tonkawan Tribes, 326-327*Waco, 327Wichita, 327Texas, see Hasinai.Texas Rangers, organization of, 314Texixtepec, 638Texpamais, see Papago.Tex-pSs, see Pima.Teya, 343Thah-a-i-nin', see Apache.Tha'kd-hing'na, see Kiowa Apache,Thalhthan, see Tahltan.Thastchetci', see Wyandot.Th^coel, see Natchez.Th6-k6-n6, see Sekani,Theloel, see Natchez.Thldla'h, see Chinook.Thlingchadinne, 604Thoig'a-rik-kah, see Nez Perc6.Thomas, William H., Indian trader, 223Thompson, David, 392Thompson River Indians, see Ntlakya-pamuk.Three Canes, see Tawakoni.Thy, see Tyigh.Ti'attluxa, see Sinkiuse-Columbia.Tiburon, 634Tice, 622, 638Tideing Indians, see Kiowa.Tigua, see Tiwa Pueblos.Tiguex, see Tiwa Pueblos.Tihokahana, see Pima.Tihuas, see Tiwa Pueblos.Ti-ka'-j5,, see Chickasaw.Tillamook, 471-472*Timpoochee Barnard, Yuchi chief, 166Timucua, 114, 123, 129, 131, 138, 147-152*, 153, 169disappearance of, 150, 151, 152joined by Tacatacuru, 144probably joined by Surruque, 143Timucua language, 139, 151Timucua Rebellion, 139, l44, 152, 169Timucuan tribes, 132, 134, 135, 138,150-151, 153Tinde, see Jicarilla.Tinna'-ash, see Apache.Tiokeang, see Kato.Tionontati, 233, 235, 236, 258, 307,604r-605*joined Huron, 604Tiou, 177, 185, 188, 189, 192-193*Tipai, see Kamia.Tiqui-Llapais, see Walapai.Tisaiqdji, see Yana.
INDEX 721Ti'tskan wdtitch, see Tonkawan Tribes.Tiu'tlama'eka, see Assiniboin.Tiwa, Wichita band, 303, 334, 337, 344,345Tiwa Pueblos, 340, 344-346*Tkulhiyogoa'ikc, see Kwalhioqua.Tla'asath, see Makah.TIacopan, 628, 638TIacotepehua-Tepuzteca, 638Tlakai'tat, see Klickitat.Tlakalama, 442Tiaklmlsh, see Clackamas.Tlakluit, see Wishram.Tla'lem, see Clallam.Tlalliguamayas, see Halyikwamai.Tlapanec, 638Tlapaneco-Yopi, see Tlapanec.Tlascala, 638Tlascaltec, 628Tlatskanai, see Clatskanie.Tlik'atewti'mtlat, see Shuswap.Tlingit, 540-543*, 570, 575, 606, 607Sanya, 606Toa, see Tamathli.Toags, see Nanticoke.Toalli, see Tamathli.Toanho, 445Tobacco Indians, see Tionontati.Tobacco Nation, see Tionontati.Tobar, Pedro de, 352Tobikhars, see Gabrielino.Toboso, 615, 621, 638To-che-wah-coo, see Foxes.Tocobaga, 146*, 150, 151Tocone, 619, 638Tocwogh, 60Tohome, 160, 171-172*absorbed by Choctaw, 172Tojar, 638Tokane, 307Tolameco, see Chiaha.Tolimeca, 638Tolowa, 456, 515-516*Tomahitans, see Yuchi.Tompacuas, see Tocobaga.Tompiros, see Piro Pueblos.Tonkawa, 301, 303, 304, 308, 321, 323,326, 330massacre of, 327removed to reservation, 304, 327See also Karankawan Tribes.Tonkawan Tribes, 308, 309, 326-327*accused of cannibalism, 327list of, 326Tonkonko, see Siksika.T6no-oohtam, see Papago,Tonti, Henri de, 186, 188, 193, 200. 205,208, 209, 214, 318Tonto, applied to group of tribes, 365Topacolme, 619, 638Topin-keua, see Hopi.Toquegua, 638Totonac, 616, 631, 636, 638Totorame, 639Tpe-tliet-Kouttchin, see Tatlit-kutchin.
