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U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 148, FRONTISPIECE
IMMANUEL MOSES CASANOWICZBORN, JULY 25. 1853. Died. September 26. 1927
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTIONUNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMBulletin 148
COLLECTIONS OF OBJECTSOF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL IN THEUNITED STATES NATIONALMUSEUM
BYIMMANUEL MOSES CASANOWICZAssistant Curator, Division of Old World ArcheologyUnited States National Museum
UNITED STATESGOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICEWASHINGTON : 1929
Pot sale by the Superintendent of Dccuments, Washington, D. C. Price 90 cents
ADVERTISEMENTThe scientific publications of the National Museum include twoseries, known, respectively, as Proceedings and Bulletin.The Proceedings, begun in 1878, is intended primarily as a mediumfor the publication of original papers, based on the collections ofthe National Museum, that set forth newly acquired facts in biology,anthropology, and geology, with descriptions of new forms andrevisions of limited groups. Copies of each paper, in pampliletform, are distributed as published to libraries and scientific organi-zations and to specialists and others mterested in the different sub-jects. The dates at which these separate papers are published arerecorded in the table of contents of each of the volumes.The Bulletins, the first of which was issued in 1875, consist ofa series of separate publications comprising monographs of largezoological groups and other general systematic treatises (occasion-ally in several volumes), faunal works, reports of expeditions, cata-logues of type-specimens, special collections, and other material ofsimilar nature. The majority of the volumes are octavo in size,but quarto size has been adopted in few instances in which largeplates were regarded as indispensable. In the Bulletin series appearvolumes under the heading Contributions from the United StatesNational Herbarium, in octavo form, published by the NationalMuseum since 1902, which contain papers relating to the botanicalcollections of the Museum.The present work forms No. 148 of the Bulletin series.Alexander Wetmore,Assistant Secretary, Smithsonian Institution.Washington, D. C, December 2, 1929.u
NOTEAt the time of his death on September 26, 1927, Dr. ImmanuelMoses Casanowicz had completed the work herewith, embodying theresults of his study of religions comprehending the historic cults of theworld. Doctor Casanowicz, on account of his education and nativeability, was singularly equipped to follow out this line of research.Born in Russia in 1853, he was set apart by his parents to be thescholar of the family and received as a youth what was consideredessential instruction.In quest of a wider field, he traveled to Switzerland, and in Basel,Switzerland, completed the course in the Evangelische Predigerschulewhere he became a teacher. Coming to the United States, he taughtin the German Theological School in Bloomfield, N. J. EnteringJohns Hopkins University for higher studies, he received a Ph.D. in1892.In that year he became identified with the newly founded divisionof oriental studies in the United States National Museum. The planof the division was outlined by Dr. Paul Haupt, and the division wasunder the direct supervision of Dr. Cyrus Adler. For a numberof years Doctor Casanowicz assisted in the work of this division until1906, when he was appointed assistant curator of Old World arche-ology, which place he held until his death.His portrait most appropriately forms the frontispiece of thisvolume. in

TABLE OF CONTENTS PageIntroduction 1Objects of Jewish religious ceremonials 3Objects used in public worship 3Objects used in prayer &Objects used on festivals 8Sabbath 8Habdalah 9New moon , 10"Passover 10'Observance of the Passover in the Jewish home 10New Year (Rosh ha-shana); the penitential season 13The feast of Tabernacles, or booths (Sukkoth) 13The feast of Hanukah (dedication) 15The feast of Esther (Purim) 15Liturgical books 16Objects for special occasions and incidents of life 17Miscellaneous 21Collection of objects of Christian ceremonial 24Ceremonial objects of the Roman Catholic Church 24Paraphernalia of the church services 24Service of the mass 24Altar linen textiles 28Vestments of the mass 29Service of Benediction 34Liturgical works 36Objects of veneration and devotion 37Crosses and crucifixes 37Relics and reliquaries 40Images 42Prints 46Religious medals 50Votives 50Rosaries 51Religious orders 55Scapulars 57Miscellaneous 58Ecclesiastical art of the Eastern Church 60The Russian Orthodox Church 62Ecclesiastical vestments 63Russian icons and crosses 65Liturgical books 67Ceremonial objects of the Armenian Church 68Models of ecclesiastical edifices 70Religious ceremonial objects of Mohammedanism 72Founder of Mohammedanism 72Authoritative sources of the Mohammedan religion 73Koran 73Tradition (hadith, sunna) 74Ijma 74Kiyas 74Doctrines of Mohammedanism _. 74
VI CONTENTS
Religious ceremonial objects of Mohammedanism?Continued. PageRites and practices of the Mohammedan religion ? 75Spread of Mohammedanism 75Divisions and sects among the Mohammedans 76Mosque ^^Rosaries 86The religious ceremonial objects of Hinduism 89Introduction 89Collection of objects 91Objects of worship?Images of the gods 91Incarnations (Avatars) of Vishnu 96Paraphernalia of worship?temple and utensils 103Ascetics 110Castes in India 111Sacred books of the Hindus 113Objects of religious ceremonial of Buddhism 115Introduction 115Founder of Buddhism 115Buddha's doctrines (Dharma) 116Buddhist community (Sangha) 118Divisions of Buddhism 118History of the spread of Buddhism 120Collection 123Buddhist Pantheon 123Images of Buddha 123Images of Bodhisattvas and other divine beings 143Buddhist scriptures (Dharma) 152Buddhist congregation (Sangha) 153Saints and priests and their appurtenances 153Rosaries 160Religious edifices and their paraphernalia 164Kakemonos 174Miscellaneous objects connected with the religious lore of variouspeoples and countries 176Objects of religious ceremonial of Parseeism 180Introduction 180Parsees 180Zoroaster (Avesta, Zarathushtra; Pahlavi texts, Zartusht;modern Persian, Zardusht) 181Sacred literature of the Parsees 182Zoroastrian theology 183Zoroastrian ethics 185The hereafter, or eschatology in Zoroastrian theology 186Collection 188Objects of religious ceremonial of Shinto 196Introduction 196Shinto Pantheon 196Symbols or representations ( Mitama-shintai) of the gods 197Shinto shrines 199Priesthood 199Worship 200Pilgrimages 200History of Shinto 200Collection 201Index 205
CONTENTS VIILIST OF ILLUSTRATIONSPlatesImmanuel Moses Casanowicz Frontispiece
1. Veil of the Holy Ark.2. Breastplate of the Torah scroll (upper) and phylacteries (lower).3. Lamps and slaughtering knife (upper), instruments of circumcision, andspice box (lower)
.
4. Passover plate (upper) and Omer tablet (lower)
.
5. Marriage contract.6. Ode of a siyum.7. Ecclesiastical candlesticks (upper) and Altar lamps and censers (lower).8. Incense boats, holy water vessel, and sprinkler (upper); Paten, chalice, andostensory (lower).9. Cibory, tray, urn, pyx, cup, and spoon (left); Purple dalmatic (right).10. Stole, chasuble, and maniple (left); Maniple, chasuble, and stole (right).11. Bishop's miter, crozier, and pectoral cross (upper); Cape and stole (lower).12. Osculatories (upper); and Wooden triptych (lower).13. Wooden triptych (upper); and Holy water fountains (lower).14. An Italian missal.15. Series of altar cards from Italy.16. Processional cross from Mexico.Processional cross from Italy.Wooden figure of Christ from the Philippines.Engraved shells (upper) ; Processional banners (lower)
.
Religious medals from Italy.Rosary of mother-of-pearl (upper); and Roman Catholic rosaries (lower).Roman Catholic rosaries (upper) ; Disciplinary girdle and scourge (lower)
.
Gold brocade phaenolion (upper) ; Pastoral staffs (lower)
.
Headgear worn by priest.Icon of Mary and Infant (upper) and Brass icons (lower).26. Brass tetraptych of the Russian Church.27. Paraphernalia of the Armenian Church.28. Musical instruments of the Armenian Church.29. Mosque lamp (upper); Model of a Hindu temple (lower).30. Bronze Buddha.31. Teakwood Buddha from Burma.32. Wooden Buddha from Ceylon.33. Alabaster Buddha from Laos, Further India.34. Bronze Buddha from Japan.35. Bronze Buddhas from Laos (left) ; from Siam (center) ; and from Laos (right)
.
36. Wooden Buddhas and earth goddess (left) ; Bronze and wooden Buddha andNagas (center); Wooden Buddha and disciples (right).37. Wooden Buddha and Garuda from Laos.38. Bronze Buddha or Bodhisattva (left); Bronze Buddha on chair (center);Bronze Buddha from Laos (right).39. Marble Buddha from Burma (left); Alabaster Buddha (center); AlabasterBuddha from Burma (right).
Vni CONTENTS
40. Buddha figurines on clam shell from China.41. Alabaster Buddha entering Nirvana, from India.42. Wooden Buddha entering Nirvana, from Laos.43! Bronze horns of Buddha (upper) ; Cast of Buddha's footprint, from India(lower)
.
44. Wooden amitabha from Japan.45. Porcelain Kuan-Yin from China.46. Wooden Kuannon from Kobe, Japan.47. Clay thousand-handed Kuannon (left); Sandalwood Kuanti (center); andKuannon in shrine (right).48. Wooden Bodhisattva (left) ; Bronze Bodhisattva (right)
.
49. Fudo in shrine (left); Wooden figure of Maha Upakut (right).50. Bronze Fukurokoju (left); Wooden Dakioku (right).51. Wooden Arhats from Tokyo, Japan.52. Wooden Chinese Buddhist ecclesiastic (left); Wooden Buddhist ecclesiasticin ceremonial robes (right).53. Buddhist priest in ceremonial dress (left) ; Buddhist priest with outfit (center)
;
and Buddha from Tibet (right)
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54. Bronze vajra-dagger (left); Brass tip of mendicant's staff (right).55. Cherrywood Japanese rosary from Japan.66. Bronze begging bowl (a) ; shell and alabaster rice spoons of Buddhist monks(b and c).57. Model of a wooden pagoda from Japan.58. Print showing plan of the temple Hongwanji (upper left); Photograph ofropes made of human hair (upper right); Section of human hair rope(lower)
.
59. Wooden Nios models from Japan.60. Open temple lanterns (upper) ; Closed temple lanterns (lower)
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61. Pair of temple lamps.62. Bronze censer (upper left) ; Bronze candlestick (upper right) ; Temple drums(lower)
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63. Pewter candlesticks (upper left and right) ; Pewter incense burner (uppercenter) ; Prayer banners (lower)
.
64. Wooden fish, front view (upper) ; Back view (lower)
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65. Copper 9-toned bell from China.66. Wooden triratna from Laos.67. Wooden triratna from Laos.68. Wooden demon-queller from Japan.69. Geomantic compass from China.70. Portrait of Zoroaster.71. Fire ladle (upper left); Fire urn (upper center); Fire tongs (upper right);Offering tray (lower)
.
72. Parsee gentleman, showing costume.73. Ceremony of investiture with the sudra and kusti.74. Parsee mother and children, showing costumes.75. Tower of Silence.
COLLECTIONS OF OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIALIN THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMBy Immanuel Moses CasanowiczAssistant Curator, Division of Old World Archeology, United States NationalMuseum
IINTRODUCTIONThe Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution in 1847 laidout a comprehensive program in all the departments of human knowl-edge and endeavor capable of representation by collections. Theyincluded in the ethnological section religions as one of the subjectssuitable for museum collections. During the course of years objectspertaining to religious cults formed a considerable part of the series.In exhibiting its material the Museum adopted the plan of treatingspecial subjects independently of areas or national hmitations inorder to show the history of given ideas.In 1890 the question was taken up of the possibility of applyingsuch treatment to religion, a subject important in the history ofhumanity. There was doubt, however, in the minds of many as towhether the abstract ideas which group themselves about the word
"religion" could be adequately or even fairly portrayed throughceremonial objects, numerous as they might be. Two members of thestaff were instructed, while abroad, to examine into this subject, withthe result that, in 1891, it was decided to secure objects of religiousceremony with the view primarily to exhibit them at the World'sColumbian Exposition in Chicago, and ultimately with the intentionof bringing them together for installation in the United States NationalMuseum.At that time the tendency of museums abroad, and somewhatamong the students of the history of religions generally, was to dealonly with the reUgious practices and ideas of the barbarous nations,and to treat but sparingly those of the more civilized and cultivatednations of the earth. It was determined, in taking up the subjecthere, to adopt a course contrary to that hitherto followed, and toendeavor, from the educational point of view, to interest the peoplein the history of religion by leading them to the unknown, as it were,1
2 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMin the terms of the known. Accordingly, the first three religions towhich attention was given were Judaism, Christianity, and Moham-medanism, in the order of their respective estabhshments. A partialillustration of all three was set up by the National Museum in theColumbian Exposition, the Christian reUgion being represented byobjects illustrating the ceremonies of the Greek Catholic and Arme-nian churches, and there were added Egyptian, Assyro-Babylonian,and Greek and Roman casts, thus givmg a conspectus of some of thefeatures of reUgious life which have grov/n up about the MediterraneanSea. Other religions were later illustrated, especially Brahmanismand Buddhism, and an exhibit of some of these was sent to theTennessee Centennial Exposition in Nashville, in the year 1897.At these expositions, and in the Museum itself, the interest of thepublic was plainly evinced in this section of its vrork, and gifts anddeposits of value were added, representing Ancient Egypt, Shintoism,the Parsee reUgion, and others of the great cults.No attempt has thus far been made to bring these collections intorelation with the prehistoric cults or with those of tribes, although theMuseum is very rich in such material, and the section is in fact and byits organization limited to the historic religions. In dealing withthis difficult subject a rigorous historical and scientific method hasbeen followed. The religious ideas have been described throughobjects or examples of ceremony. The difficulty of adequatelyportraying the religion of a people has been fully recognized. Thesubject of religious belief and cults has been arranged under certainwell-recognized heads: Public worship, its furniture and appoint-ments; the sacerdotal person, his costume and implements; sacredwritings; the altar or its equivalent; public religious ceremonies onspecial occasions, etc. Another, and indeed larger, class of objectshave to do with the relation of the individual to cult in such matters asmarriage, birth, and in some cases betrothal, and the secret andmystical rehgious practices among which charms and divinationswould fall. This general plan, with modifications, is susceptible ofapplication to all the historic religions.^Some of these collections have been from time to time described andillustrated in separate bulletins. But as these publications are out ofprint, and as the collections have been since enriched by additions ofvaluable and interesting specmiens, it has seemed advisable to issuein the following pages a comprehensive description of the reUgiousmaterial in the Museum, to form a counterpart to the description ofthe Collections of Old World Archeology, which appeared in theReport of the Smithsonian Institution for 1922.
? See The Collection of Jewish Ceremonial Objects in the United States National Museum, Proc. U. 8.Nat. Mus., vol. 34, pp, 701-746. 1908.
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL OThe several collections are supplemented by a series of photo-graphs and prints. There is in addition a collection of Bibles, includ-ing facsimiles of manuscripts and old and rare editions of the originaltexts, as well as copies of the most important ancient and moderntranslations of the Scriptures. As the interest attached to thiscollection is more archeological, or paleographic, than religious, itcomes under the head of archeology. The collection has been, more-over, described in the above mentioned Bulletin which appeared in theReport of the Smithsonian Institution for 1922, pages 475-485.As in the previous bulletins, the objects are treated as religiousgroups and not in their geographical relation. The professors ofeach creed have received full faith and their own explanations andinterpretations of the ideas underlying a given rite or ceremonyhave been adopted. IIOBJECTS OF JEWISH RELIGIOUS CEREMONIALS1. OBJECTS USED IN PUBLIC WORSHIPSynagogue.?Jewish public worship finds its expression in theservices of the synagogue. There is no fixed style of architecture.Generally the synagogue is a rectangular building with the entranceon the west side, so that the worshipers in the western world faceeast, the direction of Jerusalem, while praying. The general arrange-ment inside the synagogue is that the Ark of the Law, or Holy Ark{aron Jia-Jcodesh) , that is, the closet or chest, which holds the Torahscrolls, is placed against the center of the east wall. It is raised "afew feet above the floor and is reached by steps. To the right of theark and removed a few feet from the east wall is the praying desk{amud, properly column or pillar), from which the precentor leadsthe congregation in prayer. In the center is the bimah or ahnemar(Arabic al-minbar, pulpit), an elevated platform, usually surroundedby a railing on which stands the desk for reciting the lessons fromthe Scriptures. The remainder of the interior is occupied withbenches for the worshipers. In most modern synagogues, however,both the prayers and the lessons are read from the himah or readingdesk, which is combined with the platform on which the ark rests,in order to secure a larger area for seats.The Ark of the Law, holding the Torah, the most sacred andprecious possession of the Jew, is the important architectural featureof the synagogue. It is called "Holy Ark" {aron lia-lcodesh) , afterthe Ark of the Covenant in the Tabernacle and Temple, whoseplace it has taken. The Holy Ark is set in or against that wall ofthe synagogue toward which the worshipers turn in the more solemnparts of the liturgy, the wall which is in the direction of Jerusalem.Whenever the Holy Ark is opened the congregation rises in reverence
4 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMfor the Law of God it holds. It is often surmounted by a headpieceof the Tables of the Law, or Decalogue, or some other emblemscalled Icapporeth,^ and before its doors is a curtain of costly material,which is named parolceth,^ after the curtain which in the Tabernacleand the Temple screened the Holy of HoHes.1. Veil of the Holy Ark {paroketli).?The border of green velvetis embroidered in gold and silver with flowers. The center of redvelvet, has in the four corners, in Hebrew, the names of the fourarchangels, Raphael, Gabriel, Uriel, and Michael. On the top arethe words: "The Lord is in His holy temple; let all the earth keepsilence before Him" (Habakkuk ii, 8), and "I have set the Lordalways before me" (Psalms xvi, 8). Below is a burning lamp hang-ing down by chains, representing the perpetual lamp before the HolyArk, and symbolizing the light which emanates from the Law of God.On the sides are the words: "Open ye the gates, that the righteousnation which keepeth the truth may enter in" (Isaiah xxvi, 2), and
"This is the gate of the Lord; the righteous shall enter into it"(Psalms cxviii, 20). Height, 9 feet, 5 inches; width, 6 feet, 3 inches.Constantmople, Turkey. (Plate 1, Cat. No. 154758, U.S.N.M.)2. Tordh scroll.?Manuscript written on parchment. The Penta-teuch, called by the Jews Tordh, that is, the Law (properly instruc-tion), is considered by them the most important and sacred portionof the Scriptures. In order to keep it alive in the minds of thepeople it is divided into pericopes* according to the number of Sab-baths, the whole to be read through during the service in the syna-gogue within a year.^ For this purpose a manuscript copy of thePentateuch is used. The copy is written by a professional scribe(sojer), on parchment made of the skin of a clean animal (one whoseflesh may be eaten), in Hebrew, without vowel points, accents, orverse divisions, in certain stated columns. These sheets are fastenedtogether with sinews of a clean animal so as to form a scroll, andmounted on wooden rollers, called "tree of life" {etz hayim). Whenthe time arrives for the reading of the Torah, which is about themiddle of the service, the scroU is taken out of the Holy Ark andcarried in procession, the congregation standing, to the himah, oralmemar and is unrolled upon the table or desk. A pointer, ter-minating in the form of a hand and hence called yad ("hand"),guides the reader, preventing him from losing his place in the manu-script. This table or desk is covered with a costly cloth similar tothe curtain of the Holy Ark.
' Esodus XXV, 17; xxxvii, 6.
? Exodus xxvii, 21; xxxiv, 35; xL, 21.
* Such a weekly pericope is called bythe German Jews (Ashkenazim), sidra, or "order"; by the Portu-guese Jews (Sefardim), parasha, division, section. This latter term is applied by the Ashkenazim to theshorter divisions into which the sidra is divided.
? Many modern Jewish congregations have adopted a triennial cycle, which was also known in ancienttimes.
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 5When the scroll is to be returned to the ark it is girded with awrapper or band (mappah), and inclosed in a mantle, both beingoften of costly material and elaborately worked. Where the con-gregation can afford it, the Torah scroll is adorned with a crown orbells of precious metal, which are fitted over the upper ends of therollers, while around them are hung by a chain the pointer and abreastplate, chased or embossed with religious emblems. Fre-quently the scroll itself as well as its decorative appurtenances aredonated by private persons. Height, 18 inches. Palestine. (Cat.No. 216158, U.S.N.M.) Bequest of S. S. Rowland.3-4. Torah scroll.?Manuscript written on parchment. Inclosedin a cylindrical case of wood carved and gilt, surmounted by twocarved headpieces, called rimmonim. In the Orient carved woodenboxes are often substituted for mantles of cloth. Height of scroll, 16inches; height of box, 35K inches; diameter 15% inches. Tunis,,North Africa. (Cat. Nos. 217, 676-677, U.S.N.M.)5. Miniature Torah scroll.?Printed on paper. Height, 3K inches.Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. (Cat. No. 154762, U.S.N.M.) Giftof David Sulzberger.6. Silver breastplate of the Torah scroll.?Repousse work. On thetop, between two cherubims and surmounted by a crown, is a miniatureark, the doors of which are in the form of the Tables of the Law, withthe Ten Commandments engraved thereon. Inside are the words inHebrew, "Holy Sabbath," and a sliding plate with the Hebrew namesof the various festivals on which the scroll decorated with the breast-plate is used. Underneath, amid flower designs, are two crowned lionsholding an oval shield, which is engraved with a conventional tree andthe Hebrew words: "This was donated by Frieda Beile, daughter ofElkanah Baruk, son of Moses the Levite." The whole is inclosedby two columns, which are wound with flowers. Measurements, 11inches high, 10 inches wide. (Plate 2 (upper). Cat. No. 154990,,U.S.N.M.) Constantinople, Turkey.7. Silver breastplate oj the Torah scroll.?Representing the 12 stoneswhich were set in the breastplate of the high priest, as described inExodus xxviii, 15-21, with the names of the 12 tribes of Israel under-neath them. Above are the words in Hebrew which were inscribedon the golden frontlet of the high priest (Exodus xxviii 36): "Holi-ness to the Lord." Underneath is the inscription, in Hebrew, "Giftof Mr. Abraham, son of Simha Marcus, and his daughter Pearl andhis son Simha, in memory of his wife and their mother, Beila, daughterof Judah and their parents, Simha, son of Meir, and Elka, daughterof Abraham Judah, son of Menachem, and Pearl, daughter of Abra-ham. In the year 5648, (1888), Boston, America." The whole issurrounded by a border of vines. Measurements, 13^ by 13Kinches. (Cat. No. 154765, U.S.N.M.)
6 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
8. Pointer.?Made of black wood. Length, 11 inches. (Cat. No.154452, U.S.N.M.)9. Pointer.?Made of oHve wood in Jerusalem, with hand of bone.Combined with a spice holder at the top. Length, 9 inches. (Cat.No. 204261, U.S.N.M.) Gift of N. Meyer10. Pointer.?Made of carved ivory. Length, 10?^ inches. Bal-timore, Md. (Cat. No. 314492, U.S.N.M.) Gift of Henry Harto-gensis.11. Laver.?Made of pewter, engraved with floral designs and theHebrew inscription, "Synagogue, Alfasi, Tunis." In the tabernacleand temple there was a laver for the ritual washing of the priestsbefore entering the sanctuary to offer sacrifices. (Exodus xxx, 17-21.) Some synagogues have in the vestibule a laver for the wor-shipers to wash their hands before performing the prayer which hastaken the place of sacrifices. The washing of hands is accompaniedby a benediction. Measurements, height, 6K inches; diameters, 4%and 3K inches. Tunis, North Africa. (Cat. No. 217687, U.S.N.M.)
2. OBJECTS USED IN PRAYER12. Phylacteries.?The phylacteries, or teHTlin, are two square boxesof parchment. The boxes are fastened to a kind of a base made ofthick parchment with a loop on one side, so as to let a narrow leatherstrap pass through. Into these boxes are inserted the following pass-ages from the Pentateuch, written on strips of parchment: Exodusxiii, 1-10; Exodus xiii, 11-16; Deuteronomy vi, 4-9; and Deuterono-my xi, 13-21 . By means of the straps the boxes are bound around thearm and head and worn by all male Jews who have attained religi-ous majority, that is, passed the thirteenth year of age?during morningpraj^ers of week days; hence their Hebrew name tejiUin, from tejillah,prayer. The name phylacteries is derived from the Greek (pvXaKTkpia(phylacteria), which is used in the New Testament (Matthew xxiii,5), meaning, properly, things that guard, that is, amulets, talismans,which the Jewish tejillin are not. The New Testament name may bebased upon an external resemblance between the tejillin and the Greek
'phylacteria. The obligation to wear tejillin is derived from the com-mand included in the extracts mentioned above: "And you shallbind them as a sign upon your hand and for frontlets between youreyes." (Deuteronomy vi, 8; xi, 18.)The teJiUa for the head is embossed on two sides of the exterior withthe Hebrew letter ^ shin (sh), and inside is divided into four compart-ments, in each of which one of the four extracts from the Pentateuchis put, and the strap is tied at such a distance as to fit the head of thewearer, forming a knot shaped in the form of the Hebrew n daleth (d).The tefUa for the hand or arm has no letter impressed on the out-side and no divisions inside, and the four passages it contains are
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 7
written continuously on one strip of parchment. One end of the strapis made into a small noose, with a knot resembling the Hebrew "*yod (y or i). The three letters thus exhibited on the outside of thetefillin constitute the Hebrew name of God ^T2? Shaddai, rendered bythe English versions, "Almighty. " The materials used in making thetefillin must come from a clean animal, and the extracts from the Pen-tateuch are written in the same manner as the Torah Scroll.In "laying the tefillin" (hanohath tefillin), that of the arm is put onfirst. The box is fastened on the naked left arm above the elbow, andthe strap is wound seven times around below the elbow. Then that ofthe head is put on so that the box comes to rest on the forehead belowthe hair and between the eyes, the knot being at the nape of the neck,while the ends of the strap pass over the shoulders and hang down oneither side. Next, the end of the strap of the tefilla of the arm iswound thrice around the middle finger and around the hand. Each ofthese performances is accompanied by appropriate benedictions andthe recitation of passages from the Scriptures. In taldng off thetefillin that of the head is removed first, then that of the arm. Thetraps are folded around the boxes, and the tefillin are reverently putsinto a bag, which is sometimes included in another, so that the sacredobjects may be more carefully protected. Philadelphia. (Plate 2,(lower). Cat. No. 130276, U.S.N.M.) Gift of David Sulzberger.13. P^^acfems.?Palestine. (Cat. No. 216159, U.S.N.M.) Be-quest of S. S. Howland.14. PJiyladeries.?Tunis, North Africa. (Cat. No. 216686,U.S.N.M.)15. Phylacteries.?Zurich, Switzerland. (Cat. No. 329452,U.S.N.M.) Gift of Rev. Paulus Dworkowicz.16. Prayers and henedictions recited in putting on the phylacteries.?Stamped on yellow silk. Made in Jerusalem. Measurements, 9 by13 inches. Baltimore, Md. (Cat. No. 154445, U.S.N.M.) Giftof Dr. Aaron Friedenwald.17. Prayer shavd (tallith).?Made of white silk with blue stripes onthe borders. The tallith is a rectangular piece of cloth, made of woolor silk, worn by male adults, (among the Sefardim, or the observers ofthe Portuguese rite, also by small boys), at the morning services andwhen perlormmg certain religious functions. To each of the fourcorners of the tallith are attached the cicith or fringes, consisting offour threads (usually woolen), run through an eyelet near the corner andthen doubled and knotted in a certain manner so that eight threadsare allowed to hang down as a fringe. It is, besides, usually borderedwith bluish-black stripes and adorned mth a silk ribbon or silver-corded lace called "crown" ('atarah), on the top. The tallith isloosely thrown over all the other garments, sometimes passing acrossthe top of the. head and flowing down over the upper part of each
8 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMarm and over the back, sometimes wrapped around the neck. Theobhgation to wear a garment with fringes is derived from NumbersXV, 38, as follows: "That they make them fringes in the borders oftheir garments thoughout their generations, and that they put uponthe fringe of each border a cord of blue. And it shall be unto youfor a fringe, that ye may look upon it, and remember all the command-ments of the Lord, and do them; and that ye go not about after yourown heart and your own eyes"; and Deuteronomy xxii, 12: "Thoushalt make thee fringes upon the four borders of thy vesture, where-with thou covered thyself." Besides the taUitJi, which is worn atstated seasons, the Jews wear at present under the upper garmentsduring the entire day a garment with fringes, called the "smalltallith" (tallith Jcatan), or the "four corners" {arha JcanfotJi). Itconsists of a piece of rectangular cloth of any material, but usually ofwool, about 3 feet long and 1 foot wide, with fringes fastened to thefour corners in the same manner as to the tallith, with an aperture inthe center sufficient to let it pass over the head, so that part falls infront and part behind. This small tallith is assumed to have originat-ed in the times of persecution, when the Jews had to refrain fromexhibiting the garment with fringes and could only in this mannercomply with the commandment to wear fringes. Length, 6 feet, 6inches; width, 2 feet. New York. (Cat. No. 30296, U.S.N.M.)Gift of Hon. N. Taylor Phillips.18-19. Prayer shawl and 'phylactery.?This prayer shawl, which iscut into two pieces, and the phylactery were secured by John Gold-haar, field secretary of the Jewish Welfare Board, from the Synagogueof Rheims, France, after the invasion of the German Army. Rheims,France. (Cat. Nos. 310078-079, U.S.N.M.) Gift of the Jewish Wel-fare Board, United States Army and Navy.20. Aria Kanfoth {four-cornered garment).?Mside of wool. (Seeunder No. 16.) Measurements, 3 feet by 17 inches. (Cat. No.154578, U.S.N.M .) Gift of Smion Dalsheimer.21. Fringes (cicith):?Made of woolen threads. (Seeunder No. 16.)Tiberias, Palestine. (Cat. No. 154457, U.S.N.M.) Gift of Mrs.B. F. Ulman. 3. OBJECTS USED ON FESTIVALSThe Jews, like other oriental peoples, compute the day from sunsetto sunset. The Sabbath, therefore, begins at sunset on Friday andterminates at sunset on Saturday.It is inaugurated in the home by blessing and lighting of the candlesby the mistress of the house, and in the synagogue by a special service.On returning from the service, and before the evening meal, the headof the house fills a cup with wine, raises it in his right hand, and recites
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 9Genesis ii, 1-3, which relate the origin of the Sabbath, and pronouncesa benediction over the wine, to God, who "has sanctified the Sab-bath." For this reason the ceremony is called Mddush, that is,sanctification. He then drinks from the cup and hands it to the otherpersons at the table to partake of. Where no wine or other liquor isavailable, the Iciddush is pronounced over two loaves of bread, whichare laid on the table in memory, it is assumed, of the two portions ofmanna that were gathered in the wilderness on Fridays. (Exodusxvi, 22.) The loaves are then cut up by the head of the house, thepieces dipped in salt and distributed among the members of the family.22. Sablath lamp.?Used by the German Jews in their houses. Itwas manufactured in the eighteenth century in Fellheim, Germany.Height, 18 inches. (Plate 3 (upper), fig. 1, Cat. No. 130294,U.S.N.M.)23. Brass hanging candlestick.?Made in the eighteenth century inFellheim, Germany. Height, 20 inches. (Cat. No. 130298,U.S.N.M.)24. Kiddush cloth.?Made of red silk. Stamped with representa-tion of the temple and other buildings in Jerusalem, and the bene-dictions recited on Sabbath. Used to cover the loaves of bread on thetable (see No. 22.) Jerusalem, Palestine. (Cat. No. 154418,U.S.N.M.) HABDALAHThe Sabbath is inaugurated at the home by a benediction over a cupof wine (see above) and is terminated in a like manner. In addition tothe cup a wax candle and a box containing some spices are used. Thehead of the house takes the cup in his right hand and the spice box inhis left, while the candle is usually held by a child, and, after recitingseveral passages of the Scriptures, pronounces a blessing over thewine, then over the spices, smelling them and passing them to theothers present, then over the light, closing with thanksgiving to Godfor the distinction He made between Sabbath and workdays, betweenthings sacred and profane, etc. The cup is then passed around amongthe membei-s of the family and the candle extinguished with drops ofwine from the cup. This ceremony is called hahdalah, that is, separa-tion or division, because it divides or separates the Sabbath fromthe other days of the week. The spices may be simply an emblem ofthe enjoyment to be derived from the work of the six days of the week,and the fight is, according to the Talmud, the first product of humaningenuity and labor.25. Silver spice hox.?Made in form of a tower resting on abase. Supposed to have been manufactured in Laupheim, Germany,about 1740. Height, 8 inches. (Plate 3 (lower), fig. 4, Cat. No.130297, U.S.N.M.)61551?20 2
10 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM26. Silver spice box.?Made in form of barrel. Height, IK inches.Washington, D. C. (Cat. No. 317318, U.S.N.M.) Gift of HenryFranc. NEW MOON27. Tablet in gilded frame.?Inscribed in gold letters on a blueground with the Hebrew words, "New moon." In the Pentateuchthe new moon festival is enumerated among those which were observedby additional sacrifices. Numbers xxviii, 11-15, and whose appear-ance was heralded by the sounding of trumpets. Numbers x, 10. Theday is referred to as a sacred one also in I Samuel xx, 5-18; II Kingsiv, 23; Isaiah i, 13, 14; Ixvi, 23; Ezekiel xlvi, 1, 3; Hosea ii, 13;Amos viii, 5. Some modern Jews observe the new-moon day byreciting, in the open air and facing the moon, special prayers, whichdevotion is called "Blessing of the moon" {birlcath ha.TiodesJi) andabstaining from unnecessary work. Dimensions, 11 by 6 inches.(Cat. No. 1429, U.S.N.M.) Gift of David Sulzberger.
