SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY. THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. I>R. FRANZ BOAS . CONTENTS. Page. Introduction 409 Authorities quoted 410 Orthography 413 Geography of Northeastern America 414 Distribution of the tribes 419 General observations 419 Baffin Land 431 The Sikosuilarmiut 421 The Akuliarmiut 431 The Qauinauangmiut '. 431 The Nugumiut 433 The Oqomiut 434 Tlie Padlimiut and the Akudnirmiut 440 The Aggoniiut 443 The Iglulirmiut . . . /• 444 The Pilingmiut 444 The Sagdlirmiut 444 Western shore of Hudson Bay 444 The Aivillirmiut 445 The Kinipetii or Agutit 450 The Sagdlirmiut of Southampton Island 451 Tlie Sinimiut 451 Boothia Felix and Back River 453 Tlie Netchillirmiut 453 The Ugjulirmiut 458 The Ilkusiksalirmiut 458 Smith Sound 459 The natives of EUesmere Land 459 The North Greenlanders 460 Influence of geographical conditions upon the distribution of the settlements 460 Trade and intercourse between the tribes 463 List of the Central Eskimo tribes 470 Hunting and fishing 471 Seal, walrus, and whale hunting 471 Deer, musk ox, and bear hunting 501 Hunting of small game 510 Fisliing 513 Manufactures 516 Making leather and preparing skins 516 Sundry implements 533 Transportation by boats and sledges 537 The boat 537 The sledge and dogs 539 ETH 26 401 402 Habitations and dress 539 The house 539 Clothing, dressing of the hair, and tattooing 554 Social and religious life ' 561 Domestic occupations and amusements 561 Visiting 574 Social customs in summer 576 Social order and laws 578 Religious ideas and the angakunirn (priesthood) 583 Sedna and the fulmar 583 The tornait and the angakut 591 The flight to the moon 598 Kadlu the thunderer 600 Feasts, religious and secular. . . ; 600 Customs and regulations concerning birth, sickness, and death 609 Tales and traditions 615 Ititaujang 615 The emigration of the Sagdlirmiut 618 Kalopaling .- 630 The Uissuit 621 Kiviung 631 Origin of the narwhal 635 The visitor 627 The fugitive women 638 Qaudjaqdjuq 638 I. Story of the three brothers 628 II. Qaudjaqdjuq 630 Igimarasugdjuqdjuaq the cannibal 633 The Tornit 634 The woman and the spirit of the singing house 636 The constellation Udleqdjim 636 Origin of the Adlet and of the Qadlunait 637 The great flood 637 Inugpaqdjuqdjualung 638 The bear story 638 Sundry tales 639 The owl and the raven 641 Comparison between Bafl&n Land traditions and those of other tribes 641 Science and the arts 643 Geography and navigation 643 Poetry and music 648 Meri-ymaking among the Tornit 649 The lemming's song 649 Arlum pissinga (the killer's song) 650 I. Summer song 653 II. The retiu-ning hunter 653 III. Song (jf the Tornit 653 IV. Song of the Inuit traveling to Nettilling 653 V. 0;t;aitoq's song 654 VI. Utitiaq's song 654 VII. Song 654 VIII. Song 654 IX. Song of the Tornit 654 CONTENTS. 403 Page. Science and the arts — Poetry and music— Continued. X. The fox and the woman 6.5.5 XI. The raven's song 6.55 XII. Song of a Padlimio 655 XIII. Ititaujang's song 655 XIV. Playing at ball 656 XV. Playing at ball 657 XVI-XIX. Extracts 657-658 Ulossary 659 Eskimo words used, with derivations and significations 659 Eskimo geographical names used, with EngUsh significations 663 Anpendix 667 . ' ILLUSTRATIONS. Page. Plate II. Map showing m detail the geographical divisions of ten-itory oc- cupied by the Eskimo tribes of Northeastern America (*) 1. Oqo and Akudnu-n. 2. Frobisher Bay. 3. Eclipse Sound and Admiralty Inlet. 4. Repulse Bay and Lyon Inlet 5. Boothia Isthmus and King William Land. III. Map of the territory occupied by the Eskimo tribes of North America, showing the boundaries (*) IV. Map of Cumberland Peninsula, drawn by Aianin, a Saumingniio. 043 V. Eskimo drawings G48 VI. Eskimo drawings fi.'JO VII. Eskimo drawings 651 VIII. Eskimo carvings 6ry3 IX. Eskimo carvings 653 X. Modern implements 654 Fig. 390. Harpoon from Alaska 473 391. Modern unang or sealing harpoon 473 393. Old style naulang or harpoon head 473 393. Modern naulang or harpoon head 473 394. Qilertuang or leather strap and clasps for holding coiled up harpoon lines 474 395. Siatko or harpoon head of the Iglulirmiut 475 396. Siatko found at Exeter Sound 475 397. Eskimo in the act of striking a seal 476 398. Tutareang or buckle 477 399. Eskimo awaiting return of seal to blowhole 478 400. Tuputang or ivory plugs for closing wounds 479 401. Wooden case for plugs 480 402. Another form of plug 480 403. Qanging for fastening thong to jaw of seal 480 404. Qanging in form of a seal 481 405. Qanging in form of a button 481 406. Qanging serving for both toggle and handle 481 407. Qidjarung or wliirl for harpoon line 481 408. Simpler form of whirl 481 409. Old pattern of hook for drawing out captured seal 483 410. Seal hook of bear's claw 483 411. Modern form of seal hook 483 413. Eskimo approaching seal 484 413. Frame of a kayak or hunting boat 486 414. Kayak with covering of skin 487 * In pocket at end of volume. .. 406 ILLUSTRATIONS. Page. Fig. 415. Model of a Repulse Bay kayak 487 416. Sii-mijaung or scraper for kayak 488 417. Large kayak hariMon for seal and walnis 488 418. Tikagung or support for the hand 488 419. Qatirn or ivory head of harpoon shaft 489 420. Manner of attaching the two principal parts of the harpoon 489 421. Tokang or harpoon head in sheath 489 422. Tokang or harpoon head taken from a whale in Cumberland Sound 490 423. Ancient tokang or harpoon head 491 424. Teliqbing, which is fastened to harpoon line 493 425. Qatilik or spear 493 426. Avautangpr sealskin float 493 427. Different styles of poviutang or pipe for inflating the float 493 428. Agdliaq or spear for small seals 494 429. Agdliaq points 494 430. Spear heads 495 431. Large spear head 495 433. Anguvigang or lance 496 433. Nuirn or bird spear 496 434. Nuqsang or throwing board 496 435. Sealing at the edge of the ice 498 436. Model of sakurpang' or whaUng harpoon 500 437. Niutang, with floats : 500 438. Wooden bow from Iglulik 503 439. Wooden bow from Cumberland Sound 503 440. Bows of reindeer antlers 503 441. Bow of antlers, with central part cut off straight, from Felly Bay . 503 443. Arrows with bone heads 504 443. Arrows with metal heads 504 444. Arrowhead from Boothia 505 445. Showing attaclunent of arrowhead vertically and parallel to shank 505 446. Various forms of arrowhead 506 447. Socket of spear handle from Alaska 506 448. Slate arrowhead 506 449. Flint arrowheads from old graves 507 450. Various styles of quiver 507 451. Quiver handles 508 453. Whalebone nooses for catching waterfowl 511 453. Kakivang or salmon spear 513 454. Ivory fish used as bait in spearing salmon 513 455. Quqartaun for stringing fish 514 456. Salmon hook 515 457. Salmon hook 515 458. Bait used in fishing with hooks 516 459. Butcher's knife with bone handle 516 460. Pana or knife for dissecting game 517 461. Form of ulo now in use 518 463. Old ulo with top of handle broken off, from Cape Broughton, Davis Strait 518 463. Fragment of an ulo blade of slate 518 464. Ulo handle from recent gi-ave 518 465. Modern tesirqun or scraper 519 466. Old style of tesirqun or scraper 519 ILLUSTRATIONS. 407 Page. 467. Seligoung or scraper used for softening skins 520 468. Old stone scrapers found in graves 521 469. Stretcher for lines 523 470. Ivory needle 523 471. Ivory needle-case from Cumberland Sound 523 472. Common pattern of needle-case 523 473. Tikiq or thimble 524 474. Instrument for straightening bones 525 475. Drill for working in ivory and bone 525 476. Driftwood used in kindling tire 526 477. Eskimo graver's tool 526 478. Framework of Eskimo boat 527 479. Kiglo or post 527 480. Umiaq or skin boat 528 481. Umiaq or skin boat 528 483. Qamuting or sledge 529 483. Sledge shoe 530 484. Clasp for fastening ti-aces to sledge 531 485. Artistic form of clasp for fastening traces to sledge 531 486. Uqsirn, for fastening traces to pifiu 532 487. Ano or dog harness 533 488. Sadnu-iaq or clasp 533 489. Tube for drinking 535 490. Various styles of snow knife 539 491. Ground plan of snow house of Davis Strait tribes 541 492. Snow house of Davis Strait, sections 543 493. Section and interior of snow house 543 494. Ukusik or soapstone kettle 545 495. Plan of double snow house 546 496. Plan of Iglulik house 547 497. Plan of Hudson Bay house .547 498. Plan and sections of qarmang or stone house 548 499. Plan of large ((armang or stone liouse 549 .500. Plan of stc MIC li. iiwc in Aiiarnitung, Cumb rland Sound .549 .501. Plan (if t; I' 111 1 "f >toiu' houses1 in Pangnirtung, Cumberland Sound .550 502. Plan and mi t ! m-i .f qarmang or house made of whale ribs 550 503. Storehouse in Ukiadliving 551 504. Plan and sections of tupiq or tent of Cumberland Sound 551 505. Plan and sections of tupiq or tent of Pond Bay 553 506. Plan and sections of double winter tent, Cumberland Sound 553 507. Qaturangor boot ornament 554 508. Woman's jacket 555 509. Ivory beads for women's jackets 555 510. Girdle buckles 556 511. Infant's clothing .... 557 512. Child's clothing" 557 513. Ivory combs 559 514. Buckles 560 515. Manner of tattooing face and wearing hair 561 516. Manner of tattooing legs and hands -. 561 517. Forks 563 518. Ladle of musk ox liorn 563 519. Skull used in the game ajegaung 565 .. 408 ILLUSTRATIONS. Papp. Fig. 520. Ivory carvinK representing head of fo.x, used in the game ajegaung. .565 .531 . Ivory carvings representing polar bear, used in the game ajegaung 566 522. Figures used in playing tingmiujang, a game similar to dice 567 523. Game of nuglutang .568 524. The saketan or roulette ,569 525. Ajarorpoq or cat's cradle ,569 526. BaU .570 527. Dolls in dress of the Oqomiut 571 528. Dolls in dress of the Akudnirmiut 571 529. Modern snow goggles, of wood 576 530. Old form of snow goggles, of ivory 576 531. Diagram showing interior of qaggi or singing house among east- ern tribes 600 532. Plan of Hudson Bay qaggi or singing house 601 533. Kilaut or drum 602 534. Plans of remains of supposed qaggi or singing houses 603 535. Qailertetang, a masked figure 606 536. Model of lamp from a grave in Cumberland Sound 613 537. Qaudjaqdjuq is maltreated by his enemies 631 538. The man in the moon comes down to help Qaudjaqdjuq 631 539. The man in the moon whipping Qaudjaqdjuq 632 540. Qaudjaqdjuq has become Qaudjuqdjuaq 632 .541 . Qaudjuqdjuaq killing his enemies 633 542. Tumiujang, or lamp of the Tornit 6;i4 •543. Cumberland Sound and Frobisher Bay, dravra by Itu, a Nugumio. 644 544. Cumberlmd Sound and Frobisher Bay, drawn by Sunapignang, an Oqomio 645 545. Cumberland Sound, drawn by Itu, a Nugumio 646 546. Peninsula of Qivitung, drawn by Angutuqdjuaq, a PadlLmio 647 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO, By Dr. Franz Boas INTRODUCTION. The following account of the Central Eskimo contains chiefly the results of the author's own observations and collections made during a journey to Cumberland Sound and Davis Strait, supplemented by extracts from the reports of other travelers. The geographical re- sults of this journey have been published in a separate volume." A few traditions which were considered unsuitable for publication by the Bureau of Ethnology may be found in the Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft fiir Anthropologic, Ethnologic und Urge- schichte, 1SS7. The linguistic material collected during the journey will be published separately. Owing to unfortunate circumstances, the larger portion of the author's collections could not be brought home, and it has therefore been necessary, in preparing this paj^er, to make use of those made by C. F. Hall. 1860-1862 and 1865-1869; W. Miutzer, 1873-74:, and L. Kumlien. 1877-78. Through the kindness of Professor Otis T. Mason, I was allowed to make ample use of the collections of the National Museum and have attached its numbers to the specimens figured. The author's collection is deposited in the Museum fiir Volkerkunde at Berlin. I am indebted to the American Museum of Natural History; to Mr. Appleton Sturgis, of New York; to Captain John 0. Spicer, of Groton, Conn. ; and to Mrs. Adams, of Washington, D. C. , for several figures drawn from specimens in their possession. ' Baffin-Land. Geographische Ergebnisse einer in den Jahren 1883 und 1884 ausgefulu-ten Forschungsreise. Von Dr. Franz Boas. (Erganzungsheft No. 80 zu „Petermaruis Mitteilungen".) Gotha: 1885. 409 410 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. AUTHORITIES QUOTED. In citing the various authorities, I have used abbreviations as in- dicated at the end of titles in the following list of works consulted : De Martini Forbisseri Angli navigati one in regiones occi dentis et septen| | | | | I trionis Narratio historica, Ex Gallico sermone in La tinum trauslata per | | | | 1 D. Joan. The. Freigivm. [Design.] Cum gratia & privilegio Imperiali. cio.| | io. xxc. [Colophon :] Noribergw Imprtmebatur, in ofiicina Ca tharinas Ger-| | lacliin, & Hsere dum lohannis Mon tani. Anno cio io xxc. (Cited,| Frob-| isher.) A voyage of discovery, made under the orders of the Admiralty in His Maj-| | | I esty's ships Isabella and Alexander, for the purpose of exploring Baffin's| I | Bay, and inqumng into the probability of a north-west passage. By John| | I Ross, K. S. Captain Royal Navy. London: Jolm Murray, Albemarle-street.| | | 1819. (Cited, Ross I.) Journal of a voyage for the discovery of a north-west passage from the Atlantic| | | to the Pacific; performed in the years 1819-20, in His Majesty's ships Hecla | | | and Griper, under the orders of WiUiam Edward Parry, R.N. , F.R.S., and| | | commander of the expedition. With an appendix, containing the scientific | | and other observations. Published by authority of the lords commissioners| | of the admu-alty. London: John Murray, pubUsher to the admiralty, and| | | board of longitude. 1821. (Cited, Parry I.) | Journal of a second voyage for the discovery of a north-west passage from the | | | 1 Atlantic to the Pacific; performed in the years 1821-23-23, in His Majesty's | | ships Fury and Hecla, under the orders of Captain William Edward Parry, | | I R.N., F.R.S., and commander of the expedition. Illustrated by numerous | I plates. Published by authority of the lords commissioners of the admu-alty. | I | London : John Murray, pubhsher to the admiralty, and board of longi- | | tude. 1824. 1 (Cited, Pariy II.) The private journal of Captain G. F. Lyon, of H. M. S. Hecla, during the | | | | |I recent voyage of discovery under Captain Pai-ry. With a map and plates. | | | London: John MmTay, Albemarle-Sti'eet. 1824. (Cited, Lyon.)| | A brief narrative of an unsuccessful attempt | to reach Repulse Bay, I | | | | through Sir Thomas Rowe's "Welcome," in His Majesty's ship Griper, in | | | I the year 1824. By Captain G. F. Lyon, R. N. With a chart and engravings. | | | | London : John Murray, Albemarle street. 1825. (Cited, Lyon, Attempt to | | reach Repulse Bay.) Narrative of a second voyage in search of a north-west passage, and of a| | | | | | residence in the Arctic "regions during the years 1829, 1830, 1831, 1832, 1833. | | By Sh- John Ro.ss, C. B., K. S. A., K. C. S., &c. &c. captain in the Royal | I Navy. Including the reports of Commander, now Captain, James Clark Ross, | I R. N., F. R. S., F. L. S., &c. and The Discovery of the Northern Magnetic | | Pole. London: A.W.Webster, 156, Regent street. 1835. (Cited, Ross II.) | | I A narrative of some passages in the history of Eenoolooapik, a young Esqui- | | | maux who was brought to Britain in 1839, in the ship " Neptune" of Aber-| deen. An account of the discovery of Hogarth's Sound : remarks on the | | I northern whale fishery, and suggestions for its improvement, &c. &c. By | 1 Alexander M'Donald, L. R. C. S. E. Member of Cuvieran Natural History | Society of Edinburgh. Edinburgh : Eraser & Co. And J. Hogg, 116 Nicolson | | Street, 1841. (Cited, Eenoolooapik.) | Narrative of the discoveries on the north coast of America; effected| by the| | | | | (iftirers of the Hudson's Bay Company during the years 1836-39. By Thomas | | Siiiipson, I'sq. London: | Richard Bentley, New Burlington Street. PubUsher| | ui Ordinary to Her Majesty 1843. (Cited, Dease and Simpson.)| | BOAS.] AUTHORITIES QUOTED. 411 Narrative | of an expedition to the shores of the Arctic sea in 1846 and 1847.| | | | | By John Rae, Hudson Bay Company's service, commander of the expedi-| tion. With maps. London: T. & W. Boone, 39, New Pond Street. 1850.| | | I (Cited, Rae 1.) P\irther papers relative to tlie Recent Ai-ctic expeditions in search of Dr. John | | | Fi-anklin, and the crews of H. M. S. " Erebus" and " Terror." Presented ] | | to both houses of Parliament by command of Her Majesty, January,- 1855.| | London: Priuted by George Edward Eyi-e and William Spottiswoode, Printers| | to the Queen's most excellent Majesty. For Her Majesty's stationery olfice.| | 1855. (Cited, Rae II.) Same volume: Observations on the Western Esquimaux and the country they in- habit; from Notes taken during two years at Point Barrow, by Mr. John Simp- son, Surgeon R. N., Her Majesty's Discovery Ship " Plover." (Cited, Simpson. The voyage of the ' Fox ' in the Arctic seas. A narrative of the discovery of| | | the fate of Sir Jolm Franklin and his companions. By Captain M'Clin- | | | 1 ] tock, R. N.,LL.D. honorary member Royal Dublin Society. [Portrait.] With | | | maps and illusti-ations. London: John Murray, Albemarle street, publisher | | | to the admh-alty. 1859. (Cited, M'Clintock.)| Life with the Esquimaux: a narrative of Arctic experience in search of survivors | | of Sir John Franklin's Expedition. By Captain Charles Francis HaU, of | | | | the whaling barque "George Henry," From May 29, 1860, to September 13, | 1862. Popular Edition. With Maps, Coloured illustrations, and one hundred | | I wood cuts. London: Sampson Low, son, and Marston, Milton House, Lud- | 1 I gate Hill. 1865. (Cited, HaU I.)| Tales and traditions of the Eskimo with a sketch of | | their habits, religion, lan-| | guage and other peculiarities by Dr Henry Rink| | knight of Dannebrog| I | Director of the Royal Greenland board of trade, and formerly Royal Inspector | of South Greenland author of ' Gronland geographik og statistick beckrevest,| | etc. Translated from the Danish by the author Edited by Dr Robert Brown | I | | F. L. S., F. R. G. S. author of 'The races of mankind,' etc. With numerous I | illustrations, drawn and engraved by Eskimo William Blackwood and | | Sons | Edinburgh and London 1875. All rights reserved. | | (Cited, Rink.) Eskimoiske Eventyr og Sagn oversatte efter de indf(/dte| | | fortaeUeres opskrifter og meddelelser af H. Rink, inspektf/r i Sydgryinland. Kj^benhavn. | | | I | | C. A. Reitzels Boghandel. Louis Kleins Bogtrykkeri. | 1866. (Cited, Rink, Even-| tyr og Sagn.) Eskimoiske Eventyr og Sagn. | Supplement indeholdende| ] et Tilteg om Eski-| moerne af H. Rink. Kjyibenhavn. C. A. Reitzels Boghandel. Louis| | | | | Kleins Bogtrykkeri. 1871. (Cited, Rink, Eventyi- | og Sagn, Supplement.) Narrative of the second Ai-ctic expedition | made| by | Chai'les F. Hall: his voy-| | age to Repulse Bay, sledge journeys to the Straits [sie] of Fury and Hecla and | to King William's Land, and residence among years | | the Eskimos during the 1864-'69. Edited under the orders of the Hon. Secretary of the Navy, by I | | Prof. J. E. Nourse, U. S. N. U. S. Naval Observatory, | 1879. Trubner & Co.,| | Nos. 57 and 59 Ludgate Hill, London. (Cited, Hall | II.)I Als Eskimo unter den Eskimos. Eine Schilderung | der Erlebnisse der Schwat-| | ka'schen Franklin-Aufsuchungs-Expedition | in den Jahi-en 1878-80. Von | | Heinrich W. Klutschak, Zeiclmer | und Geometer der Expedition. Mit 3 Kar- | ten, 12 Vollbildern und zahlreichen in den Text gedruckten Illustrationen | nach den Skizzen des Verfassers. Wien. Pest. Leipzig. A. Hartleben's Ver | | lag. 1881. AUe Rechte vorbehalten. (Cited, Klutschak.) I I Schwatka's Search sledging in the Arctic in | quest of the Franklin records By| | | William H. Gilder second in command with maps and illustrations Lon-| | | don Sampson Low, Marston. Searle, .ind Rivington Crown Buildings, 188> | I Fleet Street. | All rights reserved. (Cit(>d, Gilder.) 412 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. Eskimoisches Worterbuch, gesammelt 1 von den Misaionaren in Labrador,| | | re- | vidirt und herausgegeben von Friedrich Erdmann. Budissin, gedmckt bei| | | | Ernst Moritz Monse. 1864. (Cited, Worterbuch des Labradordialectes.)| David Cranz Historie von Gr6nland enthaltend Die Beschreibung des Landes | | | | | und der Einwohner &c. insbesondere die Gesohichte der dortigen| | | | Mis-| I sion der Evangelischen Briider zu Neu-Herrnliut und Lichtenfels.| | | | | I I | Mit acht Kupfertafebi und einem Register. Barby bey Heinrich Detlef Ebers,| und in Leii^zig in Commission bey Weidmanns Erben und Reich. 1765.| | (Cited, Cranz.) Bruchstukke eines Tagebuches, gehalten in Gronland in den Jahren 1770 bis | | || 1778 von Hans Egede Saabye, vormaligem ordinierten Missionar in den| I I Destrikten Clausliavn und Christianshaab, jetzigem Prediger zu Udbye im | | Stifte Fflhnen. Aus dem Dinischen fibersetzt von G. Fries, beabschiedig- | | | | tem koniglich d&nischen Capitaine. Mit einer Vorrede des Uebersetzers,| | enthaltend einige Nacluichten von der Lebensweise der Gronl&nder, der| Mission in Gronland, samt andern damit verwandten GegenstS,nden, und| einer Karte uber Gronland. Hamburg. Bey Perthes und Besser. 1817. | | | | (Cited, Egede.) Baffin-Land. Geographische Ergebnisse einer in den Jahren 1883 und 1884 aus-| | | gefiilu'ten Forschungsreise. Von Dr. Franz Boas. Mit zwei Karten und neun| | ! Skizzen im Text. (Erganzungsheft No. 80 zu ,,Petermanns Mitteilungen".) | | Gotha: Justus Perthes. 1885. (Cited, Baffin-Land.)| Die Amerikanische Nordpol-Expedition von Emil Bessels. Mit zahlreiche lUus-| | | | trationen in Holzschnitt, Diagrammen und einer Karte in Farbendruck.| | Leipzig. Verlag von Wilhelm Engelmann. 1879. (Cited, Bessels.)| I Contributions to the Natural History of Arctic America, made in connec-| | | | | tion with the Howgate Polar expedition, 1877-'78, by Ludwig Kumlien,| | | I Naturalist of the expedition. Washington: Government Printing Office.| | | 1879. Report of the Hudson's Bay expedition, under the command of Lieut. A. R.| | | I Gordon, R. N., 1884. | Traditions indiennes du Canada nord-ouest par Emile Petitot Ancien mission-| | | | naire. Paris Maisonneuve freres et Ch. Leclerc, 25, Quai Voltaire, 1886. | | | | The following is a list of the papers published by the author on the results of his journey to Baffin Land and of studies connected with it. The ethnological remarks contained in these brief commu- nications have been embodied in the present paper. The method of spelling in the first publications differs from that applied in the present paper. It was decided to use the latter after a conference with Dr. H. Eink. " Reiseberichte aus Baffin-Land." Berliner Tageblatt, August 4, October 28, No- vember 4, November 35, 1883: September 28, October 19, November 2, November 9, November 16, November 23, December 28, 1884: January 4, April 8, April 27, 1885. " Unterdem Polai-kreise. " New-Yorker Staats-Zeitung, February 1, Febmary 22, March 2, 1885. " The configuration of Ellesmere Land." Science, February 27, 1885. " A journey in Cumberland Sound and on the west shore of Davis Strait in 1883 and 1884, with map." Bull. Am. Geogr. Soc. pp. 241-272. 1884. " Die Wohnsitze und Wanderungen der Baffin-Land Eskimos." Deutsche geogr. p. 31, 1885. 'Cumberland Sound and its Bsuuimaux." Popular Science Monthly, p. 768, May, BOAS.] ALPHABET USED FOR ESKIMO WORDS. 413 "Die Eskimos des Baffin-Landes." Verb, des V. deutschon Geographentags zu Hamburg. Berlin, 188.5. " Reise im Bafflnlande, 1883 und 1884." Verh. der Ges. fiir Erdliunde zu Berlin. 1885, Nos. 5, 6. " Die Sagen der Baffin-Land Eskimos." Verh. der Berlin, anthrop. Gesellschaft. 1885, p. 161. " The Eskimo of Baffin Land." Transactions of the Anthropological Society of Washington, Vol. 3, pp. 95-103. "Sammlungaus Baffin-Land." Original MittheOungen aus derethnol. Abtheilung der Kgl. Museen zu BerUn, 1886, p. 131. ORTHOGRAPHY. In the spelling of Eskimo words the author has adhered as closely as possible to Kleinschmidt's orthography, as he did not deem it proper to introduce a linguistic alphabet after so much has been published in anotlier and almost sufficient one. Accents and lengths have been marked where it seemed to be de- sirable. In quotations Eskimo words are spelled according to this system where it is possible to recognize their meaning and deriva- tion. In other cases the original spelling of the authors has been retained. The alphabet used in this paper is as follows: Votrels: a—a in fathev- 414 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. GEOGRAPHY OF NORTHEASTERN AMERICA. The Eskimo inhabit almost the whole extent of the coast of Arctic America. A large part of this country is occupied by tlie Central Eskimo, one of the great groups into which that people is divided. They live in the northeastern part of the continent and on the east- ern islands of the Arctic-American Archipelago. In Smith Sound they inhabit the most northern countries visited by man and their remains are even found at its northern outlet. The southern and western boundaries of this district are the countries about Fort Churchill, the middle part of Back River, and the coast west of Ade- laide Peninsula. Along the whole extent of this line they are the neighbors of Indian tribes, with whom they are generally on very bad terms, a mutual distrust existing between the two races. The geography of the whole country is known only in outline, and a great portion of it awaits its explorer. Following is a sketch of what is known about it, so far as it is of importance to the ethnologist. The vast basin of Hudson Bay separates two large portions of the American continent: Labrador and the region of the large Arctic rivers. The southern shore of the bay is inhabited by Indian tribes who interrupt the communication between the Eskimo of both re- gions. Hudson Bay, however, has the character of a true mediter- ranean sea, the northern parts of its opposite shores being connected by a number of islands and peninsulas. The low and narrow Rae Isthmus, which presents an easy passage to the Arctic Ocean, unites Melville Peninsula to the main body of the continent. From this peninsula Baffin Land stretches out toward the north of Labrador, with only two narrow channels intervening: Fury and Hecla Strait and Hudson Strait. Another chain of islands, formed by the parts of Southampton Island and Mansfield Island, stretches from Repulse Bay to the northwest point of Labrador, but the distances between the islands and the roughness of the sea prevent communication. On the western part of the continent the great bays, Chesterfield Inlet and Wager River, are of importance, as they allow the Eskimo, though they are a coast people, to penetrate into the interior of the continent. A narrow isthmus separates the head of the bays from the lakes of Back River. At Coronation Bay the latter approaches the Arctic Ocean very closely, and it is probable that the coast west of Adelaide Peninsula, which is skirted by innumerable islands, is indented by deep inlets extending towards the lakes of Back River. Thus communication between the Arctic Ocean and Hudson Bay is facilitated by this large river, which yields an abundant supply of fish. From Wager River an isthmus leads to its estuary. Boothia Felix, the most northern peninsula of the continent, is united to it by two narrow isthmuses, the former extending from ' A glossary of Eskimo geographic terms will be found on p. 662 BOAS.] GEOGRAPHK^ DESCRIPTION. 415 Pelly Bay to Shepherd Bay, the latter from Lord Mayor Bay to Spence Bay. It is separated from North Somerset by the nari'ow Bellot Strait. Farther west Adelaide Peninsula and King William Land form the continuation of the continent toward the western extremity of Boothia, thus outlining a spacious bay sheltered from the currents and the pack ice of Melville Sound and the adjoining bays. The eastern sides of Boothia and North Somerset and the western coasts of Melville Peninsula and Baffin Land form a gulf similar to Fox Basin. Farther north, between Baffin Land and Greenland, North Devon and EUesmere Land are situated. Thus Baffin Land forms a con- necting link for three regions inhabited by Eskimo: the Hudson Bay Territory, Labrador, and Greenland. The orography of the western coast of Hudson Bay is little known. Most of this coast seems to form a hilly land, consisting generally of granite. Between Wager Eiver and Chesterfield Inlet it rises to a chain of hills of about one thousand feet in height, extending to a plateau farther north. Another chain seems to stretch in a north- easterly direction from Back River to the source of Hayes River. West of Back River Silurian strata prevail. The granite hills form a favorite haunt for the musk ox and reindeer. Melville Peninsula consists chiefly of a chain of granite hills, sloping down to a Silurian plain in the eastern part of the peninsula. The northeastern part of Baffin Land is formed by a high chain of mount- ains stretching from Lancaster Sound to Cape Mercy. Long fjords and deep valleys divide them into many groups. Bylot Island, which stands high out of the sea, is separated from the mainland by Pond Bay and Eclipse Sound. The next group stretches from Pond Bay to the fjord of Anauleree'ling. Farther to the southeast the groups are smaller, and in Home Bay they are separated by wide valleys, particulaidy near E^alualuin, a large fjord on the southern side of that bay. From this fjord an enormous highland, which I named Penny Highland, extends as far as Cumberland Sound, being terminated by the narrow valley of Pangnirtung. The eastern boundary runs through the fjords Maktartudjennaq and Narpaing to Nedluqseaq and Nudlung. In the interior it may extend to about fifteen miles east of Issortuqdjuaq, the most northern fjord of Cumberland Sound. The whole of the vast highland is covered by an ice cap sending forth niimerous glaciers in every direction. In Pangnirtung and on Davis Strait they reach the level of the sea. Penny Highland, which forms the main body of Cumberland Pen- insula, has attached to it a few moimtain groups of moderate ex- tent: the peninsula of Nudlung and the highland of E^alualuin and that of Qivitiing. Farther southeast, between the valleys of Pangnirtung and King- 416 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. nait-Padli, is situated the highland of Kingnait, with sharp peaks emerging from the ice cap which covers the lower parts of the i)lateau. The rest of Cumberland Peninsula is formed by the highland of Saumia, which much resembles that of Kingnait. Near Cape Mercy the ice covered highland slopes down to a hilly region, which falls abruptly to the sea. The southern parts of this range of mountains are composed of gneiss and granite. It may be that Silurian strata occur in some places, but they have not yet been found anywhere in situ. The northern parts are too imperfectly known to enable us to form an idea of their geological character. The mountains just described slope down to a hilly region, which farther to the west levels off to a plain. The hills are composed of granite, the plains of Silurian limestone, which extends from Prince Regent Inlet to the head of Frobisher Bay. The peninsula between Cumberland Sound and Frobisher Bay is formed by a plateau, which slopes down gradually to the northwest. It is drained by a great river flowing into Auqardneling, a fjord on the western shore of Cumbn-laiid Snund. Near Lake Nettilling the country is very low, the Icvd n\' thr lake beingonly forty feet above that of the sea. Here the wati'rslicr t he Eskimo, takes to those parts of the coast where extensive Hues are formed. Therefore the state of the ice regulates the distribution of the natives during the greater part of the year and must be consid- ered ill studyiui;- the habits of the Eskimo. The extent of the land ice priiici]iall\- depends on the configuration of the land and the strenytli of the currents. On a shore exposed to a strong current an extensive floe can only be formed where projecting points of land form deep bays. We find the distribution of ice regulated in accord- ance with this fact all around the shores of the Arctic Ocean. Tlie strong current setting out of Lancaster Sound and Smith Sound generally prevents ice from forming under the steep cliffs of the land. Sometimes the pack ice of the sounds is stopped and freezes together into rough floes; a smooth plain is never formed. By far the largest land floe is formed from Bylot Island to Cape Dyer (Okan). In Home Bay it extends to a distance of about eighty miles from the mainland. The formation of this floe is favored by a num- ber of shoals which extend from the peninsulas of Cape Eglinton (Aqojang), Cape Aston (Niaqonaujang), and Qivitung, for the large floes drifting south are stopped by the icebergs aground on these banks. The greater part of the floe is very rough, smooth ice pre- vailing only in the bays. The strong southerly current passing throiigh the narrowest part of Davis Strait between Cape Walsingham (Idjuk) and Holsteinborg breaks up the ice all along the shore from Cape Dyer to Cape Wal- singham, Exeter Sound alone being covered by a lai-ger floe. The bay betvreen Cape Mickleham (Nuvuktirpang) and Cape Mercy is well covered with ice, which extends to the islands farthest out toward the sea. Near Cape Mercy the strong tides caused by Cumberland Sound prevent the ice from consolidating in the entrance of the gulf. As the sound widens greatly behind the narrow passage formed by Nuvukdjua(| and Qaxodluin, the tide sets in with great force. Fcjr this rrasou the iloe never extends beyond that narrow entrance. Often the iiead of tlie Open water runs from Qecierten to Nuvujen, and instances are known where it even reaches the line of Pujetung- Umanaq. The southwestern shore of Cumberland Sound from Qajodluin to Cape Brevoort (Qeqertuqdjuaq) is always washed by water, because 6 ETH 27 418 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. a strong current, which often breaks uj] tlie ice of Field and Grinnell Bay (the bays of Ukadliq and Nugumiut), sets along the coast. The floe seldom extends to Lady Franklin and Monumental Islands (Kitigtung and Tavtfolidjuin), but usually runs from point to point, compelling the natives to pass across the land in order to reach the floe of the neighboring bay. Most of the time the edge of the floe covering Frobisher Bay extends to a line from Countess of Warwick Sound (Tuarpukdjuaq) to about fifteen miles southeast of Gabriel Island (Qeqertuqdjuaq), whence it runs south to Kingnait. Some- times Aqbirsiarbing (Cape True) is the most eastern point inclosed by the ice. A daiigcnms currcut sets througli Hie strait between Eesolution Island ('l'iiilj;ii|(l.|u:i(|) and tlir inainlaiKl. formiiig whirl- pools which menace cmtv sliip tliat attnupts the passage. Hudson Strait never freezes over. The greater part of the year it is filled with an immense pack which never consolidates into a con- tinuous floe. As there are no large bays along the northern shore of that strait, no land floes of great importance az"e formed. Only the Bay of Qaumaiiang, North Bay, and Behm Bay (the bay of Quaiir- nang and that east of Akuliaq) are covered with floes which are of importance to the natives. The bays east of Akuliaq and 'the large fjords of that region form a comparatively large body of ice. Probably no land ice is formed between King Cape ^Ni;vukdjiiaq) and the northern parts of Fox Basin. According to Parry and the rejjorts of the natives, Fury and Hecla Strait and the bay which forms its eastern outlet are covered by land ice which is connected with the floe of the bays of Fox Basin as far as Piling. In Hudson Bay there are very few places in which the land ice extends to a considerable distance from the shore. Neither Frozen Strait nor Rowe's Welcome freezes over, each being kept open by the swiftly running tides. The most extensive floes are formed in Repulse Bay, Wager Bay, and Chesterfield Inlet. The drifting ice of the Gulf of Boothia never consolidates and even Committee Bay is rarely covered by a smooth land floe? Pelly Bay and ilic sea on "tlic east c(,a,st of Bunthia as far as Victoria Har- bor (Tikeia(|(ljiii|) \'vi'i'7A' over, since tliey are sheltered by numerous islands. Still larger is the sheet of ice wliicli covers the bay formed by the estuary of Back River, King William Land, and Boothia. The western shore of this peninsitla farther north is skirted by a border of land ice the extent of which is unknown. It is a remarkable fact that, although the extreme western and eastern parts of the country abound with extensive floes, the Hudson Bay region and the Gulf of Boothia are almost devoid of them. This brief sketch will enable one to understand the geographical distribution and the migrations of the Eskimo tribes who inhabit this country. DISTRIBUTION OF THE TRIBES. 419 DISTRIBUTION OF THE TRIBES. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. The mode of life of all the Eskimo tribes of Northeastern America is very uniform ; therefore it is desirable to make a few general ob- servations on the subject before entering into a detailed descrii^tiou of each tribe. All depends upon the distribution of food at the dif- ferent seasons. The migrations or the accessibility of the game com- pel the natives to move their habitations from time to time, and hence the distribution of the villages depends, to a great extent, uijon that of the animals which supply them with food. As the inhospitable country does not produce vegetation to an extent sufficient to sustain life in its human inhabitants, they are forced to depend entirely upon animal food. In Arctic America the abuiidance of seals found in all parts of the sea enables man to with- stand the inclemency of the climate and the sterility of the soil. The skins of seals furnish the material for summer garments and for the tent ; their flesh is almost the only food, and their blubber the indispciisalilc fuel during the long dark winter. Scarcely less ini- piirtaiit is till' deer, of whose heavy skin the winter garments are niado, and these enable the Eskimo to brave the storms and the cold of winter. That the mode of life of the Eskimo depends wholly on the dis- tribution (if these animals will tlicii'fon' be a|i|iarcnt. for, as already obs.i'vrd. tla'v regulate their (Iwcllin- places in accurdance with the miyL-atidiis nf the latter from plarc to place in search of food. When the constraint of winter is broken the natives leave their old habitations. The warm rays of the sun melt the roofs of their snow houses, the strong vaults which afforded shelter and conifortalde warmth during the long cold winter begin to break down, and new houses must be built. They therefore exchange the solid snow Ikjusos for light tents, which are very small and poor, until a sufficient num- ber of sealskins for better structures is secured. As at this time seals are found in abundance everywhere, basking in the warm sunshine and enjoying the beginning of the spring, a great supply is easily secured. As the season advances food becomes more plentiful, and with the breaking tip of the fivers and ponds the salmon leave the latter and descend to the sea. About this time the Eskimo establish their settlements at the head of the fjords, where salmon are easily caught in the shallow rivers. In July the snow, which has covered the land for nine months, has melted away and the natives undertake hunting trips inland, in order to obtain the precious skins of the reindeer and the meat of the fawns, which is always highly prized. With the breaking up of the ice the variety ; 420 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. of food is further increased by the arrival of the walrus and the ground and harp seals, which leave the country during the winter. Birds are also found in abundance, and no cares afflict the natives. Before the sea begins to freeze over again the Eskimo return from deer hunting and gather at places where there are the best chances for obt.-iiniui;- fucid in the autumn. A few weeks are spent in mak- ing slmrt rxnii-siiins near the scttlciiii'nts. as longer journeys would be too (langiTdUs during this tciupcstuous season. The colder it grows the more the natives are confined to their huts and the more they become dependent on the seal. While in summer shrubs of various kinds are available for conlcing jmrpnscs. in winter blubber affords the only fuel for cooking ami Un- hcatiiit;- their huts. At last the smaller bays are suHicient 1 y tVi izeu ti > jjermit a new way of pursuing the game. The hunters visit the edge of the newly formed floe in order to shoot the seals, which are secured by the harpoon. The process of freezing goes on quickly and the floating pieces (jf ice begin to consolidate. Only a few holes are now found, in places where icebergs, moved by the tides or the strong currents, prevent the sea from freezing. During a short time these oi:)enings form the favorite hunting ground of the natives. Though the walrus and the ground seal migrate to the edge of the floe as soon as the ice begins to form, the common seal {Pagomys fmtidus) remains, and this is always the principal food of the natives. In the autumn the fjords and the narrow channels between the islands are its favorite haunt; later in the season it resorts to the sea, frequently appearing at the surface through breathing holes, which it scratches in the ice. As winter comes on it is hunted by the Eskimo at these holes. The foregoing observations will serve as a preliminary to the de- scription of the distribution of the tribes of Northeastern America. The object of this section is to treat of the immediate relations be- tween the country and its inhabitants, and a detailed account of their habits will be found in subsequent According to Dr. H. Rink, the Inuit race may be divided into five groups : the Greenlanders ; the central tribes of Smith Sound, Baffin Land, the west shore of Hixdson Bay, the Back River region, and Bn,,tliia: the Laln'adoriaiis. (ni the slmVes ..f that peninsula; the Mackenzie ti'ihesof tlie ciMitral parts (if the iKH'th shui-e of America; and tile trilies uf Alaska. [ am somewhat in doubt whether the cen- tral tribes and those of Labrador differ enough to justify a separate classification, as the natives of both shores of Hudson Strait seem to be closely related. A decisive answer on the division of these tribes may be postponed iintil the publication of Lucien M. Turner's excellent observations and collections, which were made at Fort Chimo. DISTRIBUTION OF THE TRIBES. 421 BAFFIN LAND. The SUxOSuilarmiut.— I shall begin with the enumeration of the tribes in the southwestern part of Baffin Land. This country is in- habited by the Sikosuilarmiut, i. e.. the inhabitants of the shore without an ice floe. They are settled in two places: Il^urata, east of King Cape, and Sikosuilaq, within the peninsula (or island?) which projects east of King Caj^e. The large fjords Sarbaq and Sarbau- sirn, which belong to their territory, are known to me only by a de- scription which I received in Cumberland Sound. In summer they -\-isit the upper parts of this long fjord to hunt deer on the plains which reach to the shore of Fox Basin. Probably they do not ex- tend their migrations very far to the north or northeast; otherwise, they would reach Lakes Amaqdjuaq and Nettilling, the region about the latter being the hunting ground of the natives of Cumberland Sound. I know of only a single meeting between the Eskimo visiting Lake Nettilling and others who are supposed to have come from Hudson Strait. It occurred in 1883 south of the lake. The Akidiarmiut.—This tribe is settled on the northern shore of Hudson Strait. Their winter resort lies west of Qeqertuqdjuaq (Par- ry's North Bluff). In summer they travel through White Bear Sound or Lesseps Bay to Lake Amaqdjuaq, which they reach after crossing a neck of land about ten miles in width. The exact direction of the road cannot be ascertained, as the position of their starting point, which is called Tuniqten, is doubtful. Crossing a short port- age they ascend to Lake Amitoq, whence on a second portage they pass the watershed between Lake Amaqdjuaq and Hudson Strait. From the small Lake Mingong a brook runs into Sioreling and thence into Lake Amaqdjuaq (Baffin-Land, p. GT). On the southern shore of the large lake they erect their summer tents. Farther east, in North Bay, there is another winter residence of the same tribe. Un- fortunately, I cannot specify the place of this settlement, which is called Quaiirnang. The Qaumauangmiut.—East of the Akuliarmiut live the Eskimo so frequently met near Middle Savage Islands. Their principal i-esi- dence is near Lake Qaumauang, from which they take their name Qaumauangmiut. My investigations concerning these tribes were much embarrassed by the want of trustworthy charts. If charts are tolerably well delineated, the Eskimo understand the meaning of every point and island and can give detailed accounts of the situa- tion of the settlements and the migrations of the inhabitants. Between Sikosiiilaq and Akulia(i but a moderate amount of inter- course is kept up, as the settlements are separated by a wide and uninhabited stretch of land. Notwithstanding this many members of one tribe are found to have settled among the other. An Ameri- 422 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. can whaling station which was established in Akuliaq a few years ago may have had some influence upon the distribution and the life of these tribes. The greater importance of Akuliaq, however, cannot be ascribed to the presence of the whalers alone, as a few harbors near Sikosuilaq are also frequently visited by them. The whalers report that there are about fifty inhabitants in Sikosuilaq, about two hun- dred in Akuliaq, and farther east fifty more. Thus the population of the north shore of Hudson Strait probably amounts to three hundred in all. The Qaumauangmiut ai'e probably closely related to the Nugumiut of Frobisher Bay. The Nugumiut.—lean give a somewhat more detailed description of this tribe, among the families of which Hall passed the winters of 18C0-'G1 and 1861-'62 (Hall I). Unfortunately, he does not give any coherent account of their life, only meager information being furnished in the record of his journeys. Besides, generalizations cannot be made from his two years' experience. My owni observa- tions in Cumberland Sound may serve as a complement to those of Hall. As he gives only a few native names of places, it is sometimes difficult to ascertain the exact jiosition of the localities to which he alludes. According to Hall and my own inquiries four places are inhaliited by this tribe almost every winter: Tornait (Jones Cape of Hall), alxnit thirty-five miles above Bear Sound, in Frobisher Bay; Operdniving and Tuarpukdjuaq, in Countess of Warwick Sound; Nugumiut, in (Cyrus W.) Field Bay; and Ukadliq, in (Cornell) Grinnell Bay. As these bays open into Davis Strait the formation of the ice is retarded and its extent diminished, and consequently some peculiarities in the arrangement of the life of the Eskimo are observed here. The only occupation of the Nugumiut and the inhabitants of Ukadliq is sealing with the harpoon on the floe of the inner parts of the bay. Near Ukad- liq the tide holes east and west of Allen Island abound with seals. In winter, when the seals take to the open ice, the village of this group of families is established near Roger's Island, where the floe of the bay forms the hunting ground of the natives. During the autumn the Nugumiut stay in Field Bay. The women are then busy preparing the deerskins; for, on account of the re- quirements of their religion, the walrus hunt cannot be begun imtil the deerskins which were taken in summer have been worked up for use. As soon as this is done they travel across Bayard Taylor Pass (so called by Hall) to Frobisher Bay, and in the latter half of De- cember or in the beginning of January settle on Operdniving or on Tuarpukdjuaq in company with the natives who stay here during the fall. In Cumberland Sound I learned that this changing of the habitations takes place almost regularly and that sometimes the set- tlement is moved to Aqbirsiarbing (Cape True) if the bay is frozen BOAS] DISTRIBUTION OF THE TRIBES. 423 over beyond Operdniviug. In traveling to Aqbirsiarbing the tide holes of Ikerassaqdjuaq (Lupton Channel) are avoided by using the pass of Chappell Inlet. Here and in Tornait the natives go sealing on the ice or walrusing at the edge of the tloe, which in most cases is not very far off. About the latter half of March part of the Eskimo begin to travel up Frobisher Bay. In the middle of April, 1802, Hall found a settle- ment on Qeqertuqdjuaq (Gabriel Island), from which island the floe edge was visited and young seals were caught in the narrow chan- nels between the niimerous islands. Towards the end of the month a portion of the natives went farther to the northwest in pursuit of the basking seals (I, p. 470), intending to i-each the head of the bay in July. Hall found summer habitations at Ukadliq (I, p. 4G8) ; on Field Bay (p. 296); and on Frobisher Bay at Agdlinartung (p. 308), Opera Glass Point (p. 341), Waddell Bay (p. 341), and Nuvuktualung, on the southern point of Beecher Peninsula (p. 348). A very important hunting ground of the inhabitants of Tiniq- djuai"biusirn (Frobisher Bay), of which I received some detailed ac- counts, is Lake Amaqdjuaq. In the foregoing remarks on the Akii- liaq tribe I described the course which leads from Hudson Strait t(j the lake. Another route is followed in traveling from the head of Frobisher Bay to Lake Amaqdjuaq, a distance of aboiit fifty miles. Probably the men leave Sylvia Grinnell River and ascend to Lake Amartung, from which lake a brook runs westward to Lake Amaq- djuaq (Baffin-Land, p. 68). The women take a different route and arrive at Aqbeniling after a tramp of six days, near a small bay called Metja. Here the summer huts are erected and birds and deer are killed in abundance. The facility in reaching the lake from Hudson Strait and Frob- isher Bay is a very important consideration, as the Akuliarmiut and the Nugumiut meet here, and thus an immediate intercourse between the tribes is opened. The inhabitants of Hudson Strait leave Tuniq- ten in spring, arrive at the head of Frobisher Bay in the fall, and after the formation of the ice reach the Nugumiut settlements l)y means of sledges. When Hall wintered in Field Bay a traveling party of Sikosuilarmiut which had accomplished the distance from King Cape in one year arrived there (I, p. 267). Another route, which is practicable only for boats, connects Qau- mauang with Nugumiut. It leads along the shore of Hudson Strait. The traveler sails through the dangerous passage between Tudjaq- djuaq (Resolution Island) and the mainland and crosses Frobisher Bay either at its entrance or in the shelter of the group of islands farther up the bay. In their intercourse with tlie Nugumiut. the inhabitants of Cum- berland Sound generally follow the long coast between Ukadliq and Naujateling, passing through the numerous sounds formed by long, 424 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. narrow islands. I can describe this region from per.sonal observa- tions. The Oqom inf. —The Eskimo of Davis Strait call tlie tribes of Cumberland Sound and Saiimia by the name of Oqomiut. The whole of the land from Prince Regent Inlet to the plateau of Nugu- miut is divided by the Eskimo into three parts, Aggo, Akudnirn. and Oqo— i. e., the weather side, the center, and the lee side— and accordingly the tribes are called the Aggomiut, Akudnirmiut, and Oqomiut. Unquestionably the whole of Cumberland Sound and the coast of Davis Strait from Cape Mercy to Exeter Sound belong to the Oqo of the Northern Eskimo. Farther north, the inhabitants of Padli ex- tend their migrations from Qarmaqdjuin to Qivitung. These people occiipy an intermediate position between the Akudnirmiut and tlie Oqomiut, having easy communication with both, and consequently it is doubtful to which they belong, so that the determination of the boundary between Oqo and Akudnirn remains arbitrary. In regard to their customs and from the position of the land, however, they may be more properly joined to the Akudnirmiut, of whom they would form a subdivision. The names Oqo, Akiidnirn, and Aggo must not lie iinderstood as respectively meaning a re,i;-i<)n stri<-tly liniiti'd: tlic\- (Icnote rather directions and the intervals l)cf wren tlic loc-ilitics sit uated in these directions. In asking for tlic position of (_»qo one would 1)e directed southeast, as this is considered the lee side; in the same way, if asking for Aggo, one would be directed to the shore of Prince Regent Inlet, the farthest land in the northwest, the weather side. In Cum- berland Sound the natives of Iglulik are considered Aggomiut, while in Pond Bay they are known as a separate tribe. In the southern jiarts the whole of the northern region is comprised in the name Aggo; in the north Oqo means the whole of the southeastern regions. Formerly, the Oqomiut were divided into four subtribes: the Ta- lirpingmiut, on the west shore of Cumberland Sound ; the Qingua- miut, at the head of it; the Kingnaitmiut, on the east shore; and the Saumingmiut. on the southeastern slope of the highland of Saumia. The names are derived from the districts which they inhabit, respect- ively. As the head of every fjord is called "qingua" (its head), the upper part of the large Cumberland Sound is also so named. The Qingua region may be limited by Imigen on the Avestern shore and Ussnalung on the eastern shore, though the name is applied to a re- gion farther north; indeed, the name covers the whole district at the head of the saund. In looking from the head to the entrance of the sound the coasts are called according to their position: the south- western Talirpia, i. e.. its right one, and the northeastern Saumia, i. e., its left one; between Saumia and Qingua the highland King- BOAS.] DISTRIBUTION OF THE TRIBES. 425 nait, i. e., the higher land as compared to the opposite shore, is situated. Although at the present time this division is hardly justifiable, the names of these four tribes are often mentioned on the shore of Davis Strait. Their old settlements are still inhabited, biit their separate tribal identity is gone, a fact wliirli is dui' as well in tlic diiuinutiou in their numbers as to the iiitlumci' of the whaliTs \ isitinn tliem. In my oj^inion a great diftVi-fiu-t' hi'twccii tlicsc triln's m-vrr existed. Undoubtedly they were groups of families confined to a certain district and connected by a common life. Such a community could more easily develop as long as tlio number of individuals was a large one. When the whalers first wiulrivil in Cumberland Sound the poiDulation may have amouuti'd tn ahuut 1,500. In 1840, when Penny discovered the sound, he met -tu Eskimo in Anarnitung (Eenoolooapik, p. 91). The greater number of the inhabitants were at the head of the fjords fishing for salmon, others were whaling in Issortuqdjuaq, and some were inland on a deer hunting expedition. The whole number at that time probably amounted to 200. A few years later the Kingnaitmiut of Qeqerten were able to man eighteen whaleboats. Assuming five oarsmen and one harpooner to each boat, the steers- man being furnished by the whalers, and for each man one wife and two children, we have in all about 400 individuals. The inhabitants of Nettilling Fjord may have numbered as many, and 100 are said to have lived in Imigen. Penny found in Ugjuktung about 30 indi- viduals who belonged to the Saumingmiut and had come thither from Davis Strait. Accordingly I estimate the whole tribe at 150 in- dividuals. On the southwestern coast of the sound between Nuvujen and Naujateling a large number of natives were reported. They lived in three settlements and numbercil about ono. Tlicse estimates are not absolutely reliable, as tlicy anM-(iiiii)ili'(l lar,i;-rly frdin licarsay and conjecture. Many of the nativus IjL'iug away in the summer, at the time when these estimates were made, accuracy in their preparation was impossible. From inquiries which were made among American whalers who had visited this sound since 1851, the ]i()]iulatiijn of Qeqerten must have been larger than that of any of the sctllciiicuts contiguous to the sound. The estimation is the more dittii-ult as a few settlements were sometimes deserted; for instance, Ukiadiiving, in Saumia, and Qarmaqdjuin (Exeter Bay). Probably eight settle- ments, with a population of 200 inhabitants each— i. e., 1,600 in the sound —would be about the true number in 1840. At first I was in- clined to believe in the existence of a larger number, but from later reports I should consider this number too large rather than too small. Since that time the population has diminished at a terrible rate. In 1857 Warmow, a Moravian missionary who accompanied Penny, estimated it at 300. If this was correct, the rapid diminution must have occurred during the first years after the rediscovery of the 426 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. sound. In Decembn-. iss:!. tli.> Talii'pingmiut numbered 8G indi- viduals, the Qinguaiiiiiit dd. the Kiii--naitmiut S--2, the Saumingmiut 17; total, 245. Thcsr -wci-c distrihuted in eight settlements. Begin- ning with the most southern settlement, the Talirpingmiut lived in Umanaqtuaq, Idjorituaqtuin, Nuvujen, and Qarussuit; the Qingua- miut, in Imigen and Anarnitimg; the Kingnaitmiut, in Qeqerten; the Saumingmiut, in Ukiadliving. Accordingly the population of the settlements numbered as follows: BOAS.] • DISTRIBUTION OF THE TRIBES. 