Tpe-ttchi6-dhidid-Kouttchin, see Natsit-kutchin.Tranjik-kutchin, 537, 543*Treaty at Fort Clark, Louisiana Terri-tory, 213Treaty at St. Louis, 213Treaty of Chicago, 298Treaty of Dancing Rabbit, 184Treaty of Doak's Stand, 212Treaty of Fort Bridger, 404Treaty of Fort Jackson, 145, 155Treaty of Fort Laramie, 279Treaty of Greenville, 227, 230, 231, 232,236, 237, 240, 243Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, 370Treaty of Medicine Lodge, 385Treaty of New Echota, 222, 292Treaty of Prairie du Chien, 266Trinity Indians, see Hupa.Trique, 639Troiscannes, see Tawakoni.Tsaba'kosh, see Dakota,Tsah-tA, see Choctaw.Tsaisuma, see Washo.Tsan Arapkua amim, see Umpqua.Tsand-uta amim, see Siuslaw.Tsanh-alokual amim, see Calapoo3'^a.Tsa Shnddsh amim, see Siletz.Tsattine, 592, 594, 605*Tsawa'nEmux, see Okanagon.Ts5 Amingma, see Tyigh.Ts6 la'kayat amim, see Klickitat.Ts6 Skua'Ui ami'm, see Nisqually.Tsekenn^, see Sekani.Tseloni, see Sekani.Tse-sa do hpa ka, see Pawnee.Tsethaottine, 585Tsetsaut, 606*Tshe-tsi-uetin-euerno, see Montagnais-Naskapi.Tshish6, see Apache.T'set'sa'ut, see Sekani.Tsi'-ka-c?, see Chickasaw.Tsilkotin, see Chilcotiu.Tsimshian, 543, 573, 586, 606-607*noted for their carvings, 607
.tskowa'xtsEnux, see Sinkiuse-Columbia.Tso'kwob.c, see Wenatchee.Tso-Ottinfe, see Sarcee.Ts'otsqE'n, see Tsimshian.Tsoyaha, see Yuchi.Tsuhdrukats, see Nez Perc6.Tsu'qos, see Sarcee.Ts'ti-qds-li'-qwttt-me'tunne, see Daku-betede.Tsutpgli, see Nez Perc6.Tu-a'd-hu, see Twana.Tudlati, see Atfalati.Tualatin, see Atfalati.Td'-ba-na, see Tewa Pueblos.Tubar, 639Tubatulabal, 516-517*Tucurrique, 639Tu'hu tane, see Clackamas.Tuhu'vti-6mokat, see Siksika.
722 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BnlL 145Tukabahchee, division of the Muskogee,119, 172, 174Tukahun, see Piro Pueblos.Tukkuth-kutchin, 544TAk-pa'-ha?-ya-di, see Atakapa.Tu'kwil-ma'-k'i, see Kuitsh.Tulalip, 443Tul'bush, see Mattole.Tule, 639Tumangamalum, see Gabrielino.Turnwater Indians, see Clowwewalla.Tunahe, Kutenai tribe, 392, 394, 398TunS'xe, see Tunahe.Tungla, 639Tunica, 186, 188, 192, 193-194*, 199,200 215friendly with French, 193, 194joined by Ofo, 207, 232Tunican group, 198Tunki, 630Tunxis, 24Turner, Nat, 71Turriarba, 622, 639Turrin, 639Turucaca, 639Tu-sa-be', see JicariUa.Tusayan, see Hopi.Tuscaloosa, Mobile chief, 159Tuscarora, 33, 40, 44, 57, 62, 63, 65, 73,77, 78, 82, 83, 85-88*, 90, 91, 95,221adopted by Oneida, 87Expedition, 75, 98, 101, 115joined with Iroquois, 44, 57, 87, 88,300migrations of, 87, 88Pamlico destroyed by, 83perhaps joined by Neusiok, 82treaties with Whites, 87treaty with English, 83, 88War, 44, 72, 77, 78, 81, 83, 86, 90,103Tuskegee, 157, 172-173*, 229, 304language, 154, 172migrations of, 173, 304Tutchone, 608*Tutchone-kutchin, see Tutchone.Tutcone, 603Tutcone-kutchin, 544Tutelo, 44, 57, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 71,72, 73-74*, 79, 80, 81, 88, 232,276adopted by Cayuga, 44, 72, 73flight to Canada, 73joined by Nahyssan, 64joined by Occaneechi, 66joined Saponi, 73Tu-ts&n-nde, see Lipan.Tututni, 463, 472-473*Tu'-vSn, see Tewa Pueblos.Tu'-wa, see Jemez.T|uwanxa-ikc, see Klickitat.Tiixqugt, see Wichita.Triygtchlskg, see Dakota.Twana, 447*See also Toanho.