The feast of Passover is celebrated in commemoration of the deliv-erance of Israel from the bondage of Egypt, as related in the firstchapters of the book of Exodus. It begins on the evening of the 14thof Nisan (March-April) and continues, with the Jews who live inPalestine, for seven days, with those in other places for eight days.It is the first of the three pilgrimage festivals {sJialosTi regalim) theothers being the feast of the weeks, or STidbuoth, occurring seven weeksafter Passover, at the close of the spring harvest, now chiefly observedin commemoration of the giving of the Torah, and the feast of Taber-nacles or booths, SukTcoth. Passover thus begins the ecclesiasticalyear. (Exodus xii, 2; Leviticus xiii, 5; Deuteronomy xvi, 16.)OBSERVANCE OF THE PASSOVER IN THE JEWISH HOMEIn ancient times the celebration of Passover"centered around thepaschal lamb. As it could not be slaughtered outside of the sanc-tuary (Deuteronomy xvi, 2) its use ceased with the destruction ofthe temple, and the eating of unleavened bread, or maccoth, is nowthe principal feature of the Passover feast. The eating or eventhe keeping of anything leavened or fermented (hametz), is strictlyprohibited (Exodus xxii, 7; Deuteronomy xvi, 3), hence the Passoveris also cafled the "feast of unleavened bread" (Exodus xxiii, 15).On the eve preceding Passover the ceremony of "searching forleaven" {bediqath hamez) takes place. The head of the house,furnished with a wax taper, a wooden spoon, and a feather brush,goes over the whole house and gathers all suspicious crumbs into thespoon. These are burned on the morning of the 14th of Nisan inthe courtyard {bi' ur hametz), both ceremonies being accompaniedby benedictions. In the evening the feast begins with a service in
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 11the synagogue. In the home the evening meal is of the nature ofa commemorative service, called seder?order, arrangement, or pro-gram. At the head of the table are cushioned chairs or loungesfor the master and mistress of the house to recline on, as was doneand is still customary in the Orient among the high and free-born.On the table are the articles emblematic of the events commemorated.These are: Three maccoth, or cakes of unleavened bread, baked in theshape of large, thin, round crackers, the "bread of affliction" (Deu-teronomy xvi, 3), a piece of roasted meat, usually the bone of alamb, representing the Passover lamb; bitter herbs, usually horseradish {maror), in commemoration of the "embittering of life,"which Israel suffered in Egyptian servitude (Exodus i, 14); a roastedegg, in memory of the festal sacrifice (Jiagigdh) offered in the temple;a compound of almond, apples, and sirup, which has the color ofbrick clay (haroseth), in commemoration of the labor of brick-making the Israelites performed in Egypt (Exodus i, 14 and v, 7and following), and into which the bitter herbs are dipped beforethey are partaken of; green herbs?parsley or lettuce Qcarpas)?asthe "food of poverty;" a cup of salt water, in which the green herbsare dipped to represent the hyssop dipped in the blood of the paschallamb (Exodus xii, 22), There are, besides, wine in cups or glassesfor each at the table, as everyone assisting at the celebration issupposed to partake of four cups of wine. An extra cup standsready filled during the seder for the prophet Elijah should he come inan unbidden guest to honor the feast and as protector of the house-hold whenever the door is opened on that night.The service begins with IciddusJi, as on Sabbath and other festivals.(See above on p. 9.) The family then sits down and the Tiagadah,that is, narration, consisting of an account of the sufferings of Israelat the hands of the Egyptians and their miraculous deliverance byGod, accompanied by psalms and hymns, is recited. At appropriatepassages of the hagadaJi the articles mentioned above are partakenof, symbolical ceremonies performed, and the evening meal is eaten.28. Liturgy of the Passover meal, Tiagadah.?In 'Hebrew and Span-ish, with maps and illustrations. Printed in London, 5573 A.M.,( = 1813 A.D.). During the semiritual meal of the Passover feast,called seder, the hagadah, that is, narration, consisting of an accountof the sufferings of Israel at the hands of the Egyptians and theirmiraculous deliverance by God, is recited, accompanied with psalmsand hymns. London, England. (Cat. No. 217678, U.S.N.M.)29. Passover cloth.-?Made of white silk, in Jerusalem. Stampedwith the principal prayers recited at the Passover meal, or seder,and illuminated with representations of the Temple Mount andother buildings of the city of Jerusalem; as also with the cities ofJericho and Shechem; with the candlestick (menorah); and the tables
12 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
of the law (Decalogue). Measiirements, 18 by 18 inches. (Cat*No. 155263, U.S.N.M.) Gift of Moses A. Dropsie.30. Brass plate used at the Passover meal.?Adorned with animalfigures and flowers and containing an Arabic inscription in Hebrewcharacters. Made in Constantinople. Diameter, 26 inches. (Plate4 (upper), Cat. No. 130291, U.S.N.M.)31. Pewter Passover plate.?Made in Tetennausen, Germany.Diameter, 15 inches. (Cat. No. 130299, U.S.N.M.)32. Passover tray.?Made of tin. Engraved on the rim with the16 words containing the program of the ceremonies performed duringthe seder, and the name Gitl. Inside are the words: Priest, Leviteand Israelite, and the names: Abraham, Bela, Juda, son of Solomon,Solomon Leb, Hannah Engelmayer, Baltimore, and various orna-ments, as the "Shield of David," circles and vases. Dating probablyfrom the seventeenth century. Diameter, 13% inches. Washington,D. C. (Cat. No. 326825, U.S.N.M.) Gift of Miss L. Lieberman.33. Omer tablet.?Manuscript in" gilded frame. The harvestseason was formally opened with a ceremony of waving a sheaf ofbarley in the sanctuary on the second day of the Passover feast,which began on the 15th of Nisan (March-April). Before thisceremony took place the harvesting of grain was forbidden: "Andye shall eat neither bread, nor parched corn, nor fresh ears, untilthis selfsame day, until ye have brought the oblation of your God."(Leviticus xxiii, 14). From that day seven weeks, or 49 days, werecounted (Leviticus xxiii, 15; Deuteronomy xvi, 9) to the feast ofPentecost; hence its Hebrew name Hag ha-Shahuoth "feast of Weeks,"and the usual English name "Pentecost," which is derived from theGreek TeuTeKoaT-fj penteJcoste, meaning the fiftieth day. It is alsocalled "feast of harvest" (Exodus xxiii, 16), because the grain har-vest then approaches its close, and "day of first fruits" (Numbersxxviii, 26; Exodus xxxiv, 22), because two loaves of bread from thenew wheat were offered on that feast.^ With the destruction of thetemple the ceremony of waving the sheaf in the sanctuary necessarilyfell away, but the counting is still observed and the prayers containedin the tablet form part of the liturgy during the time jfrom Passoverto Pentecost.This tablet is used in the synagogue for reckoning the periodbetween Passover and Pentecost. The tablet is in Hebrew. Itcontains the words: "Blessed art thou, O Lord our God, King of theuniverse, who has sanctified us with His commandments and com-manded us to count the Omer." Then follows the count (in Hebrew),and below it the words: "May the Lord restore the worship of thetemple speedily in our days," and Psalm Ixvii. The letters H. S.
? Leviticus xxiii, 17. Since the dispersion Pentecost has been connected by tradition with the day onwhich the law (Torah), was given on Mount Sinai, and the festival is called haff mattan torah, the feast ofgiving the law. ?
OBJECTS OF EELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 13and D on the left mean, respectively, Omer (written Homer by theSpanish Jews); week (Sabbath); and day. The figures on the rightindicate that it is the forty-seventh day of Omer, that is, six weeksand five days. Measurements, height, 2 feet 6 inches; width, 2feet. (Plate 4 (lower). Cat. No. 154404, U.S.N.M.) Gift of DavidSulzberger. NEW YEAR (ROSH HA-SHANAH); THE PENITENTIAL SEASON34. Ram's horn (sTiqfar).?In ancient times the horn or shofar wasused, according to the Pentateuch, for the announcement of the newmoon and solemn festivals (Numbers x, 10; Psalms Ixxxi, 4), for theproclamation of the year of release (Sabbatical year) (Leviticus xxv,9), and above all for military purposes, like the modern bugle, to givethe signal for going out to battle, for the announcement of a victory,and for a recall of the troops (Nimibers x, 1-9). It was also used as amusical instrument in religious procession. (II Samuel vi, 15; Psalmsxiviii, 6.) At present the shofar is especially employed during the peni-tential season, which begins with the 1st of the month EUul (August-September), and culminates on the Day of Atonement {Yom Eippur),on the 10th of Tishri (September-October). During the month ofEllul the shofar is sounded three times at the close of the morning serv-ice each day, with the exception of the Sabbaths, in some congrega-tions and in others at the evening service. On the 1st of Tishri, thebeginning of the civil year (RosJi Tia-shana), one of the most solemn ofthe Jewish holy days, and the "memorial of blowing of trumpets"(Leviticus xxv, 24; Numbers xxix, 1), 30 blasts, among the Sefardim 72,are sounded on the shofar in the middle of the morning service, after thereading of the day's lesson from the Torah, and before the "additionalservice" {musoj). On Atonement Day the shofar is sounded once,among the Sefardim four times, at the close of the concluding service(ne'ilah), and on the seventh day of Tabernacles {Hoshanna Rahha), itis sounded at each of the seven cu'cuits. The shofar is usually made ofa ram's horn, but the goat's horn is also employed.^ Washington, D.C.(Cat. No. 95142, U.S.N.M.) Gift of Cyrus Adler.35. Manuscript written on vellum.?Measurements, 14 by 9K inches.Mystical interpretation of the significance of the blowing of the shofar.Tunis, North Africa. (Cat. No. 217695, U.S.N.M.)THE FEAST OF TABERNACLES, OR BOOTHS (SUKKOTH)The feast of Tabernacles takes place on the 15th of Tishii (Septem-ber-October), and continues, according to Leviticus xxxiii, 39-43,seven days, with an eighth day for the conclusion of the feast, to wliichis added the feast of the "Rejoicing of the law," thus extending it tonine days. It is celebrated in remembrance of the wandering of the
' Compare Cyrus Adler, The Shofar, Its Use and Origin. Proceedings, U. S. National Museum, vol. 16,pp. 287-301; Keport, U. 8. National Museum, 1892, pp. 437-450.
14 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
Israelites through the desert, where they dwelt in booths or tents.(Le\4ticus xxiii, 43.) In ancient times the feast was coincident withthe harvest season and was a feast of thanksgiving. (Leviticus xxiii,39; Exodus xxxiv, 22.) It was one of the most important and joyous-of the three pilgrimage festivals. The most characteristic feature ofthe celebration of this feast is the dwelling in booths or tents, whenceis derived its Hebrew name, Suklcoth, or, more fully, Tiag Jia-svlcTcoth,the feast of booths. The booth has three sides of wood, usually boardsor planks, while the fourth side, on which is the entrance, is hung witha curtain. It must be erected in the open air and covered with greenbranches and leaves, affording protection against the sun by day, butpermitting a small portion of the sky to be seen and the stars to showat night. Inside it is usually adorned with draperies and garlands.Being the "dwelling place" (Leviticus xxiii, 42), during the festival,the meals are taken in the booth, and especially pious people evensleep in it. Sick and feeble people, however, are exempt from theobhgation of "dwelling in tents," and the precept is generally sus-pended in inclement weather.Another of the important ceremonies connected with the observ-ance of the Feast of Tabernacles is the use of palm branches (lulah),bound up with myrtle and willow branches, and a kind of citron(etJirog).36. Fourteen tablets used for tJie decoration of the booth.?(Cat. Nos.217679-685, U.S.N.M.)37. Lulal) and ethrog.?The lulab and ethrog, the former being theshoot of the palm bound up w^ith myrtle and ^\dllow branches, the lat-ter the fruit of the citron tree (a variety of the Citrus medica), are usedby the Jews at the Feast of Tabernacles (15-22 of Tishri = September-October), in pursuance of Leviticus xxiii, 40 : "And ye shall take untoyou, on the first day, the fruit of goodly trees, branches of palm trees,and boughs of thick trees, and willows of the brook, and ye shall rejoicebefore the Lord, your God, seven days. " At certain stages of the lit-urgy the lulab and ethrog, the former being held in the right hand, thelatter in the left, are waved up and down and to all points of the com-pass, in acknowledgment of God's sovereignty over nature. Afterthe additional service {musaf), each day a processional circuit {haJc-leafall), is made with the lulab and ethrog around the reading desk(as was done in the temple around the altar), on which the Torah scrollis held in an upright position, while reciting the prayers, beginning andclosing with the invocation "Hosanna." On the seventh day sevensuch processions take place, and willow branches are beaten on thebenches, and this day is therefore called Hoshanna Rabba, the day ofthe great Eosanna. Philadelphia, Pa. (Cat. No. 154448, U.S.N.M.)Gift of David Sulzberger.
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 15THE FEAST OF HA^?^KAH (DEDICATION)The feast of dedication or Hanukah (the latest addition to thecycle of Jewish festivals) is celebrated for eight days, beginning withthe 25th of Kislew (December-January), in commemoration of thepurification of the temple and the restoration of the service after thedeliverance of Jerusalem from the oppressions of Antiochus Epiphanes,King of Syria, by the Maccabees in 164 B. C. The institution ofthis festival is related in I Maccabees iv, 47-59. In the New Testa-ment (John X, 22) it is mentioned under the name of kyKalvLa(enkainia), "dedication." The principal feature in the observanceof this festival is the Ughting of lights in the synagogue, as well as inprivate houses, whence it is also called the "feast of lights.'' (Com-pare Josephus, Antiquities, xii, 7, 7.) On the first night one light islighted, on the second two, and so on to the eighth. The lights are setin a place where people on the street may see them, in the window or b}'the door. They are considered sacred, and must not be employed forany ordinary purpose. For this reason a "servant light" (shammash)is placed next to them, which is used in lighting them. Rabbinicaltradition accounts for this feature of the feast by the story that whenthe priests entered the sanctuary after the Syrians had been drivenout, to Ught the perpetual lamp, they found a vial of sacred oilunpolluted, which, under ordinary circumstances, was only sufficientfor one night, but by a miracle lasted for eight nights, until new oilcould be prepared for the lamps of the candlestick.When possible lamps burning ohve oil are to be used, though fre-quently candles made of pure beeswax are employed. In the syna-gogues there is usually for this pm'pose a lamp made after the form ofthe candlestick (menorah) of the tabernacle and temple, as describedin Exodus xxv, 31-140.38. Eanukahlamp.?Brass. Height, 6)2 inches; width, 8^4 inches.Wasliington, D. C. (Cat. No. 311979, U.S.N.M.) Bequest of MissElizabeth S. Stevens.39. Eanukahlamp.?Copper. Probably of Dutch origin. Length,10^2 inches: width, 2% mches. (Plate 3 (upper), fig. 2, Cat. Xo.130295, U.S.N.M.) THE FEAST OF ESTHEB (PUEIil)Five of the shorter books of the Bible? Canticles, Ruth. Ecclesi-astes. Lamentations, and Esther?are called the "Five Rolls"Qiamesh megilloth), and are read on special occasions during the serv-ice in the synagogue, namely. Canticles on Passover, Ruth on Pente-cost or Feast of Weeks, Ecclesiastes on Tabernacles, Lamentations onthe 9th of Ab, and Esther on the Feast of Purim. The first three areread privately by each member from his own copy during a pause inthe public service (between the first part of the liturgy and the readingof the Torah). The Lamentations are chanted by the leader and
16 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMmembers of the congregation, each reading a chapter during the serv-ices of the 9th of Ab (August) in commemoration of the destructionof the Temple of Jerusalem. Still more ceremony is attached to thereading of the Book of Esther, which takes place during the servicesof the Feast of Purim, and is celebrated on the 15th of Adar (March-April) to commemorate the deliverance of the Jews of Persia fromthe machinations of Haman. For this purpose a parchment scroll,written in the same manner as the Pentateuch (see the Torah Scroll,p. 4) is used. The reading takes place from the same desk as that ofthe Torah, and is preceded and followed by a benediction. At cer-tain passages the congregation joins m, reciting them before the publicreader. The Book of Esther is therefore known as the roll (megillah).Another feature of the Feast of Esther or Purim is the presenting ofgifts to friends and the poor.40. Manuscri'pt of the Boole of Esther.?Inserted into a case of olivewood carved with a representation of the temple. Made in Jerusa-lem. Height, 8 inches. (Cat. No. 134763, U.S.N.M.) Gift of DavidSulzberger.41. Roll of the Boole of Esther.?Manuscript written on leather.Height, 7 inches. (Cat. No. 158466, U.S.N.M.)42. Roll of the Boole of Esther.?Manuscript written on parchment.Height, 5 inches. Zurich, Switzerland. (Cat. No. 329453, U.S.N.M.)Gift of Rev. Paulus Dworkowicz.43. Benedictions Recited at the Reading of the Megillah.?Manu-cript written on leather. Measurements, 7)2 by 5 inches. (Cat.No. 158464, U.S.N.M.)44. Metal marleerfor Purim charity.?Inscribed in Hebrew : ''Moneyfor Purim." 5K inches by 2% inches. Baltimore, Md. (Cat. No.314493, U.S.N.M.) Gift of Henry Hartogensis.45. Metal marleerfor Purim charity.?Inscribed in Hebrew : "Halfof a shekel." 5K inches by 2% inches. Baltimore, Md. (Cat. No.314494, U.S.N.M.) Gift of Henry Hartogensis.
LITURGICAL BOOKS46. Prayer Boole (Siddur?order).?Hebrew with German trans-lation on lower part of the page. Containing the services for week-day. Sabbath, new moon, and the festivals. Bound in morocco,gold-tooled, with gilt edges. The title-page is wanting. Washing-ton, D. C. (Cat. No. 288291, U.S.N.M.) Gift of Mrs. CharlesBlock.47. Prayer hoole.?Hebrew with English translation on the oppositepage. Containing the prayers as in the preceding. With prayers,hymns, and meditations for special days and events, in English,at the close. Arranged by the Rev. Drs. Benjamin Szold and M.Jastrow. Published in Philadelphia in 1885. Bound in morocco,
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 17tooled. Washington, D. C. (Cat. No. 288292, U.S.N.M.) Gift ofMrs. Charles Block.48. Prayer hook for devout Jewish women.?Hebrew with Germantranslation as in No. 46. At the close are devotions for specialdays, composed by Rabbi Dr. W. Schlesinger. Opposite the title-page is a picture of Eli and Hannah with the verse, in Hebrew:"Go in peace, and the God of Israel grant thee thy petition." (ISamue] i, 17). Printed in Sulzbach, Germany, 1843. Bound inhalf leather. Washington, D. C. (Cat. No. 288293, U.S.N.M.)Gift of Mrs. Charles Block.49. Prayer hook.?Containing the prayers as in the preceding inHebrew. At the close are special devotions for women in Yiddish.Bound in half leather. Printed in Furth, Germany. Washington,D. C. (Cat. No. 288294, U.S.N.M.) Gift of Mrs. Charles Block.50. Prayer hook.?In Hebrew. Printed in Rodelheim, Germany,5622 A. M. = 1682 A. D. Washington, D. C. (Cat. No. 288295,U.S.N.M.) Gift of Mrs. Charles Block.51. Prayers for the feasts (Machzor).?The machzor, "cycle,"contains the old parts of service, the lessons of the Scriptures, andthe liturgical poetry (piyutim) for all the festivals. Five volumes,quarto. Bound in half leather. Printed in Sulzbach, Germany,5562 A. M. = 1802 A. D. Washington, D. C. (Cat. No. 282296,U.S.N.M.) Gift of Mrs. Charles Block.52. Prayers for women.-?In Yiddish. Furth, 1846. Washington,D. C. (Cat. No. 288297, U.S.N.M.) Gift of Mrs. Charles Block.
4. OBJECTS FOR SPECIAL OCCASIONS AND INCIDENTS OF LIFE53. Silver cup and knife used at the rite of circumcision.?The riteof circumcision (milah) is practiced in pursuance of Genesis xvii,10-12: "This is my covenant, which ye shall keep, between me andyou and thy seed after thee; every male among you shall be circum-cised. And ye shall be circumcised in the flesh of your foreskin;and it shall be a token of a covenant betAvLxt me and you. And hethat is eight days old shall be circumcised among 3^ou, every malethroughout your generation." Circumcision is accordingly per-formed on the eighth day after the child's birth. But in case ofsick or weak children it is postponed until they are strong enoughto undergo the operation. The performance of the rite of circum-cision is accompanied by the recital of prayers and benedictionsand is combined with the naming of the child. (Compare Lukei, 59; li, 21.)Circumcision was common in Egypt as early as the fourth dynasty.(Compare Herodotus ii, 36, 37, 104; Wilkinson, Ancient Egypt,ch. XV.) At the present day it prevails among the Kaffirs and somenegro tribes of Africa, in parts of Australia, in many of the South
18 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMSea Islands, and it is said to be practiced by the Abyssinian Chris-tians as a national custom. Early Spanish travelers found it to beprevalent in the West Indies, Mexico, and among tribes in SouthAmerica. It is a common rite among Mohammedans everywhere.Philadelphia, Pa. (Plate 3 (lower), figs. 1-3, Cat. No. 154436,U.S.N.M.) Gift of Mayer Sulzberger.54. Liturgy of the rites qf circumcision and redemption of the firstlorn.?Manuscript, written on parchment. Dated, 1840. The re-demption of the first born (^idyon ha-hen) is observed in com-pliance with Exodus xiii, 2, 12-15, compare Numbers xviii, 15,according to which the first born was considered as particularlybelonging to God because when the Lord slew the first born in theland of Egypt He spared the first born of the Israelites. The ritetakes place on the thirty-first day after the child's birth, and consists,in accordance with Numbers xviii, 16, in the parents giving a sumto the value of 5 shekels (about $2.50) to a priest, that is, a descend-ant of Aaron. If either of the parents belongs to the family ofAaron, or to the tribe of Levi, the child need not be redeemed. Thelaw applies only to the first born of the mother, but not of the father.The ceremony is accompanied by prayers and benedictions and,like circumcision, is the occasion of a festival. (Cat. No. 156047,U.S.N.M.)55. Wrapper used on the occasion of carrying a child to the syna-gogue:?Made of linen. When a child is old enough to be carriedto the synagogue, the father takes it to the reader's desk and presentsa roll with which to bind up the scroll of the law. On this roll isembroidered: "David, son of Judah, born in good luck on the 3rdof Jyar (April-May) 5598 (1838). May God help me to bring himup to the study of the law, to marriage, and to good works. Amen.Selah. And this is the law which Moses put before the children ofIsrael." Length, 11 feet 3 inches; width, 7}^ inches. Philadelphia,Pa. (Cat. No. 154447, U.S.N.M.) Gift of David Sulzberger.56. Marriage contract (kethubah).?Manuscript written on parch-ment, illuminated. Marriage is usually preceded by an engagementor betrothal, on which occasion it is customary among some Jews todraw up a formal writ of agreement between the bride and groom,whence the ceremony is called tena'im, "articles of agreement," whichset forth the stipulations preliminary to the agreement to marry.The marriage ceremony takes place under a canopy (huppah) of silkor velvet about 2 yards square, supported by four poles. The brideand bridegroom are led under it by their parents and friends. Therabbi, or anyone competent to perform the ceremony, takes a cup ofwine, and after pronouncing an appropriate blessing, gives it to thebride and bridegroom to taste. The bridegroom then places a ringon the finger of the bride with the words : "Behold, thou art wedded tome by this ring, according to the law of Moses and Israel." This act.
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 19which is called sanctification or consecration (JciddusTiin), in itselfmakes the marriage valid. Then the marriage contract is read. Thisis written in an Aramaic dialect after an established form usuallybeginning with the words: "Under good auspices, and with goodluck to bridegroom and bride, 'Whoso findeth a wife findeth a goodthing, and obtaineth favor of the Lord.' " It says that the bridegroomagrees to take the bride as his lawful wife, and that he will keep,maintain, honor, and cherish her, etc., and also specifies the sum hesettles upon her in case of his death. The minimum of the dowry isfixed by the law to be 200 zuz (about $30) for a virgin and 100 (about$15) for a widow or divorced woman. To tliis is usually added whatthe bride has received from her parents and what the husband settleson her voluntarily, all of which she gets in case of the death of thehusband, or of divorce.After that the bridegroom crushes an empty glass with his foot inremembrance of the destruction of Jerusalem. (Compare Psalmscxxxvii, 5.) The rabbi, or whosoever performs the ceremony, takesanother cup of wine, pronounces over it seven benedictions, and handsit again to the bride and bridegroom, who taste it, and the ceremonyis then concluded.The contract is dated Rome, in the year of creation 5576 (1816).The contracting parties are Elijah Said and Masal-Tob (Fortune),of Castlenuovo. The witnesses to the contract are Joshua GersonAshkenazi and Michael Hayim Megula.The margin is decorated with various symbolical figures, and con-tains the liturgy of the wedding ceremony and passages from the Bibleand the Talmud referring to marriage and married life, artisticallyintertwined in garlands. Above, in the center, are probably the armsof the bridegroom ; to the right a boy standing on a wheel pouring outthe horn of plenty, with the motto: "All depends on merit and goodluck"; to the left a female figure with tambourines, and the words:
"Peace and welcome to those nigh and far." Belov/, to the right, isa female figure holding two burning hearts linked together by achain, with the adage: "A well-mated couple is chosen by God"(marriages are made in heaven); to the left another female figureholding a tambourine and a flower, with a quotation from Isaiah xxxii,8. The representation at-'the bottom, of Elijah ascending to heavenin a fiery chariot, his mantle falling on his disciple and successorElisha (compare II Kings ii, 11-13) was probably suggested by thename of the bridegroom. Measurements, 30 by 19 inches. (Plate5, Cat. No. 154633, U.S.N.M.)57. Marriage contract.?Manuscript, written on parchment andilluminated. Dated Rome, 5590 A. M. (1830 A. D.). The contract-ing parties are Mahalalel of Susa and Virtuosa Binah. The witnessesare Joshua Gerson Ashkenazi and Moses Milano. The margin is
20 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMdecorated with floral designs and figures. To the right is a femalefigure holding a crown and an olive branch; to the left is that of Jus-tice with scales and sword; while below an old man points the youngwanderer on the pathway of hfe heavenward. Measurements, 32%by 21% inches. (Cat. No. 154630, U.S.N.M.)58. Marriage contract.?Manuscript, written on parchment andilluminated. Dated Rome, 5597 A. M. (1837 A. D.). The contract-ing parties are Aaron Marcus and Quuitiliana of Capua. The wit-nesses are Joshua Gerson Ashkenazi and Raphael Johannan Ephi-aimCasnulu. The margin is ornamented with floral designs and figures.Above is the representation of a young couple bound together by aribbon wound around their necks, from which a heart is suspended.At the bottom is the figure of the high priest in full robes, probablesuggested by the name of the bridegroom, Aaron. Measurements,34 by 20K mches. (Cat. No. 154631, U.S.N.M.)59. Marriage contract.?Manuscript, written on parchment andilluminated. Dated Rome, 5512 A. M., (1751 A. D.). The con-tracting parties are Macliah de Castro and Rebekah Tarmi. Thewitnesses are Mahalalel Modiiitani and Hezekiah Amrin. The mar-gin is decorated with floral designs and Biblical passages referring tomarriage and married life. Measurements, 33)2 by 20% inches. Cat.No. 154632, U.S.N.M.)60. Document of hetrotlial (tena'im) and marriage contract (Jcethii-&a7i).?Manuscript, written on parchment and illuminated. DatedLivorno, (Leghorn, Italy); 5479 A. M. (1719 A. D.). The con-tracting parties are David, son of Abraham Rodriguez Miranda, andDona Esther, daughter of Moses Franco. The decoration is in formof a fagade of a Greek temple, the columns upholding the coats ofarms of the bridegroom and bride, which are flanked on either sideby angelic figures blowing trumpets. The documents?the Icethuhahto the right and the tena'im to the left?are framed by a curtain whichis raised by two Cupids on either side. On the bases of the columnsare inscribed, in allusion to the names of the bridgroom and bride, thepassage: "And David behaved hunself wisely in all his ways, and theLord was with him" (I Samuel xviii, 14), and, "And Esther obtainedfavor in the sight of all of them that looked upon her" (Esther ii, 15).Measurements, 37 by 24 inches. (Cat^ No. 216162, U.S.N.M.)Bequest of S. S. Rowland.61. Marriage contract.?Manuscript written on parchment. Thecontracting parties are Yomtob, son of Nathan, and Yutle, daughterof Naphtali. Dated Baltimore 5600 A. M.?1840 A. D. Baltimore,Md. (Cat. No. 326826, U.S.N.M.) Gift of Miss L. Lieberman.62. Marriage contract.?Manuscript written on parchment. Thecontracting parties are David, son of Moses, and Bele, daughter ofHu-sh. Dated Baltimore, 5600 A. M.?1840 A. D. Baltimore) Md.(Cat. No. 326827, U.S.N.M.) Gift of Miss L. Lieberman.
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 2163. Burial prayers.?Manuscript written on parchment. Theprayers,which are recited at the cemetery at the open grave, areexpressive of submission to God's will and include the Tcaddish or
"holy," that is, a doxology, acknowledging God's holiness and great-ness. The Icaddish is repeated at every service during the first year ofmourning and on the anniversaries of the death. It is believed bymany Jews that the recital of the Jcaddish benefits the deceased.Measurements, 2 feet 2 inches by 9 inches. (Cat. No. 158354,U.S.N.M.) Gift of David Sulzberger.6. MISCELLANEOUS64. Costume of a rabbi in Mohammedan countries.?Consisting oftrousers, inner robe of striped silk reaching below the knees and heldby a girdle round the waist, outer coat of cloth, with short, amplesleeves, shawl, shoes with goloshes, and headgear of red felt, aroundwhich a piece of gray silk is twisted like a turban. When the Jewsfirst settled in Mohammedan countries they were compelled by adecree to wear a dress different from that of the Mohammedans. Atpresent the decree has been suspended, but many of the Jews con-tinue to wear a distinctive costume. It is chiefly marked in the colorof the turban. That of the Mohammedans is of white muslin orcashmere, while the Jews wear black, blue, gray, or light-brownturbans and generally dull-colored dresses. (Cat. No. 154761,U.S.N.M.)65. Knife with its sheath, used for slaughtering of animals.?Thekilling of animals, that is, mammals and birds, for food is performedby cutting through the windpipe and gullet, with a perfectly sharp andsmooth knife called halaf by a swift motion forward and backwardacross the throat of the animal. The act of slaughtering is calledshehitah, and the person performing it is called shohet. He must bequalified by knowledge and skill. The knife must be thoroughlyexamined by him before and after the killing, and if it be found to havea notch (pegimah) the animal killed with it is ritually unfit for food(terefah) . The shehitah is followed by the hedikah, that is, examination,first of the throat of the animal to ascertain whether the windpipe andgullet are cut through according to the requirements of the law; thenof the various vital organs, especially the lungs. If they are foundto be in any way tainted with disease the animal is unfit to be eaten.The act of slaughtering is accompanied by benedictions. . Length, 25inches. (Plate 3 (upper), fig. 3, Cat. No. 154619, U.S.N.M.) Gift ofDavid Sulzberger.66. Jewish butcher stamp.?Made of wood with the word Kosher inHebrew in relief. Used to designate meat as ritually fit for food.(Cat. No. 5491, U.S.N.M.)67. MizraJi.?Illuminated and framed. The illumination consistsof the figures of Moses and Aaron, a king and a queen and horns of
22 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMplenty. Inscribed with the Decalogue, other passages of the Bible,and prayers, and in minute Hebrew script, forming part of the figures,with the book of Genesis. Designed and executed by A. Pike, fatherof the donor, in 1862. Mizrah, that is, east, properly the place ofthe rismg sun, is used to designate an ornamental picture, hung onthe eastern wall of a house or in front of the praying desk in the syna-gogue, to indicate the direction of the face when at prayer, so as to beturned toward Jerusalem. The custom of facing east while atprayer, observed by the Jews living west of Palestine, is alreadymentioned, Daniel vi, 11. Compare I Kings viii, 38. East of Jeru-salem the west direction would be chosen; north of Jerusalem thesouth. Height, 34% inches; width, 25K inches. Washington, D. C.(Cat. No. 314398, U.S.N.M.) Gift of Mrs. Simon Kann.68. Mizrah.?Manuscript written on paper, illuminated andframed. Above, the Decalogue surmounted by the "Shield ofDavid," (magen David); below, the 7-armed candlestick, {menorah),between columns which are surmounted by rosettes. The illumina-tion was hand-drawn in ink by Aaron Pasmanik in 1876. Baltimore,Md. (Cat. No. 31449, U.S.N.M.) Gift of Henry S. Hartogensis.69. Mizrah.?Manuscript written on paper, illuminated andframed. The illumination represents King David holding a harpwithin a columned facade, formed in microscopic Hebrew script of the-fifth book of the Psalter, (Psalms cvii to cl). Made by Hilel Braver-man. Height, 14 inches; width, 11% inches. Baltimore, Md.(Cat. No. 31491, U.S.N.M.) Gift of Henry S. Hartogensis.70. Mizrah.?Manuscript on cardboard. Illuminated in the samemanner as No. 67. Designed and executed by the same artist.Height, 25K inches; width, 9% inches. Baltimore, Md. (CatNo. 154417, U.S.N.M.) Gift of Dr. A. Friedenwald.71. Mezuzah.?Manuscript written on parchment. The mezuzahconsists of the passages Deuteronomy vi, 4-9, and xi, 13-21, writtenon parchment in the same manner as the Torah scroll and the phylac-teries, and inserted in a wooden or metal case or glass tube. On theouter side is written the Hebrew name of God, Shaddai, "Almighty,"and a small opening is left in the case opposite this word. The case is-fastened in a slanting position to the right-hand side of the doorpost,(hence its name, mezuzah, which means "doorpost"), in compliancewith the words: "And thou shalt write them (the w^ords of the Lord),on the doorposts of thy house and within the gates." (Deuteronomyvi, 9; xi, 20.) Pious Jews touch and kiss the mezuzah as they passthrough the door. In the Orient the entire Decalogue inclosed in atin case is sometimes nailed to the doorway. Some people attributea protective power, expecially in warding off evil spirits, to the mezuzah.The custom has been widely adopted by other peoples of the Eastparticularly by Mohammedans, who write passages from the Koran
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 23
over the doors and windows of their homes. Philadelphia, Pa.(Cat. No. 154446, U.S.N.M.) Gift of David Sulzberger.72. Mezuzah.?Manuscript written on parchment. Palestine.(Cat. No. 216161, U.S.N.M.) Bequest of S. S. Rowland.73. Mezuzah.?Manuscript written on parchment. Inserted intoa tin case. Height, 3 inches. Washington, D. C. (Cat. No. 158353,U.S.N.M.) Gift of Miss Ottenberg.74. Mezuzah.?Manuscript written on parchment. Zurich, Swit-zerland. (Cat. No. 329454, U.S.N.M.) Gift of Rev. Paulus Dwor-kowicz.75. Ode of a siyum.?Written on parchment and richly illuminated.With the orthodox Jews the study of the Bible, and especially of thePentateuch or Thorah, is considered a religious duty as well as a meansof culture. As soon, therefore, as the young scholar has masteredthe elements of Hebrew he studies in school the Pentateuch withsome standard commentaries. His first reading through of the wholePentateuch is sometimes the occasion of a family festival, called siyum,that is, completion. The young student recites passages from thePentateuch, or makes a short speech, and receives presents from rela-tives and friends. This also takes place sometimes after the finishingof a tract of the Talmud. This ode by an unknown poet celebratessuch a siyum of a young student of a prominent family in Rome,named Isaac Berachjah, son of Mordechai Raphael. After an intro-ductory historical note the ode relates the merits and virtues of thefamily of the student, and extols the advantages of the study of thesacred law of God. The singing of the ode was distributed to differ-ent voices, which are marked at the various stanzas. The margincontains, besides the arms of the family and some symbolical figures,the last parashah or periscope, which is read in the synagogue on thelast Sabbath of the year, Deuteronomy xxxiii-xxxiv (the blessing ofMoses and the record of his death). Height 23^2 inches; width, 18inches. Rome, Italy. (Plate 6, Cat. No. 154637, U.S.N.M.)76. Delegate's card of the First Zionists' Congress.?Engraved withthe Shield of David, symbolical figures, and the w^ords in Hebrew:
''Oh that the salvation of Israel were come out of Zion!" (Psalmxiv, 7.) "Zionism" is the name given to the movement among theJews which aims at establishing for their people a publicly and legallysecured home in Palestine. It was organized and held its first con-gress in 1897, in Basel, Switzerland. Measurements, 5)^ inches byS% inches. (Cat. No. 158458, U.S.N.M.) Basel, Switzerland.77. Delegate's card of the Second Zionists' Congress.?Engraved withthe Shield of David, symbolical figures, and the words in Hebrew:
"Behold, I will take the children of Israel from among the nations,and bring them into their own land." (Ezekiel xxxvii, 21.) Measure-
24 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
ments, 5^ by 5% inches. Basel, Switzerland. (Cat. No. 158459,U.S.N.M.)78-80. Badges oj the Second Zionists^ Congress.?Consisting ofmetal pins made in form of the Shield of David. Basel, Switzerland.(Cat. No. 158461-158463, U.S.N.M.)IllCOLLECTION OF OBJECTS OF CHRISTIAN CEREMONIALThe collection comprises church furnitures, appurtenances of publicworship, and objects used in individual devotions and on specialoccasions, and is obviously confined to the illustration of the ceremo-nies and usages of the ritual branches of Christendom?that is, theRoman Catholic and Eastern Churches. Of the former the collectionis quite representative; of the Eastern Churches there is a smallcollection of the Greek Orthodox Church, mostly of the Russiandivision of that denomination, and of the Armenian Church.The description is accordingly divided into: (1) Ceremonial objectsof the Roman Catholic Church; (2) of the Greek Orthodox Church;and (3) of the Armenian Church.