427 not kill enovigh to cause any considiM'alili' cliininution iu numbers. The whalers do not hiint the seal tn any rxicnt. and when one realizes how small the population of the cnuutry is ami how vast the territory in which the seal lives it is easy to understand that famine or want cannot arise, as a rule, from the cutting off of the natural food sup- ply. Ill fact, in the spring enormous numbers of seals may be seen together basking in the sun or swimming in the water. The causes of the famines which occur somewhat frequently among the Eskimo must be sought in another direction. Pressing need often prevails if in the latter part of the autumn the formation of the iioe is retarded; for in that case hunters are not able either to go hunting in boats or to procure the necessary food at the edge of the floe, as new ice is attached to its more solid parts and the seals do not yet open their breathing holes. Such was the case at Xiaijuuau- jang.on Davis Strait, in the fall of 1883. Gales of wind inlldwini;- in qiiick succession broke the floe. The new ice which had iormud im- mediately prevented the natives from sealing, and in November and December a famine visited the settlement. Very soon the supply of blubber was exhausted, and being unable to feed the dogs the inhabitants Avere obliged to kill them one after another and to live upon their frozen carcasses. Only two dogs survived these months of need and starvation. Consequently the hunting season was a very jjoor one, since the natives missed the services of their dogs, which scent the breathing holes, and could not leave their settle- ment for any great distance. Ill winter a long spell of bad weather occasions privation, since the hunters are then prevented from leaving the huts. If by chance some one should hapiien to die during this time, famine is inevitable, for a strict law forbids the performance of any kind of work during the days of mourning. When this time is over, however, or at the beginning of good weather, an ample supply is quickly secured. I do not know of any cases of famine arising from the absolute want of game, but only from the impossibility of reaching it. Sometimes traveling parties that are not acquainted with the nat- ure of the country which they visit are in want of food. For in- stance, a large company, consisting of three boat crews, were starved on the eastern shore of Fox Basin, their boats being crushed by the heavy ice and the game they expected to find in abundance having left the region altogether. On one of the numerous islands of Net- tilling a number of women and children perished, as the men, who had been deer hunting, were unable to find their way back to the place in which they had erected their huts. Another case of starvation is frequently mentioned by the Eskimo. Some families who were traveling from Akuliaq to Nugumiut passed the isthmus between Hudson Strait and Frobisher Bay. When, after a. long and tedious journey, they had reached the sea, the men left 428 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. their families near Qairoliktiiug and descended with their kayaks to Nugumiiit in order to borrow some boats in which they co\ild bring their families to the settlements. On the way they were detained by stormy weather, and meanwhile the families were starved and re- sorted to cannibalism. One woman especially, by the name of Me- gaujang, who ate all her children, was always mentioned with horror. Generally food is plentiful between the months of April and Octo- ber and an ample supply may be secured without extraordinary ex- ertion. During the winter sealing is more diflScult, but sufficiently successful to prevent any want, except in the case of continuous bad weather. I shall now proceed to a description of the single settlements of Cumberland Sound. Separated from the Nugumiut by a long and uninhabited stretch of land we find the settlement of Naujateling, the most southern one of the Talirpingmiut. In the fall the natives erect their huts on the mainland or on an island near it, as the seal, at this season, resort to the narrow channels and to the fjords. Be- sides, the shelter which is afforded by the islands against the frequent gales is an important consideration, and in these protected waters the natives can manage their frail boats, which would not live for a moment in the tempestuous open sea. Later in the season the ice consolidates in the shelter of the islands, while beyond the bays and channels drifting floes fill the sea. After the consolidation of the pack ice the natives move their huts to the sea. They leave Naujateling about December and move to Umanaqtuaq. I do not know exactly where they live if the water reaches that island. Should this happen, the fioe between Qa^o- dluin, Umanaqtuaq, and Idjorituaqtuin would offer a productive hunting ground. About the middle of March the season for hunting the young seal opens. The hunt is prosecuted with much energy over the entire extent of Cumberland Sound, because the white coat of the young animal is of prime importance for the inner garments. The preg- nant females take to the rough ice, where deep snowbanks have been formed by the winter gales, and dig large excavations, in which par- turition takes place. Another favorite place is the ground ice on gradually declining shores, where large caves are found between the broken pieces of ice. Therefore the fjords and islands which offer a long coast line furnish a good hunting ground, and in the latter part of March and in April the Eskimo either \'isit these regions or the floes of rough ice. At such times they sometimes live for a long period on the ice of the open sea in order to be nearer to their hunting ground. As the success of the hunt depends on the extent of ice visited, the Eskimo scatter over a large area, almost every one trav- eling over a separate tract. At this time the winter settlements are almost totally broken up. BOAS.] DISTRIBUTION OF THE TRIBES. 429 Some of the natives of Naujati'liiii;- <;< > licar Inintiug instead of '" young sealing," but only a few i)(>l;ii' l)i',u-s lose their way into Cumberland Sound. They are generally f( >uiii I within a few miles of the floe edge, and even if the water reaches pretty far up the sound they do not travel beyond Qajodluin and Miliqdjuaq, nor does the pack ice carry them far ujj the sound in summer. On one occasion, in the year 1880, three bears were seen near Qeqerten, about five years earlier one was killed in Qingua, and almost twenty years earlier another one near Anarni- tung. Every occurrence of this kind is considered an event of such importance that it is talked about for years afterwards. I myself saw bear tracks in Kouaqdjuaq in March, 1884, and also at Miliqdjuaq. In February a bear was killed between Kautaq and Naujateling. If the water washes the foot of the cliffs between Kautaq and Su- lung, the Eskimo cross the isthmus which lies between Ijelirtung, the eastern branch of Qasigidjen, and Qa^Yodluin Bay on a sledge road and hunt among the islands that are scattered along the shore south of Qajodluin. In summer they visit the same region on their hunting excursions. The principal summer settlements are at the head of Qasigidjen and Kangertlung Fjords, which are situated near Idjorituaqtuin and Qimissung. From here they ascend the plateau of Nugumiut and hunt on the level highlands. I think it takes them but a day to travel to the top of the plateau. They travel from Qasigidjen to Agdlinartung, a fjord of Frobisher Bay, whence the Nugumiut ascend the highland. Another route leads from Kangertlung to Ejaluin, near the head of Frobisher Bay. Farther up the sound we find the winter settlement of Idjorituaq- tuin. The sanir relation exists betwrcu this ])lacc and Qimissiuig as between Umaiiai|tiia(| and XaujalrlinL;-. ( >n (^)i))iissuii,i;. wliicli lies near the mainlaml, tlic natives gatlicr in tlic tall after returning frum deer hunting, and only move to Idjorituaqtuin after the freezing up of the sea. Deer are hunted inland, the summer settlements being at the head of nnedf tlie nuniemus fjf tlie latter region. From these facts it appears that a regular intercourse between the tribes along the shore of Fox Basin never existed, though formerly interviews were moi'e frequent than they are at present. Since the last mentioned expedition no Eskimo has visited Piling, nor have any gone bythewayof Laki' Xettillingto Iglulik. Accordingly the ideas of the Oqomiut about that region are very indefinite. An old man BOAS.! DISTRIBUTION OP THE TRIBES. 433 was the only person whom I could find who knew Iglnlik by name and remembered Ingnirn and Piling, two places which had been in- habited by many Eskimo. He mentioned another inhabited region beyond Ti;lulik. Au,i;iialu;4ti,]'uiig, which I was not able to identify. It was ,lcs.-i-ihc.l as a lai-v pfiiiiisula. It is worth r.'niai'kiiig that the Talirjiingmiut seem never to have traveled over the country south of Koukdjiiaq. I have not even heard mentioned a single hunting excursion made in this direction. In the foregoing paragraphs I have described the mode of life of the greater part of the Talirpingmiut. Still another part staid in Cumberland Sound until the ice had gone and went away in the latter half of July. The passage through the rapids of the fjords was very dangerous, as in the whirlpools and overfalls the bulky boats were easily capsized. Therefore the changing of the tides had to be considered in order to effect a safe jjassage. The men preferred carrying the kayaks over the passes in order to avoid the dangers imminent to their frail crafts. Even up to this day tradition tells of a disaster which happened when the stubborn owner of a boat, against the warning of his friends, tried to pass Sarbaqdualung when the spring tide was running swiftly. The boat was upset and the crew were drowned, with the exception of one woman, who was saved on a bundle of deerskins. From Kangia boats had to be carried over the portages Igpirto, Igpirtousirn, and Ujaraqdjuin. The rapids of Angmartung were also avoided by a portage over the level bottom of the valley. After passing Taquirbing, Lake Nettilling was reached, on the shore of Avhich the huts were erected. In the fall tlic ])ai-ty returned before the beginningof the cold season. It has hci'ii already mentioned that only a few of the natives staid at the lake during tlie entire year, and even among these there were some who descended to the sea in March to take part in the young sealing, for the skins of the young seal cannot be altogether replaced by deerskins. At the present time it is exceptional for any one to remain inland during the entire year. There may be seals enough in the lake to prevent hunger or starvation, but they are taken much more easily from the sea. In case of alack of blubber, deer's marrow may be used for fuel. It is probable that tlie lii.uli mortality of rrcciit years has induced the Eskimo to band toucthn- inorr rlosdy than they formerly did and to adopt the plan of ri'ttirning to Xftlilliiiy b'jord at the beginning of winter. In the fall the boats and other articles which are of no use in winter are left in Isoa, and some time is spent in Kangia, where snow houses are built. Here the kayaks are left, and in December, when the sealing begins to be niorr siicci-ssfnl near the sound, the Eskimo turn to the entrance of NettilliiiL;- Fjord, where Tininiqdjuaq and Neqemiarbiug are favorite places. Seals are hunted there with the harpoon in the same way as in the other settlements (J ETH 'JS 434 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. or Sarbaqdualuiig is visited for the purpose of shooting seals which frequent the tide holes. This, however, is not a favorite way of hvinting, as the ice near the tide holes is very rough and treacherous. In March and April young seals are caught on the shores of the nu- merous islands between Tininiqdjuaq and Nuvujalung, and at the same time the old settlements are left, as large water holes Ijegin to appear. Qarussuit and Qingaseareang are the favorite places about this time of the year. As soon as the young sealing is finished the hunt of the basking seal is opened, which is very successful here. Nowhere else did I see such large numbers of animals enjoying the warmth of the sun as in Nettilling Fjord. luApril, when on the east shore scarcely any dared to leave the water, hundreds might be seen here. By the first of May all the natives have procured a suflicient number of sealskins for their summer dress, the skins being then in the best condition, as the first moulting has just occurred. This done, they eagerly prepare for the journey to the lake. The natives start in the first week of May, and in two or three days arrive at Kangia, whence they reach Isoa in one day's journey. Fol- lowing the southern shore of Lake Nettilling they sleep the first night on Tikeraqdjuausirn, the second on the island Manirigtung, near Tikeraqdjuaq, and five days after leaving Qarussuit arrive at Tikeraq- djung, where they settle for the summer. As numerous deer are found in this region, they live without any care or trouble. Very soon after their arrival the birds return. While moulting great quantities of these are caught. The geese are so abundant here that they are fed to the dogs. Many deer are caught while passing the deep river which runs from Lake Amaqdjuaq to Lake Nettilling. Frequently they visit the southern plains, which are filled with lakes and lake- lets. Sometimes they go as far as Amaqdjuaq, which, as the older natives report, was formerly a summer settlement. In the river whose outlet is near Padli salmon are caught in abun- dance. In this district the Talirpiugmiut stay until the eastern part of the lake is frozen over. In the shelter of the islands the floe is more quickly formed than in the open water of the western part, and in November the natives return by sledges to Isoa. As they take with them heavy loads of deerskins they make very slow progress and generally arrive at their place of destination after six days of traveling. Sometimes they make a short trip to Isoa in March or April to hunt deer or to look for the things which were left behind in Kangia and Isoa at the time of their last departure. Besides the Talirpiugmiut quite a number of Cumberland Soimd natives visit the lake by means of boats. They cross the sound after the breaking tip of the ice and go to Nettilling, carrying the boats over the portages between Kangia and Isoa. As the Talirpiugmiut BOAS.1 DISTRIBUTION OF THE TRIBES. 435 have no boats they stay at Tilcoraqiljuaq; the other natives, however, sometimes change their haliitatidiis and even visit Qarmang and the north shore of the hike. These Journeys, however, are rare, for in the eastern part an inexhaustible supply of food may be obtained; there- fore long excursions are quite unnecessary. At the beginning of October the boats leave the lake and the natives return to the fall settlements in the sound. Nettilling Fjord, with its numerous islands, forms the nortliern boundary of Talirpia. Farther north we come to Qiugua. the head of Tiniqdjuarbing (Cumberland Sound). It extends from Imigen to Ussualung. The winter settlement on the island of Imigen is situated in the midst of one of the best winter hunting grounds, for the southern portion of the island, on which the huts are erected, projects far out into the sea. The hunt is often rendered somewhat difficult by the rough ice which is due to the strong currents between Pujetung, Imigen, and Nettilling Fjord. Towards spring the natives sometimes resort to a place yet nearer the open sea, the largest island of the Pujetung group. Young seals are caught near Imigen, at the Kilauting Islands, and in Qaggilortung. This district, however, can- not be visited every year, as almost every spring the whole area west of a line from Imigen to Anarnitung is covered with very deep and soft snow, which prevents the Eskimo from using their dog sledges. When this condition prevails the natives settle on the sea ice between Augpalugtung and Imigen, or a little farther north, and remain there from the middle of March until the latter part of April. These natives go deer hunting either to Issortuqdjuaq—where they live at Ejahiaqdjuin, Sirmiling, or Midlurieling— ortoE^aluqdjuaq, near Ussualung, where they hunt in the hilly land adjoining the ice- covered Penny Plateau. As the land farther north*vest is said to consist of irregular hills and disconnected valleys, the skins and the meat of the killed deer would have to be carried up and down hills before the settlement was reached. Therefore the natives dislike hunting in this part of the country. E^aluaqdjuin and Ejaluqdjuaq, as is denoted by the names, are productive salmon rivers. In starting from the former and ascend- ing a narrow valley, Lake Ejoleaqdjuin is reached, whence a pass leads to the valley adjoining E^aluaqdjuin. Taking another road the long Lake Imeraqdjuaq_ is reached, which borders upon the glaciers of the highland. From here, after a four days' tramp fol- lowing a large river, the traveler comes to Midlurieling. From Issortuqdjuaq a narrow isthmus offering a good sledging road is used in visiting the head of Qaggilortung. Another route, which is suitable only for foot passengers, leads by a chain of lakes to the head of Kangertlukdjuaq. It is not necessary to enumerate the overland routes in this district, as numerous valleys permit the traveler to pass from the east to the west and from the south to the 436 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. north. Ill tlie fall the natives resort to Saunirtung ov to Saunir- tuqdjuaq, two islands northwest of Imigen, where they stay until January, when they return to the sea. The second settlement of the Qinguamiut is Anarnitung, at the northern entrance of Qaggilortung. The small island and the neigh- boring point of Igdhmgajung are, next to Qeqerten, the seat of the most important settlement of Cumberland Soimd. On the southern and eastern declivity of the low hills which form this island are a number of very old stone foundations (see p. 549), such as are found everywhere on the Arc t u- slunfs of North America(Baffin-Laud.p.;7). If the ice in the upper parts of the sound is smooth, families be- longing to this community settle on Kilauting, the largest island of a group running from northwest to southeast a few miles north of Imigen. Here they go sealing with the harpoon. If the ice, how- ever, is rough (as it happened to be during my stay in Cumberland Sound), they remain in Anarnitung, whence some go to the water holes at the entrance of Issortuqdjuaq and shoot the blowing seals, while others go hunting on the ice near Anarnitung. During the young sealing season they almost always leave the island. The favorite resort at this season is Sakiaqdjung, near Mani- tuling, in Qaggilortung, bnt heavy snowfalls often compel them to exrliaii.t;!' tliis region for the open sea. If they insist upon stopping tliciv. sill iA\shoes are used as the only means of ti'aveling in the deep and s(jl't snow. In 1878, when the Florence wintered in Anarnitung Harbor, the greater part of the natives remained near the ship; but her presence is accountable for this exception, as some of the families were in her service and others staid near her in order to barter seals, skins, &c. Of some importance are the passes leading around the niimerous water holes at the head of Cumberland Sound. The narrow island of Nudnirn, which separates Sarbuqdjuaq from Putukin, offers a good X^assage by way of a deep valley. Should the passage be made in a mild winter or in spring, when the water holes of Sarbuqdjuaq have eulai'ged, they must avoid the latter by passing over the inconvenient isthmus of Itidliaping, west of the steep cliff Naujan. In spring the tide holes of Kangidliuta extend over the passage between that island and Surosirn, preventing sledges from passing to Issortuqdjuaq or to Tessiujang. Then Qajodlualung is crossed by the way of Naqoreang or the more southerly Tappitariaq, which leads into the sound near Siegtung. Both passes are very inconvenient. From Tessiujang. Issortuqdjuaq maybe reached by the fjords Ugjuk- tung and Itijareling and by the adjoining passes. Lastly, I have to mention the road formerly used by the natiA^es of Anai-nitung in traveling to Nettilling. They crossed the entrance of Qaggilortung and ascended Tarrionitung, whence they came by the Lakes Qamusiojodlang and Irtiujang to Missirtung, in Nettilling BOAS.] DISTRIBUTION OF THE TRIBES. 437 Fjord, thus avoiding a much longer journey around the large penin- sula projecting to the eastward. A similar pass farther east connects Tornait and Kangertlukjuaq. The ruins of a third settlement of the Qinguamiut are foiind at Tulukan on Qeqertelung. The next subtribe to be treated is the Kingnaitmiut, who are now located exclusively upon Qeqerten. Formerly they lived in several places— for instance, near Pangnirtung and on Miliaqdjuin— bvit for a long time they have gathered on Qeqerten, as two whaling stations are established here,* many natives being in the service of the whalers. The island is the largest settlement of the sound. It is a favorite resort during the fall and the first part of winter. In November and December, before the ice of the sound consolidates, the ice east of the islands is the best hunting ground. Later that west of the islands is preferred. There is one disadvantage pecul- iar to Qeqerten which is not shared by the other settlements, namely, the fohn-like winds which often blow for many days from Kingnait Fjord with irresistible violence. These confine the natives to their huts, though a few miles north or south calm weather prevails. Should fair weather ensue, the snow, which has been firmly packed by these gales, affords a good hunting ground ; but if, on the other hand, long spells of bad weather follow, want and hunger may be the result. The young seals are eagerly pursued all about Qeqerten. In Pangniitung and in the little valley Niutang, in Kingnait, well up in tlusi- fjiiiils. are the ruins of two large, ancient settlements. The C(_)ii(liti()Hs which formerly enabled the natives to live here will be mentioned later. The Kingnaitmiut go deer hunting to Kitingujang. at the head of Kingnait Fjord; to Nirdlirn, in the bay behind Augiialugtung and. Sednirun;to Pangnirtung; or to the more southern fjords Ejaluaq- djuin and Kaugertlukdjuaq. I shall describe the districts occupied by the Kingnaitmiut, Sau- mingmiut, and Padlimiut together, as they all bear a uniform char- acter. From Nirdlirn the mountains of Ussualung or the highland near Ukiuqdjuaq are visited. The same country is traveled over from Pangnirtung, where the settlement is established either above Qor- dlubing or opposite Aulitiving. The deep valley, with its numeious glaciers, adjoining Pangnirtung and connecting Cumberland Sound and Davis Strait is rarely visited. The favorite place for the settlement is Kitingujang in Kingnait. In the river which empties here many salmon are caught, and the declivities of the neighboring highlands, which are less steep than those of Pangnirtung, afford ample oppf)rtunity for long hunting excursions. Deer are found on the mountains, for here they escape 438 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. the mosquitoes which, swarm in the valleys. The natives do not go beyond Padli, but most of them have been there. They often travel through the valleys of Nerseqdjuaq and Tunussung to Pangnirtung, of Davis Strait, down tlic casti'vn shore of which they go a consid- erable distance. S()^l(lillM•^ they make boat excursions during the summer from Kitingu.jaii.u;'. \-isiting the brooks which empty into Kingnait Fjord, or they settle in Tornait, whence Tupirbikdjuin in Pangnirtung is accessible by the wide valleys surrounding Angiu- qaq. I may omit the description of the Separate summer habitations farther south, for the head of every fjord and every valley that is a means of reaching the interior are used for erecting the tents. The interior of the region, which is covered with ice, remains unvisited, no game being found there. Therefore it may be said in general that the Eskimo are limited to the peninsulas formed by the uTimerous fjords. The Saumingmiut visit the southern fjords of Cumberland Penin- sula, whei'e I have marked the settlements on the chart. Here they pursue deer and polar beai's, which frequently come down to Cape Mercy during the summer. An impoi'tant summer settlement of the Saumingmiut is Touaq- djuaq, from which place they Adsit the peninsula limited by Exeter Soiind and Touaqdjuaq. An important summer station of lioth Saumingmiut and Padlimiut is Qarmaqdjuin, while Ejaloaping (Durban Harbor of the whalers), near the entrance of Padli, is visited only by the latter tribe. The number of deer on Cumberland Peninsula is so variable that the result of the hunt is often unsatisfactory. Although in some seasons numerous herds are met, in others scarcely enough animals are killed to afford a sufficient stock of skins for the winter clothing. Early in the spring the deer pass quite regularly through Itidlirn (the lower part of Padli Valley, between Ikaroling and Padli), in their migrations from Narpaing to Qarmaqdjuin. I was told that in both the latter districts many deer can be found at all times. Lastly, I have to describe the winter settlements of the Sauming- miut. They are in the habit of separating in the fall, part of them staying during winter on Qeqertaujang. in Ugjuktuug. and the re- mainder at Ukiadliving, on Davis Strait. Strange as it may seem, walrus are not found in the upper part of thi' .sdiiiid. while farther south they are abundant. Akuliajating, ea>t 1)1' (^).M|cit('ii. is the most northern point that they visit. It is said thai in Inrmer times they were met with everywhere in the sound, and indeed some of the local names give evidence of the truth of these traditions; for instance, the name of Uglirn (which is always applied to walrus islands), in the fjord Qaggiloi'tung, and that of Anarnitung (a place having a bad smell from walrus excrement), at the head of the sound. BOAs.I DISTRIBUTION- OF THE TRIBES. 439 Before Cumberland Sound begins to freeze up. ihr Eskimo nf IJg- juktung take walrus on tlie islands Uglirn, south of <,>iM|iTi;iiijang, and at Qeqertaq in Anartuajuin. The animals killfd during the fall are buried under stones, and with this stock of provisions the Saumingmiut do not suffer want during the winter. In addition, however, they go pealing at the entrance of I'^gjidctung, or travel overland to K,iiigiTtltia[)ing, abranchof Kouaqdjiiaii. as Xuvukdjuaq is almost always washed by water and cainidt he passed in winter. The young sealing is here of little importance, as the bears visit the fjords about this season and frighten the animals away. In March the natives go bear hunting or move up the sound to join the King- naitmiut during the time of young sealing. In the spring the settle- ment is always abandoned, as most of them go to Davis Strait and join the other part of the tribe. Crossing the country, they travel over a pass leading from Anartuajuin to Qjaradjiraaitjung. The favorite settlement on the east coast is Ukiadliving. There are several stone foundations in tliis place which are frequently reconstructed and used as dwellings. Here walrus are hunted in the summer and in tlie fall and a great stock of provisions is laid up. In winter the floe offers a good hunting ground for sealing and in the spring the bears visit the land and the islands to pursue the pupping (i. e. pregnant or parturient) seals. At the same time the , she bear brings forth her young, the meat and skin of which ai'e highly prized. Many ohl bears and cubs are killed at this season and the precious skins arc pi-rparrd \\,r sale. Besides the befori'nicntidiifd route another and longer one leads to Cumberland Sound. In taking this course the sledges start from Nedluqseaq, west of Ukiadliving, and follow a river which i"ises in a small lake whence the inland ice is ascended. Fartlier on the valley leading to E;)faluaqdjuin and Kan^-eil lukd.juai| is ]-eaclied. This is the only overland route on which tlie inlaml ice is ci'ossed. Cape Mercy can be passed by a number of short isthmuses. In the shelter of the bay formed by the cape and Muingmang a floe is formed reach- ing to the foot of Uibarun (Cape Mercy). The pass Tappitaridjen, which cirts off two peninsulas, leads into the sound. The bays farther west are frozen up and the jirojecting points are avoided by short passes. Unfortunately this road was unknown to me during my stay in Saumia, else I could have easily visited Cape Mercy. At last Anartuajuin is reached. The water rarely extends to Nuvuk- djuaraqdjung, the point between Anartiiajuin and Ugjuktung. It may be passed by a difficult road leading across the peninsula. If the water extends to Iliqimisarbing a pass is used which is ascended from Ejalualuin, in the bay of Naujaqdjuaq. On Davis Strait a few important isthmuses must be mentioned. One is used by the inhabitants of Ukiadliving in traveling to Exeter Sound. They leave the sea at the head of Touaqdjuaq and by a 440 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. difficult overland route cross to tlie southern shore of Exeter Sound. Much of the time the ice and snow near Udlimaulitelliug make the route almost impassable in that direction. If, therefore, this route is impracticable or that through Touaqdjuaq is too difficult on ac- count of the absence of snow, the journey is postponed until late in spring, when the hummocks begin to be leveled off and the snow becomes harder as it settles; then the I'ough ice can be passed, and after reaching Ituatukan, a fjord near Cape Walsingham, the Eskimo ascend it, so as to avoid the cape, which is always washed by water. If snow and ice are in a siiitable condition the passage by way of Itu- atukan is always preferred. From Exeter Sound Kangertlukdjuaq, in Padli Fjord, may be reached by a pass of short extent; but the snow is always so deep here that the passage cannot be effected iintil June. The peninsulas between Padli Fjord and Exeter Sound, which have no ice foot, can be crossed by narrow isthmuses near the head of the bays. Before leaving Cumberland Sound and its inhabitants, the Oqomiut, altogether, I wish to add a few remarks on the whale fishery, which the Eskimo formerly carried on in their bulky skin boats. They pur- sued the monstrous animal in all waters with their imperfect weap- ons, for a single- capture su^Dplied them with food and fuel for a, long time. I do not know with certainty whether the natives used to bring their boats to the floe edge in the spring in order to await the arrival of the whales, as the Scotch and American whalers do nowadays, or whether the animals were caught only in summer. On Davis Strait the Padlimiut and the Akudnirmiut used to erect their tents in June near the iloe edge, whence they went whaling, sending^ the meat, blubber, and whalebone to the main settlement. In Cum- berland Sound whales were caught in all the fjords, particularly in Kingnait, Issortuqdjuaq, and the narrow channels of the west shore. Therefore the Eskimo could live in the fjords diiring the winter, as the provisidiis laid up in the fall lasted until spring. If, therefore, thex-e is a ]m'|vi.]iI ililc diminution in the supply of their food it is due to the fact that tin.' whale fishery has been abandoned by them or rather has been yielded up to Europeans and Americans. It is not probable, however, that a sixfficient number of whales were ever caught to support the entire ]Hipulation during the whole of the winter. The wlialiiiL;- i< still kfpt up T)y the Eskimo of Hudson Strait and Hudson Bay. though only to a limited extent, owing to the visits of whaling ships and the establishment of whaling stations. The Padlimiut and ilic Akudnirmiut.—The next tribes to be de- scribed are the Padlimiut and the Akudnirmiut. but this may be done very briefly, as the nature of this region is similar to that of Saumia. A peculiarity of the Akudnirmiut is their more decided migratory character as compared with the Oqomiut. They do not spend every winter at the same place, as we observed that the Oqomiut do, but BOAS.] DISTRIBUTION OF THE TRIBES. 441 are more inclined to visit, in turn, the different winter stations of their country. In summer the following places are almost always inhabited: Qar- maqdjuin, Ejaloaping in Padli Fjord, Qivitung, and Niaqonaujang. The deer hunting season opens here at the same time as farther south, but it is much facilitated from the fact that the ice breaks up later. The deer visit the numerous islands scattered along the mainland and thus their pasturing ground is easily reached. As the islands of Home Bay constitute a good hunting ground the Eskimo sometimes settle there for a few weeks. The long, low peninsula Pamiujang, near Nedluqseaq, and the head of Nudlung are the favorite summer settlements of the Padlimiut. Nudlung, E^alualuin, Ijelirtung, and Inugsuin are visited by the Akudnirmitit. An abundance of deer is found along the southern part of Home Bay, where the plains extend to the sea. It is remark- able that all along this shore there is no island on which birds build their nests. Though fowls do not form an important constituent of the food of the Oqomiut and the more southern tribes, the egg islands are frequently visited. On Davis Strait it is only by chance that ducks &c. are caught, and eggs can scarcely be obtained. The only island which is visited by birds is Avaudjelling, in Home Bay. In July, however, large flocks of eider ducks descend Itirbilung Fjord and many are caught near its head. From this fjord an overland route, which is practicable only in summer, leads to Piling, a district on the shore of Fox Basin, which may be reached in three days. Though the route is well known, it seems to be passing into disuse; at least I do not know any natives who have crossed the land by it. Another interesting road leading overland must be mentioned, namely, the one which leads from Niidlung and Ejalualuin to Majoraridjen and Nettilling. The former region is still visited by the Akudnirmiut, but I know of but one family who went to Nettilling and wintered there. As a rule, aboiit the beginning of August the Akudnirmiut move to Niaqonaujang in order to have an oppo.tunity of meeting the whalers on their way south. For the same reason the southern fam- ilies gather at Qivitung. As soon as the sea is frozen up, part of the natives of Qivitung- , move southward and settle on Qeqertuqdjuaq. where they stay until February, while in spring some stay here or move farther np the bay, where they establish their huts on Qeqertaq; the rest travel to Padli Fjord and live with the families who had passed the winter there on Padloping. As the floe edge approaches the land here, the country is favorable for bear hunting, which is pursued in March and April. In June the natives move up Padli Fjord to catch salmon, which are found in enormous numbers at Padli. A feW visit Agpan, where flocks of loons nest. The natives who intend to return to Qivitung in summer leave about the eml of May or the beginning of June. 442 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. Those wlio remain at Qivituii,i<- lUiriiii;- the winter go sealing in the bay east of the peninsula and sulisi>l ujion the iJroduct of this occupation, as well as on the walrus meat which was stored up in the summer and autumn. A few leave Qivitung after the consolidation of the floe and settle on Nanuqtaqdjung, an island in Home Bay, near the northern point of Qeqertalukdjuaq. In the winter the Akudnirmiut of Niaqonaujang generally remove to Ijjiutelling, on the southern shore of Koukteling, and in May go farther south, to the island Avaudjelling. In the spring they go bear hunting on Koukteling and the peninsula of Niaqonaujang, where the she bears dig holes in the snow banks, in which they whelp. Though the isthmuses are of great value in facilitating the inter- course between the separate settlements of Cumberland Sound and Davis Strait, as their headlands are washed by water, they are not indispensable for the tribes of Davis Strait, for the ice is passable at all points. The low peninsulas are crossed by the natives in their travels in preference to rounding their headlands. Thus they not only shorten their journey, but they avoid the rough ice often found off the points. For example, a pass leads from the western bay of Padli Fjord to Kangertloaj^ing, and another from Tessiujang, near Qivitung, across the narrow and low isthmus into Home Bay. Similar passes ai-e used in crossing Koukteling, the peninsulas of Niaqonaujang. Aqo- jang, ami Ai|iij:irtung. At Nia(|iiiiaujaii!4- I reached the limit of my travels and have only to add reports which I obtained from other tribes and in other set- tlements. River Clyde and Aqbirtijung are not always inhabited, but are visited at irregular intervals by the Akudnirmiut, the same who usually stay at Niaqonaujang. It is probable that Aqbirtijung and Kangertlualung are sometimes visited by the Tununirmiut of Pond Bay. The Agyomiid.—I can say but little about the two subtribesof the Aggomiut (the Tununirmiut and the Tununirusirmiut), as the re- ports are scanty and the chart of the region is too incorrect to convey any exact information. A few statements may be derived from the Eskimo charts published by Hall (II, pp. 356 and .370). It appears that the natives winter near the entrance of Navy Board Inlet and in the back of Eclipse Sound. Settlements of the Tununirusirmiut at the western entrance of Admiralty Inlet and near its head are mentioned by Hall. Besides seals these natives also pursue the white whales and narwhals which frequent the sound. In summer the Tununirmiut live at the entrance of Pond Bay. Although I am not informed as to the position of the settlements, and for this reason am iinable to judge of the details of the life of the Aggomiut, I can give the more general facts of their relations to the neighboring tribes. Of the greatest importance is their counec- . BOAS.] DISTRIBUTION OP THE TRIBES. 443 tion with the Iglulirmiut, for througli them a regular intercourse is kept up between the continent of America and the eastern shore of Baffin Land. One road leads through Kangertlukdjuaq, a fjord east of Parry's Murray Maxwell Inlet, to the head of Anaulereeling. I received a detailed descri^jtion of this road from a native whom I met at Niaqonaujang. Hall's statement that this way leads to Pond Bay is very likely erroneous, as the natives probably said that it led to Tununirn, which comprises the whole district of Eclipse Sound and the region east of it. It is possible that another road leads to E;j:aluiu. a fjord of Eclipse Sound. Another route which is often used leads from Kangertlung, Parry's Gilford River, to Angmang, and farther west to Tununinxsirn. This route has already been described by Parry, who attempted to reach the north shore of Baffin Land by it (II, p. 449). Parry's description was confirmed in 1869 by Hall (II, p. 350). I am somewhat doubtful whether Fury and Hecla Strait, which is often filli'd with rough ice, can be passed regularly, and whether a rou 1 1 (1 ;»(! i 1 1;'1 t o Tununirusirn follows the shore of the Gulf of Boothia, as stated liy some of the natives of Davis Strait. This uncertainty did not occur to me until after I had read Parry's de- scription. Communication between Tununirn and Tununirusirn is by way (jf thi- istlimus between Kangertlung and Navy Board Inlet. The jniinitNs i >f the Aggomiut are not at all confined to Baffin Land. In favoralili' winters they cross Lancaster Sound, passing the small island Uglirn. and winter on the eastern half of Tudjan (North Devon) While here they keep up some intercourse with the inhabitants of Umingman Nuna (EUesmere Land). It is said that they cross the ice covered island on sledges. In four days they reach the northern shore, whence a long, narrow peninsula, Nedlung, stretches toward EUesmere Land. Through the narrow passage which separates Tudjan from Nedlung runs a very swift tide which keeps open a water hole throughout the winter. All around this place the ice wastes quickly in the spring and a large basin is formed which abounds with seals. Only that part of the peniusiila which lies nearest North Devon is high and steep, presenting a bold face. Farther north it is rather low. Having reached Umingman Nuna, the Eskimo who gave me this information affirm that they fell in with a small tribe who resided on this shore. Here they lived for some time, as there was an abun- dance of seals during the whole year. Farther northwest is a large fjord, Kangertluksiaq, off which an island is found, Qeqertakadli- nang by name. The Eskimo do not visit the land on the other side of this fjord, as bears are said to be very numerous and large there. Though these migrations to Jones Sound do not occur very fre- quently, they have by no means been discontinued. For instance, a family which was well known to me has visited Smith Sound, and 444 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. the fatlirr if smut' frii-mls iil'a resident (ifCiiniborlniid Sraiiifli-eturned( aboiit fifte..|i years a-n IVn,,, a lun- stay mi Tu.l.jan and Xedlung. The lf natives helon.nin.t;- to Baffin Land are those of Iglulik. Our knowledge of this tribe is due to Parry and Hall. As soon as the sea begins to freeze up, the natives gather on Iglulik, where they hunt the walrus throughout the win- ter. According to the position of the floe edge, Iglulik, Pingitkalik, or Uglit Islands are the favorite settlements. Later in the winter, when new ice is freqiiently attached to the iioe, part of the families move to the ice northeast of Igluling, where seals are caught with the harpoon. Another winter settlement seems to be near Amitoq. In April young seals are hunted in the bays and fjords, particularly in Hooper Inlet. According to Hall the western coast of Melville Peninsula is sometimes visited during the winter for walrusing and bear hunting (II, p. 34:3). An overland route leads to this district, crossing the long Grinnell Lake and Brevoort River, thus named by Hall (II, p. 342). As soon as the warm season approaches the na- tives go deer hunting on Melville Peninsula or more frequently on Baffin Land. From the reports of Parry and Hall and from my own inqiiiries. there can ])e no doubt that they visit the eastern shore of Fox Basin. The Pilingmiid.—Two tribes wei-e settled on the eastern coast of Fox Basin, the Pilingmiut and the Sagdlirmiut, who had but slight intercoiirse with the Iglulirmiut. I heard both mentioned at times when traveling along Davis Strait. According to my information I should say that Piling is about 74° west and 69° north. From Parry's reports it appears that the intercourse between these tribes and Iglulik was not very active; for, although he had staid two years at Aivillik and Iglulik, the Pilingmiut when visiting the latter tribe did not know anything about this fact, which was one of the greatest importance to all the natives (II, p. 430). Sometimes the Talirpingmiut of Cumberland Sound meet the Pilingmiut, for both tribes go deer hunting northwest of Nettilliug. I heard of one such meeting between hunting parties in that district. The Sagdlirmiut—The information as to the Sagdlirmiut is yet more scanty than that relating to the inhabitants of Piling. Parry learned that Sagdlirn is about east-northeast of Iglulik (II, p. 549). The description which I received on Davis Strait confirms this opin- ion, for the direction was denoted as qaningnang, i. e., east-north- east ; besides, Sagdlirn was described as a long and narrow island. WESTERN SHORE OF HUDSON BAY. A remarkable difference exists between the customs of the Avestern tribes who live on the continent of America and those of the tribes that inhabit Baffin Land and Melville Peninsula. This is chiefly BOAS.] DISTRIBUTION OF THE TRIBES. 445 due to tlie difference in the nature of their territorial surroundings and to the presence of the musk ox. which they frequently hunt. In addition, the tribes of the continent do not hvmt the seal in the winter, laying up instead their supply of meat and blubber in the fall. The information in regard to two of these tribes is quite com- plete, as they have been visited bj- explorers frequently and at all seasons. The two tribes referred to are the Aivillirmiut, of the northwestern part of Hudson Bay, and the Netchillirmiut of Boothia Felix. Unfortunately the information in respect to the others, the Kinipetu or Agutit, the Sinimiut, Ugjulirmiut, and Ukusiksalir- miut, is less complete. The Aknllirmiut.—In order to describe the mode of life of the Aivillirmiut I shall give an abstract of Dr. John Rae's observations in 184G-'J:7 and 1854-'55, of C. F. Hall's life with these natives from 18G4 to 1869, and of Lieut. F. Schwatka's residence among them from 1877 to 1879. A pretty correct idea of the migrations and favorite resorts of this tribe at the different seasons may be obtained from the jour- nals of these travelers. When Rae arrived in Repulse Bay in the latter part of July, 1810, he met with twenty-six natives who were deer hunting among the numerous lakes of Rae Isthmus (I, pp. 35, 40, 48). Another part of the tribe had resorted to Akugdlit, where they hunted tlie musk ox near Point Hargrave (I, p. 49). Committee Bay (Akugdlit) was filled with a heavy pack about that time, and the natives hunted walrus in their kayaks (I, p. 58). Wherever they killed a deer or musk ox they made deposits of the meat and carefully piit w]) the wahus blubber in sealskin bags for use during the winter. Wlien, about the end of Sej^tember, the deer were migrating southward and new ice was forming on the lakes, the natives settled in the center of that part of the country which had been their hunting ground during the summer, in order to be near their depots. For this reason they were well scattered all over the country, some establishing their tents on the lakes of the isthmus, others staying on the shore of Re- pulse Bay, where large deposits of deer meat and blubber had been made. During the winter most of the natives gathered in one set- tlement east of Fort Hope (near Aivillik), whence they started to bring in their deposits. About the 20th of February they scattered all over the bay (I, p. 91), but it is doubtful whether they did this in order tn br m^aiTv tlieii- (Irpnts or {n i;(, si'uling. In March the first deer of thr sca-^Mii wi'ir MMMi ( I. ]i. '.i:!). Imt ii was not until April that larger lu'nls passi-d Ri'imlsi' J!ay im tlirir migration northward (I, jx 99). At this time a small supply of trout was jjrocured from Chris- tie Lake, but it was not sufficient for the supjaort of the natives (I. p. 99). Caches of venison were made and frequently visited until late in June (p. IGG). The sealing had begiin in the beginning of May (p. 135), when the first animals were seen basking on the ice. But 44(; THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. the Eskimo were now almost independent of their old food supply. Wlien the salmon left the lakes and the "deer were roaming among the hills the time of plenty was at hand. The salmon creeks were visited, deer were caught, and seals pursued on the ice (p. 170). Al- though the first deer were caught in traps in May, the principal sea- son for deer hunting opened after the breaking up of the ice, when they were easily taken while crossing the lakes. When Rae wintered the second time in Repulse Bay (lcS5-l-"o5) he was miich surprised to find no natives there. They had wintered farther south, and did not come to the bay until May, 1855, when they could catch seals on the land ice. In 1864, when Hall arrived at "Wager River, Repulse Bay was again deserted. This year of Hall's stay in Hudson Bay is very instructive, as we learn from his account the partici;lars of the migration of the Aivillirniiut from Nu- vung to Repulse Bay. The following facts are taken from his journal: In June, 18G5, a traveling party arrived in Repulse Bay (Hall II, p. 177), whei'e numerous deer were met with. Their tents were erected on Uglariaq, whence seals were pursued, and they began at once to make blubber deposits (p. 179). They were very eager to store as much provision as possible, as there was no chance of ob- taining a fresh stock at Repulse Bay during the winter. Some of the party brought their boats to the floe edge in order to follow the seal and walrus, which were swimming in the water or lying on the drifting ice in great niimbers, while others preferred sledgiiag on the land floe and shooting the basking seals (p. 181). After the break- ing up of the ice, whales were seen, and kayaks and boats were made ready for their pursuit. In September most of the natives returned to North Pole Lake to hunt deer at the lower narrows (p. 202), where the meat was deposited for winter use (p. 204). On the 19th of October the last deer was killed (p. 205), and most of the natives returned to the bay. They located at Naujan, the men in the party numbering 43 (p. 216). During the winter no kind of hunt was kept up, only a few salmon and trout being caught in the lakes (p. 210). Towards the latter part of March the settlement was broken up and its members scattered for the purpose of hunting and fishing (p. 227). Salmon wcri' caught in North Pole Lake and deer shot in the narrow pusses \>. .'.';).( The sealing did not begin until the first of April (p. 2:!'.t). hi t he summer, deer, seal, walrus, and sal- mon were caught in great abundance. In the following years the mode of life was about the same, but it may be remarked that in Au- gust the natives lived at Pitiktaujang and afterwards went to Lyon Inlet (Maluksilaq) to hunt deer (p. 333). Part of them returned to Repulse Bay, where walrus were caught on the drifting ice during September. In the ensuing winter (1867-'68) 55 natives had gathered in a village about twenty miles east of Fort Hope (p. 333), where they BOAS] DISTRIBUTION OF THE TRIBES. 447 lived on the stores (IppositriMu rill,:;- till' inj •(•((ling summer. After the breakingupof theicr thrv succrcdcd in lton Island.—Before leaving the sub- ject of the Hudson Bay Eskimo I may mention the inhabitants of Southampton Island, a tribe which is almost unknown and the only record of which was obtained by Captain Lyon during the few hoiirs which he passed among them in IS'24 (Atti'iiipt to rcarli Repulse Bay, p. 5-4). In August he found a few lamilics i>\\ the ishiinl south of Cape Pembroke, who were living upmi sahiK.n whicii had been de- posited in stone caches and who had tents made of sealskins. A winter house was found at the same point. About 1865 an American whaling vessel found some natives on Manico Point living in five tents. Even then they had scarcely any iron, but used the old stone implements; this proves the want of all communication with the natives of the mainland. Parry found traces of Eskimo in York Bay and they have been seen on many other parts of the island. The Hudson Bay tribes call this tribe the Sagdlirmiut, i. e., the inhab- itants of Sagdlirn, and their knowledge about them is very scanty, as they meet very rarely and by chance only. The Sinimiut.—Northwest of Hudson Bay we find a tribe in Pelly Bay. The reports upon it are very scanty and it is difficult to find out the extent of the district which is occupied by it. Ross did not fall in with the tribe, and in the accounts of the Netchillirmiut on their journey to Repulse Bay no mention is made of an intervening tribe (II, p. 3G3). In April. 1847, Rae foiind signs of the tribe near Helen Island, in Pelly Bay (I, i). 11.3). There was an abundance of seals on the ice all around the islands (p. Ill), but besides these they had large stocks of dried musk ox and salmon (p. 124). On his second journey he found their winter habitation on Barrow and Cameroon 452 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. Lakes (II, p. 938), and on the 20tli of April lie met with seventeen natives on the mainland west of Augustus Island, among whom were five women. In traveling farther west he fell in with a native who had been hunting the musk ox. On the 17th of May he found twelve natives settled in the same place and living on seal (II, p. 842). Hall met with this tribe twice, in 1866 and in 1869. On the 28th of April, in his first attempt to reach King William Land, he found the Sinimiut settled near Cape Beaufort, in Committee Bay, where they were probably sealing (II, p. 255). No further account of this meeting is found except the remark that these natives were on their way to Repulse Bay (p. 259). Therefore it is rather doubtful whether the eastern shore of Simpson Peninsula belongs to their customary district. In April, 1869, on his second visit to Pelly Bay, Hall found their deserted winter hiits on Cameroon Lake (p. 386). In the early part of the spring they had lived on the ice south of Augustus Island, the only place where seals cordd be caught, as the rest of the bay was filled with heavy floes which had been carried south by the northerly winds prevailing during the preceding fall. The natives themselves were met with on the mainland west of Augustus Island, where they were hunting the musk ox. When Hall crossed the bay in the first days of June the natives had changed neither their place nor their mode of subsistence. There is a discrepancy in Nourse's extract from Hall's joiirnal, for he sometimes refers to the Pelly Bay natives as different from the Sinimiut, while in other passages all the inhabitants of the bay are comprised in the latter term. I think this discrepancy is occasioned by the fact that a number of Aivillirmiut had settled in Pelly Bay and some others were related to natives of that locality; the latter Nourse calls the Pelly Bay men, the rest the Sinimiut . The place Sini itself, according to a statement of Hall, is near Cape Behrens, on the northwestern shore of the bay. As the winter huts of the Sinimiut have been found fnur times on the lakes of the isthmus of Simpson Peninsula, we m;i y siipiiosc that they generally spend the winter there, living on the stores sited in tlae preceding season and occasionally angling for trout and salmon (Rae I, p. 110) or killing a musk ox. In March they leave for the sea in order to hunt seals and to secure a fresh supply of blubber for their lamps. Their chief subsistence is the musk ox; besides, salmon are caught in great numbers, for they live on dried fish until spring (Rae I, p. 124). BOOTHIA FELIX AND BACK RIVER. The NetcMllirmiut—Following the shore westward we find the interesting tribes that inhabit Boothia Felix, King William Land, and the mouth of Back River. Among them the Netchillirmiut are the most important. Their favorite hunting grounds seem to have BOAS] DISTRIBUTION OF THE TRIBES. 453 undergone a remarkable change since they were first visited by Ross in 1829. At that jjeriod their district occupied the southern joart of Boothia Felix, particularly the narrow isthmus and the adjoining parts of both coasts. Tliey were acquainted with Bellot Strait (Ike- rasaq), which they described as the way the Victory had to take in order to effect a passage to the western sea. A part of the tribe was in the habit of wintering on Owutta Island; they also probably vis- ited the eastern part of King William Land. The southwestern ter- mination of their district cannot be exactly di'liiicd, but trom their description of the land south of Lake Willci'stcill it appears that they visited Sheiaherd Bay; besides, I find that in Juiu-. 1831, a number of families lived south of Netchillik, i. e., proljably in Rae Strait ov on Shepherd Bay (Ross II, p. 537). So far as can be gathered frcmi Ross's accmuit tin' tribe had three wintersettlements. OIK Mill tlicc-istci-ii slioriMif the 1 si hmiis of Boothia, another at Lake Netclnllik, and the third uu <.)wutta Island.' As to the first meeting of the natives with the Victory two contradic- tory accounts are foiind. At first it is related (p. 353) that they came from Akugdlit. liaviiig been on the road ti'u days. Later, and this is more in'obalilr. it is said that two natives had ilcscried the ship in September. is-.';i. wIu'il passing near Vietnria Harbor (p. 309). Be- ing in great fear, they had immediately traveled to Netchillik to communicate with their countrymen. There they met with a woman who had been on board of Parry's ships, and she had induced all the natives, by her stories, to be on the lookout for the Eurojjeans. At the first meeting, on the 9th of January, 1830, 31 men approached the ship. This would answer to a population of aboiit one hundred and twenty persons, and it is quite unprecedented that such a party should travel for any distance and even beyond th-e limitations of their own territory and of their customary migrations. Probalily a traveling jjarty had joined the Netchillirmiut, who had lived some- where in Lord Maj'-or's Bay. and they all went to meet the shijj. From Ross we also learn that during January and February these natives lived on seals, which were killed with harpoons (pp. 250, 255, 259), but, in addition, they had deposits of venison, seal blubber, and fish (pp. 251, 262). Sometimes they went hunting the musk ox on the mainland farther north, and a small party may have staid there thidULiliont the winter (p. 265). In the first days of March they began to scatter all over the ice (p. 290), in oi-der to have a better chance of sealing and of catching young seals in the white coat (pp. 293, 295). The young sealing commenced about the 10th of March. It is worth remarking that this is the only tribe on the continent of ' From a rather ambiguous statement (p. 355) it would seem that Owutta belongs to the territory of the Ugjulirmiut ; but in later passages ample proof is found that it is inhabited by the Netchillirmiut (pp.423, 427). I myself was formerly misled by the above passage (Zeitschr. Gesell. Erdk., p. 171, Berlin, 1883). 