Twightwees, see Miami.Tyh, see Tyigh.Tyigh, 471, 473-474*Tykothee-dinneh, see Takkuth-kutchin.Tzeltal, 617, 618, 639Tzental, see Tseltal.Tzi-na-ma-a, see Mohave.Tzotzil, 617, 618, 639Tzutuhil, 639U'-aha, see Omaha.Uala-to-hua, see Jemez.Ugachile, see Timucua.Uchita, 639, 640Ucita, see Pohoy.Udawak, see Ottawa.Ugalakmiut, Tlingitized, 543Uinta, Ute band, 374, 375tjkase, see Kansa.U-ka'-she, see Mandan.Ukhotno'm, see Yuki, Coast.Ukua'-yata, see Ottawa.Uln6 mequaegit, see Beothuk.Ulnobah, see Beothuk.Ultsehaga, see Eskimo.Ulua, 626, 627, 639-640, 641Umatilla, 474*Umpqua, 452, 459, 474-475*Lower, see Kuitsh.Upper, see Umpqua.Umpwua, see Kuitsh.Unalachtigo, contact with Swedes, 54See also Nanticoke.Unami, 54Uncas, Mohegan chief, 24, 30, 32See also Mohegan.Unchechauge, see Passamaquoddy.Uncompahgre, Ute band, 374, 375Ungiay6-rono, see Seminole.United States Government, relationewith Choctaw, 184, 185Unkus, see Mohegan.Unquechauge, see Passamaquoddy.U-nung'tin, see Aleut.Upanguayma, 634, 640Upland Indians, see Mohegan.Upper Porcupine River Kutchin, seeTakkuth-kutchin.Uragees, see Mahican.Urayoan, 611Uren, 640Ures, 631, 640Urinama, 640Urraca, 640Usherys, see Catawba.Ush-ke-we-ah, see Bannock.Ushpee, see Mosopelea.Uspanteca, 640Ussaggne'wi, see Montagnais-Naskapi.Ussaghenick, see Montagnais-Naskapi.Ussinnewudj Eninnewug, see Saroee.Utah [State of], 372-375Bannock, 372Gosiute, 372-373Navaho, 373
INDEX 723Utah [State of]?ContinuedPaiute, Southern, 373Shoshoni, Western, 373Ute, 373-375*Utce-cf-nyu-mdh, see Apache.UtcEna'.qai'n, see Okanagon.Utciti, see Uchita.Ute, 346, 372, 373-375*. 383, 385, 387,482horses introduced among, 374Southern, 374treaties with, 374-375White River 375Ute Dietgers, see Paiute, Southern,Utina, 120, 138, 139, 146-151*war with Potano, 138, 139See also Timucua.Utsushuat, see Quapaw.Utuado, 611Uxul, see Lipan.Uwatd.yo-r6no, see Cherokee.Vacoregue, 622, 640Vancouver, George, explorer, 573Vandera, Spanish officer, 84, 100, 102, 172Vanyume, 480, 497, 517*extinct tribe, 517Vaquabo, 611Vaqueros, see Jicarilla.Vargas, Spanish soldier, 331, 348, 353Varohfo, 617, 637, 640Vassapalles, 625, 640Venegas, Miguel, 356Veniamfnoff, Ivan, missionary, 532, 539,542Veracruzano, 640Vermont [State of], 18-19Abnaki, 18Mahican, 18Missiassik, see Abnaki.Pennacook, 