1. CEREMONIAL OBJECTS OF THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCHPARAPHERNALIA OF THE CHURCH SERVICESSERVICE OF THE MASSThe service of the mass is, according to the teaching of the CatholicChurch, a perpetual repetition of the sacrifice of Christ on the cross.The bread and wine are, by the words of consecration pronounced bythe priest, changed into the real body and blood of Christ (trans-substantiation), and Christ thus offers himself each time anew throughthe priest, his representative on earth, and is partaken of in thecommunion.The liturgy of the mass consists of extracts from the Scriptures andprayers, some of which are according to the season or the purpose forwhich the mass is offered, and is, in the larger portion of the RomanCatholic Church, in the Latin language.The requisites for the celebration of mass are: An altar, of whichat least the part of the table upon v/hich the chalice and paten restduring the service must be of stone, in which relics of the martyrsare inclosed (see Revelations vi, 9), and must be consecrated by abishop. The altar is covered with three linen cloths (symbolizingthe linen cloths in which Christ's body was shrouded, as the altarrepresents his tomb), blessed by a bishop, or by a priest empowered byhim. Midway of the altar and fixed to its base is the tabernacle, asmall chest, more or less decorated, which holds the consecratedhosts in their repositories, the cibory and pyx, for the communion ofthe laymen and for the sick, and a light is always kept burning in
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 25front of it. Upon the altar is a crucifix. Two candles are lightedduring a low mass, which is one recited by the priest without chant,and six during a high mass, which is one accompanied by music andincense and attended by a deacon and subdeacon.The sacred vessels used in the service of the mass are the chalice,in which the wine, mixed with water, is consecrated, and the paten,a small plate upon which the host, in form of a cake of unleavenedwheat bread, about 2 inches in diameter, rests during a portion ofthe mass. The appurtenances of the chalice and paten are thecorporal, a square piece of cloth, upon which the host and chaliceare placed, and which when not in use is held in the burse, a casecovered with the same material as the priest's vestments; the puri-ficator, a piece of linen used for wiping out the chalice; the pall, astiff piece of linen, about 5 inches square, used to cover the chalice;and the veil, a square piece of the same material as the priest'svestments, with which the chalice is covered before offertory andafter communion.Mass may be celebrated only in the morning, and the celebrantmust be fasting.1. High altar.?Made of wood and constructed in a combinationof Gothic, Renaissance, and Rococo styles, and probably dates fromthe seventeenth century. It is adorned with two oil paintings.The lower represents the assumption of Mary into heaven. Mary,in a blue cloak with yellow borders, is ascending to heaven surroundedby fluttering cherubs, vv^hile underneath the apostles with upliftedfaces and raised hands are gazing after her. The Assumption of theVirgin is the principal feast celebrated in her honor, and is observedon August 15. The upper painting represents John the Evangelistin a red cloak holding the chalice of the Lord's Supper. Height, 15feet; width, 7 feet 3 inches. Hildesheim, Germany. (Cat. No.207743, U.S.N.M.)2. Altar.?Made of wood and adorned with an oil painting repre-senting the Holy Family?that is, Joseph, Mary, and the InfantJesus. Probably dating from the seventeenth century. Height,7 feet 2K inches; width, 4 feet 2)^ inches. Hildesheim, Germany.(Cat. No. 207744, U.S.N.M.)3. Altar cloth.?Made of linen, with lace borders and embroiderededges. Length, 62 inches; width, 29 inches. Italy. (Cat. No.179015, U.S.N.M.)4. Fragments of gilded carvings of an altar.?Including six ovalpanel paintings, measuring each 10)^ by 8% inches, representing theVirgin Mary, the Archangel Gabriel, and the four Evangelists.Italy. (Cat. No. 179013, U.S.N.M.)5. Piece of carving.?Wood, gilt. Under a canopy are two cherubs,between them is a cross in openwork. Underneath the cross is another61551?29 3
26 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMpair of cherubs, probably part, of an altar. Height, 11 K inches; width,7 mches. Italy. (Cat. No. 311833, U.S.N.M.) Bequest of MissElizabeth S. Stevens.6. Angel or cherub.?Standing on a pyramidal base, which rests onlions' claws. Wood, carved, stuccoed and gilded. Height, 13 inches.Italy. (Cat. No. 179051, U.S.N.M.)7. Pair of candlesticks.?Brass, repousse work. Probably used forthe large Easter candles. Height, 48 inches. Italy. (Cat. No.311501, U.S.N.M.) Bequest of Miss Elizabeth S. Stevens.8. Bronze candlesticTc.?With a point on top upon which to stickthe candle. Height, 13 inches. Italy. (Plate 7 (upper), fig. 1, Cat.No. 152230, U.S.N.M.)9. Bishop's candlesticlc.?Made of white metal. Used to light thebishop while reciting the prayers of thanksgiving after mass. Height,2K inches; length, 10% mches. Italy. (Plate 7 (upper), fig. 2, Cat.No. 179034, U.S.N.M.)10. Pairojcandlesticlcs.?Madeofwood,carvedandgilded. Height,12Kinches. Spain. (Plate 7 (upper), fig. 3, Cat. No. 178863, U.S.N.M.)11-12. Altar lamps.?Made of white metal in chased work. Infront of the tabernacle of the altar in which a consecrated host is pre-served a lamp filled with olive oil is always kept burning. It is usuallysuspended by a chain from the ceiling of the church in front of thetabernacle. Italy. (Plate 7 (lower), figs. 1 and 4, Cat. Nos. 179022-023, U.S.N.M.)13. Large altar lamp.?Made of brass, hammered work. Diameterof bowl, lOK inches. Italy. (Cat. No. 179024, U.S.N.M.)14. Large altar lamp.?Made of white metal, repousse work.Diameter, 12 inches. Italy. (Cat. No. 199026, U.S.N.M.)15-16. Small altar lamps.?Made of white metal. Italy. (Cat.No. 179023, U.S.N.M.)17. Altar lamp.?Made of brass. Madrid, Spain. (Cat. No.167082, U.S.N.M.)18. Small lamp.?Made of brass, with loops for suspension. Height,8% inches; diameters, 2% and 2% inches. Italy. (Cat. No. 152235,U.S.N.M.)19-20. Censers or thurihles.?Made of white metal, openwork.The censer consists of a cup or bowl, which is provided with a mov-able pan for holding ignited charcoal, upon which the incense is put,,a lid or covering and four chains about 3 feet in length, three of whichunite the bowl to a circular disk, while the fourth is used for raisingthe lid to which one end of it is attached, the other passing through ahole in the disk and terminating in a ring. Incense is used at asolemn high mass, at vespers, benediction, at the obsequies of thedead, and at certain other ceremonies and blessings. The custom ofburning incense in religious ceremonies is widespread. Besides the
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 27fragrance, it is a symbol of prayer. (See Psalms cxli, 2 ; Revelation v,8; viii, 3.) Italy. (Plate 7 (lower), figs. 2 and 3, Cat. Nos. 152233and 1 79022, U.S.N.M.)21. Censer.?M&de of white metal. Italy. (Cat. No. 179023,U.S.N.M.)22. Censer.?Made of brass. Italy. (Cat. No. 179023. U.S.N.M.)23. Censer.?Made of brass, openwork. Italy. (Cat. No. 179025,U.S.N.M.)24-25. Incense boat.?Made of white metaj, repousse work. Beforeputting the incense from the boat, or nave, into the censer, the priestmakes the sign of the cross and pronounces a blessing over it. Italy.(Plate 8 (upper), figs. 1 and 4, Cat. Nos. 179021-2, U.S.N.M.)26. Incense boat.?Made of white metal, chased and repousse work.Height, 4K inches; length, 6K mches. Italy. (Cat. No. 152234,U.S.N.M.)27. Incense boat.?Silver. Height, 3 inches; length, 5% inches;width, VA inches. Italy. (Cat. No. 311832, U.S.N.M.) Bequestof Miss Ehzabeth S. Stevens.28. Incense boat.?Repouss^ work. Height, 6 inches; length,7 inches; width, 3^8 inches. Italy. (Cat. No. 311836, U.S.N.M.)Bequest of Miss Elizabeth S. Stevens.29-30. Holy water vessel and sjprinkler.?The vessel is of whitemetal w^ith fluted sides in repouss6 work. The sprinkler is of brass.On Sunday, at the beginning of high mass, the priest sprinkles thepeople with water, into which salt has been thrown and over whichvarious prayers and benedictions have been pronounced, recitingPsalm h, 9. The rite is therefore called Asperges, from the first v/ordof the verse in Latin. It is symbolical of the purification of the soul,and it is also believed to be a means of grace, in virtue of the prayersand blessings pronounced over the water by the priest. Height, 5inches; diameters, 5^ and 3 inches. Italy. (Plate 8 (upper), figs. 2and 3, Cat. No. 152228, U.S.N.M.)31-32. Chalice and paten.?Made o5 silver, gilded. The chalice isin Renaissance style and is adorned with floral.designs in chased work.The chalice, or at least its cup, in which the v.ine is consecrated, andthe paten, upon which the host is placed, must be either of gold orof silver gilded. They are consecrated with prayer and anointingwith the holy chrism, and after that must not be touched by a lay-man. Height of the chalice, 8^ inches; diameters, 5)^ and 2>% inches;diameter of the paten, Q]i inches. Italy. (Plate 8 (lower), figs. 1and 3, Cat. Nos. 179016-017, U.S.N.M.)33. Pair of cruets with traij.?Made of glass. The stoppers ofthe cruets are in the form of a cross. Used for holding, respectively,the v/ine and water for the Eucharist. Montclaii', New Jersey.(Cat. No. 239069. U.S.N.M.) Gift of Rev. Joseph Mendl.
28 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM34. Pair of cruets with tray.?The same as the preceding number.Ridgewood, N. J. (Cat. No. 329094, U.S.N.M.) Gift of Rev.P. T. Carew.35. Cihory.?Made of silver, gilded, in form of a chalice, only widerand shallower in the cup, with a conical cover, surmounted by across. In the cibory are reserved the smaller hosts for the ordinarycommunicants and the sick. It is kept covered with a silken veil inthe tabernacle of the altar. Height, 7 inches; diameters, 2% and 2}^inches. Italy. (Plate 9 (left), fig. 1, Cat. No. 152227, U.S.N.M.)36. Cihory.?Brass gilt. Surmounted by a cross. In the centerof the stem is a globe with six projecting bosses. The base is adornedwith floral designs in hammered-out granules. Height, 9 inches;diamieter, 3^4 inches. Italy. (Cat. No. 311822 U.S.N.M.) Bequestof Miss Elizabeth S. Stevens.37. Pyx.?Made of white metal in the same shape as the cibory,only smaller. Used for carrying the sacrament to the sick. Height,3/2 inches; diameters, 1% and 1% inches. Italy. (Plate 9 (left),fig. 4, Cat. No. 179030, U.S.N.M.)38. Bi^ass vase.?Made in form of an amphora with a conical cover.Probably used for holding the holy chrism, which is consecrated bythe bishop on Thursday of the Holy Week ("Maundy Thursday")and is used in the rites of baptism, confirmation, ordination, andcoronation; in the consecration of churches, altar stones, chalices,and in blessing the baptismal water. The chrism of the RomanCatholic Church consists of a mixture of oil and balsam. The chrismof the Eastern Church contains, besides oil and balsam, 55 otheringredients, among which are red wine, orange and rose water, masticvarious gums, nuts, pepper, flowers, and ginger, and certain chemistsof Constantinople are officially appointed to prepare it.^ Height,8% mches; diameter, 3 inches. Italy. (Cat. No. 179020, U.S.N.M.)39. Silver cup and spoon.?Probably used for handing out theholy chrism. Height of the cup, 3 inches; diameter, 1)^ inches.Seville, Spain. (Plate 9 (left), figs. 5 and 6, Cat. No. 167049,U.S.N.M.) ALTAR LINEN TEXTILES40-41. TJiree corporals.?Made of linen, with lace borders and anembroidered cross in the center. Upon the corporal the host andchalice are placed during celebration of the mass. Dimensions, 1 1 %by 9/2 inches to 17 by 14 inches. Italy. (Cat. No. 179002, U.S.N.M.)42-43. Two hurses.?Of green silk, with cross and borders of yellowsilk and gold brocade. The burse is used to hold the corporal whennot in use. Dimensions, 8}^ and 9% inches square. Italy. (Cat.No. 179002, U.S.N.M.)
9 See Adrian Fortescue, The Eastern Orthodox Church, London, 1916, p. 425.
OBJECTS OF IIELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 2944. Burse.?Of yellow silk brocade with green border. Dimen-sions, 8 inches square. Italy. (Cat. No. 179003, U. S. N. M.)45. Burse.?Of black brocade, with cross and borders of whitebrocade. Dimensions, 8 inches square. Italy. (Cat. No. 179004,U.S.N.M)46. Pall.?Made of linen, with a gold fringe, embroidered in silverand gold, with figures of chalice, host, burning hearts, and the instru-ments of the crucifixion. Used to cover the chalice. Dimensions,5 inches square. Italy. (Cat. No. 152232, U.S.N.M.)47. Pall.?Made of linen, with lace fringe and red cross in thecenter. Italy. (Cat. No. 179005, U.S.N.M.)48-52. Five puricators.?Made of linen, with lace borders andembroidered cross in the center. Used for wiping out the chaliceafter the communion. Dimensions, 5 to 6% inches. Italy. (Cat.No. 179007, U.S.N.M.)53. Veil.?Of black brocade, with white borders and white crossin the center. The veil is used to cover the chalice before the offer-tory and after communion. Dimensions, 18% inches square. Italy.(Cat. No. 179004, U.S.N.M.)54. Veil.?Of black brocade, with borders of yellow silk. Dimen-sions, 22% inches square. Italy. (Cat. No. 179004, U.S.N.M.)55. Veil.?Of purple silk, with borders of gold apphqu^ work anda cross within a circle of the same stuff. Dimensions, 22 inchessquare. Italy. (Cat. No. 179005, U.S.N.M.)56. Veil.?Of reticellar work in pale blue and white. In the center,IHS, which is the abbreviation of the Latin words Jesus Tiominumsalvator (Jesus Saviour of Mankind), within a circle of rays, while theedges are adorned with floral designs. Dimensions, 24 inches square.Italy. (Cat. No. 179006, U.S.N.M.)57. Laver.?Made of brass, semicircular so as to be fastened to thewall with a crane at the bottom. Before vesting for the celebrationof the mass the celebrant washes his hands in the sacristy to typifypurity of heart and outer reverence for the sacred presence. Duringthe mass he washes his hands after the offertory and communionat the altar. Height, 19 inches; width, 12^ inches. Italy. (Cat.No. 179027, U.S.N.M.) VESTMENTS OF THE MASSIt is assumed by many authorities that the ecclesiastical vestmentswere evolved by a natural process from the ordinary costume of aRoman citizen of the first or second century of the Christian era.The vestments used in the celebration of the mass are:(1) The cassock, a close-fitting robe reaching to the heels and but-toned all the way down in the front. It is the distinctive dress ofclerics worn by them in their homes and at all sacred functions, and,in Catholic countries at all times. The cassock of secular priests is
30 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMblack; of bishops and archbishops, purple or violet; of cardinals, red;of the pope, white.(2) The amice or amict (from the Latin amicire, to cover, to clothe),also called humeral (from the Latin humerus, shoulder), a piece oflinen, about 3 feet long by 2 feet wide, with a cross embroidered inthe middle of the upper edge, which the celebrant rests for a momenton his head, kissing the cross, and then spreads it over his shoulderswith a prayer, binding it around the shoulders by means of stringsat the upper corners of the cloth.(3) The alb, a loosely fitting shirt-like robe of white linen (henceits name, from the Latin alhus, white), reaching from head to foot.It is sometimes adorned with a border of lace or embroidery. Ittypifies the purity of life.(4) The girdle, or cincture, a linen cord, the two ends of which ter-minate in large tassels, w^'th which the priest binds the alb. It sym-bolizes continence and self-restraint.(5) The maniple, a strip of cloth about 2-feet long, embroidered withthree crosses, one in the middle and one at each of the extremities.It is worn on the left wrist, to which it is attached by a pin or string,hanging equally on both sides. It was originally a handkerchief ortowel, and gradually developed into an ornamental and symbolicalliturgical vestment. It signifies the rope with which Christ wasbound and the tears of penitence to be wiped off.(6) The stole (also called orarium), a long band of cloth, put aroundthe neck and crossed on the breast being held in this position by thegirdle. It is also worn at the performance of any rite, as ministeringthe sacraments or blessing persons and things. It is the symbol ofspiritual power and jurisdiction. It was perhaps developed from thescarf used to protect the neck.(7) The chasuble (from Latin casula, the diminutive of casa, hut,because like a little house it covered the whole body). It is the outeror upper vestment which is last assumed. It is elliptical in cut, openon both sides and at the top, and as it is passed over the head to reston the shoulders it reaches to the knees in front and a few incheslower behind. The material (gold cloth, brocade, silk, wool, linen),and color of the chasuble, stole, and maniple, as also of the veil andburse, must be the same. The color of these vestments varies ac-cording to the season or the occasion of the mass. White or goldcloth is employed on the joyous feasts of Christ and Mary; red isused on Pentecost, in masses of the Holy Ghost, and of the apostlesand martyrs ; green is the color of the season, when there is no specialfeast; violet is used during Advent and Lent and on all penitentialoccasions; and black is used in masses of the dead and on GoodFriday.(8) The biretta, a stiff square cap with three or four prominences orprojecting corners rising from its crown, and sometimes with a tassel
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 31in the middle where the corners meet. It is worn by the celebrantwhen he approaches the altar to say mass, and is, like the cassock,worn by the secular clergy generally.The dalmatic (from Dalmatia, where the garment originated) is thedistinctive vestment of the deacon when he assists at high mass, theservice of benediction, and at processions. It resembles the chasuble,only it is not rounded at the extremities, but straight, and has widesleeves and marked with two stripes. It has to conform in color tothe vestments of the celebrant. The stole is worn by the deaconover the left shoulder and joined on the right side.The tunic, which is the vestment of the subdeacon, does not differmuch in form from the dalmatic.Vestments of a mass celebrated hy a hisJiop (pontifical mass).?Thebishop, possessing the plentitude of priesthood, wears, when cele-brating a pontifical mass, the vestments of all the ranks of the min-istry. Peculiar to him are the rochet, a closely fitting garment oflinen vnth sleeves, which he wears over the cassock, gloves, sandals,and the miter, a kind of a folding cap. It consists of two like parts,each stiffened by a lining and rising to a peak. These are sewn to-gether on the sides, but are united above by a piece of material thatcan be folded together. Two lappets with fringes hang down fromthe back. According to the style, there is distinguished the Gothicmiter, with straight lines and sharp point, an,d the Italian miter, withgreater height and curved lines. The bishop also wears a pectoralcross, and a pontifical ring, and carries the crozier or pastoral staff,the symbol of authority and jurisdiction.58. Priests' mass vestments.?Consisting of cassock, amice, alb,cincture, maniple, stole, chasuble, and biretta. The maniple, stole,and chasuble are made of red silk with floral designs in silver appliqu^,and come from Italy; the cassock is a gift of the Rev. John Fenlon,St. Austens, Brookland, D. C; the amice, alb, which is adornedwith a border of embroidered floral designs, the cincture and birettaof velvet, are the gifts of the Rev. Joseph Mendl, Montclair, N. J.(Plate 10, Cat. Nos. 178996 and 230966-068, U.S.N.M.)59. Priests' mass vestments.?Consisting of alb, maniple, stole,chasuble, and biretta. The maniple, stole, and chasuble, of floweredcroisson silk in white and light green, come from Italy, the alb, oflinen with lace border, and biretta, of velvet, are the gifts of the Rev.P. T. Carew, Ridgewood, N. J. (Plate 10, Cat. Nos. 178997 and239090-093, U. S. N. M.)60. Maniple of tvMte croisso7i siZ^.?Embroidered in silk. Italy.(Cat. No. 178999, U. S. N. M.)61. Maniple of purple croisson silk brocade.?Italy. (Cat. No.178999, U.S.N.M.)62. Maniple of white satin brocade.?With borders and crosses insilver and gold applique. Italy. (Cat. No. 178999, U.S.N.M.)
32 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM63. Maniple of croisson silk brocade.?With borders and crosses inyellow silk brocade. Italy. (Cat. No. 178999, U.S.N.M.)64. Maniple oj green silk and silver brocade.?Italy. (Cat. No.178999, U.S.N.M.)65. Maniple of white croisson silk brocade.?With borders andcrosses in gold lace. Italy. (Cat. No. 178999, U.S.N.M.)66. Maniple of red satin.?With crosses of yeUow silk borderedwith gold thread and the ends of the bars of the crosses terminatingin fleurs-de-lis. Italy. (Cat. No. 179000, U.S.N.M.)67. Maniple of Rosa silk brocade.?With borders and crosses inyellow sUk brocade. Italy. (Cat. No. 179000, U.S.N.M.)68. Maniple of black silk brocade.?With borders and crosses insilver lace. Italy. (Cat. No. 179000, U.S.N.M.)69. Maniple of black silk brocade.?With crosses in yellow silkbrocade, and yellow silk fringes. Italy. Cat. No. 179001, U.S.N.M.)70. Maniple of black velvet.?With borders and crosses of yellowsilk bordered with red silk. The four ends of the crosses terminate infleurs-de-lis. Italy. (Cat. No. 179001, U.S.N.M.)71. Philippine dalmatic.?Made of purple velvet, with rosettes andother floral designs in gold appliqu^, in form of a wide, loose robe withan opening at the top for passing of the head. The usual form of thedalmatic resembles that of the chasuble, only it is not rounded atthe extremities but straight. Philippine Islands. (Plate 9 (right),Cat. No. 213406, U.S.N.M.)72. Bishop's miter.?Made of white silk, embroidered in gold andset with stones. Dimensions, 16K by 13K inches. Italy. (Plate11 (upper), fig. 1, Cat. No. 179032, U.S.N.M.)73. Bishop's crozier.?Made of white metal. The crozier is thepastoral staff of the bishop, symbolizing his authority and jurisdic-tion. It is of metal, hollow, usually highly ornamented, with a hookor curve on the upper end. An archbishop's staff is surmounted bya cross or crucifix; that of a patriarch bears a cross with two trans-verse bars; and that of the pope bears a cross with three transversebars. Height, 6 feet 3 inches. Italy. (Plate 11 (upper), fig. 2, Cat.No. 179031, U.S.N.M.)74. Pectoral cross.?Made of silver, gilded. Height, 9 inches.Italy. (Plate 11 (upper), fig. 3, Cat. No. 179033, U.S.N.M.)75. Mozzetta (from Italian mozzo, Latin, mutilus, mutilated, cur-tailed).?A short, cape-shaped vestment of scarlet silk, open in front,which can, however, be buttoned over the breast, covering theshoulder, with a Httle hood behind. It is worn by the Pope, cardinals,bishops, abbots, and others who do so by custom or papal privilege,Italy. (Cat. No. 211699, U.S.N.M.)76. Altar bell.?Made of brass. At various parts of the mass,especially during consecration and elevation of the host and chahce,
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 33
a small bell is rung to attract the attention and excite the devotionof those present. Height, dji inches; diameter, 2}^ inches. Spain.(Cat. No. 178862, U.S.N.M.)77. Silver hell.?Adorned with three Greek crosses within ovals inchased work. Height, 1% inches; diameter, 1}^ inches. Seville,Spain. (Cat. No. 167045, U.S.N.M.)78. Wooden clapper.?During holy week, when music and joyoussounds are excluded from the church, a wooden clapper or rattle isused in place of a metal bell, to give the various signals to the con-gregation. Measurements, 12 by 14 inches. (Cat. No. 179054,U.S'.N.M.)79. Clapper.?Wood inlaid. Used during Holy Week in place ofbell. Height, 11}^ inches. Probably Spain. (Cat. No. 311830,U.S.N.M.) Bequest of Miss Elizabeth S. Stevens.80. Osculatory.?A bronze plaque made in form of a facade of theItalian Renaissance style, with the representation of the Ecce Homo,(Christ holding a scepter?compare Matthew xxvii, 29), and theword lerosolyma (Jerusalem); in the gable, a cherub, and below, afloral design ; with a handle on the back. The osculatory is an instru-ment whereby the "kiss of peace" is given at a certain stage of thecelebration of the mass. Hence its name, from the Latin osculum,kiss; it is also called pax, peace. In the primitive church the usagewas for the "holy kiss" to be given by the members of the congre-gation promiscuously to one another. In the twelfth or thirteenthcentury, for reasons of convenience, a substitute for the actual kisswas introduced in the shape of a tablet, bearing the image of Christ,or Mary, or of a saint, or of the crucifixion, and fitted with a handle,which after being kissed by the celebrating priest, was passed to thosewho were to receive the kiss of peace. It is rarely used at present.Height, 5^2 inches; width, 3K inches. Italy. (Plate 12 (upper), fig.a. Cat. No. 179045, U.S.N.M.)81. Osculatory.?Gilt bronze plaque in form of a fagade of theItalian Renaissance style, flanked by caryatids with a handle behind.In the gable, God the Father giving the blessing; in the center, thedescent from the cross, with the Mater Dolorosa above it; below, acherub. Height, Qji inches; width, 4% inches. Italy. (Plate 12,(upper), fig. h, Cat. No. 179046, U.S.N.M.)82. Osculatory.?Ivory. Hemicircular. Carved in the shape ofthe fagade of a church, with a female saint in the center. Height, 5^inches. Italy. (Cat. No. 311827, U.S.N.M.) Bequest of MissEhzabeth S. Stevens.83. Hourglass.?An hourglass was formerly kept on the pulpit toregulate the duration of the sermon. Height, 6)2 inches; diameter, Sjiinches. Italy. (Cat. No. 152250, U.S.N.M.)
34 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM84-85. Vase and tray.?Made of white metal. Chased and repouss6work. Used for ablution by the bishop before and after celebrationof mass. Height of vase, 8 inches; diameters, 3 and 2K inches;diameters of the tray, 12K and 9^ inches. Italy. (Plate 9 (left),figs. 2 and 3, Cat. No. 152228, U.S.N.M.)SERVICE OF BENEDICTIONThe service of Benediction, or as it is more fully called, Benedictionof the Blessed Sacrament, is an afternoon or evening devotion. Itsmain feature is the exposing of the Eucharist (the consecrated host),upon the altar in an ostensory, which is surrounded with hghts, in-censed, and adored. After the singing of certain hymns and litaniesthe celebrant, clad in a cope and his shoulders enveloped in a humeralveil, in which he wraps his hands, takes the ostensory and makeswith it the sign of the cross in silence over the kneeling congregation.86-87. Cope, veil, and stole.?The cope is of yellow croisson silk, theveil of white and blue silk. The cope is a wide garment, reachingnearly to the feet, open in front and fastened by a clasp, with a semi-circular cape at the back. Italy. (Plate 11 (lower), Cat. No.152226, and 179008-9, U.S.N.M.)88. Ostensory (from Latin ostendere, to show, to expose, also calledmonstrance, from Latin monstrare, to show).?This consists of a diskencompassed with sunbeams and surmounted by a cross, set upon along stem, which rests on a base like a chaUce. In the center is in-serted a lunette, a circular crystal case in which the host is placed forexposition. The base and stem are of brass; the upper part is ofsilver, gilded. Height, 20% inches; diameter, 10 and 4^4 inches.Italy. (Plate 8 (lower), fig. 2, Cat. No. 179018, U.S.N.M.)89. Piece of carved ivory.?Cut in form resembling a heart. Inopen work are the letters J H S (Jesus hominum Salvator), sur-mounted by a cross. Above are perforations arranged to representa crown. Around the edge are incised diagonal or zigzag lines. Per-haps used as an ecclesiastical badge. Dimensions, 4% by 4K inches.Italy. (Cat. No. 292307, U.S.N.M.)90. Triptych.?Made in Gothic style, of wood, painted and gilded.On the upper tier is represented Christ seated in the center, the righthand raised in blessing, the left holding the Gospels, with angels'heads at his feet, and Mary and the angel of annunciation on thesides. On the lower tier, in the center, is represented Mary holdingthe Infant Jesus, attended by angels on either hand; while the twoside panels are occupied by St. Peter with the keys and St. Paul withthe sword, respectively, each holding the Gospel book. Height, 29inches; width, 20% inches. Italy. (Plate 12 (lower). Cat. No.179038, U.S.N.M.)
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 3591
.
Triptych.?Made of wood carved, painted, and gilded. Repre-senting, in relief, the Crucifixion. The shrine was used by mission-aries on their journeys. Height, 17 inches-; 27}^ inches. Madrid,Spain. (Plate 13 (upper). Cat. No. 178761, U.S.N.M.)92. Triptych.?Wood stuccoed and gilt. In the center, aboveGod, the Father blessing; below, the scourging of Jesus, (Matthewxxvii, 26). On the left side, St. Sebastian, who \va.s martyred underthe emperor Diocletian; on the right side, a saint worshipping.Height, 10)^ inches. Italy. (Cat. No. 311821, U.S.N.M.) Bequestof Miss Elizabeth S. Stevens.93. Holy water fountain.?Made of white metal embossed with amonogram and a crown. A vessel containing water mixed with saltand blessed by a priest is placed at the entrance of churches andhouses. Catholics, on entering a church or a house, usually dip thefingers into the vessel and make the sign of the cross. Height, 11inches; width, 5% inches. Italy. (Plate 13 (lower), fig. 1, Cat. No.152237, U.S.N.M.)94. Holy water Jountain.?Made of porcelain. In the center ispainted a cross and I H S, {Jesus hominum Sahator?Jesus Saviour ofMankind). Height, 16% inches; width, Iji inches. Italy. (Plate13 (lower), fig. 2, Cat. No. 152239, U.S.N.M.)95. Holy water fountain.?Made of white metal. Embossed withthe figure of Mary, Height, 9% inches; width, 7 inches, Italy.(Plate 13 (lower), fig. 3, Cat. No. 152238, U.S.N.M.)96. Holy water fountain.?Made of brass. The upper part iscarved to represent the Crucifixion. Height, Iji inches; width, 3Kinches, Italy. (Cat. No. 152236, U.S.N.M.)97. Holy water fountain.?Made of brass. Height, 19 inches;width, 12}^ inches. Italy. (Cat. No. 197027, U.S.N.M.)98. Holy water fountain.?Made of porcelain. Height, 9 inches;width, 5 inches. Italy. (Cat. No. 152240, U.S.N.M.)99. Holy water fountain.?Made of porcelain. Height, 10}^ inches;width, 7^2 inches. Italy. (Cat. No. 152241, U.S.N.M.)100. Holy water vessel.?Pewter. The back is formed by thefigures of the Virgin Mary and John the Evangelist, the latter holdinga crucifix, and Mary Magdalene, kneeling and weeping. Height,8 inches. Germany (?). (Cat. No. 311837, U.S.N.M.) Bequestof Miss Elizabeth S. Stevens.101. Alms box.?Rectangular iron box with a slit on top. Dimen-sions, 5% by 4% by 1% inches. Italy. (Cat. No. 179040, U.S.N.M.)102. Brass basin.?Adorned with a figure, which is seemingly acombination of rosette and a star, in repousse work. Probablyused for receiving offerings. Diameter, 17^^ inches. Italy. (Cat.No. 179028, U.S.N.M.)
36 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM103. Brass hasin.?With an inscription in Gothic (?) charactersand a wheel-shaped figure in repousse and chased work. Diameter,1Q% inches. Italy. (Cat. No. 179029, U.S.N.M.)LITURGICAL WORKS104. Missal, (missaJe), on wooden stand.?Contains all the liturgy-required for the celebration of the mass throughout the year. It isprinted in Latin in red and black letters. The black letters consti-tute the text of the missal, and the red its rubrics or directions inperforming the various actions of the mass. Height, 12 inches;width, 8K inches. Italy. (Plate 14, Cat. No. 179011, U.S.N.M.)105. Altar cards.?Printed on cardboard and set in carved, gildedframes. Three cards, which contain certain portions of the massliturgy, for the reading of which it is not convenient to look into themissal, are placed on the altar in an upright position, for the greaterconvenience of the priest. Height, 16K and 12 inches; width, 17}^and lOK inches. Italy. (Plate 15, Cat. No. 179014, U.S.N.M.)106. Manuscript of two parchment leaves of a missal.?With illumi-nated initials. Dimensions, 20 by 14 inches. Italy. (Cat. No.179012, U.S.N.M.)107. Canon of the mass (Canon Missae).?Containing that part ofthe mass v/hich is permanent and unchanging in its prayers andceremonies, hence the name, ''canon"-?that is, rule, or fixed stand-ard. Printed in red and black characters at Venice in 1624. Thetitle-page is adorned with vignettes depicting the Acts of the Apostles,while two full-page illustrations represent the Last' Supper of Christwith the Apostles, and the Trinity, and celebration of the Eucharist,respectively. Bound in red Russian leather, gold-tooled with thearchepiscopal arms of Venice. Height, 14^ inches; width, 10 inches.Venice, Italy. (Cat. No. 214725, U.S.N.M.)108. Antiphonary {Antiphonariumabhreviatum; videlicet dominicaleet festivum).?Contains hymns and psalms which are chanted alter-nately by two choirs. Printed in Latin in red and black letters atVenice in 1547. Bound in sheepskin. Height, 14 inches; width,9^^ inches. Venice, Italy. (Cat. No. 288986, U.S.N.M.) Gift ofMiss Louise Salter Codwise.109. Pontificale Romanum.?With wooden stand. The pontificalcontains the ritual for the performance of rites and functions reservedfor a bishop, such as the consecration of churches, altars, and sacredvessels; the administration of the sacraments of confirmation andordination, as fixed by Pope Clement VIII (1592-1605). Printedin Latin in red and black characters at Antwerp, Belgium, in 1707.Bound in leather and covered with red velvet. With gilt and toolededges. Height, 6% inches; width, 4 inches. Atrato River, Colom-bia, South America. (Cat. No. 286447, U.S.N.M.) Lent by Col.David duBose Gaillard.
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 37OBJECTS OF VENERATION AND DEVOTIONCROSSES AND CRUCIFIXESThe cross essentially consists of an upright and a transverse pieceplaced upon one another in various forms; a crucifix is a cross witha figure fixed on it. The cross was a common instrumiCnt of capitalpunishment among the ancients. It was also and is still a mostcommon religious symbol of pre-Christian and non-Christian reli-gions, and, like the triangle and other geometric figures, it is some-times merely ornamental in origin with no symbolic significance.In Christianity, on account of the death of Christ upon the cross, itbecame the principal symbol of faith and emblem of salvation.There are four principal types of the cross: 1. The Tau cross,(crux commissa), from its form of the Greek Tau T, also called St.Anthony's cross, after the legend that St. Anthony (about 251-356)exterminated the idols of Egypt with such a cross; it is the earliestform of the cross. 2. The equilateral or Greek cross, where twoequal arms cross one another at right angles in the middle. 3. St.Andrew's cross {crux decussata) when two shafts of equal length arecrossed diagonally in the middle, X , so called because the ApostleSt. Andrew" is supposed to have been martyred upon such a cross.4. The Latin cross (crux immissa, or capitata) in which the uprightis longer than the transverse beam and is crossed by it near thetop, ~|~. It is the form supposed to have been used in the crucifixionof Christ. A variety of this cross is the Lorraine or Jerusalemcross, with two transverse bars, the upper one shorter than thelower ?j? , so-called, because Godfrey de Bouillon, Duke of Lorraine,when chosen by the Crusaders as the first king of Jerusalem (1C99),adopted this cross. It is also called the cardinal cross, because itis one of the distinctive insignia of cardinals and archbishops.110. Processional cross.?M&de oi bronze. With trefoil ends (crosshotone). From the four angles of the junction of the two beamsissue rays. Above is a tablet with the title: J N R J, the initials ofJesus Nazarenus Rex Judaeorum (Jesus of Nazareth, King of theJews), the inscription Pilate is recorded to have placed upon thecross of Christ (John xix, 19-20). With a socket for inserting apole. Church processions are alwa^^s headed by a cross fastenedon a pole. Height, 33 inches. From a church of Santo Domingo,Valley of Mexico. (Plate 16, Cat. No. 158316, U.S.N.M.)111. Processional (?) cross.?Made of bronze, richly adorned inchased and hammered work. At the ends are medallions repre-senting, respectively: On top, God the Father holding in the lefthand a cross and with the right giving the blessing; to the right,Mary; to the left, probably John the Baptist; and below, John theEvangelist, holding the cup of the Eucharist. The figure of Christ
38 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMwas broken away. With a tang for inserting into a shaft. Height,12 inches. Italy. (Plate 17, Cat. No. 152231, U.S.N.M.)112. Ivory cross with appurtenances oj the Passion.?The crossproper rises from a post which is set into a base. Both the postand the base have on their sides a sort of railing in openwork. Thebase rests upon a plinth and this again is placed on a platform. Atthe corners of the base are twisted columns and on top of the cornersof the base as well as of the plinth and platform are carved vases.The front and back are adorned with rosettes and clusters of grapes.The whole stands on rounded feet.The objects connected with the Passion represented on this crossare, beginning at the top, a pelican. From the habit of this birdof storing food in the large pouch attached to its lower mandible forthe purpose of feeding its young, which it does by pressing the pouchagainst the breast, arose the belief that it opened its breast with itsbill to feed its young with its own blood?a belief wliich seemed toderive support from the red at the end of the bill, and thus thepelican became a symbol of Christ's love for his church.Underneath is the tablet inscribed with the title, I N R I?JesusNazarenus Rex Judaeorum (Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews
?