454 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. America which jjursiies the young seal ; they are enabled to do this by the extent of the land floe in the large bays. In the last days of March some of the natives started for Sarvaq and Netchillik t(i fetch their kayaks (p. 315), which they had left there the preceding season. As they intended to hunt deer at the lakes farther north, they were obliged to have their boats at hand at the breaking up of the ice. The further the season advanced the more the settlements were broken up (p. 338), and towards the end of April the first fami- lies left fdi' Xi-tcliillik to join the other part of the tribe (p. 323). At tliis seas. Ill tlie musk ox and the returning reindeer were fre- quently hunted (pp. 352, 335, 349). In the first days of May some of the natives went to Netchillik (p. 337), and another party followed a month later (p. 383). They stopped on Middle Lake for a short time to fish for trout (p. 384). A niimber of families remained near the ship, sealing, catching salmon, and hunting the miisk ox (pp. 430, 441, 450, 453) until the beginning of July, when the fishing season ended and they went to the inland lakes to hunt deer and fish for trout in the rapids between the lakes (p. 450). In the siimmer their principal fishing stations were Lindsay River and Sarvaq. The other part of the tribe which had lived at Lake Netchillik were even more numerous than that of the coast, as 21 snow houses were found which had been inhabited by them during the winter (p. 389). The number of inhabitants of this village was about one hundred and seventy, and, since there were a few who lived on Owutta Island and yet others who may have been scattered in dif- ferent parts of the country, it is probable that the whole tribe num- bered 350 persons. As they were seen only a few times by the expedition the reports are rather incomplete. In the winter they lived on a plain, which was called OkaVit, on the eastern shore of Lake Netchillik (p. 315). The exact position cannot be learned from Ross's journal. As some men- tion is made of blubber deposits at Netchillik (p. 388), it is probable that they lived on stores deposited in summer. Toward the end of May and in the beginning of June they were met with at Spence Bay and Josephine Bay. One of their stations was on the island Inugsulik, near Padliaq, the head of Spence Bay. Here their principal food was codfish, which they caught in holes cut through the ice, while the sealing was there a less important interest (pp. 391, 426). The kayaks which were found deposited on the west shore of Boothia as far as Josephine Bay proved that they resorted to this region in the deer hunting season (pp. 40G, 407). The families who had been at Owutta during the winter of 1829-'30 were foimd in June, 1831. in Padliaq. whence they crossed the isthmus and visited Tarionitjoq (p. 431). In 1830 no natives were seen after the usual time of their departure for the interior of the country, and it was not until April, 1831, that BOAsJ DISTRIBUTION OF THE TRIBES. 455 they were found again. They had wintered at Lake Avatutiaq. on the eastern shore of Boothia (p. 511), where they had lived on a hirge stock of salmon caught in the fall (p. 53 ) and on musk oxen which! were hunted during the entire year in the hilly country near the lakes. Others had wintered farther south, on Lake Owen (p. 524). A portion of these Eskimo set out for Netchillik in April (p. 52-2), while the others remained in Tom's Bay and subsisted upon cod- fish, salmon, and seals (p. 540). In June another party hft fur Netchillik, whence some of the na- tives, who had not scin tin' sliiji before, arrived at Victoria Harbor in July, probably having heard of her new station at this place through the returning families (p. 577). In August the last of them left, going west (p. 592). Though these reports are rather imperfect, they enable us to get a fair idea of the mode of life of this tribe. In the large bays on the eastern side of the isthmus the natives live just as do the southern tribes of Baffin Land, pursuing the seal at its breathing hole during the winter. Here, as everywhere else, the settlements were broken up early in the spring. The fishing is commenced remarkably early, while in the east scarcely any salmon are caught before the breaking up of the lakes. West of Melville Peninsula the fishing is commenced in March or even earlier. On Boothia the most important means of subsistence for the natives is the codfish, on which they live during the spring and probably dur- ing a part of the winter. It is also an important article of food for the other tribes of this region, while farther east it is of no impor- tance. The salmon fisheries of Boothia are very productive, of which Netchillik and Padliaq in Josephine Bay, Stanley and Lord Lind- say Rivers, Qogulortuug, Angmalortuq, and Sarvaq may be consid- ered the most important. Deer are hunted while swimming across the numerous lakes of Boothia, and the musk ox in the granite hills of its northern part. Here is also another winter resort of the tribe, from which the island Tukia, north of Lake Avatutiaq, is visited in summer, to collect pyrite or native iron (p. 363), which is used for kindling fire. The life of the western part of the tribe, as far as we are acquainted with it, was described in the foregoing paragraph. Neither Dease and Simpson, who visited Castor and Pollux River in 1839, nor Rae, on his second voyage to Boothia, met the natives themselves; the latter, however, saw their marks on the islands of AclandBay (II, p. 840). The next traveler who fell in with the tribe was M'Clintock, who visited King William Land in search of the Franklin records. In February, 1859, he met several families near C.i|if Adelaide (p. 230). They traveled during the spring all along the shore and had been near Tasmania Islands in March and April. They were seen by him on their return journey to Netchillik, near Cape Nicholas. They 456 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. traveled slowly south, hunting seals. They knew the coast as far as Bellot Strait and were able to name every cape of this district. A few families who had wintered in company with this party at Cape Victoria had returned to Netchillik \\ luu the other parties started north (p. 25;3). On the 4:th of Ma>-. t\vciit\- di-serted snow huts were found on the southwest point of ilatty Island (p. 25?). From the direction of the sledge tracks, M'Clintock concluded that the natives who had formerly lived here had gone to Netchillik. On the 7th of May a settlement of 30 or 40 individuals was found on the eastern coast of King William Land (p. 260). This party had not connnu- nicated with the villages on the mainland of Boothia since the pre- ceding fall (p. 260.) An interesting change in the territory which is inhabited by tliis tribe has occurred since Ross's visit to this country. In order to de- scribe it more fully. I must refer to the relations of the Netchillir- vaiut to the Ugjulirmiut. At this early period the intercourse be- tween the tribes of Ugjulik and Netchillik was of little consequence. No European had ever been in their districts, which inchided Ade- laide Peninsula and the southern shore of King William Land (Ross II, p. 317), but quite a number of persons were known to the Netchillirmiut (p. 357), who had met them in their trading excur- sions. In addition to this, a young single man of Ugjulik had been adopted by a Netchillirmio who lived on the eastern coast of King William Land and on Owutta Island (p. 355). When the Franklin expedition perished on King William Land, in 1848. the Netchillir- miut had not yet visited that part of the country. From Schwatka's inquiries we learn that the tribe that found Crozier and his fellow sufferers did not extend its migrations beyond Adelaide Peninsula and the southern shore of King William Land. In the summer of 1848 they attempted in vain to cross Simpson Strait, and were com- pelled to stay on the island. They traveled all over the country as far as Peel Inlet. .>p].usit,- to Matty Island (Gildt-r. p. 91). Hence it is obvioiisthat the Xctcliiilirniint. up to llic 1 inic of the Franklin catastrophe, livi'il in tlicii-nlil territory, as tin.' inhabitants of Boothia in 1859 had only indirect news of the shipwreck. When the Ugjulirmiut obtained an enormous stock of metals and wood by the destruction of Franklin's ships, the Netchillirmiut com- menced to visit King William Land, in order to partake also of these riches. Thus they began, by degrees, to move westward, and became intermingled with the Ugjulirmiut. Hall mentions quite a number of Boothians who had met Ross on the eastern shore of the istlinius, though they were living on King William Land at that time (Hall II, p. 405). Besides, according to all accounts, the number of women is much smaller among the Netchillirmiut than that of men, and these are obliged to look for wives among the neighboring tribes, particu- larly among the Ugjulirmiut. As these do not differ in the fashion BOAS] DISTRIBUTION" OF THE TRIBES. 457 of their clothing and tattooing from the Netehillirmiiit, it is scarcely- possible at the present time to separate the tribes. It is worth re- marking, however, that Gilder and Klutschak use both terms, and therefore I conclude that the natives themselves are conscious of belonging to different tribes. Schwatka describes the limits of their territory as he learned them from his observations in the summer of 1870 (Science, December li), ISS-t, p. 543). He found them on the mainland opposite King Will- iam Land and along the islands in the vicinity of Simpson Strait. They were most numerous along the northern shores of Adelaide Peninsula, their villages being scattered every few miles along the coast from Montreal Island to Smith Point. On the chart accom- panying this account the eastern shore of the Back River estuary is included in the district inhabited by the Netehillirmiiit. It is important to compare this description with the observations which were made by Hall in 18G9. He found the first traces of natives at the very head of Shepherd Bay, where a sledge track was observed (p. 395). Near Point Acland several snow huts and a number of natives were met with on the 30th of April (p. 396). Farther west he found a village on Point Booth (p. 397), but the most interesting fact is that in May, 1869, the party had fresh salmon from Netchil- lik (p. 400). This statement is decisive of the question whether the Netchillirmiut still continiied their visits to the isthmus from which they take their name. From Khitschak's journal a few more details may be gathered. From it we learn that in summer the Netchillirmiut scatter, and, while some go sealing near Montreal Island (p. 75), many others go inland to hunt deer in the lakes of the peninsula and farther south (p. 119). A third party resort to King William Land, the soiithern shore of which they frec[uent until September, while the more north- ern parts are seldom visited (p. 79). At this season they leave the island and all return to Adelaide Peninsula (p. 126). I suppose, however, that this report does not refer to the whole tribe, but that another party visited Shepherd Bay in winter. It seems to me very improbable that in the interval between 1869 and 1879 a total change should have occurred. In the spring they catch salmon, which are dried and stored to be used in winter. Their stock of blub- ber and deer meat is sufficient to last them during the greater part of the winter. At this season they fish only in holes made through the ice. Important winter settlements are at Point Richardson and at the outlet of Qimuqsuq (Sherman Inlet), where all the deer needed are caught in the fall while they are crossing the bay. Although these statements do not altogether harmonize, it appears, notwithstanding, that King William Land and Adelaide Peninsula, which were not visited by the tribe in the early part of our century, became its favorite hunting ground after the loss of the Franklin 458 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. expedition. Since that period the more iiDitlicrii parts of Boothia may have been abandoned by the natives. i Ik ni-h no certain proof of this can be offered. Netchillik itself and tlic more southern parts were visited up to 1869, and probably they are yet inhabited by the Eskimo. This cannot be said with positiveness, however, for this part of the country has not been visited since the times of Ross and M'Clintock. Tlie migration of the natives was caused, without doul)t and as we have already remarked, by the profusion of metals and wood obtained from the wrecks and the starved traveling parties. The Ugjulirmiut.—Several important facts regarding the Ugju- lirmiut are mentioned above. Dease and Simpson found their first traces on the western shore of Adelaide Peninsula. From Ross's account (I. p. 427) it apjjears that their territory was the same at that period as it is now, and M'Clintock's meeting with them on the shore of King William Land may be adduced as a proof of this. Their old country is now inhabited by both Ugjulirmiut and Netchillirmiut. Therefore their mode of life is identical and requires no comment. Visits to the northern jDarts of King William Land have been very rare, but it was on one of these that Franklin's ships were discov- ered (Klutschak). They rarely went hunting beyond Cape Herschel, but looked for driftwood on the northern shore of the island. The UkusiJcsalirmiid.—The last tribe of the Central Eskimo, the Ukusiksalirmiut, inhabit the estuary of Back River. They were met by Back and by Anderson and Stewart. Recently Schwatka and his party communicated with them on their visit to King William Land. Klutschak affirms that they are the remains of a strong tribe which formerly inhabited Adelaide Peninsula but was supplanted by the Netchillirmiut and the Ugjulirmiut. Klutschak calls them Uku- siksalik; Gilder, sometimes Ukusiksalik, sometimes Ugjulik. The latter author relates that a single family living on Hayes River (Kiignuaq) had formerly had its station on Adelaide Peninsula, but had retired to this country when the warlike Netchillirmiut began to visit King William Land and Adelaide Peninsula. Schwatka could identify the same man with one of those whom Back had seen in the estiiary of the river in 1833 (Gilder, p. 78). Therefore they must have lived in this district a long time before the Netchillirmiut began to move westward. According to Back the party with which he fell in did not know the land beyond the estuary of Back River, which indicates that they wcrr nritlier from Ugjulik nor Netchillik. As the Ugjulirmiut livi d ,.ii Aili'laide Peninsula when Ross wintered in Boothia, I do not cf)nsi(l('i- it proliable tliat tlie Ukusiksalirmiut ever lived in that part of the country, and I cannot agree with Klutschak. I may add Parry's remark, that beyond Ukusiksalik (Wager River) another Ukusiksalik (Back River) was known to the natives of Winter Island. BOAS.] DISTRIBUTION OF THE TRIBKS. 459 The reports on their mode of life are very deficient. They were met by Schwatka a little above tlie great bend of Hayes River in May, 1879; he also met another party in December at the Dangerous Eapids of Back River. Schwatka counted seven families at the former and nine at the latter place. Their principal food consisted of fish, which are caught in abundance in Back River (Klutschak, p. 164). It is said that they have no fuel during the winter. Un- doubtedly they use some kind of fuel, and I rather doubt the im- plication that they do not hunt seals at all. Tlie musk ox and fish, however, are their main food, according to both Klutschak and Gilder. It is very remarkable that all the natives west of Boothia depend much more on fish than do any other tribes of the Central Eskimo. A word in regard to the roads used in the intercourse between the tribes. From Akugdlit a road leads over the lakes of Simpson Peninsula to Pelly Bay. Rae and Hall traveled o^-er it on tlieir journeys to the northwest and it was used by the Sinimiut when they visited Repulse Bay in 186G. From Pelly Bay two roads lead to Netchillik and the estuary of Back River, the one following the east shore of the Boothia, the other running to Lake Simpson, whence the valley of Murchison River facilitates the access to Inglis Bay. The Isthmus of Boothia is crossed by the two chains of lakes discov- ered by Ross. In visiting the northeastern part of the peninsula the natives ascfud Rtanl.'y River and cress the lakes farther ii.irth. Be- tween Xet.-hiUik and r^julik the EskiiiKi pass 1 y ( )\vutta Island to . Peel Inlet, whence tiiey travel overland t.i the snuth sliure of King William Land and cross Simpson Strait. Another road leads from Cape Colville to Matheson Point, following the south shore of King William Land. In traveling from Ugjulik to Back River they use Sherman Inlet and the adjoining isthmus. It is probable that Back River is visited by natives belonging to Wager River. The exist- ence of a communication between Back River and Chesterfield Inlet is proved by Anderson and Stewart, who found Eskimo at Lake Garry, and l)y a remark of Klutschak (p. 170), who learned from a native of Back River that Chesterfield Inlet could be reached from the upper part of that river. It is quite probable that thus an immediate thcnigli limited intercourse is kept up between the Kinipetu and the Ukusik- salirmiut. SMITH SOUND. The natives of EUesmere Land.— Last of all I have to mention the natives of Ellesmere Land and those of North Greenland. Al- though the latter are not generally considered as belonging to the central tribes, I find that their habits and their implements resemble those of the Central Eskimo rather than those of the Greenlanders, 460 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. and therefore a brief mention of them will not be inappropriate. The inhabitants of Umingman Nuna (Ellesmere Laud) probably live on the southern shore, near the western part of Jones Sound, and, accord- ing to Bessels's and my own inquiries, they travel all around this island, passing by Hayes Sound. The North Greenlanders.—The North Greenlanders live in the sounds of the peninsula between Melville Bay and Kane Basin, hunt- ing seals on the smooth floes of the bays and pursuing walrus at the floe edges. They make large deposits of the blubber and meat ob- tained in the fall, on which they live diiring the winter. They also piirsue seals in winter with the harpoon. In summer they hunt rein- deer on the mountains adjoining the inland ice. INFLUENCE OF GEOGRAPHICAL CONDITIONS UPON THE DISTRI- BUTION OF THE SETTLEMENTS. In considering the distribution of the tribes it is evident that they are settled wherever extensive floe's afford a good sealing ground dur- ing the winter. The Sikosuilarmiut live on the large bay east of King Cape, which is sheltered by numerous islands. The Akuliar- miut are settled near Lesseps and North Bays. I am unable to say whetherthere is a floe ncai- tin- winter settlement of the Qaiiiiiaiiang- miut, astherearenoreiiurts updii lliesiili.jei-t. Piolialily ice is fdnned in the sound, which is protected hy tiie iliddle Sa\-age Islamls. and besides it may be that the natives move to North Bay. The important tribe of Nugumiut lives on Frobisher Bay and the adjoining Grinnell and Field Bays. On the largest floe of this part of the country, in Cumberland Sound, including Lake Nettilling, the largest tribe is settled ; the Oqomiut. On Davis Strait ice floes are formed betw-een Cape Mickleham and Cape Mercy, in Exeter Sound, and between Okan and Bylot Island. The tribes are distributed accordingly : the Saumingmiut of Ukiadliving, the inhabitants of Qarmaqdjuin with their winter settlement in Exeter Sound, and the Padlimiut and the Akudnirmiut farther noi'th. The immense land floe of Davis Strait is not so valuable a hunting ground for the Eskimo as Ciimberland Sound, the ice being very rough a few miles from the coast and at some places even close inshore. When the sea begins to freeze in the fall the newly formed ice is broken up by severe gales and by the currents and is piled up into high hummocks before it consolidates. The sealing on rough ice during the winter is very difficult and un- successful, as it is hard to find the breathing holes and the traveling- is very laborious. It is only in the northern parts of Home Bay and in the large fjords that smooth ice is formed. The settlements of the natives are manifestly distributed in accordance with these facts. In every place where smooth ice is foi'raed we find tliat natives either are settled or have been settled. Aqbirtijung, River Clyde, Ijellir- BOAS.l DISTRIBUTION OF THE TRIBES. 461 tung, Home Bay, Brodie Bay, Merchant Bay, and Padli are the only places along the shore of Davis Strait where smooth ice occurs. On the long shores between them, which are unsheltered from winds and currents, the ice is always very hummocky, and, therefore, the natives do not settle mpon them in the winter. In the far north, extensive floes of smooth ice are formed in Eclipse Sound and Ad- miralty Inlet. Concerning the country farther west the reports are rather scanty. The southwest shore of Baffin Land and the eastern entrance of Fury and Hecla Strait are always frozen over and afford a good hunting ground. On the mainland, the large floes of Repulse Bay and Wager River, Chesterfield Inlet and the bights all around it, Pelly Bay and the narrow bays adjoining Boothia Peninsula, and the mouth of Back River are important places for the distribution of the Eskimo. There are only a few districts where the proximity of open water favors walrus hunting during the winter, and all of these have neighboring floes on which seals may be hunted with the harpoon. These places are Sikosuilaq, Akuliaq, Frobisher Bay, Iglulik, the west shore of Hudson Bay, and Smith Sound. As to the remainder the Eskimo live altogether independent of the open water during the winter. G-enerally speaking, two conditions are required for winter settle- ments, viz, the existence of an extensive floe and smooth ice. The diiTercnt mode of hunting in the spring c-ausfs a diffci-ent dis- tribution of tlir settlements. Duringthis season tliosi' rr-ions wliich had been deserted during the winter are most visited by the hunters. On light dog sledges they travel over the rough ice and along the shores of the fjords and islands. The natives who lived in large set- tlements during the winter are spread over the whole country, in order that every one may have a better chance of traveling over his own himting ground. In a few places the yoiing sealing induces the Eskimo to leave the winter settlements ; in other places the kayaks are prepared for visiting the floe edge, and bears and the returning birds are hunted. Though the greater variety of food which is to be obtained and the difference in the methods of hiinting in the spring reqiiire the dispei" sion over a wide area of the families which had kept together during the winter, the selection of places for the new settlements remains wholly dependent upon the state of the ice. After the ice breaks up, the distribution of the deer regulates the location of the summer settlements. While during the winter the state of the ice is of decisive importance, the orography of the land comes now into consideration. Wherever deep valleys give access to an extensive ai'ea, wherever practicable roads enable the natives to ascend the plateaus, summer settlements are established. The heads of the fjords are favorite 462 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. places, as they abound with sahnoii. The adjoining valleys and the peninsulas which they form give the best chances for a successful deer hunt. These facts are most apparent on the coast of the steep highland of Nugumiut, over which numerous hei'ds of deer roam. A great influence is also exerted by the extensive plains of the western part of Baffin Land, which abound in deer. We observe that a number of tribes visit these districts, though their winter sta- tions are at a great distance. The Akuliarmiut of Hudson Strait and the Nugumiut travel to Lake Aniaqdjuaq, the Oqomiut stay on Lake Nettilling, and the Akudnirmiut visit Majoraridjen. In the same way all the tribes of Hudson Bay visit the laud farther west, which is frequented by herds of the musk ox, and they go even as far as Back River. This important fact shows the attraction which is exei-ted by a rich country on all the tribes of the neighboring districts. TRADE AND INTERCOURSE BETWEEN THE TRIBES. In treating of the single tribes, the routes were mentioned which are followed by the natives as they travel from shore to shore and from settlement to settlement. These routes are established by tra- dition and the Eskimo never stray from them. In order to obtain a more thorough iinderstanding of the migrations of single indi- viduals and of families, the relations between the tribes and the set- tlements must be discussed. By the lively intercourse which is always kept up between the settlements, it cannot fail that marriages between members of dif- ferent tribes should be of frequent occurrence and that many ties of affinity and consanguinity should thus be created. These rela- tions, however, as distances increase, quickly become less common. For instance, in Cumberland Sound three people are found belong- ing to Tununirn, about ten belonging to Akudnirn, and quite a number coming from Padli. Also, two Sikosuilarmiiit live there, a few natives of Akuliaq and Qaumauang, and very many Nugiimiut. Hall's accounts concerning the Nugumiut and the Ai\illirmiut prove a similar proportion of strange natives amoni;' tlirsi- tiilics. Every tribe may be said to bring together its immediiite neigliljors, as it is closely related to them, while those which are separated by the tribe itself are strangers to one another. The importance of this mediate position is regulati'il by tlir sti-i-iiii-tli of tlir tribe, by the significance of the country- in refei-eiicei. . its |ii-<)(liice. ;iii(l li\' tlie routes crossing it. Thus, the Siki.suilariiiiut and the Xurataiuiiit are closely connected, and may be considered as forming one group with the Akuliarmiut. The Sikosuilarmiut have intercourse with the Igdlumiut, the inhab- itants of the northern shore of Labrador. According to Lucien M. Turner, three tribes may be distinguished there as inhabiting the : BOAS.] TRADE AND INTERCOURSE. 463 shores of Ungava Bay and the easiivii sIkhv of TTudsou Bay. This report differs somewhat from the ,-i((i>uiits <>l' 1lic [Moravian mission- aries who have intercourse with tin' inlKil)it;ints nf Ungava Bay near Cape Chidleigh. From their reports four tribes may be distinguished the Kangivamiut of George River, the Kouksoarmiut of Big River, the Ungavamiut of Hope Advance Bay (which is properly named Ungava). and the Itivimiut of Hudson Bay. I am rather undecided whether Ungava is a bay or a large strait separating Cape Wolsten- holme and the adjacent land from the continent, as the name Ungava is also reported south of Cape Wolstenholme. The inhabitants of this shore are the Itivimiut of the Labrador Eskimo and the Igdlu- miut of the natives of Baffin Land. Probably the intercourse be- tween Sikosuilaq and Cape Wolstenholme is of no great importance. The Sikosuilarmiut visit Trinity Islands (Nannu^ragassain) in skin boats to hunt walrus and cross by the three islands Tudjaraaq'djung, Akugdlirn, and Tudjaqdjuara'hing to the opposite shore of Hudson Sti-ait. The passage across the strait is considered very dangerous, and therefore is rarely undertaken. The natives do not utter a single word during the long passage; they believe a destructive gale might be conjured up if they did. Only once have natives been met Avitli on Salisbury Island (Lyon, Attempt to reach Repulse Bay, p. 128), but it is doubtful whether they belonged to the northern or to the southern shore of the strait. As for the rest, the passage is only known to me by reports I received in Cumberland Sound, which were confirmed by the whalers visiting the northern shore of Hudson Strait. I do not know whether any intercourse exists between Siko- suilaq and Southampton Island. It is worth remarking that on Mansfield Island numerous ruins of Eskimo habitations have been found (Gordon, Report on the Hudson's Bay Expedition, 1884, p. 38). The Qaumauangmiut are connected with the Nugumiut in the same manner as with' the Akuliarmiut, and many are said to win- ter near North Bay, which is also visited by the Akuliarmiut. From Hall's reports it would appear that many are settled in Frobisher Bay. At present till' intfi-cdursi- between the Xu^umiut and theOqomiut is of no significaiiei'. .-k iii.iii\- \ I'.irs iii;i\- pass without a journey being made from one tribe to tlie otliei-. Formerly, when many whalers visited Cumberland Sound and Field Bay, a number of Nugumiut immigrated to the sound, and consequently almost half of the Eskimo now settled on the western shoreof Cumberlaml Round were born in Nugumiut or Ukadliq. At the same time iiiaii\ (Kioiniul settlinl among the Nugumiut. That period was doubtless an exeeptional one; at any rate, the long stretch of uninhabited shore between the settlements of the two tribes is not favorable to intimate intercourse. Indeed, even now the Nugumiut are considered strangers in the sound, and, notwithstanding the existence of many intermarriages between the tribes, a number of families are not at all acquainted 464 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. with one another. It is remarkable that the number of natives born in Nugumiut is much larger on the western shore than on the eastern. They seem to have joined their nearest neighbors, the soiithern Talirpingmiut, perhaps for the reason that in their district the geo- graphic character of the land is most similar to that of Frobisher Bay. The number of Nugumiut settled among the inhabitants of Nettilling Fjord and among the Kingnaitmiut is far less. Among the Saumingmiut there is no one who has traveled beyond Nauja- teling, and in Padli or farther north there are very few individuals who have been south of Cumberland Sound. It is only by careful consideration of the birthiilace of the different individuals who are members of the settlements of Cumberland Sound that it is possible at the present time to detect the former division of the Oqomiut into subtribes. The inhabitants of the eastern shore are related to the Padlimiut and the Akudnirmiut; those of the western shore, to the Nugumiut. In 1840 a brisk intercourse existed between Padli and the sound (Eenoolooapik, p. 81), and probably sledges crossed the peninsula every winter. Though the intercourse is not so intimate to-day as it is between the settlements of the sound, it is yet active. The Kingnaitmiut form the medium of the regular intercourse be- tween Saumia and Padli, while families removing to Akudnirn travel along the shore of Davis Strait. Among the subtribes of the Oqo- miut the Saumingmiut are most nearly related to the Padlimiut and extend their migrations farthest to the north. The Akudnirmiut, who are closely connected with the Padlimiut, are considered strangers by the Oqomiut. The intercourse between the Akudnirmiut and the Aggomiut is not very frequent, and seems to be maintained as irregularly as that between the Nugumiut and the Oqomiut. The inhabitants of the northern sounds and of Fury and Hecla Strait frequently visit one another. Parry rhentions a number of journeys in each direction (II, p. 4.30). Hall found natives of Tunu- nirn and Tununirusirn settled in Iglulik (II, p. 356). I myself found two Iglulirmiut among the Akudnirmiut. The intercourse seems to have been always very active, and consequently those tribes may be considered as one group. The inhabitants of North Devon belong to the Tununirusirmiut, a few families of this tribe sometimes settling o-n the island and after a few years' absence returning to their former home. From Parry's, Hall's, and Schwatka's reports it appears that the Aivillirmiut are closely related to the Iglulirmiut, while the Eskimo of Che.sterfield Inlet, the A^utit or Kini])etu. form a separate group. It is remarkable tli; it lii'twrcn tin- trilifs of Hudson Bay and the more western ones a di'cp disti-iist exists, wliich prevents a frequent and unlimited intercourse. The Sinimiut and Netchillirmiut are BOAsI TKADE AND INTERCOURSE. 465 feared by the Aivillirniiut, tliougli intermarriages aud removals froui one tribe to the other are not rare. No doubt tliey are less closely related than are the neighboring tribes hitlierto mentioned. Unfortu- nately, too little is known of the western tribes to admit of a decided opinion whether or not there exists an impoi'tant difference in cus- toms and habits. The Sinimiut, the Netchillirmiut, and the Ugju- lirmiut may be comprised in one group, for they all hold frequent intercourse with one another and the last two even inhabit the same region at the present time. The change which the relations between these tribes have undergone since 1833 has already been referred to, as has their intercourse with the Ukusiksalirmiut. Schwatka (Sci- ence, Vol. IV, p. 543) states that they occasionally meet the Oidneliq of Coronation Bay, but that both tribes distrust each other. Our knowledge about the migrations from North Devon to Ellesmere Land and North Greenland is very scanty, but it is necessai-y to mention its existence. Between tribes that are strangers to one another ceremonies of greet- ing are customary which are not adapted to facilitate intercourse. The ceremonies will be described further on (see p. GOO). For the present it will be sufficient to say that duels, with varying details, are common between a stranger and a man of the tribe, and these some- times result in the death of the former. Among neighboring tribes these ceremonies are dispensed with, for instance, between the Padlimiut and Oqomiut, Padlimiut and Akud- nirmiut, while a Nugumio or an Akudnirmio unknown in Oqo has there to go through the whole o'f the performance. The exception in favor of the former tribes is doubtless due to the frequent intermar- riages with those tribes, whereby a constant acquaintance is kept up. Real wars or fluids l»'f with scttli'iiicnts, I believe, have never liaj)- pened, but contests li.ive ;il\\,i\s been confined to siiiL;le f^imilies. The last instance (if a feud wliicli li;is come to my knowledge oci-urred about seventy years ago. At that time a great number of Eskimo lived at Niutang, in Kingnait Fjord, and many men of this settlement had been nini-ilered by a. Qini;naini(i of Anarnitung. For this reason the men iif Xiutann- iiiiiieil in a sledge journey to Anarnitung to revenge the di'atli (if tlieii' eoiiipaiiidiis. They hid themselves behind tlie ground ice and killed the returning hunter with their arrows. All hostilities have probably been of a similar character. One tradition ( >nly refers to a real fight between the tribes. On the steep isla 1 M 1 Sa-i 1 1 naijdjung, near Naujateling, ruins of huts are found on the level summit. They are said to have been built by Eskimo who lived by the seashore and were attacked by a hostile tribe of in- landers. The tradition says that they defended themselves with bows and ari'ows, and with bowlders which they rolled down upon the enemy. The occurrence of hiits upon the top of an island is very unusual, and this tradition is the only one referring to any kind of fights or wars. Even the tradition of the expulsion of the Tornit a G ETH 30 4r;6 THE CENTRA I- ESKIMO. fcibulous tribe said to luive lived with the Eskimo on tliesc sliores, does not refer to a combat. Tlie details of this tradition will be found in a subsequent chapter. I wish to state here that my inquiries and my undii'staiidini;- of the facts as they have been reported by other travelo's du mil a,i;-n'(! with the opinions given by Klutschak (Deutsche Rundschau f ilr Geo- graphic und Statistik, III, p. 418), who claims for the Eskimo of the west shore of Hudson Bay reservations which are limited by precise lines of (L-niarkation. In (MinipariuK this statement wifli liis own and with (iildri--s nali-ativcs 1 am led |(. bclirv that tlir rclatii.iis be- tween the trilifs are the same in these iv,ei( .ns as tliey aiv faillier east. This opinion is strengthened by Bull's remarks on the Alaska tribes (Science, p. 228, 1885). The reasons for the frequent removals of individual Eskimo to strange tribes are to be looked for in the customs of the natives. I can only mention here that intermarriage, adoi^tion, and the fear of blood vengeance are the principal ones. It is peculiar to the migratory habits of the Eskimo tliat almost without exception the old man returns to the country (jf his youth. and conseqiiently by far the greater part of the old i)eople live in their native districts. During the last decades the most important indiicement to removals has been the presence of the whalers in certain parts of the country. Since the beginning of our century their fleets have .visited the west shore of Baffin Bay and Davis Strait, and thus European maniifactures have found their way to the inhospitable shores of the Arctic Sea. The most valuable objects which were bartered were metals and wood. The vahie of the former may be seen in its economical application for knives and harpoon heads. By means of this trade the Akudnir- miut and the Tununirmiut became far superior to the Oqomiut and the Iglulirmiut, with whom they traded extensively in dogs, skins, &c. The Akuliarmiut and the Qaumauangmiut also enjoyed the advantages which accrued from trade with the ships of the Hudson Bay Company. When the whalers became better acquainted with the natives and the peculiar jargon which is still in vise was developed, the traffic became very active, and reached its height aftei- Cumberland Soiind was rediscovered by Penny. As soon as tlie wlialei's l>ei;an to winter in the sound and to employ the natives tlie latter receixcd firearms and European boats in exchange for their wares, and then their modes of living became materially changed. The immense quantity of European manufactured articles which thus came into the pos- session of the natives induced the removal of many families to the favored region. Particularly did the Nugumiut and the Akudnir- niiut niigi-ate dui-ing that period. When in the coui-se of time the BOAS.I TRADE AND INTERCOURSE. 4^7 Bay of Nugumiut was visited by the whalers removals of members of this tribe became less fi-equent. After the Eskimo had become acijuainted with the advantages of firearms the natives of Davis Strait also began to trade bearskins for guns and ammunition, having learned how highly they Avere prized in Cumberland Sound. Besides, tliry rcci-ivcd. in cxclian^e for seals and wall-US blubber put up for tln' wlialcis. tdliacin. pijies. coffee, lx)xes, &c. In a similar way the Saumingmiut l,);u-ter with the whalers of Cumberland Sound, whom they visit during the winter, carrying heavy loads of bearskins to the stations. A brief sketch of the way in which the whaling and the trade with the E.skimo in Cumberland Sound are carried on may be of interest at this jioint. Two of the whaling stations are still kept up. They are situated on Qeqerten, the settlement of the Kingnaitmiut. When the Eskimo who have spent the summer inland return at the begin- ning of October they eagerly offer their services at the stations, for they receive in payment for a half year's work a gun, a harmonium or something of that nature, and a ration of provisions for their families, with tobacco every week. Every Saturday the women come into the house of the station, at the blowing of the horn, to re- ceive their bread, coffee, sirup, and the precious tobacco. In return the Eskimo is expected to deliver in the kitchen of the station a piece of every seal he catches. The time for the fall fishing commences as soon as the ice begins to form. If the weather, which is generally stormy, permits it, the boats leave the harbor to look out for the whales which pass along the east shore of the sound toward the north. During the last few years the catch has been very unisrofitable, only a few whales ha\-- ing been seen. As the ice forms quickly the boats must be brought back about the end of October or the beginning of November. Since the whale fishery has become unprofitable the stations have followed the business of collecting seal blubber and skins, which they buy from the Eskimo. (See Appendix, Note 1.) A lively traffic springs up as soon as the ice becomes strong enough to allow sledges to pass from shore to shore. The sledges of the sta- tions are sent from one settlement to another to exchange tobacco, matches, coffee, bread, &c. for skins and the spare blubber which the Eskimo have carefully saved up. On the other hand, those na- tives who i-equire useful articles, such as cooking ^jots, lamps, &c., collect quantities of hides and blubber and go to Qeqerten to supply their wants. The winter passes qi;ickly amid the .stir of business, till everything comes to a stop at the end of March, when the young sealing season fairly opens. When the sun has reached such a height that the snow begins to melt in favored spots, a new life begins at the stations. The skins w-hich have been collected in the winter and become frozen are 468 'I'JfE CENTKAL ESKIMO. brought out of tlie store room and exposed to the sun's rays. Some of the women busy themselves, with their crescent shajjed knives, in cutting the blubber from the skins and putting it away in casks. Others clean and salt the skins, which are likewise packed away. The men also find enough work to do after the young sealing is over, for the whale boats must be ,i;iit ri';ul)- for tlu' sjn-in,^- fisliini;'. Strangers whose services have l)crii m^a-rd Ky tlic stali'm Un the next few months arrive daily witli their t'aiiiilics and all lln-ir goods tn take up their abode on Qeqerten. The boats are dug out of the deep snow, the oars and sails are looked after, the harpoons are cleaned up and sharpened, and everything is in busy preparation. The boats are made as comfortable as possible with awnings and level floors, for the crews are not to come to the shore for about six weeks. By the beginning of May, the arrangements having been com- ]ileted, the boats are put upon the sledges, which, under the direction of native drivers, are drawn by dog teams, with their crews, to the floe edge. The sledges being heavily laden and food for the dogs having to be provided by hunting, each day's stage is rather short. Arriving at the floe edge the sledges are unloaded and the boats are launched. Seals and birds of all kinds are now found in profusion and the chase is opened without delay upon everything that is useful and can be shot. Sledges ai-e regularly sent back to Qeqerten with skins and meat for the families of the Eskimo, while the blubber is packed in casks, which are ke]it i-cady on the spot. The most important object of t lie fxpcd it ion is the whale. Har- poons and lines are always in readiness for the contest with the mighty monster. The boats return to the north with the breaking up of the ice and the fishing ends in July. Tlie Eskimo are paid off and dismissed and n-suiue ili-ir reindi-er hunting, while the wlntes are glad to enjoy some ivst aftei- tlie wi^eks of exliaustini;- la'ior. The con.stant eoutaet lietweeu the Eskimo and the whalers has effected a perfect revolution in the trade between the Eskimo tribes. As the whale catch in Cumberland Sound has fallen off during the past fifteen years, a remigration of the population of Davis Strait has occurred, ships visiting these shores every fall and a regular traffic being kept up. Therefore many Oqomiut now travel as far as Qivitung in order to trade there. As Nugumiut is still frequently visited by whalers, there is no inducement for the inhabitants to leaA'e their country. Within a few years the Akuliarmiut also have become amply pro- vided with firearms and European prod^^cts in general by means of a new whaling station which has been established in their vicinity. As to the Iglulirmiut. the importation of European manufactures at Pond Bay makes the trade witli that region even more imiiortant than formerly. The Aivillirmiut and the Kinipetu have immediate iutercoixrse Bi.As.j TRADE ANT) INTERCOURSE. 469 with the whalers frequenting the western shore of Hudson Bay. Be- sides, the southern tribes trade with the stations of tlie Hudson Bay Company. The more western tribes of Boothia and its environs are dependent on the mediation of the Aivillirmiut for their supply of goods, as they themselves have no chance of communicating with the whites. Finally, I shall describe the old trading routes which existed be- tween these tribes before matters were totally changed by the in- fluence of the Europeans. Two desiderata formed the principal in- ducement to long journeys, which sometimes lasted even several years: wood and soapstone. The shores of Davis Strait and Cum- berland Sound are almost destitute of driftwood, and consequently the natives were obliged to visit distant regions to obtain that neces- sary material. Tudjaqdjuaq in particular was the objective point of their expeditions. Their boats took a southerly course, and, as the wood was gathered, a portion of it was immediately manufact- ured into boat ribs and sledge runners, which were carried back on the return journey; another i^ortion was used for bows, though these were also made of deer's horns ingeniously lashed together. A poi'- tion of the trade in wood seems to have been in the hands of the Niigumiut, who collected it on Tudjaqdjuaq and took it north. An- other necessary and important article of trade, soapstone, is manu- factured into lamps and pots. It is found in a few places only, and very rarely in pieces large enough for the manufacture of the arti- cles named. Among the places visited by the natives for the pur- pose of obtaining it may be mentioned Kautaq, east of Naujatel- ing; Qeqertelung, near the former place; Qarmaqdjuin (Exeter Bay), and Committee Bay. The visitors come from every part of the country, the soapstone being dug or " traded" from the rocks by de- positing some trifles in exchange. In addition to wood and soap- stone, metals, which were extremely rare in old times, have formed an important object of trade. They were brought to Baffin Bay either by the Aivillirmiut, who had obtained them from the Hudson Bay Company and the Kinipetu, or by the Akuliarniiut. Even when Frobisher visited the Nugumiut in 1577 he fnund them in possession of some iron (Frobisher). The occurrence of flint, which was the material for arrowheads, may have given some importance to places where it occurs. For- nii'i'ly an iiiipdrtant trade existed between the Netchillirmiut and till' ufinhboiiiiL;- tribes. As the district of the former is destitute of driftwoud aiiil potsttme they are compelled to buy both articles from their neighbors. In Ross's time they got the necessary wood from Ugjulik, the potstone from Aivillik. They exchanged these articles for native iron (or pyrite), which they found on the eastern shore of Boothia and which was used for striking fire. After having col- lected a sufficient stock of it during several years, they traveled to 470 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. the neigliboring tribes. For reasons wliicli have been mentioned this trade is now essentially changed. According to Schwatka there is a mutual distrust between the Ugjulirmiut and the Netchillirmiut on one side and the Qidnelik on the other, for which reason the inter- course between these tribes is very limited. LIST OF THE CENTRAL ESKIMO TRIBES, The following list gives the tribes of the Central Eskimo and their geograjjliical distribution: I. Northern coast of Labrador: (1) Kangivamiut (George River). (2) Kouksoarmiut (Big River). (3) Ungavamiut (Hope Advance Bay). (4) Itivimiut (Cape Wolstenholme). II. Northern shore of Hudson Strait: (5) Sikosuilarmiut (King Cape). (6) Akuharmiut (North Bluff). (7) Qaumauangmiut (Middle Savage Islands). III. Davis Strait: (8) Nugumiut (Frobisher Bay). (9) Oqomiut (Cumberland Sound): o. Talirpingmiut (west shore of Cumberland Sound antl Nettilling). b. Qinguamiut (head of Cumberland Sound). c. Kingnaitmiut (Qeqerten and environs). d. Saumingmiut (southern part of Cumberland Peninsula). (10) Akudnirmiut (Davis Sti-ait). ((. Padlimiut (Padli Fjord). b. Akudnirmiut (Home Bay). IV. Northern part of Baffin Land, North Devon, and EUesmere Land: (11) Aggomiut. a. Tununirmiut (Eclipse Sound). b. Tununirusu-miut (Admiralty Inlet and North Devon). (12) Inhabitants of Umingman Nuna (EUesmere Land). V. Melville Peninsula, Wager River, and Southampton Island: (13) a. Iglulirmiut (Fury and Ilorla Strait). b. Amitormiut (eastiTii ciu^l i.f .Mi-lville PeninsuJa). (14) a. Pilingmiut (eastern r(.,ist c.l' I'nx Basin). b. Sn-dlinnint (islaii.ls .,1 Kox Basin). (15) AiviUiiiiiiul ( l;.|.nU,' Hii.v and Wager River). (16) Sagdlinniiit (S, ,,,1 luimplon Island): VI. (17) KinipetLMOliesterlield inlet). VII. Boothia Feli.x and King William Land: (18) Sinimiut"(Pelly Bay). (19) Netchillirmiut (Boothia Feli.x and King William Land). (20) Ugjulirmiut (King William Land and Adelaide Peninsula). (31) Ukusiksalirmiut (e.stiiary of Back River). VIII. Qidnelik (coast west of Adelaide Peninsula). IX. Inhabitants of North Greenland. BOAS.J SEAL HrNTIX(;. 471 HUNTING AND FISHING.' SEAL. WALRUS, AND WHALE HUNTING. Tlie stajile food of the Ceutral Eskimo is the seal, particularly J>(i(l(iii/tjsf,ifi(hiN. The methods of hunting this animal differ mate- rially at different seasons, as its mode of life dejiends on the state of the ice. In the winter it takes to the smooth jiarts of the floe a few miles from the coast, where it scratches breathing holes through the ice, in which it rises to blow. It shuns hummocky ice and floes of more than one year's age. Wherever the edge of the ice is at a great dis- tance from the settlements, the only way of procuring seals is l>y watching for them at these holes. For the pursuit a light harpoon is used, called unang. The shape of this weapon has been somewhat changed since the introduction of rod iron. Formerly it consisted of a shaft having at one end an ivory point firmly attached by thongs and rivets, the point tapering toward the end. The point was slant- ing on one side so as to form almost an oblique cone. Thus it facili- tated the separation of the harpoon head from the unang. On the opposite end of the shaft another piece of ivory was attached, gener- ally forming a knob. The material used in making the shaft was wood, bone, or ivory, according to the region in which it was manu- factured. In Iglulik and in Aggo the narwhal's horn was the favor- ite material for the whole implement, a single horn being sufficient to make a whole shaft "Wherever wood could be procured small pieces were ingeniously lashed together. As the shaft is apt to be ])roken by the struggles of the animal Avhen struck by the weapon, it was strengthened by a stout thong running along the whole length of the shaft. In all other respects the old design corn's] louds to the modern one. Unfortunately I have seen no spiMinicn of 1 liis descrip- tion, Irat a figure may be seen in Eoss II, p. x'T.', in tlie liand of one of the natives. In Alaska a similar harpoon is in use, a specimen of which is represented in Fig. .390. It consists of a wooden shaft, with a stout ivory point at the I'ower end and ,in< ithcr at the iiii}H'r end. Both are fastened to tlie shaft by whalcljoiu' stiin,-s. In tlir npper end a slanting ivory point is inserted, which serves for attachini;- the harpoon head to it. The whole shaft is strengthened by a seal line, as shown in the figure. The unang now in use in Baffin Land and on the western shore of Hudson Bay (Fig. :Si)l) consists of a wooden shaft into which an iron rod (itnartenga) is sunk. The latter is pointed at the end (see, also, Fig. 393) in about the same way as the old ivory implement. The socket is secured by a small ivory ring (unaqiuta) or a string wound around the end of the .shaft. In the socket close to the iron rod 'A glossary of the Eskimo words used throughout this paper will be t'euiul on p. 659. ) 472 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. a bent nail is inserted, forming a narrow eye (tagnsiarbing). Near the center of tliewliole implement a small piece of ivory (tikagung; see, also. Fig. 418) is fastened to the shaft, forming a support for the hand when throwing the weapon. At the lower end of the shaft a Fio. sno. harpoon from Alaska. (Ameri- can Museum of Natural History, New York. string of deer sinews or a thong is fastened, forming aloop (nabiring) which passes through a hole (li'illcd through the shaft. A stout iron point is also attached to the lower end df the shaft (tounga). BOAS] SEAL HUNTINO. 473 The natives carry this implement on all their winter excnrsions, as it is serviceable for numer- ous purposes. It is always kept within reach on the sledge, as the strong iron point is useful for cutting down hummocks, should any obstruct the passage of the sledges, or for cutting holes through the ice, or it takes the place of a hatchet in break- ing the frozen meat which is carried along for dogs' food. The long iron rod is extremely useful in trying the strength of the ice or the depth of the snow. By taking precautionary measures of this kind the natives pass over extensive floes of weak ice. The head belonging to the unang is called nau- lang oi h-xipoon head ("Huseura fui \ olkei kun lang. Since iron has been introduced in Baffin de Berlin I\ \ W)i ) J Land and Hudson Bay, the natives file their har- poon heads out of it, but adhere almost exactly to the old pattern. The old naulang was ciit out of bone or more frequently out of ivory (Fig. 392). It was one inch to two inches long and had a piece of metal inserted into the slit at the top. Through the middle of the instrument a hole was drilled parallel to the jDlane of the blade. The harpoon line passed through the hole, and as soon as the point struck an animal and a strain was put upon the line it turned at a right angle to the latter, thus acting as a toggle. The effect was increased by two points at the lower end of the naulang, called luniuL;- (biMrd). The.se pressed into the flesh or the skill ^A' the animal and prevented the har- poon head from slipping back. The modern naulang (Fig. 393) is about the same length as the old one, but much more slender. While the back of the old pattern was straight, the points of the iron one are bent outward and backward in order to increase its effect. The naulang is fastened to the harpoon line (iparang). This part of the instrument is much longer than the unang, as it must allow for the struggles of the diving seal. The end of the line passes throiigh the hole of the naulang and a looj) is formed and secured by deer sinew or arranged as may be seen in Fig. 393. At a distance equal to the length of the iron rod of the unang a small thong (taguta) is attached to the line and serves to fasten ] it to the shaft (see Fig. 391). It is drawn through : 474 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. the eye formed by the tagusiarbing. As soon as a strain is put upon the naulang the line parts from the shaft, as the taguta is only squeezed into the eye and is easily detached. The harpoon line passes tlirough the uabiring or is fastened l)y a slipping hitch to the shaft of the unang. If the unang has a nabiring the line passes through this loop. A few feet below it a small piece of ivory (akparaiktung) is attached to the line, acting as a hook after it has run out. It catches the nabiring and drags the harpoon along, thus impeding the movements of the animal (see Fig. oOl). The rest of the line is coiled up and held by the hunter. The end is doubled so as to form a loop which serves as a handle when the line runs out with the diving seal. Generally, a small piece of leather (Fig. ;594) with two slits at one end and an ivory clasp (cplertuang) at the other is fastened to this loop; it serves to hold the bights to- gether when the line is detached from the harpoon and rolled up. Some art is bestowed on the manufacture of this clasp (Fig. 3!)4). Usually it represents a seal, the head of which forms a hook on which the slits can be fastened. The clasp is either tied or otherwise se- cured to the leather strap. Some specimens in the British Museum, which are about one hundred and fifty years old, show that these im- plements have not undergone any change during that time. Parry describes another harpoon head used by the Iglulirmiut for the unang. He calls it a siatko (Fig. 395). I myself have not seen any of a similar pattern, b\it Kumlien gives a sketch of one found in a grave at Exeter Sound (Fig. ;]9G). The principal difference be- tween the naulang and the siatko is that the edge of the former is parallel to the hole throiigh which the line passes, while in the latter tlieir directions are vertical to each other. The head of the whaling harpoon (see Fig. 43G) acts on the same principle. BOAS.] SEAL HUNTING. 475 Wlien the day begins to dawn the Eskimo prepares for tlie Imnt. The dogs are harnessed to the sledge and the hunting implements are fitted up. The harpoon line and the snow knife are hung over the deer's antlers, whirli arc attacli.Ml to tlic hind part nf tlir slcd-v. a seal or hear skin is hislicl u]H.nllif iM.ttoni. and tlic sp, ar s,-,-ur,.,l niider thela.shing. The liuutfr takes up the wliii. and tin' dogs set otl'lnr the hunting ground. When near the place where he expects to find seals, the himter stops the team and takes the implements from the sledge, which is then ttrrned upside down. The points of the runners and the short brow antler are i^ressed into the snow in order to prevent the dogs from running away. A dog with a good scent is then taken from the team and the Eskimo follows his guidance until a seal's hole is found. In -R-inter it is entirely covered with snow, but generally a very small elevation indicates the situation. The dog is led back to the sledge and the hunter examines the hole to make sure that it is still visited by the seal. Cautiously he cuts a hole through the snow covering and peeps into the excavation. If the water is covered with a new coat of ice the seal has left the hole and it would be in vain to expect its return. The hunter must look for a new hole promising better results. Fig. 395. Siatko or harpoon head of the IgUUir- Fig. 39G. Siatko found at Exeter Sound. iFroma miut. (From Parry n, p. S-W.) dra-.viug by L. Kumlien.) If he is sure that the seal has recently visited a hole he marks its exact center on the top of the snow and then fills up his peep liole with small blocks of snow. All these preparations must be made with the utmost precaution, as any change in the appea.ranc(' of the snow would frighten away the seal. The Eskimo take particular 47G THE CKNTHAL ESKIMO. care that no hairs from their clothing fail into the hole or remain sticking in the snow, for they believe that the smell would scare away the animal. The center of the breathing hole niTist be marked, as the game remains invisible and only a stroke inlo tln' cintcT will be likely to hit it If the snow coveimg is Aei->- ilmk and sti-mii;- il is cut down Imt is lejjlaced -ttith loose snow whidi is hrapid ainmid the endot theh-njjoon tin 1 itt i 1 iii_, I k 1 iiijoii t lie central point. i ich forms the early return of that of a young seal, close to the hole and places liisieet upon it, thus keeping them warm. He fastens the naulang to the hai poon shaft, while the lower BOAS] . SEAL HUNTING. 