19Pocomtuc, 19Vetancourt, Agustin de, 334Viceita, 640Vidshi itikapa, see Papago,Vigitega, 640Virginia [State of], 61-74Cherokee, 61Manahoac, 61-62*Meherrin, 62-63*Monacan, 63-64*Nahyssan, 64*Nottaway, 65*Occaneechi, 65-66*Powhatan, 66-71*Saponi, 71-73*Shawnee, 73Tutelo, 73-74*Virginia Colonists, Nottaway'discoveredby, 65Viscayno, S., explorer, 478Vi'tapatdi, see Kiowa.Vivier, Father, missionary, 214Voto, 622, 640Vunta-kutchin, 543-544*, 603
WAatenlhts, see Ute.Wabanaki, see Abnaki, Delaware.Waccamaw, 75, 88, 90, 97, 100-101*,103Waco, 303, 304^305*, 307, 325, 327merged with Tawakoni and Wich-ita, 305Waciitada, see Oto.Waguxj^a, see Missouri.Wad6tata, see Oto.Waganha's, see Ottawa.Wah-ho'-na-hah, see Potawatomi.Wdhiujiaxd, see Potawatomi.Wihiuyaha, see Potawatomi.Wah-kah-towah, see Chippewa.Wahmi, 617, 640Wahnookt, see Klickitat.Wahunsonacock, Powhatan chief, 66,70, 71Waicuri, 614, 620, 639, 640-641Waiki lako, see Okmulgee.Wailaki, 517-518*Wailgtpu, see Cayuse.Wa-ju'-xdjia, see Missouri.Wdkidohka-numak, see Shoshoni, North-ern.Wakokai, division of the Muskogee, 173Wakush^g, see Foxes.Walam Olum, traditional history ofDelaware, 54Wdlamskni, see Chastacosta.Wdlamswash, see Chastacosta.Walapai, 351, 365-366*Walatoa, see Jemez.Waldron, 18Walker, trapper, 380Wallawalla, 447-448*, 474, 475placed on reservation, 447Walpapi, 475Walpians, 353Walula, see Wallawalla.Walumskni, see Latgawa.Wamakava, see Mohave, Yuma.Wampanoag, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24-27*, 29,44Pilgrim's treaty with, 26sold into slavery, 21Wanak, see Dakota.Wanapam, 448*Wannalancet, Pennacook chief, 18Wa-nuk'-e-ye'-na, see Hidatsa.Wa-otc', see Iowa.Wappato, see Multnomah.Wappatoo Lake Indians, see Atfalati.Wappinger, 23, 33, 42, 44-48*, 60adoption by Delaware, 47discovered by Henry Hudson, 47wampum made by, 48Wappo, 518-519*Waptai'lmln, see Yakima.War of 1812, 253Warm Springs Indians, see Tenino.Wasabane, 635Wa-sa-sa-o-no, see Dakota.Wasco, 475*, 476