John xix, 19-20). Upon the transverse beam are, at the right end(of the plate) a winged sphinx, at the left a winged, horned griffin.To the x'ight of the vertical beam a hand, and to its left a vase.These, with the bundle or tuft fastened to a staff seen next to thesphinx, may either refer to the episode of the alabaster vase withprecious ointment which Mary of Bethany poured upon the feet ofJesus and dried them with her hair, shortly before the Passion(John xii, 3), or to that of the washing of the feet of the disciples byJesus (John xiii, 4-5); while next to the griffin is the lance with whichJesus' side was pierced (Matthew xxvii, 49). On the front of thetransverse beam is in the center the crown of thorns (Matthew xxvii,28), and to its sides the hammer and tongs, respectively, and a nailat either side of them. Beneath the transverse beam are, in suc-cession, the seamless coat of Jesus and the dice which the soldiersused in casting lots for it (John xix, 23-24) ; two swords (Luke xxii, 38and 50) ; the lantern which the officials used in their search for Jesus(John xviii, 3); and the handkerchief, or sudarium of Veronica. Thisrefers to the story that when Jesus passed her door, bearing his cross,Veronica, touched with compassion, wiped the drops of agony fromhis face, and the features of Jesus were imprinted upon the cloth.According to another account Veronica was the woman who washealed by touching Christ's robe (Matthew ix, 20-21). Desiring aportrait of him, St. Luke thrice painted it. Then Jesus said to her,
''Unless I aid you, Luke's art is in vain, for my face is only knownto him who sent me." Afterwards, being at her house, he asked for
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 39
water to wash his face, and returned to her the napkin with the por-trait. Five cities claim the possession of the genuine sudarium ofVeronica?Turin in Italy, Toulouse, Besangon, and Campiegne inFrance, and Sorlat in Spain (?). Veronica herself is honored by ashrine at the right hand of the high altar of St. Peter's in Rome, andher festival is observed on the 4th of February.Farther down, a cherub; skull and crossbones, emblematic ofChrist's triumph over death and the grave, or it may be intended toindicate Golgotha, the place of skulls (Matthew xxvii, 33). It is alsoexplained as the skull of Adam, according to the tradition that thecross was placed on the resting place of the first father of mankind.Upon a sort of platform underneath is placed the cock of St. Peter(Matthew xxvi, 34 and 74). From the platform rise on staffs to theright the cup of vinegar and to the left the sponge which was dippedinto it and reached up to Jesus on the cross (Matthew xxvii, 48).Diagonally placed are the ladder for mounting up to the cross, andthe pillar, with the rope wound around it, with which Jesus wasbound to the pillar to be scourged (Matthew xxvii, 26). Lastly,the vase and basin which rest on the base may either be intended forthe vessels which Jesus used in washing the feet of the disciples(John xiii, 4-5), or for those in which the spices were brought to thegrave to anoint the body of Jesus (John xix, 39; also Mark xvi, 1).Height, 18)4 inches. From the old Mission Church at Jemez, N.Mex. (Cat, No. 211877, U.S.N.M.)113. Wooden cross.?Inlaid with straw to represent the instru-ments of the Passion. Height, 21 inches. From an old Spanishchurch in Caborca, Sonora, Mex. (Cat. No. 179041, U.S.N.M.)114. Wooden cross.?Inlaid with straw in a lozenge pattern.Height, 21 inches. From an old Spanish church in Caborca, Sonora,Mex. (Cat. No. 179042, U.S.N.M.)115. Wooden crucifix.?With the figure of Christ in mother-of-pearl. Height, 3% inches. Palestine. (Cat. No. 74617, U.S.N.M.)116. Lorraine crucifix.?M&de of silver, openwork. Pendant.Height, 3K inches. Nurnberg, Germany. (Cat. No. 286813,U.S.N.M.) Lent by Miss Juha Halsted Chadwick.117. Glass cross.?Consisting of cut crystals fixed to a frame ofbrass rods. Pendant. Height, 3)2 inches. Probably from Italy.(Cat. No. 262158, U.S.N.M.) Lent by Mrs. G. Brown Goode.118. Wooden crucifix.?Inlaid with pieces of looking-glass. Thefigures is of white metal and fastened to a chased metal plate. Thefour ends are likewise encased in metal, terminating in trefoils (crosshotone). Pendant. Height, 5)2 inches. Spain. (Cat. No. 286814,U.S.N.M.) Lent by Miss Juha Halsted Chadwick.119. Pectoral cross.?Made of brass, gilded. Hollow and chasedwork. Height, 4 inches. Italy. (Cat. No. 179117, U.S.N.M.)
40 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM120. Lorraine cross.?Made of brass, hammered work. Engravedon one side, "San Antoni ora pro me" (St. Anthony, pray for me);on the other, "San Cornelia ora pro me" (St. CorneUa, pray for me).Height, 3K inches. Italy. (Cat. No. 179118, U.S.N.M.)121. Silver crucifix.?With bosses on the beams, the title: J N R J,a 4-leaved halo, and skull and crossbones. Height, 3% inches. Italy.(Cat. No. 311840, U.S.N.M.) Bequest of Miss Elizabeth S. Stevens.122. Crucifix.?The cross is of wood, the figure of lead. Height,16 inches. Germany. (Cat. No. 316266, U.S.N.M.) Gift of A.HeitmuUer.123. Brass crucifix.?Round the brow of Christ is the crown ofthorns. Over it the inscription: "J N R J" on a scroll. Below,skull and crossbones. Height, 4 inches. Italy. (Cat. No. 316481,U.S.N.M.) Gift of Miss Ume Tsuda.124. Crucifix.?Old ivory. Height, 6 inches. Italy. (Cat. No.311828, U.S.N.M.) Bequest of Miss Ehzabeth S. Stevens.125. Crucifix.?BrSiss. Above, God the Father, holding world orband cross. Underneath, title: J N R J (Jesus of Nazareth, King of theJews) and dove (symbol of the Holy Ghost) ; on ends of transversebar, Mary and John the Evangelist; below, praying figure. It isperhaps a processional cross. Height, 14% inches. Italy. (Cat.No. 311829, U.S.N.M.) Bequest of Miss Elizabeth S. Stevens.126. Crucifix.?Wood, with figurine of brass, gilt. Underneath,skull and crossbones. Height, 10 inches. Italy. (Cat. No. 311838,U.S.N.M.) Bequest of Miss Elizabeth S. Stevens.127. Silver crucifix.?With bosses on the beams and ring for sus-pension. Height, 3M inches. Italy. (Cat. No. 311839, U.S.N.M.)Bequest of Miss Elizabeth S. Stevens.128. Implements of the passion.?Inclosed in a wooden box. Onthe bottom of the box are carved the words: "Anoni Raut," and onthe lid: "A. R.," probably the name of the original owner. Insidethe lid is carved on top a monk kneeling before the Infant Jesus, whois standing on a pedestal; below, Jesus in Gethsemane (Matthewxxvi, 36). Height, 4:% inches; width, 2 inches. Italy (?). Cat. No.311884, U.S.N.M.) Bequest of Miss Elizabeth S. Stevens.
RELICS AND RELIQUARIESRelics are the remains of departed saints. They include (1) thebodies or parts of the bodies of the venerated persons; (2) objectsused by them or connected with their death, such as clothes, vest-ments, rosaries, the nails, lance, spear, or fragments of the true crossof Christ, the girdle, veil of Mary, etc.; and (3) objects connectedwith their tomb or hallowed by contact with then- bodies. Relics areoften carried in solemn procession, and pilgrimages are made to thechurches or monasteries in which they are preserved. No church
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 41building can be consecrated unless it contains relics. Reliquariesare repositories of relics and are usually made of precious metals andadorned with jewels, in form of a box, casket, or shrine. The ven-eration of relics dates back to the early centuries of Christianity; inthe fourth century it was already widely spread.129. Silver reliquary.?Made in form of an ostensory, encompassedby sunbeams. Chased work. Behind the glass is seen a crosslet,supposed to be made from a particle of the true cross. By the ''truecross" is meant the actual original cross upon which Jesus was cruci-fied. It is believed by both the Roman Catholic and the EasternChurch that the cross buried upon Golgotha was found in 326 A. D.by the Empress Helena, mother of Constantine the Great, and thechurch commemorates this event by appointing May 3 (in theEastern Church September 13), as the annual festival of the dis-covery of the cross (inventi crucis). Height, Sji inches. Seville,Spain. (Cat. No. 166987, U.S.N.M.)130. Reliquary.?Consisting of an oval metal frame. Behind theglass in front is a tiny cross set in a gilt frame of scroll design. Aninscription reads. Lignum S S. crusis D. N. J. C. (wood of the mostholy cross of our Lord Jesus Christ). On the back is the episcopalv/ax seal, attesting to the genuineness of the relic. Diameters, 1 V^by 1 )i inches. Probably from Italy. (Cat. No. 256893, U.S.N.M.)Lent by Mrs. G. Brown Goode.131. Relic oj St. Anne, mother of Mary.?In an oval case of whitemetal. On the back is in relief an effigy of Mary and the petition inFrench, "O Mary, conceived without sin, pray for us who take theirrefuge to thee." Diameters, 1 inch by ]i of an inch. Italy. (Cat.No. 179058, U.S.N.M.)132. Relic oj St. Peter.?In an oval case of white metal, with theepiscopal seal. Diameters, Iji bj^ 1% inches. Italy. (Cat. No.179061, U.S.N.M.)133. Relics of St. Clement.?Consisting of two molar teeth in abrass frame. St. Clement was the third Bishop of Rome toward theend of the first century. Diameters, 1 % by 1 K inches. Italy. (Cat.No. 179060, U.S.N.M.)134. Relics of Christ, Mary, St. Joseph, St. Francis a Paula (1416-1607); St. Francis Xavier {1506-1552); St. Theresa (1616-1582);and St. Aloysius Gonzaga (1568-1591).?In an oval brass case.Diameters, 3 by 2% inches. Italy. (Cat. No. 179062, U.S.N.M.)135. Relic of St. Charles Borromeo (1638-1684).?In an oval case ofwhite metal with the episcopal seal. St. Borromeo was Cardinal andArchbishop of Milan. Diameters, 1 }^ by 1 inch. Italy. (Cat. No.179059, U.S.N.M.)61551?29 4
42 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM136. Silver reliquanj.?Oval containmg relics of Marj^, St. Joseph,St. John of the Cross (1542-1591), and St. Theresa, framed by a floraldesign in filigree work, studded with colored stones. With the epis-copal seal. Height, 3 inches; width, 2}{ inches. Italy. (Cat. No.179037, U.S.N.M.)137. Silver reliquary.?With miniature painting of Mary. Spanishworkmanship. Brought to New Mexico in 1783 by Padre Sanchez.Diameters, 4 and 3 inches. Pueblo of Tesuque, New Mexico. (Cat.No. 176080, U.S.N.M.)138. Silver reliquary.?With miniature paintings. Height, 2)^inches; width, 2 inches. Madrid, Spain. (Cat. No. 178864,U.S.N.M.)139. Reliquary.?Sealed medallion, set in a wreath of metal foil,inclosed in a pear-shaped wooden box. Containing a piece of bone ofSt. Joseph of Leonissa (Umbria, Italy), who lived 1556-1612. Italy.(Cat. No. 311835, U.S.N.M.) Bequest of Miss Elizabeth S. Stevens.140. Sacred heart.?Model of a burning heart, made of brass. Theadoration of and devotion to the sacred heart of Jesus, as a noble partof his person and a symbol of his love, became general and popu-lar in the Catholic Church through Margaret Marie Alacoque, aFrench nun of the Visitation Order, who lived in the seventeenthcentury. Since 1856 a yearly feast in honor of the sacred heart iscelebrated on Friday after the feast of Corpus Chris ti. Height, 2^inches. Italy. (Cat. No. 179063, U.S.N.M.)141. Sacred heart.?Made of pale green silk, triangular and scal-lopped, embroidered with variegated silk. With eyes for buttons.7 inches by 6 inches. Washington, D. C. (Cat. No. 311436,U.S.N.M.) Presented by the executors from the estate of Mrs.Mary E. Pinchot.142. Three silver perfume boxes.?Made in form of the Sacred Heart,surmounted by crown and cross. Height, 3 inches. Italy. (Cat.No. 31 1860-31 1862, U.S.N.M.) Bequest of Miss Elizabeth S.Stevens.
The cult of images is practiced both in the Roman Catholic and inthe Eastern Church. In the Roman Catholic Church both picturesand statues are used, while the Eastern Church forbids statues. Thedoctrine of the Roman Catholic Church concerning the veneration ofimages, as formulated by the Council of Trent (1563), is that theimages of Christ, of the Virgin Mother of God, and of the saints are tobe had and retained particularly in temples, and that honor and ven-eration are to be given them; not that any divinity or virtue is be-lieved to be in them on account of which they are to be worshiped, oranything is to be asked of them, but because the honor which is shownto them is referred to the prototypes which those images represent; in
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 43
such wise that by the images which we kiss, and before which we un-cover the head and kneel, we adore Christ and venerate the saintswhose hkenesses they bear. The cult paid to images is designatedwith the Greek word dulia (secondary veneration), in contradistinctionfrom latria (supreme worship), which is allowed to be offered to Godonly.143. Jesus in Gethsemane.?Representing Jesus kneeling with thecup in front of him. (Matthew xxvi, 36.) Carved in relief upon apiece of limestone from the river Jordan. Jerusalem, Palestine.(Cat. No. 76975, U.S.N.M.)144. Wooden figure of Christ.?The long curled locks are held bythe crown of thorns of gilded brass ; behind the head rises a cruciformhalo of the same material; around the loins is a kind of apron, like-wise of gilded brass, with birds and floral designs in respousse work,while under it is a loin cloth of blue satin. In the hands and feet,which latter are crossed over one another, are the holes of the nails,and on the left side of the chest is the hole caused by the spear (Johnxix, 34). The figure evidently was part of a crucifix. Height, 12inches. Philippine Islands. (Plate 18, Cat. No. 213405, U.S.N.M.)145. Wooden figure of Christ.?Similar to the preceding one. Theloin cloth consists of a piece of brocade, with gold applique. Height,28 inches. Philippine Islands. (Cat. No. 213405, U.S.N.M.)146. Cloak of figure.?Made of red satin, with the letters J H S(Jesus hominum Salvator?Jesus Savior of Mankind) and fleurs-de-lisin gold applique. Philippine Islands. (Cat. No. 213408, U.S.N.M.)147. Statuette of Christ.?Wood, painted and gilded. Height, 23
K
inches. Latin America. (Cat. No. 317693, U.S.N.M.)148. Statuette of Christ.?Wood, broken. Height, 6^ inches. Italy.(Cat. No. 311826, U.S.N.M.) Bequest of Miss Elizabeth S. Stevens.149. The Lord's Supper.?Engraved on the shell of the pearl oyster.Measyrements, 6 by 6 inches. Bethlehem, Palestine. (Plate 19(upper), fig. 1, Cat. No. 74542, U.S.N.M.)150. The Ascension.?Engraved on the shell of the pearl oyster.Around the center representing the Ascension are 12 medallions,representing the apostles with their emblems, in the following order:1, St. Peter with the keys; 2, St. Paul with the sword; 3, St. Matthewwith the pick; 4, St. James the Lesser with the club; 5, St. Johnwith the chalice; 6, St. James the Elder with the pilgrim's staff;7, St. Philip with the small cross; 8, St. Bartholomew with the bookand knife; 9, St. Andrew with his cross (the crux decussata, see p. 37);10, St. Thomas with the architect's square; 11, St. Matthias with theax ; 12, St. Simon with the saw. Measurements, 6 by 6 inches. Beth-lehem, Palestine. (Plate 19 (upper), fig. 2, Cat. No. 74541, U.S.N.M.)151. Bust of Mary.?Made of terra cotta, painted and gilded.Mary, the mother of Christ, is venerated in the Catholic Church as
44 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMthe most exalted of created beings. She is called the "BlessedVirgin," the "Holy Virgin," "Our Lady" (Itahan "Madonna"), andsince the Council of Ephesus in 431 the designation "Mother of God"is formally applied to her. While the veneration paid to other saintsis termed dulia, she alone is entitled to hyperdulia, and her intercessionis invoked more than that of all others. She is the patroness of manycountries, cities, and societies. In ecclesiastical art she occupies amost important position, and all the chief events of her life haveformed the subjects of artistic representation. Height, 12 inches.Italy. (Cat. No. 179049, U.S.N.M.)152. "Virgin of the Pillar."?Statuette made of brass, chiseledwork, representing Mary standing upon a pillar, holding in her leftarm the Infant Jesus, both crowned, with a halo of rays and stars.This is a model of a celebrated statue of that name (Neustra Senoradel Pilar), at Saragossa in Spain. Tradition asserts that the Virgin,,standing upon a pillar, appeared to St. James (San Jago), the apostleand patron saint of Spain, when he was making a missionary pilgrim-age through Spain. Height, 7 inches. Spain. (Cat. No. 178866,U.S.N.M.)153. Madonna of the Pillar.?Statuette of silver. Height, 3Kinches. Spain. (Cat. No. 311831, U.S.N.M.) Bequest of MissElizabeth S. Stevens.154. " Virgin oj the Pillar."?Miniature statuette of silver, gilded.Height, 2% inches. Spain. (Cat. No. 178865, U.S.N.M.)155. Statuette oj Mary.?Called "Virgin of Good Friday." Madeof brass, chiseled work. Heighf, 4}^ inches. Madrid, Spain. (Cat.No. 178867, U.S.N.M.)156. Madonna, Crowned, until Infant.?Statuette of wood. Height,12)^ inches. Italy. (Cat. No. 311824, U.S.N.M.) Bequest of MissEhzabeth S. Stevens.157. Madonna with the Infant Jesus.?Statuette of carved .wood.Height, 6 inches. Italy. (Cat. No. 329510, U.S.N.M.) Bequest ofMiss Catherine Walden Myer.158. Bust of Mary.?Made of papier-mache, with a dome-shapedcrown. Height, 10 inches. Italy. (Cat. No. 179052, U.S.N.M.)159. "Pie/a."?Mary holding the body of Christ. Statuette ofwood, painted. Height, 13 inches. Italy. (Cat. No. 179048,U.S.N.M.)160. ^'Pieta."?The same as the preceding one. Height, 12 inchesItaly. (Cat. No. 179048a, U.S.N.M.)161. Crown.?Made of bronze, gilded, and adorned with coloredstones. Dates from the seventeenth century. It decorated animage of Mary in the demolished church of St. Anna, the formernunnery, Zbraslovski Dom, in Prague, Bohemia. Height, 5 inches;diameter, 4 inches. Prague, Bohemia. (Cat. No. 154776, U.S.N.M.)
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 45162. Porcelain 'plaque.?Representing Mary in relief. Dated1795. Height, 13 inches; width, 9% inches. Florence, Italy. (Cat.No. 214722, U.S.N.M.)163. Porcelain 'plaque.?Painted with three figures?Mary, crowned,and two women performing the devotion of the rosary before her.Dated from the seventeenth century. Height, 9% inches; width,10)^ inches. Italy. (Cat. No. 152242, U.S.N.M.)164. Silver medallion.?Representing, on one side, Mary withthe Infant Jesus; on the other a burning heart pierced by a sword,alluding to Luke ii, 35. Set in silver filigree. Measurements, 1% by\% inches. Italy. (Cat. No. 179056, U.S.N.M.)165. Miniature of Mary.?Painted on glass. Diameter, 2 and1% inches. Spain. (Cat. No. 178859, U.S.N.M.)166. Madonna.?Statuette of wood, painted and gilded. Height,12 inches. Latin America. (Cat. No. 317694, U.S.N.M.)167. Saint Joseph and the Injant Jesus.?Statuette of plaster,painted and gilded. Height, 10 inches. Italy. (Cat. No. 329509,U.S.N.M.) Bequest of Miss Catherine Walden Myer.168. Two processional banners.?Made of white metal. Embossedon one side wdth the figure of Mary, holding in the right hand arosary, on the left arm the Infant Jesus; on the other side, with thefigure of St. Dominic, to whom the introduction of the rosary in itspresent form is ascribed, holding a lily, which is his emblem. Prob-ably used at the feast of the rosary, which is celebrated on the firstSunday in October. Measurements, 10 by 7 inches. Italy. (Plate19 (lower), Cat. No. 179070-071, U.S.N.M.)169. Silver medallion.?Representing, on one side, St. Peter; onthe other, St. Paul. Set in silver filigree. Diameter, 1% inches.Italy. (Cat. No. 179057, U.S.N.M.)170. Mace of St. Sebastian.?Made of white metal, terminatingat the top in a statuette of the saint. St. Sebastian was, accordingto tradition, a Roman soldier and Christian martyr, having beenshot to death about 288 A. D., by order of Diocletian. He is vener-ated in the Catholic Church as patron of sharpshooters and pro-tector from pestilence. He is usually represented as a fair youthbound to a pillar or tree and riddled with arrows. The mace wasprobably carried in procession on his festival, on January 20. Length,2 feet 1 inch. Italy. (Cat. No. 179068, U.S.N.M.)171. St. Benedict.?Statuette of white metal. St. Benedict (about480-543) was the founder of the Benedictine order, the first monasticorder established in the Occident, and its organization became themodel upon which all the monasteries of the Western Church wereformed. Height, 4 inches. Italy. (Cat. No. 329500 U.S.N.M.)Bequest of Miss Catherine Walden Myer.
46 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM172. St. Anthony of Padua, holding the Christchild.?Wood, carvedand gilt. St. Anthon}^ was a Franciscan monk and reputed miracleworlcer. Born 1195 at Lisbon, Portugal; died 1231 at Vercelli,Italy. He was canonized in 1232 and his day is June 13. He isespecially invoked for the recovery of lost things. Height, 12^inches. Italy. (Cat. No. 311825, U.S.N.M.) Bequest of MissElizabeth S. Stevens.173. Porcelain plaque representing St. Anthony of Padua.?St.Anthony, born in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1195; died near Padua, Italy,in 1 231 ; was a Franciscan theologian and preacher to whom the per-formance of many miracles is attributed. He was canonized byGregory IX in 1232, and his day in the Roman calendar is June 13.He is especially invoked for the recovery of things lost. Diameters,14 by 8K inches. Italy. (Cat. No. 179035, U.S.N.M.)174. Faience plaque of the Sodality of St. Anthony of Padua.?Dated 1620. A sodahty is a congregation or association consistingof lay persons, meeting together at stated times, under ecclesiasticaldirection for the performance of pious exercises. Diameters 14 by 12inches. Italy. (Cat. No. 179036, U.S.N.M.)175. St. Theresa.?Statuette of wood. St. Theresa (born 1515,died 1582), was a Spanish nun of the Carmelite Order, of which shefounded a reformed branch. She is famous as a writer of mysticaland ascetical works. She was canonized in 1622, and is also vener-ated, next to St. James, as patron saint of Spain. Height, 21 inches.Italy. (Cat. No. 179047, U.S.N.M.)176. St. Theresa.?Souvenir of the tercentenary anniversary ofher death in 1 582. Plaque of white metal bearing her image. Height4% inches; width, 2% inches. Madrid, Spain. (Cat. No. 167043,U.S.N.M.) PRINTSThey are for the greater part representations of images or paintingswhich are preserved and venerated in some church, mostly in Siena,Italy.177. Christ on the cross.?Print on paper. To the right standsAdam in the attitude of adoration; to the left, a winged figure inCorinthian helmet, holding in the right hand a lance and with theleft pomting to the crucified; below lies Eve in sleep. A serpent isbiting the feet of Christ, in allusion to Genesis iii, 15. Sji by 6%inches. Italy. (Cat. No. 179079, U.S.N.M.)178. The Holy Child of Cehu {Santo Nino de Cehu).?Print on paper"The oldest miraculous image is the Holy Child of Cebu, reputed tohave been found on the shore of the island of Cebu in 1 565. It is saidto be an image of the Holy Child Jesus. It is a wooden image 15inches long, with ebon features, and is kept in a strong room in thechurch of the Holy Child, on the island of Cebu. When exposed to
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 47view before the populace it has the honors of field marshal accordedto it. During the annual feast held in its honor, January 20, pilgrimsfrom the remotest island and from across the sea come to purifytheir souls at the shrine of the Holy Child." ^ 29% by 20 inches.Manila, Philippine Islands. (Cat. No. 205542, U.S.N.M.)179. Madonna of the Olive.?Fr'mt on paper. Representing theMadonna with the Infant Jesus, with cherubs fluttering over them.Inscribed above in Latin, "Like a green olive tree in the house ofGod." (Psalm lii; in the Catholic Bible, H, 8.) Below is stated,in a colophon in Italian, that it is a "representation of the miraculousimage of the Most Holy Mary of the Ohve which is kept in the Churchof Pieve Vecchia, which was carried in procession in Siena in 1820with a rehc of the veil of the same Virgin." 11 by 8 inches. Siena,Italy. (Cat. No. 179080, U.S.N.M.)180. Madonna of Intercession.?Print on paper. Representing theMadonna with the Infant crowned. The colophon m Latin statesthat the original is preserved in a chapel of the metropolitan churchat Siena for the solemn suppUcation on Low Sunday?that is, Sundaynext after Easter (dominica in alhis, the Sunday of white garments,from the white robes worn in early times by those who had been bap-tized just before Easter). 14}^ by lOK inches. Siena, Italy. (Cat.No. 179081, U.S.N.M.)181. Madonna, crowned.?Print on paper. Surrounded by float-ing cherubs and worshiped on one side by a monk, on the other by anun. The colophon says that it is a representation of the imagewhich is venerated in the Church of Insigne Collegiata of Provenzano.It was crowned in 1 681 and carried in procession on Low Sunday of1850 with relics of St. Bernardine, St. Catherine, and others. 14% bylOK inches. Siena, Italy. (Cat. No. 179082, U.S.N.M.)182. Madonna of Good Counsel.?Print on paper. Representingthe Madonna with the Infant crowned, surrounded by cherubs.Below is mountain scenery with a church or citadel. The originalis, as the colophon says, venerated in the Church of St. Leonard inSiena and was carried in procession on Low Sunday of 1833, togetherwith a relic of the veil of Mary and the relics of John the Baptist, St.Jerome, St. Anthony of Padua, and St. Eurosia. 15 by 10 inches,Siena, Italy. (Cat. No. 179083, U.S.N.M.)183. Madonna.?Print on paper. Representing the Madonna ina columned shrine which is supported by two cherubs and surmountedby a crown, orb, and cross which are held by two cherubs. The wholeis surrounded by aureole of rays and framed in a wide arch. Beneathto the right is a female saint holding a lily stalk and a book; to theleft, a male saint holding a paten or tray. In the upper corners aredeer. It is a representation of the miraculous image of Holy Mary
?Rev. Curtin G. Roop in the Missionary Review, vol. 15 (September, 1902), p. 685.
48 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
of Insigne Collegiata of Proveozano in Siena. It was crowned No-vember 1 , 1 681 , and carried with solemn pomp in procession with areUc of the veil of Mary, the pallium of the patriarch St. Joseph, andthe relics of Saints Concittadio, Bernardino, Catherine, Ludovico, andCristina on Low Sunday of 1850. 23 by 18 inches. Siena, Italy.(Cat. No . 179084, U.S.N.M.)184. Madonna of Grace.?Print on paper. Representing the Ma-donna with the Infant, both crowned in a frame which is upheld bytwo angels, while over it are floating three cherubs, and the whole isinclosed in a wide arch. The inscription states that the original isvenerated in the chapel of Pope Alexander VII in the Sanesi Metro-politana, and was carried in solemn procession on Low Sunday of1860. 21 by 14% mches. Siena, Italy. (Cat. No. 179085, U.S.N.M.)185. Madonna.?Print on paper. Representing the Madonna withInfant and a female saint on either side. The original is venerated inthe Church of the Servites (Servi Beatae Mariae Virginis, founded in1240) at Siena and was carried in procession on Low Sunday of 1817.11% by 8K inches. Siena, Italy. (Cat. No. 179086, U.S.N.M.)186. Madonna oj the Rosary.?Print on parchment. Representingthe Madonna with the Infant crowned, holding a rosary and cross,respectively, and surrounded with 15 cameos depicting the 15 mys-teries of the rosary (for which see, p. 51). 3% by 2% inches. Italy.(Cat. No. 179087, U.S.N.M.)187. Madonna oj the Rosary.?Print on paper. Representing theMadonna with the Infant crowned, both holding rosaries, the Infantalso holding in the right hand the terrestial orb surmounted by across (symbolizing the subjection of the world to the cross). In thecorners are cherubs. The original is venerated in the Church dellaContrada della Chiocciola and was carried in procession on Low Sun-day of 1870. IbVi by 11 inches. Italy. (Cat. No. 179090, U.S.N.M.)188. Madonna oj Devotion.?Print on paper. Representing theMadonna with the Infant crowned within a portal of the Renaissancestyle. In the gable are a dove (symbol of the Holy Ghost), and fourcherubs in clouds from which rays issue, and surmounted by a crownand cross which are supported by two cherubs. On the sides arecherubs holding lighted candelabra. The original is venerated bythe Venerable Society of Maria de Portico della di Fontegiusta andwas carried in procession, together with relics, on Low Sunday of1818. 11^2 by 8K2 inches. Italy. (Cat. No. 179088, U.S.N.M.)189. Madonna with the Sword in Her Bosom.?Print on silk. Inallusion to Luke ii, 35. 7% by 6% inches. Italy. (Cat. No. 179089,U.S.N.M.)190. Madonna oj the Immaculaie Conception.?Print on paper.Representing the Madonna crowned with a halo of stars and a scepterin her right hand, standing in an arch within a portal of the Renais-
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 49
sance style. In the gable are a dove and three cherubs in a circle ofrays and surmounted by a crown which is held by two floating cher-ubs. The original is venerated in the parochial Church of St. Mami-liano in the Valli suburb of Siena, and was carried in procession onLow Sunday of 1849 together with relics. 17}^ by 12)4 inches. Siena,Italy. (Cat. No. 179091, U.S.N.M.)191. Satin print.?Containing, in Italian, a sonnet, commemo-rating the annual festival of John the Baptist, celebrated by a societynamed after him. 22 by 19}^ inches. Siena, Italy. (Cat. No.152247, U.S.N.M.)192. St. Dominic.?Print on sUk. St. Dominic, born at Cartha-gena, Spain, in 1170, died at Bologna, Italy, in 1221, was the founderof the order of the Dominicans or Preaching Monks in 1216. He isrepresented with his emblem, the lily stalk. 13 by Qji inches. Italy.(Cat. No. 152248, U.S.N.M.)193. St. Bernardine of Siena.?Print on paper. St. Bernardine,1380-1444, was a member of the Minorites of St. Francis, a mission-ary and reformer. He is often called the "Apostle of Italy," and isone of the most popular saints of Italy, especially of his native city,Siena. 5% by 4^ inches. Siena, Italy. (Cat. No. 179097, U.S.N.M.)194. St. Loyola.?Print on paper. From a print by Bolswert aftera painting by Rubens. St. Ignatius Loyola, born in Loyola, Spain,in 1491, died in Rome, Italy, in 1556, was the founder of the Societyof Jesus. IdVi by 10^ inches. Italy. (Cat. No. 179096, U.S.N.M.)195. Suarez.?Print on paper. Francisco Suarez, born in Granada,Spain, in 1548; died in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1617, was a noted Jesuittheologian and scholastic philosopher. 12 by Sji inches. Italy.(Cat. No. 179094, U.S.N.M.)196. Plessis.?Colored print on paper. Joseph Octave Plessis,1763-1822, was bishop of Quebec from 1806 to 1822. 13}^ by 9
K
inches. (Cat. No. 179095, U.S.N.M.)197. Twenty-four plates.?Depicting the revelations and visions ofJoannes de Malta, a native of the Provence, France, founder of theorder of the Trinitarians for the redemption of captives {ordo SanctaeTrinitatis et de redemptione captivorum) in 1198. Printed in Paris,France, in 1633, bound in vellum. 14^^ by 10% inches. (Cat. No.28528, U.S.N.M.)198. Theologcial disputation.?Print on paper. It was held inSiena in November, 1781. 24 by 21 inches. Siena, Italy. (Cat. No.179099, U.S.N.M.)199. PMlosopMcal disputation.?Print on paper. It took place atSiena in April, 1790. 36}^ by 20)^ inches. Siena, Italy. (Cat. No.179100, U.S.N.M.)200. Bronze doors of tlie cathedral of Pisa.?Three leaves with oneof Italian text giving the history and description. The bas-reliefs of
50 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMthe doors, which depict the Hves of Mary and Jesus, were executed bythe Dominican Padre Domenico Partigiani and Angelo Serrano afterthe designs of Giovanni da Bologna and others about 1602. 23 by 18inches. Italy. (Cat. No. 179093, U.S.N.M.)201. Five framed engravings, representing stations of the cross.?Germany. (Cat. Nos. 253226-230, U.S.N.M.) Gift of Mrs. JamesW. Pinchot.202. Wooden die for pictures of the Madonna.?3)4 by 2% inches.Italy. (Cat. No. 179064, U.S.N.M.)203. Leaden die for the picture of St. Romuald (about 950-1027)founder of the Camaldolese order.?Oval, 2y^ by 1% inches. Italy.(Cat. No. 179065, U.S.N.M.)RELIGIOUS MEDALSReligious medals have the object to commemorate persons (Christ,Mary, saints, and angels) and historical events (dogmatic definitions,miracles, anniversaries, dedications, etc.) They are issued byvarious ecclesiastical authorities and by confraternities as badgesand decoration of their members. They are worn by the faithfuland believed to be, by reason of their having been blessed by a priest,a means of grace and to possess protective virtues.204. Out of about 350 of such medals in the collection of theUnited States National Museum, 16 are reproduced on the plate.They represent? 1, St. Benedict (480-543), founder of the order ofthe Benedictines; 2, St. Joseph and the Infant Jesus; 3, the Virginwith the Infant; 4, the Virgin, sm-rounded by rays; 5, Leo. XIII,Pope, 1878-1903; 6, the sacred hearts of the Holy Family (Jesus,Mary, Joseph); 7, head of St. Anastasius, monk and martyr; 8, St.Benedict; 9, St. Louis de Gonzaga (1568-1591), holding a crucifixand a skull; 10, the Trinity; 11, the Holy Family; 12, St. Francisof Assisi (1182-1226), founder of the order of Franciscans; 13, Virginand the Infant, enthroned; 14, arms of the Capuchins of Milan,Italy, in 1856; 15, St. Joseph with the Infant; 16, the Virgin with theInfant, crowned. Italy. (Plate 20 Cat. No. 179077, U.S.N.M.)VOTIVESVotive offerings are set up in churches or chapels as a thanksgivingfor some signal answer to prayer, resulting in the deliverance fromperil or the cure of disease. Usually a likeness of the part of the bodyhealed, in silver or some other material, is put up. The custom wasalso in vogue among the ancient Greeks and Romans.205. Votive oferings.?Made of silver foil. Consisting of modelsof two hearts, an arm, a pair of eyes, a pair of breasts, a prayingwoman, and a child. Italy. (Cat. No. 179069, U.S.N.M.)
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 51206. Votive offerings
.