477 end of the line is folded up in a coil, which he holds in the left hand. The unang is held in both hands, and thus the hunter sometimes remains for hours, occasionally stooping and listening, until he hears the blowing of the seal. Then, all of a sudden, he stands upright, and, with all his strength, sends the harpoon straight downward into the hole, payin,i;-Hut tlirlim-at the same tiini'. but krcpiiiL;- a, firm liohl of the loop at its on 1 (Fii;. :;'.'; ). ( iciirrall.\ tlirs. al is st luciv near the head. If the line is fasten. (! f,, ih,. shall l.y a sliiipin- hitch it is at once detached and the harpoon either remains sticking in the snow or falls down by the hole. If the line runs through the nabiring, the harpoon is dragged into tlie water and impedes the movements of the animal. The hunter then Ijegins at once to cut down the snow cov- ering with his knife, which has been left within easy reach, and hauls in the line. As soon as the seal comes to the surface to breathe it is easily dispatched and drawn up on the ice. The arrangements at the seal hole are more elaborate if the sealei' expects to wait a long time. If only a few men go out hunting and famine is impending, he sometimes waits for a whole day or even longer, though it be cold and the wind rage over the icy fields. He builds up a semicircular wall of snow blocks to keep off the piercing wind and makes a seat in the center of it. A skin is spread under his feet and his legs are tied together with a thong, which is fastened by a peculiar kind of buckle (tutareang) Avith two holes (Fig. 398). Fig. 308. Tutareanj; or Inickle. (Museum fur Volkerkuntle, Berlin. FT A Onn.i One end of the thong is firmly tied to the buckle, passing through one of the holes, while the opposite end passes tightly through the second hole. The thong may be quickly opened by a strong effort on the part of the hunter, while it helps to keep him quiet. At his right hand (Fig. 399 ; in this drawing it appears on the left) the snow knife is stuck into the snow, while to the left the unang is placed upon two pegs. The coil of the line lies in his lap. His left arm is drawn out of his sleeve, that he may more easily keep warm. Both sleeves air :;cni'rally held toi^vther by a piece of deer's horn with a branch a<'h si.le which serves as a hook. Thus the hunter waits until lie hears the l)reathiiig of the seal. As it usually stays for several minutes he is in no hurry to get ready. Cautiously he places his left arm into the sleeve, having first disengaged it from the hook. 478 THK CKNTRAL ESKIMO. He then takes hold of the coil, picks up his iinaiig. and, having risen, strikes the center of the hole. retuni of seal to blowhole. (From a photograph. Ross (II, p. 368) and Rae (I, p. 133) state that the sealing at the hole is more difficult in daylight than in the dark. I suppose, however, that when the snow is deep there is no difference ; at least the Eskimo of Davis Strait never complain about being annoyed by the daylight. Sometimes a small instrument is used in the hunt to indicate the approach of the seal. It is called qipekutang and consists of a very thin rod with a knob or a knot at one end (Parry II, p. 5-50, Fig. W). It is stuck through the snow, the end passing into the water, the knol) resting on the snow. As soon as the seal rises to blow, it strikes the rod, which, by its movements, warns the Eskimo. Generally it is SEAT. HUNTING, 479 made of whalebone. Sometimes a sti-iug is attached to tlie knob and fastened by a pin to the snow, as its movements are more easily detected than those of the knol). The natives are somewhat averse to using this implement, as it freciuently scares the seals. 4(¥). TuputaiiK or ivory plugs for closing ! (Museum fiir Volkerkimdo, Berlin. \X A 6, f. d tNational Museum, Washington. b, 10103 ; ( 10300 ; d, 0830.) } After the carcass of the animal has been drawn out of the water. the wounds are closed with ivory plugs (tuputang) (Fig. 400). wliich are carried in a wooden or leathern case (Fig. 401) and are either triangular or square. The plug is pushed under the skin, which is closely tied to its head. Another form of jilug Avhieh, however, is 480 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. 1-arely used, is represented in Fig. 403. The skin is drawn over the plug and tied over one of the threads of the screw cut into the wood. After the dead animal's wounds are closed, a hole is exit through the flesh beneath the lower jaw and a thong is passed through this hole and the mouth. A small implement called qanging is used for fast- ening it to the seal. It usually forms a toggle and prevents the line from slipping through the hole. The patterns represented in Fig. 403 are very effective. The hole drilled through the center of the 16. 403. Qanging for fastening thong to jaw of seal, a (Museum fur .'iilkerkiuKle, Berlin. IV A i.) 6, c (National Museum, Washington. 6. 34126 ; c, 34139.) } SEAl^ HUNTIN( 481 instrument is wider at tlie lower end tlum elsewliere, thus furnisliing a rest for a knot at the end of tlie tliong. The points are i)ressed into the flesh of the seal, and thus a firm hold is secured for the wliole implement. The Eskimo display some art in the manufacture of this implement, and frequently give it the shape of seals and the like (Fig. 4(U). Fig. 405 represents a small hutton. whirli i> mnrii less Flfi. 404. Qauffinf: n of a seal. (Museum fiir v; effective than the other jiatterns. A very few specimens consist merely of rude pieces of ivory with holes drilled through them. Fig. 406 shows one of these attachments serving for both toggle and handle. form of a button, i Na- tional Museum, Washing Fig. 406. Qanging serving for both toggle ami handle. (National JIuseum. ton. a4130.) } Washington. 10400.1 f In order to prevent the line frcjm getting out of order, a whirl (qidjarung) is sometimes used. Fig. 407 represents one brought ^ Fig. 40r. Qidjarung or whirl for harpoon line. Fig. 408. Simpler form of whirl. (JIu Museum, Washington. liliai.) j miiu fur Volkerkunde, Berlin.) { 6 ETH :3l 482 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. from Cumberland Sound by KTimlien, and is described by liim (p. 38). There was a ball in the hollow body of this instrument, which could not be jjulled through any of the openings. One line was fastened to this ball, jmssing through the central hole, and another one to the top of the whirl. A simpler pattern is represented in Fig. 408. On its capture, the seal is dragged to the sledge and after Ijeing covered with the bearskin is firmly secured by the lashing. It freezes quickly and the hunter sits down on top of it. If the seal happens to blow soon after the arrival of the hunter, a second one may be procured, but generally the day is far spent when the first seal is killed. Wherever water holes are found they are frequently visited during the winter by the Eskimo. t'spcriHlly by those who have firearms. They lie in wait at tlir hiwcr side of the hole, i. e., the side to which the tide sets, and when the scul blows they shoot him. securing him with the harpoon after he has drifted to the edge of the ice. These holes can only be visited at spring tides, as in the intervals a treach- erous floe partly covers the opening and is not destroyed until the next spring tide. In March, when the seal brings forth its young, the same Avay of hunting is continued, besides which young seals are eagerly jjursued. The pregnant females make an ext^avation from five to ten feet in length under the sii..\v. th.- divin- Imle beiuKat our (-ud. They ],ve-. fer snowbanks an. I loii-li i.c >>v lln- o-acks auf the seals. The dogs hurry at the utmost speed to the place of the hole. whiTc they stop at once. The hunter jumps from the sledge and bleaks down the roof of the excavation as quickly as possible, cutting oft the retreat of the seal through its hole if he can. Gener- ally the mother escapes, but the awkward piip is taken by surprise, or, if very young, cannot get into the water. The Eskimo draws it out by means of a hook (niksiang) and kills it by firmly stepping on the poor beast's breast. An old pattern of the hook used is rep- resented according to Kumlien's drawing in Fig. 409 ; another, made from a bear's claw, in Fig. 410; the modern pattern, in Fig. 411. Sometimes the natives try to catch the old seal in a most cruel way, by using the love of the dam for her pup to lure her to the siirface of the hole. They tie a thong to the hind flipi)er of the pup and throw it into the hole. It dives at once, crying pitifully. When it comes up to breathe the hunter pushes it back, and frequently the dam returns to her young and attempts to draw it away. As soon as she is seen the harpoon is plunged into her body and she is quickly drawn out of the water and killed. SEAL HUNTING 483 The youug seal is also pursued by foxes, wbich drag it from tL e excavation aud leave nothing but the skin, which becomes a wel- come find for the Eskimo. 4 Fig. 40». Old pattern of book Fm. 410. Seal book of hear'.s claw. Fig. 411. Modern form of for drawing out captured seat Actual size, 3 feet. (Museum fiir seal hook. (From a draw- Volkerkunde, Berlin. W A e7«.) ing by Kumlien.) As the season advances and the rays of the sun become warmer the seals break down the snow roofs and are seen basking beside their holes. The young ones remain with their dams until late in J Tine. At this season a new method of hunting is practiced, by which seals are caught Avith greater ease than in winter. The hunter api)roaches 484 THE f ENTKAI. ESKIMO. the animal from the windward side until he is within seventy or eighty yards of it. He then lies down, after having fastened a piece of skin under his left arm, iipon which he reclines. The skin protects him from the melting snow, facilitates speed, and diminishes the noise as lie creeps. He moves on toward the seal, resting on his left arm and side and pushing himself forward with his right foot and left arm (Fig. 412). The seal frequently raises his head and gazes around to make sure that no danger threatens. As long as the seal is look-, ing around the hunter lies flat and keeps perfectly still, or, if he is somewhat close to the animal, imitates its movements by raising his head and rolling and playing with his hands and feet as a seal does with its flippers. Some natives will utter sounds similar to those of a blowing seal or use a small sledge with a white screen to conce;iI themselves from view. The sealskin clothing makes man and .seal look so extremely alike that it is difficult to distinguish one from the other at some distance. If the hunter succeeds in deceiving the animal it lies down again to sleep and he pushes himself on. As the naps of the seal last but a few moments, the Eskimo approaches very slowly. At last he is near enough. He levels his gun and tries to hit the animal's head, as it must be killed by the first shot, else it jumps into the hole and escapes. If the snow is hard and water has not yet appeared on the top of the ice, a seal may be killed in this way in twenty or thirty minutes. If the snow is very soft and deep it is almo.st impossible to get near enough, as it is extremely difficult to ] )ush one's self along. The approach is rather easy through rough ice, which conceals the hunter, but the seals seldom frequent suc'h places. Sometimes they are found at the edges of roiigh ice or near the shore and are easily ca\ight when in this position. Formerly the harpoon was used instead of the gun, and is even now preferred by some hunters. The hunter gets near enough to reach the seal with the harpoon, and having struck his prey has a better chance of securing it, as the weapon prevents its escape. . After the shot has been fired or the harpoon thrown, the Eskimo at once jumps to his feet in order to prevent the escape of the animal boas] seal hunting. 485 to its hole, tu which if takes if mily WDiinded. An expert hunter can kill from ten t(. tirim, s.-als in m,.. Way. Rae, in de.scrihing tlif method dI limiting, states (I, ji. 170) that the women at Repulse Bay are very skillful, and when they have no harpoon frequently use a small wooden club, with which they strike the seal on the nose, killing it. Generally two men go sealing together. They set out early in the morning on one sledge, and while one creeps toward the seals the other keeps the dogs quiet. A single hunter cannot hunt successfully at this season with a sledge, for when he leaves it the dogs will either follow him or, if made fast to the ice, raise such a howling that the seal is put upon its guard. Therefore it is necessary that a continuous watch be kept on the dogs. When the shot is fired and they perceive that the seal is killed, no amount of wliipping will restrain them; they rush forward until they have reached the victim, which is then lashed on the sledge. The hunters go on in search of a second seal, at the sight of which the. dogs are again stopped. When the Eskimo intend to remain oiit only a few hours they leave the dead animals at their holes and load them on the sledge on the return journey. A single hunter cannot leave the settlement for a long distance, but is limited to sealing near the village and killing no more animals than he can drag to it him- self. Sometimes it happens that the seals are fast asleej^. Then the hiinter can go vip to them without any precaution and kill them im- mediately, and even a dog team running at full speed can take them by surprise. In winter a similar method of hunting is followed when- ever the edge of the floe is close to the land. In such places all kinds of seals lie on the ice, even in the midst of winter, and are piirsi;ed in the way which has been already described. A strange metliod of hunting is reported by Ross (II. p. 4.51) as practiced by the Netchillirmiut. Eight men slowly approached the basking seal until it raised its head, when those in front stopped and shouted as loud as they, could ; on which three others ran iip with incredible swiftness and the leader struck it with the sj^ear. Still later in the season, when the snow is all gone, a very suc- cessful method of hunting is practiced. All the inhabitants of the settlements set out at once, men, women, and children, and occupy every seal hole over a large area. The men keep their harpoons ready to strike the animal when it comes up to blow, while the Avomen and cliildren are |]rij\-ii|i'(l with sticks only, with which they frighten away tlie seals whenever tliey rise where they are standing. The animals are compelled to rise somewhere, as otherwise they would be drowned, and thus an ample supply is secured in a short time. After the breaking up of the ice the natives take to their kayaks and the summer hunt is started. As at this season the methods of 48fi THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. catching all kinds of seal and walrus are almost identical, I shall describe them together ; and, first, the most important part of the hunting gear, the kayak and its belongings. The kayak (qajaq) is almost exclusively used for hunting by all Eskimo tribes from Greenland to Alaska. According to Bessels the Ita natives do not know its use, though they have retained the word. As a connection exists between this tribe and those of Baffin Land, I have no doubt that they are acquainted with the use of the boat, though it may be of little avail in that ice encumbered region. When I first visited the tribes of Davis Strait no kayak was to be found between Cape Mercy and Cape Raper. nor had there been any for several years. In the summer of ISS-t, however, two boats were built by these natives. The general principles of thfir ci instruction are well known. The kayak of theNugumiut, Ocimuiut. ami Akudnirmiut is bulky as com- pared with that of GiiMulaiid and Hudson Bay. It is from twenty- five to twenty-seven feet long and weighs from eighty to one hundred pounds, while the Iglulik boats, according to Lyon (p. 323), range from fifty to sixty pounds in weight. It may be that the Repulse Bay boats are even lighter still. According to Hall they are not heavier than twenty-five pounds (II, p. 210). Fig. 413. Frame of a kayak or hunting boat. (Musenm fiii- Viilkerkunde, Berlin.) The frame of the kayak (Fig. 413) consists, first, of two flat pieces of wood which form the gunwale (apumang). From ten to twenty beams (ajang) keep this frame on a stretch above. The greatest width between them is a little behind the cock pit (p. 487). A strong piece of wood runs from the cross jiit'ct' bi-fnre tlie liolc (niasin,:;) to the stem, and another from the cross piciT abaft tlir lioli' (itirbiiiu) to the stern (tuniqdjung). The proportion of the bow end to the stei'u end, measured from the center of the hole, is 4 to d. The former has a projection measuring one-fourth of its whole length. Setting aside the projection, the hole lies in the very eenter of the body of the kayak. A large number of ribs ((ikpiiin). from tliirly to sixty, are fastened to the gunwales and kept steady by a keel (kujang). which runs from stem to stern, and by two lateral strips of wood (siadnit), which are fastened between gunwale and keel. The stem projection (usujang), which rises gradually, begins at a strong beam (niutang) and its rib (qaning). The extreme end of the stern (aqojang) is bent upward. The bottom of the boat is partly formed by the keel, partly by the side supports. The stern projection has a keel, but in the body of the boat the side supports are bent down to the depth of the keel, thus forming a flat bottom. Rising again gradiially they ter- CONSTRUfTION OF KAYAKS. 487 miiiate close to the stern. Between tlie masiiig and tlie itirbing is the hole (pa) of the kayak, the rim of which is formed by a flat piece of wood or whalebone bent into a hoop. It is flattened abaft and sharply bent at the fore part. The masiug sometimes rests Tipon a stud. Fig. 414. Kayak with covering of skin. (Museum fur Vrilkerkunde, Berlin.) The whole frame is covered with skins (aming) tightly sewed to- gether and almost waterproof (Fig. 414). Usually the cover consists of three or fonr skins of P(i feet. (Mu- tional Mu'.eiun W ashmgton. o, .<)0000 ; 6, 30005 ; c. 30004.) seum fiir Volkerkmule, Berlin.) (i (Museum fui Volkeikunde, Berlin.) IMPLEMENTS USED IN SEAL HUNTING. 489 kayak for removing the sleet which forms on the skin. When the boat has been pulled on shore, it is turned upside down and the whole bottom is cleaned with this implement. A double bladed paddle (pauting) is used with the boat. It has a narrow handle (akudnang), which fits the hand of the boatman and widens to about four inches at the thin blades (maling), which are edged with ivory. Between each blade and the handle there is a ring (qudluqsiuta). The kayak gear consists of the large harpoon and its line (to which the sealskin float is attached), the receptacle for this line, tlie Ijird spear (with its throwing board), and two lances. I 41 I r 1 \ 1 111 Fig 420 Manner of at^ FiG. 421. Tokangor hai-poon point1 (tl 111 ^l lit \ 111 I il Mil tachrng the tH o pi moipal in sheath, iln the possession of Cap-I seuiu Washington J41(ll paitb of the haipoon tain John O. Spicer, Groton, Comi.); , 5 The large harpoon (Fig. 417) is used for hunting seals and walrus from the kayak. The shaft (qij\;qtenga) consists of a stout pole from four and a half to five feet in length, to which an ivory knob is fast- ened at the lower end. At its center of gravity a small piece of ivory (tikagung) is attached, which serves to support the hand in throwing the weapon. A remarkable pattern of this tikagung, which nicely fits the hand of tlie hunter, is represented in the first of the series of Fig. 41.S, and unnthcr one, which differs only in size from 490 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. tliat of the unaug, in the second. At right angles to the tikaguug a small ivory knoh is inserted in the shaft and serves to hold the har- poon line. At this part the shaft is greatly flattened and the cross section becomes dhloiii; or rhombic. At the toj) it is tenoned, to be inserted into tlic HKiiticr of the ivory head (qatirn). The latter fits so closely on tLf tcnuii tliat it sticks without being either riveted or tied together. The qatirn is represented in Fig. 419. Into the cavity at its top a walrus tusk is inserted and forms with it a ball and socket joint (igimang). The tusk and the qatirn are fastened to each other in a most in- genious way, which may be readily made oiit from the engraving (Fig. 420). The principal effect of this arrangement of the holes and the thong is that the tusk is kept steady by two parallel thongs that prevent it from tipping over and only allow a movement in the ijlane of the flattening of the shaft as soon as any considerable force is api^lied to the tusk. The harpoon head used in connection with this weapon is the to- kang. To prevent it from being injured, it is carried in a wooden sheath (Fig. 421). The iron point is secured by a string of whalebone or sealskin; the lower part is fastened to the sheath as indicated in the figure. The tokang differs from the naulang m that it is larger and stouter. In some cases great care is bestowed upon tlie finish- ing of this important weapon. All iiitcri'sf iug specimen of this variety of h.ir] 11 lieail was found by Kumlien in CuiiiherlaiKl Sound (Fig. 422). It was taken from a whale and differs from the device of that country. The back is bent similar to that of the iron naiilang and the barbs have two points each instead of one. The front l)art is sharply ridged. The specimen is very nicely finished. A few very old har- Fig «i Tcikang oi lnipo"i poon heads of the same pattern are depos- head taken horn a ^^ hale m Cum ited in the British Museum and were of IjerUnd Sound (National Muse uni, Wa.shington 34069 Hudson Strait manufacture ; therefore I* ; conclude that Kumlien's specimen is from the same part of the country. Fig. 423 represents an ancient liarpoon head of the same style, the locality of which is unfortunately unknown. The specimen is of particular interest, as it shows the method of fastening the stone to the ivory part. A similar specimen is in the collections of the British Museum ; it formed part of the Sloane collection. Both these speci- mens show perforations at the lower end of the harpoon head which [MPl.EMENTS USED (EAL HUNTING. 491 are not found iu the modem ones. Probably these served for hold- ing the harpoon head to the shaft by means of a thin line, in order to prevent the head from coming off before the seal or walrus was struck. These holes are similar to the ones shown in Figs. 395 and 4:30. Fig. 433. Ancient The harpoon line (alirn) is attached to the tokang in the same way as the iparang is to the naulang. When it is fastened to the igimang. the bend of the tusk facilitates the disengagement of the harpoon head, which turns its back to that of the tusk. Attached to the line at the level of the ivory knob which has been mentioned is the teliq- bing (Fig. 424), into the hole of which the knob fits closely. As the line from the tokang to the teliqbing is just long enough to allow it to be pulled down far enough to reach the knob, it holds shaft and head firmly together so long as the tusk remains in its position. As soon as a lateral strain is put upon the tusk the ilistaiicr between the head and the knob is diminished and the telii|liiiii; slips oft', thus disengaging the line with the harpoon head fmni the shaft. Some- times the teliqbing has two holes, one being used when the line is wet and longer, the other when it is dry and shorter. 492 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. Ill Iglulik the sjjear is called qatilik (Fig. 425). In pattern it is the same as that of Akudnini and Oiio, the only diffei'ence, accord- ing to Parry's desci'iption, l>eing that the toung (the tusk) is straight and has a notch near its socket (see Fig. i'ib), while the harpoon head which belongs to it has only a single point at its lower end. Fig. 420. Avautang or sealskin float (National Museum, ^\ aslimgt^ This harpoon is placed on the right side of the prow of the kayak, with the point directed towards its head. The harpoon line, with the tokang, lies just before the hunter in a flat receptacle (asedlun), which consists of a wooden ring with a handle, held by thongs before till' 111 )li' i>\' the kayak. The receptacle rests on the skin cover, having iiij ffcf. as lias the Greenland one. In Hudsmi Sti-ait it is secured uiinii hdldcrs. The harpoon line is rolled up in a coil, but its end is fastened to the seal float, which lies behind the hunter and is held in place by a thong. The line passes along the right side of the kayak hole. The float (avautang) (Fig. 426) consists of a whole sealskin which had been removed from the animal dexterouslv, its i IMPLEMENTS USED IN SEAL HUNTING. 493 entire body being pulled through the mouth, which is enlarged by means of a cut along the throat. The nails of the flippers are fre- quently extracted and the openings sewed up, the hind flippers and the tail being cut ofi: and firmly tied together by a thong, thus forming a neck (ataiita), to which the harpoon line is attached. At the head a pipe for blowing up the skin (poviutang) is inserted (Fig. 427); the skin is firmly tied to the ring of the pipe, on which the stopper is secured as soon as the skin is sufiiciently inflated. This device is a very convenient one, for it is difificult to inflate the skin withoiit some kind of movithpiece. If there are any holes in the float they are closed by a button similar to the one shown in Fig. i'i7 a, which, however, is without a hole. Fig. 427. Different styles of ix)viutang or pipe for mflatms tUe float. (National Mubeum.Wabhing- ton. a, 299SG; 6, 34118; c, 34119; d, 34130.) If the harpoon is to be used for hunting large animals, such as walrus or whales, a very ingenious contrivance is sometimes inserted between the liiiH and flic float in Uu' sliajM. ,,f a w I.mi liuup with a sral ny ,|,.,.i- skill stivt.lH'd .,v,.i- it ( ii iit.i ii,-) (sr.. Fi-, |:;; ). Tlllv,- ,,r four tliougs .,f (.(^ual Inigtli aiv rastiii,.,! 1,, tlir lioupat .Mpial dislaiires and bound together. At their point of union they are attached to the line. As soon as a walrus is struck and starts to swim away, the honyi is thrown at right angles to the stretched line and exerts a stroiii;- ivsistan<-e wlieii ili-agged along, thus dimini.sliim;- llie speeil of the animal ami iiuickly exhausting its strength. The float prevents its escape, as it is too buoyant to be drawn under water. The animal cannot dive, and thus the hunter does not lose sight of his' prey. For small seals a similar weapon is used, the ngdliaq (Fig. 428), 494 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. tlie main diffeiciicc Ix'in.i;- that it is niucli smaller and has a seal bladder for a, tln.it ,il 1 .h-IumI to the shaft. I have not seen this weajjon myself, but Kunilini has l)rought away parts of it. Fig. -i'iU shows that its point differs only in size from the large igimang. The head (probably the naulang) is tied to the shaft, which acts as a drag. The points are fastened to the shaft in almost the same way as the former, the only difference being that they are straight : the drill holes do not cross one another. Fig. 430 represents the heads belonging to this spear; Fig. 4.31, a large one which is used with the large harpoon. As the lines in all these run as is represented in Fig. 420 h, they cannot act as harpoons. I had no opportunity of seeing any of these weapons myself. Fig. 43«. AgtUiaq or spear for small Fig. J*.I. Agdliaq points. (National Museum, Wa.shinKlon. seals. (From Parry U, p. 550.) a. 90165 ; ft, 2991 ; c, 84098 ; rf, 34063.) In hunting wah-us a lance (angnvigang) (Fig. 432) is used which is similar to the igimang. The shaft and the joint are alike in both, only the knob for the teliqbing being absent. The hoaeai head. (National (I, 340Tli : h. Mm.) Museum, Wa.shm{fton 1013b ) ' The last implement in the kayak gear to be described is the bird spear, nuirn (Fig. -133), with its throwing board, miqsang (Fig. 434). It has a shaft of about four feet in length, flattened at the lower end. Among the natives on the east and southeast of Baffin Land it has an iron prong at its point, whereas in Iglulik it has two points of unequal length, with double barbs. Three double barbed j^rongs are attached to the center of the shaft. They have a sharp bend at their lower part, the points riinning parallel to the shaft. The prongs of the Greenland dart are straight and diverge from the shaft. The lower end of the bird spear iits into the groove of the throwing board. Therefore the end of the shaft is squared. The ivory knob at the end of the spear contains a small hole fyr the insertion of the 496 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO sjiike which is in the end of the groove. When the board is used it is held firmly in the right hand, the first finger passing throiigh the hole by the side of the groove, the thumb clasping the notch on the left side (Fig. 434 6), the other fingers those on the right side. The shaft is held by the points of the fingers. When the spear is hurled Fig. 4.33. Anguvigang or Fig. 433 Nuirn or lance. Museum fur Vol- bird spear. (Muse- kerkimde, Berlin. • um fur Vcilker- kunde, -Berlin.) the posterior point of the groove describes a wide circle and the fingers let go the shaft, which, remaining in its first position, is driven forward by the sjiike with great violence, and thus it attains considerable velocitv. : 1-..IAS.1 HUNTING SEALS AND WALKUS. 41)7 I will now i^ivo a dcsci-iption ..f tlic nictlill> iii>t;iiitly ti> tlie water, but the siatko. or harpo.in. being well fixed, he cannot escape from the hummock on which the Eskimo have fastened the Une. When the animal becomes a little weary, tlie hunter launches liis canoe,, and lying out of his reach, spears him to deatli. When the ice is gone seals are shot or harpooned with the igimang and the agdliaq. The float prevents their escajje and they are killeaching from the opposite side. They take to the wati-r. as thi'v src no retreat. If there are no hills a line of cairns is I'recttMl in sume part of the plain. Such monuments are found all over the country, most of them ]ia\'ing the appearance of being very old. Ass()(iiiasthiMlrei'an'"in flic wat.T fin- ii.-itivrs pursue lliciu in tlieir kayaks, and as th.-ir Imals aiv pi'opcllcil niudi ni.nc s\viltl,\ than the animals can swim Ihi-yarc ipiickly ()\i'rtaki'n ami killed w itii tliespear (kapun). Sometimes the wounded deer will turn upon the boat, in which cases the hunter must make his escape witli the utmost sjjeed, else he will be capsized or the skin of the boat will lie torn to pieces by the animal's antlers. In some of the narrow valleys with steep faces on botli sides the deer are driven toward the hunters. As there is no chance for escape on either side they are killed by the men whe lie in ambush. A remarkable tradition referring to the deer hunts of a fabulous tribe in these passes is frequently told by the Eskimo (see p. 035). Some places are particularly favorable to these methods of liunt- : ; 502 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. ing. The herds when traveling north in spring and south in autumn take tlie same course every year, passing rivers, lakes, and valleys at the deer passes. Here the Eskimo stay during the migrations of the deer, as they are sure to fall in with them and to secure plenty of meat and skins during the season. In sjiring the rivers and lakes are not yet freed from their icy fetters and the ptxrsuit is more difficult; in the autumn, however, they are easily captured in the water. Some important stations of this kind are the island Qeqertome itoq tudlirn, south of LakeNettilling; the outlet of this lake, Koiikdjuaq, particu- larly the peninsula formed by the river and the soiith shore of the lake the country about Qudjitariaq, farther north, and the narrow valley between Piling and Itirbilung : on the continent, the lakes of Rae Isthmus, particularly North Pole Lake; some passes in the hills north of Chesterfield Inlet; the isthmus of Boothia; the entrance of Qimuq- suq, on Adelaide Peninsula; and Simpson Strait. Referring to the last, Klutschak describes an interesting method of hunting deer which is in vogue in that locality (p. 130). The narrow strait which separates Ita Island from King William Land freezes i\p early in the season, and the reindeer in trying to cross the strait frequently gather on this island. The Eskimo deploy over the icy bridge and makeaterrrblo noise, frii^litciiinn' the ri'lmliM-i-. whicli are gradually driven toward a iil;irc iln'icri.r wliich is liiMrlicrniis at this time of the year. Hen; Ihcy lirr.'ik thrdugli and. ln-iiig ahle to move only with great difficulty, are easily killed. Fig. 43IS. Wooden bow from Igluiik. (From Parry U. p. 5o(i.) When the deer have scattered over the country they miist be stalked, and, wherever the natives have no firearms, bows and arrows are use- reseiiilile the animals tlieiuseh-i'.s. Ross (II, p. 253) states that tlie inhabitants of Bootliia imitate the appearance of the deer, the foremost of two men stalking a herd bearing a deer's head upon his own. It is somewhat difficult to approach the deei' near enough to get within range, especially if they are hunted with bow and arrow. Generally it is not necessary to get quite near them, for when feed- ing the herd moves on in the same direction for some time, and the hunter can hide behind a stone lying in that direction and wait until they are within range. After the first shot has been fired they do not take to flight ;it once, but stand for a few seconds, struck with sur- BOAS.] HUNTING OP LARGE GAME. 509 prise, and a clever liiinter may kill t\vf lic.i] is of stones or build circular or semicircular walls to ciuircal tlicnisi-lves and allure the animals by grunting. As the deer jjossess a very fine scent they must always be approached from the lee side. An iiitcivstiiii;- iiictlidd of hunting is described by Parry (II, p. 512) and coiiliiiiii'il liy Hall (II. p. 178). Parry Avrites: Two iiii'ii walk .liri lily t'Kiin the deer they wish to kill, when the animal almost always follows them. As soon as they arrive at a large stone, one of the men hides heliind it with his bow, wliile the other continuing to walk on soon leads the deer within range of his companions arrows. Hall says that one hunter hides himself behind a stone while the other utters grunting sounds to attract it. In winter deer are sometimes caught in traps made by digging holes in the snow and covering them with slabs of the same material. Sometimes urine is poured upon and around the trap of salt water ice is placed upon it, in order to allure the deer (Klutschak, p. l.'jl). Having been attracted to the trap they fall through the roof and are sjjeared in the hole. Wherever the musk ox is found it is eagerly i)ursued by the Es- kimo. Though dogs are of no use in the chase of the nimble deer, they are of great help in hunting this animal. When a track is found the dogs are let loose and soon overtake the herd. The latter form a circle of defense in which they are kept at bay until the hunter approaches. While the dogs continue attacking and dodg- ing, the musk oxen try to hit them with their horns and do not heed the Eskimo, who assails them at close quarters witli a lance to which a thong is frequently attached. When an ox is wounded it makes an iiiii),'luiir,s aitack on the huiiiei', who dodt^vs to one side. The (lo-s bciii- al liaiid attain iiiiiiKMlintfly kcc|. ii at hay. thus enabling thr huiitiT to U-\ My aiiothci- ai-i-..\v or tlu-.iw liis lance again. Thus the struggle continues until the greater part of the herd is killed. In rare instances an ox dashes out of the circle and escapes from the pack. Polar bears are hunted in about the same manner as the musk ox. The Eskimo pursue them in light sledges, and when they are near the pursued animal the traces of the most reliable dogs in the team are cut, when they dash forward and bring the bear to bay. As the huiitci' gets sufTicifutly near, the last dogs are let loose and the bear is killcil with a sprai- or with bow and arrow. The best season for bear liuntiiig is in March and April, when the bears come up the fjords and bays in pursuit of the young seals. At this season the she bear is accompanied by the cub which was born in February or March. Its skin and flesh are highly prized by the Eskimo. Af s( >iiic ])laces, for instance at Cape Paper and at Cape Kater on Daxis St i a it. the she bears dig holes in the snow banks, in which tln^y sleep during 510 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. tlie winter. The natives seek these holes and kill the bear before it The chase of the mi;sk ox and that of the bear have become much easier since the introduction of firearms in Arctic America, and the Eskimo can kill their game without encountering the same dangers as formerly. HITNTING OF SMALL GAME. Lastly, I meution the methods used in catching smaller animals, such as wolves, foxes, and hares. Wolves are only pursued when they become too troublesome. Frequently they linger about the villages in winter, and when everybody is asleep they attack the store rooms or the dogs, which have the greatest fear of this voracious animal; for, although dogs will brave the bear, they do not venture to resist a single wolf. If a pack of these beasts linger about the village for'weeks preying upon the native stores, traps are finally built or the Eskimo lie in ambush near a bait to kill them. The wolf trap is similar to the one used to catch deer. The hole dug in the snow is about eight or nine feet deep and is covered with a slab of snow, on the center of which a bait is laid. A wall is built around it which compels the wolf to leap across it before he can reach the bait. By so doing he breaks through the roof and, as the bottom of the pit is too narrow to afford him jumping room, he is caught and killed there (Rae I, p. 135). A remarkable method of killing wolvfes has been desciibed by Klutschak (p. 192) and confirmed by the Eskimo of Cumberland Sound. A sharp knifi' is siiimrcd with dfer's bLu.Kl and sunk into the snow, the edge only prdli-iuliiii;-. Tin' wohcs lick tlic knife and cut their tongues so st-vi'ivly as to lilccd to deatli. Anotliin- method is to roll a strip of whalebone, about two feet long, in a coil, which is tied up with sinews. At each end a small metal edge is attached to thi' wlialrbone. This strip, wrapped in a piece of lilulilxT or meat, is l;ii1|mm1 down by the hungry wolf. As it is di-rsliMl the sinews avr (lissulvrd and the elastic strap is opened and ti'ai-s the stomach of the animal. A very ingenious traji is described by Parry (II. p. 514): It consists i)f a siiiiill liouse built of ice, at one end of which a door, made of the same pleiitilul mati rial, is fitted to slide up and down in a groove; to theupiter part of this a Hill is attac IhmI and, passing over the roof, is led down into the trap at the inner end. and there held by slippiiiL; an c\ r in the end of it over a peg of ice left for thepurix)se. Over the peg, howi\( i . is |,m \ ionsly placed a loose grummet, to which the bait is fastened, and a false ri>ol plan .1 i>\ir all to hide the line. The moment the animal drags at the bait the gruniuiel slips off the |« ^;. liiin,<;inn with it the line that held up the door, and this falling dowii closes the tia|i and sicui'es him. Foxes are usually caught in traps. An ice liousi' aiioiit six feet high is built of hummocks, which are cut down with the point of the spear. It .is covered with ice slabs, only a hole in the center 1 SOAS.J HUNTING OF SMALL GAME. fj 1 heing left. Blocks of simw ami slalis .,1' i,-,. ar.' pilr,] up ,-umma the building so as |m p.'iinil fas\ acci'ss u. I lie ii».l'. Sdhh' blood is sprinkled round llie hole to attract the foxaiKl a laryvi-l)ait is placed upon tlie floor of the house. The fox jumps down and, as the only exit is in the center of the roof, cannot escajae. Another trap has a slab of ice erected in such a manner as to fall and kill the fox Avhen he touches the bait. A third trap, similar to the one above mentioned, has been de- scribed by Lyon, p. ;530: It is like a small lime kiln in form, having a liole near the top. within which the li;iit is phici'il. :\]ul the foxes (for these animals alone are thus taken) are obUged to ailvaii'M' ti> il n\i T a |>it'ce of whalebone, which, bending beneath their weight, lets tlicin into iirisnn. ami then resumes its former position : thus a great number of thein are sometimes caught in a night. In the summer they ai-e but rarely taken, and it is then by means of a trap of stones, formed like the ice trap, with a falling door. Hares are either killed with small shot or with arrows or caught in Avhalebone snares, as are ermines and lemmings. "Waterfowl of all descriptions are caught in abundance in whale- bone nooses (Fig. 4:52) fastened to a long whalebone line or to a thong. Fig. aw. WhaJebone nooses for c.atehinK waterfowl, iln the possessiou of Captain Spicer, of (, The line is set along the edge of a lake, particularly near nesting places. In shallow lakes these lines are placed across the water to catch the diving and swimming birds, which are draAvn to' the shore with, the line. On the low egg islands, which are inhabited by in- numerable ducks, snares are set on the nests, and great numbers are caught in a short time. Swans and geese are pi'ocured in the same way. Other birds, and jiarticularly partridges, are kilkxl with arrows and with small shot. 512 KNTKAL ESKIMO. Large flocks of ducks and (1- kinds of birds fly througli certain valleys in the fall and in s i; \\ lu'ii migrating. Great numbers ai'e caught here without a lilliciilty, as they can be killed with sticks. A favorite method of catching gulls by Imilding a flat snow house. One block of the roof is transln t and so thin as to jiermit the hunter, who is hidden in the liousi. lush his hand through it. A bait is placed on this block, and as s(m IS a bird alights to feed it is i^ulled th:-ough the roof into the hut. Fib. -1.5S. Kakivans ii silnun speai rMiK; b. »4086.), By far the greater number of birds are caixght during the molt- ing season. Partridges can be caught with the hand and waterfowl are pursued with the kayak. The waterfowl dive as soon as the boat comes near them and being frightened down again as .soon as they rise they are eventually drowned. One species of goose (kango) SALMON FISHING. 513 which freqiients the lakes of the country is caught in a remarkable way. A circular wall of stones is raised, with a single entrance. The Eskimo drive a flock of these birds towards the building, one man, whom the stupid creatures follow, leading the way. As soon as they have entered the wall the entrance is shut up and they are slaughtered. If they happen to be met with on the water they are encircled by kayaks and driven towards the shore, one boat leading. Then they are driven within the stone wall as already described. ^^ Fig. 4M. Ivory fish used as bait in spearing salmon, a From Repulse Bay. a, r. d (National Muse- n, Washington, a, 10400; c, 34109 ; d, 34134.) J ft (Museum fiir Volkerkunde, Berlin. IV A 6830.) J The most important fish is the salmon, which is caught in abun- dance during the summer. When the lakes begin to break up the salmon descend to the sea, following the narrow lead between the 6 ETH 33 514 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. land floe and the water. In some jjlaces they are so jjleutiful as to fill the water completely. Here they are speared with the kakivang (Fig. 453). This instrument consists of a handle which widens towards the end: in tlic ciMii. / it lias :i jji-oii-'of bone or iron, and two larger ones at tin- -i(lt>. ma.li'i.f ili't r ant l.TSdr musk ox horn. The.se latter diverge and ai-c fnrnislicd witli a iHinenriron nail on the inner side. The elasticity of these side prongs is increased by thongs or strings holding them tightly together. If the salmon are very plen- tiful no bait is needed and the natives cannot spear tlicin as ipiickly as they swim along. When the ice is gone they arr ian:;lii in the shallow rivers falling from the lakes into the sea. The uat i ves stand on the bank or step into the water. A small ivory fish (Fig. io-t) (e,Yalujang), tied by two or three holes in the back to a plaited string of deer sinews, is used as a bait. Frequently bear's teeth are used for bait. They are attached to a separate line which tlie hunter continually moves up and down to attract the attention of the fish. When the salmon comes near the bait it is speared with the kakivang. In the left hand the fisherman holds an instrument for stringing the fish (quqartaun), some illustrations of which are given in Fig. 455. Fig. 455. Quqartaun for .stringius fish, c (Museum fiir ViJlkerkunde. Beiiiu. IV A 6831.) It is made of ivory. A thong fastened to the hole of the instrument has a thick knot at the opposite end. As soon as a salmon is caught it is taken out of the nippers (kakivang) and the point of the lALMON FISHINM 515 (luqartaun is puslied into the gills and brought out again at tiie mouth: tlius the fish remains sticking until it is dead. Sometimes it is kilh'd liy pushing the ivory point of the instrument into its. neck. When dead it is pushed on the thong. At some places wears are built, above which the fish are caugiit. These consist of dikes of stones about one and a half or two feet high, which are piled across a creek some distance below higli water mark. The salmon cross the wall at high water, but are cut off from the sea at half tide and are speared while there. In other places the forks of rivers are shut off by dikes, above which the salmon gather. In autumn salmon are caught when ascending the rivers. Some- times they linger too long in small jjonds and, as the rivers quickly dry up at this season, ai-e prevented from getting out of the pools. Tlriv tlicy arc caught until late in tin- scasnu. Some of these ponds fivrzr 1(1 tlic li.itt.im in winter, and tlir nativi^s. when visiting them in the spring, ciif lioles in the ice and take out the frozen fish. Fio. 45". Salmon hook. (Museum fur Vi Washington. 10142.) } kunde, Berlin. (JWr.) i In the early jjart of the spring salmon are caught with hooks (kakliokia, Iglulik; niksiartaung, Oqo), holes being cut through the ice of the lake. Formerly the hooks were made of deer antlers. Another device consists of a nail, crooked and pointed at one end. the other being let into a piece of ivory or bone (Fig. 450). A third one is represented in Fig. 4.^)7. The fishing line is made of jilaited deer sincAvs and is either lield in the hand or tied to a, short rod. Along with these hooks baits are used similar totiiose mentioned in the foregoing description. If the 516 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. carviug represented in Fig. 458 is used, the hook is tied to it by means of two holes on the lower side of the fish, while the line passes through its back. The fish, in coming near the bait, is generally caught by the liook in the back or side. In this manner salmon, trout, and all kinds of sea fish are caught. I myself have never seen any nets for fishing, but Klutschak found them in use among the Utkusiksalik tribe, and Petitot (Les grands Esquimaux, p. 378), among the natives of Anderson Eiver. The Labrador Eskimo also use nets. MANUFACTURES. MAKING LEATHER AND PREPARING SKINS. Most of the implements of the Eskimo are made of some part of the animals which they pursue. The skins are used for clothing, for building purposes, and for covering the frames of boats. Many im- plements are made of bone, others of walrus tusks or narwhal hoi-n. As wood is extremely scarce, bone or other parts of animals must make up the deficiency. I shall here describe the methods of prej^ar- ing these materials. Fig. 459. ButLher •, knife w ith boue handle (National Museum, Washington. :34lMO.) J The skin of the seal {Pagomys fd&tidiis) is dressed in different ways, according to the purpose for which it is intended. In skinning the animal a longitudinal cut is made across the belly with a common butcher's knife (saving). Most natives have procured this useful instrument and even in olden times a considerable number had found their way from Hudson Bay territory to their countries. The large knives of their own manufacture (pilaut) are of similar form, a metal edge being inserted into an ivory blade. Figure -459 is a more modern knife, an iron blade being fastened to a bone handle. PREPARATION OF SEALSKINS. .17 The skin, with the blubber, is cut from the flesh with the same knife, or still more easily with the pana, the old device of which is represented in Fig. 400 a (Parry II, p. 550). This knife is about one foot and a half long (Parry II, p. 503). The use of the small prongs near the blade was not explained by Parry. In Fig. 400 h is jDresented a pana from the eastern coast of Hudson Bay, collected by Dr. R. Bell; the handle is made of bone, the blade of iron. The flipjjers are cut off at the joints, and thus the whole skin is drawn off in a single piece. In dressing the animal the natives open the belly and first scoop out the blood, then the entrails are taken out, the ribs are separated from the breast bone and from the vertebrae, the fore flippers (with the shoulders and the hind flippers) are taken out, tlie only part remaining being the head, the spinal column, and the rump bone. Generally these are not eaten, but are used for dogs' food. ^•!"k Fig. 400. Pana or kuife for dissecting game, a (From Parry II, p. r>)8.) b (American Musemn of Natural History.) The knife (ulo) used by the women serves to clean and prepare the skins. This implement, with which almost all the cutting is done, is shaped like a crescent, the handle being attached to the center, and 518 'HE CENTRAL ESKIMO. greatly ivscinlilcs a inincin.i;- knife. Fig. 4(;i iv]>ivscii(s tin- \\>vm whicli is now ill iiM', Ki.L;'. Hi-.' is a very old iiln liainlli' ridin a stcmc circle on (,)rii<'rtii(x Fig. 468. Old ulo \ from Cape Broughtc Volkerkunde, Beiliii (see p. 536). There are a few arrow and harpoon heads the blades of whicli are inserted in the same manner ; the bone is heated and the blade is inserted while it is hot. As it is cooling the slit becomes narrower and the blade is firmly squeezed into the bone handle. Part of a slate blade, which had been riveted to the handle, is shoAvn in Fig. 403. Fig. 464 represents a handle from a recent grave. In preparing the skin the women spread it over a piece of whale- bone (asimautang), a small board, or a flat stone, and sit down before it, resting on their knees, the feet bent under the thighs. They hold the skin at the nearest edge and, pushing the ulo forward, remove the blubber from it and deposit the latter in a small tub which stands near the board. As they proceed to the opposite end of the skin, the finished part is rolled up and held in the left hand. boas] PKEPAHATfON OF SEALSKINS. 5|9 If the skin is to be used with the hair on it, the tougli membrane (niami) which covers the inner side is removed in the same way as the blubber and, after it has been carefully patched ;ip and lioles have been cut all around the edge, is stretched over a gravelly place or on snow by means of long pegs (pauktun), which hold it a few inches above the ground, thus allowing the air to circulate underneath it. The skin itself is washed and rubbed with gravel, snow, or ice and every hole made by the bullet or by the spear or in preparing it is sewed up. It very seldom happens that the women in preparing it damage the skin or even the thin mami. It is par- ticularly difficult to split the skin near a hole. First they finish the work all around it and then carefully sever the membrane at its edge. The skin is dried in the same way as the membrane. In the early part of spring, though it may still be very cold, a few choice young sealskins are dried on snow walls which face to the south. F If 41 Old -.ty le of tesirqun oi- seraper. (Museum fui \ olkerkunde, Berlin.) In order thoroughly to dry a sealskin one fine warm spring day is needed. If the Eskimo are greatly in need of skins they dry them in winter over the lamps. A frame is made of four poles, lashed to- gether, according to the size of the skin. A thong passes through the slits along its edge and around the frame, keeping the skin well stretched. Thus it is placed over the lamps or near the roof of the hut. However, it is disagreeable work to dry the skins inside the huts, and, as they are much inferior to those which are dried on the ground, the Eskimo avoid it if they can. When so prepared the sealskins are only fit for covering tents, making bags, &c. ; they are far too hard to be used for clothing, for which purpose the skin of yearlings is almost exclusively used. The young seals, having shed 520 1'"E CENTRAL ESKIMO. for the first time, have a very handsome coat, the hair being of a fine texture and much longer than in older animals. From the middle of May until late in summer their skins are most suitable for the manufacture of summer clothing, but it is necessary to protect the carcasses of the killed animals from the burning rays of the sun as soon as possible or the skin would be quickly spoiled. After being dried they are cleaned with the sharp scraper (tesir- qun), the modern device of which is represented in Fig. 465. It con- sists of a handle having a round back and a flat front, with two grooves for the knuckles of the first and second fingers, while the thumb and the other fingers clasp the handle. The scraper itself consists of a rounded piece of tin riveted to the handle. The old scraper (Fig. 466) was made of a deer's shoulder or of some other bone. I have never seen any that were made of a thigh bone, simi- lar to those found by Lucien M. Turner in Ungava Bay. After being scraped the skin is soaked in salt water and washed again. As soon as it is dry it is softened with the straight scraper (seligoung) (Fig. 467). Fig. 407. Seligoung or scraper used for softening skins. (Museum fur Volkerkunde, Berlin. r\'A0697.) Fig. 468 shows some very old stone scrapers found in graves. As the stones are sharpened it is probable that they were used for clean- ing the skins. The hole in the right side of the handle is used for the second fingor. tho grooves on the back for the third and fourth. The bone is faslcucil tn the handle by whalebone straps or thongs. Skins of Pliixd ttinit Ihita, Plioca cristafa, and Plioca gramlandica are prepared in the same way. Those which are intended for kayak covers, boots, mittens, (juivers, &c. are prepared in a different way. They are either put into hot water or laid in a brook for a few days until the hair begins to loosen. Then both sides are worked with the ulo, in order to clean and shave them. When the hair is removed they are dried and made pliable in the same way as has been described. If it is intended to make the skin as soft as possible it is allowed to become putrid be- fore it is cleansed. Then the hair and the blubber are removed, and afterwards it is left to hang in the sun for a few days until it acquires a light color. The large ground seal (PJioca harhata) is skinned in a different manner. Its skin is very thick, thicker even than sole leather, and therefore extremely durable and suitable for all sorts of lines, par- ticularly traces, lashings, and harpoon lines, and for soles, drinking PREPARATION OF SEALSKINS. 521 CUI3S. and boat covers. This seal is \"iTy lari;i'. smiii nig a length of ten feet. Tlie ^kiii ..f tlir Lack aiiiiin, Wa.sliiiiglim. lOi'iS.i j Ivory implements are cut out of the tusks with strong knives and are shaped by chipping pieces from the blocks until they acquire the desired forms. In olden times it must have been an extremely troublesome work to cut them out, the old knives being very poor and ineffective. They are finislied with the iile, which on this ac- count is an important tool for the natives ; it is also used for sharp- ening knives and harpoons. The women's knives are cut, by means of files, from old saw blades; the seal harpoons, from Scotch whale harpoons. If files are not obtainable, whetstones are used for sharp- ening the iron and stone implements. ^"-"^-iirmiriiTr — Fig. 477. Eskimo sraveVs tool. (National Miiseum. Washington. 3J105.) } Engravings in bone and ivory are made with the implement rep- resented in Fig. 477. An iron point is inserted in a wooden handle: formerly a quartz point was used. The notch which separates tlie head from the handle serves as a hold for the points of the fingers. The designs are scratched into the ivory -with the iron pin. Stone implements were made of flint, slate, or soapstoue. Flint was worked with a squeezing tool, generally made of bone. Small pieces were thus split off until the stone acquired the desired form. Slate was first roughly formed and then finished with the drill and the whetstone. The soft soapstone is now chiseled out with iron tools. If large blocks of soaj^stone cannot be obtained, fragments are cemented together by means of a mixture of seal's blood, a kind of clay, and dog's hair. This is api)lied t(i the joint, the vessel being heated over a lanij) until the cement is dry. According to Lyon (ji. :;•.'(!) it is fancied tliat tlie hair of a liitch would spoil the com- position and prevent it from sticking. CONSTRUCTION OF SKIN BOATS. 