724 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 145Washa, 137, 200, 201, 202, 207, 211-212*, 519disappearance of, 211Washakie, Shoshoni chief, 404, 405Washington [State of], 412-451Cathlamet, 414*Cathlapotle, 414-415*Cayuse, 415Chehalis, 415-416*Chelan, 416*Chilluckittequaw, 416-417*Chimakum, 417*Chinook, 417-419*Clackamas, 419Clallum, 419-420*Columbia, 420-421*Colville, 421-422*Copalis, 422*Cowlitz, 422-423*Duwamish, 423*Hoh, 424*Humptulips, 424*Kalispel, 424Klickitat, 424-425*Kwaiailk, 426*Kwalhioqua, 426*Lummi, 427*Makah, 427-428*Methow, 428*Mical, 428*Muckleshoot, 428-429*Neketemeuk, 429Nespelem, 429Nez Perc6, 429Nisqually, 429-430*Nooksack, 430*Ntlayapamuk, 430Okanagon, 430-433*Ozette, 433*Palouse, 433-434*Pshwanwapam, 434*Puyallup, 434*Queets or Quaitso, 434-435*Quileute, 435*Quinault, 435-436*Sahehwamish, 436-437*Samish, 437*Sanpoil, 437-439*Satsop, 439-440*Semiahmoo, 440*Senijextee, 440*Sinkaietk, 440-441*Sinkakaius, 441*Skagit, 441-442*Sinkiuse-Columbia, 420-421*Skilloot, 442*Skin, 442-443*Snohomish, 443*Snoqualmie, 443-444*Spokan, 444r-445*Squaxon or Squakson, 445*Suquamish, 445*Swallah, 445-446*Swinomish, 446*Taidnapam, 446*Twana, 447*
Washington [State of]?ContinuedWallawalla, 447-448*Wanapam, 448*Watlala, 448Wauyukma, 448*Wenatchee (Wina't.ca), 448-449Wishram, 449-450*Wynoochee, 450*Yakima, 450-451*Washo, 383-384*, 519conquered by Paiute, Northern, 384Watawawininiwok, see Ottawa,Wateknasi, see Tiilaatulabal.Wateni'hte, see Siksika.Wateree, 88, 101-102*joined Catawba, 101Watlala, 448, 478*Watohtata, see Oto.Wat'ota, see Oto.Watiitata, see Oto.Wauyukma, 448*Wawdh, see Maidu, Wintun.Waxhaw, 88, 102*destruction of, 102Wa-ya-ta-no'-ke, see Miami.Waymouth, [Capt. George], 14Wazhazhe, see Osage.Wazikute, band of Yanktonai, 388Wa-zi'-ya-ta Pa-da'-nin, see Arikara.WdQwQ, see Ottawa.Wea, 239, 242, 297, 300, 305subdivision of Miami, 297, 305Weapemeoc, 88-89*Weepers, see Assiniboin.Weesock, see Waxhaw.Wehrman, Lt., Russian explorer, 543Weitchpec, see Yurok.Wenatchee, 448-449*Wenrohronon, 48*, 57allied with Neutral Nation, 48destruction of, 48Werowocomoco, 71W6s'&nikaci?ga, see Shoshoni, Northern.Weskarini, see Algonkin.West Indies, 608-611Cuban Tribes, 610-611Haitian Tribes, 608-610Jamaican Tribes, 611Porto Rican Tribes, 611West Virginia [State of], 74Cherokee, 74Conoy, 74Delaware, 74Honniasont, 74Moneton, 74*Shawnee, 74Susquehanna, 74Western Dakota, see Dakota.Western Niantic, see Niantic.Westo, see Yuchi.WEtc.naqei'n, see Okanagon.Wetitsad,n, see Hidatsa.Whe-el-po, see Colville.Whilkut, 483, 492, 519*White Indians, see Menominee.White M inqua, see Susquehanna.