?Made of hollow wax. Representing a pair ofeyes, an arm, and the foot of a horse. Seville, Spain. (Cat. No.167064, U.S.N.M.)207. Votive offering.?Made of silver amalgam in form of a tower.Height, 2% inches. Potosi, Bolivia. (Cat. No. 179104, U.S.N.M.)ROSABIESThe rosary (from the Middle Latin, rosarium, properly a garlandof roses), is a string of beads, generally formed into a circlet or loop,used for keeping count of prayers or formulas repeated in religiousdevotions. The materials of which it is made range from naturalberries or common wood to costly metals and precious stones. Suchdevices to assist the memory in complex repetitions occur also amongthe Hindus, Buddhists, and Mohammedans. In fact, it can be saidthat some form or other of rosary is used by about three-fourths ofthe world's inhabitants. The Roman Catholic rosary in its presentform and the method of devotion performed with its aid is ascribedto St. Dominic (1170-1231), the founder of the Dominican order, towhom, according to legend, the Virgin Mary handed a rosary fromheaven as a weapon against heretics and infidels. But both thepractice of often repeating prayers and the employment of someexpedient for recording the number of repetitions can be traced to amuch earlier date.'?The ordinary Catholic rosary consists of 150 small beads, dividedinto decades by 15 larger beads. To these beads, forming a chaplet,is usually attached a pendant, consisting of a crucifix, one large andthree small beads. The devotion begins with the invocation. ''Inthe name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost." Then theApostles' Creed is recited on the crucifix, a paternoster (the Lord'sPrayer) on the larger bead, and three Ave Maria (Hail Mary) on thethree smaller beads, closing with the Gloria ("Glory be to the Father,to the Son, and to the Holy Ghost"). This forms the introductionto the rosary proper. Then follows decades of aves, counted by thesmaller beads, each decade preceded by a paternoster, for which alarger bead is used, and followed by a gloria. The 150 aves cor-respond to the number of Psalms, hence from an early period thedevotion was called "Our Lady's Psalter." For each decade asubject, or "mystery," in the life of Christ and Mary is set for medi-tation, the 15 mysteries being divided into five joyful, five sorrowful,and five glorious. The five joyful mysteries are: The annunciation,(Luke i, 26); the visitation (Luke i, 39) the nativity (Luke ii); thepresentation (Luke ii, 21); and the finding in the temple (Luke ii,41). The five sorrowful mysteries are: The agony in Gethsemane,
'? For a fuller discussion of the subject see The collection of rosaries in the United States National Museum,by I. M. Casanowicz, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 36, pp. 333-360, with pis. 21-30. Washington, 1909.
52 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM(Matthew xxvi, 36); the scourging (Matthew xxvii, 26); the crowningwith thorns (Matthew xxvii, 29); the carrying of the cross (Johnxix, 17); and the crucifixion (Matthew xxvii, 35). The five gloriousmysteries are: The resurrection (Matthew xxviii); the ascension(Luke xxiv, 50) ; the descent of the Holy Ghost (Acts ii) ; the assump-tion of Mary into heaven, and the coronation of Mary in heaven,(the two last mysteries are accepted on the authority of tradition).The rosary most in use, however, consists of five decades for the avesand five larger beads for the paters, called the "lesser rosary."Otherwise it is arranged in the same way and recited in the samemanner and order as the "greater" or "full" rosary. The entiredevotion of 15 decades may be said on it by counting it three times.Besides this "Dominican rosary," which is used in common byall Cathohcs, there are other varieties of chaplets used by particularreligious bodies or for special devotions. So the chaplet of St.Bridget of Sweden (about 1303-1373), which consists of 63 beadsfor the aves, to commemorate the 63 years which Mary is supposedto have lived; the crown of our Lady, in use among the Francis-cans, has 72 aves, based on another tradition of Mary's age; andothers.The Feast of the Kosary is observed on the first Sunday in Octoberas the anniversary of the victory of the Christians over the Turksin the naval battle at Lepanto, near the Echinades Islands, onOctober 7, 1571, which is attributed to the power of the devotionof the rosary.Rosaries are usually blessed with prayers and holy water by someduly authorized ecclesiastical person and become thereby sacramen-tals?that is, instruments of grace.208. Rosary oj mother-oj-'pearl.?The full or greater Dominicanrosary. The 15 decades are divided by the insertion in two placesof four extra beads, one large and three small ones, into three divi-sions of five decades each. The chain on which the beads are strung,as also the figure of Christ on the crucifix, are of German silver.Length, 7 feet. Italy. (?) (Plate 21 (upper). Cat. No. 288983,U.S.N.M.) Gift of Miss Louise Salter Codwise.209. Rosary.?Made of the seeds of the Virginia fringe tree{Chioanthus virginica). The lesser Dominican rosary of five decades.The cross is of olive wood from Mount Ohve, bound in Japanesesilver. Of the same metal are also the figure of Christ and the chainon which the beads are strung. Length, 53 inches. Washington,D. C. (Cat. No. 275575, U.S.N.M.) Gift of Frederick J. Braendle.210. Rosary.?Made of the Kentucky coffee beans {Gymnocladusdioica). The lesser Dominican rosary of five decades. The cross ofolive wood is bound in Japanese silver. Of the same metal is thefigure of Christ and the other appurtenances of the crucifix?namely,
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 53the title {I N R I), and the rhomb-shaped nunbus above the figure,the skull and crossbones (for the significance of which see above,p. 39) underneath, and the crown of thorns on the back of thecrucifix. Length, 71 inches. Washington, D. C. (Cat. No. 302930,U.S.N.M.) Gift of Frederick J. Braendle.211. Rosary.?Made of ebony beads. The full or greater Domini-can rosary of 15 decades. The cross, which is of the same materialas the beads, is bound in silver-plated nickel, with the figure ofChrist on one side, a^pd a crown of thorns with a burning heart insideof it, of the same metal, on the other. Length, 6 feet 9/2 inches.Italy. (Cat. No. 179075, U.S.N.M.)212. Rosary.?Made of glass and composition beads. The fullor greater Dominican rosary of 15 decades. The beads for the avesare of glass, while those for the paters, as also the three introductorybeads, are of composition. Length, 4 feet 4 inches. Italy. (Cat.No. 179075, U.S.N.M.)213. Rosary.?Made of mahogany beads. The lesser Dominicanrosary of five decades. On each of the beads are carved four setsof double circles, or "eyes." The cross (in place of a crucifix)is likewise formed of beads. Length, 5 feet 3 inches. Italy. (Cat.No. 179075, U.S.N.M.)214. Rosary.?Made of olive-wood beads, carved wdth intersectingcircles. The lesser Dominican rosary of five decades. In placeof the crucifix is a bronze medal, three-fourths of an inch in diameter,with the bust of Pius IX and the date 24 (the number of years ofhis reign) on the obverse; on the reverse is the figure of the Pope,in full pontificals, on his throne, attended by cardinals, and theLatin inscription, "Ecumenical Council, 1869," referring to theVatican Council which was opened in that year. This rosary wasblessed by Pius IX in 1873. Length, 37 inches. Rome, Italy.(Plate 21 (lower), fig. 1, Cat. No. 168294, U.S.N.M.) Collected byGen. John A. Halderman.215. Rosary.?Made of ivory beads. The lesser Dominicanrosary of five decades. The beads for the aves are faceted, whilethe pater beads are barrel shaped. In place of the crucifix is acopper medal, iji inches in diameter, having on the obverse theimage of the Virgin with the Infant Jesus crowned; on the reverse,a much effaced Latin inscription. Length, 40 inches. Italy.(Plate 21 (lower), fig. 2, Cat. No. 179075, U.S.N.M.)216. Rosary.?Made of Job's-tears. The lesser Dominican rosaryof five decades. The cross of ebony is bound in brass and has thesame appurtenances as the one described under No. 211. Length,33 inches. Italy. (Plate 21 (lower), fig. 3, Cat. No. 179075,U.S.N.M.)
54 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM217. Rosary.?Made of composition. Consisting of seven sets,each having seven beads. This rosary is used in honor of the sevensorrows of Mary, namely, the prophecy of Simon (Luke ii, 35);the flight into Egypt (Matthew ii, 13); the losing of Jesus in thetemple (Luke ii, 48); seeing Jesus carrying the cross (John xx, 17);standing under the cross (John xix, 25); the piercing of Jesus' sidewith the lance (John xix, 34); and the lowering of Jesus' body intothe sepulcher (Matthew xxvii, 60). In place of the pater beadsare seven brass plaques, representing each on pne side, Mary withseven swords piercing her heart; on the other, the incidents in Christ'slife enumerated above. The cross is formed of brass. Length, 33inches. Italy. (Plate 21 (lower), fig. 4, Cat. No. 179075, U.S.N.M.)218. Rosary.?Made of blue glass beads. The lesser Dominicanrosary of five decades. The five pater beads are of the seeds of theAbrus precatorius (called "crabs' eyes," or "jumble beads"). In-closed in an egg-shaped box of bone. Length, 12 inches; diametersof the box, 1% inches. Madrid, Spain. (Plate 21 (lower), fig. 5,Cat. No. 167020, U.S.N.M.)219. Rosary.?Of green glass beads. The lesser Dominican rosaryof five decades. In place of the crucifix is an oval brass plaque bear-ing the image of the Virgin of Guadelupe of Mexico. The paters aremarked by double beads of the same size and color as those of theaves. Length, 26 inches. Mexico. (Cat. No. 179075, U.S.N.M.)220. Rosary.?Of wooden beads, painted black. The lesserDominican rosary of five decades. Worn at the girdle by membersof the Fraternity of Misericordia (Arciconfraternita de Santa Mariadella Misericordia) in Italy. Length, 50 inches. Pisa, Italy. (Cat.No. 153893, U.S.N.M.)221. Rosary.?Made of composition. The Franciscan rosary ofseven decades. This rosary is used for the devotion in honor of theseven mysteries in the life of Mary^?namely, the conception (Luke i,26) ; the visitation (Luke i, 39) ; the nativity (Luke ii) ; the adorationof the magi (Matthew ii); the presentation, (Luke ii, 21); the findingin the temple (Luke ii, 41); and the apparition after the resurrectionto Mary. The rosary is provided with two rings for suspending fromthe girdle. Length, 6 feet, 8 inches. Italy. (Plate 22 (upper),fig. 1, Cat. No. 179075, U.S.N.M.)222. Rosary.-?Of black glass beads. The lesser Dominican rosaryof five decades. An oval bronze medal, 1% and 1% inches in diameter,which takes the place of the crucifix, has on one side the bust of St.Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556), the founder of the Society of Jesus,on the other, the figure of St. John of Nepomuk, the patron saint ofBohemia, who was martyred in 1393. The rosary is provided withtwo rings to be suspended from the girdle. Length, 55 inches.Italy. (Plate 22 (upper), fig. 2, Cat. No. 179075, U.S.N.M.)
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 55223. Rosary.?Of wooden beads. Used in the devotion of thecrown of our Lord. Consists of 33 beads for the paters, to com-memorate the years of Christ's life on earth, and five for the aves,in honor of the five wounds. The crucifix is substituted by a brassmedal, Iji inches in diameter, engraved with the instruments of thepassion and the Latin words, "The passion of Christ save us, the pas-sion of Christ comfort me." Between the ave beads is inserted apiece of bone, 1}^ inches high, carved with the faces of Christ andMary, and a skull. Length, 47 inches. Italy. (Plate 22 (upper),fig. 3, Cat. No. 179075, U.S.N.M.)224. Rosary.?Made of composition beads. Consisting of threesets of nine beads each, separated by an oval brass plaque, whichhas on one side a representation of the Trinity, on the other, theGloria in Latin. Length, 21 inches. Italy. (Plate 22 (upper), fig.4, Cat. No. 179075, U.S.N.M.)225. Rosary.?Made of carved wooden beads. Consists of five setsof decades and one of nine beads. The ends are attached to a brassheart which is engraved on one side in French with the words, "St.Michael pray for us"; on the other, "Who resembles God." On theback of the crucifix are the words: "Souvenir of our Lord of Leghet."France (?). (Cat. No. 311843, U.S.N.M.) Bequest of Miss Eliza-beth S. Stevens.226. Rosary of Jifteen decades.?The beads are of wood carved inshape of open flowers; the crucifix is of mother-of-pearl framed inbrass. Italy. (Cat. No. 329512, U.S.N.M.) Bequest of Miss Cath-erine Walden Myer.227. Rosary hox.-?Made in form of an egg of ivory. Carved on thesurface with the paraphernalia used in the Catholic service. Mexico.(Cat. No. 316586, U.S.N.M.) Gift of Mrs. F. F. Hilder.RELIGIOUS ORDERS228. Eahit of a Benedictine monJc.?Consisting of a cassock, ascapvdar (that is, a piece of cloth passing over the head and hangingdow^n over the shoulders) and a cowl. The order of Benedictinemonks was founded by St. Benedict of Nursia, Italy, in 529. It wasthe first monastic order established in the Occident, and its organiza-tion became the model upon which all the monasteries of the westernchurch were formed. Common to all monastic orders are the threevows of obedience, chastity, and poverty. The Benedictine monkswere bound by their rule to cultivate the land and to read and copymanuscripts. Italy. (Cat. No. 154312, U.S.N.M.)229. Hahit of Dominican monJc.-?Consisting of a cassock, scapular,and cowl of white wool. The Dominican order was founded by St.Dominic, called de Guzman, in 1204. Its chief original purposewas to preach especiallj'' to infidels and heretics. It is, therefore.
56 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
called the "preaching order." The. Dominicans are also calledBlack Friars, because of the black cloak worn by them out of doors.Italy. (Cat. No. 154312&, U.S.N.M.)230. Hahit of a Capuchin monk.?Consisting of upper garment,cowl of brown cloth and rope girdle. The Capuchins are a branchof the Franciscan order, established by Matteo di Bassi, of Urbino,in 1526. They derive their name from the long-pointed capuche, orcowl, which is the distinguishing mark of their dress. Their regula-tions oblige them to live by begging, and not to use gold, silver, orsilk, even in the decoration of their churches and altars. Italy.(Cat. No. 154312, U.S.N.M.)231
.
Costume of the Fraternity of the Misericordia.?Consisting of aloose hooded cassock of black stuff, held by a girdle from which arosary is suspended, and a broad brimm.ed felt hat. The Fraternityof the Misericordia (Pia Arciconfraternita de Santa Maria deltaMisericordia) is believed to have been instituted in 1244 and issurviving to the present day in many cities and towns of Italy.Besides taking care of the burial and the performance of the funeralrites of the dead and friendless its members also discharge the func-tion of an ambulance corps, dealing with accidents as they occur andcarrying the sick to the hospitals. Its membership is recruited fromall ranks of society, and the active work is carried on by the membersin person. The funds needed for the work are obtained by muteappeals of the members in public places and at the doors of churches,for which they hold out an alms box, and from the fees of the mem-bership. When on duty the m.embers wear a costume of the cheapestmaterial which completely envelopes and disguises them; even theface is hidden by a covering in which only two holes are left for theeyes. Pisa, Italy. (Cat. No. 153893, U.S.N.M.)232. Devotions in Honor of the Stigmata and Festival of St. Francisof Assisi.?Printed in 1740 at Rome. St. Francis, born 1182, died1226, in Assisi, Italy, was the founder of the Franciscan order.According to tradition he received, in 1224, while absorbed in prayerand contemplation on Monte Alverno, the stigm_ata of Christ?that is,an imitation of the wounds of Christ?was miraculously impressed uponhis body. He was canonized in 1228. Rome, Italy. (Cat. No.214724, U.S.N.M.)233. Disciplinary girdle.?Made of wire. It is sometimes worn bymonks and other devout persons as a means of mortification and ofsubduing the passions. Length, 3 feet. Italy. (Plate 22 (lower),fig. 1, Cat. No. 179067, U.S.N.M.)234. Disciplinary scourge.?Made of twisted wii-e. They are em-ployed by monks and other devout persons as a means of mortifi-cation and of subduing the passions. Italy. (Plate 22 (lower),fig. 2, Cat. No. 152252, U.S.N.M.)
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 57SCAPULARSScapular (from middle Latin scapvlaris, pertaining to the shoulders,Latin scapulae, shoulder blades, shoulders) is primarily the namegiven to a portion of the monastic habit in certain religious orders,consisting of a long narrow strip of cloth which passes over the head,covering the shoulders and hanging down in front and behind. Withthe growth of fraternities of lay people affiliated with the religiousorders the practice grew up among devout persons of wearing underthe ordinary dress a small scapular consisting of two little pieces ofcloth adorned with a picture of the Virgin, a cross or some otherreligious symbol and joined by strings, in honor of Mary. Certainreligious obligations and exercises and sundry spiritual privileges,such as indulgences, are attached to the wearing of it. The scapularwas brought into use in the thirteenth century by St. Simon Stock,an Englishman, general of the Carmelite Order.235. Scapular.?Green velvet ground. On one part is representedthe Agnus Dei, worked in silver, gold, and silk; on the other, theInfant Jesus painted in silk. With borders of flowers in gold applique.9 inches by 6% inches. Washington, D. C. (Cat. No. 311433,U.S.N.M.) Presented by the executors from the estate of Mrs.Mary E. Pinchot.236. Scapular.?Black cloth ground. On one part is representedthe Sacred Heart, surmounted by the dove (the symbol of the HolySpirit) in gold and silver; on the other, a cross resting on a star oropen flower. With border of a floral design in appliqu6 work.6% inches by 4}^ inches. Washington, D. C. (Cat. No. 311434,U.S.N.M.) Presented by the executors from the estate of Mrs.Mary E. Pinchot.237. Scapular.?Brown cloth ground. On one part is a crosssurmounted by a crown; on the other, a floral design in gold apphqu6.4 inches by 3% inches. Washington, D. C. (Cat. No. 311435,U.S.N.M.) Presented by the executors from the estate of Mrs.Mary E. Pinchot.238. Scapular.?Consisting of two pieces of brown cloth, measuring5}8 by 3% inches, one of which is embroidered with a shield, crown,and crosses; the other with a pelican, the symbol of Christ (seeabove, p. 38), and connected by strings. Italy. (Cat. No. 179072,U.S.N.M.)239. Scapular.?Consisting of two pieces of cloth, stamped withthe figures of Mary and other saints, and connected by strings.Measurements, 2 by 1 % inches. Italy. (Cat. No. 1 79073, U.S.N.M.)240. Scapular.?Consisting of two pieces of brown cloth, measuring2% by 1 % inches, stamped with the figure of Mary crowned, with theInfant Jesus, both holding scapulars, with cherubs above and below615.51?29 5
58 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMand the words Na. Sa. del Carmen, our Lady of Carmen (? Carmel).Italy. (Cat. No. 179074, U.S.N.M.)241
.
Scapular.?Consisting of two pieces of cotton cloth, measuring2K by 2 inches, one of which is stamped on one side with the figureof Christ with a burning heart; on the other, with the figure of a saintand an ostensory. The other is stamped on one side with the figureof Mary with a burning heart; on the other, with the figure of afemale saint. Manila, Philippine Islands. (Cat. No. 216990,U.S.N.M.)242. Scapular (part of).?Stamped with the figures of Christ,Mary and saints, and sacred hearts. Italy (?). (Cat. No. 311841,U.S.N.M.) Bequest of Miss Elizabeth S. Stevens.243. Agnus Dei.?On a cream-colored silk ground. Representingin the center a lamb (compare John i, 29) bearing a cross and a banner,with a border of foliage and flowers on silver and gold appliqu^.AVi inches square. Washington, D. C. (Cat. No. 311432, U.S.N.M.)Presented by the executors from the estate of Mrs. Mary E. Pmchot.MISCELLANEOUS244. Fish.?Made of metal. On one side is a Greek cross, on theother the Christ monogram ^ in relief, with a chain for suspension.The form of a fish was a favorite symbol on the early Christianmonuments, alluding to the waters of baptism; also because theinitial letters of the Greek word for fish contained the confession
"Jesus Christ, Son of God, Saviour." Length, 9 inches. Italy.(Cat. No. 179010, U.S.N.M.)245. Olive palm.?Palm leaf combined with an olive branch. Insome churches in Italy it is blessed by the priest on Palm Sundayand sold at the church door. Protective properties are attributed toit, and it is kept over the bed till the following year. This specimenwas blessed at the Santa Felicita Church in Florence, in 1892. Length2 feet 5 inches. Florence, Italy. (Cat. No. 179076, U.S.N.M.)246. Certificate of indulgence.?Manuscript written on vellum.Granted by Pope Alexander VIII (1689-1691), on March 20, 1690, tothe Church of the Fraternity of Holy Intercession, in Siena, Italy.Indulgences are granted by the Roman Catholic Church for the re-mission of the temporal punishment due to sin, after the removal ofguilt and eternal punishment of sin in the sacrament of penance, andwhich must be discharged either in this life or after death in purgatory.The recipient must be in a state of grace, and has to perform certaingood works, as giving of alms, fasting, attending mass, makingpilgrimages, etc. By wa}^ of intercession, indulgences may be appliedby the recipient to shorten the sufferings of souls in purgatory.Measurements, 15K by 5K inches. Siena, Italy. (Cat. No. 214723,U.S.N.M.)
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 59247. Papal hull.?Manuscript, written on parchment, dated 1781,with a leaden seal, having on one side the busts of SS. Peter and Paul;on the other, the name Pius VII (Pope 1775-1799), attached by acord of yellow silk. A bull is a document issued by a pope. Thename is derived from the Latin bulla, a bubble floating upon water;then a boss, a circular plate. In course of time it came to be appliedto the leaden seals with which papal and royal documents wereauthenticated in the Middle Ages, and by a further development thename from designating the seal was eventually attached to the docu-ment itself. The seal has always on one side a representation of theApostles Peter and Paul, on the other the name of the reigning pope,and is attached by a silken cord if it be a "bull of grace," and by oneof hemp if a "bull of justice." Measurements of the parchment, 26%by 32 inches; diameter of the seal, 1% inches. Italy. (Cat. No.179078, U.S.N.M.)248. Leaden stamp of Pius II, Pope 1458-1464-?On one side arerepresented the heads of SS. Peter and Paul; on the other is thename Pius Papa II. Diameter, iKe inches. Italy. (Cat. No. 179105,U.S.N.M.)249. Leaden stamp of Clement XI, Pope 1700-1721.?On one sideare the busts of SS. Peter and Paul, with a cross between them; on theother, Clemens Papa XI, with a rayed cross above. Diameter, 1%6inches. Italy. (Cat. No. 179106, U.S.N.M.)250. Leaden stamp of Clement XIII, Pope 1758-1769.?On one sideare the busts of SS. Peter and Paul, with a cross between them; onthe other, Clemens Papa XIII, with a rayed cross above. Diameter,1% inches. Italy. (Cat. No. 179107, U.S.N.M.)251. Pontifical album.?Consisting of 12 colored pictures, showingthe Roman Catholic hierarchy and papal attendants. Rome, Italy.(Cat. No. 179103, U.S.N.M.)252. Pontifical album.?Consisting of 12 colored pictures, showingthe officials and attendants of the papal court. Rome, Italy. (Cat.No. 179104, U.S.N.M.)253. Wooden casJc.?Gilded and decorated with the papal arms.Height, 9^2 inches; length, 12 inches; diameter, dji inches. Italy.(Cat. No. 152243, U.S.N.M.)254. Wooden oval tablet.?CsiTved round the edge with leaf pattern,and in the center with the letters J H S {Jesus hominum salcator?Jesus Saviour of Mankind) in relief. Diameters, 15 and 11 inches.Italy. (Cat. No. 179066, U.S.N.M.)255. Terra-cotta candlestick.?From the shaft in the center branchout four arms. With fine moldings. Height 9}^ inches; diameterof the base, 7K inches. Italy. (Cat. No. 152245, U.S.N.M.)256. Terra-cotta lamp.?In the center of the top is the Christmonogram X in relief, while round the edge are circles, inclosing
60 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
each a cross, alternating with loops. Height, 1% inches; length, 4%inches. From the Catacombs of Rome, Italy. (Cat. No. 152246,U.S.N.M.)257. Terra-cotta lamp.?On the top the Christ monogram in beadedcharacters. Height, 1% inches; length, 4K inches. From the Cata-combs of Rome, Italy. (Cat. No. 152246, U.S.N.M.)258. Terra-cotta lamp.?On top dove holding an olive branch, thesymbol of peace, in its bill, surmounted by a winged caduceus (thestaff of Mercury). Height, Iji inches; diameter, 2% inches. Fromthe Catacombs of Rome, Italy. (Cat. No. 152246, U.S.N.M.)259. Delftware flask.?Decorated with the letters J H S (JesusSaviour of Mankind). Height, 7)2 inches; diameter, 6 inches.Italy. (Cat. No. 152244, U.S.N.M.)260. Jug.?Of Guadalupe ware. Used by pilgrims to the shrine ofGuadalupe, near the City of Mexico, to carry away holy water.Height, 11 inches. Guadalupe, Mexico. (Cat. No. 179102, U.S.N.M.)261. Two corner fixtures.?Made of brass, openwork. Perhapsused for the corners of the binding of a missal or the Gospels. Meas-urements, 5)^ by 4 inches. Spain. (Cat. No. 178868, U.S.N.M.)262. Panel painting.?Representing the Virgin and Infant in thesky, and below some worshipers. Signed, P. G. R. 1711. Height,V/i inches; width, 11 inches. Italy. (Cat. No. 164846, U.S.N.M.)263. Church lantern. (?)?Made of wood, carved, painted, andgilded. Triangular. The columns of the three angles are carved inthe form of caryatids, overtopped by a sort of cupola, terminatingin a knob. Height, 24 inches; width, UK inches. Italy. (Cat.No. 179039, U.S.N.M.)264. Parasol (umhrellino)
.
?The cover is of blue cotton, withtrimmings and fringes of yellow silk. Perhaps used to hold over theostensory when carried in procession. Height, 30 inches. Italy.(Cat. No. 179019, U.S.N.M.)265. Seal, supposed to have been used hy the inquisition.?Mexico.(Cat. No. 316597, U.S.N.M.) Gift of Mrs. F. F. HHder.
2. ECCLESIATICAL ART OF THE EASTERN CHURCHThe Eastern Church, also called the Greek Catholic, the OrthodoxGreek, or, briefly, the Orthodox Church, its full title being the HolyOriental Orthodox Apostolic Church, is that branch of the Christianchurch which predominates in eastern Europe and western Asia.The dissolution of union (schism) between the eastern and westernparts of the Christian church became definite in 1054 when legates ofthe Roman pontiff' deposited on the great altar of the church of St.Sophia at Constantinople the sentence of excommunication againstCaerularius, the partiarch of Constantinople. It was broughtabout by political and hierarchical, as well as dogmatical and cere-
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 61
monial differences which arose between western and eastern Christen-dom, with their representative seats at Rome and Constantinoplein the preceding centuries of the church.The Greek Orthodox Church has, in common with the RomanCathoHc Church, the doctrines of seven sacraments, namely, bap-tism, chrism (confirmation), penance (preceded by confession),eucharist (the Lord's Supper), ordination, marriage, and extremeunction; besides the sacrifice of the mass; the religious venerationof Mary, the saints, images, relics, and the cross; the hierarchicaldegrees; and monasticism.Its peculiar tenets are mainly as follows: It adheres only to thedecrees of the first seven ecumenical councils. It teaches the pro-cession of the Holy Ghost from the Father alone. It denies thedogmas of the immaculate conception of Mary and of the supremacyand infallibility of the Roman pontiff, and rejects the doctrine ofpurgatory, of works of supererogation, and indulgences, but praysfor the dead that God would have mercy on them on the day ofjudgment.Its ritual and ceremonial differences from those of the WesternChurch are chiefly the following: Baptism is administered by three-fold immersion ; chrism (confirmation) is conferred immediately afterbaptism and by a priest (not by a bishop); in communion both breadand wine are given to the laity and even to infants, the bread beingput into the wine; anointing (extreme unction) is performed on thesick, not the dying; and fasts are kept on Wednesday and Friday.The clergy of the Greek Orthodox Church are divided into twoclasses?the black clergy (so called from their dress), or monks, andthe white, or secular clergy. The former live in celibacy, and fromamong them are chosen the higher hierarchical grades?that is, thepatriarchs, metropolitans, archbishops, and bishops. The lowersecular clergy, comprising popes (priests), deacons, subdeacons, andreaders must be married before receiving orders, but can not marry asecond time.The churches of the Greek Orthodox Church are mostly buUt inform of a cross. In Russia they are generally crowned with one ormore cupolas of a bulbous shape, which are surmounted by a cross.Sometimes there is a belfry standing separate from the church. Thealtar space, which usually faces east, is divided from the main bodyof the church by a board partition, called iconostas (image stand),which is covered with images of Christ and the saints, and containsthree doors. The service is performed behind this screen, and onlyat certain stages are the middle doors, called the "sacred," or "royalgates," opened. There are no benches in the churches, the peoplestanding during service. No organ or any other instrumental
62 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
music is permitted, but the mass is generally accompanied by choralsinging, and the choirs are composed entirely of men and boys.The Orthodox Church consists at the present of 16 separate in-dependent branches, who profess the same faith, use the same liturgy(though in different languages), and are in communion with oneanother. They are: 1-4, the patriarchates of Constantinople, Alex-andria in Egypt, Antioch in Syria, and Jerusalem in Palestine; 5,Cyprus; 6, Russia; 7, Carlowitz; 8, Hermannstadt (both in Austria-Hungary); 9, Czernowitz in the Bukovina; 10, Bosnia and Herze-govina; 11, Serbia; 12, Montenegro; 13, Bulgaria; 14, Rumania; 15,Greece, and 16, Mount Sinai, consisting of only the monastery,THE RUSSIAN ORTHODOX CHURCHRussia received its Christianity in the tenth century, under Olgaand Vladimir the Great (984-1015), from Constantinople. TheRussian Church entirely agrees in doctrine and ritual with the otherbranches of the Orthodox Church, while in administration it is dis-tinct. At first under the jurisdiction of the patriarch of Constan-tinople, it became in 1589 independent, establishing its own patriarchin Moscow. Peter the Great (1689-1725) abolished the patriarchateand set up the Holy Directing Synod in 1721 to rule the church ofRussia. ^^The church in Russia is administered by 86 bishops, of whom 3,those of Kiev, Moscow, and Petrograd, are always metropolitans, and14 are archbishops. There are 481 monasteries for men and 249convents for nuns. In America the Russian Church is representedby an archbishop of Aleutia and North America with two suffragans,the bishops of Alaska (with residence in San Francisco) andBrooklyn.There are in Russia a great number of sects, most of which ac-knowledge the doctrinal basis of the oriental church, but reject theliturgy of the Russian Church as changed by the patriarch Nicon(1654). They are called by the state church Rascolniki (separa-tists) while they call themselves Starnovyertzi (of the old faith).266. Russian cover for altar table.?Made of purple croisson silk,with a cross in the center. The sanctuary in an eastern church isseparated from the main body of church by the image screen (iconos-tas), and the laity is not allowed there. In the middle, before the
"royal gates," stands the altar, called "throne," a solid squarestone, covered with a linen cloth down to the ground all around.Over the linen cloth is laid a covering of some rich material, repre-senting the "glory of God." Besides the "throne" is another table,called the "altar of sacrifice" (prothesis) , on which are the sacredvessels used in the celebration of the mass. These consist of the
" Since the revolution of 1917 the patriarchate of Moscow has been restored.
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 63
chalice, paten, which is much larger and deeper than the one usedin the Roman Catholic Church; the star?that is, a cross of bentmetal which stands over the paten holding the veils which cover thepaten and chalice; a spoon for giving communion to the people, aknife in form of a lance, in allusion to the lance which pierced theside of Christ (John xix, 34), with which the bread for the eucharistis cut up; and two fans, made of a long handle and a flat representa-tion of a seraph with six wings (Isaiah vi, 2), which the deaconwaves over the sacrament. Length, 37K inches; width, 34 inches.Nizhni Novgorod, Russia. (Cat. No. 154785, U.S.N.M.)267. Russian cover for altar tahle.?Made of striped silk, with twocrosses in silver appliqu^. Length, 6 feet 2 inches; width, 2 feet1 inch. Nizhni Novgorod, Russia. (Cat. No. 154788, U.S.N.M.)268. Russian ecclesiastical cloth.?Richly embroidered with theTrinity, cherubs, and the inscription in old Slavic letters of the words:
*' Drink ye all of this. For this is my blood of the new covenant, whichis shed for many for the remission of sins." (Matthew xxvi, 27.)Used as cover for the chalice in the mass. 18K inches by 17^ inches).Russia. (Cat. No. 309070, U.S.N.M.)269. Holy water vessel.?Used in the Greek Orthodox Church.Made in form of a boat, with a high back, carved with two birdsfacing a cone or tree. Height, 12 inches; length, 6 inches; width, 4%inches. Constantinople, Turkey. (Cat. No. 331959, U.S.N.M.)Gift of Mrs. Charles D. Walcott.270. Old Russian Church candlesticJc.?Made of brass. The back,somewhat in form of a harp, terminates on the end in three flames,arranged in the form of a cross. From the back, which was fastenedto the wall, run out five arms in a semicircle. Height, 13 inches;width, 12K inches 9 inches. Washington, D. C. (Cat. No. 251899,U.S.N.M.)271. Russian funerary pall.?Made in form of a cross, with thefour ends, or wings, to hang down the sides. The center, or top cover,is of yellow silk; the ends are of black velvet. On each of the narrowends is a double cross of cream-colored silk sewed on. On the wideends is in each corner a skull and crossbones of the same material andworkmanship as the crosses on the narrow ends, while in the centerof each is a painted oval representing the angel announcing theresurrection of Christ to the two Marys at the tomb (MatthewXXVIII, 1-6). Length, 10 feet 4 inches; width, 6 feet 4}^ inches.Nizhni Novgorod, Russia. (Cat. No! 179110, U.S.N.M.)
ECCLESIASTICAL VESTMENTSThe full canonicals of a Greek Catholic priest are: 1, stoicharion, aloose shirtlike garment with wide sleeves and reaching to the feet,of any stuff or color, corresponding to the Roman Catholic alb; 2,
64 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
epimanikia, cuSs, made of silk or brocade and reaching about half-way from the wrist to the elbow; 3, epitracTielion, corresponding toand resembling the Latin stole, only instead of being thrown aroundthe neck, the head is put through a hole in the upper end and ithangs down in front nearly to the feet; 4, zone, girdle; and 5,phaenohon, chasuble, a bell-shaped garment with short wide sleeves,with a hole through which the head is put, reaching to the feet be-hind and at the sides and usually scooped out in front. Priests of ahigher rank (protopopes in Russia) wear in addition, the epigonation,a rhomb or lozenge-shaped piece of stiff brocade, about 12 inches inlength, suspended from the girdle at the right side, symbolizingthe sword of the Spirit. The priest's every-day attire is a cassockof any sober color.The bishop's liturgical vestments are generally more ornamentalthan those of a priest, being embroidered with crosses and figuresof the Virgin and of saints. His stoicharion has red and white bandsrunning from the shoulders to the feet, and embroidered at thebottom. The epitrachelion is worn around the neck and hangs downin the front. In place of the pTiaenolion the bishop wears a saJclcos, atunic of puce-colored satin reaching to below the knees, with shortsleeves, divided up the sides which are joined by bows of ribbons orclasps. Over this comes the omopJiorion, a wide band of silk orvelvet passed round the neck, one end hanging down from the leftside in front, the other behind, and kept in its place with ornamentalpins. The pontifical miter is a high hat which swells out toward thetop and is spanned diagonally by two hoops; on the highest pointof the dome-shaped top is a cross, either standing upright or placedflat. The bishop also wears a pectoral cross and a medallion withthe image of the Virgin and Infant, called the panagia or enJcolpion,and carries a pastoral staff or crozier {dikanikion)
.
The deacon wears the stoicharion, the epimanikia, and the epi-trachelion, called orarion, which hangs from the left shoulder, towhich it is pinned, straight to the ground before and behind.272. Russian priests' phaenolion.?Made of heavy gold brocade,with a Greek cross in gold appliqu^, lined with silver applique, onthe back. Nizhni Novgorod, Russia. (Plate 23 (upper). Cat. No.154783, U.S.N.M.)273. Russian priests' phaenolion.?Made of gold and purple silkbrocade, with Greek cross in gold and silver appliqu6 on the back.Nizhni Novgorod, Russia. (Cat. No. 154784, U.S.N.M.)274. Pastoral staf oj a Greek Catholic bishop.?Made of coppertubes, silvered, terminating at the top into two serpents bent into ahandle, giving it the appearance of an anchor, the emblem of hope,with a cross surmounting an orb between them. The handle andthe cross are gilded. Height, 5 feet 2 inches. Constantinople,Turkey. (Plate 23 (lower), fig. 1, Cat. No. 154797- U.S.N.M.)