527 TRANSPORTATION BY BOATS AND SLEDGES. THE BOAT (UJIIAV). The main part of the frame of a boat is a timber whicli runs from stem to stern (Fig. 478). It is the most solid part and is made of driftwood, whicli is procured in Hudson Strait, Hudscm Bay, and on the noi-tliern shore of King William Land. In Iglulik, and probably in Pond Bay. boats are rarely used and never made, as wood is wanting. The central part of this timber is made a little narrower than the ends, which form stout heads. A mortise is cut into each of the latter, into which posts (kiglo) are tenoned for the bow and for the stern. The shape of this part will best be seen from the engrav- ing (Fig. 479). A strong jjiece of wood is fitted to the top of these uprights and the gunwales are fastened to them with heavy thongs. Fig. 479. Kiglo or post. The gunwales and twcj curved strips of wood (akuk). which run along each side of the bottom of the boat from stem to stern, deter- mine its form. These strips are steadied by from seven to ten cross pieces, which are firmly tied to them and to the central piece. From this pair of strips to the gunwales run a number of ribs, which stand somewhat close together at the bow and the stern, but are sejsarated by intervals of greater distance in the center of the boat. The cross pieces along the bottom are arranged similarly to the ribs. Be- tween the gunwale and the bottom two or three pairs of strips also run alon-- tlie sides of the boat and steady its whole frame. The up- l)(iiii(.st pair (which is called tuving) lies near the gunwale and ser\-es us a fastening for the cover of the boat. The thwarts, three 528 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. or four in number, are fastened between the gun^\ ale and tlicse lateral strijis. All these pieces are tied together witii thongs, rivets not being used at all. Fig. 481. Umiaq or skin boat. The frame is covered with skins of ground seals (Figs. 480, 481). It requires three of these skins to cover a medium sized boat ; five to cover a large one. If ground seals cannot be procured, skins of harp or small seals are used, as many as twelve of the latter being required. The cover is drawn tightly over the gunwale and. after being wetted, is secured by tlK.iiss to the lateral strip which is close to the gun- wale. The wckmIi'ii ])ii'(rsatboth ends are perforated and the thongs for fastening the cux'ei- are pulled through these holes. The boat is propelled by two large oars. The rowlocks are a very ingenious device. A piece of bone is tied upon the skin in order BOAS] CONSTRUCTION OF THE SLEDGE. 529 to protect it from the friction of the oar, which woiikl quickly wear it through (Fig. 481 a). On each side of the bone a thong is fast- ened to tlie tuving, forming a loop. Both loops cross each other like two rings of a chain. The oar i.s drawn through both loops, which are twisted by toggles until they become tight. Then the toggles are secured between the gunwale and the tuving. The oar (ipun) consists of a long shaft and an oval or round blade fastened to the shaft by thongs. Two grooves and the tapering end serve for handles in pulling. Generally three or four women Avork at each oar. For steering, a paddle is used of the same kind as that used in whal- ing (see p. 499). A rudder is rarely found (Fig. 480), and when iised most probably is made in imitation of Eurojjean devices. If the wind permits, a sail is set; but the bulky vessel can only riin with the wind. The mast is set in the stem, a mortise being cut in the forehead of the main timber, with a notch in the wooden piece above it to steady it. A stout thong, which passes through two holes on each side of the notch, secures the mast to the wooden head piece. The sail, which is made of seal intestines carefully sewed t^^lthlr, is squared and fastened by loops to a yard (sadnirinq) which is tiinmnMl with straj^s of deerskin. It is hoisted byarope m.-uli' nf sealskin and passing over a sheave in the top of the mast. This rope is tied to the thwart farthest abaft, while the sheets are fastened to the foremost one. THE SLEDGE AND DOGS. During the greater part of the year the only passable road is that afforded by the ice and snow; therefore sledges (qamuting) of dif- ferent constructions are used in traveling. The best model is made by the tribes of Hudson Strait and Davis Strait, for the driftwood which they can obtain in abundance admits the use of long wooden runners. Their sledges (Fig. 482) have two runners, from five to fifteen feet long and from twenty inches to two 6 ETH 34 r,30 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. and a half feet apart. They are connected by cros.s bars of wood or bone and the back is formed by deer's antlers with the skull attached. The bottom of the runners (qamun) is curved at the head (uinirn) and cut off at right angles behind. It is shod with whalebone, ivory, or the jawbones of a whale. In long sledges the shoeing (pirqang) is broadest near the head and narrowest behind. This device is very well adapted for sledging in soft snow; for, while the weight of the load is distributed over the entire length of the sledge, the fore part, which is most apt to break through, has a broad face, which presses down the snow and enables the hind part to glide over it without sinking in too deeply. Fig 4S3 Sledge shoe (National Museum Wa-shington 34096 ) J- The shoe (Fig. 483) is either tied or riveted to the runner. If tied, the lashing passes through sunken drill holes to avoid any friction in moving over the snow. The right and left sides of a whale's jaw are frequently used for shoes, as they are of the proper size and per- mit the shoe to be of a single piece. Ivory is cut into flat pieces and riveted to the runner with long treenails. The points are frequently covered with bone on botli the lower and upper sides, as they are easily injured by striking hard against hummocks or snowdrifts. Sometimes whalebone is used for the shoes. The cross bars (napun) project over the runners on each side and have notches which form a kind of neck. These necks serve to fasten the thongs when a load is lashed on the sledge. The bars are fastened to the runners by thongs which pass through two pairs of holes in the bars and through corresponding ones in the runners. If these fastenings should become loose, they are tightened by winding a small thong round them and thus drawing the ojaposite parts of the thong tightly together. If this proves insufficient, a small wedge is driven between the thong and the runner. The antlers attached to the back of the sledge have the branches removed and the points slanted so as to fit to the runners. Only the brow antlers are left, the right one being cut down to aboi;t three inches in length, the left one to one and a half inches. This l)ack forms a very convenient handle for steering the sledge past hum- mocks or rocks, for drawing it back when the points have struck a snowdrift, &c. Besides, the lashing for holding the load is tied to the right brow antler and the snow knife and the harpoon line are hung \ipon it. Under the foremost cross bar a hole is drilled through each runner. A very stout thong (pitu) consisting of two separate parts passes through the holes and serves to fasten the dogs' traces to the sledge. BOAS.] THE DOG HARNESS. 531 A button at each end of this thong prevents it from slipping througli the hole of the runner. The thong consists of two parts, the one ending in a loop, the other in a jieculiar kind of clasp (partirang). Fig. 484. Oasp for fastening to sletl^e. iNatit shington. 34110.) i Fig 48i represents the form commonly used. The end of one part of tlic tlnm:;- i.s fastened to the hole of the clasp, which, when closed, is sturk tlir'.unh thcloop of the ojjposite end (see Fig. 482). A more artistic ilrsign is shown in Fig. 485. One end of the line is tied to the hole in the under side of this implement. When it is in use the loop of the other end is stiick through another hole in the center and hung over the nozzle. The whole represents the head of an animal with a gaping mouth. The dogs' traces are strung upon this line by means of the uqsirn, an ivory implement with a large and a small eyelet (Fig. 486). The trace is tied to the former, while the latter is strung upon the pitu. sledge. (Museum fui \olkeikun(le Berhu t j The dogs have harnesses (ano) made of sealskin (Fig. 487) or some- times of deerskin, consisting of two bights passing under the fore legs. They are j(jined by two straps, one passing over the breast, the other over the neck. The ends are tied together on the back, whence the ti-ace runs to the sledge. According to Parry (II, p. 517), 532 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO the Iglulik harnesses consisted of three biglits, one passing over the breast and shoulder and two under the fore legs. Fig. 486. Uqsim, for fastening traces to pitu. a (National Museum, Washington. 341S2.) } 6 (Mu- seum fiir VOlkerkuude, Berlin.* { It was mentioned at another place (p. 475) that in sealing a dog is taken out of the sledge to lead the hunter to the breathing hole. Ftg. 487. Ano For this purpose tlie traces of some harnesses are made of two pieces, which are united by the sadniriaq, a clasp similar to that of the pitu (Figs. 487, 488). If the dog is to be taken from the sledge the fore part of the trace is unbuttoned. Fig. 4S8. Sadniriaq or chisp. BOAS] THE DOG TEAM. 533 Besides this form of sledge a great number of others are in use. Whenever whales are caught their bone is sawed or cut into large pieces, which are shod with the same material. If large bones are not to be had, a substitute is found in walrus skins or rolls of seal- skins, which are wetted and sewed itp in a bag. This bag is given the desired fonn ami af'tcr beiu-- rrn/.cu in a solid mass is as service- able as I lie licst [ilaiilv. Ill I Mil it Ilia tn>/.rii salim mi ai'c used in the same way and after haxiiiy servivl tliis purpose in winter are eaten in the spring. Other sledges are made of slabs of fresh water ice, which are cut and allowed to freeze together, or of a large ice block hollowed out in the center. All these are clumsy and heavy and much inferior to the large sledge just described. Parry (II, p. 515) states that at Iglulik the antlers are detached from the sledge in winter when the natives go sealing. The tribes of Davis Strait do not practice this custom, but use scarcely any sledge without a pair of antlers. ' As to the appearance of the dogs I would refer to Parry (II, p. 515) and other writers and confine my remarks to a description of their use by the Eskimo. As the traces are strung upon a thong, as just described, the dogs all pull at one point ; for tliat reason they may seem, at first sight, to be harnessed together without order or regularity ; but they are arranged Avith great care. The strongest and mf)st sjiirited dog has the longest trace and is allowed to run a few feet in advance of the rest as a leader; its sex is indiflferent, the choice being made chiefly with regard to strength. Next to the leader follow two or three strong dogs with traces of equal length, and the weaker and less manageable the dogs the nearer they run to the .sledge. A team is almost unmanageable if the dogs are not accustomed to one another. They must know their leader, who brings them to terms whenever there is a quarrel. In a good team the leader must be the acknowl- edged chief, else the rest will fall into disorder and refuse to follow him. His authority is almost unlimited. When the dogs are fed, he takes the choice morsels; when two of them quarrel, he bites both and thus brings them to terms. Generally there is a second dog which is inferior only to the leader, but is feared by all the others. Though the authority of the leader is not disputed by his own team, dogs of another team will not sub- mit to him. But when two teams are accustomed to travel in com- pany the dogs in each will have some regard for the leader of the other, though continuous rivalry and quarrels go on between the two leaders. Almost any dog which is harnessed into a strange team will at first be unwilling to draw, and it is only when he is thoroughly accustomed to all his neighbors and lias found out liis friemls and his enemies that he will do his work satisfactorily. Somedo-s when put into a strange team will throw tlienisulves down and struggle and 534 THK CENTRAL ESKIMO. howl. They will endure the sevcrcsl lashing- and allow fhomselves to be dragged along over rough ice wilhuiit Kcin-- iiidurcl to rise and run along with the others. Particulai'ly if (heir (jwh team is in .sight will they turn back and try to get to it. Others, again, are (iuite will- ing to work with strange dogs. Partly on this account and partly from attachniciit to their masters. dogs sold out of one team frequently return to their nM lionies. and I know of instances in which they even ran from thirt \- to sixty miles to reach it. Sometimes they do so when a sledge is traveling for a few days from one settlement to another, the dogs not having left home for a long time before. In such cases when the Eskimo go to harness their team in the morning they find that some of them have run away, particularly those which were lent from another team for the journey. In order to prevent this the left fore leg is sometimes tied up by a loop which jiasses over the neck. When one is on a joui'iiey it is well to do so every night, as some of the dogs are rather unwilling to be harnessed in the morning, thus causing a great loss of time before they are caught. In fact such animals are custom- arily tied up at night, while the others are allowed to run loose. Sometimes the harnesses are not taken off at night. As some dogs are in the habit of stripping off their harness, it is fastened by tying the trace around the body. Though all these peculiarities of the dogs give a great deal of trouble to the driver, he must take care not to punish them too severely, as they will then become frightened and for fear of the whip will not work at all. Before putting the dogs to the sledge it must Ije prepared and loaded. In winter the shoes of the runners are covered with a thick coat of ice, which diminishes the friction on the snow. If the shoes are of good bone, ivory, or whalebone, the icing is done with water only, the driver taking a nioiithriil and larefully letting it run over the shoe until a smooth cover of about one third of an inch in thick- ness is produced. The icicles made by the water which I'uns down the side of the runner are carefully removed with the snow knife, and the bottom is smoothed with the same implement and afterward somewhat polished with the mitten. Skin iiinin'is ami otiiers which have poor shoes are fir.st covered with a niixtm-e of moss and water or clay and water. This being frozen, the whole is iced, as has been described. Instead of pure water, a mixture of blood and water or of urine and water is frequently used, as this sticks better to the bone shoe than the former. This done, the sledge is turned right side up and loaded. In winter, when the snow is hard,"^mall sledges with narrow shoes are the best. In loading, the bulk of the weight is jjlaced behind. When the snow is soft or there are wide cracks in the floe, long sledges with broad shoes are by far the best. In such cases the heaviest part of the load is placed on the middle of the sledge or even nearer the head. BOAS.] TRAVELING BY SLEDGE. 535 Particularly in crossing cracks the weight must be as near the head as possible, for if the jump should be unsuccessful a heavy weight at the hind part would draw the sledge and the dogs into the water. The load is fastened to the sledge by a long lashing (naqetarun). This is tied to the first cross bar and after passing over the load is drawn over the notch of the next bar, and so on from one notch, over the load, to a notch on the opposite side. After having been fastened in this way it is tightened. Two men are required for the work, one pulling the lashing over the notch, the other pressing down the load and lifting and lowering the thong in order to diminish the friction, thus making the pulling of the other man more effective. The end is fastened to the brow antler. Implements which are used in trav- eling are hung upon the antlers at the back of the sledge. In spring, when the snow is melting and water is found under it, the travelers frequently carry in their pouch a tube for drinking (Fig. 489). J Fin. 48(1, Tube for (IriiikiTig. (National JIuseum, Wa-shington. 10383.) } When the sledge has been loaded the dogs are hitched to it and the driver takes up the whip and is ready for starting. The handle of the whip is about a foot or a foot and a half in length. It is made of wood, bone, or whalebone and has a lash of from twenty to twenty-five feet in length. The lash is made of walrus or ground seal hide, the lower end being broad and stiff, thus giving it greater weight and a slight springiness near the handle, which facilitates its use. A broad piece of skin clasps the handle, to which it is tied with seal thongs. Another way of making the lower part heavy is by plaiting ground seal lines for a length of a foot or a foot and a half. When starting the driver utters a whistling guttural sound which sounds like h! hi, but cannot exactly be expressed by letters, as there is no vowel in it, and yet on account of the whistling noise in the throat it is audible at a considerable distance. The dogs, if well rested and strong, jump to their feet and start at once. If they are lazy it requires a great deal of stimulating and lashing before they make a start. If the load is heavy it is difficult to start it and the Eskimo must use some strategy to get them all to pull at once. The sledge is moved backward and forward for about a foot, so as to make a short track in which it moves easily. Then the driver sings out to the dogs, at the same time drawing the traces tight with his hands and pulling at the sledge. The dogs, feeling a weight at the traces, begin to draw, and when the driver suddenly lets go the traces the sledge receives a sudden pull and begins to move. If assistance is at hand the sledge may be pushed forward until it gets under way. 536 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. It is extremely hard work to travel with a heavy load, jiarticularly in rough ice or on soft snow. The dogs require constant stimulating; for this purpose a great numher of exclamations are in use and almost every Eskimo has his own favorite words for driving. The general exclamation used for stimulating is the above mentioned h! h! or aq! aq! which is pressed out from the depths of the brettetand the palate, the vowel being very indistinct. Others are: djua! the a being drawn very long and almost sung in a high key, or ah! pro- nounced in the same way; latit! or jauksa koksa! and smacking with the tongue. If a seal is seen basking on the ice or if the sledge happens to pass a deserted snow hut, the driver says, Ha! Do you see the seal? Ai! A seal! a seal ! (Ha! Takuviuk!-' Ai! Uto! uto!) and Ai! There is a house; a small house! (Ai! Iglu; igluaqdjung!) or. Now we go home ! (Sarpoq! Sarpoq!) The latter, however, are only used when the dogs are going at a good rate. For directing the sledge the following words are used: Ana. aua! Aua! ja aua! for turning to the right; ^oia;i;oi! ja ;i.'oia! for turning to the left. In addition the whip lash is thrown to the opposite side of the dogs. The leader is the first to obey the order, but a turn is made very slowly and by a long curve. If the driver wants to make a sharper turn he must jump up and run to the opposite side of the sledge, throwing the whip lash at the same time toward the team. For stopping the dogs the word Ohoha! iDronounced in a deep key, is used. If the traveling is difficult the driver must walk along at the right side of the .sledge and wherever hummocks obstruct the passage he must direct it around them either by pushing its head aside roi;i-ess and evi^nl ii.-ill y comes to a stop. Then he stands in front of the sled and maizes the dogs lie down by lashing their heads gently. Should the dogs start off he would be thrown upon the sledge instead of being left behind, which might easily happen shoiild he stand aloni^side. The sledge is steei-e(l with the legs, usually with the right foot of the driver, or, if it must he ]iidled aside from a large hummock, by pulling the head aside or by means of the deei-'s antlers. If two persons are on the sledge— and usually two join for a long drive— they must not speak to each other, for as soon as the dogs hear them they will stop, turn around, sit down, and listen to the conversation. It has frequently been said that the method of harnessing is incon- venient, as the dogs cannot use their strength to the best advantage but whoever has driven a sledge himself will understand that any other method would be even more troublesome and less effective. On smooth ice and ha,rd snow any method of harnessing could be used; but, on rough ice, by any other method every cross piece would quickly break on attempting to cross the hummocks. Frequently the traces catch a projecting point and the dogs are then pulled back and thrown against the ice or under the sledge if the trace does not ])reak. If for any reason a dog should hang back and the trace should trail over the snow the driver must lift it up to prevent it fi'om being caught by the sledge runner, else the dog will be dragged in the same way as if the trace Avere caught by a hummock. Many dogs are able in such cases to strip off their harnesses and thus escape being dragged along, as the team cannot be stopped quickly enough to prevent this. Besides the driver must see to it that the dogs do 5P,8 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. not step across their traces, which in such cases W(.>ukl run between their hind legs, for should this happen the skin might be severely chafed. If tlie driver sees a trace in this position he runs forward and puts it back without stopping the team. Particular attention must be i^aid to this matter when the dogs rise just before starting. The sledges are not used until the ice is well covered with snow, as the salt crystals formed on the top of the ice in the autumn hurt the dogs' feet and cause sores that heal slowly. Late in the spring, when the snow has nii'lti'd and sharp ice nerdli's ]ii-(iji_-rt (•voi'ywhen'. the feet of thedo.us arc ...vcivd with si.iall ],ic.Ts..r lcatli,-i-.' wit h ludos for the nails, Avhidi an- tied t.i the leg. As tlicy arc rrc(|uciitly lost and the putting on of these shoes takes a long time, their use is very inconvenient. At this season numerous cracks run through the floe. They are either crossed on narrow snow bridges which join the edges at con- venient places or on a drifting piece of ice by floating across. A few more words in conclusion concerning the training of the dogs. The Eskimo rarely brings up more than three or four dogs at the same time. If the litter is larger than this number the rest are sold or given away. The young dogs are carefully nursed and in winter they are even allowed to lie on the couch or are hung up over the lamp in a piece of skin. When about four months old they are first put to the sledge and gradually become accustomed to pull along with the others. They undergo a good deal of lashing and whijjjiing before they are as useful as the old ones. If food is plentiful the dogs are fed every other day, and then their share is by no means a large one. In winter they are fed with the heads, entrails, bones, and skins of seals, and they are so vora- cious at this time of the year that nothing is secure from their appetite. Any kind of leather, particularly boots, harnesses, and thongs, is eaten whenever they can get at it. In the spring they are better fed and in the early part of summer they grow quite fat. In traveling, however, it sometimes happens at this time of the year, as well as in winter, that they have no food for live or six days. In Cumberland Sound, Hudson Strait, and Hudson Bay, where the rise and fall of the tide are considerable, they are carried in summer to small islands where they live upon what they can find upon the beach, clams, codfish, &c. If at liberty they are entirely able to provide for themselves. I remember two runaway dogs which had lived on their own account from April until August and then re- turned quite fat. The Eskimo of all these regions are very much troubled with the well known dog's disease of the Arctic regions. The only places where it seems to be unknown are Davis Strait and Aggo. Here every man has a team of from six to twelve dogs, while in Cumber- land Sound, in some winters, scarcely any have been left. (See Appendix, Note 2.) CONSTRUCTION OF THE SNOW HOrsE. 539 HABITATIONS AND DRESS. THE HOUSE. The houses of the Eskimo differ according to the season. All the tribes from Smith Sound to Labrador and from Davis Strait to Victoria Land are in the habit of building snow houses in winter. Though they erect another more durable kind of winter house, these are more frequently in use. The principles of construction are the same everywhere. A level place is selected for erecting the snow house. Fig. 490. Various stj-les of snow knife. (National Museum, Washington, a, 10386 ; 6, lOS&'i.) To be suitable for cutting into blocks the snowbank must have been formed by a single storm, for blocks which are cut from drifts com- posed of several layers break when cut. It must be very fine grained, but not so hard that it cannot be readily cut with the saw or the snow knife. The whole building is constructed of blocks of about three feet or four feet in length, two feet in height, and from six iuCTies to eight inches in thickness. They are cut with snow knives or dove- tail saws, which for this reason are much in demand. The old snow knife (sulung) was made of ivory and had a slight curve (Fig. 490). 540 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. The blocks are cut either vertically or horizontally, the former way being more convenient if the snowdrift is deep. Two parallel cuts of the breadth and the depth of the blocks are made through the drift, and after having removed a small block the Eskiiiio ,i;-(i on cut- ting or sawing i)arallel to the surface. A nossciit is then made and the block is loosened with the T^oint of tlic fndt and lifted out of the bank. Vertical blocks are more easily detached from the snowdrift than horizontal ones. Two men vinite in building a house, the one cutting the blocks, the other building. At first a row of blocks is put up in a circle, the single jiieces being slanted so as to fit closely together. Then the first block is cut down to the ground and the top of the row is slanted so as to form one thread of a spiral line. The builder places the first block of the second row with its narrow side upon the first block and pushes it with his left hand to the right so that it touches the last block of the first row. Thus the snow block, which is inclined a little inward, has a support on two sides. The vertical joint is slanted with the snow kuife and tightly pressed together, the new block rest- ing on the oblique side of the former. In building on in this way the blocks receive the shape of almost regular trapezoids. Every block is inclined a little more inward than the previous one, and as the aii,i;lc to the vertical becomes greater the blocks are only kept in thcii' places by the neighboring ones. In order to give them a good support the edges are the more slanted as their angle is greater. This method of building is very ingenious, as it aifords the possi- bility of building a vault without a scaffold. If the blocks were ijlaced in parallel rows, thi^ first block of a new row would have no sup^jort. while liy this method e.icli reclines on the previous one. When the house has i-cai-hed ,-i coiisideralile height the manwhocuts the blocks outside must place them upon the last row. The builder supports them with his head and pushes them to their proper places. The key block and those which are next to it are either cut inside or pushed into the house through a small door cut for the purpose. The key block is generally shaped irregularly, as it is fitted into the hole which remains; usually the last two blocks are triangular. When the vaidt is finished the joints between the blocks are closed up by cutting down the edges and pressing the scraps into the joints. Larger openings are closed with snow blocks and filled up with loose snow pressed into the fissures. Thus the whole building becomes a tieht vault, without any holes through which the warm air inside ni.iy esca|ie. Such a snow house, about five feet high and seven feet iu diauieter, is used as acamp in winter journeys. Ittakes aboiit two Ipours for two skilled men to build and finish it. For winter quarters the vaults are built from ten to twelve feet high and twelve to fifteen feet in diameter. In order to reach this height the builder CONSTRUCTION OF THE SNOW HOUf 541 makes a bench on wliich lie steps while finishing the upper part of the building. The plan of a snow house of the Davis Strait tribes is a little dif- ferent from that of the Hudson Bay and the Iglulik tribes. I shall first describe the former according to my own observations (Figs. 491:^1492). The entrance to the main building is formed by two, or less frequently by three, small vaults. The first one (uadling) is a small dome about six feet in height, with a door two and a half feet in height; the second one is a long passage of equal height formed by an elliptical vault (igdlu- ling). Its roof is generally arched, but sometimes the top is cut off evenly and covered with slabs of snow. Both vaults together form the entrance and are called toqsung. A door about three feet high leads into the main room, the floor of which is about nine inches above that of the former. Two very small vaults are always attached to the whole building (Fig. 491). One is situated alongside of the uadling and the igdluling, and serve,? as a store- room for clothing and harness (sir- dloang) . It is not connected with the interior of the hut, but one of the blocks of the vault can be taken out and is made to serve as a lid. On the left side of the entrance of the main building is another small vault (igdluarn), which is accessible from the main building. It serves for keeping spare meat and blubber. Frequently there is a second igdluarn on the opposite side, and some- times even a third one in the igdluling. Another appendix of the main building is frequently used, the audlitiving (Fig. 491 and Fig. 493 c). It is a vault similar to the sirdloang and is attached to the back of the main room. It serves for storing up meat for future use. Directly over the entrance a window is cut through the wall, either square or more frequently forming an arch, which is generally cov- ered with the intestines of ground seals, neatly sewed together, the 542 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. seams standing vertically (Fig. 493). In the center there is a hole (qingang) through which one can look out. In some instances a piece of fresh water ice is inserted in the hole. According to Ross it is always used by the Netchillirmiut (II, p. 250), who make the slab by letting water freeze in ; r~' house of Davi: In the rear half and on both sides of the door a bank of snow two and a half feet high is raised and cut off straight, a passage trench five feet wide and six feet long remaining. Tl^e rear half forms the bed, the adjoining parts of the side benches are the place for the lamps, while on both sides of the entrance meat and refuse are heaped up. Frequently the snowbank on which the hut is built is deep BOAS.I CONSTRUCTION OF THE SNOW HOUSE. 543 enough so that the bed ueeds very little raising, and the passage is cut into the bank. As this is much more convenient in building, the huts are generally erected on a sloping face, the entrance lying on the lower jjart, which faces the beach. Fig. 493. Section and interior of snow house. Before the bed is arranged and the hut furnished the vault is lined with skins, frequently with the cover of the svimmer hut. The lining (ilupiqang) is fastened to the roof by small ropes (uirtsun), which are fastened by a toggle on the outside of the wall (Fig. 493). In the lower part of the building the lining lies close to the wall ; in the upper part it forms a fiat roof about two i>v tlirci' fi-rt lirlow the top of the vault. The effect of tliis ari'aii-viiicut is t<. piwriit the warm air inside from melting the snow i-oof, as above the slsiiis tliere is always a layer of colder air. Close to the top of the building a small hole (qangirn) is cut through the wall for ventilation. The lamps reciuiiv a - 1 dran-lit. which is sccnn-d by this hole. The col.l airriitci-s tlii'ou-h the T) and one in Ross (II, p. 581) representing tents of the Netchillirmiut. In the former there are a few conical tents, such as are used by the eastern tribes before a sufficient number of skins for a large tent can be CONSTRUCTION OF THE TENT. procured. Tlie same kind i.s represented in Ross's book. The other tent drawn by Klutschak is similar to the Iglulik one, but the ar- rangement of the poles in the back part is invisible. The entrance is formed by two converging poles and a rope runs over the ridge and is tied to a rock. Fig 505. Plan and sections of tupiq or tent of Pomi Bay. The small tents which are used in the spring are made of a few converging poles forming a cone. They are covered with a skin roof. -^^-- Fig. 50fi. Plan and sections of double winter tent Cumberland Sound. Some families, instead of building snow houses or stone houses in winter, cover the summer tent with shrubs and spread over them a second skin cover. In front of the tent snow vaults are built to pro- tect the interior from the cold. In some instances several families join their tents (Fig. 506). In the front part where the tents adjoin each other the covers are taken away and replaced by a whale rib which affords a passage from one room to the other. The plans of the feasting houses will be found in another i)lace (p. 000). 554 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO CLOTHING, DRESSING OF THE HAIR, AND TATTOOING. The styles uf clothing differ among the tribes of the Central Eskimo. In summer the outer garment is always made of sealskins, though the women wear deerskins almost the entire year. The sealskin clothing is made from the skins of Pagomys fcetidus, yearlings being used, and also from those of Calloceplialus, if they can be obtained. The latter particularly are highly valued by the natives. The inner garment is made either of the skin of the young seal in the white coat or of a light deerskin. It is cut entirely with the woman's knife and is sewed with deer sinews. The prettiest clothing is made by the tribes of Davis Strait. Both men and women wear boots, trousers, and jackets. The style of the men's clothing maybe seen from Figs. 397 and 399, which repre- sent men in the winter clothing, and 413 and 435, which show them in summer clothing. The summer boots are made from the hairless skin of Pagomys foitidus, the soles from that of Phoca, the sole reaching to the top of the foot. The leg of the boot is kept up by a string passing through its rim and firmly tied aroimd the leg. At the ankle a string passes over the instep and around the foot to prevent the heel from slipping down. On the top of the foot a knob (qaturang) is sometimes attached to the string as an ornament (Fig. 507). The stocking is made of light deerskin. It reaches above the knee, where it has a trimming made from the white parts of a deer- skin, whereas the boot ends below the knee. Next to the stocking is a slipper, which is made of birdskin, the feathers being worn next to the foot. This is covered with a slipper of sealskin, the hair side worn outward and the hair pointing toward the heel. The boot finishes the footgear. In the huts the birdskin slippers are fre- quently laid aside. ^ Fig. 5«-. Qaturang or boot omaiiu-iit i Museum fiii- Volkerkunde, Berlin. IV A C850. The breeches of the men consist of an outside and an inside pair, the former being worn with the hair outside; the latter, which are made of the skins of young seals or of deer, with the hair inside. They are fastened round the body by means of a string and reach a little below the knee. Their make will best be seen from the figures. Only the southern tribes trim the lower end of the trousers by sew- ing a piece to them, the hair of which runs around the leg, while above it runs downward. This pattern looks very pretty. The jacket does not open in front, but is drawn over the head. It CLOTHIXG. 555 has a hood fitting closely to the head. The back and the front are made of a sealskin each. The hood of the Oqomint is sharjjly pointed, while that of the Akudnirmiut is more rounded. The jackets are cut straight and have a slit in front. Some have a short tail behind, particularly the winter jackets. The cut of the winter clothing, which Fig. rm. Woman's jacket. (National Museum, Washingtoi is made of deerskin, is the same as the former, and it is frequently trimmed with straps of deerskin. The jacket is rarely worn with the hood down, as it is only used while hunting and traveling. It is a Fig. 509. Ivory beads for women's jackets, a (Museum filr Volkerkmule, Berlin. TV A 6841.) 6, c (National Museum, Washington. 34134.) ! never brought into the huts, but after being cleaned from tlie adher- ing snow with the snowbeater (tiluqtung, as named by the eastern fffyQ THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. tribes ; arautaq, as called by Hudson Bay tribes) is kept in the store- room outside the house. The women's trousers are composed of two pieces. The upper one fits tightly and covers the upper half of the thigh. It is made of the skin of a deer's belly. The other parts are, as it were, leggings, which reach from a little below the knee to the middle of the thigh and are kept in place by a string running to the upper part of the trousers. The women's jacket (Fig. 508) is much more neatly trimmed than that of the men. It is frequently adorned with ivory or brass beads running round the edge (Fig. 509). It has a wide and large hood reaching down almost to the middle of the body. In front the jacket has a short apj^endage ; behind, a very long tail which trails along the ground (see Fig. 508). If a child is carried in the hood, a leather girdle fastened with a buckle (Fig. 510) is tied around the waist and serves to prevent the child from slipping down. The first specimen given iu Fig. 510 is remarkable for its artistic design. Washing- Among the Akudnirmiut of Davis Strait another fashion is more frequently in use much resembling that of Iglulik. The women have a wider jacket with a broader hood, enormous boots with a flap reaching up to the hip, and breeches consisting of one piece and reaching to the knees. Unfortunately I have no drawing of this clothing and must therefore refer to Parry's engravings, which, however, are not very well executed, and to the figures representing dolls in this costume (see Fig. 528). When children are aboiit a month old they are put into a jacket made from tlie skin of a deer fawn and a cap of the same material, their legs remaining bare, as they are always carried in their mother's B.,AR.] CLOTHING. 557 hood. In some places, where large boots are in use, they are said to be carried in these. The cap is separate and is always made of the head of a fawn, the ears standing upright on each side of the head. The jacket is either quite open in front or has a short slit. Children of more than two years of age wear the same clothing, with trousers and boots (Fig. 511). When they are about eight years old they are clothed like men (Fig. 513). Girls frequently wear the same kind of dress for some time, until they are from nine to ten years old, when they assume the clothing of the women. As to the mode of clothing of the other tribes I give the descrij)- tions of the authors. Parry describes the dress of the Iglnlirmiut as follows (II, p. iur>): In the jacket of the women, the tail or flap behind is very broad, and so long as almost to touch the gi-ound; while a shorter and narrower one before reaches half- way down the thigh. The men have also a tail iii the hind part of their jackef, but of smaller dimensions; bvit before, it is generally straight or ornamented by a single scoUop. Tlie hood of the jacket * * * is much the largest in that of the women, for the purpose of holding a child. The back of the jacket also bulges out in the middle to give the child a footing, and a strap or girdle below this, and secured roimd the waist by two large wooden buttons in front, prevents the infant from falling through when, the hood being in use, it is necessary thus to deposit *it. * * The upper (winter) garment of the females, besides being cut according to a regailar 558 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. and unii'orm pattern, and sewed with exceeding neatness, which is the case witli all tlic dresses of those people, has also the flaps ornamented in a very liecoming man- ner by a neat border of deerskin, so arranged as to display alternate breadths of white and dark fur. This is, moreover, usually beautified by a handsome fringe, consisting of innumerable long, narrow threads of leather hanging down from.it- This ornament is not uncommon also in the outer jackets of the men. When seal, hunting, they fasten up the tails of their jackets with a button behind. The breeches and the foot gear of the men are described as being much the same as those of the Akudnirmiut. Parry remarks (loc. cit.) tliat several serpentine pieces of hide are sewed across the soles to prevent them from wearing out: The inner boot of the women, unlike that of the men, is loose around the leg, coming as high as the knee joint behind, and in front carried up by a long, pointed flap nearly to the waist and there fastened to the breeches. The upper boot, with the hair as usual outside, corresponds with the other in shape, except that it is much more full, especially on the outer side-, where it bulges out so preposterously as to give the women the most awkward, bow-legged appearance imaginable. * * * Here, also, as in the jacket, considerable taste is displayed in the selection of differ- ent parts of the deerskin, alternate strips of dark and white being placed up and down the sides and front by way of ornament. The women also wear a mocca- sin (itigega) overall in the winter-time. The dress of the Aivillirmiut is similar to that of the Iglulirmiut (Gilder, p. 139). Ti-aces of clothing found in old graves of Cumberland Sound and Frobisher's description of the dress of the Nugumiut show that the style of clothing now used by the Iglulirmiut formerly obtained in all parts of Baffin Land. All the Eskimo wear mittens. Tliose used in winter are made of the skin of young seals or of deerskin. In summer they use hairless sealskin, and sometimes make them with two thumbs, so as to tiirn the mitten round if one side shoiild become wet. The manner of dressing the hair practiced by the tribes of North- eastern Baffin Land differs from that of other tribes. On Davis Strait and in Hudson Bay the men allow it to grow to a considerable length, but frequently cut it short on the forehead. If all the hair is long it is kept back by a band made of the skin of deer antlers taken in the velvet. Sometimes these ties are very neatly finished. Frobisher states that the Nugumiut shaved part of their heads. The Kinipetu shave the top of the head ; the Netcliillirmiut wear their hair short. The women liavi' two styh-s of dressing their hair. They always part it on the to]! of lln> head. Tlic bark hair is wound into a bunch protruding from tlie hark of thf liead or nicely arranged in a knot. The hair at the sides is plaited and folded over the ears, joining the knot behind. The other way is to arrange these parts in small pig- tails reaching a little below the ears. They are kept in order by an ivory or brass ring (see Fig. 515). PERSONAL ADORNMENT. The manner in wliicli the Iglulirmiut dress their liair is tliiis de- scribed by Parry (II, p. id:]): They separate their locks into two equal parts, one of which hangs on each side of tlieu- heads and in front of their shoulders. To stiffen and bmd these they use a narrow strap of deerskin, attaclied at one end to a round piece of bone, fourteen inches long, tapered to a point, and covered over with leather. This looks like a little wlaip, the handle of which is placed up and down the hair and the strap wound round it in a number of spiral turns, making the tail, thus equipped, very much re- semble one of those formerly worn by our seamen. The strap of this article of dress, which is altogether called a tugliga, is so made from the deerskin as to show when bound round the hair, alternate turns of white and dark fur, wliich give it a very neat and ornamental appearance. * * * Those who are less nice dispose * * * their hah' into a loose plait on each side or liave one tugliga and one plait. Ijs. (National Mu The natives of Soiithampton Island arrange their hair in a T)niifli protruding from the forehead (sulubaut). The same dress is worn at certain feasts on Davis Strait (p. 608). For dressing the hair ivory combs are in use. two specimens of which are represented in Fig. 513. The clothing is frequently trimmed with .straps of white deerskin, : 560 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. giving it a pleasing api)earance. The edge of the women's jacket is adorned with ivory beads. Instead of these, teeth, deer's ears, foxes' ' brass bells are sometimes used. Tin. 514. Buckles, c JFrom TTiminii-nusii-n. i (National Museum, WasbiiiKtou. o, 101%; fc, 104W c, 10177; d. lOme; e. lOlflr.;/, 10207.1 i The inner jackets of the men are sometimes trimmed with beads, feathers, or leather straps, forming a collar and figures of different kinds on the back and on the breast. An amulet is worn in the middle of the back (p. 593). These ornaments and the amulet are only visible when the outer garment is taken off in the hut. . PERSONAL ADORXMENI 561 Fig. 51-1: represents a number of buckles serving to carry needle- cases or similar implements at the girdle, to which the eye is tied, the button being fastened to the implement. Head ornaments are in frequent use and are sometimes beautifully finished. Fig. 51.'). Maimer of tattooing face and wearing hair. Tlie women are in the habit of adorning their faces by tattooing. It is done, when they are about twelve years of age, by passing needle and thread covered with soot under the skin, or by jjuncture, the points of the tattooing instruments licini;- rubbed witii the same suli- stance in both cases, which is a mixture df tin' juice of A'//r(/.vand soot. or with gunpowder, by which process tiiey obtain a Iihie color. The face, arms, hands, thighs, and breasts are the parts of the body which are generally tattooed. The patterns will be seen in Figs. 515 and 510. JBnM SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS LIFE. DOMESTIC OCCUPATIONS AND AMUSEMENTS. It is winter and the natives are established in their warm snow houses. At this time of the year it is necessary to make use of the shoi-t daylight and twilight for hunting. Long before the day Ije- ginstodawn the Eskimo prepares for hunting. He rouses his liouse- mates; his wife supplies the lamp with a new wick and fresh blub- 6 ETH 36 562 THE r'ENTRAL ESKIMO. ber and the dim liglit which has been kejit burning during the night quickly brightens ujj and warms the hut. Wliile the woman is biisy preparing breakfast the man fits up his sledge for hunting. He takes the snow block which closes the cut ranee of the dwelling runni during the night out of the doorway ami jiasses through the l^w passages. Within the passage the dogs arc sleeping, tired by the fatiguL's of the day before. Though their long, heavy hair protects them from the severe cold of the Arctic winter, they like to seek shelter from the i^iercing winds in the entrance of the hut. The sledge is iced, the hai'ncsscs aiv taken out of the storeroom by the door, and the d'ogs are liarncssed to tlic sledge. Breakfast is now ready and after having taken a hearty meal of seal soup and frozen and cooked seal meat the hunter lashes the spear that stands outside of the hut upon the sledge, hangs the liarpoon line, some toggles, and his knife ovei- Ihe antlers, and starts tor tlw liunting ground. Here he waits patieiitl\- for tin- lilowing seal, sometimes until late in the evening. Meanwhile the women, who stay at home, are engaged in their do- mestic occupations, mending boots and making new clothing, or they visit one another, taking some work with them, or pass their time with games or in jjlaying with the children. While sitting at their sewing and at the same time watching their lamps and cooking the meat, they incessantly hum their favorite tunes. About noon they cook their dinner and usually prepare at the same time the meal for the returning hunters. As soon as the first sledge is heard approach- ing, the pots, which have been pushed back during the afternoon, are placed over the fire, and when the hungry men enter the hut their dinner is ready. While hunting they usually o|ien the seals caught early in the morning, to take out a piece of the llesh or liver, which they eat raw, for lunch. The cut is then temporarily fastened until the final dressing of the animal at home. In the western regions particularly the hunters fi'equently visit the depots of venison made in the fall, and the retirrn is always followed by a great feast. After the hunters reach home they first unharness their dogs and unstring the traces, which are carefully arranged, coiled up, and put away in the storeroom. Then the sledge is unloaded and the spoils are dragged through the entrance into the hut. A religious custom commands the women to leave ofi" working, and not lantil tlie seal is cut up are they allowed to resume their sewing and the prepar- ing of skins. This custom is founded on the tradition that all kinds of sea animals have risen from the fingers of their siipreme goddess, who must be propitiated after being offended by the murder of her offspring (see p. 583). The sjiear is stuck into the snow at the entrance of the house, the sledge is turned upside down, and the ice coating is removed from the runners. Tlienit is leaned against the SOCIAL LIFE— EATING. 563 wall of the- house, and at last the hunter is ready to enter. He strii^s off his deerskin jacket and slips into his sealskin coat. Tlie former is carefully cleaned of the adhering ice and snow with the snowbeater and put into the storeroom outside the house. This done, the men are ready for their dinnei', of which the women do not partake. In winter the staple food of the Eskimo is boiled seal and walrus meat, though in some parts of the western districts it is musk ox and venison, a rich and nourishing souj) being obtained by cooking tlie meat. The natives are jjarticularly fond of seal and walrus soup, which is made by mixing and boiling water, blood, and ' blubber with large i)ieces of meat. ^.^^ _ s Fig. Sir. Forks The food is not always salted, but sometimes melted sea water ice, which contains a sufficient quantity of salt, is used for cooking. Liver is generally eaten raw and is considered a tidltit. I have seen the intestines eaten only when thei e was no meat. Fig. 5:8. Ladle of imisk- nx linrn. iXationtil Aliispuni, W.-isliington. 10S82.1 } Forks (Fig. 517)' are i;sed to take the meat oiit of the kettle and the soup is generally poured out into a large c;ip. Before the in- troduction of European manufactures these vessels and dishes gen- erally consisted of whalebone. One of these has been described by Parry (I. p. 386). It was circular in form, one piece of whalebone being bt'iit iutd the ])roper shape for the sides and another flat piece of the s;iiiic iiiatiTial sewed to it for a bottom, so closely as to make it pertVftly watertight. A ladle or spoon (Fig. 518) is sometimes used in drinking it, but usually the cup is passed around, each taking a sip in turn. In the same way large pieces of meat are passed round, rach takiiii; as laige a mouthful as possible and then cutting Thrlolk til-st l-r|iiv>r-mr i figure is evidently broken, a series of knobs : 564 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. off the bit close to the lips. They all smack their lips in eating. The Eskimo drink a great deal of water, which is generally kept in vessels standing near the lamps. When the men have finished their meal the women take their share, and then all attack the frozen meat whicli is kept in the storerooms. The women are allowed to participate in this part of the meal. An enormous quantity of meat is devoured every night, and sometimes they only siispend eating when they go to bed, keeping a jjiece of meat within reach in case they awake. After dinner the seals, which liave been placed behind the lamps to thaw, are thrown upon the floor, cut up, and the spare meat and skins are taken into the storerooms. If a scarcity of food prevails in the village and a hunter lias caught a few seals, every inhabitant of the settlement receives a piece of meat and blubber, which he takes to his hut, and the successful hiiuter invites all hands to a feast. The dogs are fed every second day after dinner. For this purpose two men go to a place at a short distance from the hut, taking tlie frozen food with them, which they split with a hatchet or the point of the spear. While one is breakiiii;- the solid mass the other keeps the dogs ofp by means of the wliiii. but as soon as the food is ready they make a rush at it, and in less tliaii half a minute have swallowed their meal. No dog of a strange team is allowed to steal anything, but is kept at a distance by the dogs themselves and by the whip. If the dogs are very hungry they are harnessed to the sledge in order to prevent an attack before the men are ready. They are unharnessed after the food is prepared, the weakest first, in order to give him the best chance of picking out some good pieces. Sometimes they are fed in the house; in such a case, the food being first prepared, they are led into the hut singly; thus each receives his share. All the work being finished, boots and stockings are changed, as they must be dried and mended. The men visit one another and sjjend the night in talking, singing, gambling, and telling stories. The events of the day are talked over, success in hunting is com- pai-ed, the hunting tools requiring mending are set in order, and the lines are dried and softened. Some busy themselves in cutting new ivory implements and seal lines or in carving. They never spend the nights (|uiti' alone, but mi-i-t for social entertainment. During these visits llic heist ]ihiccs a lar.i^c lump of frozen meat and a knife on the side Ix'iicli hchinil the lamp and every one is welcome to help himself to as much as he likes. The first comers sit down on the ledge, while those entering later stand or squat in the. passage. When any one addresses the whole assembly he always turns his face to the wall and avoids facing the listeners. Most of the men take off their outer jacket in the house and they sit chatting until very late. Even the young children do not go to bed early. BOAS.] SOCIAL LIFE— OAMES. 5(55 The women sit ou the bed iu front of their lanii^s, with their legs under them, working continually on their own clothing or on that of the men, drying the wet footgear and mittens, and softening the leather by chewing and rubbing. If a bitch has a litter of pups it is their business to look after them, to keep them warm, and to feed Fig. 519. Skull used in the game ajegauug, from Ungava Bay. L. M. Turner's collection.) (National Museum, Washington. 90227.)} them regularly. Generally the pups are put into a small harness and are allowed to crawl about the side of the bed, where they are tied to the wall by a trace. Young children are always carried in their mothers' hoods, but when about a year and a half old they are 566 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. allowed to play on the bed, and are only carried by their mothers when they get too mischievous. When the mother is engaged in any hard work they are carried by the young girls. They are weaned whenabdut two yi'ais(ild, but women suckle tliciii cm. asiimally until they an- tlu'cf .Ji- Idiir >cars < time llicy aii- fre- quently IVd fi'oni thi'ir mothers" mouths. When alinut t\\cl\i> years old they begin to help their parents, the girls sewing and preparing skins, the boys accompanying their fathers in hunting expeditions. epresenting polar bear, used in the game ajegamif:. a (Jluseum fiir Vol- 9.) 6 (National Museum Washington. 3407R) -j The parents are very fond nt their cliildi-cii and treat them kindly. They are never beaten and rarely sc- tiny do not travel far, but make the first halt after about a twelve-mile journey. As the load is heavy the men and women sit on the top of the sledges only to rest. The driver waljvs alongside and the women lead the way, the dogs pulling more will- ingly if they see somebody ahead of the sledge. At night it is not unloaded, only those things being taken out which are necessary for building a small tent and for cooking. In order to j^rotect the sledge from the attacks of the dogs, the pitu (see p. 530) is taken out and fastened to an eye cut into the ice with the end of the spear. After having traveled about three days a longer halt is made ; the sledge is unloaded, the dogs are vmharnessed, and the men go out hunting in order to procure food for the dogs and for themselves. Thus they slowly proceed until they at last reach the end of their journey. Here they settle down with the friends whom they have come to visit, establish a hiit of their own, and spend a whole year with them. In the following spring thej^ retrace their journey to their own homes. Journeys of four to five himdred miles in one spring are not of rare occurrence; longer journeys, however, frequently last for years. A journey of two hundred miles, going and coming, is sometimes accomplished in one season. For such a journey they would set out in March or April, leaving all their goods behind, and live with the friends whom they visit for a month or two, returning about June. While on the visit the visitors help their friends to provide for their families. In traveling in the spring the Eskimo always use snow goggles to protect themselves from snow blindness. The modern ones (Fig. 539), which are made of wood and have a shade and a narrow slit for each eye, are very effective. The old design is represented in Fig. 530, the specimen being made of ivory. Long journeys are sometimes made in summer, several families traveling together in their boats. As, however, the open season is very short in many parts of Northeastern America, spring journeys are more frecpieiitly made. When traveling liy lioat the tent poles, skin covers, and all the household gooils aie stowed away in the bottom. The women do the pulling, three or four working at each oar, while a man sits on the stern board steering with a paddle. They move on at their leisure, 576 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. stepping whenever they are tired or when a seal is seen blowing near the boat. The kayaks are tied to the stern and towed along. Chil- dren and dogs lie about in the bottom of the boat. In the center there is a tub containing all kinds of provisions, and every now and then they take some refreshment from it. During the nights the Fig. 539. Modern f • gofrgles. of \vc (National Mnseuni. Washinp:ton. 3<1978.) tents are erected at si^itable jDoints. The natives are well acquainted with these, and, if they are not compelled by severe weather to seek shelter at the nearest point, always visit the same j^laces. These have a smootli, sloping beach, fresh water, and dry, gravelly places in which the tents are built. J i.Cumbdland Sound. SOCIAL CUSTOMS IN SUMMER. When the rays of the sun begin to be wai'mer and the roofs of tlie snow houses tumble down the natives live in a very uncomfortable way until a sufficient number of sealskins are procured to build a tent. Sometimes a family live under a roof too small to cover them BOAS] SOCIAL LIFE IN SUMMER. 