INDEX 725Whites, massacred by Indians, 86relations with Catawba, 91relations with Eskimo, 568relations with Modoc, 465relations with Northern Shoshoni,404relations with Salish, 394relations with Southern Paiute,383treaties with Indians, 87Whitman, Marcus, missionary, 413, 455murder of, 455Whiwunai, see Hopi.Wichita, 54, 289, 300, 303, 304, 305-306*, 307, 321, 323, 327joined by Kichai, 322joined by Tawakoni, 303, 304, 325migrations of, 306Wichita Reservation, occupied by Dela-ware, 55Wicocomoco, 60, 71Widshi itfkapa, see Maricopa.Widshi Iti'kapa, see Pima.Wild Coyotes, see Navaho.Wild Rice Men, see Menominee.Wi'lfa Ampa'fa ami'm, see Twana.Wili idahapd,, see Mohave.Wilkes, Charles, 402, 472Willamette Falls Indians, see Clowwe-walla.Willamette Indians, see Clowwewalla.Willamette tribes, 425Williams, Roger, 28, 32Wilson, John, Caddo leader, 319Wiminuche, Ute band, 374Wina't:ca, see Wenatchee.Winnebago, 243, 252, 258-259*, 265,267, 269, 270, 276, 277, 285, 286,287, 291migrations of, 258-259, 267, 269Winnepurkit, Massachuset chief, 20Wintu, 519-520*Wintun, 517, 520-521*Winyaw, 97, 101, 102-103*disappearance of, 103Wisacky, see Waxhaw.Wisconsin [State of], 250-259Chippewa, 250Dakota, 250Foxes, 250-252*Housatonic, 252Illinois, 252Iowa, 252Iroquois, 252Kickapoo, 252-254*Mahican, 254Mascouten, 254Menominee, 254-255*Miami, 255Missouri, 255Munsee, 255Noquet, 256Oneida, 256Oto, 256Ottawa, 256Potawatomi, 256
Wisconsin [State of]?ContinuedSauk, 256-257*Stockbridges, 257-258Tionontati, 258Winnebago, 258-259*Wyandot, 259Wishosk, see Wiyot.Wishram, 449-450*Witanghatal, see Serrano.Wi'tapahatu, see Kiowa.Witishaxtdnu, see Illinois, Miami.Witiine, see Kadohadacho.Wiwash, see Nanticoke.Wiwohka, division of the Muskogee, 174Wiyot, 521-522*Woccon, 89-90*, 100destruction of, 90language preserved, 90W6hesh, see Pawnee.Wols, see Klamath,Wong'-ge, see Jemez.Wood, Abraham, trader, 74, 90, 118Wood Indians, see Tutchone.Woraxa, see Potawatomi.Wordxg, see Potawatomi.Wrangell, Baron, 539Wright, Allen, Choctaw chief, 188Wu'cxam, see Wishram.Wula'stegwi'ak, see Malecite.Wiilx, see Shasta.Wyandot, 44, 227, 233-236*, 240, 243,250, 258, 259, 265, 298, 300, 307,605allied with British, 235citizens of Oklahoma, 236, 307destruction of Confederacy by Iro-quois, 236, 250, 259Wynoochee, 415, 450*Wyoming [State of], 384-387Arapaho, 384-386*Bannock, 386Cheyenne, 386Comanche, 386Crows, 386Dakota, 386Kiowa, 386Kiowa Apache, 387Pawnee, 387Shoshoni, 387Ute, 387Xacatin, see Soacatino,Xa-hS'-ta-flo', see Apache.Xaratenumanke, see Pawnee.Xaray, see Zufii.Xdtukwiwa, see Wintun.Xaxka'-a, see Crow.Xilotlantzinca, 641Xinca, 624, 625, 634, 641Xixime, 614, 622, 623, 641Xiximole, 619, 641Xorrhue, 641Xoxi, see Sewee.Xuala, see Cheraw.Xualla, see Cheraw.Xumanas, see Shuman.