OBJECTS OF KELIGIOUS CEEEMONIAL 65275. Costume of a Greek Catholic monk.?Consisting of? 1, innercoat; 2, soutana; 3, outer coat; 4, girdle; 5, shoes with goloshes; 6,cylindrical hat, called Ealemaukion, without a brim below, but witha narrow rim at the top. It is worn by all ecclesiastics with theother vestments out of doors and in processions. Constantinople,Turkey. (Plate 24, shows the hat, Cat. No. 154773, U.S.N.M.)RUSSIAN ICONS AND CROSSESThe Greek Orthodox Church does not admit sculptured figuresinto the churches (though they often have numerous statues uponthe outside), perhaps because they are reminiscent of the Greek gods.The eastern icon?that is, image of Christ, Mary, the angels, andsaints?is always flat; a painting, mosaic, or bas-relief. To imitatean effect of sculpture in the painted pictures placed upon the iconostasor the screen which divides the sanctuary from the main body of thechurch, the icon, which is generally painted upon wood, is covered,excepting the face and hands, with a raised relief of silver, gold, orpearls and precious stones, showing all the details and curves of thedrapery, clothing, and halo around the flat painted face and handsof the icon. In many Russian churches not only all the wall spacebut the surface of the columns as well is covered with pictures repre-senting scenes from the Bible or the lives of the saints or religiousheroes. Before the icons candlesticks or large lamps are lighted.In the homes such a picture is usually put up in the corner of a room,and before it a lamp burns and devotions are performed. Devoutpersons wear on a Uttle chain around the neck a small cross or sacredimage given them on the day of baptism.The cross usually seen in the Russian Church is three-barred, ofwhich the upper bar represents the title of the cross (John xix, 19);the second, the arms; and the lowest, which is always inclined at anangle, the foot rest (suppedaneum) , on the assumption that one footof Christ, when suffering, was drawn higher than the other.There are in the Museum's collection over 300 icons and crosses,the larger part of brass. A selection from them will be noted below.276. Russian icon, Mary with Injant.?Covered with a silver giltplate of chased work to represent the clothing, with apertures forfaces and hands. Studded with fresh-water pearls, emeralds, rubyspinels, and garnets, which date from the eleventh to the fourteenthcentury, as they are all drilled and were used for some other purposebefore they were put in the frame of the icon. The pictures on thefolding doors, representing scenes from the lives of Christ and Mary,were painted by the artist who designed and decorated the cathedralof Nizhni Novgorod, about 1645. Height, 13M inches; width, 17}^inches. Nizhni Novgorod, Russia. (Plate 25 (upper), Cat. No.154779 U.S.N.M.)
66 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM277. Russian icon, Mary with Infant.?Painted on wood. Height,6% inches; width, 4% inches. Nizhni Novgorod, Russia. (Cat. No.154778, U.S.N.M.)278. Miniature of Christ and Mary.?Oval, painted on porcelain.Christ is represented in half figure, with long hair falling behind, faceslightly turned to the left, and hands folded on the bosom. He iscovered with a green cloak which leaves his bosom and left arm free.Mary's minute bust is above, with red garment down over her head.She is represented with hands extended rising above the clouds orlooking down from heaven. The porcelain is set in a silver gilt frame,which is provided with a loop for suspension, indicating that it wasworn as a medallion. An inscription in Russian reads, "Moscow,April 13, 1796." Diameters, 2fs and l^Ke inches. (Cat. No. 293052,U.S.N.M.) Gift of Abraham Burnstine, Washington, District ofColumbia.279. Miniature head of (7/^risi.?Painted on wood from the cabinbuilt by Peter the Great (1682-1725) and lacquered. Height, 2^6inches; width, 1% inches. Russia. (Cat. No. 281569, U.S.N.M.)Bequest of Homer N. Lockwood.280. Russian icon, the Holy Family.?Painted on wood. Height,2% inches; width, 2% inches. Nizhni Novgorod, Russia. (Cat. No.154777, U.S.N.M.)281. Russian icon, Cosmas and Damianus.?Painted on wood.Cosmas and Damianus were two brothers who died as martyrs in thepersecution of the Christians under the Roman Emperor Diocletian(303-311 A. D.). Height, 8% inches; width, 6% inches. NizhniNovgorod, Russia. (Cat. No. 154781, U.S.N.M.)282. Russian icon.?Consisting of a brass triptych. In the centeris the Virgin with the Infant; above, God the Father; in the twowings, scenes from the life of Christ. Nizhni Novgorod, Russia.(Plate 25 (lower), fig. 1, Cat. No. 179-120, U.S.N.M.)283. Russian icon.?Made of brass. In the center Christ seated,holding in the left hand the Gospels and with the right giving theblessing, surrounded by the Twelve Apostles. Above in a shield,God the Father, holding in his left hand the orb, surmounted by across, and with the right hand giving the blessing, and beneath theshield the dove, symbol of the Holy Ghost, and the whole surmountedby six seraphim, each with six wings (Isaiah vi, 2). Nizhni Nov-gorod, Russia. (Plate 25 (lower), fig. 2, Cat. No. 179113, U.S.N.M.)284. Russian cross.?Made of brass. Representing, in relief, thecrucifixion. On top, God the Father and the dove (as in the pre-ceding); under the third oblique bar (the suppedaneum) , a skull andcross bones. Nizhni Novogorod, Russia. (Plate 25 (lower), fig. 3,Cat. No. 179111, U.S.N.M.)
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 67285. Russian icon.'?Consisting of a brass tetraptych, representingin 20 compartments, in relief, scenes from the life of Christ. Russia.(Plate 26, Cat. No. 211164, U.S.N.M.)
LITURGICAL BOOKSThe liturgies used in the orthodox communities belong to theByzantine rite. This rite comprises three liturgies?that of St.John Chrysostom, patriarch of Contantinople (died 407) ; that of St.Basil the Great, bishop of Caesarea in Cappodocia, Asia Minor(died 379); and that of St. Gregory Dialogos (Pope Gregory I, 590-604), also called the liturgy of the presanctified. The two latter areused only on special days, while that of St. Chrysostom is the ordinaryliturgy. While the ritual is the same in all the branches of the Ortho-dox Church, the language in which it is recited is that of each people,only usually in the archaic form. Thus, in the Greek-speakingcommunities it is the old Greek; among the Slavs it is the old Slavonik
;
Rumanian is used by the church of that country and the Rumaniansin Hungary; while Syriac is the church language in some parts ofSyria.286. Manual of the Services of the Orthodox Church.?Containing adescription of the services, rites, and ceremonies of the Greek Ortho-dox Church, with illustrations. Compiled by Archpriest D. Sokolof.Translated from the Russian. Printed in New York and Albany,1899. Sitka, Alaska. (Cat. No. 259114, U.S.N.M.) Gift of Rev. A.P. Kashevaroff
.
287. The divine liturgies of our fathers among the Saints JohnChrysostom and Basil the Great, with that of the Presanctified.?Editedwith Greek text by J. N. W. B. Robertson. Printed in black and redletters. The black letters contain the text of the liturgies, while thered the rubrics or directions in performing the various actions of theservice, with a colored plate, representing the crucifixion. London,1894. Sitka, Alaska. (Cat. No. 259107, U.S.N.M.) Gift of Rev.A. P. Kashevaroff.288. Octoechos, or Boole of Eight Tones.?Containing the com-memorations, or collects, for each day of the week?namely : Sundayof the resurrection, Monday of the angels, Tuesday of John the Bap-tist and the other prophets, Wednesday of Mary, Thursday of theapostles and St. Nicholas, Friday of the cross, and Saturday of thesaints. They are sung in eight varied tones, covering a cycle of eightweeks, hence the name Octoechos. Translated from the Slavic byProf. N. Orloff. Printed in London, 1898. Sitka, Alaska. (Cat.No. 259109, U.S.N.M.) Gift of Rev. A. P. Kashevaroff.289. Eorologion, or Boole of Hours.?Containing the daily devo-tions for the stated or canonical hours. Translated from the Slavicby Prof. N. Orloff. Printed in London, 1897.?Sitka, Alaska. (Cat.No. 259681, U.S.N.M.) Gift of Rev. A. P. Kashevaroff.
Q8 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM290. Trehnilc, or Book of Needs.?Containing the prayers and servicesperformed on various occasions, such as churching of a woman, bap-tism, confession, marriage, visiting the sick, burial. Translated fromthe Slavic by S. V. Shann. Printed in London, 1894. Sitka, Alaska.(Cat. No. 259108, U.S.N.M.) Gift of Rev. A. P. Kashevaroff.
3. CEREMONIAL OBJECTS OF THE ARMENIAN CHURCHThe-territorj^ which once formed the Kingdom of Armenia, is thetableland situated between Asia Minor and the Caspian Sea, inclosedon several sides by the ranges of the Taurus and Anti-Taurus, andpartly traversed by other mountains, the highest of which is thevolcanic peak of the Ararat mentioned in the old Testament. TheArmenian people appear in history about the middle of the sixth cen-tury B. C. The last vestige of Armenian independence was destroyedby the Mamelukes in 1375, and the country is now divided betweenTurkey, Russia, and Persia.The establishment of Christianity in Armenia is ascribed to St.Gregory the Illuminator, the apostle of Armenia. Certain it is thatChristianity at an early date passed from Syria over into Armenia,and that the Bible was translated into Armenian in the fifth century.The Armenian Church agrees in many doctrines and practices withthe Greek Orthodox Church. It teaches the procession of the HolyGhost from the Father only, but maintains the formula of one naturein Christ, (monopJiysitism) . Baptism is performed by partially im-mersing and then thrice pouring water on the head of the person.Confirmation is performed by the priest at baptism. The Lord'sSupper is administered in both kinds, the broken bread or wafer(unleavened) being dipped in undiluted wine and laid on the tongueof the fasting communicant. Like the Roman Catholic Church theArmenian Church professes belief in seven sacraments, in transub-stantiation, and adores the host in mass, but rejects the doctrine ofpurgatory, though prayers are offered for the dead. It venerates thecross, the saints and their pictures, and insists on the perpetualvirginity of Mary. The church services are performed in the an-cient Armenian language.There are kept by the Armenian Church 105 fast days, when noanimal food can be eaten; 14 great feast days observed more strictlythan Sunday; and more minor feasts than days of the year.The clergy of the Armenian Church is divided into nine grades ororders: The Catholicos, who is at the head of the entire hierarchywith his seat at Etchmiadzin, near Erivan, the capital of RussianArmenia; patriarchs; archbishops; bishops; priests; deacons; sub-deacons; porters; readers; exorcists; and candle lighters. The priestsare divided into two classes?the doctors or teachers (vartaheds), whomust live in celibacy; and the parish priests, who must marry before
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 69
attaining the rank of subdeacon. Besides the secular clergy thereare also monks in the Armenian Church.Armenian Church buildings are usually small and have massivewalls, sometimes 7 or 8 feet thick, and very small windows. Theyare square and are adorned with a polygonal tower terminating in ashort spire.291. Costume of an Armenian Priest.?Consisting of?1, tunic; 2,soutana; 3, girdle; 4, shoes with galoshes; 5, cylindrical hat of bluevelvet, with vaulted and fluted top. Constantinople, Turkey.(Plate 24, Cat. No. 154774, U.S.N.M.)292. Armenian patriarch's staff.?Made of copper, silvered, ter-minating in a gilded orb surmounted by a cross. Height 5 feet 9inches. Constantinople, Turkey. (Plate 23 (lower), fig. 2, Cat. No.154796, U.S.N.M.)293. Kschotz.?Made of white metal. A musical instrument inform of a rayed circle, somewhat like the halo round the head of asaint, with 10 gilded globular tinlders attached on the edge. In themiddle of the circle is a 6-winged seraph (Isaiah vi, 2). At certainparts of the celebration of the mass this instrument is shaken with theobject, as the ringing of the altar bell in Roman Catholic churches,to excite the attention and devotion of the congregation. Height,19 inches; diameters, lljz and 9 }2 inches. Constantinople, Turkey.(Plate 27 (left). Cat. No. 154799, U.S.N.M.)294. Cross of benediction.?Made of white metal. Used when givingthe blessing to the congregation by an ecclesiastic. The Armeniancross differs from the Latin cross by the arms being nearer the topand much shorter. Height, 9K inches; width, 5K inches. Constan-tinople, Turkey. (Plate 27 (right), Cat. No. 154798, U.S.N.M.)295. Flute.?Used for accompanying the chanting of the mass inthe Armenian Church. The Armenian Church makes no use of theorgan. Length, 31 inches. Constantinople, Turkey. (Plate 28, fig.1, Cat. No. 154802, U.S.N.M.)296. Triangle.?Used during the service of the mass in the Arme-nian Church. Height, 7 inches; base 6 inches. Constantinople,Turkey. (Plate 28, fig. 2, Cat. No. 154805, U.S.N.M.)297. Double bell.?Made of white metal. Used at the conclusionof the service of the mass in the Armenian Church. Height, 8 inches;diameters, 3% and 3 inches. Constantinople, Turkey. (Plate 28, fig.3, Cat. No. 154801, U.S.N.M.)298. Cymbal.?Used in the service of the mass in the ArmenianChurch. It is struck with a hammer, and the secret of its manufac-ture is said to be loiown to but one artisan in Contantinople. Diam-eter, 15 inches. Constantinople, Turkey. (Plate 28, fig. 4, Cat. No.154803, U.S.N.M.)
70 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM299. Pair oj cymbals.?Called by the Armenians Dzindzgha. Usedin the service of the mass in the Armenian Church. Diameter, 11inches. Constantinople, Turkey. (Cat. No. 154804, U.S.N.M.)300. Armenian Bible.?The first translation of the Bible into theArmenian language was made from the Syriac version in the fifthcentury by Mesrob (354-441), the reputed inventor of the Armenianalphabet and founder of Armenian literature, and the patriarchSahak (Isaac). The present translation was printed in New York in1870. Bound in black Morocco, richly gold tooled, with gilt edges.Washington, D. C. (Cat. No. 309807, U.S.N.M.). Gift of Rev.Edwin M. BHss.MODELS OF ECCLESIASTICAL EDIFICES301. Models oj the cathedral, the baptistry, the Campanile or LeaningTower, and the Campo Santo of Pisa, Italy.?Made of alabaster andmounted upon a tablet of black marble. The cathedral (duomo), wasbegun in 1063 (or 1067) and consecrated in 1118. It is a basilica ofthe romanesque style of architecture. Its plan is a Latin cross, 311feet long, 106K feet across the nave, and four aisles, 237 feet acrossthe transept, and 91 feet high, to the wooden ceiling of the nave.Over the apse is a semidome. The fagade has five superposed tiersof arcades with small columns, and a similar arcade is carried roundthe edifice under the roof. The baptistry which stands in front ofthe cathedral, erected between 1154 and 1350, is a circular structurewith a dome, surmounted by a statue of John the Baptist. It alsohas two tiers of superposed arcades. Its height is 180 feet; thediameter inside is nearly 100 feet, outside 107 feet, so that the wallsare about 8 feet thick. The dome is 60 feet in diameter and is sup-ported on four piers and eight pillars. The campanile or leaningtower was in process of construction one hundred and seventy-oddyears, 1174-1350. It is a cylindrical structure in eight stories. Thelower story, which is solid, has a height of 35 feet and is adorned with15 three-quarter columns. The six stories above this average 20 feetin height, and are surrounded with an open arcade. The whole iscrowned with a similar circular tower, 27 feet high, in which the bellsare hung. The entire height is thus 182 feet. The diameter at thebase is 52 feet. The tower, in consequence of the giving away of thefoundations before the fifth story was reached, leans 11 feet 2 inchesout of the perpendicular, and adding the 1 foot 10 inches of theprojecting cornice, it overhangs the base by 13 feet.The Campo Santo, or burial place, was begun in 1278 and com-pleted in 1464. It is an oblong building with a square tower in front,surmounted by a cupola. It contains among others the tomb ofHenry VII, Emperor of Germany 1308-1313. It is a veritablemuseum of medieval painting and sculpture. Height of the bap-
OBJECTS OF EELIGIOUS CEEEMONIAL 71tistry of the model, 2}^ inches. Pisa, Italy. (Cat. No. 257751,U.S.N.M.) Gift of Mrs. Charlotte Emerson Main.302. Model of a church in Borgund, Norway.?Made of wood. Thechurch is a wooden structure, with many pinnacles, giving it theaspect of a Chinese pagoda and suggesting the "house of sevengables." This style of church architecture was at one time verycommon in Norway, but is fast disappearing. Height, 8 inches;length, 7% inches; width, 5% inches. Norway. (Cat. No. 249675,U.S.N.M.) Gift of Miss Eliza R. Scidmore.303. Model of the tabernacle of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Salt Lalce City, Utah.?Made of wood. The tabernacle,built in 1864-1867, is in the shape of an oval or ellipse, 250 feet long,150 feet wide, and 80 feet high. It is covered with a wooden roofwith iron shingles, resembling a turtle shell, which rests upon 44buttresses of sandstone, but unsupported by pillars or beams, so thatthe interior presents one of the largest unsupported arches in theworld. Between the buttresses are 20 large double doors openingoutward and affording speedy egress. Inside the building is sur-rounded by a gallery, except at the west end, where there are a plat-form for speakers, seats for the choir, and one of the largest organs,comprising 500 pipes. The building, which is used for public reli-gious services on Sunday afternoons, for lectures, sacred concerts, andother meetings, has a seating capacity for 8,000 people, but canaccommodate about 10,000, and is well adapted for speaking andhearing. It is said that a pin dropped at one end of the hall may beheard distinctly at the other end, over 200 feet away. The modelshows the arrangement of the interior in detail and also the organ.Height, 31 inches; length, 7 feet; width, 4 feet 2 inches. Salt LakeCity, Utah. (Cat. No. 258396, U.S.N.M.) Gift of the committeeof the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.304. Temple of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints inSalt Lalce City, Utah.?Model of plaster of Paris. The temple isbuilt mainly of gray granite, quarried from the Wasatch Mountains,and it required 40 years (1853-1893) for its construction. It is 186feet long from east to west and 99 feet wide. The walls are 6 feetthick. At each corner are three pointed towers, the loftiest of which,in the center of the eastern or principal facade, is 210 feet high, andis surmounted by a gilded copper statue, 12 feet 6 inches high, of theangel Moroni. The temple is used for the administration of ordi-nances, as baptism, marriage, ordination, also for theological lectures,preaching, prayer, etc. Height, 5 feet 4 inches; length, 5 feet 3inches; width, 3 feet 4 inches. Salt Lake City, Utah. (Cat. No.258397, U.S.N.M.) Gift of the committee of the Church of JesusChrist of Latter-day Saints.
72 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMIVRELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL OBJECTS OF MOHAMMEDANISMFOUNDER OF MOHAMMEDANISMThe founder of the Mohammedan rehgion and creator of the Arabicnation was Mohammed, who was born about 570 A. D., in Mecca, inArabia. He belonged to the family of the Koreish, who controlled thesanctuary of Mecca, known from its dicelike shape as the Kaaba(cube), in which is embedded the sacred black stone (probably ameteorite), said to have been one of the precious stones of Paradise andto have been dropped on earth with Adam. On his journeys with thecaravans, which passed through Mecca on the road from Yemen toSyria, Mohammed was brought into contact with Jews and Christians,and their practices, and what he heard from them with regard to theirbehefs aroused his interest. When 24 years old he entered the serviceof a rich widow, Khadija, whom he afterward married. When ap-proaching middle age, Mohammed used to retire to a cave on MountHira, on the outskirts of Mecca, to meditate in soUtude, where he haddreams and visions. On one of these occasions he relates a revelationcame to him through the voice of the angel Gabriel, which confirmedhim in the belief that there was only one God, creator and rulerof the universe, and he was also convinced that he was the divinelysent prophet, as Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus werebefore him. It was about 610 A. D. that Mohammed first appearedin public with the claim that he was sent by Allah with a message tohis people, calling on them to worship the only one God. For someyears his preaching attracted little attention. His wife, the membersof his family, and a few influential citizens of Mecca accepted hisclaim of being inspired. Gradually bitter opposition to him began todevelop so that it became unsafe for him to remain in Mecca. On theother hand, at Yathrib, situated some distance north of Mecca, muchinterest was felt for him. So in 622 A. D. Mohammed, togetherwith his followers, left Mecca for Yathrib. The departure was calledthe Hegira or Eijira, "flight," of Mohammed. It is from this eventthat the Mohammedans date the era still in use by them, and Yathribbecame since then known as Medinet el-Nabi, "the city of the Prophet,"or, more briefly, el-Medina, "the city." In Medina Mohammedceased to be a mere preacher of a simple creed, but became a warrior,lawgiver, and political leader. Several encounters between the ad-herents of Mohammed and the Meccans took place, the outcome ofwhich was generally favorable to Mohammed, so that in 629 A. D.Mecca yielded to him. Mohammed died in 632 A. D. at Medina.
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 73AUTHORITATIVE SOURCES OF THE MOHAMMEDAN RELIGION
The first and most important document of Islam is obviously theKoran (more properly Qur'an, "reading"), which, containing God'srevelations to Mohammed, forms the foundation of his religion.Orthodox Mohammedans believe that the transcript of the Koran wasuncreated and existed from eternity. A copy from it was sent down tothe lowest heaven, whence the angel Gabriel revealed it to Mohammedin portions as occasions arose which Mohammed immediately recited.It is written in the Arabic language in rhymed prose and its style is amodel. It is held in the highest veneration by all sects of the Moham-medan community. When being read it must be kept on a stand ele-vated above the floor. No one may read it or touch it without firstwashing his hands.The Koran, being of about the size of the New Testament, is dividedinto one hundred and fourteen chapters, called Suras ("series" or"rows "), of very unequal length. These are not numbered in the orig-inal, but each one has a separate name. Nor are they arranged inhistorical and chronological order. The contents of the different partsare quite varied. Many passages consist of theological or moralreflections. A great number contain ceremonial or civil ordinances.Then narratives of the ancient prophets and saints, chiefly aboutBiblical characters, especially those of the Old Testament. The de-viations from the Biblical narratives are very marked. Many of thealterations are found in the legendary anecdotes of the Jewish Haga-dah and the New Testament Apocrypha, but many more are due to themisunderstanding and misconception of the listener, or to the ignor-ance and the mistakes of his authorities. As a general rule, theshorter Suras which were pronounced by Mohammed in the firstperiod of his activity (in Mecca) contain the theology of Islam
?
the monotheistic idea, the divine judgment, Mohammed's propheticcalling, while the larger ones which were revealed to him after theHegira during his sojourn in Medina relate chiefly to social andritual laws.At first the Koran was not written down but simply committedto memory. But when a great many of the best Koran reciters hadbeen killed in battle, Omar suggested to Abu Bekr, the first caliphor successor of Mohammed, that it be written down. Abu Bekraccordingly commanded Zeid, an amanuensis of the Prophet, to com-mit it to writing. This was the authorized text until 23 years afterthe death of the prophet. A number of varient readings had, how-61551?29 6
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ever, crept into use. By order of the Caliph Osman in the year 30of the Hegira, Zeid and three assistants made a careful revisionwhich was adopted as the standard, and all other copies were orderedto be burnt. 2. TRADITION (HADITH, SUNNA)The haditli (properly, narrative, communication), is an amplifi-cation and explanation of the Koran. It pretends to consist of au-thentic reports of the sayings and doings of the prophet as handeddown by tradition. The traditions supply materials for the decisionof questions of doctrine, morals, law, habits, and customs which arosein the growth of the religious system of Islam and on which the Koranis sUent. As Mohammed was an inspired prophet, all his deeds andwords are regarded as prompted by God, and therefore as authorita-tive guides to his followers. The tradition as to the way of Moham-med soon included that of his companions, and what they taught ordid became authoritative to the orthodox as the right way, or sunna.Six arranged and classified collections of traditions have obtainedcanonical standing and are held in great reverence next to the Koranthroughout the Mohammedan world.3. IJMAThe third foundation of Islam is the ijma, literally, agreeing upon,or assembling, the unanimous consent upon a question of the learneddoctors, {mujtahidun)
.
4. KIYA3Literally, to compare, that is, the decision of a question reachedby analogical reasoning of the learned with regard to the teaching ofthe Koran, the hadith and the ijma. These are the four usuls, "roots"or fundamentals from which the Moslem faith is derived.DOCTRINES OF MOHAMMEDANISMThe cornerstone of Mohammedanism is the absolute oneness ofAllah, his power, his kindness to mankind, his readiness to forgivethose who repent and honestly believe in him, but in return demandsobedience and submission to His will. The Mohammedan name ofthe religion is, therefore, al-Islam, surrender or resignation to God'swill, and thus obtain peace of soul and mind and salvation. Moham-med's monotheistic conception of God which he opposes to Arabicpaganism agrees in substance with that of the Old Testament; heemphasizes, however, the universal power and the unhindered freewill of God rather than his holiness. Mohammed did not claim tobe the founder of a new religion, but to have been called by Godthrough the medium of Gabriel, the angel of revelation, to convertthe world to the one true religion which God before revealed to thefive great prophets and lawgivers, Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses,and Jesus.
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 75RITES AND PRACTICES OF THE MOHAMMEDAN RELIGIONThe theological system of Islam aims at embracing the entire lifeof man; it covers public and private duties, the functions of the stateas well as the official cult. Five fundamental obligations form thepillars of the Mohammedan system: (1) Confession of faith {shaha-dah), comprised in the formula: "There is no God but Allah, andMohammed is his messenger {la ilaha ilia AllaTiu, MuhammaduRasulu illahi). This twofold confession is amplified into the followingcreed: I believe in Allah, in his angels, in his Scriptures, in his prophetsin the future life, in the divine decree in respect to good as well as tothe bad, and in the resurrection of the dead. The name of Allahwas in use in Arabia before the days of Mohammed. (2) Divineworship or prayer (salat), to be performed five times a day, namely,at noon, in the afternoon, in the evening, at the approach of night,and in the morning between dawn and sunrise. (3) Almsgiving(zalcat). In a consistently regulated Mohammedan state it consti-tutes an official poor tax levied on property to be used for humani-tarian objects, but changes in political conditions have converted theobligation into a charity gift. (4) Fasting (al-ciyam) during thesacred month of Ramadhan, when neither food nor water shouldpass the lips of the faithful between sunrise and sunset. (5) Pil-grimage (al-hajj) to Mecca which every Moslem must, if possible,perform at least once in his life.In addition to the religious duties imposed upon each individualprofessing Islam, the collective duty of the jihad?fighting againstinfidels?is imposed on the community as represented by the com-mander of the faithful (amir al-muminin) . Idolators who refuse toaccept Islam forfeit their lives. Those who possess Scriptures {aM al-Mtah) in which category are included Jews, Christians, Zoroastrians(Magians) and Sabeans may be tolerated on their paying tribute(jizyaJi) and recognizing the superiority of Islam.Mohammed prohibited the current practice among the Arabs ofhis time of female infanticide, gambling, and the use of strong drink,and enjoined on his followers to show mercy to the weak, the orphaned,and the poor, and kindness to animals, but although mothers and wiveswere subjects of his special consideration, he did not change materiallythe low position of woman, and polygamy and slavery were sanc-tioned by his own example.SPREAD OF MOHAMMEDANISMBefore the death of the prophet his emissaries had proceeded tovarious parts of the Arabian peninsula, calling upon the tribes to
.adopt the standard of Allah and Mohammed. The plan of spreadinghis creed of one God with Mohan med as the last messenger, which
.Mohammed cherished, was taken up after his death by his lieutenants
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or successors, known as caliphs. In a short time the Arabs overranPersia, Mesopotamia, Palestine, Syria, Asia Minor, Egypt, Sicily,and Spain, and carried the standard of their new religion across thewaters of the Ganges in India. To-day the sway of Islam extends fromextreme India and the borders of China across to the Mediterranean,and is still spreading in Central and Southern Africa.DIVISIONS AND SECTS AMONG THE MOHAMMEDANSThe two great divisions of the Mohammedan community are theSunnites, who consider themselves as the orthodox and comprise thegreater part of the Mohammedan world, namely, Turkey, NorthAfrica, Arabia proper, and the majority of the Moslem in India, andthe Shiites (that is, followers) who comprise nearly the whole of Persiaand a small part of India in the Province of Oudh. Each of these divi-sions is split up into numerous sects or schools.The Sunnites recognize the first three caliphs (Abu Bekr, Omar,and Othman) as legitimate successors of Mohammed, and accept thesix books of the Sunna or hadith (see p. 74) as authentic and authori-tative. They are divided into four sects or theological schools whodiffer in some unimportant points of ritual and the interpretation ofthe Koran and Moslem law.The Shiites repudiate the first three caliphs as usurpers, holdingAli, the cousin of the prophet and husband of his daughter, Fatima,and the imams, his descendants, to be the lawful successors of Mo-hammed. Beginning with Ali the Shiites enumerate 12 legitimatecaliphs or imams. The last, whom they term Imam al-MaJidi, isbelieved by them to be still alive, though he has withdrawn for a time,and they say he will again appear in the last days as the mahdi, orguided one, which the prophet predicted would arise before theDay of Judgment. They also reject the six collections of traditionsof the Sunnites and have their own traditions in four collections.There are several sects among the Shiites, some of whom hold theimams to be incarnations of God. In the course of time many differ-ences of practice between the two divisions have grown up.Another smaller division are the Wahhabis, followers of Ab dal-Wahhab (1691-1787). They have been termed the Protestants,or Puritans, of the Mohammedans. They are opposed to the super-stitions, luxuries, and innovations which have crept into Mohammedanpractice, and preach a return to the simplicity of the Koran and theearliest form of Islam. MOSQUEThe name mosque is derived from the Arabic masjid, meaning,literally, "place of prostration." Mosques are generally built ofstone or brick. They vary in architecture and decoration accordingto locality. The usual plan of the mosque is rectangular, and includes,
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 77besides the covered place of worship proper, an open cloistered courtwith a tank in its center for ablutions. Outside, over a comer of themosque, rises the slender minaret, surrounded by an open gallery,from which the muezzin calls to prayer at stated hours. Somemosques have from two to six minarets, are preceded by open courtswith galleries and colonnades, and have libraries, colleges, theologicalseminaries, hospitals, almhouses and kitchens for the poor attached.Inside the mosque is the most essential feature, the mihrah, a nicheor indentation, sometimes a mere tablet, inserted in the center of thewall facing Mecca, which indicates the direction of the caaha in theMosque of Mecca toward which prayers must be addressed. Tothe right of the mihrab is the pulpit, or mimhar, from which theimam, or the "leader" of the public worship, preaches on Friday,the Mohammedan Sabbath, the sermon or Tcuibah. The chief decora-tion of the interior is found in numerous hanging lamps, arabesques,and tablets artistically inscribed with the names of God, the prophet,and of the first four caliphs, and with passages from the Koran, nopicture whatsoever of human beings or animals being allowed. Nonemay enter the mosque save with unshod feet. The two sexes do notworship together, and a few mosques are reserved for women.The larger mosques have two imams. One, called Tchatih, preachesthe sermon on Friday; the other, the ratih, reads the Koran andrecites the five daUy prayers, standing close to the mihrab and leadingthe congregation who repeat the prayers with him and closely followhis postures. The imams do not form a priestly class; they generallyhave other occupations. They have no religious authority and maybe dismissed from their office.1. The Mosque of Mecca.?Model of wood, painted. Mecca isthe capital of the Hedjaz in Arabia, situated in a sandy valley 70miles from the Red Sea. It is the holy city of the Mohammedanworld. In the Koran (Sura vi, 92 and xlii, 5) it is called (under thevariant of Bakka) "the mother of cities," and in popular literature,the navel of the earth. Its principal building is the great mosque,called Masjidu al Haram, the Holy Mosque, and Baitu illah, thehouse of God. The Haram is a spacious courtyard, oblong m design,257 paces long and 210 paces broad, surrounded on all sides by colon-nades or cloisters. The columns, each above 20 feet high, are threedeep and united by pointed arches, every four of which support asmall white dome. There are counted 550 pillars, surmounted by150 domes, and the open courtyard is said to be capable of holding35,000 worshipers. Access to it is gained through 19 gates. Inthe center of the Haram is the Kaaba, the palladium of Islam. Thename is connected with the cube-like appearance of the building atthe first impression; in reality the plan is of an irregular rectangle.The wall facing northeast, in which the door is (the front of the
78 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMKaaba) and the opposite wall (back) are 40 feet long; the two othersare about 35 feet long. The height is 50 feet. The Kaaba has onedoor about 7 feet above the ground which is opened only twice orthree times in the year. Outside the building is covered with acurtain of black silk, called the kiswa, adorned with inscriptions fromthe Koran, which is furnished by the Egyptian Government everyyear and sent with the pilgrimage caravan. The interior is adornedwith columns, numerous silver and golden lamps, and inscriptions onthe walls. In the northeast corner of the Kaaba, about 5 feet abovethe ground, not far from the door, the black stone (al-hajar al-aswad)is built into the wall, to which the building owes its sanctity. It isan irregular oval of about 7 inches in diameter, the nature of which isdifficult to determine, because its surface is worn smooth by handtouching and kissing. It is sometimes described as lava and sometimesas basalt. The Mohammedans say that when the stone dropped fromParadise it was milk white, but turned black from the sins and tearsof men. It now consists of three large pieces and several small piecesstuck together and surrounded by a ring of stone which in turn isheld together by a silver band.Mohammed says that the Kaaba was the "first temple that wasfounded for men, a blessed house and a guidance for all creatures"(Koran, Sura iii, 90), and ascribes its erection to Abraham and hisson, Ismael (from whom the Arabs derive their descent, Koran ii,121). But Mohammedan tradition goes farther back. According toit the Kaaba was first constructed in heaven, where a model of itstill remains, 2,000 years before the creation of the world. Adamerected the Kaaba on earth, selecting the stones from five sacredmountains. After its destruction by the deluge Abraham and Is-mael rebuilt it. Within the inclosure of the Haram a place is shownwhere Abraham stood (Koran, Sura iii, 90), and Ismael and hismother, Hagar, are said to have their graves within the precinct ofthe great mosque.Every Moslem is bound to undertake once in his life a pilgrimageto Mecca, and in the rites performed on this occasion are included thecircuit (twaj), around the Kaaba and the kissing of the black stone.The stone is also the point toward which all Mohammedans faceduring their devotions (the Kihla).The Mosque of Mecca has been so often ruined and repaired thatno traces of antiquity are to be found about it, although the Kaabawas in existence before the time of Mohammed. As it now standsthe temple was rebuilt in 1627 A. D., after being thrown down by atorrent. Height, 10 inches; length, 14 inches; width, 9 inches.India. (Cat. No. 155157, U.S.N.M.)2. The Mosque of Mecca.?Painting on a stuccoed wooden tablet.Height, 20 inches; width, llji inches. India. (Cat. No. 155301,U.S.N.M.)