577 all, though they sit as close as possible, and too low to permit them to sit upright ; but, as seals are basking everywhere on the ice, this state of affairs does not last long. The women split a number of large skins and dry them on the snow, and by the middle of May they can build a pretty large tent; but it is not until they settle permanently at the place of the summer village that the large tent is sewed and put UJ). At this seascjn salmon and venison form the staple food of the Eskimo. The old men, women, and children, who stay at the lakes or at the salmon rivers, depend abnost entirely upon this food. They lish and eat the salmon in a raw as well as in a cooked state. Birds are caught and eaten raw. The surplus salmon are split and dried on poles erected for the purpose. Deer shoulders, legs, and backs are also cut into thin pieces and dried. Sometimes the dried fish and venison are deposited in stone caches for later use, but most of it is eaten in summer, especially when the Eskimo go traveling. When the men go deer hunting they take a supply of dried salmon with them, and thus can stay out for a week or even longer. When a deer is killed it is skinned at once, the legs being slit and the belly opened. The paunch is carefully tied up, as the contents are a favor- ite dish of the Eskimo. The head, the legs, and the ribs are cut off and after being piled up the whole is covered with heavy stones, only the horns protruding from the top of the depot. The hams and the skin are generally carried to the hut at once, and, if the distance is not too great or the carcass can be reached with sledges or boats, the whole animal is brought home. Large depots are only made in tlie fall, when there is no danger of the meat spoiling. At this season the natives visit deer passes and lakes, near which they establish their huts. The tents and all the household goods are packed up in heavy bundles, some of which are carried by the dogs, the load hanging on both sides of the back; others, by men and women, being secured by one strap which passes over the forehead and by another which passes over the breast. Their strength and their perseverance in carrying heavy loads over long distances are remarkable. The social life in the summer settlements is rather different from that in winter. At this season the families do not cook their own meals, but a single one provides for the whole settlement. The day before it is her turn to cook, the woman goes to the hills to fetch shrubs for the fire. Three stones are put up near the hut as a fire- place, the opening facing the wind. The kettle is placed on the top of it and the fire is fed with shrubs and blubber. When the meal is ready the master of the house stands beside it, crying Ujo! Ujo! (boiled meat) and everybody comes out of the hut provided with a knife. The dish is carried to a level place and the men sit down around it in one circle, while the women form another. Then large ETH 37 578 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. lumps of meat are passed around, everybody cutting off a piece and taking a swallow of the soup, which is passed around in a large leather cup. These dinners, which are held in the evening after the return from the hunt, are almost always enlivened by a mimic performance. A man or an old woman sits down in the center of the circle and amuses the assembly by singing and dancing or by making faces. A favorite performance is one in which a man, with blackened face and mth a thong tied around his head, writhes and makes odd grimaces. After dinner the men sit cliatting or gambling before the huts, while the women and children amuse themselves by running about, playing at ball, or dancing. A strict religious custom forbids the Eskimo to work on the deer- skins which ;n'f n. slcdni'. dogs, kayak, boat, and tent poles of the man and the lani]) ami ]h,1s <>f the woman. The first inheritor of these articles is the ekli'st son living I BOAS. SOCIAL ORDER AND LAWS. 5^X with tlie ijareiits. Sons and daughters having Jiousehokls of their own do not participate in tlie inheritance. An elder adopted son has a preference over a younger son born of the marriage. Details of the laws which relate to inheritance are unknown to me. Sometimes men are adopted who may almost be considered serv- ants. Particularly bachelors withoiit any relations, cripples who are not able to provide for themselves, or men who have lost their sledges and dogs are found in this position. They fulfill minor occii- pations, mend the hunting implements, fit out the sledges, feed the dogs, &c. ; sometimes, however, they join the hunters. They follow the master of the house when he removes from one place to another, make journeys in order to do his commissions, and so on. The po- sition, however, is a voluntary one, and therefore these men are not less esteemed than the self dependent providers. Strangers visiting their friends for a season are generally in a sim- ilar position, though they receive a wife if the host happens to have more than one; if the friend has hunting gear, a sledge, and dogs of his own. he can arrange a separate fireplace in the hut. In summer most families have each their own tent, but in the fall from two to four join in building a house. Frequently the parents live on one side, the family of the son-in-law on the other, and a friend or relative in a small recess. Sometimes two houses have a common entrance or the passages communicate with one another. The inhabitants of both parts usually live quite independently of one another, while the oldest man of every house has some influence over his hoiisemates. If thf ilislaiicc between the winter and the summer settlement is very '^vr;[\ i;iiis whfii t]u- fulmar cari-irs 8im1u:i tu his home and she discovers lliat In- has l.r.ni-lit lici- In a \.'iy wrrtclicd tent. The nest year thi' fathi'r and a limt her, Avlioni I timl lucutiuued nowhere else, came to visit her and take her home. Tlie fulmar follows their boat and causes a heavy gale to rise which almost upsets it. The father cuts off her fingers, which are transformed into whales, seals, and ground seals. Besides, he pierces her eye and thus kills her. Then he takes the body into the boat and carries it to the shore. There he lays it on the beach and covers it with a dogskin. When the flood comes in it covers Sedna. Sedna and her father are described by the angakut (see p. 591), who sometimes visit her house or see them when both dwell among the natives, as follows: She is very large and much taller than the Inuit. In accordance with the second form of the tradition she has only one eye and is scarcely able to move. Her father is also a cripple and appears to the dying, whom he grasps with his right hand, which has only three fingers. There is a remarkable resemblance between this tradition and one related by Lyon (p. 363), who describes the religious ideas of the Iglulirmiut, more particularly the genii of one of their angakut. He says that the principal spirits are Aiviliajoq (Ay-willi-ay-oo) or Nu- liajoq (Noo-le-ay-oo), a female siDirit. and her father, Napajoq (Nap- payok) or Anautalik (An-now-ta-lig). Then he continues: Tlie former is in the fii'st place the mother, protectress, and not unfrequently the monopolist of sea animals, which she sometimes very wantonly confines below, and by that means causes a general scarcity in the upper world. When this is the case, the angakok is persuaded to pay her a visit, and attempt the release of the animals on which his tribe subsist. I know not what ceremonies he performs at the first part of the interview; but as the spell by which the animals are held lies in the hand of the enchantress, the conjuror makes some bold attempts to cut it off, and, ac- cording to his success, plenty, more or less, is obtained. If deprived of her nails, the bears obtain their freedom; amputation of the first joint liberates the netsiq (Pagomys) ; while that of the second loosens the ugjuq (Plioca). Should the knuckles be detached whole herds of walrus rise to the surface; and should the adventurous angakoq succeed in cutting through the lower part of the metacarpal bones, the monstrous whales are disenthralled and delightedly join the other creatui'es of the deep. * * * Her house is exceedingly fine, and very like a Kabluna (European) looking-glass (?) ; and, what is still more attractive to an Eskimo, it contains plenty of food. Immediately within the door of the dwelling, which has a long passage of entrance, is stationed a very large and fierce dog, which has no tail, and whose hinder quarters are black. * * * Aiviliajoq is described as being equally won- derful in her personal appearance as in her actions. She is very tall and has but one eye, which is the left, the place of the other being covered by a profusion of black 586 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. hair. She has one pigtail only, contrary to the established fashion in the upper Eskimo world, which is to wear one on each side of the face, and this is of such immense magnitude, that a man can scarcely grasp it with both hands. Its length is exactly twice that of her arm, and it descends to her knee. The hood of her jacket is always worn up. * * * Her father has but one arm, the hand of which is covered by a very large mitten of bearskin. * * * He is not larger than a boy of ten years of age. He bears the character of a good, quiet sort of person and is master of a very nice house, which, however, is not approachable, on account of the vast herds of walrus lying round it, which, with numerous bears, make a terrific howling. * * * He has nothing to eat, and does not even require it; in which particular he differs widely from his daughter, who has a most voracious appetite. I know not if he is the father of all terrestrial animals, but he is certainly their patron, and withholds them at times from the Eskimo. The name of the father, Anaiitalik (An-now-ta-lig), i. e., the man with something to cut (with a knife), is very remarkable. Besides, it is interesting that the angakoq who visits the dwelling of Nuliajoq has to cut off her hand in order to liberate the sea animals. In the tradition related in the foregoing, Sedna has another name, to wit, Uinigumisuitung, i. e., she who would not have a husband; her father, Savirqong, i. e., the man with the knife. Often he is only called Anguta, her father. It is evident that Nuliajoq is identical with Sedna. tliough some peculiarities exist in the tradition as i'clat('(l by Lyon wldcli it is rather difficult to reconcile with tlic myth as it is rcl.-iti'd amongthe Oqomiut. It seems to me tliat this dilliculty arises frcmi the mixing up of the angakoq's visit to Sedna with the tradition itself. Indeed Lyon only refers to the angakoq's visit to Nuliajoq, whom he con- siders a genius of a great angakoq, though he remarks in another place (p. 363) that she " has a boundless command over the lives and destinies of mankind." The tale of the angakoq's visit makes the tradition very similar to the Greenland myth of Arnaquagsaq, i. e. , the old woman. Accord- ing to Cranz (p. 264) and to Rink (p. 40) this spirit has her abode in the depth of the ocean. She represents the source of nourishment, supiDlying the physical wants of mankind. She sits in her dwelling in front of a lamp, beneath which is placed a vessel which receives the oil that keeps flowing down from the lamp. From this vessel, as well as from the dark interior of her hut, she sends out all the animals which serve for food, but in certain cases withholds the supply, thus causing want and famine. The reason for thus withholding the supply was that certain filthy and noxious parasites fastened them- selves upon her head, of which she could only be relieved by an angakoq. Then she could be induced again to send out the animals for the benefit of man. In going to her he (the angakoq) had first to pass the Arsissut and then to cross an abyss, in which, according to the earliest authors, a wheel as slippery as ice was constantly BOAS] ORIGIN OF WALRUS AND REINDEER. 587 turning around; then, having safely passed a boiling kettle with seals in it, he arrived at the house, in front of which watch was kept by terrible animals, sometimes described as seals, sometimes as dogs; and, lastly, within tlic limisr' passage itself, he had to cross an abyss by means of a brid^'' as n.ii rtj\r as a knife edge. About the same tali' is W mnd among the Baffin Land tribes ; accord- ing to Captain Spicer. of Groton, Conn., she is called Nanoquagsaq by the Akuliarmiut. She is visited by the angakut, who liberate the sea animals by subduing her or rather by depriving her of a charm by which she restrains the animals. I am inclined to think that the form in which Lyon gives this tra- dition is not quite correct, but is a mixture of the Sedna myth and that of the angakoq's visit to Arnaquagsaq. This seems the more l^robable from a Greenland tale which Dr. Rink kindly communicated to me, in which it is related that tlie grandfather of Arnaquagsaq cut off her fingers, which were changed into sea animals. For this reason it is most probable that Arnaquagsaq, Sedna, and Nuliajoq proceed from the same myth, tiiough the traditions differ from one another as they are related by the travelers. In the my- tliology of the central tribes this character has a much more decided influence upon their religious belief than the Arnaquagsaq of the Greenlanders seems to have had. The myth of Sedna is confused with another which treats of the origin of tlie Europeans and of the Adlet (see jj. 037). The legends are in part almost identical. Sedna orders her dog to gnaw oft" her father's feet; Uinigumisuitung's children maim their grandfather in the same way; and, besides, Sedna's st^cond name is also Uinigumi- suitung. In both tales the fathci' is lallcil Savirqong. In Lyon's Private Journal (p. 363) an inipurtant statement is found to the effect that the dog which protects Nuliajoq's dwelling is by some natives called her husband, by others merely her dog, but that he is generally considcri'd the father of Erqigdlit (identical with Adlet, p. 637) and Qadluiiait (Klurdpfans). Finally, I must rocni'd tlie legend of the origin of the walrus and the reindeer, which is closely related to the Sedna tradition. I could never learn any other reason why the use of sea animals and reindeer at the same i)ei-ind should be forbidden, except tlie fear df dfTending Sedna. She is repres.Mile.l as disliking the d<...r. wiiieli a.'cui-.lingly are not found in hei- Imuse. Any reason for this dislike is nul given. The Akuliarmiut, however, have a tradition that a woman, most probably Sedna herself, created the walrus and the reindeer during a famine. She opened her belly and took out a small piece of fat which she carried up the hills where it was transformed by a magic spell into a reindeer. As soon as she saw the animal she became frightened and ordered it to run away, but the deer turned upon her and would not go; then she became angry and knocked out its teeth. 588 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. It turned round at once, but before it could leave she gave it a kick which lopped off its tail. Thus it happened that the deer is deficient as to certain teeth and has scarcely any tail. The woman, however, continued to hate the deer. Afterward she descended to the beach and threw another piece of fat into the water. It was transformed into a walrus, which swam away at once. (According to a com- munication of Captain Spicer.) The form of this tradition as related by the Akudnirmiut is some- what different. During a famine a woman (I could not learn whether she was identical with Sedna or not) carried her boots to the hills and transformed them by magic into deer, which spread all over the country. Then she carried her breeches to the sea, where they were changed into walrus. The first deer, however, had large tusks and no horns, while the walrus had horns and no tusks. The Eskimo soon found that this was very dangerous for the hunter, as the deer killed pursuers with their tusks, while the walrus upset the boats. Therefore an old man transferred the horns to the deer and the tusks to the walrus. It is very jDrobable that this woman was Sedna, as the Eskimo af- firm that the observances referring to walrus and deer are commanded by Sedna and as the first tradition accounts for her dislike of the deer. I could not find any trace of the ti-adition reported by Lyon, that Anautalik, Nuliajoq's father, is the protector of land animals, nor of that of a being to whom he refers by the name of Pukimna (de- rived from pukiq, the white parts of a deerskin), who lives in a fine country far to the west and who is the imnu'diate protectress of deer, which animals roam in immense herds around her dwelling. Sedna is the mistress of one of the countries tn wliioli the souls go after death. It has been related in the foregoing tradition of Sedna and the fulmar that she descended to Adlivun; since that time she has been the mistress of the country, and when invoked as such has the name of Idliragijenget. She has a large house, in which no deerskins are found. There she lives with her father, each occuj^y- ing one side of it. The father, who is unable to move, lies on the ledge and is covered with old skins. In the entrance across the threshold lies Sedna's dog watching her house. Like her, the father has only one eye, and he never moves from his place while in the house. The dead, who are seized by Sedna's father, Anguta, are carried to this dwelling. The dog moves aiside only a little, just enough to allow the souls to pass. They have to stay in this dismal abode during a whole year, lying by the side oi Anguta, who pinches them. The happy land is heaven and is called Qudlivitn (tlie uppermost ones). It abounds witli deer, which are easily caught, and no ice or snow ever visits it. : BOAS.] RELIGIOUS IDEAS. 589 Tlie Oqomiut and the Akudnirmiut make a distinction between Adliviin and Adliparmiut. Adlivun means ' ' those who live beneath us;" Adliparmiut, "the inlia1)itaiit^; of the country farthest beh)w us;" and the same difference exists hctwi'cn Qudlivun and Qudlijiarmiut. Though these names intimate tlic ]in.iljability that the Eslvimo l)elieve in a series of places, located in a descending scale, each below the other, I could not find any more detailed description of the concei^tion. Hall's observations agree fairly with my own. He says (I, p. 524): Qudliparmiut (heaven) is upward. Everybody happy ther >. All the time light: no snow, no ice, no storms; always pleasant; no trouble; never tired: sing and play all the time— all this to continue without end. Adliparmiut (heU) is downward. Ahvays dai-k there. No sun : trouble there continually ; snow flying all the time, terrible storms; cold, very cold; and a great deal of ice there. All who go there must always remain. All Inuit who have been good go to Qudliijarmiut: that is, who have been kind to the poor and hungry, all who have been happy while living on this earth. Any one who has been killed by accident, or who has committe 1 suicide, certainly goes to the happy place. All Inuit who have been bad— that is, unkind one to another— all who have been unhappy while on this earth, Avill go to Adliparmiut. If an Inung kills another because he is mad at him, he will certainly go to Adlip irmiut. Kumlicu's r(Miiai'l;si>ii 1 his subject, as well as on other ethnographic subjects, arc unt tiiist wort liy. He has transferred Greenland tales to Cumherland Sound, tliough the ti-aditions of these tribes differ materially one from the other. I tried hard to corroborate his state- ments concerning the amaroq and the toruarsuq, concerning certain customs, &c. , and am convinced that they are totally unknown to all the natives of Baffin Land from Nugumiut to Tununirn. Kumlien states that the better land is below the surface of the earth and that those who are killed by violence descend after death. According to Hall and to replies to my own inquiries, it is quite the reverse. Lyon's report is extremely interesting, particularly his description of the stages of the nether world, of which I could only find a scanty hint in the names. He says (p. 373) There are two places appointed to receive the souls of the good: one of these is in the center of the earth, the other in qilaq, or heaven. To the latter place, such as are drowned at sea, starved to death, murdered, or killed by walruses or bears, are instantly wafted, and dwell in a charming country, which, however, has never been seen by any angakoq. * * * The place of souls in the world below is called Adli generally; but there are, properly, four distinct states of blessedness, and each rank has a world to itself, the lowest land being the last and best, which all hope to reach. The day on which a good person dies and is buried, the soul goes to a land immediately under the visible world; and, still descending, it arrives the second day at one yet lower; the third day it goes farther yet; and on the fourth it finds, " below the lowest deep, a deeper still. " This is the " good land," and the soul which reaches it is for ever happy. The ttoee first stages are bad uncomfortable places for in each the sky is so close to the earth, that a man cannot walk erect : yet these regions are inhabited : and the good soul, in passmg through them, sees multitudes of the dead, who, having lost : 690 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. their way, or, not being entitled to tlie " good land,'" are always wandering about and in great distress. Whetherthe.se unhappy souls are in purgatory or not, I was un- able to learn; but they suffer no other pain than what we would call the " fidgets." In the lowest Adli a perpetual and delightful summer prevails. The belief of these tribes undoubtedly is that all who die by ac- cident or by violence and women who die in childbirth are taken to the upper world. I never heard a different opinion expressed by any native. I do not know whether they believe in a series of upjjer worlds similar to the nether worlds of the Iglulirmiut, but it is prob- able, from the names Qudlivun and Qudliparmiut. In the Greenland tradition the upper world is represented as a country with hills and valleys, over which the solid blue sky is expanded. Sedna of the Oqomiut lives in Adlivun. and here the souls must stay one year after death. Everybody who dies from disease or who has offended Sedna by infringing her orders is taken to her. The Eskimo are in great fear of the terrors of her abode. Murderers and offenders against human laws, after they have entered Sedna's house, will never leave it; the other souls, however, are taken to the Adlipar- miut, where they live comparatively at their ease, although they are not nearly so blessed as the Qudliparmiut. They hunt whales and walrus and are almost always troiibled by ice and snow. The older aiithors on Greenland mythology state that the concei)- tions of the natives do not coincide (Cranz). According to one tra- dition the good land is below, and tornarsuq, the supreme tornaq, is master of it. Here continuous summer prevails and there is plenty of fresh water, with a profusion of game. Only those peojile are allowed to come here who have been good hunters and workers, who have accomplished great exploits, caught many seals, who have suffered much, or haA^e died by violence or in childbirth. The souls of the deceased miist slide for five days, or even longer, down a steep rock, which has become quite slii^pery from the blood which has been sprinkled over it. Those who have been-lazy and unfit for working goto the upper world, where they suffer from scarcity of food. Par- ticularly tin' bad and witches are taken to this country, where they are toriiii'iifi'd li\- ra.vens. Anotlirr tradition places the good land in heaven. The souls travel on the rainbow to the moon, near which they find a large lake abounding with fowls and fish. Rink gives the following statement on this subject (p. 37) After death, human souls either go to the upper or to the under world. The latter is decidedly to be preferred, as being warm and rich m food. There are the dwell- ings of the happy dead called arsissut,—viz, those who live in abundance. On the contrary, those who go to the upper world will suffer from cold and famine; and these are called the arssartut. or ball players, on account of then- playing at ball with a walrus head, which gives rise to the auroi-a borealis. While the Iglulirmiut believe that the soul leaves the body imme- diately after death and descends to Adli, the tribes of Davis Strait BOAS] RELIGIOUS IDEAS. 591 suppose that it lingers three days around the body, unable to leave it. Then it descends to Sedna"s house. Diiring its stay in Adlivun the soul is called tupilaq, which is represented by the figure of a man with wide, loose, shabby clothing. It is looked upon as a malevolent spirit, frequently roaming around the villages. The tupilaq is not allowed to enter the houses, and if the angakoq perceives and an- noiinces his presence no one would dare to leave the hoiises. His touch kills men at once, the sight of him causes sickness and mischief. As soon as the soul has become an adliparniio, it is at rest and ceases to be feared as a tupilaq. It is worth remarking that the Greenlanders designate with the name of tupilaq a siipernatural being made by men for the piirpose of destroying their enemies (Rink, j). 53). It is composed of various parts of different animals and is enabled to act in the shape of any of them at will. ^ I have not found any trace of this idea among the Central Eskimo. THE TORXAIT AND THE ANGAKUT. A consideration of the religious ideas of the Eskimo shows that the tornait, the invisible rulers of every object, are the most remark- able beings next to Sedna. Everything has its inua (owner), which may become the genius of man who thus obtains the qualities of angakuniru. I am not quite sure that every inua can become the tornaq of a man, though with the Greenlanders this was possible. I learned of three kinds of spirits only, who are protectors of angakut: those in the shape of men, of stones, and of bears. These spirits enable the angakut to have intercourse with the others who are considered malevolent to mankind, and though those three sj^ecies are kind to their angakut they would hurt strangers who might hap- pen to see them. The bear seems to be the most powerful among tlii-se spirits. The tornait of the stones live in the larn'e bowlders scait.'iv.l over the country. The Eskimo believe i hat iliesc rocks are liulldw and form a nice house, the entrance of which is mdy visible to the angakoq whose genius lives in the stone. The tornaq is a woman with only one eye, in the middle of the brow. Another kind of tornaq lives in the stones that roll down tlir hills in s]iring when the snow begins to melt. If a native happens to ineri such a stone, which is about to become his tornaq. thi- htttiT addresses him: "I jumped down in long leaps from my place on the cliii. As the snow melts, as water is formed on the hills, I jump down." Then it asks the native whether he is willing to have it for his tornaq, and if he answers in the afBrmative it accompanies him, wabbling along, as it has no legs. The bear tornaq is represented as a huge animal without any hair except on the points of the ears and of the tail and at the mouth. If a man wishes to obtain a bear for his tornaq he must travel all alone : 592 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. to the edge of the land floe and summon the bears. Then a large herd will approach and frighten him almost to death. He falls down at once. Should he fall backward he would die at once. If he falls upon his face, however, one bear out of the herd steps forward and asks him if he wishes him to become his tornaq. He then recovers and takes the bear for his spirit and is accompanied by him on the return journey. On the way home, they pass a seal hole and the bear captures the animal for his master. The Eskimo is now a great angakoq, and wlienever he wants help he is sure to get it from his bear. The Eskimo do not make images of the tornait or other supernat- ural beings in whom they believe, but use to a great extent amulets (armgoaq), some of which are given by the tornait, while others are inherited. The most common varieties of amulets are the feather of an owl, a bear's tooth, and the like, which are always worn on the middle of the back of the inner jacket. Rare minerals (e. g., iron) sewed up in a piece of skin are sometimes used for the same pur- pose. A small part of the first gown worn by a child is considered a powerful amulet and is preserved for this reason. It is worn at the point of the hood at a great feast celebrated every fall (see pp. G04, 611) and is called koukparmiutang. Lyon (p. 367) gives the following account of the use of amulets in Iglulik Bones and teeth of animals, hanging as solitary pendants, or strung in great numbers, have peculiar virtues, and the bones of the feet of the kabhaqdjuq, which I imagine to be the wolverine, are the most in request. The front teeth of musk oxen are considered as jewels, while the grinders, one or two together, are much esteemed as tassels for the strings used to tie up the breeches of the women. Eye teeth of foxes are sometimes seen to the number of hundreds, neatly perforated and arranged as a kind of fringe round caps or dresses, and even the bones and teeth of fish have their value. Leather cases of the size of a quill, and containing small pieces of deer's or other flesh, are frequently attached to the caps or hoods of children, but whether to ren- der them exjiert hunters, or to preserve their health. 1 could not discover. I was assured that broken spear heads, and other equally cumbrous pendants, worn round the necks of young girls, were spells for the preservation of their chastity, while the same ornaments caused the women to be prolific. The principal office of the aiiy-akut is t<> find Dtit the reason of sick- ness and death or of any otlicr nnsfcirtiiiii' visiliiiL;- the natives. The Eskimo believes that he is obliged tu answer the angakoq's questions truthfully. The lamps being lowered, the angakoq strips off his oitter jacket, pulls the hood over his head, and sits down in ^ the back part of the hut facing the wall. He claps his hands, which are covered with mittens, and, shaking his whole body, utters sounds which one would hardly recognize as human. Thus he invokes his tornaq, singing and shouting alternately, the listeners, who sit on the edge of the bed, joining the chorus and BOAS.] RELIGIOUS IDEAS. 593 answering his questions. Then he asks the sit-k jjerson: " Did you work Av^hen it was forbidden?" "Did you eat when you were not aUowed to eat?" And if the poor fellow happens to remember any transgression of such laws, he cries: "' Yes, I have worked."' '•Yes. I have eaten." And the angakoq rejoins "I thought so" and issues his commands as to the manner of atonement. These are manifold. Exchange of wives between two men or adoption of a sick child by another family in order to save its life are frequently demanded. The inhabitants of a village are forbid- den to wash themselves for a number of days, to scrape the ice from the windows, and to clean their urine pots before sunrise. Some- times the angakoq commands that the clothing be thrown away or gives regulations for diet, particularly forbidding the eating of veni- son, working on deerskins, filing iron, &c. Disorders of women are considered as a punishment for the neg- lect to observe the regulations referring to their behavior at certain periods, which regulations were established by Sedna. The same is stated by Lyon (p. :5G:5). A method of finding out the reason of a disease is by " head lifting." A thong is tied round the head of the sick person or of a relative, who must lie down on the bed, the angakoq holding the thong. Then he asks his tornaq the reason of the sickness and the remedy. If the tornaq answers a question of the angakoq in the affirmative the head is easily lifted. In the other case it feels so heavy that he is unable to move it. Another method is by lifting a boot or a stone, which has been placed under the pillow of the patient. The angakut be- lieve that the boot or stone becomes heavy and cannot be lifted when the tornaq answers their incantations. At the beginning of some of their performances I have observed the angakoq crawling about in the passage of the hut, howling and shouting, while those inside kejit on singing. Then he entei-ed the hut and continued the incantations on the back part of the bed. Sometimes their cure for sickness is lajdng a piece of burning wick u]Min the (lisi^isod ])art of the bodv and blowing it u]) into the air or nu.ivlybl..\viii,-iiiH,nit. Sturm and liad weather, when lasting along time and causing want of food, are 'conjured by making a large whip of seaweed, stepping to the beach, and striking out in the direction whence the wind blows, at the same tinif cryint; Taba (It is enough). A great number of the i»tiMiiiiaii(i's.)f the angakiit require much skill andexpertness. Thus in iiiv,,kiiigatornaq or flying to a distant place they can imitate a distant v(jice by a sort of ventriloquism. In these performances they always have the lamps extinguished and hide themselves behind a screen hung up in the back part of the hut. The tornaq, being invoked, is heard approaching and shaking the hut. The angakoq believes that it is unroofed and Hies with 6 ETH .'SS 594 '•'"''' CKN'THAl. ESKIMO. his spirit to their place of destiiuition. to propitiate the wrath of a hostile tornaq, to visit the moon or Sedna's dismal abode. Part of their performances might almost be called juggling. Hall (II, p. 101) describes one of these performances: The angakoq (Ar-too-a) now made use of three wabnis spears. One of these he thrust into the wall of the snow house, and * * * ran with it outside of the igdlu [house] where his ejaculations were responded to by the party inside with the cries of " Atte ! Atte !" [Go on ! Go on ! ]. Returning with his spear to the door, he had a severe wrestling match with four of the men. who overcame him. But com- ing again into the central igdlu, and having the lights which had been at the first patted down, relit, he showed the points of two spears apparently covered with fresh blood, which he held up in the presence of all. The performance of the angakut in the Sedna feast, which will be described hereafter (p. 604) is quite astonishing. Some pierce their bodies with harpoons, evidently having bladders filled with blood fastened under their jackets beforehand, and bleed profusely as they enter the hut. (See Appendix. Note 5.) A memorable ceremony has been described by Hall (I, p. 469): I heard a loud shout just outside [the hut]. As quick as thought, the Eskimo sprang for the long knives lying around, and hid them wherever they could find places. * * * Immediately there came crawling into the low entrance to the hut a man with long hair completely covering his face and eyes. He remained on liis knees on the floor of the hut, feeling round like a blind man at each side of the entrance, back of the firelight, the place where meat is usually kept, and where knives may generally be found. Not finding any, the angakoq slowly withdrew. * * * If he had found a knife he would have stabbed himself in the breast. It is one of their favorite tricks to have their hands tied up and a thong fastened around their knees and neck. Then they begin invoking their tornaq, and all of a sudden the body lies motionless while the soul flies to any place which they wish to visit. After returning, the thongs are found untied, though they had been fast- ened by firm knots. The resemblance of this performance to the experiments of modern spiritualists is sti-iking. The angakut use a saovd l.-in^uai;-!- in tlicir songs and incantations. A great number of woi-ds liase a symlnilic meaning, but others are' old roots, which have been lost from common use in the lapse of time. These archaic words are very interesting from a linguistic point of view. Indeed, some are found which are still in use in Greenland, though l(jst in the other dialects, and others which are only used in Alaska. I ought to add here that most of the angakut themselves believe in their performances, as by continued shouting and invoking they fall into an ecstasy and really imagine they accomplish the flights and see the spirits. The angakoq, who must be paid at once for curing a sick person, receives pretty large fees for services of this kind. BOAK] KEI.KJKJl-S IDEAS. 595 Altliuugli witcliciat't uccupied a promiueut jilace iu tlie belief of the Greenlanders I could only find very faint traces of it in Baffin Land, to wit, the opinion that a man has the power of injuring a dis- tant enemy by some means the details of which I did not learn. I shall add here the numerous regulations referring to eating and working, many of which are connected with the Sedna tradition, and the observance of which is watched by the angakut. As all sea ani- mals have originated from her fingers the Eskimo must make an atonement for every animal he kills. When a seal is brought into the hut the women must stop working until it is cut up. After the capture of a ground seal, wali'us, or whale they must rest for three days. Not all kinds of work, however, are forbidden, for they are allowed to mend articles made of sealskin, but they must not make anything new. For instance, an old tent cover may be enlarged in order to build a larger hut, but it is not permitted to make a new one. Working on new deerskins is strictly forbidden. No skins of this kind obtained' in summer may be prepared before the ice has formed and the first seal is caught with the harpoon. Later, as soon as the first walrus is caught, tlic wc.rk must stci)i again until the next fall. For this I'casoii all laiiiilics arc ca^;!'!- \i< tiiiisli the work on deerskins as quickly as possililc. as the walrusiiig season is not commenced until that is done. The laws prohibiting contact with deer and sea animals at the same time are very strict. According to the Eskiiim tliciiisch-es Sedna dislikes the deer (probably for some reasdn rniiinMtrd witli the tra- dition of its origin,) and therefore they are iml alldweil to bring it in contact with her favorites. The meat of the whale, seal, or walrus must not be eaten on the same day with venison. It is not i^ermitted that 1 II itl L s( )rts of meat lie on the floor of the hut or behind the lamps at till' same time. If a man who has eaten venison in the morning liapp(^iis t( I enter a hut in which seal meat is being cooked he is allowed to eat venison on the bc^d. Init it must be wrajjped up before being car- ried into the hut and he must take care to keep clear of the floor. Before changing from one food to the other the Eskimo miist wash themselves. For the same reason walrus hide must not be carried to Lake Nettilling, which is considered the domain of deer. A similar custom requires that the Ukusiksalirmiut carry salmon into a hut by a separate entrance, for it miist not pass through the same one as seal oil. Besides, the fish must only be cooked at the distance of a day's journey from the place where they have been caught. If eaten on the spot they must be eaten raw (Klutschak. p. 158). Their customs referring to hunting are manifold. When skinning a deer they must not break a single bone : then they cut oft' bits of different parts of the animal and bury them in the ground or under stones (Hall I. p. 386). I have never noticed this custom myself. 51)6 THE CENTRA). ESKIMO. On tlu' wi'si slnjic of Hi dsou Bay dogs are not allowed to gnaw deer bones (tiii-ini; the deer hunting season or seal bones during the seal- ing season (Klutschak, p. 12o). Deer bones must not be broken while walrus are hunted (Hall II, p. 155). When the men go out hunting in their kayaks the women of the Aivillirmiut take a cup down to the shore and leave it there, believ- ing that it will bring luck (Hall II, p. 103). On Davis Strait they throw a piece of seal's blubber on their husband's kayak when he is about to go hunting (Kumlien, p. 45). After the capture of a whale the Aivillirmiut are not allowed to burn shrubs, but use bones of the whale instead, which are mixed with blubber (Hall II, p. 364). If an animal that is with young is killed the fetus must not be taken and iised for food (Hall II, p. 253). When a bear is caught the Nugu- miut and the Oqomiut are accustomed to fasten its bladder to a stick which is placed upright near the hut or encampment for three days. When a house is deserted the Aivillirmiut are in the habit of carrying all the bones lying inside to some distance and putting them upon the ice (Hall II. p. 175). If they intend to move to a place some distanci' nAvay iliey are in the habit of burying some of their clothing. Klutscliak observed this custom among the Netchil- lirmiut ; I myscll'. among the Akudnirmiut. If a great number of families leave a village those who remain build new houses, as they believe that they would otherwise have bad luck in hunting. A great number of regulations refer to the behavior of women during menstruation. They are not allowed to eat raw meat, they must cook in separate pots, and are not permitted to join in festivals, being looked upon as unclean during this period. Customs referring to childbirth and sickness will be found further on (see p. 609). When a traveling party visits a neighboring tribe it is obliged to adopt the customs and regulations of the latter. This accoimt does not by any means include all the peculiar cus- toms of these people, for they are so numerous and the difficulty of finding out anything pertaining to this subject is so great that it is probable that the greater part of them have escaped notice. I shall also mention a few customs that are peculiar to certain places. At Qeqertelung, east of Naujateling, in Cumberland Sound, the Eskimo dig potstone, but must biiy it from the rock : that is, having dug out a piece, they must give the rock something in exchange; for example, ivory carvings, beads, food, or the like. At Arligaulik, near Wager River, the Eskimo address a large rock and bid it farewell when passing (Hall II, p. 174). In Cumberland Sound there is a cape called Iliqimisarbing, i. e., the place of la'adsliaking. The place is very dangerous, as heavy squalls swee]) down the steep rocks and slides frequently occur. Therefore the natives never pass it withoul shaking their heads, at the same time uttering a deep murmur. BOAS.] RELIGIOUS IDEAS. 597 Besides tlie tornait already mentioned, a number of otliers are known which cannot become genii of men. A spirit of the sea, Kalopaling or Mitiling, is described in a tradition (see p. (520). In Erd- mann's Worterbuch des Labradordialectes "Mitiling" is translated Gespenst, i. e., ghost. No doubt it is the name of the same spirit or at least of a similar one which is recognized among the northern tribes, the literal translation being " with eider ducks. "' Another spirit of which the natives are in great fear is Qiqirn, a phantom in the shape of a huge dog almost without hair. Like the bear which has been alluded to, it has hair only at the mouth, the feet, and the points of the ears and the tail. If it comes near dogs or men they fall into fits and only recover when Qiqirn has left. It is exceed- ingly afraid of men and runs away as soon as an angakoq descries it. A very remarkable tornaq is the qaggim inua, i. e. , master of the dancing house. The natives build large houses for feasting, singing, and dancing, which are devoted to spirits. This tornaq has the shape of a bandy legged man, his knees being bent outward and for- ward. He has not a single hair upon his entii-e body and no bones at the back of his head. To touch him would result in immediate death (see p. G3G). Besides these tornait, more powerful supernatural beings are known, who are "owners" (inua) of the stars and constellations and of mete- orologic processes. Moon and sun are considered brother and sister, and in this the tradition of the Central Eskimo exactly corresponds with that of the Greenlanders. It is even known among the Eskimo of Point Barrow (Simpson, p. 940). From Repulse Bay (Aivillir- miut) a few scanty traces of this tradition are recorded by Rae (I, p. 79). He relates as follows: It is said that many years ago, not long after the creation of the world, there was a mighty conjiirer, who gained so much power that at last he raised himself up into the heavens, taking with him his sister (a beautiful girl) and a fire. To the latter he added great quantities of fuel, which thus formed the sun. For some time lie and his sister lived in gieat harmony, but at last they disagreed, and he, in addi- tion to maltreating the lady in many ways, at last scorched the side of her face. She had suffered patiently all sorts of indignities, but the spoiling of her beauty was not to be borne ; she therefore ran away from him and formed the moon, and con- tinues so until this day. Her brother is still in chase of her, but although he gets near, he wQl never overtake her. When it is new moon , the burnt side of the face is towards us ; when full moon, the reverse is the case. The following form of the legend, which I received from some Akudnirmiut and Oqomiut, is almost identical with the Greenland one: In olden times a brother and his sister lived in a large village in which there was a singing house, and every night the sister with her playfellows enjoyed thiMiisi'he's in this house. Once upon a time, when all the lamps in tln' .si n^ing house were extinguished, somebody came in and outragid lur. She was unable to recognize him; but 598 '1"HK CENTRAL ESKIMO. slio Tilacki'iied her liauds with soot and when the same again hap- |iiii(il liisiiicared the man's back with it. When the lamps were re- li,i;ht((l slic s;iw that the violator was her brother. In great anger she sharpened a knife and cut off her breasts, which she offered to him, saying: "Since you seem to relish me, eat this."' Her brother fell into a passion and she fled from him, running about the room. She seized a piece of wood (with which the lamps are kept in order) which was burning brightly and rushed out of the house. The brother took another one, but in his pursuit he fell down and extinguished his light, which continued to glow only faintly. Gi'adually both were lifted up and continued their course in the sky, the sister being transformed into the sun, the brother into the moon. Whenever the new moon first a^ipears she sings: Aningaga tapika, takii-n tapika qaumidjatedlirpoq ; qaumatitaudle. Aningaga tapika, tikipoq tapika. (My brother up there, the moon up there begins to shine ; he will be bright. My brother up there, he is coming up there.) THE FLIGHT TO THE MOON. There exists another tradition in regard to the spirit of the moon, which is also known to the Greenlanders. While in the first tradi- tion the moon is a man carrying a glowing light, in the other she is the moon man's house (Rink, p. 440). The legend, as told by the Oqomiut and Akudnirmiut, is the narrative of the flight of an ang- akoq to the moon and is as follows: A mighty angakoq, who had a bear for his tornaq, resolved to pay a visit to the moon. He sat down in the rear of his hut. turning his back toward the lamps, which had been extinguished. He had his hands tied up and a thong fastened around his knees and neck. Then he summoned his tornaq, which carried him rapidly through the air and brought him to the moon. He observed that the moon was a house, nicely covered with white deerskins, which the man in the moon used to dry near it. On each side of the entrance was the upper jjortion of the body of an enormous walrus, which threatened to tear in pieces the bold intruder. Though it was dangerous to pass by the fierce animals, the angakoq, by help of his tornaq, succeeded in entering the house. In the passage he saw the only dog of the man of the moon, which is called Tirie'tiang and is dappled white and red. On entering the main room he ijerceived, to the left, a small additional building, in which a beautiful woman, the sun. sat before her lamp. As soon as she saw the angakoq entering she blew her fire, behind the blaze of which she hid herself. The man in the moon came to meet him kindly, stepping from the seat on the ledge and bidding the stranger welcome. Behind the lamps great heaps of venison and seal meat were piled u]). but the man of tlie moon did not yet offer him any- BOAS.I FLIGHT TO THE MOON. 599 thijig. He said: "My wife, Ululiernang, will soon enter and we will perform a dance. Mind that you do not laugh, else she will slit open your belly with her knife, take out your intestines, and give them to my ermine which lives in yon little house outside." Before long a woman entered carrying an oblong vessel in which lier ulo (see p. 518) lay. She piit it on the fleor and stooped forward, turning the vessel like a whirligig. Then she commenced dancing, and when she turned her back toward the angakoq it was made mani- fest that she was hollow. She had no back, backbone, or entrails, but only lungs and heart. The man joined her dance and. their attitudes and grimaces looked so funny that the angakoq could scarcely keep from laughing. But just at the right moment he called to mind the warnings of the man in the moon and rushed out of the house. The man cried after him, " Uqsureliktaleqdjuin " ("Provide yovirself with your large white bear tornaq").' Thus he escaped unhurt. Upon another visit he succeeded in mastering his inclination to laugh and was hospitably received by the man after the performance was finished. He showed him all around the house and let him look into a small additional building near the entrance. There he saw large herds of deer apparently roaming over vast plains, and the man of the moon allowed him to choose one animal, which fell immediately through a hole upon the earth. In another building he saw a profusion of seals swimming in an ocean and was allowed to pick out one of these also. At last the man in the moon sent him away, when his tornaq carried him back to his hut as quickly as he had 'left it. During his visit to the moon his body had lain motionless and soulless, but now it revived. The thongs with which his hands had been fastened had fallen down, though they had been tied in firm knots. The angakoq felt almost exhausted, and when the lamps were relighted he related to the eagerly listening men his adventures during his flight to the moon. It is related in the course of this tradition that the man in the moon has a qaumat, some kind f)f light or fire, but I could not reach a satisfactory understanding of the meaning of this word. It is derived from qauq (daylight) and is used in Greenland for the moon herself. Among the Eskimo of BafiBn Land it is only employed in the angakoq language, in which the mr[XKi, lie jprDvides himself with. 600 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. KADLU THE THUNDERER. It is said that three sisters make the lightning, the thunder, and the rain. The names of two of them are Ingnirtung (the one who strikes the fire) and Udluqtung (the one who rubs the skins), whose second name is Kadlii (thunder), while that of the third I could not ascertain. They live lit a lari^v lumst' tin- wmIIs nf which are sup- ported by whale ribs. It stamls in the \:\r wcsl, at a great distance from the sea, as Kadlu and in-r sisti-rs du nut like to go near it. If an Eskimo should hapi^en to enter the house he must hasten away or Ingnirtung will immediately kill him with her lightning. Even the stonis arc afi'aid of her and jump down the hills whenever they see tlirlii;litniii,L;- and hear the thunder. Thefacesof the sisters are en- tirely lilack and they wear no clothes at all. (?) Ingnirtungmakes the lightning by striking two red stones together (flint). Kadlu makes the thunder by rubbing sealskins and singing. The third sister makes the rain by urinating. They procure food by striking reindeer with the lightning, which singes their skins and roasts their flesh. The Akudnirmiut say that beyond Iglulik, on the continent of America, a large tribe of Eskimo live whom they call Kaki'joq. The women of the tribe are said to have rings tattooed round their eyes. These natives offer the dried skins of a species of small seals to Kadlu, who uses them for making the thunder. FEASTS, RELIGIOUS AND SECULAR. The Eskimo have some very interesting feasts, most of which are closely connected with their religious notions. In summer feasts are celebrated in the open air, but in winter a house, called qaggi, or, as we may call it, singing house, is built for that purpose. O Married women Unmarried women Men • children Fig. 531. Diagram showing interior of qaggi or singing house among eastern tribes. The plan of the house which is iised by the eastern tribes is repre- sented in Fig. .i.'Jl. It is a large snow dome about fifteen feet in : ["HR SINGING HOUSE. GUI height ami twenty feet in diameter. withoi;t any lining. In the center there is a snow pillar five feet high, on which the lamps stand. When the inhabitants of a village assemble in this build- ing for singing and dancing the married women stand in a row next the wall. The unmarried women form a circle inside the former, while the men sit in the innermost row. Tlu' i-liildrcn staml in two groujjs, one at each side of the door. When llic lia^t hr-ins, a man takes up the drum (kilaut), which will be descriln'il prcsenlly. steps into the open space next the door, and begins singing and dancing. Among the stone foundations of Niutang, in Kingnait (Cumberland Sound), there is a qaggi biiilt on the same plan as the snow structure. Probabl,y it was covered with a snow roof when in use. IV B Fig. 532. Plan of Hudson Bay qaggi or singing house. iFrom Hall U, p. t20.) Hall gives the plan of the Hudson Bay qaggi (Fig. 5'32), a copy of which is here introduced, as well as his description of the drum (Fig. 5:53), which I have never seen made (Hall II, p. flO) The drum is made from the skin of the deer [or sealj, which is stretched over a hoop made of wood, or of bone from tlie fin of a whale, by the use of a strong, braided cord of sinew passed around a groove on the outside. The hoop is about 2i inches wide, 1| inches thick, and 3 feet in diameter, the whole instrument weighing about 4 poilnds. The wooden drumstick, 10 inches in length and 3 inches in diame- ter, is called a kentun. * * * The deerskin which is to be the head of the instmment is kept frozen when not in use. It is then thoroughly saturated with water, drawn over the hoop, and tem- porarily fastened in its place by a piece of sinew. A line of heavy, twisted sinew, about 50 feet long, is now wound tightly on the groove on the outside of the hoop, binding down the skin. This cord is fastened to the handle of the kilaut [drum], which is made to turn by the force of several men (while its other end is 002 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. held firmly), and the line eased out as required. To do this a man sits on the bed- plat orm, " having one or two turns of the line about his body, which is encased in furred deerskins, and empaled by four upright pieces of wood." Tension is secured by using a round stick of wood as a lever on the edge of the skin, drawing it from benenth the cord. "When any whirring sound is heard, little whisps of reindeer hair are tucked in between the skin and the hoop, until the head is as tight as a drum. Fig. 533. Kilaut or drum. Wlien the drum is played, the drum handle is held in the left hand of the per- former, who strikes the edge of the rim opposite that over.which the skin is stretched. Hr liiil'N till' ilrum in different positions, but keeps it in a constant fan-like motion liv lii^ liiiiiil n 11(1 by the blows of the kentun struck alternately on the opposite sides of til Igi'. Skillfully keeping the drum vibrating on the handle, he accompanies this with grotesque motions of the body, and at intervals with a song, while the women keep up their own Inuit songs, one after another, through the whole per- formance. The feast is described as follows: As usual the women sat on the platform Turk fashion : the men. behind them with extended legs. The women were gayly dressed. They wore on each side of the face an enormous pigtail, made by wi-apping their hair on a small wooden roller a foot in length ; strips of reindeer-fur being wrapped with the hair [see p. 5.59]. These were black and white for those who had sons and black only for those who had none. Shining ornaments were worn on the head and on the breast they had masonic-like aprons, the groundwork of wliich was of a flaming red color, orna- mented with glass beads of many colors. In Cumberland Sound the women also wear pigtails at the celebra- tion of these feasts. The drum is sometimes jilayed with the wrist of the right hand instead of the beater. Every singing house is dedicated to a tornaq, the qaggim inua, as mentiiincd almve. For this reason all these performances may be considci'i'il rrliuiuus feasts. The suugs are always composed by the singer himself. Satiric songs are great favorites on these occasions. While the men listen in silence the women join in the chorus, amna aya, the never failing THE SINGING HOUSE. 