726 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuU. 145Xupiltepec, 641Xurru, 641Xutiapa, 641Ya?gaM', see Umpqua.Yabipai Cajuala, see Paiute, Southern.Yabipai Jabesua, see Havasupai.Yabipai Lipan, 322Yabipais, see Navaho.Yabipais Natag6, see Kiowa Apache.Yacchicaua, 619, 641Yaculsari, 619, 641Yadkin, 90*Yagueca, 611Yahi, 522*Yahuskin, 476Ya'-ide'sta, see Molala.Yakima, 413, 425, 433, 450-451*, 462,471joined by Klickitat, 425removed to Reservation, 451Upper, see Pshwanwapam.Yakima War, 451Y6kokon kdpai, see Karankawan Tribes.Yakonan Tribes, 452Yakutat, 543Yam Hill, see Y^mel.Yamacraw, see Yamasee.Yamasee, 102, 103, 104, 106, 107, 110,114-116*, 122, 123, 128, 131, 139,144, 152, 157, 174joined by Guale, 110, 115, 116joined Creeks, 152, 174Yamasee War, 75, 76, 84, 91, 93, 98, 99,101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 108, 116,124, 166, 227Yamel, 47&-477*Yamiscaron, see Yamasee.Yampa, Ute band, 374Yampah, see Comanche.Ya'mpaini, see Comanche.Yampaos, see Yavapai.Yana, 490, 522-523*Central, 479Yanabopos, 625, 641Yanktonai, see Aseiniboin.Yaochane, 619, 641Yaqui, 616, 641Yaquina, 477-478*Yasika, 641Yatasi, 205, 206, 212, 318member of Natchitoches Confed-eracy, 212.Yatche6-thinyoowuc, see Chipewyan.Yatchitcohes, see Natchitoches.YdtilatMvi, see Navaho.Yauco, 611Yavapai, 351, 357, 365, 366, 367-369*Yayecha, see Eyeish.Yazoo, 187, 188, 194-195,* 201, 209.215, 232Ybaha, see Guale.Ychfi-yamel-amim, see Yamel.Yeardley, Governor [Sir George], 79, 84Y6cora, 631, 641Yeguacat, 619, 641
Yellowknife Indians, see Ahtena.Yellow-knife Indians, see Tatsanottine.Yenyohol, see Winyaw.Yeopim, see Weapemeoc.Yesa?, see Nahyssan.Yguaja, see Guale.Yoetahi, see Navaho.Yojuane, Tonkawan Tribe, 326Yokuts, 523-526*Yokuts, King's River, 479Yolox, 617, 641Yoncalla, 478*Yoron, see Tunica.Yosko, 639, 641Youkon Louchioux Indians, see Kutcha-kutchin.Ysa, see Catawba.Yscani, 303, 305, 307*Yuchi, 99, 102, 103-104, 106, 116-120,*130, 140, 151, 152, 157, 167, 174,227, 229, 230, 307joined Creeks, 104, 118, 140, 152,307migrations of, 118-119, 152, 174united with Shawnee, 118, 174Yufera, 152See also Florida.See also Eufaula.Yui, 152-153*disappearance of, 153Yu-i'-ta, see Navaho.Yuk'hiti ishak, see Atakapa.Yuki, 526-527*Yuki, Coast, 527-528*Yukuth Kutchin, see Takkuth-kutchin.Yullit, see Ahtena.Yum, see Kamia.Yuma, 349, 354, 356, 365, 369-370,* 528Yuma Apache, 369Yuma tribes, 347, 351, 365, 490, 614,620, 622, 624, 625Yu?ssiha, see Dakota.Yu^tara'ye-ru'nu, see Kickapoo.Yupaha, see Guale.Yurok, 521, 528-529*Yurok Tsulu-la, see Chilula.Yustaga, see Hostaqua.Yutahd, see Navaho.Yutflap^, see Navaho.Yutilatldwi, see Navaho.Zacateco, 642Za'-ke, see Sauk.Zapotec, 617, 627, 642Zarate-Salmeron, 335Zayahueco, 620, 642Ze-gar-kin-a, see Zuni.Zegua, 642Zhorquin, 642Zj6n-ta-Kouttchin, see Vunta-kutchin.Zoe, 615, 642Zoque, 642Zuaque, 616, 642Zuni, 340, 346-348*attacked by Spaniards, 347-348Zuz6ca widdsa, see Shoshoni, Northern.