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 793. Mosque in Sumatra.?Model of gilt brass in form of a pyramidalpagoda. Sumatra is one of the large islands of the Indian Archi-pelago. The bulk of the population belongs to the Malayan race.Its civilization is largely of Hindu origin. In the sixth century A. D.Buddhism made its way into Sumatra. From the thii'teenth to thefifteenth century Mohammedan influence prevailed, and at presentMohammedanism is generally professed in the coast districts andalso to a great extent in the interior. Sumatra is at present underDutch control. Height, 6K inches. Kepahiang, Benkulen, Sumatra.(Cat. No. 331234, U.S.N.M.) Gift of Doctor Goelam.4-13. Ten Mosque Tablets.?Inscribed in gold letters on a blackground, in carved, gilt frames.Among the decorations of the interior of a mosque are tablets orsigns, artistically inscribed with the names of God, the prophet, andof the first four caliphs, and with passages from the Koran. 21}^ by21K inches. Constantinople, Turkey. (Cat. No. 154984, U.S.N.M."^)14. Mosque lamp.?A float lamp chandelier, having 13 green glazepottery cups hung in chains from the points and angles of a framemade by superimposing two equilateral triangles of strap brass.Each lamp is hung immediately from a disk supported by fiat castbrass 2-headed birds. One lamp is in the middle and a little higherthan the others. Height, 20}^ inches. Morocco, North Africa.(Plate (upper) 29.)15. Mosque lamp.?A float lamp. Glass receptacles set in a brassframe, and the light is produced from wicks inserted in floaters.Morocco, North Africa. (Cat. No. 154458, U.S.N.M.)16. Mosque folding lamp.?-Of brass and parchment. It is hung atthe entrance of mosques at feasts. Persia. (Cat. No. 154463,U.S.N.M.)17. Candlestick.?Persian brasswork. It is usually placed in themihrah, the niche in the wall which marks the direction of Mecca (theEihla), before which the imam takes his position when he leads thecongregation in prayer. Persia. (Cat. No. 154459, U.S.N.M.)18-23. Six mosque candles.?^Made of wax and set in clay bases.Constantinople, Turkey. (Cat. No. 154985, U.S.N.M.)24. Piece of brocade.?Made of rose silk, yellow and gold wire, andinterwoven with ornamental Arabic inscriptions. Perhaps cover ofthe pulpit (mimbar), in the mosque. Length, 72 inches; width, 24inches. Constantinople, Turkey. (Cat. No. 155165, U.S.N.M.)25. Mosque door TcnocTcer.?Made of brass. Engraved with thewords: "May God open." Syria. (Cat. No. 155159, U.S.N.M.)26. Prayer rug.?Prayer (salat) is the second of the five founda-tions or pillars of the Mohammedan religion, (the others being cere-monial purification, fasting during the sacred month of Ramazan,the pilgrimage to Mecca, and the legal poor tax). Five times daily,
80 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
at stated hours, the Mohammedan is obliged to offer prayer. Allprayers must be addressed to Mecca, the sacred city of the Moham-medans. In the mosques the mihrah, that is, a niche or slab in thecenter of the wall, indicates the direction of Mecca. Wealthy andcultivated Mohammedans carry with them a rug or mat, showingthis direction, on which they perform their devotions. Constanti-nople, Turkey. (Cat. No. 155091, U.S.N.M.)27-28. Two prayer mats.?Made of fiber. Bakuba Tribe, Congo^Africa. (Cat. No. 174604, U.S.N.M.)29. Mohammedans at prayer.?Wood cut, framed, illustrating someof the attitudes assumed by. Mohammedans while at prayer. Theprincipal attitudes are: 1. Standing, with the hands on either side(niyah); 2. Inclination of the head and body and placing the handson the knees (ruku); 3. Dropping on the knees {tdkrihu al-slidah);4. Then raising the head and body and sinking backward on theheels (talchir-i-jalsah) ; 5. Kneeling and turning the head first to theright and then to the left {salam). Height, 11 inches; width, 24inches. (Cat. No. 155170, U.S.N.M.)30. Ewer and hasin.?Brass. Used for ablutions. Ablution(Arabic, wazu) is absolutely necessary as a preparation for therecital of the liturgical form of prayer, and is described as "the halfof faith and the key of prayer." The worshipper washes his hands tothe elbows, rinses his mouth, cleans his nostrils, washes his face, hisbeard, ears, neck, and his feet as high as the ankles. The ablution ofeach part of the body is accompanied by a special prayer. Whenwater can not be procured, or would be injurious to health, theablution may be performed with dust or sand. This ceremony iscalled Tayammum. Beirut, Syria. (Cat. No. 154464, U'S.N.M.)31. Scenes and rites of tlie pilgrimage to Mecca.i?Print. Thepilgrimage to Mecca {Hajj) is the last of the five "pillars" of Mo-hammedan practical religion. Every Moslem of either sex has toperform the pilgrimage at least once in the course of his life. Insanepersons, slaves, and women who have no husband or near relative toaccompany them, are exempted from the obligation. So also sicknessand inability to stand the expenses of the journey relieve one from theobligation. Such must expiate by fasting or almsgiving. The legaldate for performing the pilgrimage is in first half of the monthDhu al-Hijjah, which is the twelfth month of the Mohammedan year.As the Mohammedan year is lunar, the hajj runs in time through allseasons. Upon approaching the sacred precinct of Mecca, whichembraces a circuit of 2 miles on all sides of the city, the pilgrimtakes off his ordinary dress and assumes the pilgrim's garb, calledihram, which consists of two pieces of cloth, one being tied around theloins, the other thrown over the shoulder. Head, arms, and feetmust be bare, though sandals are permitted to those incapable of
OBJECTS OF KELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 81enduring the hot and stony ground. On arrival at Mecca the pilgrimperforms the ceremony of the tawaf, that is, circumambulating theKaaba (A, center), seven times, reciting certain formulae, each timekissing the black stone {al-hajar al-aswad). He then proceeds to themakam Ibrahim, the place where Abraham stood when he built theKaaba, and recites a prayer. Next follows the Sai ceremony, that is,running forward and backward seven times between the hills of Safaand Marwah, which are separated from one another by some 200yards, situated to the east of the Haram. On the seventh day asermon (khutbah), is delivered in the great mosque by which thepilgrims are prepared for the holy ceremonies. On the eighth daythe pilgrims proceed en masse to Mount Arafat (B, upper center),a distance of 3 miles from the city, reaching it in the evening. Thenight is spent in prayer at the foot of the mountain, which is ascendedat daybreak of the ninth day. The day is spent in prayer and listen-ing to another oration. Toward evening the pilgrims depart forMecca, and on the way make a halt (wukuf), at the mosque of Muz-dalifa, situated midway between Arafat and Mina (B, upper leftcorner), where the rest of the night is spent. The tenth day is calledYaumu al-naJir, the day of sacrifice. The pilgrims leave Muzdalifaafter morning prayers and proceed to the Valley of Mina (B, left sidein the center). There the pilgrim performs the ceremony of castingstones (Ramyu al-rijam), consisting in throwing seven pebbles at thethree pillars of Mina, wliile reciting the formula: "In the name ofGod, the Almighty, I do this in hatred of Satan and his shame. '^According to Moslem explanation the stoning is aimed at Satan, whois said to have appeared here to Abraham and to have been drivenaway by him in the same fashion. Here also the "feast of sacrifice'^(Idu al-azJia), takes place. Every pilgrim must sacrifice a sheep, agoat, a cow, or a camel, according to his means, and it is consideredmeritorious to give the flesh of the victims to the poor. With this actthe pilgrimage is considered at an end. Most of the pilgrims spendthe next three days in the valley, called the "three days of meateating" {Tashrik), which are devoted to jollification. Upon thereturn to Mecca the pilgrim removes the ihram, indulges in theluxury of a shave and a wash?acts forbidden from his approach tothe sacred precinct until the end of the pilgrimage. It is usual todrink from the holy Zemzem weU (A, left lower corner), which issaid to be the spring shown by God to Hagar in the desert (Genesisxxi, 19), or to have oneself sprinkled with its water. Some pilgrimsdip their garments into the water of the Zemzem. This renders themsacred. They are then used as burial shrouds in the belief that theywill act as a protection against the intense heat of the sun's rays onthe Day of Judgment. Henceforth the pilgrim assumes the title ofBaiji, that is, one who has performed the pilgrimage or Hajj. India.(Cat. No. 289299, U.S.N.M.)
82 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM32. Mecca flag.?Used in the pilgrimage processions to Mecca.Made of cotton; green ground with yellow and scarlet-colored trim-mings; with passages from the Koran in white sewed on. In this con-nection it may be mentioned that the pilgrim caravans starting fromEgypt (Cairo) and Syria (Damascus) are headed by an ornamentedbaldachin, called maTimal. It is a square skeleton frame of wood witha pyramidal top, and has a covering of black brocade richly workedwith inscriptions and ornamented embroidery in gold and borderedwith a fringe of sUk, with tassels surmounted by silver balls. On theupper part is a view of the Temple of Mecca in gold. Inside the maJi-mal are two copies of the Koran, one on a small scroll, and the otherin the form of a book, also small, each inclosed in a silver gilt case.The mahmal is borne by a fine tall camel which is generally indulgedwith exemption from every kind of labor during the remainder ofits life.'^ Height, 7 feet; width, 13 feet, 3 inches. Cairo, Egypt.(Cat. No. 155090, U.S.N.M.)33. Shirt worn hy pilgrims.?The shirt is not the pilgrim's garmentproper which is worn in Mecca (the iJiram), but worn on the way toMecca. The long sleeves of the garment are used for tying up pro-visions or luggage. Beirut, Syria. (Cat. No. 154567, U.S.N.M.)34. Girdle.?Worn by pilgrims on the return from Mecca. Madeof camel's hair and ornamented with shells from the Red Sea. Beirut,Syria. (Cat. No. 154563, U.S.N.M.)35. Costume of a Persian imam.?Consisting of a linen shirt, (Jcamis)linen drawers {lihas); pants, vest (sudru); inner coat (kajtan); girdleQiizan) ; middle coat, outer coat (juhhaJi) ; overcoat (henisJi) ; stockings,and shoes of green morocco.As has been stated (p. 77), there is no sacerdotal class in theMohammedan religion. But each mosque has its imam, who leads inprayer in public service and recites the Koran. In the larger mosquestwo imams are usually employed?the imam ratih, who recites thefive daily prayers in the mosque, and the imam IcTiatih, whose duty itis to lead the prayer and preach the sermon QcJiubbaJi) , on Friday, theMohammedan Sabbath. But in most of the smaller mosques boththese offices are performed by one imam. Each mosque has also oneor more muezzins who call the faithful to prayer from the minaretfive tunes a day.There are also generally attached to the mosques theologians(Maulawis), for the instruction of students. Sometimes the iniamand the maulawi are combined in one person, and sometimes a mau-lawi will own the mosque, but pay an imam as his curate to say thestated prayers. The imam is supported by endowments or offerings;the maulawis by fees or offerings, and the students of a mosque aresupported either by endowments or by the benefactions of the people.
13 Thomas Patrick Hughes, A Dictionary of Islam, 1885, p. 307.
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 83In towns and villages there is a parish allotted to each mosque, andthe people within the section of the parish claim the services of theimam at their marriages and funerals, and they pay to him the usualoffering made on these occasions. Many of the imams are engagedin other vocations besides their service of the mosque. Persia.(Cat. No. 136661, U.S.N.M.) Gift of Rev. J. L. Potter.36. Costume oj a Turkish imam.?Consisting of (1) trousers; (2)jacket; (3) waistcoat; (4) coat; (5) turban; (6) shoes with goloshes.Constantinople, Turkey. (Cat. No. 154772, U.S.N.M.)37. Costume of a dancing dervisTi {maulawi).?Dervishes (in Arabic,falcirs), are members of a Mohammedan religious fraternity. Theyare divided into numerous orders, each deriving its name from itsfounder. They trace their origin to Mohammed himself, but they donot appear in history before the eleventh century A. D. Many ofthese orders have flourished and still flourish. Some dervishes livein monasteries, some wander about (like the mendicant friars), someretire from the world to devote themselves to meditation, with fast-ing to the utmost limit and other severe ascetic practices. Each orderis established on different principles, and has its own rules and peculiardevotions, and distinct dress as to material, shape, and color. Eachorganization imposes on its members the obligation to recite certainpassages from the Koran at different times of the day. The religiousservice or ritual common to all fraternities is the zilcr, "remembering,that is, of Allah, and its object is to bring home to the worshiper thethought of an unseen world and his dependence upon it. The zilcrconsists in the recital of such formulae as, there is no God but Allah;God is great; praise to AUah; holiness to AUah; he lives; AUah lives,or the 99 attributes of Allah, etc. At first the worshipers are sittingon their heels or crosslegged, and the ejaculations are expressedsoftly and slowly. As the excitement grows they rise and standupright, each placing his hand on the shoulder of his neighbor orentwining their arm in one another and forming several concentricrings, move from side to side of the hall, leaping and stamping andshouting: Allah; He; he lives, etc. The Maulawis whirl on their heels.This hypnotic ecstasis is stimulated by playing on different kiuds ofdrums and pipes and, as travelers relate, taking red-hot iron betweenthe lips, eating glass, live serpents or scorpions, passing needles orknives through their bodies, etc.Besides the regular dervishes there is also a large number of laymembers, analogous to the Franciscan and Dominican tertiaries,who live in the world and have only the duty of certaiu daily prayersand of attending a zikr from time to time. There are also femaledervishes who formerly lived in monasteries, but now can only be
"tertiaries."The different orders of dervishes are distinguished by their dress,chiefly the headgear {taj, properly, crown). The most common is
84 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMmade of felt in shape of a cone. The other articles of dress areusually a vest and full drawers, a long shirt and belt, and a coarsecloak. Constantinople, Turkey. (Cat. No. 154760, U.S.N.M.)38. Dervish belt hucMe.?Consisting of a round, dented piece ofjade set in white metal and fastened to a disk of the same metal, wdth apendant of glass suspended from a short chain. Syria. (Cat. No.155162, U.S.N.M.)39. Dervish crutch.?Wood, carved. It is placed under the armpitor forehead to lean upon while meditating. Syria. (Cat. No.155161, U.S.N.M.)40. Dervish staff.?Consisting of an iron rod with pieces of ironsuspended by chains from the top. It is brandished by the dervishesin their public devotional exercises (zikr), to arouse the fervor andzeal of the participants. Constantinople, Turkey. (Cat. No. 154759,U.S.N.M.)41. Dervish staff.?The same as the preceding No. 40. Cairo,Egypt. (Cat. No. 154777, U.S.N.M.)42. Vessel for the reception of alms hy the dervishes.?Made ofcocoanut shell. Beirut, Syria. (Cat. No. 154558, U.S.N.M.)43. Brass plate.?Decorated with animal figures and floral designs.Used by dervishes. Beirut, Syria. (Cat. No. 154559, U.S.N.M.)44. Dervish drum (hanragan).?Used by the dervish on his pil-grimage to Mecca or in the devotions of the zikr, Cairo, Egypt.(Cat. No. 154576, U.S.N.M.)45-46. Two dervish drums.?Cairo, Egypt. (Cat. No. 155167,U.S.N.M.)47. Dervish begging vessel.?Bronze. Boat-shaped. Entire sur-face covered with engraved Arabic inscriptions.48. Dervish alms vessel.?Brass openwork. Crescent-shaped. NorthAfrica. (Cat. No. 311815, U.S.N.M.) Bequest of Miss ElizabethS. Stevens.49. Dervish alms vessel.?The same as the preceding No. 48.50. Dervish alms bowl.?Porcelain. Boat-shaped. With Arabicinscription. Syria. (Cat. No. 155163, U.S.N.M.)51-52. Two dervish wands of iron.53. Leather bag (kees).?Used by dervishes for the reception offood while begging. Cairo, Egypt. (Cat. No. 155169, U.S.N.M.)54. Manuscript of the Koran.?Finely written in Arabic in black,red, and gold on vellum. The two first pages are illuminated ingold and several colors. All the other pages are framed in goldand black lines, and some of the margins are decorated with floraldesigns in colors. The titles of the chapters or Suras are paintedin white on gold. Bound in red leather with gUded toolings, andinclosed in a case provided with a thong to be suspended from theneck. The manuscript probably dates from the eighteenth cen-
OBJECTS OF KELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 85tury. (For a description of the contents of the Koran, see p. 73.)Jerusalem, Palestine. Bequest of S. S. Rowland.55. Manuscript qf the Koran.?Written in Arabic on vellum, in theoriginal binding of red leather. The pages are framed in gold Unes,and small gold circles are scattered through the text. India (?).(Cat. No. 158328, U.S.N.M.)56. Manuscript of the Koran.?Written in Arabic on paper. Themargins are decorated with red circles, with zigzag lines in blackinside of them. Defective at both ends. Masilay, Mindanao,Philippine Islands. (Cat. No. 253691, U.S.N.M.) Transferred fromthe War Department.57. The Koran.?Printed in Arabic on paper, bound in leather.Fort Leopold, Congo, Africa. (Cat. No. 175020, U.S.N.M.)58-61. Four manuscript copies of the Koran.?Written in Arabicon paper. Defective at both ends. Moros, Philippine Islands.(Cat. No. 232248, U.S.N.M.) Gift of Col. Edgar A. Mearns, UnitedStates Army.62-64. Three copies of the Koran.?Printed in Arabic. Defectiveat both ends. Moros, Philippine Islands. (Cat. No. 232849,U.S.N.M.) Gift of Col. Edgar A. Mearns, United States Army.65-67. Six leaves of manuscript of parts of the Koran.? 1 and 2.Double leaf. Arabic. Written on vellum in black in Cufic callig-raphy with red dots in Egypt during the Fatimid period in theeleventh century. A similar specimen is said to be in the Metro-politan Museum of Art in New York, and in the Museum of FineArt in Boston. 3. Persian. Written on vellum. On one side inwhite on a blue ground, on the other in red on a cream-coloredground. Framed in blue, gold, and red lines. Neskhi calligraphy.Written by Mumud Ibn Kassim-al-Jani, of Kerman, Persia, in1018 A. H. 1609 A. D. 4. Arabic. Black Thulath script, fivelines to the page. With rosettes in gold. Egypt, eleventh totwelfth century. A similar specimen is said to be in the Metro-politan Museum of Art in New York and in the Museum of Fine Artin Boston. 5. Arabic in Cufic script on parchment. Egypt, eighthto ninth century. 6. Arabic on veUum. Turkish Neskhi writingof the seventeenth century. Richly ornamented in gold, red, andblue on the margins and in the text. The headhne of SuraLXXXIV is illuminated with floral scrolls on a gold and blueground. New York. (Cat. Nos. 315193-315197, U.S.N.M.) Giftof Kirkor Minassian.68. Selectionsfrom the Koran.?Manuscript written on paper, richlyilluminated in red, green, and gold. In original binding of red leather,with gilded toolings. Probably used as a book of devotions and medi-tation. Washington, D. C. (Cat. No. 271701, U.S.N.M.) Gift of
.James Hunt.
86 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM69. Koran stand.?Inlaid with mother-of-pearl. Inscribed withthe usual Mohammedan invocation before any religious act: "Inthe name of God," and the date A. H. 1210 -A. D. 1795.The Koran, the sacred book of Islam, is treated by the Moham-medans with great external veneration and reverence. They gen-erally take care never to hold it, and they deposit it upon a high andclean place, and never put another book, or anything else on top of it.When read it is placed on a stand. The reading of the Koran shouldbegin with legal ablution and prayer. The usual prayer is: " I seekprotection with God against Satan the accursed," followed by theinvocation: "In the name of God the Merciful, the Compassionate."In the services of the mosque it is chanted by the imam or the leaderin prayer. Constantinople, Turkey. (Cat. No. 154757, U.S.N.M.)70. Folded Kcan stand.?Wood, inlaid with mother-of-pearl.Constantinople, Turkey. (Cat. No. 154817, U.S.N.M.)71. Folded Koran stand.?Wood, carved. Congo, Africa. (Cat.No. 175018, U.S.N.M.)72. Folded Koran stand.?Wood, carved. Moros, PhilippineIslands. (Cat. No. 232850, U.S.N.M.) Gift of Col. Edgar A.Mearns, United States Army.73. Silver case for holding the Koran.?The top is decorated in reliefwith a lamp, Mohammedan standards (?), and floral designs; the bot-tom is incised with the "Shield of David;" that is, two trianglescrossed, and floral designs.74. Koran case.?Made of iron, in octagonal shape. It held aminiature manuscript of the Koran, which was principally used as atalisman, and was carried upon the person. Syria. (Cat. No.155160, U.S.N.M.)75. Mohammedan hooTc.?Incised in Madurese script on the leavesof the lontar palm with a metal point at the time when the leaves stillcontained chlorophyll and held between wooden boards. The bookis supposed to contain teachings from the life of Mohammed, and tobe about 150 years old. It was formerly the custom to bury such a" boekoe Madura" with every dead Madurese of any consequence.Madura, Dutch East Indies. (Cat. No. 329801, U.S.N.M.) Gift ofRollin R. Winslow, United States consul at Soerabaya, Java.
The Mohammedan rosary, called subha, in Persia, iashih (from theArabic verb sabbaha, "to praise," "to exalt"), consists of 99 beads,divided into three equal portions by a stone or bead of differentshape or, in the more costly varieties, by tassels, called shamsa,
"servants," made of gold thread or variegated silk. The Moham-medans use the rosary for the recital of the 99 attributes of God, as,
"the mighty" (al-aziz); "the holy" (al-kuddus) ; "the merciful"
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 87{ar-rdhman) ; "the loving" (al-wadud); "the forgiver" (al-ghafar) , etc.A hundredth bead of larger size, called the imam, "leader," or atassel in its place, is frequently added for the essential name of God,Allah. ^^ Other devotional formulas recited by means of the rosaryare the ejaculations known as the tashih: "I extol God," {suhhanaillah); the takJiir, "God is very great" {Allahu akhar)-, the taJimid,"God be praised" (al-hamdu-VillaTii); and the taMil, "there is nodeity but God" (la illaJia ilia illah). Great merit, according to tradi-tion, is attributed by the prophet to the recital of the hundred namesof God, or to the repetition of these formulae. " Verily," he is reportedto have said, " there are 99 names of God, and whoever recites themshall enter into paradise," and "Whoever recites this sentence (thetashih and tahmid), a hundred times, morning and evening, will haveall his sins forgiven."Mohammedan rosaries are frequently made of dark stones. Specialvalue is attached to beads, the material of which originated in theholy cities of Mecca and Medina.It is generally assumed that the Mohammedans borrowed therosary full-grown from the Buddhists. The Mohammedan tradi-tion Qtadith), as usual, pushes back the use of some mechanicalcontrivance for counting prayers to the time of Mohammed. It isrelated that the prophet reproached some women for using pebblesin repeating the tashih, talchir, etc., and recommended that theyshould count them on their fingers. In a tradition, collected in thethird century A. H.?ninth century A. D.?is related that Abu Abdal-Rahman, son of Abu Bekr, the first caliph, who died about 53A. H.?673 A. D.?seeing in the mosque groups of worshippersreciting under a leader 100 talchirs, 100 talchlils, and 100 tashihs bymeans of small pebbles, reproached them with the words, "Rathercount your sins, and I shall guarantee you that nothing of your goodworks will be lost." Abdallah, son of the caliph Omar, who died 73A. H.?692 A. D.?seeing one picking up pebbles while praying, saidto him, "Do not do that, for this comes from Satan." All this maypoint to the adoption of some counting device at the time when therecitation of the above-mentioned formulas became a practice, thedate of which, however, can not be fixed with certainty. The useof pebbles in the repetition of these litanies would seem to mark aprimitive form of the suhha, the point of departure in the evolutionwhich resulted in the rosary, that is, in threading beads on a string,which may have been copied from the Buddhists. It also shows thatthe rosary at the time of its appearance met with some oppositionfrom the conservatives and the rigorists of the religious discipline.In fact, as late as the third century A. H.?ninth century A. D.
?
" According to Mr. R. A. Stewart Macallister, in the Palestine Exploration Quarterly Statement forJuly, 190S, p. 172, " There is another variety of rosary less commonly used, with 101 pellets correspondingto the 101 names of the Prophet."
88 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMthe use of the subha, as an instrument of prayer, was in vogue onlyamong the lower classes and looked down upon by the theologiansand higher classes. When the pious ascetic Abu al-Kassim al-Gunejd (died 279 A. H.?909 A. D.), was found with a rosary andexpostulated with, since he "belonged to the better world," he apolo-gized with the words, "I could not renounce an object which was themeans of bringing me nearer to God." Even in the seventh centuryA. H.?thirteenth A. D.?Abu Abdallah Mammed al-Abdari, calledIbn al-Hajj (died 737 A. H.?1336 A. D.), complains over the exag-gerated use and esteem of the suhha as being contrary to the primitivesimplicity of Islam.The Wahhabis, followers of the reformer, Abd al-Wahhab, whoopposed all practices not sanctioned by the Koran and tradition(see p. 76), regard the rosary as an abomination and count the namesof God on their fingers.76. Rosary.?Consisting of 100 globular beads made of olivewood, divided into three sections by two vase, or bottle-shapedbeads. The two ends of the string pass through the hundredthbead, then through a fusiform or spindle-shaped tube, and lastlythrough two smaller beads, terminating in a green tassel. Cairo,Egypt. (Cat. No. 155166, U.S.N.M.)77. Rosary.?Consisting of 97 beads made of blood stones, withtwo dividing beads of chalcedony. Between the ninth and tenthbeads from one end of the string an oblong rectangular piece ofchalcedony is inserted, probably to complete, with the two dividers,the number 100. The string terminates in a tassel of silk and goldthread tied with an artistic knot. Syria. (Cat. No. 179075,U.S.N.M.)78. Rosary.?Consisting of 91 beads made of horn. On eitherside of the two dividing beads, which are vase-shaped and inlaidwith silver dots, are three coral beads, and at either end of the stringtwo coral and one amber bead. The ends of the string pass throughtwo small beads of horn and a fusiform tube, terminating in a greentassel. Syria. (Cat. No. 179075, U.S.N.M.)79. Rosary.?Consisting of 102 beads made of composition, alter-nating three brown-colored and one, somewhat larger, black. Mon-astery of Mount Sinai, Syria. (Cat. No. 154561, U.S.N.M.) Giftof Mrs. Layyah Barakkah.80. Rosary.?Consisting of 102 beads made of black wood, dividedinto three sections by two beads of bone. The ends of the string arepassed through an oblong piece of slate. Paris, France. (Cat. No.76709, U.S.N.M.)81-83. TTiree rosaries.?Consisting each of 99 beads made of olivewood, divided by bottle-shaped beads, the ends of the string passthrough four beads with an oblong fusiform bead between them.
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 89Probably Syria. (Cat. Nos. 311845-311847, U.S.N.M.) Bequestof Miss Elizabeth S. Stevens.84. Rosary.?Consisting of 98 beads made of olive wood, carved.India. (Cat. No. 289298, U.S.N.M.)85. Rosary.?Consisting of 99 beads made of bone, divided intothree sections by two slate stones. The ends of the string passthrough a large bead made from a piece of conch shell. This styleof rosary is used by the Mohammedans in China. China. (Cat.No. 167300, U.S.N.M.)86. Bronze crescent.?-The figure of the crescent was the symbolof Byzantium, and when the Turks became masters of Constanti-nople (1453), they adopted it as an emblem of their growing empire.Some authorities, however, think that the device has been used bythe Turks before that event. It is also used by them as the insigniaof their creed, putting it on the cupolas of mosques and minarets orthe towers from which the muezzin calls the faithful to prayer fivetimes a day. The crescent as a religious symbol is unknown to theMohammedans not under Turkish rule. ? Cairo, Egypt. (Cat. No.154742, U.S.N.M.) VTHE RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL OBJECTS OF HINDUISMINTRODUCTIONThe religion of the Hindus, that is, of about 218,000,000 of the320,000,000 of the people of India, has passed through three phases:(1) Vedism; (2) Older Brahmanism, or Brahmanism proper; (3)Sectarian Brahmanism, or Hinduism, which is the prevailing religionof India.1. Vedism, which derived its name from its sacred books, theVedas (that is knowledge), is assumed to have originated between1500 and 1200 B. C. It was a naturalistic religion, based on thedeification and worship of the elements and forces of nature. Amongthe 33 gods mentioned in the Vedas stand out Dyaus (heaven),later superseded by Indra, the storm god, who conquers demons andaids in battle. Next in importance are the rituahstic figures of thefire-god, Agni, the conveyor of sacrifices and protector against dark-ness, and Soma, the juice of a plant beheved to be of the milkweedfamily, now classed as Sarcostemma hrevistigma. The use of thisliquor in the sacrifices together with the natural effect of drinking itgave it a supernatural character. It was largely due to copiousdraughts of Soma that Indra was able to perform his heroic deeds.Other Vedic gods to be mentioned were Varuna, the god of the firma-ment; Surya, the god of the sun; Vayu, the god of the wind; andPrithivi, the goddess of the earth.61551?29 7
90 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMThe Vedic gods are not entirely detached from the natural phe-nomena, as, for instance, the figures of Greek mythology. Theirindividual functions are not clearly defined, and no ethical ideas areconnected with them. Sacrifice was in this period entirely an indi-vidual affair. There was no tribal or public cult, no temples orimages of gods. The sacrificial place was a spot of ground chosenfor the occasion.2. In the epoch of Brahmanism proper the deities become anthro-pomorphic. At their head stand Brahma, the creator; Vishnu, thepreserver; and Siva, the destroyer and reproducer, with their femaleconsorts. A special priestly class, with elaborate and fixed rites andceremonies, was instituted: Caste, dividing the people into Brahmansor priests, Kshatryas or warriors, Vaisyas or merchants, and Sudrasor artisans, made its appearance. In this period were also developedthe doctrines of Karma, that is, the application of the law of causeand effect to the moral sphere and of the transmigration of the soul(metempsychosis) for punishment and purification, and with them apessimistic attitude to life and a negative ethical ideal. The sacredbooks on which this form of religion is chiefly based are the Brah-manas, the Upunishads, and the Manava-Dharma Sastra, or theLaws of Manu.This period may be dated roughly between 1000 and 200 B. C,though it lingered long after that.3. In Hinduism which, it is assumed, was evolved between thefifth and the third centuries B. C, Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva werecombined into a triad or Trimarti ; of these Brahma is more the objectof meditation than of practical worship. There are believed to beonly two temples of Brahma in India, one at Pushkara (Pokhar), inAjmir, the other about 15 miles from Idar. Vishnu and Siva, intheir various aspects and shapes, are now the chief gods of the Hindupopulation.Thus of the numerous denominaions and sects into which Hindu-ism is divided, the principal ones are the Vishnuites and Sivaites,who raise either Vishnu or Siva to the first place in the triad andconsider him as the supreme being, and the Saktas, who worshipeither Vishnu or Siva in their female aspects. ^^
" Sakti designates the active energy of a deity which is personified as his wife, and those who worshipthe female principle are called Saktas. The supreme god is usually thought to be quiescent and passive,hence the divine drama of creation and evolution of the worlds is attributed to his wife who is one withhim in reality, but active, creative, and the driving energy of the phenomenal world. Thus Brahma, thelord of creation, has the goddess Sarasvati (the goddess of learning and speech) dwelling in his mouth.She presides over learning and is the vach (logos, word), which essentially is the first cause of creation.Sri or Lakshmi, the consort of Vishnu, is the presiding goddess of wealth and happiness and hence theenergy that sustains or keeps the world going. Siva's spouse, Parvati or Uma, especially in her destruc-tive manifestation as Kali, is the energy that destroys, that makes the world involve or draw itself into thequiescent state from which it started or evolved. In fact, the Saktas aflSrm that Sakti, the feminine ele-ment in the deity, is the preponderating, if not the sole, cause of all the visible phenomena.
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 91Besides the supreme gods the Hindu system of rehgion inckidescountless subordinate divinities and spirits, male and female, benefi-cent and malignant. In fact, Hinduism is not a strict religiousorganization; it is as much social as religious; it reflects the entirelife of the whole people called Hindus. There is no bond of a com-mon belief or creed, no congregational service, no central adminis-trative body. Caste and all that is implied by the term is the onlything universally recognized in Hinduism.The doctrines of Hinduism are chiefly contained in the Puranas,the Tantras, the Sastras, and the two epic poems, the Ramayana andthe Mahabharata. COLLECTION OF OBJECTS
1. OBJECTS OF WORSHIP?IMAGES OF THE GODS1. Brahma.? Stattiette of marble, painted and gilded. Repre-sented seated on a full-blown lotus, with four heads, bearded, andfour arms. Wearing the sacred thread (for which see p. 112). Inthe upper right arm he holds a ring, in upper left arm a dish (?) toreceive gift; in the lower right arm a chaplet; in the lower left a waterpot. Against the lotus base is the swan or goose (hamsa), hisvehicle (vaJtan).Brahma is the first member of the Hindu triad or Trimurti, thecreator. According to the Hindu legends, he was born from a goldenegg which had been deposited by Vishnu on the chaotic waters, orhe emerged from a lotus which sprang from the navel of Vishnu,,who was floating upon the ocean of creation, lying upon the serpentSesha. From Brahma emanated or were evolved the other gods andthe world. In the daily worship of the Hindus, Brahma took a minorplace in favor of the other members of the triad, Vishnu and Siva.There are said to be only two sanctuaries in India devoted to the cultof Brahma?one in Pushkara, near Ajmir, and the other near Idar.Otherwise, Brahma holds a merely honoraiy position in the Hindupantheon, as the personification or universal soul of the world, a& theinspirer of the sacred writings, and patron of the learned. Hisdaughter and wife, Sarasvati, formerly the personification of theriver of the same name, is the goddess of speech, of the sciences and'arts. Brahma is usually represented with four faces and a goose orowl as his vehicle {valian), or sacred bird. Height, 10% inches.India. (Cat. No. 154898, U.S.N.M.)2. Brahma.?Statuette of brass, gilt. Represented riding on theswan, his vehicle, with four heads and four arms, holding objectssimilar to those described under No. 1. Height, 5 inches. India.(Cat. No. 317653, U.S.N.M.) Bequest of Miss Nettie Lovisa White..3. Vishnu.?^Colossal statue of wood, carved and painted. Repre-sented with four arms, standing on a base. On his head he wears
92 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMthe high banded crown, called karandamakuta. The arms aredecorated with armlets and wristlets, round the neck are three neck-laces with pendants, and around the loins is an ornamental belt, theends of which hang down to the feet, all carved. The headgear ispainted yellow, the upper part of the body and the arms blue whilethe lower part of the body, the legs, and the base yellow or buff,with various ornaments, as rosettes, tongue patterns, floral and geo-metrical designs. The upper right hand holds a disk; the upper left,a conch; the lower right arm is in the posture of granting protection(ahhaya mudra); the left in that of gift bestowing (varada mudra).Over the statue is a rounded arch, the lower sides of which terminatein dolphins, resting on slender colunms, while below, behind the lowerpart of the legs is the mystical bird Garuda, the vehicle or vahan ofVishnu.Vishnu is the second member of the Hindu triad or Trimurti, thepreserver and conservator of the world. He is supreme god of theVishnuite sects, who include the middle class and mercantile com-munity. He is the most benignant and humane god in the Hindupantheon, who, for the sake of mankind, assumed many incarnations(avatars), and with his worship is connected all that is bright andcheerful. One of the most popular festivals connected with the wor-ship of Vishnu (in his incarnation as Krishna) is that of Juggernauth(Jagannath), at Puri in Orissa, when the image of Krishna-Vishnu,called Jagannath, "lord of the world, " is drawn in procession throughthe streets by thousands of worshipers.Vishnu's consort is Lakshmi, the goddess of beauty, matrimony,and prosperity, and their son is Kama (Kamadeva), the god of love.The symbols under which he is revered by the Vishunites are thesalagram, ammonite (a fossil shell), and the tulasi plant (Ocimumgratissimum, or sanctum). His sacred animal {vahan or vehicle)is the Garuda, a composite being, half man and half bird.Vishnu is usually represented with four arms holding his attrib-utes?'a conch shell (sankha) ; disk (chakra) ; lotus flower (padma)
;
and club, with the jewels syamantaJca upon his wrist and TcanstuhTiaon his breast, and his spouse, Lakshmi to his left. Height, 20 feet.Ceylon. (Cat. No. 154977, U.S.N.M.).4. Vishnu.?Statuette of marble, painted and gilded. Repre-sented standing with four arms. In the upper two arms he holds thelotus and conch, respectively; the lower right has the club, while theleft holding the disk rests upon the head of the diminutive figure ofLakshmi, who stands with hands folded in the attitude of devotion.Height, lOK inches. India. (Cat. No. 154882, U.S.N.M.)5. Vishnu.?-Stele of red sandstone, carved in high relief. In thecenter stands Vishnu, holding in his four hands his attributes, theclub, lotus-bud, disk, and the conch shell; above, three small seated
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 93figures, perhaps representing the trimurti (Brahma, Vishnu, andSiva), and below, Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth, and Prithivi, thegoddess of the earth, on his right and left sides, respectively. Height,19 inches: width 9}^ inches. Mopami, Central Provinces, India.(Cat. No. 155185, U.S.N.M.)6. Vishnu.?Stele of basalt, carved in high relief. In the center,Vishnu standing with his usual attributes. Above, two small figuresseated. At his sides, Lakshmi and Prithivi, as in the precedingnumber, flanked by mythical animals. Farther down are again twosmall female figures, while the base is likewise adorned with smallfigures, besides floral and other ornaments. The stele, which meas-ures 40 by 23 inches, is exquisitely carved, but considerably mutilated,on a lotus base. Provenance unknown.7. Siva.?Statuette of marble, painted and gilded. Representedseated in the easy or sporty posture, with left leg drawn in, with fourarms. In the upper right hand he holds the trident; in the left, aclub; in the lower right, a chaplet; in the left, perhaps the kettle-drum. At his left side is his spouse, Parvati (Durga, Uma, etc.),seated in the attitude of meditation or devotion. At either end of thebase is his vehicle or vahan, the bull.Siva is the third member of the Hindu triad or Trimurti, the de-stroyer and re-creator. He is the most awful and sublime divinityof modern Hinduism and has, among other names, that of Mahadeva,
"the great god." His wife, often represented at his side, is Parvati(Devi, Durga, etc.). Siva is represented and worshiped under variousaspects. He has three eyes, which are supposed to denote his sightin the past, present, and future, or representing the sun, moon, andfire; around his head and neck serpents are twined; in his arms heholds a trident, a skull-surmounted staff, an ax, and other weapons;on his head he usually bears the symbol of the fertilizing river Ganges,and his vehicle (vahan) is the bull Nandi. As presiding over repro-duction, which follows destruction, he is generally worshiped underthe phallic symbol (called linga), and his devotees (Sivaites) carryabout their persons a miniature phallic emblem. As Panchanana,he is represented with five faces, and is invoked under this name as thephysician god. The center of the worship of Siva is the city of Be-nares. In the rear of his temples is always found a shrine with thelinga, while the bull Nandi stands at the entrance, and a tridentadorns the tops. The higher castes worship him by hanging a wreathof blossoms around the linga, or by placing before it offerings offlowers and rice; the lower castes with bloody sacrifices. It is assumedthat formerly human sacrifices were offered to him and his consort.Many of his followers practice great austerities and resort to cruelrites as a means of gaining his favor. On his festival, Siva-ratri (inFebruary), a strict fast is observed during the day and a vigil held at
94 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
night, when the Hnga is worshiped. Height, 12^ inches. India.<Cat. No. 154878, U.S.N.M.)8. Siva.?Statuette of brass. Represented standing with sixarms, holding, respectively, trident, knife, conch, dish (?), trampling ademon, and with one hand grasping the hair of another. Height,4K inches. India. (Cat. No. 311801, U.S.N.M.) Bequest of MissElizabeth S. Stevens.9. Lakshmi.?Statuette of marble, painted and gilded, representedseated on a full-blown lotus. In her upper hands she holds lotusstalks; in the lower right hand, a chaplet; in the left, the pot of nectar.Two elephants uphold with their trunks a parasol over her head,while at her sides are attendants with fly-whisks.Lakshmi, also called Sri, is the wife of Vishnu, the goddess of beauty,love, and prosperity. Like Aphrodite (Venus), she sprang from theocean at the time of its being churned for nectar. Her son is Kamaor Kamadeva, the god of love. Her sacred flower is the lotus.Height, lOK inches. India. (Cat. No. 154871, U.S.N.M.)10. Parvati.?-Statuette of marble, painted and gilded. Repre-sented riding a tiger, with four arms. The upper hands hold a clubin the right and what looks like the tail of a snake in the left; in thelower right hand is a waterpot, in the left a trident.As the wife of Siva, the most powerful and lofty god of the IndianPantheon, Parvati is called Devi, that is, the goddess, or Mdhadevi,the great goddess, and is, like her spouse, worshiped under manynames and aspects. In her mild character she is called Vma orParvati, the lovely daughter of Himavat (Himalaya), the mountainking, Jagaddhatri or Jaganmatri, mother of the universe, and is repre-sented as a beautiful woman; in her destructive character she is calledKali (the black woman) and is represented as a black fury withprotruding tongue, a cincture of hands holding various weaponsdripping with blood, crowned with snakes, and hung round withskulls; and in her composite character she is named Durga andrepresented as a golden-colored woman riding on a tiger, which is hervahan or vehicle. She is especially popular in Bengal and the south-ern parts of India. She is worshiped by the lower population (theSudras) with bloody sacrifices; on some of her festivals, as the Dur-gapuja and OharaJcpuja, revolting barbarities are perpetrated, andin her honor the orgies of the TantriTcas, or the worshipers of thefemale principle of the deity, are held. Height, 13)2 inches. India.(Cat. No. 154872, U.S.N.M.)11. Parvati.?Statuette of marble standing on a flat base, richlydecorated in gold and red. The elbows, which are held out at a rightangle, terminate in rounded-out stumps. Height, 20 inches. India.(Cat. No. 214326, U.S.N.M.)