603 end of each verse. The dancer remains on one spot only, stamiiiut;- r\i;hmicaUy with the feet, swinging the upper part of liis K. .,ly. and at the same time plajdng the kilaut. While dancing he al ways st viim the upper part of the body, keeping on only trousers and boots. Sing- ing and dancing are alternated with wrestling matches and playing at hook and crook. Almost every great success in hi;nting is cele- brated in the qaggi, and especially the capture of a whale. Such a feast has been described by Parry. Fig. 5»1 supposed qaggic or singing houses. (From PaiTj- H, p. 302.) The stone foundations observed by Parry and copied here (Fig. 534) are probably the remains of singing houses. Parry's description is as follows (II, p. 363): It appears that the whole whale or a princiijal part of it is dragged into the en- closure, where some of the men are employed in cutting it up and throwing the l)ieces over the waU to the rest, who stand ready to receive them outside; while witliin tlie women range themselves in a cii-cle around the whale and continue singing dvu-ing the operation. * * * Each of these structures * * * was the distinct property of a particular individual : and had probably, in its turn, been the seat of feasting and meiTiment either to the present owner, or those from whom he had in- herited it. Great feasts closely connected with the Sedna tradition are cele- brated every fall. When late in the fall storms rage over the land and release the sea from tile icy fetters by which it is as yet but slightly bound, when the loosened H(ies ai'c drivcn one against the other and break up with loud crashes, when the cakes of ice are piled in wild di.sorder one upon another, the Eskimo believes he hears the voices of spirits which inhabit the mischief laden air. The spirits of the dead, the tupilaq, knock wildly at the huts, which they cannot enter, and woe to the unhappy person whom they can lay hold of. He immediately sickens and a speedy death is regarded as sure to come. The wicked qiqirn pursues the dogs, which die with convulsions and cramps as soon as they see him. All the countless spirits of evil are aroused, striving to bring sickness and death, bad weather, and failure in hunting. The worst visitors are Sedna. mis- tress of the imder world, and her father, to whose share the dead (;04 THF. CKNTRAI. ESKIMO. limit full. While the other spirits iill tjie ;iir and the water, .slie rises from under the ground. It is then a busy season foi' the wizards. In every hut we may hear them singing and praying; conjuring of the sijirits is going on in every house. Tlie lamps bui-n low. The wizard sits in a mystic gloom in the rear of the hut. He has thrown off his outer coat and drawn the hood of his inner garment over his head, while he mut- ters indescribable sounds, unnatural to a human voice. At last the j^-iiariliaii si)irit respuiids to the invocation. The angakoq lies in a Irani-.' ami w lnMi he ((Hues to himself he promises in incoherent phi-ascs thf help nf till' i;'")d spirit against the tupilaq and informs the credulous, affrighted Inuit how they can escaj^e from the dreaded The hardest task, that of driving away Sedna, is reserved for the most powerful angakoq. A rope is coiled on the floor of a large hut in such a manner as to leave a small opening at the top, which repre- sents the breathing hole of a seal. Two angakut stand by the side of it, one of them holding the seal spear in his left hand, as if he were watching at the seal hole in the winter, the other holding the harpoon line. Another angakoq, whose office it is to lure Sedna up with a magic song, sits at the back of the hut. At last she comes up through the hard rocks and the wizard hears her heavy breathing; now she emerges from the ground and meets the angakoq waiting at the hole. She is harpooned and sinks away in angry haste, drawing after her the harpoon, to which the two men hold with all their strength. Only by a desperate effort does she tear herself away from it and return to her dwelling in Adlivun. Nothing is left with the two men but the blood sprinkled harpoon, which they proudly show to the Inuit. Sedna and the other evil spirits are at last driven away, and on the following day a great festival for young and old is celebrated in honor of the event. But they must still be careful, for the wounded Sedna is greatly enraged and will seize any one whom slu' can find out of his hut: so on this day they all wear protecting ainulfN ( koukjiarniiu- tang) on the tops of their hoods. Parts of the tirs1 gaiaiicnt which they wore after birth are used for this purpose. The men assemble early in the morning in the middle of the settle- ment. As soon as they have all got together they run screaming and jumping around the houses, following the course of the sun (nunajisartung or kaivitijung). A few, dressed in women's jackets, run in the opposite direction. These are those who were l)orn in abnormal presentations. The circuit made, they visit every hut, and the woman of the house must always be in waiting for them. When she hears the noise of the band she comes out and throws a dish containing little gifts of meat, ivory trinkets, and articles of sealskin into the yelling crowd, of which each one helps himself to what he can get. No hut is omitted in this round (irqatatung). B..AS1 KEI.KiTUfS OMSERVANCES. (J()5 Tlie crowd next divides itself into two parties, the ptarmigans (axigirn), those who were born in the winter, and the ducks (aggirn), ov the cliihiren of summer. A hirge rope of sealskin is stretched out. One party takes one end of it and tries witli all its might to drag the opposite party over to its side. The others hold fast to the rope and try as hard to make ground for themselves. If the ptarmigans give way the summer has won the game and fine weather may be expected to prevail through the winter (nussueraqtung). The contest of the seasons having been decided, the women bring out of a hut a large kettle of water and each jjerson takes his drink- ing cup. They all stand as near the kettle as possible, while the old- est man among them steps out first. He dips a cup of water from the vessel, sprinkles a j:"ew drops on the ground, turns his face toward the home of his youth, and tells his name and the place of his birth (ojsoaxsavepunga me, I was born in ). He is followed by an aged woman, who announces her name and home, and then all the others do the same, down to the young children, who are represented by their mothers. Only the parents of children born during the last year are foi'liidiliMi to partake in this ceremony. As tlu' words uf the old are listen. mI Io rcs])ectfully, so those of the distiiiL;uislicil Imiilci-s are receivi'd with ilemonstrative applause and those of tl tln^rs with varying degrees of attention, in some cases even with joking and raillery (imitijitng). Now arises a cry of surprise and all eyes are turned toward a hut out of which .stalk two giganlie li-ures. 'I In^y wear lie,i\y boots; their legs are swelled outto a wonderful thickness with several pairs of breeches; the shoulders of each are covered by a woman's over- jacket and the faces by tattooed masks of sealskins. In the right liand each carries the seal spear, on the back of each is an inflatedbuoy of sealskin, and in the left hand the scraper. Silently, with long strides, the ijailertetang (Fig. 5:55) approach the assenihly, who, screaming, press back from them. The pair solemnly lead the men to a suitable spot and set them in a row, and the women in another opposite them. They match the men and women in pairs and these pairs nm, pursued by the qailertetang, to the hut of the woman, where they are for the following day and night man and wife (nuli- anititijung). Having j)erformed this duty, the qailertetang stride down to the shore and invoke the good north wind, which brings fair weather, while they warn off the unfavorable south wind. As soon as the incantation is over, all the men attack the qailer- tetang with great noise. They act as if they had weapons in their hands and would kill both spirits. One pretends to probe them with a sjjear, another to stab them with a knife, one to cut off their arms and legs, another to beat them itnmercifuUy on the head. The buoys which they carry on their backs are ripped open and collapse and soon they both lie as if dead beside theii- bi'oken weapons (pilektung). : (;y(; THK CKXTKAI, KSKIMO. The EskiiiKj leave them t(j get their driukijig cup.s and tlie qailerte- tang awake to new life. Each man fills his sealskin with water, passes a cu^d to them, and inquires about the future, about the fortunes of the hunt and the events of life. The qailertetang answer in murmurs which the questioner must interpret for himself. The evening is spent in jDlaying ball, which is whipped all around the settlement (ajuktaqtung). (See Appendix, Note 6.) This feast is celebrated as here described in Cumberland Sound and Nugumiut. Hall and Kumlien make a few observations in regard to it, but the latter has evidently misunderstood its meaning. His description is as follows (p. 43) An angakoq dresses himself up in the most liideous manner, having several pairs of pants on among the rest, and a horrid looking mask of skins. The men and women now range themselves in separate and opposite ranks, and the angakoq takes , '"Asl KELKilOlS OHSERVANCKS. 607 liis i)lacf between them. He then picks out a man and conduets him to a woman in the opposite ranks. Tliis couple then go to the woman's hut and have a grand spree for a day or two. This manner of proceeding is kept up till all the women but one are disposed of. Tliis one is always the angakoq's choice, and her he reserves for himself. Another descriptiou by Kumlieu (p. I'.t) evidently refers to the same feast: Tl ley have an interesting custom or superstition, namely, the kilUng of the evil spirit of the deer; sometime dm-ing the winter or eaiiy in spring, at any rate be- fi ire they can go deer hunting, they congregate together and dispose of this imag- inary evil. The chief ancut [angakoq], or medicine man, is the main performer. He goes through a number of gyiations and contortions, constantly hallooing and calling, till suddenly the imaginary deer is among them. Now begins a lively time. Every one is screaming, runn ng, jumping, spearing, and stabbing at the imagi- nary deer, till one would think a whole madhouse was let loose. Often this deer proves very agile, and must be hard to kill, for I have known them to keep this performance up for days : in fact, till they were completely exhausted. During one of these performances an old man speared the deer, another knocked out an eye, a third stabbed him, and so on till he was dead. Those who are able or fortunate enough to inflict some injury on this bad deer, especially he who inflicts the death blow, is considered exti-emely lucky, as he wiU have no difficulty in procuring as many deer as he wants, for there is no longer an evil spirit to turn his buUets or arrows from their course. I could not learn anything about this ceremony, though I asked all the persons with whom Kumlien had had intercourse. Probably there was some misunderstanding as to the meaning of their feast during the autumn which induced him to give this report. Hall describes the feast as celebrated by the Nugumiut (I. p. 52S), as follows: At a time of the year apparently answering to our Christmas, they have a general meeting in a large igdlu [snow house] on a certain evening. There the angakoq prays on behalf of the people for the public prosperity through the subsequent year. Then follows sometliing Uke a feast. The next day all go out into the open aii- and foi-m in a circle; in the centre is placed a vessel of water, and each member of the company brings a piece of meat , the kind being immaterial , The circle being formed each person eats his or her meat in silence, thinking of Sedna, and wishing for good things. Then one in the circle takes a cup, dips up some of the water, all the time thinking of Sedna, and drinks it ; and then, before passing the cup to another, states audibly the time and the place of his or her birth. This ceremony is per- formed by all in succession. Finally, presents of various articles are thrown from one to another, with the idea that each will receive of Sedna good things in propor- tion to the liberaHty here shown. Soon after this occasion, at a time which answers to our New Year's day, two men start out, one of them being dressed to represent a woman, and go to every house in the village, blowing out the light in each. The lights are afterwards rekindled from a fresh fire. Wlien Taquhtu [Hall's well known comjjanion in his journeys] was asked the meaning of this, she replied, " New sun—new light," implying a belief that the sun was at that time renewed for the year. Inasmuch as Hall did not see the feast himself, but had only a description by an Eskimo, into which he introduced pomts of simi- larity with Christian feasts, it may be looked tipon as fairly agree- 608 THE rEXTKAI, ESKIMO. iiig with the feast of the Oqomiut. The lattei- part corresponds to the celebration of the feast as it is celebrated in Akudnirn.' According to a statement in the journal of Hall's second expedi- tion (II, p. 219) masks are also used on the western shore of Hud- son Bay, where it seems that all the natives disguise themselves on this occasion. The Akudnii'miut celebrate the feast in the following way: The qailertetang do not act a part there, but other masks take their place. They are called mirqussang and represent a man and his wife. They wear masks of the skin of the ground seal, only that of the woman being tattooed. The hair of the man is arranged in a bunch protruding from the forehead (sulubaut), that of the woman in a pigtail on each side and a large knot at the back of the head. Their left li'u's alt' tied up by a Ihniiu- running around the neck and the kiii'c. CMiiipcllinL;' tlii'iii 1(1 holihlc. They have neither seal float and spi'ar nil]- iiiflati'd legs. Imt I'arry the skin scraper. They must try to enter the huts while- the Inuit hold a long sealskin thong before them to keep them off. If they fall down in the attempt to cross it they are thoronirhly lioaten with a short whip or with sticks. After having succeedi'il in .utrring the huts they blow out all the fires. The parts of the least already described as celebrated in Cumber- land Sound seem not to be customary in Akudnirn, the conjuration of Sedna and the exchanges of wives excepted, which are also prac- ticed here. Sometimes the latter ceremony takes place the night before the feast. It is called suluiting or quvietung. When it is quite dark a number of Inuit come out of their huts and run crying all round their settlements. Wherever anybody is asleep they climb ui^on the roof of his hut and rouse him by scream- ing and shouting until all have assembled outside. Then a woman and a man (the mirqussang) sit down in the snow. The man holds a knife (sulung) in his hand, from which the feast takes its name, and sings: Oangaja jaja jajaja aja. Pissiungmipadlo panginejernago Qodlungutaokpan panginejerlugping Pissiungmipadlo panginejernago. To this song the woman keeps time by moving her body and her arms, at the same time flinging snow on the bystanders. Then the whole company goes into the singing house and joins in dancing and singing. This done, the men must leave the house and stand out- side while the mirqussang watch the entrance. The women continiie singing and leave the house one by one. They are awaited by the mirqussang. who lead every one to one of the men standing about. The pair must re-enter the singing house and walk around the lamp, ' Since the above was written I learn from a paper by Mr. Lucien M. Turner that a similar feast is celebrated in Ungava Bay. (American Naturalist, August, 1887.) BOAS] RELIGIOUS OBSERVANCES. gQg all the men aud women crying," Hit! lirr!" from botli cnnu-rs of the mouth. Then they go to the woman's hut, where tli<\- stay durino- the ensuing night. The feast is frequently celelnatrd hv all the tribes of Davis and Hudson Strait, and even independently of the great feast described above. The day after, the men freqiiently join in a shooting match. A target is set up, at which they shoot their arrows. As soon as a man hits, the women, who stand looking on, rush forward and rub noses with him. If a stranger unknown to the inhabitants of a settlement arrives on a visit he is welcomed by the celebration of a great feast. Among the southeastern tribes the natives arrange themselves in a row, one man standing in front of it. The stranger approaches slowly, his arms folded and his head inclined toward the right side. Then the native strikes him with all his strength on the right cheek and in his turn inclines his head awaiting the stranger's blow (tigluiqdjung). While this is going on the other men are playing at ball and singing (igdlukitaqtung). Thus they continue until one of the combatants is vanquished. The ceremonies of greeting among the western tribes are similar to those of the eastern, but in addition "boxing, wrestling, and knife testing" are mentioned by travelers who have visited them. In Davis Strait and probably in all the (jther countries the game of "hook and criMik" is always j^layed on the arrival of a stranger (pakijuini jait nil-). Two men sit down on a large skin, after having stripped thf Tipper part of their bodies, and each tries to stretch out the bent arm of the other. These games are sometimes dangerous, as the victor has the right to kill his adversary; but generally the feast ends peaceably. The ceremonies of the western tribes in greet- ing a stranger are much feared by their eastern neighbors and there- fore intercourse is somewhat restricted. The meaning of the duel, according to the natives themselves, 'is ' that the two men in meeting wish to know which of them is the better man." The similarity of these ceremonies with those of Greenland, where the game of hook and crook and wrestling matches have been customary, is quite strik- ing, as is that of the explanation of these ceremonies. The word for greeting on Davis Strait and Hudson Strait, is Ass- ojutidlin? (Are you quite well?) and the answer, Tabaujuradlu ( Very well). The word Taima! which is used in Hudson Strait, and Manetaima I of the Netchillirmiut seem to be similar to our Halluol The Ukusiksalirmiut say Ilaga! (My friend!) CUSTOMS AND REGULATIONS CONCERNING BIRTH. SICKNESS. AND DEATH. I have mentioned that it is extremely difficult to find out the innu- merable regulations connected with the religious ideas and customs 6 ETH-—39 : 610 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. of the Eskimo. Tlie difficulty is even greater in regard to the cus- toms which refer to birth, sickness, and death, and it is no wonder that, while some of the accounts of different writers coincide toler- ably well, there are great discrepancies in others, particularly as the customs vary to a great extent among the different tribes. Before the child is born a small hut or snow house is built for the mother, in which she awaits her delivery. Sick persons are isolated in the same way, the reason being that in case of death everything that had been in contact with the deceased must be destroyed. Ac- cording to Kumlien (p. 38) the woman is left with only one attendant, a young girl appointed by the head ancut (angakoq) of the encamp- ment ; but this, no doubt, is an error. She may be visited by her friends, who, however, must leave her when parturition takes place. She must ciit the navel string herself, and in Davis Strait this is done by tying it through with deer sinews; in Iglulik (Lyon. p. .370), by cutting it with a stone spear head. The child is cleaned with a birdskin and clothed in a small gown of the same material. Accord- ing to Lyon the Iglulirmiut swathe it with the dried intestines of some animal. Kumlien describes a remarkable custom of which I could find no trace, not even upon direct inquiry (p. 381) : As soon as the mother with her new born babe is able to get up and go out, usually but a few hours, they are taken in charge by an aged female angakoq, who seems to have some particular mission to perform in such cases. Slie conducts them to some level spot on the ice, if near the sea, and begins a sort of march in circles on the ice, tlie mother following with the child on her back; this manoeuvre is kept up for some time, the old woman going through a number of performances the nature of which we could not learn and continually muttering something equally unintelligible to us. The next act is to wade through snowdrifts, the aged angakoq leading the way. We have been informed that it is customary for the mother to wade thus bare-legged. Lyon sayr (p. 370) After a few days, or according to the fancy of the parents, an angakoq, who by relationship or long acquaintance is a friend of the family, makes use of some vessel, and with the urine the mother washes the infant, while all the gossips around pour forth their good wishes for the little one to prove an active man, if a boy, or, if a girl, the mother of plenty of children. This ceremony, I believe, is never omitted, and is called qoqsiuariva. Though I heard about the washing with urine, I did not learn anything about the rest of the ceremony in Cumberland Sound and Davis Strait. A few days after birth the first dress of the child is exchanged for another. A small hood made from the skin of a hare's head is fitted snugly upon the head, a jacket for the iipper part of the body is made of the skin of a fawn, and two small boots, made of the same kind of a skin, the left one being wreathed with seaweed (Fucufi), cover the legs. While the child wears this clothing that which was first worn is fastened to a pole which is secured to the roof of the hut. In twp BoAs.l CUSTOMS RELATING TO BIRTH AND DEATH. 611 months the child gets a third suit of clothes the same as formerly described (p. 557). Then the second gown is exposed for some time on the toiD of the hut, the first one being taken down, and both are carefully preserved for a year. After this time has expired both arc once more exposed on the top of a pole and then siink into the sea, a portion of the birdskiu dri'ss alone bciiii; kept, for this is considered a powerful amulet and is luM in hii^h i stt-rm and worn every fall at the Sedna feast on the ixiiiit nt tin- IkkhI (see p. 604). I have stated that those who were born in abnormal presentations wear women's dresses at this feast and must make their round in a direction oppo- site to the movement of the sun. Captain Spicer, of Groton, Conn., affirms that the bird used for the first clothing is chosen according to a strict law, every month having its own bird. So far as I know, waterfowl are used in summer and the ptarmigan in winter, and accordingly the men are called at the great autumn feast the ducks and ptarmigans, the former including those who were born in sum- mer, the latter those born in winter. As long as any portion of the navel string remains a strip of seal- skin is worn around the belly. After the birth of her child the mother must observe a great num- ber of regulations, referring' particularly to food and work. She is not allowed for a whole year to eat raw meat or a part of any ani- mal killed by being shot through the heart. In Cumberland Sound she must not eat for five days anything except meat of an animal killed by her husband or by a boy on his first hunting expedition. This custom seems to be observed more strictly, however, and for a longer period if the new born child dies. Two months after delivery she miist make a call at every hut, while before that time she is not allowed to enter any but her own. At the end of this period she must also throw away her old clothing. The same custom was observed by Hall among the Nugumiut (I, p. 426). On the western shore of Hudson Bay she is permitted to re-enter the hut a few days after delivery, but must pass in by a separate entrance. An opening is cut for the purpose through the snow wall. She must keep a little skin bag hung up near her, into which she must put a little of her food after each meal, having first put it up to her mouth. This is called laying up food for the infant, although none is given to it (Hall II. p. 173). I have already mentioned that the parents are not allowed in the first year after the birth nf a child to take part in the Sedna feast. The customs which are associated with the death of an infant are very complicated. For a whole year, when outside the- hut, the mother must have her head covered with a cap. or at least with a piece of skin. If a ground seal is caught she miist throw away the old cap and have a new one made. The boots of the deceased are always carried about by the parents when traveling, and whenever they stop gl2 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. these are buried in the snow or under stones. Neither parent is allowed to eat raw flesh during the following year. The woman must cook her food in a small pot which is exclusively used Ijy her. If she is about to enter a hut the men who may be sitting inside must come out first, and not until they have come out is she allowed to enter. If she wants to go out of the hut she must walk around all the men who may happen to be there. The child is sometimes named before it is born. Lyon says upon this subject (p. 369): Some relative or Iriend lays her hand on the mother's stomach, and decides what the infant is to be called, and, as the names serve for either sex, it in of no conse- quence whether it proves a girl or a boy. On Davis Strait it is always named after the persons who have died since the last birth took place, and therefore the number of names of an Eskimo is sometimes rather large. If a relative dies while the child is younger than four years or so, his name is added to the old ones and becomes the proper name by which it is called. It is possible that children receive the names of all the persons in the settlement who die while the children are quite young, but of this I am not absolutely certain. When a person falls sick the angakiit change his name in order to ward off the disease or they consecrate him as a dog to Sedua. In the latter event he gets a dog's name and must wear throughout life a harness over the inner jacket. Thus it may happen that Eskimo are known in different tribes by different names. It may also be mentioned here that friends sometimes ex- change names and dogs are called by the name of a friend as a token of regard. The treatment of the sick is the task of the angakoq, whose manip- ulations have been described. If it is feared that a disease will prove fatal, a small snow house or a hut is built, according to the season, into which the patient is carried throiigh an opening at the back. This opening is then closed, and subsequently a door is cut out. A small quantity of food is placed in the hut, but the patient is left without attendants. As long as there is no fear of sudden death the relatives and friends may come to visit him, but when death is impending the house is shut up and he is left alone to die. If it should hai^isen that a person dies in a hut among its inmates, everything belonging to the hut must be destroyed or thrown away, even the tools &c. lying inside becoming useless to the survivors, but the tent poles may be used again after a year has elapsed. No doubt this custom explains the isolation of the sick. If a child dies in a hut and the mother immediately rushes out with it, the contents of the hut may be saved. Though the Eskimo feel the greatest awe in touching a dead body, the sick await their death with admirable coolness and without the BOAS] BURIAL CUSTOMS. Qlg least sign of fear or unwillingness to die. I rememlDer a young girl wlio sent for me a few hours before lier death and asked me to give her some tobacco and bread, which sBe wanted to take to her mother, who had died a few weeks before. Only the relatives are allowed to touch the body of the deceased. They clothe it or wrajj it in deerskins and bury it at once. In for- mer times they always built a tomb, at least when death occurred in the summer. From its usual dimensions one would suppose that the body was buried with the legs doubled up, for all of them are too short for grown persons. If the person to be buried is young, his feet are placed in the direction of the rising sun, those of the aged in the opposite direction. According to Lyon the Iglulirmiut bury half grown children with the feet towards the southeast, young men and women with the feet towards the south, and middle aged per- sons with the feet towards the southwest. This agrees with the fact that the graves in Cumberland Sound do not all lie east and west. The tomb is always vaulted, as any stone or piece of snow resting upon the body is believed to be a burden to the soul of the deceased. The man's hunting imi^lements and other utensils are placed by the side of his grave; the pots, the lamps, knives, &c., by the side of that of the woman; toys, by that of a child. Hall (I, p. 103) observed in a grave a small kettle hung up over a lamp. These objects are held in great respect and are never removed, at least as long as it is known to whose grave they belong. Sometimes models of implements are used for this purpose instead of the objects themselves. Figure 536 represents a model of a lamp found in a grave of Cumberland Sound. Nowadays the Eskimo place the body in a box, if they can procure one, or cover it very slightly with stones or snow. It is strange that, though the ceremonies of burying are very strictly attended to and though they take care to give the dead their belongings, they do not heed the opening of the graves by dogs or wolves and the devouring of the bodies and do not attempt to recover them when the graves are invaded by animals. Fig. 53C. Model of lamp from a grave in Cumberland Sound. (Museum fur Volkerkunde, Berlin.) The body must be carried to the place of burial by the nearest rela- tives, a few others only accompanying it. For this purpose they rarely avail themselves of a sledge, as it cannot be used afterward, but must be left with the deceased. Dogs are never allowed to drag the sledge on such an occasion. After returning from the burial the relatives must lock themselves up in the old hut for three days, during which they mourn the loss of the deceased. During this time gl4 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. they do not dress their hair and they have their nostrils closed with a piece of deerskin. After this they leave the hut forever. The dogs are tlirown into it through the window and allowed to devour what- ever they can get at. For some time afterward the mourners must cook their meals in a separate pot. A strange custom was observed by Hall in Hudson Bay (II, p. 186). The mourners did not smoke. They kept their hoods on from morning till night. To the hood the skin and feathers of the head of Uria grylle were fastened and a feather of the same waterfowl to each arm just above the elbow. All male relatives of the deceased wore a belt around the waist, besides which they constantly wore mittens. It is probable that at the present time all Eskimo when in mourning avoid using imple- ments of European manufacture and suspend the use of tobacco. It has already been stated that women who have lost a child must keep their heads covered. Parry, Lyon (p. 369), and Klutschak (p. 301) state that when the Eskimo first hear of the death of a relative they throw themselves upon the ground and cry, not for grief, but as a mourning cere- mony. For three or sometimes even four days after a death the inhabitants of a village must not use their dogs, but must walk to the hunting ground, and for one day at least they are not allowed to go hunting at all. The women must stop all kinds of work. On the third day after death the relatives visit the tomb and travel around it three times in the same direction as the sun is moving, a^ the same time talking to the deceased and promising that thej will bring him something to eat. According to Lyon the Iglulir- miut chant forth inquiries as to the welfare of the departed soul, whether it has reached the land Adli, if it has plenty of food, &c., at each question stopping at the head of the grave and repeating some ceremonial words (p. 371). These visits to the grave are repeated a year after death and when- ever they pass it in traveling. Sometimes they carry food to the deceased, which he is expected to return greatly inci-eased. Hall describes this custom as practiced by the Nugumiut (I, p. -tSG). He says: They took down small pieces of [deer] skin with the fur on. and of [fat]. When there they stood around [the] grave [of the -woman] upon which they placed the articles they had brought. Then one of them stepped uj), took a piece of the [deer meat], cut a sUce and ate it, at the same time cutting off another sMce and placing it under a stone by the grave. Then the knife was passed from one hand to the other, both hands being thrown behind the person. This form of shifting the im- plement was continued for perhaps a minute, the motions being accompanied by constant talk with the dead. Then a piece of [deer] fur and some [fat] were placed under the stone with an exclamation signifying, "Here is something to eat and something to keep you warm." Each of the [natives] also went through the same forms. They never visit the grave of a departed friend until some months after : BOAS.) TAI.E OF ITITAUJANG. 615 death, and even then only when all the surviving members of the family have re- moved to another place. Whenever they return to the vicinity of their kindred's grave, a visit is made to it with the best of food as a present for the departed one. Neither seal, polar bear, nor walrus, however, is taken. According to Klutscliak (p. 154:), the natives of Hudson Bay avoid staying a long time on the salt water ice near the grave of a relative. On the fourth day after death the relatives may go for the first time upon the ice, but the men are not allowed to hunt; on the next day they must go sealing, but without dogs and sledge, walking to the hunting ground and dragging the seal home. On the sixth day they are at liberty to use their dogs again. For a whole year they must not join in any festival and are not allowed to sing certain songs. If a married woman dies the widower is not permitted to keep any part of the first seal he catches after her death except the flesh. Skin, blubber, bones, and entrails must be sunk in the sea. All the relatives must have new suits of clothes made and before the others are cast away they are not allowed to enter a hut without having asked and obtained permission. (See Appendix, Note 7.) Lyon (p. 3U8) makes the following statement on the mourning cere- monies in Iglulik Widows are forbidden for six months to taste of unboiled flesh ; they wear no * * * pigtails, and cut off a portion of their long hair in token of grief, while the remaining locks hang in loose disorder about their shoulders. * * * After six months, the disconsolate ladies are at liberty to eat raw meat, to dress their pigtails and to marry as fast as they please ; while in the meantime they either cohabit with fheir future husbands, if they have one, or distribute their favors more generally. A widower and his children remain during three days within the hut where his wife died, after which it is customary to remove to another. He is not allowed to fish or hunt for a whole season, or in that period to marry again. During the three days of lamentation all the relatives of the deceased are quite careless of then- dress; their hair hangs wildly about, and, if possible, they are more than usually dirty in their persons. All visitors to a moui'ning family consider it as indispensa- bly necessary to howl at their first entry. I may add here that suicide is not of rare occurrence, as according to the religious ideas of the Eskimo the souls of those who die by violence go to Qudlivun, the happy land. For the same reason it is considered lawful for a man to kill his aged parents. In suicide death is generally brought about by hanging. TALES AMD TRADITIONS. ITITAUJANG. A long, long time ago, a young man, whose name was Ititaujang, lived in a village with many of his friends. When he became grown he wished to take a wife and went to a hut in which he knew an orphan girl was living. However, as he was bashful and was afraid to speak to the young girl himself, he called her little 616 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. brother, who was playing before the hut, and said, "Go to your sister and ask lier if she will marry me." The boy ran to his sister and delivered the message. The young girl sent him back and bade him ask the name of her suitor. When she heard that his name was Ititaujang she told him to go away and look for another wife, as she was not willing to marry a man with such an ugly name. ' But Ititaujang did not submit and sent the boy once- more to his sister. "Tell her that Nettirsuaqdjung is my other name," said he. The boy, however, said upon entering, ' ' Ititaujang is standing before the doorway and wants to marry you." Again the sister said " I will not have a man with that ugly name." When the boy returned to Ititaujang and repeated his sister's speech, he sent him back once more and said, "Tell her that Nettirsuaqdjung is my other name." Again tlu- iM.y cutiTod and said, "Ititaujang is standing before the doorway .iiid wants to marry you." The sister answei'ed, " I will not have a ni;iii with that ugly name." When the boy returned to Iti- taujang and told him to go away, he was sent in the third time on the same commission, but to no better effect. Again the young girl declined his offer, and upon that Ititaujang went away in great anger. He did not care for any other girl of his tribe, but left the country altogether and wandered over hills and through valleys nj) the coun- try many days and many nights. At -last he arrived in the land of the birds and saw a lakelet in which many geese were swimming. On the shore he saw a great number of boots; cautiously he crept nearer and stole as many as he could get hold of. A short time after the birds left the water and finding the boots gone became greatly alarmed and flew away. Only one of the flock remained behind, crying, " I want to have my boots; I want to have my boots. " Ititaujang came forth now and answered, "I will give you your boots if you will become my wife." She ob- jected, but when Ititaujang turned round to go away with the boots she agreed, though rather reluctantly. Having put on the boots she was transformed into a woman and they wandered down to the seaside, where they settled in a large village. Here they lived together for some years and had a son. In time Ititaujang became a highly respected man, as he was by far the best whaler among the Inuit. Once upon a time the Inuit had killed a whale and were busy cutting it up and carrying the meat and the blubber to their huts. Though Ititaujang was hard at work his wife stood lazily by. When he called her and asked her to help as the other women did she ob- jected, crying, "My food is not from the sea; my food is from the land; I will not eat the meat of a whale ; I will not help." ' Ititaujang means "similar to the anus." This tradition is curtailed, as some parts were considered inappropriate for this publication. The full text will be found in the Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft fiir Anthropologie, Etlmologie und Urgeschichte, Berlin, 1888. " BOAS.I TALE OP ITITAUJANG. Ql'J Ititaujang answered, "You must eat of the whale; that will fill your stomach." Then she began crying and exclaimed, "I will not eat it; I will not soil my nice white clothing." She descended to the beach, eagerly looking for birds' feathers. Having found a few she put them between her fingers and between those of her child; both were transformed into geese and flew away. When the Inuit saw this they called out, "Ititaujang, your wife is flying away." Ititaujang became very sad ; he cried for his wife and did not care for the abundance of meat and blubber, nor for the whales spouting near the shore. He followed his wife and ascended the laud in search of her. After having traveled for many weary months he came to a river. There he saw a man who was busy chopping chips from a piece of wood with a large hatchet. As soon as the chips fell ofi^ he polished them neatly and they were transformed into salmon, becoming so slippery that they glided from his hands and fell into the river, which they descended to a large lake near by. The name of the man was E^aluqdjimg (the little salmon). On approaching, Ititaujang was frightened almost to death, for he saw that the back of this man was altogether hollow and that he coiild look from behind right through his mouth. Cautiously he crept back and by a circuitous way apj^roached him from the oppo-, site direction. Wlien E^aluqdjung saw him coming he stopped chopping and asked, "Which way did you ajaproach me?" Ititaujang, jjointing in the direction he had come last and from which he could not see the hollow back of E;i:aluqdjung, answered, " It is there I have come from." Ejaluqdjung, on hearing this, said, " That is lucky for you. If you luiil cimii^ frdin tlif ntliur siile and had seen my back I should have iiniiiciliMtily killcil vdii wirli my hatchet." Ititaujang was very glad that III' liail turned hack and thus deceived the salmon maker. He asked him, " Have you not seen my wife, who has left me, com- ing this way?" Ejaluqdjung had seen her and said, "Do you see yon little island in the large lake? There she lives now and has taken another husband." When Ititaujang heard this report he almost despaired, as he did not know how to reach the island; but E^aluqdjuug kindly promised to help him. They descended to the beach; E^aluqdjung gave him the backbone of a salmon and said, ' ' Now shut your eyes. The back- bone will turn into a kayak and carry you safely to the island. But mind you do not open your eyes, else the boat will upset. Ititaujang promised to obey. He shut his eyes, the backbone be- came a kayak, and away he went over the lake. As he did not hear any splashing of water, he was anxious to see whether the boat moved on, and opened his eyes just a little. But he had scarcely taken a short glimpse when the kayak began to swing violently and he felt ; fil8 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. that it became a backbone again. He quickly .sliut his eyes, the boat went steadily on, and a short time after he was landed on the island. There he saw the hiit and his son playing on the beach near it. The boy on looking up saw Ititaujang and ran to his mother crying, "Mother, father is here and is coming to our hut." The mother answered," Go, play on; your father is far away and cannot find us." The child obeyed; but as he saw Ititaujang approaching he re- entered the hut and said, "Mother, father is here and is coming to our hut. " Again the mother sent him away, but he returned very soon, saying that Ititaujang was quite near. Scarcely had the boy said so when Ititaujang opened the door. When the new husband saw him he told his wife to open a box which was in a corner of the hut. She did so, and many feathers flew out of it and stuck to them. The woman, her new husband, and the child were thus again transformed into geese. The hut disapjaeared but when Ititaujang saw them about to fly away he got furious and cut open the belly of his wife before she could escape. Then many eggs fell down. THE EMIGRATION OF THE SAGDLIRMIUT. In the beginning all the Inuit lived near Ussualung, in Tiniq- djuarbing (Cumberland Sound). The Igdlumiut, the Nugumiut, and the Talirpingmiut in the soiith, the Aggomiut in the far north, and the Inuit, who tattoo rings round their eyes, in the far west, all once lived together. There is a tradition concerning the emigration of the Sagdlirmiut (see p. -151) who live east of Iglulik. The Akudnirmiut say that the folluwini;- miMits did not happen in Tiniqdjviarbing, but in Aggo, acountry wln'if imliody lives nowadays. Ikeraping, an Akud- nirmio, heard tliu story related by a Tununirmio, who had seen the place himself, but all the Oqomiut assert that Ussualung is the place where the events in the story happened. An old woman, the sister of Mitiq, the angakoq, told the story as follows: Near Ussualung there are two places, Qerniqdjuaq and E^aluq- djuaq. In each of these was a large house, in which many families lived together. They used to keep company during the summer when they went deer hunting, but returned to their separate houses in the fall. Once upon a time it happened that the men of Qerniqdjuaq had been very successful, while those of Ejaluqdjuaq had caught scarcely any deer. Therefore the latter got very angry and resolved to kill the other party, but they prefeiTrd to wait until tln' winter. Later in the season many deer were caii-ht ami put up in drpnts. They were to be carried down to the winter settleiucuts by means of sledges. One day both parties agreed upon a journey to these depots and the men of E^alnqdjuaq resolved to kill their enemies on this occa- BOA9.] EMIGRATION OF THE SAGDLIRMIUT. 619 sion. They set out with their dogs and sledges, and wheu they were fairly inland they suddenly attacked their unsuspecting comijanions and killed them. For fear that the wives and children of the mur- dered men might be suspicious if the dogs returned without their masters, they killed them too. After a short time they returned and said they had lost the other party and did not know wliat had hap- pened to them. A young man of Ejaluqdjuaq was the suitor of a girl of Qerniq- djuaq and used to visit her every night. He did not stop his visits now. He was kindly received by the woman and lay down to sleep with his young wife._ Under the snow bench there was a little boy who had seen the young man of Ej^aluqdjuaq coming. When everybody was sleeping he heard somebody calling and s i ii'cuMuizrd tln'siiii-itsdl'tln' inurdi.MTd men, who told him wliat liad lia|iiM'n.'d and askr.! liim t,, kill tlir young man in revenge. Tin- boy i-r.-pt fr^ni his pk-irr uihIit tlic lied, took a knife, and put it into the young man's breast. As lie was a small boy and very weak, the knife glided from the ribs and entered deep into the heart, thus killing tin' VDnnn- num. Thenherousrd il,,. ,,tli.M' inlialiitaiits of the hut and told them that the spirits of the di'ad imMi had cdiiu' to him, that they had told liim of their murder, and had ordered him to kill the young man. Tlie women and children got very much frightened and did not know what to do. At last they resolved to follow the advice of an old woman and to flee from their cruel neighbors. As their dogs were killed, the sledges were of no use, but by chance a bitch with jjups was in the hut and the old woman, who was a great angakoq. ordered them to go and whip the young dogs, which would thus grow up quickly. They did so and in a short time the pups wore hnnc and strong. They harnessed them and set off as quick! y a s h iss i hi . . | In order to deceive their neighbors they left everything hi-hind and did not even extinguish their lamps, that they might not excite suspicion. The next morning tlie men of Ejaluqdjuaq wondered why their companion had not returned and went to the hut in Qernirtung. They peeped through the spy hole in the window and saw the lamps burning, but nobody inside. At last they discovered the body of the young man, and, finding the tracks of the sledges, tliey liurriedly put their sledges in order and pursued the fugitives. Though the latter had journeyed rapidly their pursuers followed still more rapidly and seemed likely to overtake them in a short time. They therefore became very much frightened, fearing the revenge of their pursuers. When the sledge of the men drew near and tlie women saw that they were unable to escape, a young woman asked the old angakoq: "Don't you know how to cut the ice?" The matron answered in the affirmative and slowly drew a line over the ice with her first finger 620 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. across the path of their pursuers. The ice gave a loud crack. Once more she drew the line, when a crack opened and quickly widened as she passed on. The floe began moving and when the men arrived they could not cross over the wide space of water. Thus the party were saved by the ai't of their angakoq. For many days they drifted to and fro, but finally they landed on the island of Sagdlirn, where they took up their abode and became the mothers of the Sagdlirihiut. KALOPALING. Kalopaliug is a fabulous being that lives in the sea. His body is like that of a human being and he wears clothing made of eider ducks' skins. Therefore he is sometimes called Mitiling (with eider ducks). As these birds have a black back and a white belly, his gown looked speckled all over. His jacket has an enormous hood, which is an object of fear to the Inuit. If a kayak capsizes and the boatman is drowned Kalopaling puts him into this hood. He cannot speak, but can only cry, "Be, be! Be, be!" His feet are very large and look like inflatf.l si'alskin floats. The limit lid ii'vc that in olden times there were a great number of Kaiopalit. Imt gradually their number diminished and there are now very few left. They may be seen from the land swimming very rapidly under the water and sometimes rising to the surface. While swimming they make a great noise by splashing with arms and legs. In summer they like to bask on rocks and in winter they sometimes sit on the ice near cracks or at the edge of drifting floes. As they pursue the hunters the most daring men try to kill them whenever they can get near them. Cautiously they a^jproach the sleeping Kalopaling, and as soon as they come near enough they throw the walrus harpoon at him. They must shut their eyes immediately until the Kalopaling is dead, else he will capsize the boat and kill the hunters. The flesh of the Kalopaling is said to be poisonous, but good enough for dog's food. An old tradition is handed down which refers to a Kalopaling: An old woman lived with her grandson in a small hut. As they had no kinsmen they were very poor. A few Inuit only took pity oh them and brought them seal's meat and blubber for their lamps. Once upon a time they were very hungry and the boy cried. The grandmother told him to be quiet, but as he did not obey she became angry and called Kalopaling to come and take him away- He entered at once and the woman put the boy into the large hood, in which he disajjpeared ahuDst immediately. Later on the Inuit were iimn. succissful in sealing and they had an abundance of meat. Tlieii tln' Kiandmother was sorry that she had so raslily given the boy to Kalopaling and wished to see him back " BOAS.] TALE OF KIVIUNG. 621 again. She InmiMitid alxmt it to the Inuit, and at length a man and his wife })n>iiiisri| \n hrlp Im: When tile ici' had (•()usiili(hxted and deep cracks were formed near the shore by the rise and fall of the tide, the boy used to rise and sit jilougside the cracks, playing with a whip of seaweed. Kalopaling, liowever, was afraid that somebody might carry the boy away and had fastened him to a string of seaweed, which he held in his hands. The Inuit who had seen the boy went toward him, but as soon as he saw them coming he sang, " Two men are coming, one with a double jacket, the other with a foxskin jacket" (Inung maqong tikitong, aipa mirqosailing, aipa kapiteling). Then Kalopaling pulled on the rope and the boy disappeared. He did not want to return to his grandmother, who had abused him. Some time afterward the Inuit saw him again sitting near a crack. They took the utmost caution tliat he shoiild not hear them when approaching, tying pieces of deerskin iinder the soles of their boots. But when they could almost lay hold of the boy he sang, " Two men are coming, one with a double jacket, the other with a foxskin jacket. Again Kalopaling pulled on the seaweed rope and the boy disappeared. The man and his wife, however, did not give up trying. They resolved to wait near the crack, and on one occasion when the boy had just come out of the water they jumped forward from a piece of ice behind which they had been hidden and before he could give the alarm they had cut the rope and away they went with him to their huts. The boy lived with them and became a great hunter. THE UISSUIT. Besides the Kalopalit there are the Uissuit, a strange people that live in the sea. They are dwarfs and are frequently seen between Iglulik and Netchillik, where the Anganidjen live, an Inuit tribe whose women are in the habit of tattooing rings around their eyes. There are men and women among the Uissuit and they live in deep water, never coming up to the surface. When the Inuit wish to see them, they go in their boats to a place where they cannot see the bottom and try to catch them by hooks which they slowly move up and down. As soon as they get a bite they draw in the line. The Uissuit are thus drawn up; but no sooner do they approach the surface than they dive down headlong again, only their legs having emerged from the water. The Inuit have never succeeded in get- ting one out of the water. An old woman lived with her grandson in a small hut. As she had no husband and no son to take care of her and the boy, they were very poor, the boy's clothing being made of skins of birds which 622 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. they cauglit in snares. When the boy would come out of the liut and join his playfellows, the men would laugh at him and tear his onter garment. Only one man. whose name was Kiviung, was kind to (lie yonni^ hoy; but he Cduhl not protect him from the others. ( )ttrii I 111' I.'Ill came to his graiuliiidtln'r crying and weeping, and she always cdiisuled him and each time made him a new garment. She entreated the men to stop teasing the boy and tearing his clothing, but they would not listen to her prayer. At last she got angry and swore she would take revenge upon his abusers, and she could easily do so, as she was a great angakoq. She commanded her grandson to step into a puddle which was on the floor of the hut, telling him what would happen and how he should behave. As soon as he stood in the water the earth opened and he sank out of sight, but the next moment he rose near the beach as a yearling seal with a beautiful skin and swam about lustily. The men had barely seen the seal when they took to their kayaks, eager to secure the pretty animal. But the transformed boy quickly swam away, as his grandmother had told him, and the men continued in pursuit. Whenever he rose to breathe he took care to come up behind the kayaks, where the men could not get at him with their harpoons; there, however, he splashed and dabbled in order to at- tract their attention and h\re them on. Biit before any one could turn his kayak he had dived again and swam away. The men were so interested in the pursiiit that they did not observe that they were being led far from the coast and that the land was now altogether invisible. Suddenly a gall' arose; the sea foamed ami rnarnl and tlic waves destroyed or U]isc1 Ihcii- frail vessels. After all scriiifil tu Ih' di-dwiicd the seal was again tiansfurmed into the lad, wlm went linnii' witlinut wetting his feet. There was nobody now to tear his clothing, all his abusers being dead. Only Kiviung, who was a great angakoq and had never abused the boy, had escaped the wind and waves. Bravely he sfi-nM' against the wild sea, but the storm did not abate. After he had dritted for many days on the wide sea, a dark mass loomed up through the mist. His hope revived and he worked hard to reach the supposed land. The nearer he came, however, the more agitated did the sea become, and he saw that he had mistaken a wild, black sea, with raging whirl- pools, for land. Barely escaping he drifted again for many days, but the storm did not abate and he did not see any land. Again he saw a dark mass looming up through the mist, but he was once more deceived, for it was another whirlpool which made the sea rise in gigantic waves. At last the storm moderated, the sea subsided, and at a great dis- tance he saw the land. Gradually he came nearer and following the BOAS.) TALE OF KIVIUNG. f;23 coast he at length spied a stone house in which a light was burn- ing. He landed and entered the house. Nobody was inside but an old woman whose name was Arnaitiang. She received him kindly and at his request pulled off his boots, slippers, and stockings and dried them on the frame hanging over the lamp. Then she went out to light a fire and cook a good meal. When the stockings were dry, Kiviung tried to take them from the frame in order to put them on, but as soon as he extended his hand to touch them the frame rose out of his reach. Having tried several times in vain, he called Arnaitiang and asked her to give him back the stockings. She answered: " Take them yourself ; there they are; there they are " and went out again. The fact is she was a very bad woman and wanted to eat Kiviimg. Then he tried once more to take hold of his stockings, but with no better result. He called again for Arnaitiang and asked her to give him the boots and stockings, whereupon she said: "Sit down where I sat when you entered my house; then you can get them." After that she left him again. Kiviung tried it once more, but the frame rose as before and he could not reach it. Now he understood that Arnaitiang meditated mischief; so he summoned his tornaq, a huge white bear, who arose roaring from under the floor of the house. At first Arnaitiang did not hear him, but as Kiviung kept on conjuring the spirit came nearer and nearer to the surface, and when she heard his loud roar she rushed in trem- bling with fear and gave Kiviung what he had asked for. ' ' Here are your boots," she cried; "here are your slippers; here are your stock- ings. I'll help you put them on." But Kiviung would not stay any longer with this horrid witch and did not even dare to put on his boots, but took them from Arnaitiang and rushed out of the door. He had barely escaped when it clapped violently together and just caught the tail of his jacket, which was torn off. He hastened to his kayak without once stopping to look behind and paddled away. He had only gone a short distance before Arnaitiang, who had recovered from her fear, came out swinging her glittering woman's knife and threatening to kill him. He was nearly frii;litiiii>(l to death and almost upset his kayak. However, he managed tnnected them by ropes. Some of the hunters hid l)ehind the cairns, while others drove the deer toward them. As the animals were unable to pass the rope they fled along it, looking for an exit, and while attempting to pass a cairn were lanced by the waiting hunter, who seized the body liv the hind legs and drew it l)ehind the line. This tale is related as a proof of their enormous strength and it is said that they were able to hold a harpooned walrus as the Eskimo hold a seal. The Tornit could not clean the sealskins so well as the Inuit, but worked them up with part of the blubber attached. Their way of preparing meat was disgusting, since they let it become putrid and placed it between the thigh and the belly to warm it. The old stone houses of the Tornit can be seen everywhere. Gen- erally they did not build snow houses, but lived the whole winter in stone buildings, the roofs of which were frequently supported by whale ribs. Though the Eskimo built similar structures they can be easily distinguished from one another, the bed of their huts being- much larger than that of the Tornit. Though both tribes lived on very good terms, the Inuit did not like to play at ball with the Tornit, as t he\- wire too strong and used large balls, with which they hurt their playfellows severely. A remarkable tradition is told referring to tlie emigration of this people. The Tornit did not build any kayaks, but as they weiv aware of the advantages afforded by their use in huiitin- t hc\ stole the boats from the Inuit, who did not dare to defend their piopeity, the (536 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. Tornit being by far their superiors in strength. Once upon a time a young Tuuiq had talcen the kayak of a young Inung without asking him and had injured it by knocking in the bottom. The Inung got very angry and ran a knife into tlie nape of the Tuniq's neck wliile he was sleeping. (According to another tradition he drilled a hole into his head; this form is also recorded in Labrador.) The Tornit then became afraid that the Inuit would kill them all and preferred to leave the country for good. They assembled at Qernirtung (a place in Cumberland Soiind), and in order to deceive any pursuers they cut off the tails of their jumpers and tied their hair into a bunch protruding from the crown of the head. In another form of the tradition it is said that while playing with the Tornit a young Inung fell down and broke his neck. The Tor- nit feared that the Inuit might take revenge iipon them and left the country. Many old ditties are sung which either treat of the Tornit or are reported to have been sung by them. Some of them will be found in the linguistic account connected with my journey. THE WOMAN AND THE SPIRIT OF THE SINGING HOUSE. Once upon a time a woman entered the singing house when it was quite dark. For a long time she had wished to see the spirit of the house, and though the Inuit hadAvarned her of the impending danger she had insisted upon her undertaking. She summoned the spirit, saying, "If you are in the house, come here." As she could not see him, she cried, "No spirit is here; he will not come." But the spirit, though yet invisible, said, "Here I am; thei"e I am." Theii the woman asked, "Where are your feet; where are your shins; where are your thighs; where are your hips; where are your loins?" Every time the spirit answez-ed, " Here they are; there they are." And she asked further, " Where is your belly?" "Here it is," answered the spirit. "Where is your breast; where are your shoulders; where is your neck; where is your head?" " Here it is; there it is;" but in toviching the head the woman all of a sudden fell dead. It had no bones and no hair (p. 597). THE CONSTELLATION UDLEQDJUN. Three men went bear hunting with a sledge and took a young hi >j with them. When they approached the edge of the floe they saw a bear and went in pursuit. Though the dogs ran fast they could not get nearer and all of a sudden they observed that the bear was lifted up and their sledge followed. At this moment the boy lost one of his mittens and in the attempt to pick it up fell from the sledge. There he saw the men ascending higher and higher, finally being transformed into stars. The bear became the star Nanuqdjung BOAS.] THE GREAT FLOOD. Q^'J (Betelgeuse); the pursuers, Udleqdjun (Orion's belt); and the sledge, Kamutiqdjung (Orion's sword). The men continue the pursuit up to this day; the boy, however, returned to the village and told how the men were lost. ORIGIN OF THE ADLET AND OF THE QADLUNAIT. Savirqong, an old man, lived alone with his daughter. Her name was Niviarsiang (i. e., the girl), but as she would not take a hus- band she was also called Uinigumissuitung (she who would not take a husband). She refused all her suitors, but at last a dog, spotted white and red, whose name was Ijirqang, won her affection and she took him for a husband. They had ten children, five of whom were Adlet and five dogs. The lower part of the body of the Adlet was that of a dog and hairy all over, the soles excepted, while the upper part was that of a man. When the children grew up they became very voracious, and as the dog Ijirqang did not go out hunting at all, but let his father in law provide for the whole family, it was difficult for Savirqong to feed them. Moreover, the children were awfully clamorous and noisy; so at last the grandfather got tired of it, put the whole family into his boat, and carried them to a small island. He told the dog Ijirqang to come every day and fetch meat. Niviarsiang hung a pair of boots round his neck and he swam across the narrow channel. But Savirqong. instead of giving him meat, filled the boots with heavy stones, which drowned Ijirqang when he attempted to return to the island. The daughter thought of revenging the death of her husband. She sent the young dogs to her father's hut and let them gnaw off his feet and hands. In return Savirqong, when Niviarsiang hap- pened to be in his boat, threw her overboard and cut off her fingers when she held to the gunwale. As they fell into the sea they were transformed into seals and whales. At last he allowed her to climb into the boat. As she feared that her father might think of killing or maiming her children, she ordered the Adlet to go inland, where they became the ancestors of a numerous people. She made a boat for the young dogs, setting up two sticks for masts in the soles of her boots, and sent the piippies across the ocean. She sang: "Angnaijaja. When you arrive there across the ocean you will make many things giving you joy. Angnaija." They arrived in tlie land beyond the sea and became the ancestors of the Europeans. THE GREAT FLOOD. A long time ago the ocean suddenly began to rise, until it covered the whole land. The water even rose to the top of the moiintains and the ice drifted over them. When the flood had subsided the ice ' (;3g THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. stranded and ever since forms an ice ca]) on the top of the mount- ains. Many shellfish, fish, seal, and whales were left high and dry and their shells and bones may be seen to this day. A great number of Inuit died during this period, but many others, who had taken to their kayaks when the water commenced to rise, were saved. INUGPAyDJUQDJUALUNG. In days of yore, an enormous man, whose name was Inugpaq- djuqdjualuug, lived in company with many other Inuit in a village on a large fjord. He was so tall that he could straddle the fjord. He used to stand thus every morning and wait for whales to pass beneath him. As soon as one came along he stooped and caught it, just as another man would scoop up some little thing that had fallen into the water, and he ate it as other men eat a small piece of meat. One day all the natives had manned their boats to hunt a whale. Inugpaqdjuqdjualung at the time was sitting lazily near his hut, but when he saw the efforts of the men he scooped both whale and boats from the water and placed them upon the beach. At another time, being tired from running about, he lay down on a high hill to take a nap. The Inuit told him that a couple of huge bears had been seen near the village, but he said he didn't care, and told lus friends to rouse him by throwing large stones upon him if they should see the bears coming. They did so and Inugpaqdjuq- djualung, suddenly starting up, cried: " Where are they? Where are . they?" When the Inuit pointed them oiit he said: "What! those little things? Those are not worth the bustle: tlit'v are small foxes, not bears," and he criished one between liis tiii-ers. while he put the other into the eyelet of his boot and strangled it there. THE BEAR STORY. This story is reprinted from Hall (II. p. 240): Many moons ago, a woman obtained a polar bear cub but two or three days olil. Having long desired just such a pet. she gave it her closest attention, as tliough it were a son, nursing it, making for it a soft warm bed alongside her own, and talk- ing to it as a mother does to her child. She had no living relative, and she and the beai- occupied the house alone. Kunikdjuaq, as he grew up, proved that the woman had not taught him in vain, for he early began to hunt seals and salmon, bringing thoiii to his mother before eating any himself, and receiving his share from her hands. Slie always watched from the hilltop for his return, and if she saw that he had been unsuccessful, she begged from her neighbors blubber for his food. She learned how this was from her lookout, for if successful, he came back in the tracks made on going out, but if unsuccessful always by a different route. Learning to excel the Inuit in hunting, he excited their envy, and, after long years of faithful service, his death was resolved upon. On hearing this, the old woman, overwhelmed with grief, offered to give up her own life if they would but spare him who had so long supported her. Her offer was sternly refused. Upon this, when aU his ene- ' See foot-note on p. 616. BOAS.] SUNDRY TALKS. 639 mies had retii-ed to their liouscs. tln' ui.hliii hail a Imin talk with her son — now well grown in years — telling; liini thai wi.lM.I mni wrrr al.oiit to kill him, and that the only way to save his litV' ami hers wa^. tm- I urn t(i nocilVanil not return. At the same time she begged him not to go so far that she could not %\ aniler off and meet him, and get from him a seal or something else which she might need. The bear, after list- ening to what she said with tears streaming down her furrowed cheeks, gently placed one huge paw on her head, aad then throwing both around her neck, said, ' Good mother, Kunikdjuaq will always be on the lookout for you and serve you as best he can."' Saying this, he took her advice and departed, almost as much to the grief of the cliildren of the village as to the mother. Not long after this, being in need of food, she walked out on the sea ice to see if she could not meet her son, and soon recognized him as one of two bears who were lying down together. He ran to her, and she patted him on the head in her old familiar way, told him her wants, and begged him to hm-ry away and get some- thing for her. Away ran the bear, and in a few moments the woman looked upon a terrible fight going on between him and his late companion, which, however, to her great relief, w-as soon ended by her son's dragging a lifeless body to her feet. With her knife she quickly skinned the dead bear, giving her son large slices of the liluhber. and telling him that she would soon retmn for the meat, which she could not at first carry to her house, an 1 when her supply should again fail she would comeback for his help. Tliis she continued to do for "a long, long time," the faithful bear always serving her and receiving the same unbroken hjve of his youth. SUNDRY TALES. (1) Two little girls, while playing about a cliff near Aivillik, with infants in the hoods on their backs, went into an opening between the rocks, which closed upon them before escape was possible. All attempts at rescue were unsuccessful, and the poor children, to whom for a time meat and water were passed, perished in the cliffs (Hall II, p. 223). (2) Opposite to Niutang. a village in Kingnait, Cumberland Sound, there is a vein of diorite resembling a boot, and therefore called Kamingujang. A long time ago two enemies lived in the village. One day they stood on the beach ready to go hunting. Suddenly the one e.xclaimed, pointing to Kamingujang, "There he blows," nuikiiii; liis enemy believe that a whale was passing up the fjord and iiidnciiii;- lihn to look out for it. Then he killed him from behind, piercing him with the spear. (o) At Qognung, near tlie hetul of Nettilling Fjord, there is a large white stone ou each side of the fjord, somewhat resembling a bear. It is said that these stones have been bears which, being pursued by an Eskimo in the water, escaped to the land, but were transformed into these stones. (4) A long time ago a dead boy was buried under a hirge stone. Be- fore his relatives had returned to their liut tlie body was transformed into a hare, which jumped forth from the tomb. All hares come from this animal. g40 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. (5) It is said that albinos of seals and deer spring from an egg of aboiit half a foot in length, which forms itself in the earth. The seal digs an underground passage to the sea, the deer a similar one to a distant part of the country, and there they rise. The albinos are said to be very quick. I will add here an enumeration of the fabulous tribes of which I gained intelligence, but of some of them I only know the names. (1) The Tornit, or, as they are called by the Akudnirmiut, the Tuniqdjuait (p. 634). It is remarkable that this people is considered here, as well as in Labrador, a tribe similar to the Eskimo, with whom tlicy InriiMM-ly lived in company, but who were subs('(|ni'iitly expelled by 1lic hiltci-. In Greenland they are entirely a r^iliult.iis tribe, each inilividiuil being of enormous size, living inland and seldom hunting in the upper pax'ts of the fjords. While in the western parts of the Eskimo country a more historical form of the tradition is preserved, it is entirely mythical in Greenland, (2) The Adlet or Erqigdlit. In the tradition treating of this tribe a similar change occurs. The Labrador Eskimo call the Indians of the interior Adlet, the tribes west of Hudson Bay call them Erqigdlit. The Baffin Land Eskimo and the Greenlanders have forgotten this relation altogrtlici'. but dmntr with tlu' trrni a fabulous tiibe witli dogs' legs and a hum.-ni lio.ly. Tlir ii:niu- A.lhi is us.'d as I'ai- ii.irth as Cumberland Peninsula, tin' Akuf whalebone for the raven and then began to make a white dress. But when he was about to try it on, the raven kept hopping about and would not sit still. The owl got angry and said ": Now sit still or I shall pour out the lamp over you." As the raven continued hopping about, the owl fell into a passion and poured the oil upon it. Then the raven cried "' Qaq! Qaq!" and since that day has been black all over. COMPARISON BETWEEN BAFFIN LAND TRADITIONS AND THOSE OF OTHER TRIBES. The similarity of the language and traditions of the Eskimo from Behring Strait to Greenland is remarkable, considering the distance which separates the tribes. Unfortunately the material from other tribes, except the Greenlanders, is very scanty, but it is probable that the same traditions or elements of traditions are known to all the tribes. In the following table the above traditions are compared with Rink's Tales and Traditions of the Greenlanders and with those of other tribes : Traditions of Greenlanders and other Ti-aditions of the Central Eskimo: tribes Qagsaqsuq, Rmk, p. 93. Qaudjaqdjuq, p. 630. The blind man wlio recovered his sight. Tlie origin of the narwhal, p. 635. Rink. p. 99. Igimarasugsuq, Rink, p. 106. Igimarasugd.iuqdjuaci, p. 633. The man who mated himself with a sea Ititaujang, p. 615. fowl. Rink, p. 145. Givioq, Rmk, pp. 157 and 439. Kiviung, p. 631. Tiggaq, Rink, p. 162. The visitor, p. 627. A lamentable story, Rink, p. 239. No. 1, sundry tales, p. 639. The sun and the moon. Rink. p. 336. The sun and the moon, p. 597. (L'homme lunaire, Petitot, Ti'aditions indiennes du Canada Nord-Ouest, p. 7. Also found by Simpson at Point Bar- row.) 6 ETH-- 41 : ,. (J42 THE CENTKAl, KSKIMO. Tho moon, Rink, p. 440. Theangakoq's lUghtto the moo The Tornit (from Labrador), Rink, p. 469. The Tornit, p. 634. A woman who was mated with a dog, Origin of the Adlet and the wl Rink, p. 471. p. 637. (Fragmentary in J. Murdoch : "A few- legendary fragments from the Point Barrow Eskimos," American Natural- ist, p. 594, July, 188(5.) Some of these stories are almost identical in both countries, for in- stance, Qaudjaqdjuq, the origin of the narwhal, &c., and it is of great interest to learn that some passages, particulai-ly speeclies and songs, occur literally in both countries, for instance, the interesting song of Niviarsiang (jjage 637) and the conclusion of the Kiviung tradition. The tradition of the Tornit and the form of the second tale (origin of the narwhal) resemble much more those of Labrador than those of Greenland. The elements of which the traditions are composed are combined differently in the tales of Baffin Land and Greenland, but most of these elements are identical. I give here a comparative table. Greenland. Baffin Land. Transformation of a man into a seal. Rink, pp. 233, 334, Kivimig, p. 631. Men walking on the surface of the water. Rink, pp. 133, 407. Kiviung, p. 623. Harpooning a witch. Rink, p. 373. Sedna, p. 604. Erqigdlit. Rink. pp. 401 et seq. Adlet, p. ( Sledge of the man of the moon drawn Rink, pp.441, 443. Qaudjaqdjuq, p. 631, by one dog. and The flight to the moon, p. 598. Origin of the salmon. Cranz, p. 3(53. Ititaujang, p. 617. Arnaquagsaq. Rink, pp. 150, 336, Sedna, p. 583. 466, Origin of the thunder. Cranz, p. 3i rce- Kadlu, 600. de, p. 307, The following is a comparison between traditions from Alaska and the Mackenzie and those of the Central Eskimo • Traditions from Alaska and the Mic- Ti-aditions of the Central Eskimo: kenzie Men as descendants of a dog, Mm-d( ich Originof the Adlet and white men, p. 637 op. cit. . p. 594. The originof reindeer. Murdoch, op. cit.. Origin of the reindeer and wah'us. p. 587 p. 595. The origin of the fishes, Murdoch, op. cit. Ititaujang. p. 617. p. 595. Tlmnder and lightning, Murdoch, op. cit. Kadlu the thunderer, p. 600. Sun and moon, Petitot, op. cit., p. 7. Sun and moon, p. 597. Orion, Simpson, p. 940. Orion, p. 636. BDBEAU OF El Bl< :IHUAL KEPORT PL. IV Pv/ f'^et^er Sound b rf .^--A /'/-^^ &^' ,/. ^.. -Oc. "^v ^ f^VC/ BOAS.) ESKIMO GEOGRAPHY. 643 The table shows that the following ideas are known to all tribes from Alaska to Greenland : The sun myth, representing the sun as the brother of the moon; the legend of the descent of man from a dog; the origin of thunder by rubbing a deerskin ; the origin of hsh from chips of wood ; and the story of the origin of deer. It must be regretted that very few traditions have as yet been collected in Alaska, as the study of such material would best enable us to decide upon the question of the origin of the Eskimo. SCIENCE AND THE ARTS. GEOGRAPHY AND NAVIGATION. The Eskimo exhibit a thorough knowledge of the geogi-aphy of their country. I have already treated of their migrations and men- tioned that the area they travel over is of considerable extent. They have a very clear conception of all the countries they have seen or heard of, knowing the distances by day's joiirneys, or, as they say, by sleeps, and the directions by the cardinal points. So far as I know, all these tribes call true south piningnang, while the other points are called according to the weather prevailing while the wind blows from the diffei-eut quarters. In Cumberland Sound uang- nang is west-northwest; qaningnang (that is, snow wind), east-north- east; nigirn, southeast; and aqsardnirn, the fohn-like wind blowing from the fjords of the east coast. On Nettilling these names are the same, the east-northeast only being called qanara (that is, is it snow?) In Akudnirn uangnang is west-southwest; ikirtsuq (i. e., the wind of the open sea), east-northeast; oqurtsuq (i. e., the wind of the land Oqo or of the lee side , southeast; and avangnanirn (i. e., from the north side along the shore), the northwestern gales. According to Parry the same names as in Cumberland Sound are used in Iglulik. If the weather is clear the Eskimo use the positions of the sun, of the dawn, or of the moon and stars for steering, and find their way pretty well, as they know the direction of their point of destination exactly. If the weather is thick they steer by the wind, or, if it is calm, they do not travel at all. After a gale they feel their way by observing the direction of the snowdrifts. They distinguish quite a number of constellations, the most im- IDortant of wliich arc Tiiktuiidjuii-- (the deer), our Ursa Major; the Pleiades, Sakiclauii: an.l \\i<- h,-]i ,,f Orion, Udleqdjun. As their knuwIiMlyv of all the diivrtions is very detailed and they are skillful draftsmen they can draw very good charts. If a man intends to visit a country little known to him, he has a map drawn in the snow by some one well acquainted there and these mat)s are so good that every point can be recognized. Their way of drawing 644 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. is first t(j mai'k some i^oiuts the relative positious of which are well known. They like to stand on a hill and to look around in order to place these correctly. This done, the details are inserted. It is remarkable that their ideas of the relative position and direction of coasts far distant one from another are so very clear. Copies of some charts drawn by Eskimo of Cumberland Sound and Davis Strait are here introduced (Plate IV, p. 643,- and Figs. 543-546). A comparison between the maps and these charts will prove their correctness. Fre- vTi by Itii. a Nugriiniio. (Oripimxl iu the Mu- queutly the draftsman makes his own country, with which he is best acquainted, too large; if some principal points are marked first, he will avoid this mistake. The distance between the extreme points represented in the first chart (Fig. 543) is about five hundred miles. The Eskimo have a sort of calendar. They divide the year into thirteen months, the names of which vary a great deal, according to the tribes and according to the latitude of the place. The surplus is Frobisher liny, Urauii liy t^unapigiuiiig. an Ucjui THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. Fio. 54S. Cumljerlaiid Souiul, drawn by Itii, a Nugiii ESKIMO GEOGRAPHY. 647 ^/.: I V ^^'- - V, jO* Fig. 54(1. Peninsula ot yiritimg, tlrami by Angutuqdjuaq, a Padin 648 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. balanced by leaving out a montb every few years, to wit, the month siringilang (without sun), which is of indeiinite duration, the name covering the whole time of the year when the sun does not rise and there is scarcely any dawn. Thus every few years this month is totally omitted, when the new moon and the winter solstice coincide. The name qaumartenga is applied only to the days without sun but with dawn, while the rest of the same moon is called siriniktenga. The days of the month are very exactly designated by the age of the moon. Years are not reckoned for a longer space than two, back- ward and forward. The Eskimo are excellent draftsmen and carvers. Most of the drawings are similar to the bear and deer shown on Plate V (Figs. d and g) or to the illustrations of the Qaudjaqdjuq tale (see Figs. 537-541, pp. 631-633.) The rest, on Plates Viand VII, are excel- lently made, and by far superior to any I have seen made by other Eskimo of these regions. A number of carvings are represented on Plates VIII and IX. The narwhal and the whale are particularly admirable. Among the implements represented in this paper there are many of beautiful and artistic design. 1 also add a number of engravings of implements plainly showing the -nfluence of European patterns (Plate X). POETRY AND MUSIC. Among the arts of the Eskimo poetry and music are by far the most prominent. The tales which have been related are only a small part of their stock of traditions. Besides the contents their form also is very interesting, as most of them have been handed down in unchanged form and their narration demands a great deal of art. Many traditions are told in a very abridged form, the substance being supposed to be known. A specimen of this kind is the Sedna tradi- tion (p. 604). All these tales must be considered recitatives, many of them beginning with a musical phrase and continuing as a rhyth- mic recitation, others being recited in rhythmic phrases throughout. Other traditions are told in a more detailed and prosaic manner, songs or recitations, however, being sometimes included. Ititau- jang, for instance, in traveling into the country looking for his wife, sings the song No. XIII, and in the Kalopaling tradition the boy, on seeing the two Inuit coming, sings: mirqo - sai - ling iEAO OF ETHNOLOOS ST3TH AtlllCAL KF.PORT PL. 1 Drawn liy Aisc'iin^^. ;i nal ive of ! boas] music of the ESKIMO. g49 Some Eskimo are very good narrators and understand how to ex- press the feelings of the different persons by modulations of the voice. In addition, as a number of tales are i-eally onomatopoetic, an artistic effect is produced. The way of reciting is always similar to the one above described by notes (p. 648). Besides these tales, which may be called poetic prose, there are real poems of a very marked rhythm, which are not sung but recited. The following are examples: MERRYMAKING AMONG THE TORNIT. Pi-kapikagningminge-pignirmingqije-pignirmingsuka-dla. aq! aq! The Eskimo reciting this song jump up and down and to the right and left with their legs bent and their hands hanging down, the palms touching each other. In crjdng aq! aq! they jump as high as pos- sible. THE LEMMING'S SONG. Allegretto. 650 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. The form of both old and new songs is very strict, they being divided into verses of different length, alternating regularly. I give here some examples: ARLUM PissiNGA (the killer's song). Moilerato. I ^j 7\j /|j-r3|j-i7T]|j j'lrTilJ-lfj .M Oiaa-ga-lo tai - to-,r-iluii-ga qo-la-ra-lo tai - to - .-valuii - ga Qiau- ga - J /|J-|.n-3|j /|J-|J J;\J^\J-\m\J j1 -lo - ga - lo qo-la-ra-lo - ga - lo ai - si - nai - i - si se-ni-le - a - ra - - luqdjua-ra ma-lik-si-aq - tit - aq - tu - go u- va-na-le - u - nen au-dla - -tsia-pi - a - ta kingodni-dlaq-djua- gung qangatir - gakulvmg uai-ju-va - ra. I. The killer's song: II. Summer song— Continued. (1) Qiangalo taito^alunga, (2) Ajaja adlenaipa Qolaralo taito;falunga Adlenaitariva sUekdjua una tek- Qiangalogalo torotikelektlune. Qolarologalo Ajaja, Ajaja. Aisinaisi.' Aja! (3) Senilearaluqdjuara (3) Ajaja nipituovokpan! Maliksiaqtuaqtugo. Nipituovokpan kouvndlalinicikoa Uvanaleunen nunatine aujadle Audlatsiapiata Ajaja, Ajaja Kingodnidlaqdjuagung Aja! (3) Qangatirgakulunguaijuvara. &c. II. Summer song: Aja. III. Utitiaq's song: (1) Ajaja adlenaipa. Aja! Adlenaitariva silekdjua una au- (1) Adlenaipunganema adlenait. jaratarame Adlenaipunganema Ajaja, Ajaja! Adlenaipunganema adlenait, Aja! Aja! ' The stanza is scanned thus: IH ANNOAi, REfO -^-5^ B ^^ BOREAO Of ETBNOLOii ti KEl-uKl' PL Drawn by Aise'ant;. a native or Nnviijen ESKIMO DRAWING : BOAS.l MUSIC OF THE ESKIMO. 651 III. Utitiaq's song— Continued. IV. Kadlu's song—Continued. (3) Situqdjualimena adlenait. (2) Odlaqe', odlaqe', odlaqe'. Atotyjoqtai-omeua Odlaqe' saranga tutai-anga atu- Tanerangitu adlenait. jang una ajajaja. Aja! Odlaqe' atedlirlungai aj;igirn &c. qodlusuaning a^iatungitunga IV. Kadlu's song: ajaja. 1) Odlaqe', odlaqe'. odiaqe'. Ugjurutlarunirn i^atijitingirn \>i- Odlaqe' saranga tutariuiga atu- nassousirdlunirn pinasuataut- jang una ajajaja. lirpadlirnuniru. Odlaqe' atedlirlungai a^rigiin (3) . . . &c. qodlusuaning a^iatungitunga ajaja. Nettiulunga i;(atijetingirn pinas- sousii'dhmii-n pinasuatautlLr- padlk-unirn. Some of these verses contain only a single word, tlie rhythm l)eing ])rought about by the chorus aja, auma aja, &c. I add tM-^^^^^ig^^i=\E^^ i-ja a-ja a-ja a - ja - ja a-ja a-ja a-ja ja. A - a-ja a-ja a-ja a-ja qi - lirsi - uta - ra-ta taunane. Ar-naq-djuqpun una qiavoqtuiig qi - tuugnaqdju-ago nu-ting-men. XII. SONG- OF A PADLIMIO. i^^3^^g^^i3gS|33=^g3:EE^^-=^.-- all unguata - uena-uuir-puiiga a- nane- ga oqsomik - --^-^^J- die nout-lar • pu - tin kungesi- en - mg qa-qo - mu - die no- ut-lar - pu-ti - die a - ja. XIII. ITITAUJANQ'S SONG. Allegro. ^i3iS|^3^^ilii33gi^ pi -supa- gasu -pun -ga s^^a^^iriigii -pun - ga si-la- potu-a-dnun tigmidjennunanuutavungaja i - ja- a-ja. TiECITATIVE. E^_li^r^s Nutitavun okoa quliqdjiiaq una niguviksa - o adjirdjangirtun majoar-dlunga ta - vimga imma pi- su - la purmalirmi uuga.-J 656 THE C'ENTKAI^ ESKIMO. XrV. PLAYING AT BALL. Allegretto. Sa - ke- e - tan sungmuiiping-me-ta naumunping-me-ta qa-u-ja- Ifg^m^si^iii^ ra-ju - va u diuja - ra-ju - va amu ta -i qiinu - ta- i- dlo - on-ma ^u- na mqag-i - e - la u- dnir so- ri - va-ra;3^=P ^fegi^g^ inung ikoa oaitiangikoa dlertouqikoa to - gitju- gitju-ge tao - tukta - ra j^il^i^^^^il^^^ •ga-vi- ka- na ka-na- ue - pa ilu-qio gnari-piitit aaiqto-dlu-ti- A\c ;-ser - todlu - tidlo a- va - tirtuug • gieugo - dlu-ti - dlo • MUSIC OF THE ESKIMO. 657 XV. PLAYING- AT BALL. l|&liill^i^EiipiPi^= jfo-lur - pa - jau - se ,to - lu-pir - pa - jau - se - vaiiga pangmane majo - n- va pangmane. iii?lliiiiilP^ii^pp|iillp s^ t=:ftgj-—-.-I— ^— Wi XVI. From Parry, Second Voyage, p. 542, Iglulik. Amna a- ya a- ya amna ah amna a- ya a- ya amna ah ah etc. *E^^^.Sd=^ES_f!=ii^?=^l=g#—s•— The sixteenth bar is probi 6 ETH 43 — 658 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. XVII. From Lyon, Private Journal, p. 135, Iglulik. :n|:5 eiii^^^ip^^ Pi-li-tai, a - va - ta vat ah! hooi! ah! hooi! According to Parry, p. 542, the fourth bar of XVII is written: |—f ^ ^j~^j~| = '^e eighth. =^^^H ; Lyon bar after the twelfth bar FJ—j--jizj-—|I inserted. XVIII. Prom Kane, Arctic Explorations. The Second Grinnell Expedition, I, p. 383. Prom Ita, Smith Sound. Am - na gat am - na - ya am - na ja am - na - yet. XIX. Prom Bessels's Ametikanische Nordpol-Expedition, p. 372. Ahjajajajajajajajaja ahjajajajajajajajaja ahjajajajajajajajaja ah. ;i^^^^ rv^-1^-* d-»-r*—i'Z-*^—iA-~»—*-^^-*^>^~—*= lpf^c;ti=: ^m ; ; GLOSSARY. ESKIMO WORDS USED, WITH DERIVATIONS AND SIGNIFICATIONS. Anguta', his father. Angxj'vigang, lance ; from angnvoq, he Adlipae'miut, the inhabitants of the goes sealing with the harpoon. country farthest below ; from at, be- Aning'a, her brother (the moon). low -Urn, being in a certam direction; A' NO, dog harness. -pang, superlative; -mio (plural, A'PUM.^NG, gunwale. -mint), inhabitant of. Aqo'jang, stern of kayak. A DLIRN, a small lamp on the floor of the Aqsar'dnirn, wind blowing down a val- hut from at, below; -Urn, being in a; ley. certain direction. Arau'taq, snow beater (AivUlik dialect). Adli'vun, those beneath us; from at, be- Arm'goaq, amulet. low ; -Km, being in a certain direc- Ase'dlun, flat receptacle for the harpoon tion ; -mm, possessive first person Une on kayak. plural. AsiMAU'TANG, piece of board or whale- A GDLAG, black bear. bone on which .skins are cleaned. Agdliaq, a small spear ; from alee-, Atau'ta, neck of sealskin float; from across ; -dlivoq, he provides with ; -aq, atav-, to be connected. past participle. AuDLlTi'viNG, vault back of snow house. AGGmN, a species of duck (Anas glacia- Avangna'nirn, northwestern gales along Hs). the coast of Baffin Land. Alss'lVANG. spider. Avau'tang, sealskin float. A'JANG, beam of kaj-ak from ajaq-, to Avautapaq', large sealskin float; from; support. avautang, sealskin float ; -paq, super- Aja'rorpoq, he plays the game cafs lative. cradle. A'viGNAQ, lemming. Aje GAUNG, a game. A;fl'GlRN, ptarmigan. Ajokitarpoq, a game.. E. Ajuktaq'tung, batting the ball. fish, used as Akparaik'tung, hook for preventmg Fvi'ALuJANG, cawed ivory bait ; from exaluq, salmon ; -ujang, the loss of harpoon. similar to. Akud'nang, paddle handle ; from ako, E;CALUQ, salmon. middle. A KUK, lateral sti-ips of wood used in I. boat ; from ako, middle. Idluk' a fabulous fish. Alien, harpoon line. Igdl'u. snow house. A'maroq, wolf. Igdl'uarn, a vault attached to snow A'ming. skin of land animals, cover of hut ; from igdlu, snow house ; -am, boat and kayak. small. Ang'akgq, a magician, conjurer. Igdlukitaq'tUNG, playing with two Angakunirn, the art of the angakoq. balls, tossing them up alternately Ang'akut, plm-al of angakoq. from igdlung, both ; -kitarpoq, he uses Angiaq, spirit of a murdered child at the same time. (Greenland). Igdlu' LING, second vaalt of snow house Ang'UN, paddle. from igdlu, snow house ; -ling. with. 6r,9 660 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. I GIMANG, ball-and-socket joint of har- MiRQDSSANG, two masked persons. X)Oon and lance ; from igipa' , he throws MUMIPOQ, he dances. it off. Ikan', store room supported by stone pillars; from ifcarpog, it stretches from support another. Nabi'rino, a loop from one : (tajjog,to he hin- IKIRT SUQ, wind blowing from the open ders a motion. Na'po (plural napun), crossbar of sledge. sea. my Naqeta'RUN,ILAGA, friend lashing(Netchillik). for the sledge ; from iLtJPl'QANQ, lining of snow house from naqigpoq, it is pressed down.; Nau'lang, harpoon head. ilo, iimer. IMITI'JUNG, drinking water ; from Ne'tivang, P/locu iniiq, cristata. NiGiRN, water. southeast.fresh InetanG, hoop with net of thongs to dry NiKSlANG, hook. snow house from Niksiar'taung, fish hook.clothing etc. in ; NiRT'sUN, small ropes used in sledge and iniva'. he hangs it up. IN'UA, its man, owner house. : possessive tliird NiUQTUNG, drill bow with string ; from person of inung, man. niorpoq. he drills. Inuq'SUNG, caun ; from luuiig, man. Niu'tang, hoop with skin stretched over Ipar'ang, harpoon line. it; beam of kayak. Ip'un, oar, a s ear. Nuglu'tang, a certain game. Ieqata'tung, a certain circuit among the Nu'lRN, bird spear. huts. NUUANITITIJDNG, exchange of wives. IssuMATJTANG, a cliief ; from issii'ma- NuNAJiSAR'TUNG, a certain festival. voq, he tliinks. NuQSANG, throwing board. Itigega, boot (Iglulik). NussuERAQTUNG, a certain festival. Itie'bing, cross piece abaft the hole in kayak ; from itiq. Oqur'tsuq (Akudnirn), southeast, blow- K.^LiAQDJUQ, wolverine ing from Oqo from ogo,(Iglulikl. ; weather side. Kaitikpoq, a game. KArv-iTi'jUNG, a game. P. Kaki'vang, fish spear. Pa, hole of kayak. Kaklio'kia, hook (Iglulik). Pakijumijar'tung, game of hook and Kalu'giang, a heavy lance (qalugiang?). crook. Kan'go, a species of goose. Pa'na, double edged knife. Ka'pun, spear ; from kapivd', he stabs Partieang, button for closing the jiitu ; him. from pdrpa, he meets liim. Ka'teng, entrance to stone hut. Pauk'tun, pegs. Kentun, drumstick. Pau'ting, double bladed kayak paddle. KiDLU'LiEN, lamp standing in the rear of PiLAUT, large knife. the hut. PiLEKTiTNG, cutting sometliing. Ki'glo, boat post. KiLAUT, Pi'main, chief, he who knows everythingdrum. best Koukparmitj'tang, by practice.a certain amulet at Pi'NINGNANG, tlTie SOUth. point of hood. Pir'qang, shoeing of rmmers of sledge.Ku'jANG, keel of kayak. PiTIQ'SE, bow. PiTKUSl'RARPOQ, a certain game. Pi'TU, a stout thong, consisting of two Ma'ung, paddle blade. parts to fasten traces to sledge. Ma'mi, membrane or inner side of skin. PoviUTANG, pipe for inflating skins ; from Ma SING, cross piece before hole in kayak. po-, to blow. MiRQUN, needle. PUKIQ, tlie white part of a deerskin. ; GLOSSARY. 661 QoQSlUARlVA, the ceremony of washing Q. children with urine. Qadldnait, Europeans. QUDLIPAR MiUT. the inhabitants of the Qaogi, singing house. country farthest above ; from qu, Qailertetano, a certain masked figure. above ; -Hrii, being in a certain direc- Qai'vun, drill. tion ; -pang, superlative ; -mio (plural, Qa'jaq, kayak. -mild), inhabitant of. Qa'mun, sledge runner. Qddlirn, alamp ; from qii, above ; -Urn, Qa'mutdig (dual of qamnn), sledge. being in a certain duection. Qana'ra , east-northeast (NettiUing) QuDU VUN, the uppermost ones ; from from qaning, falling snow. qu, above ; -lini, being in a certain di- Qang'ing, a toggle. rection ; -vuH, possessive first person Qang'ien, a ventilating hole in snow plm-al. house from qa, above. QUDLUQSIUTA, ring; on a paddle. Qaning, a certain rib of kayak. Qu MING, a certain lamp. Qa NiNGNANG, east-northeast; from qa- Quqar'taun, an implement to sti-ing fish. ning, falling snow. QuviETUNG, a festival. Qaq DJUNG, arrow. Qa an S.REANG, annex of house for addi- tional family. Sadni RiAQ, cross piece, a certain but- , Qab'mang (plural qarmat), stone or bone ton, from sndne, side, across. house. Sadni'run, a yard. Qarmau'jang, similar to a qavmang; Saketan', roulette; from sakag2m, lie suftix, -ujang, similar to. pushes it. Qasi'giaq, Phoca aiineHata. Sakie'taun, the Pleiades. Qatilik, a spear (Iglulik); from qatirn, Sakurp.\ng', whale harpoon; from sako, ivory head of harpoon shaft ; -lik, with. weapon ; -pang, tlie largest. Qa TiRN, ivory head of harpoon shaft. Saving, knife. Qatu RANG, a boot ornament. Seligo'ung, scraper; from seliva.', he Qaumartenga, days without sun, but cleans a skin.j witli dawn. SlADNiRN (plural, siadnit), lateral sti-ip j Qau MAT, a kind of lii-e (?) from qauq, in kayak; ; from siaq-, to place in a j daylight. row ; -nirn,! being. Qaumati'VUN, Sim (in the sacred language Siat'ko. harpoon head (Iglulik). of the angakut). SlEKTUNG, the tliree .stars in Orion's Qauma'VUN, moon (in tlie sacred language belt : those standing In a row. of the angakut). SlRDLOANG, store room of snow house. Qauq, daylight. SiRlNGlLANG, the excepted month in QiDJARUNG, whirl from qipivd', he balancing Eskimo calendars, the month; twists it. without sun ; from sirinirn, sun ; -nxji- Qijuqteng'a, harpoon shaft; from qijuq, lang, he has not. wood. Sirinikteng'a, the first days wath sun- qiLAQ, sky. light ; from sirinirn, sun; -tang, new; Qiler TUANG, clasp for holding the coils -a, possessive third person singular. of the harpoon line; from qilerpd he SiRMi'JAUNG, scraper for kayak ; from, ties it with a knot. sinning, thin ice. Qing'ang, a hole to look out of snow Sulubaut', bunch of hair projecting house. from forehead. Qing'jiiaq, mouth piece of SULtn'TUNG, festival m wliich a knifedrill. QlPEKU TANG, rod to indicate approacli (sulung) is used. of seal his hole. SuLUNG,to wing; knife shaped likea wing. Ql'PlQ, blanket. T. Qi'qirn, phantom in the shape of a huge, Tagusiar'bing. eye (of harpoon). hairless dog. Taouta', a thong (of hari^oon). ; 662 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. Teliq'bing, certain piece on harpoon line. TUTAREANG, a Certain buckle. Tesir'QUN, scraper ; from tesivd', he Tu'viNG, strip ill the boat nearest the stretches it. gunwale; from tuk-, to stop a motion ; TiGDLUlQ DJUNG, blow with the fist (of a tiqxl' , he makes it fast. stranger) from Hgdlugpa', he strikes; U. him with the fist. TlKAOCNG, support of hand in throw- Ua'dling, fii-st vault of snow house. ing harpoon. Uang'nang, west-northwest, Cumber- Tr'KlQ, thimble. land Sound ; west-soutliwest in Aku- TiKPiNG, rib of kayak. dnirn. TlLUQTUNG, snow beater; {rom tihtqjJa, Udleq'djung, Sword of Orion: following lie strikes it, in order to shake some- one another. thing off. UiNiRN, head of sledge rminer. TiNGMl'UJANG, images of birds (used for U'KusiK, soapstone kettle. dice) from tingmiang, bhd ; -tijang,; U'LO, woman's knife. similar to. Uluq'Saq, green slate, material for wo-" TOKANG, harpoon head. men's knives ; from ulo and -saq, ma- TOQ'SUNG, vaulted entrance to snow terial for. house. U'miaq, large skin boat. Tok'naq, aguardian spirit. Uming, beard. TORNAESUQ, the great tomaq. U'mingmang, musk ox. To'UNG, tusk, point. Umi'ujang, needle case. Toung'a, point of spear. U'nang, sealing harpoon. TuGLlGA, a tress. Unaqict TA, ring on shaft of seahng har- Tuktuq'djung, the constellation of the poon; from Mnangr; -iarpa', he fastens Reindeer, or the Great Bear, Ursa Ma- it ; -ta, past participle. jor; from tukto, caribou (deer). Unarteng'a, iron rod of sealing har- Tumiujang, a certain lamp resembling poon ; from tmang; -tang, belonging a footprint; from tume, footprint; -iijang, similar to. Uqsirn, implement for fastenuig ti-aces TUNIQDJUNG, stern of kayak. to sledge. Tu'PiLAQ, spirit of a deceased person. UsuJANG, stern projection of kayak TuPiQ, tent. irom usung, penis; -ujang, similar TuPUTANG, plugs for closing woimds. to. ESKIMO GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES USED, WITH ENGLISH SIGNIFICATIONS. Akuliarmiut, tlie inhabitants of Aku- Agdlinartung. liaq. Aggirtijung, abounding with ducks. Am.\qdjiiaq, the large place where chil- Aggo, the weather side. dren are carried in the hood. Aggomitjt, the inhabitants of Aggo. Amartuno, a woman carrying a child in Agpan, loons. tlie hood. Agutit. Amitoq, the narrow one. AIVILLIK, with wah-us. Anarnitung. smelUng of excrements. AlviLLiRjnuT, the inhabitants of Aivillik Anartuajuin, the excrements. (the walrus country). Anauleree'ling. Akudnirmidt, the inhabitants of Aku- Angiuqaq ; from angivoq, it is large. dnirn. Angmalortuq, the round one. Akudnirn, the intervening counti-y. Angmang, jasper. Akugdlirn, the central one. Angmartung, the open one (not frozen Akugdlit, the central ones. over). Akulia;i;ating. Aqbeniling, six; so called because Akdliaq. reached after six days' travel. GLOSSARY. 063 Aqbirsiarbin-o, a lookout for whales. Ipiuteling, with an isthmus. AQBIRTIJUNG, abounding with wliales. Ipiuting, the isthmus : literally, the AqojaNG ; from aqo, stern. traces of a dog. Aqojartung ; Irom aqo, stern. Irtiujang. Arligaulik. isiritung. AUDNERBING, place where seals are ap- IsOA, its cover. proached by the crawling hunter. IssORTUQDJUAQ, the large one with mud- AUGPALUQTIJUNG, with many red places. dy water. AuGPALUQTUNG, the red one. ITA, food. AULITIVING, an annex of the snow Itidliaping, the common pass. house ; hills lying at the foot of steep Itidlirn, the pass. cliffs. Itijareling, with a smaO pass. AuQARDNELING, with many places where Itirbilung, the anus. the ice melts early in spring. iTiviMlUT, the mhabitants of the coast AVATCTIAQ. beyond the land. AVAUDJELING, with a low saddle. Ituatukan. Itutonik (Etotoniq). K. E;t:ALOAPING, with common salmon. EfALtJALUlN, the large salmon (plur.). Ka.MISGUJAng, similar to a hoot. E^ALUAQDJxriN, the small salmon Kangertloa PING, the common bay. (plur.). Kangertlualcng, the large bay. E^ALUIN, the salmon (plur.). Kangertlukdjuaq, the large bay. EjrALUQDjuAQ, the shark. Kangeetluksiaq. ElOLEAQDJUIN. Kangertlcng, the bay. Kangia, its head, its upper part (of a bay). Idjorittjaqtuin, the only with an Kangianga,places its upper part. abundance Kangidliuta,of nearestgrass. to the land. Idjuk, Kangivamiut.the inhabitants of Kangia.testicles. iGDLtJMiUT, the inhabitants of other Kautaq,the diorite. KiLAUTiNG, the drum. side. ' IGDLUNGAJUNG, the bandy legged man KiNGNAIT, the high land.; so called from a fabulous KiNGNAiTMiUT,tribe. the inhabitants of King- Igdluqdjuaq, the large house. nait. Iglulik, with houses. KlNIPETU. IGLULIRMIUT, the inhabitants of the KiTlGTUNG, the island lying farthest out place with houses. toward the sea. IGPIRTO, with many KiTiNGUJANG, the gorge.hills. loPlRTOUSlRN, the smaller place with KOUAQDJUAQ. many KoLKDJDAQ the large river.hUls. IJELIRTUNG. KOUKSOARMIUT, the inhabitants of Kouk- IKAROLING, with a ford. soaq. Ikerassaq, the narrow KOUKTELINO, with a river.strait. Ikerassaqdjuaq, the large narrow KuGNTJAQ, the small nice river. strait. M. Iliqimisarbinq. where one shakes one's head. Majoraridjen, the places where one has Imeraqdjuaq. to climb up. IraoEN, with fresh water. MaKTARTUDJENNAq, where one eats Ingnirn, flint. whale's hide. Inugsdin, the cairns. Malxjksilaq. Inuqsulik, with caii-ns. Maniriotuno, with many eggs. . 664 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO Manituling, with uneven places. Metja, the lid. Okan, the codfish (plural). MlDLURlELiNG, where stones are thrown Okavit. (for catching wliite whales). Operdniving, place where one lives in MlUAQDJTON, the smaU ones, which shut it up(?). Oqo, the weather side. MiLiQDJTJAQ, the large one, which shuts Oqomiut, the inhabitants of Oqo. np(?). OWUTTA. MiNQONG, the beetle. MiSIQTUNG. Mdingmang. Padli, with the mouth of a river. Padliaq, the little mouth of the riv- N. er. (?) Nanuqtuaqdjung, the Padlimiut, the inhabitantslittle bear. of Padli. Nanuragassain, abounding in young Padloping ; from padlorpoq (lying on bears. the face V ). Naqoreang. Pamiujang, similar to a tail. Narpaing. Pangnirtung, with many bucks. Naujan, the PiKiULAQ,gulls. Uria grylle. Naujaqdjdaq, the large Piling, with many thingsgull. (i. e., game). Naujateung, with PiLiNOMlUT, thegulls. inhabitants of Piling. Nebaevik. PiNGITKALIK. Nedlung, peninsula from the PiTIKTAUJANG.point of which deer are driven PUJETUNG,into the water; with plenty of blubber. from nedlugpoq, he swims. PUTUKIN. Nedluqseaq ; from nedlugpoq, he Qaggilortung ; from qaggi, singing Neqemiarbing, where something is car- house. ried in the hand. Qairoliktung, with plenty of seals Nerseqdjuaq, the large valley. (Phoca grcenlandiea). Netchillik, with seals. Qamusiojodlang. Netchillirmiut, the inhabitants of Qakiaq. Netchillik (.tlie seal country). Qarmang, walls. Nettilling, with seals. Qarmaqdjuin, the large walls NiAQONAUJANG, similar to a head. Qarussuit, the cavvs. NiKOSlviNG ; from nikuipoq, it stands Qasigidjen, CaUocepliali erect. Qaumauanq ; from qauq, daylight. NiRDLiRN, the goose. Qadmauangmiut, the inliabitants of NiUTANG, hoop used in whaling. Qaumauang. NUDLUNG, the posteriors. QA;fODLUALUNG, the large fulmar. NuDNiRN, the point. QA;tODLUlN, the fulmars. NuGUMiUT, the inhabitants of the point. Qeqertakadlinang ; from qeqertuq, NURATA. island. NuRATAMlBT, the inhabitants of Nurata. Qeqertalukdjuaq, the large island. NuvujALUNG, the large cape or point. Qeqertaq, the island. NuvuJEN, the points. Qeqertaujang, similar to an island. NuvuKDJDAQ, the great point. Qeqertelung, the large island. NUVUKDJUARAQDJUNG, the little Nuvuk- Qeqerten, the islands. djuaq. Qeqertome itoq tudlihn, next to the NuvuKTiRPANG', the greatest point. island. Ndvuktualung, the only great point. Qeqertuqdjuaq, the large island. NuvuNG, the point. Qerniqdjuaq, the great black place. BOAS.] GLOSSARY. 665 QlDNELIK. Taquirbing. QlMissuNG, the snow drift. Tarionitjoq, the salt water basin. Qimuqsdq; tiom qimuqpoq, he draws Tarrionitunq, the salt water basm. the sledge. Taxoudjtjin. QlNGASEAREANG. Tessiujang, similar to a pond. QlNGUA, its head. TiKERAQDJUAQ, the great point. QiNGDAMiUT, the inhabitants of Qingua. Tikeraqdjuacsirn, the smaller great QiviTUNG, the hermit. point. QOGNUNG, the narrow place. TiKERAQDJUNG, the small pomt. QoGULORTUNQ{Qaggilortung ?). Tikeraqdjuq, the small pomt. QoRDLTjviNG, where the water runs in a TiNiNiQDJUAQ, the large beach. solid stream. TiNiQDJUARBiNG, the great place with a Qdaiirnang. liigh tide. QUDJITARIAQ. TiNlQDJUARBiusiRN, the smaller great place with a high tide. TORNAIT, spu-its. SAGDLlRinuT, the inhabitants of Sa- TOUAQDJUAQ. gdlirn. TUARPDQDJUAQ. Sagdlirn, the island nearest the sea. TUDJAN. Sagdlua, its Sagdlirn. TUDJAQDJUAQ. Sakiaqpjung, the little rib. TUDJAQDJTJARALUNG. Sarbaq (sarvaq), the rapids. TUDJARAAQDJUNG. Sarbaqdjukulu, the small rapids. TCKIA, its farthest corner. Sarbaqdualung, the large rapids. TuLUKAN, the ravens. Sarbausirn, the smaller rapids. Tuniqten, those lying behind it. Sarbuqdjuaq, the large rapids. TUNUKDTANG. Saumia, its left side. TUNUNIEMIUT, the inhabitants of Tunu- Saumingmiut, the inhabitants of Sau- nirn. mia. TuNUNiRN, the country lying back of Saunirtung, with many bones. something. Sau.virtuqdjuaq, the great one witli TtTNUNlRUSlRMiUT, tlie inhabitants of many bones. Tunimirushn. Sednirun, the yard. TuNUNlRUSiRN, the smaller Tmiunirn. Siegtung, the scattered ones. TUNUSSONG, the nape. SiKOSDiLAQ, tlie coast without ice. TUPIRBIKDJUIN, the tent sites. SlKOSUlLARMlUT, the inhabitants of Si- kosuilaq. U. SiNl, the edge. SiNiMiUT, the inhabitants of Sini. Udlimauliteling, with a hatchet. SiORELiNG, with sand. Ugjuktung, with many gi-ound seals. SiRMiLiNO, with a glacier. Ugjulik, with ground seals. SuLUNG, the valley tlu-ough which the Ugjulirmiut, the inhabitants of Ugju- wind blows howUng. lik (the ground seal country). SUROSIRN, the boy. Uglariaq. Uglirn, walrus island. Uglit, the wahus islands. Talirpia, its right side. Uibarun, the cape. Talirpingmiut, the inhabitants of Ta- Ujaraqdjuin, the large stones. from ujamq, lirpia. UjaradjiraAITJUNO; Tappitariaq, the pass crossing two isth- stone. muses. Ukadliq, the hare. TAPPITARID.IEN, the passes crossing two Ukiadliving, the place where one Uvea isthmuses. in the fall. 666 THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. Ukiukdjtjaq, the great winter. Uminoman Nuna, the land of the musk Ukusiksalik, the place with pot stone ox. Ukusiksalirmiut, inliabitant of Ukusik- Ungava. salik. Ungavamidt. Umanaq, the heart-like island. UssuALTJNG, the large penis. Umanaqtuaq, the great heart-like island. UTIQimTUNG. : APPENDIX After the preceding paper was in type some additional information was received from whalers who returned from Cumberland Sound in the autumn of 1887. In the following notes I give the substance of these reports Page 467. Since 1883 the whalers have been more successful, and consequently more ships visit the sound. In the present winter—1887-88—one American and two Scottish whaling stations are In operation in Cumberland Soimd ; a new station was established in Nugumiut two years ago, and the Scottish steamers which used to fish in Baffin Bay and the northern parts of Davis Strait are beginning to visit Cumberland Sound and Hudson Strait. The whaling in Baffin Bay shows a sudden falling off and it seems that the number of ships will be greatly reduced. This cannot be without influence upon the Eskimo, who will probably begin again to flock to Cumberland Sound and Nugumiut. Note 2. Page 538. In 1884 and 1885 a lively intercourse existed between Padliand Cumber- land Sound, and in the spring of the latter year the dog's disease broke out for the first time on the coast of Davis Strait, and spread, so far as is kno^vn, to the north- em part of Home Bay. Note 3. Page 574. A peculiar game is sometimes played on the ice in spring. The men stand in a circle on the ice, and one of tliem walks, the toes turned inward, in a devious track. It is said that only a few are able to do this in the right way. Then the rest of the men have to follow him in exactly the same track. One of their gymnastic exercises requires considerable knack and strength. A pole is tied with one end to a stone or to a piece of wood that is firmly secured m the snow. A man then lies down on his back, embi-acing the pole, his feet turned toward the place where the pole is tied to the rock. Then he must rise without bending his body. In another of their gymnastic exercises they lie down on their stomachs, the arms bent so that the hands lie close together on the breast, palms turned down- ward. Then they have to jump forward without bending their body, using only their toes and hands. Some are said to be able to jimip several feet in this manner. Note 4. Page 583. In the Report of the Hudson Bay Expedition of 188G, p. 16, Lieut. A. Gordon remarks that the same custom is reported from Port Burwell, near Cape Cliidleigh, Labrador. He says ": There lived between the Cape and Aulatsivik a good Eskimo hunter wliose native name is not gi\en, but who was christened by our station men -Old Wicked.' He was a passionate man and was continually 667 668 APPENDIX. [BOAB threatening to do some bodily harm to the other more peaceably inclined natives. * * * His arrogance and petty annoyances to the other natives became at length unbearable. It appears that these uufortmiates held a meeting and decided that Old Wicked was a public nuisance which must be abated, and they therefore decreed that lie should be shot, and shot he was accordingly one afternoon when he was busily engaged in repau-ing the ravages which a storm had made in his 'igdlu' or snow house. The executioner shot him in the back, killing him instantly. The ^murderer or executioner (one hardly knows to which title he is more justly entitled) then takes Old Wicked's wives and all his cliildren and agrees to keep them * * * so that they shall be no bm-den on the company." The fact that the custom is found among ti-ibes so widely separated will justify a description of those events which came under my own observation. There was a native of PadU by the name of Padlu. He had induced the wife of a Cumberland Sound native to desert her husband and follow him. The deserted husband, medi- tating revenge, cut off the upper part of the barrel of his gim so that he could con- ceal it under his jacket. He crossed the land and visited liis friends in Padli, but before he could accomplish his intention of killing Padlu the latter shot him. When this news was reported in Qeqerten, the brother of the murdered man went to PadU to avenge the death of Ms brother; but he also was killed by Padlu. A tliii-d native of Cumberland Sound, who wished to avenge the death of his relatives, was also murdered by him. On account of all these outrages the natives wanted to get rid of Padlu, but yet they did not dare to attack him. When the pimain of the Akudnir- miut in Niaqonaujang learned of these events he started southward and asked every man in Padh whether Padlu should be killed. All agreed ; so he went with the latter deer himting in the upper part of Pangnirtung, northwest of PadU, and near the head of the fjord he shot Padlu in the back. In another instance a man in Qeqerten had made himself odious. After it was agreed that he was a bad man an old man of Qeqerten, Pakaq, attacked him on board a Scottish whaler, but was prevented from kiUiug him. Note 5. Page 594. The following performance was observed in Umanaqtuaq, on the southwestern coast of Cumberland Sound, in the winter of 1886-87 : An angakoq began his incantations in a hut after the lamps were lowered. Suddenly he jumped up and rushed out of the hut to where a mounted harpoon was standing. He threw liimself ujjon the harpoon, which peneti-ated his breast and came out at the back. Three men followed him and holding the hai-poon line led the angakoq, bleeding pro- fusely, to aU the huts of the village. When they arrived again at the first hut he pulled out the harpoon, lay down on the bed, and was put to sleep by the songs of another angakoq. When he awoke after a while he showed to the people that he was not hurt, although liis clothing was torn and they had seen him bleeding. Another angakoq performed a similar feat on the island Utussivik in the summer of 1887. He thrust a harpoon thi-ough his body and was led by about twenty-five men tlu-ough the village. It is said that he imitated the movements and voice of a walrus whUe on the circuit. StiU another exliibition was witnessed by the whalers in the fall of 1886 in Uma- naqtuaq. An angakoq stripped off his outer jacket and began his incantations while walking about in the viUage. Wlien the men heard him, one after the other came out of his hut, each carrying his gun. After a while the angakoq descended to the beach; the men foUowed him, and suddenly fired a voUey at liim. The angakoq, of com-se, was not hurt, and then the women each gave him a cup of water, which he drank. Then he put on his jacket, and the performance was ended. The similarity of tills performance with part of the festival which is described on pp. 605 et seq. is evident. BOAS.] APPENDIX. gg9 Note 6. Page 606. The same feast was celebrated in 1886 in Umanaqtuaq, in Cumberland Sound-, where aU the TaUrpingmiut had gathered. The witnesses of this festival describe it exactly in the same way as I described it above. One thing ought to be added, which I did not mention because it seemed to me accidental, but as it was repeated in the same way in 1886 it must have some meaning. I noticed that the Qailertetang, after having invoked the wind, hop about,. making a grmiting noise and accosting the people. When doiag so they are attacked by the natives and killed. According to the description of the whalers they imitate sometimes deer, sometimes walrus. Perhaps tliis fact gave rise to Kumlien's description of the "kilUng of the evil spirit of the deer." It is remarkable that in 1883 in Qeqerten and in 1886 in Umanaqtuaq the festival was celebrated on exactly the same day, the 10th of November. This can hardly be accidental, and does not agi-ee with the idea sometimes advanced, that the festival refers to the winter solstice. Unfortu- nately Hall (I, p. 538) does not give the dates of the festival in Nugumiut. On the western coast of Hudson Bay a festival in which masks were used was celebrated about the end of January, 1866 (Hall II, p. 219), but it is hardly possible to draw conclusions from Nom-se's superficial account of Hall's observations. Note 7. Page 615. It may be of interest to learn that in 1885 and 1886 two instances of this kind occm-red in Cumberland Sound. There was a very old woman in Qeqer- ten by the name of Qa;t;odloaping. She was well provided for by her relatives, but it seems that one of the most influential men in Qeqerten, Pakaq, whom I men- tioned above (p. 668) as the executioner of a murderer, deemed it right that she should die. So, although she resisted him, he took her out of her hut one day to a hiU and buried her ahve under stones. Another case was that of an old woman whose health had been failing for a number of years. She lived with her son, whose wife died late in the autumn of 1886. According to the religious ideas of the Eskimo, the young man had to throw away Iris clothing. When, later on, his mother felt as though she could not Uve through the winter, she insisted upon being killed, as she did not want to compel her son to cast away a second set of clothing. At last her son comphed with her request. She stripped ofif her outside jacket and breeches, and was conveyed on a sledge to a near island, where she was left alone to die from cold and himger. The son who took her there did not use his own sledge nor any other Eskimo sledge for this pui-pose, but borrowed that of the Scottish whaling station.