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 9512. Jagaddhatri.?Statuette of marble, painted and gilded. Jagad-dhatri is one of the numerous names of the wife of Siva {Devi, Par-vati). It signifies Mother of the Universe, her title as supreme god-dess in Indian mythology. She is represented sitting on the sacredlotus flower, with eight arms, illustrating her numerous functions.Height, 11% inches. India. (Cat. No. 154873, U.S.N.M.)13-15. Three plaques.?Terra cotta, gilt, representing, respectively,Vishnu (or Siva), Lakshmi, and Parvati. Height, 3 inches; width,2Yo inches. India. (Cat. No. 317657, U.S.N.M.) Bequest of MissNettie Lovisa White.16. Kartikeya.?Statuette of marble, painted and gilded. Repre-sented seated on a lotus base, with six faces and four arms, with anornate necklace reaching down to the base. In his four hands heholds, respectively, a club, lotus stalk, chaplet, and some vessel orfruit. Against the center of the base is an open-winged owl, and ateither side of the base a lotus bud.Kartikeya, also called SJcanda, is in Hindu mythology the god ofwar and leader of the armies of the gods, having been produced forthe special purpose of destroying the demon Taraka or Sura who,by reason of his great austerities, became invincible against the godsalready in existence. Kartikeya is said to be the younger son ofSiva, without a mother. His worship is popular especially in southIndia, where he is known under the name of Subhramanya. Hisfestivals in October are distinguished by music and bonfires on themountains. It is customary for the dancing girls who are attachedto the temples (pagodas) to be betrothed to him, after which theyare not allowed to remarry. Kartikeya is represented with sixheads, with bow and club as the symbols of war, and a peacock orowl as his vehicle or sacred animal. Height, 14 inches. India.(Cat. No. 154884, U. S. N. M.)17. Ganesa.?Statuette of marble, painted and gilded. Repre-sented seated on a lotus pedestal in the easy or sportive posture,with left foot drawn in and right foot resting on a rat. He has thehead of an elephant and in his four arms he holds, respectively, clubs,a chaplet, and a lotus bud.Ganesa, also called Ganapati, is in Hindu mythology the older sonof Siva and Parvati (Durga), the lord of the Ganas, or troops ofinferior and mischievous deities, and god of wisdom and cunning.He is one of the most popular Hindu divinities. He is invoked atthe beginning of any important undertaking, and all books beginwith a salutation to him. His birthday (Ganesa caturthi) is cele-brated in August or September, when clay figures of him are wor-shiped for several days and then thrown into the water. His imageis set up in almost all temples, streets, high roads, and open plains
96 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMand pictures or images of him are seen over the doors of most shop-keepers. Among the Ganapatyas he is the supreme object of worship.He is represented with the head of an elephant, the emblem ofsagacity, and a rat as his vehicle (vahan) or sacred animal. Height,10 inches. India. (Cat. No. 154879, U.S.N.M.) '^18. Ganesa.?Statuette of gilt brass. Represented seated. Theelephant head is adorned with a turreted crown against a leaf-shapedhalo. In his four arms he holds an ax, lotus bud, and stones orsome fruits. On the front of the base is a fish. Height, 3% inches.India. (Cat. No. 311799, U.S.N.M.) Bequest of Miss Elizabeth S.Stevens.19. Ganesa.?Statuette of gilt brass. Represented seated. In thetwo upper hands he holds axes, in the lower right hand a chaplet, inthe left a globe. Height, 3 inches. India. (Cat. No. 317654,U.S.N.M.) Bequest of Miss Nettie Lovisa White.20. Ganesa.?Statuette of gilt brass. Represented standing. Inthe upper hands he holds a scimitar and an ax, respectively; in thelower ones stumps (?). Height, 2}^ inches. India. (Cat. No.317656, U.S.N.M.) Bequest of Miss Nettie Lovisa White.INCARNATIONS (AVATARS) OF VISHNUAccording to Hindu legends Vishnu, the saving god, on differentoccasions descended upon earth under various material forms todeliver the world from special dangers and enemies. The 10 prin-cipal incarnations, or avatars, of Vishnu are
:
1. Matsya, the fish, under which form he saved Manu, the pro-genitor of the human race, from the deluge.2. Kurma, the tortoise. Under this form he became the base ofthe mountain Mandara (Meru), serving as a pivot when the godsand demons churned the ocean to recover the treasures lost duringthe deluge.3. Varaha, the boar. In this form he descended to deliver theearth from the demon Hiranyaksha.4. Nara-Simha, the man-lion. This form he assumed to deliverthe world from the tyranny of Hiranya-Kasipu, king of the giants.5. Vamana, the dwarf. Under this form he rescued the worldfrom Bali, another chief of the demons.
i? One of the popular stories explaining how Ganesa came to have the elephant's head is as follows:Once upon a time when Parvati went to bathe, she made a figure of the turmeric which had been smearedover her boSy, gave it life and limbs and appointed it to keep watch at the door. Siva came to see Parvatibut was stopped at the door by the newly created guard. Siva in anger cut off the head of the figure. Thegoddess entreated him to revive her child. He agreed and said that the head of any living body sleepingwith the head placed northward might be severed at once and placed on the trunk of the turmeric figure.An elephant was found sleeping in the way described. Its head was accordingly cut oil and placed on thetrunk. The figure came back to life and Siva accepting that as his first-born child, blessed him and madehim leader of the Saiva hosts (ganas). People still believe that it is not right to sleep with one's head placednorthward. H. Krishna-Sastri, South-Indian images of gods and goddesses, Madras, 1916, p. 165, note 2.
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 976. Parasu-Rama, Rama with the ax. In this form he was born asthe son of a Brahman to prevent the warrior caste {Kshatryas) fromoppressing the Brahmans.7. Rama-Chandra, the hero of the epic poem Ramayana. Underthis form he fought and defeated the demons {Rakshasas) of Ceylon.8. Krishna. In this incarnation he delivered the world from theevil Kamsa.9. Buddha. Vishnu assumed the form of this adversary of theBrahmans, that he might hasten the destruction of the wicked byinciting them to despise the sacred books of the Vedas, to neglect thecaste duties, and deny the existence of the gods.10. Kalki or Kalkin, the white horse. This incarnation is still tocome. He will appear on a white horse for the final destruction of thewicked, the revivification of all creation, and the restoration of a newage of righteousness.21. Fish incarnation oj Vishnu {Matsya avatar).?Statuette ofmarble, painted and gilded. Represented with the upper part of aman sticking out from a fish. The upper two arms hold the usualattributes of Vishnu, the club and disk; the lower right hand holdsup by the hair a bull-headed demon protruding from a shell; in theleft hand is the conch.According to the Hindu legends Manu, the primeval man, havingwon the favor of the deity by his piety in an age of universal deprav-ity, was warned of the deluge and commanded to build a ship andgo on board with the seven rishis or patriarchs, and the seeds of allexisting things. When the flood came Vishnu appeared as a vastfish with a horn on his head, to which the ship was fastened by a cable.The ship was then drawn along by the fish and secured to a high cragtill the flood was over. According to another tradition, the demonHayagriva carried off the Vedas, the sacred books of the Hindus,while Brahma was asleep and concealed them in the depth of the sea.Vishnu assumed the form of a fish, killed the demon, and brought backthe sacred books. Height, 13 inches. India. (Cat. No. 154894,U.S.N.M.)22. Tortoise incarnation oj Vishnu (Kurma avatar).?Statuette ofmarble, painted and gilded. Represented seated on a mountainwhich rests on a tortoise. The upper hands hold the club and disk;the lower right hand is in the posture of affording protection (ahhaya),the left holds the conch. On the right side a god holds the tail of thesnake which is wound around the mountain; on the left, a demonholds its head.In this second incarnation Vishnu became a tortoise and stationedhimself in the bottom of the sea of milk, that his back might serveas a pivot for the mountain Mandara (Mem), around which the godsand demons twisted the great serpent Vasuki, using the snake as a
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rope and the mountain as a churning stick. From the milky seathus churned emerged 14 precious and typical things, among themLakshmi, the goddess of beauty and good fortune, and ambrosia(amrita), by means of which the gods gained ascendancy over thedemons. Height, 11 K inches. India. (Cat. No. 154875, U.S.N.M.)23. Boar incarnation oj Vishnu (VaraJia avatar).?Statuette ofmarble, painted and gilded. Represented standing with the headof a boar, upholding the earth in the mouth. In the upper hands arethe disk and club; the lower right hand grasps by the hair the headof a demon, the left holds a pot (or the conch).This third incarnation Vishnu underwent in order to deliver theearth from the power of a demon called Hiranyaksha, who hadseized the earth and carried it down into the lowest depths of the sea.After a contest of a thousand years Vishnu, in the form of a boar,slew the monster and raised the earth to its former place with histusks. Height, 13 inches. India. (Cat. No. 154880, U.S.N.M.)24. Man-lion incarnation oj Vishnu {Narasimha avatar.)?Statuetteof marble, painted and gilded. Represented seated, with head of alion with legs led down. The upper hands hold the conch and disk;the lower resting in the lap. On the knees is stretched out the bull-headed demon.The demon Hiranyakasipu, brother of Hiranyaksha, according tothe Hindu legends, obtained a boon from Brahma, the supreme godof the Hindus, that he should not be slain by god, man, or animal.He in consequence usurped the dominion of the world and evenappropriated to himself the sacrifices made to the gods. Vishnutook his fourth incarnation of a being half man and half lion andtore the demon to pieces. Height, lOK inches. India. (Cat. No.154877, U.S.N.M.)25. Dwarf incarnation of Vishnu {Vamana avatar).?Statuette ofmarble, painted and gilded. Represented seated cross-legged on alotus base, with head of a heifer (?). In the upper hands he holds alotus bud and club; in the lower, a chaplet and water pot.This fifth incarnation was undertaken to deprive the demontyrant Bali of the dominion of the three worlds. Vishnu appearedbefore him in the disguise of a dwarf and solicited as much land ashe could step over in three paces. When the request was granted,his form expanding, he strode in two steps over heaven and earth,but out of compassion left the third, the lower world, in thedemon's possession. Height, 10^2 inches. India. (Cat. No. 154900,U.S.N.M.)26. Parasu Rama incarnation of Vishnu.?Statuette of marble,painted and gilded. Represented standing, the right hand holdsan ax, the left is in the boon-bestowing (varada) posture.
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 99In this, the sixth incarnation, Vishnu appears as Rama, with anax, for the purpose of exterminating the Kshatrj^as, or warrior caste,who had tried to oppress the Brahmans, or priest caste. It typifiesthe bitter struggle between the two castes, which ended with thevictory of the Brahmans. Height, 12}^ inches. India. (Cat.No. 154889, U.S.N.M.)27. Rama Chandra incarnation of Vishnu.?Statuette of marble,painted and gilded. Represented standing, the right hand restingon a block or stump, the left holding a bow.In this, the seventh incarnation, Vishnu was born as Rama, sonof King Dasaratha, who belonged to the solar race and the warriorcaste (Kshatryas) and waged war against Ravana, king of the demonsin Ceylon, who had carried ofl' his wife, Sita, and oppressed the godsand mankind. Rama finally killed the demon with an arrow. Thestory of the adventures of Rama in this war forms the main part ofthe celebrated Hindu epic, the Ramayana. The birthday of Rama{Rama navami) in March is kept by some as a strict fast. On thisoccasion his temples are illuminated and his image adorned withcostly ornaments. Height, 12 inches. India. (Cat. No. 154883,U.S.N.M.)28. Krishna. Eighth incarnation of Vishnu.?Statuette of marble,painted and gilded. Represented kneeling on an open flower (orvase) held in the mouth of a fish, the hands in the posture of holdinga flute which he is playing to the dancing shepherdesses; on eitherside are small female figurines, Gopis or shepherdesses or his twoconsorts, Rukmini and Satya, likewise emerging from the mouth of afish, holding the hands in the attitude of devotion.Krishna, originally the god of a clan, was later regarded as theincarnation or manifestation of Vishnu. He was born, accordingto the Hindu legends, as the eighth son of Vasudeva and Devald ofthe lunar race, at Mathura (Madura). Being threatened by thedemon Kansa, he and his older brother, Balarama, were put in thecare of the shepherd, Nanda, and his wife, Yashoda, where he grewup roaming in the woods with the shepherds and shepherdesses.While still a boy, Krishna destroyed the serpent, Kalya, and liftedup the mountain, Govardhana, on his finger, to shelter the shep-herdesses (Gopis) from the wrath of the storm god (Indra). Whengrown up, Krishna and his brother Balarama killed the tyrantKansa. Krishna became king of the Yadavas, cleared the lands ofmonsters and waned against impious kings. His wife was Rukmini.He died wounded in the heel by the arrow of a hunter. Accordingto some of the Hindu legends Krishna is not an incarnation of Vishnu,but Vishnu himself, and the elder brother of Krishna, Balarama, issometimes substituted for him as the eighth incarnation of Vishnu.
100 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMKrishna, or Vishnu as Krishna, is one of the most popuLar divinitiesin India. The scenes of his exploits are the most celebrated centersof his worship. In the daily ritual his image, as a beautiful boy, isbathed, anointed with spices, splendidly attired and sumptuouslyfed. Many festivals are celebrated in connection with this mani-festation of Vishnu. Among them the Holi, a kind of Hindu satur-nalia or carnival (in February); his birthday {Krishna Fanmaslitani,in July or August), which is the greatest of all Hindu holidays.Especially celebrated is the festival of Fagannatha (Juggernaut, thename of Vishnu or Krishna as "Lord of the World,") at Puri, nearCuttack, in Orissa, one of the four holy Dhamas, or residences of thedeities. The special feature of this festival, which takes place inJune or July, is the drawing of the great car, v/hich is 45 feet iiigh,35 feet square, and supported on 16 wheels 7 feet in diameter. Bala-rama, the brother, and Subhadra, the sister of Krishna, have separatecars smaller in size. When the images are placed on the car thepilgrimis kneel, bow their foreheads in the dust, and, rushing forward,draw the car toward "Jagannatha's country house." The distanceis about a mile, but the journey takes several days. The sight of theimage of Jagannath is considered meritorious and efficacious indestroying all sin in the worshipper. Height, 9% inches. India.(Cat. No. 154903, U.S.N.M.)29. Gopala {Krishna).?Statuette of marble, j)ainted and gilded.Represented leaning against a cow, with the hand in posture of hold-ing the flute. At his left is a female figure holding a pot.Gopala is the name of Krishna as the "cowherd." The pastorallife of Krishna and his loves with the shepherdesses {gopis), especiallyVvith Radha, are the objects of many legends and songs among theHindus, and some sects worship him under these aspects, to which amystical significance is given. Height, 10% inches. India. (Cat.No. 154885, U.S.N.M.)30. Gir Rajah {Krishna).?Statuette of marble, painted and gilded.Gir Rajah is the name of Krishna as the upholder of the mountain.It is related in Hindu mythology that Krishna, while living in Vrinda-vana among the cowherds, induced them to worship him as the moun-tain Govardhana, instead of Indra, the god of storm. Indra in hisanger sent great floods to wash away the mountain and its people,but Krishna held up the mountain on his little finger to shelter thepeople, whereupon Indra hunself did him homage. Height, 12j^inches. India. (Cat. No. 154886, U.S.N.M.)31. Krishna playing upon the flute.?Statuette of bronze. Height,7K inches. India. (Cat. No. 317012, U.S.N.M.) Gift of WilliamLilly.32. Krishna playing on the flute.?Statuette of steatite. Height,12^2 inches. India. (Cat. No. 150429, U.S.N.M.)
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 10133. Gohinath (Krishna).?Statuette of white marble. Representedstanding within an arch, head diademed, the right hand in the atti-tude of granting protection (ahhaya) ; the left arm is around the neckof a female figure.Gobinath (or Govinda) is one of the names of Krishna, signifying"Lord of the Milkmaids." The adventures of Krishna during hislife among the shepherds and his loves with the shepherdesses(gopis), especially with Radha, are the objects of many popularlegends and songs among the Hindus, and some sects worship himunder these aspects, to which a m.ystical significance is given. Height,1 1 % inches. India. (Cat. No. 1 54876, U.S.N.M.)34. Krishna in a lotus flower.?The lotus is constructed of paper ona frame. When opened by drawing up the cords attached to thepetals it discloses the figure of Krishna.The lotus flower is sacred to the Hindus and Buddhists as the sym-bol of purity and eternity. It is the attribute of many divinities,and the images of the gods frequently rest on an open lotus flower astheir base. In Hindu mythology Brahma, according to one version,emerged from a lotus flower which sprang from the navel of Vishnu.Also Avalokitesvara or Padmapani, who is revered bj^ the NorthernBuddhists as the spirit of Buddha present in the church, is invoked as
"the lotus born." Ceylon. (Cat. No. 154976, U.S.N.M.)35. Buddha incarnation of Vishnu.?Statuette of marble, paintedand gilded. Represented seated on lotus throne in meditation.Against the center of the base is a 4-petaled flov.er in the form of across, which may be mtended to represent the Buddhist "wheel ofthe lav/."In this ninth and last incarnation Vishnu is said to have assumedthe form of Buddha, the adversary of Brahmanism, to mislead theenemies of the true religion until the tenth or final descent of Vishnu(the Kalki Incarnation) on the white horse, v.dth a flaming swordlike a comet in his hand, for the destruction of the wicked and thevivification of the world. Height, 10)2 inches. India. (Cat. No.154905, U.S.N.M.)36. Ganga (Ganges).?Statuette of marble, painted and gilded.Represented standing. In the upper hands she holds a dish and avase of fruit; in the lower, a chaplet and waterpot. On the base aresmall figures of a hare (?) and a tiger or leopard.Ganga is in Hindu mythology the goddess personifying the riverGanges, which rises in the Himalayas and falls into the Baj^ of Bengal.All rivers, as sources of fertilitj" and purification, are invested b}'the Hindus with a sacred character. But the Ganges, or "MotherGanga," as the devout Hindus call it, is revered as the holiest of all.Its waters are believed to cleanse any sin and moral contamination.Its banks are lined with temples and pilgrimage places, of which Sagar
102 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMIsland, at its mouth, is the most hallowed. Priests, called "Sons ofthe Ganges," sit on the edge of its streams to aid the ablutions of theconscience-stricken bathers, and those who have thus purified them-selves carry bottles of its waters to far-off Provinces. The pilgrim-age from its source to its mouth and back again, which lasts six yearsand is called Pradakshina or Parikrama, is considered most merito-rious, and to die and be cremated on the river bank is the last wish ofmany Hindus. Among other rivers regarded as sacred by the Hindus,the worship of and bathing in which is believed to be productive ofgreat blessings, are the Sona, Brahmaputra, Godavari, Kaviri, andBahnda. Height, 10}^ inches. India. (Cat. No. 154899, U.S.N.M.)37. Anapurna.?Statuette of marble, painted and gilded. Repre-sented standing. The right arm raised, holding a waterpot (?), theleft, handing down some fruit.Anapurna, literally, "one who is full of food," is in Hindu mythol-ogy the goddess of plenty. She is sometimes represented holding inone hand a jeweled vessel containing food and in the other a spoonto distribute the same. She is considered by some to be a form ofParvati, the consort of Siva. Height, 12 inches. India. (Cat. No.154891, U.S.N.M.)38. Hanuman.?Statuette of marble, painted and gilded. Rep-resented standing, with the head of an ape, the right hand holding aclub, the left a lotus bud, with the left foot on a prostrated figure.Hanuman in Hindu mythology is the son of the wind god Vayu,by a monkey mother, and the devoted ally of Rama (the seventhincarnation of Vishnu), against the demon tyrant Ravana. Hewith his army of monkeys invaded Ceylon, tore up trees, carriedaway the Himalayas, and performed other wonderful exploits. Heis largely worshiped, especially in the Marathi country, where he issaid to have established a kingdom. His images are smeared withthe sacred vermilion color. Many temples harbor living monkeys,which are considered as his representatives. Height, 14 inches.India. (Cat. No. 154887, U.S.N.M.)39. Hanuman.?Statuette of bronze. Represented standing, withthe hands in the posture of devotion. Height, 11}^ inches. India.(Cat. No. 155156, U.S.N.M.)40. Hanuman.?Statuette of gilt brass. Represented standing,with right foot on a mountain, holding in his hands a club and astone. Height, 3}^ inches. India. (Cat. No. 311800, U.S.N.M.)Bequest of Miss Elizabeth S. Stevens.41. Votive stele.?Carved wood. Representing Rama, Sita, Hanu-man, and two attendants. Height, 6)2 inches; width, 4 inches.India. (Cat. No. 317652, U.S.N.M.) Bequest of Miss NettieLovisa White.
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 10342. Rajah, Hanuman, and attendant.?Carved ivory plaque.India. (Cat. No. 175771, U.S.N.M.)43. Vishnu, LaJcshmi, and attendant.?Carved ivory plaque. India.(Cat. No. 175771, U.S.N.M.)44. Garuda.?The mythical bird, the vehicle (vahan) of Vishnu.India. (Cat. No. 175771, U.S.N.M.)45. Vishnu, LaJcshmi, and worshiper.?Carved ivory plaque.India. (Cat. 175771, U.S.N.M.)46. Footprints of Krishna.?Facsimiles of black shale. Similarfacsimiles of the footprints of Krishna are sold to the Sivaites atJagannath, Peri, South India, one of the centers of Hinduism. India.(Cat. No. 175172, U.S.N.M.) ''
2. PARAPHERNALIA OF WORSHIP?TEMPLE AND UTENSILS47. Model of a Hindu temple.?Made of the bleached pith of thecork tree, each piece having been cut with a knife and glued to itsplace.The temple proper is a square structure standing on a platformand surrounded on all sides by a pillared porch or arcade. Insidethe shrine is divided into two chambers; the front is to hold analtar upon which the offerings of the worshipers are deposited, andthe rear which is to be occupied by the image or symbol of the deity.The shrine is surmounted by a bower, likewise square in plan, rising inthree stories, and crowned with a bulbous dome, set at either endbetween an open lotus, the sacred flower of India. The whole termi-nates in a pinnacle in form of a graceful vase reversed. The tower aswell as the balustrade surrounding it are richly carved. In front ofthe sanctuary is a large court inclosed by a colonnade, the entranceto which is surmounted by an oblong truncated pyramid. The courtas well as the platform of the shrine rest on another broad terrace.Steps on all four sides lead up both terraces to the court and porchof the temple. Inside the court and all around outside on the lowerplatform are placed vases holding flowers and shrubs, while at thecorners in front of the court stand betelnut palms.Rev. W. E. De Riemer, who obtained the model in the Madura dis-trict of the Madras Presidency, South India, and for many yearslived in India, thinks that, while it was made from a particular tem-ple, it fairly represents the general type of a Hindu temple devotedto the service of Siva in southern India.
i? These ivory plaques are part of a collection of 42 which formerly decorated the throne of the Maha-rajahs of Tanjore, southern India (now a portion of the Presidency of Madras) . They are probably thework of the fourteenth or fifteenth century. The last Maharajah of Tanjore, Sivaji, died in October,1855, without male issue, and his state was annexed to the British Empire. Dr. George Shaw, then masterof the mint at Madras, received orders to take possession of the throne, which was plated with gold andivory. The gold was melted into ingots and the greater parts of the ivories came at the death of DoctorShaw in 1893 into the possession of Prof. Enrico H. Giglioli, of the Zoological Museum of Florence, Italy,from whom the United States National Museum acquired them by exchange.
104 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMArchitecture is the dominant art of India; sculpture and paintinghave been chiefly developed as accessories to it. As India is "the landof religions," and the life of its people is in all its aspects governed byreligious motives, its art is essentially religious and associated withbuildings dedicated to the service of religion.None of the architectual and sculptural monuments of importancewhich survive in India antedates the third century B. C. In theearly architecture of India wood was almost exclusively employed.It was about the middle of the third century B.C. that the Buddhists,under King Asoka, who had raised Buddhism to the position of statereligion in India, introduced stone as building material for importantstructures. Many features of Hindu architecture point to the generalprevious use of wood, being to a large extent imitations of woodenmodels.There does not seem to be any fundamental distinction, from thepoint of view of art, between a temple devoted to the worship ofVishnu or to that of Siva?^the two chief gods of the Hindu popula-tion. It is only by observing the images or emblems worshiped, orby reading the mythological stories represented in the sculpture withwhich the temple is adorned, that the deity to whom it is dedicatedcan be determined.The essential part of every temple is the shrine or cell called vimana^in which dwells the god with the attendant priest, and the vestibule(antarala), which receives the worshipers, with a preceding porch(jagamahan) . This actual temple is not always the principal elementin the composition. It is very often of small dimensions and is over-shadowed by the subsidiary parts, such as courts, gateways, tanks,dwellings for the priests, and numerous other buildings designed forthe convenience of the pilgrinis, or for the purpose of producing theimpression of mass and dignity. The Hindu temple is not designedto serve as a meeting place of worshipers for the recital of commonprayers, or the performance of a public ritual. The Brahman cultis not congregational, but individual. The worshiper walks roundthe temple a set number of times, alv,'ays with his right side nextto it, then enters the fiont chamber, rings a bell to call the attentionof the god, presents his offerings of flowers, fruit, rice, etc., eithermakes a prostration or raises his hands to his forehead, mutters hisinaudible short prayer, gets a glimpse of the god, and leaves.The general characteristics more or less common to all Hindustyles are the pyramidal stepping of the dominant parts and theplacing of temples on platforms or terraces, features which mayhave been borrowed from Babylonia by way of Persia. The domeis horizontal, taking a form more or less conical or pointed, and itsdecoration is usually likewise horizontal; that is, the ornaments areranged in concentric rings, one above the other, instead of being
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 105disposed in vertical ribs as in Roman or Gothic vaidts. The samemotive, moreover, is often indefinitely repeated, representing, as itwere, miniatures of the tower or some other part which it decorates.To these features may be added a predilection for minute and pro-fuse ornament, consisting almost exclusively of sculpture and carv-ing. "What the Hindu architect craved for," says Ferguson,'^ thegreat authority on the architecture of India, "was a place to dis-play his powers of ornamentation, and he thought he accomplishedall his art demanded w^hen he covered every part of a building withthe most elaborate and most difficult designs he could invent." Thedifferences either in form or plan of Hindu temples, as illustrated byextant buUdings, answer rather geographical and racial divisionsthan variations of creed, and there are accordingly distinguishedthree leading styles
:
1. The northern, in vogue in the vast region between the Hima-laj^an and Vindhyan Mountains. It is also called the Indo-Aryan
. style, because in those parts of India the people are generally knownas Aryans and speak dialects derived from the Sanskrit language.2. The Chalukyan style, so called after the dynasty which reignedfrom the sixth to the tenth century A. D. over the most of the Dekkan.It is therefore also called the Dekkan style, and is applied to thearchitecture of the broad zone between the Narbadda and KistnahRivers in central India.3. The Dravidian style, in southern India, the territory nearlyidentical with tlie Madras Presidency, which is inhabited by peoplesspeaking Dravidian tongues.1. The northern or Indo-Aryan style: Its main characteristicis the bulging curved tower over the shrine, tapering upw^ard andcrowned with the amalaka, so called from its supposed resemblanceto a fruit of that name (Phyllanthus emhlica), but which appearsmore like a melon or large gourd (as seen in the dome of the model).The square plan of the shrine is often rendered slightly cruciform bythe addition of slender rectangular projections in the center of eachfagade. Thus style, in one variety or another, has prevailed innorth India from the sixth century A. D. to the present. The finestexamples are assigned to the period between 950 and 1200 A. D.,and the temple of Bhuvaneswar in Orissa, dating from 650 A. D.,is considered one of the landmarks of this style.2. The Chalukyan style: The shrine is polygonal, star shaped inplan with stepped conical, rather low roof and vaselike ornamentcrowning the summit. Sometimes two or even three shrines aregrouped round a central hall and connected by a comm.on porch.
" James Ferguson, History of Indian and Eastern Architecture, revised and edited with additions byJames Burgess and R. Phene Spiers, London, 1910, p. 352.61551?29 8
106 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
"The Chalukyan temples," says Ferguson, "are throughout themost elegant forms of Hindu art, and those which will best standcomparison with European examples." '** Nothing surpasses therichness and elegance of the decoration of the Chalukyan temples.The most magnificent example of the Chalukyan style is the templeof Hullabid in Mysore, dating from the thirteenth century A. D.though, owing to the upheaval of the Mohammedan invasion in1310 A. D., it remained unfinished. It is a double temple, dedicatedto Vishnu and Siva, respectively, Its dimensions may roughly bestated as 200 feet square all over, including the subsidiary extension,while the temple proper is 160 by 122 feet. It is constructed ofindurated potstone of volcanic origin, and stands on a terrace, 6 feetin height, and paved with large slabs. On the base of the buildingis a frieze 710 feet in length,''' adorned with 2,000 elephants, most ofthem with riders and trappings. Above them is a frieze of sardalasor conventional lions; then comes a scroll pattern of great beauty,over which is a bas-relief with scenes and incidents from the Ramay-ana epic; then comes celestial beasts and birds, with groups fromhuman life; then a cornice with a rail divided into panels, eachcontaining two figures. Over this, to the right and left, are windowsformed by elaborately pierced slabs, while the center is occupied bya frieze 5 feet 6 inches high and 400 feet long, depicting repeatedlythe incarnations of Vishnu, dancing girls, Siva with his consortParvati upon his knees and Brahma, the third member of the greatBrahman triad or trimurti of gods.3. The Dravidian style: The temples of this style are the largestand the most numerous in India. "The Dravidian is the mostextensive style. There are perhaps more cubic feet of masonry inbuildings of this style than of all the other styles of India put to-gether." ^" This is perhaps due to the circumstance that the icono-clastic zeal of the Mohammedans did not overwhelm the southto the same extent as the other parts of India. The shrine of aDravidian temple is square in plan and decorated with pUasters andniches. The tower surmounting it is pyramidal and always steppedor storied, terminating in a small dome. Preceding the door leadingto the shrine is a hall, mantapa, or two such. The temple invariablystands within a rectangular inclosure with great pyramidal gateways,called gopuras. These gopuras are in general design like the towerso>v?fr the shrine, excepting that they are twice as wide as deep,forming a truncated pyramid (like that of the model). Frequentlythey are more imposing than the temples themselves. Some templeshave several such inclosures, each with its gateways. Another
? James Ferguson, History of Architecture in all Countries, vol. 2, p. 648. London, 1867.? The frieze of the Parthenon is not quite 525 feet long.M History of Architecture in all Countries, vol. 2, -p. 549.
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 107distinguishing feature of the Dravidian temple is the pillared halls,called choultries, which occupy the spaces between the variousinclosures. They range in size from a small pavilion on four columnsto a magnificent ''hall of a thousand pillars." These pillars are oftenof close-knit granite and covered with sculptures from base to capitalin a way that in most instances no two are exactly alike. Thesehalls serve various purposes, as porches for the convenience of pil-grims, halls of ceremony, etc.The temple at Tanjore, in Mysore, is considered as the oldest andbest preserved example of Dravidian art. It probably belongs to thetenth century A. D., and was dedicated to Siva. It stands in acourtyard of 500 by 250 feet. The base of the shrine is 82 feet square,and is in two stories. Above this rises the pyramidal tower through13 stories to a height of 190 feet, crowned with a dome said to consistof a single stone. But for vastness of dimensions it is surpassed bythe unfinished Vishnu temple at Seringam, near Trichinopoly. Itstands with its gilded dome, holding an image of the god, in thecenter of 7 inclosures, which are crowned with 16 gate pyramids.The outer inclosure extends 2,865 by 2,520 feet. The great pillaredhall measures 500 by 138 feet, resting on 953 columns, each of asingle block of granite and aU carved more or less elaborately.While the pyramidal tower recalls the terraced temple towers ofBabylonia, the pyramidal gateways, or gopuras, suggest the pylons,or doorways with their massive towers which led to the forecourtof the Egyptian temples, and the hall of columns, or choultrie, answersto the Egyptian hypostyle hall, so called from its covered colonnadewhich, like its Hindu counterpart, was used for processions and otherceremonies, and beliind which stood the small shrine in which thegod dwelt. Height, 13 inches; length, 12 inches; width, Tji inches,Madura District, Madras Presidency, South India. (Plate 29 (lower),Cat. No. 259679, U.S.N.M.)48. Throne for the images of divinities (sinhasana).?Made of brass.The throne upon which the images of the gods are seated forms animportant and ornate object in a Hindu temple. It is usually sup-ported by lions (sinha), trampling on elephants. Calcutta, India.(Cat. No. 92742, U.S.N.M.) Gift of Rajah Sourmdro MohunTagore.49. Throne for the image of a god.?Made of brass. Benares, India.(Cat. No. 154848, U.S.N.M.)50. Linga holder (falari).?Made of brass. The linga (phalhcemblem) is the symbol under which Siva, the destroyer and re-generator, is represented and worshiped. It is also carried by thedevout followers of Siva about their persons. India. (Cat. No.154850, U.S.N.M.)
108 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM51. Vessel for holy water {Gunga Jhari).?Made, of brass. In theworship of the Hindus, the images of the gods are first washed anddressed in costly garments. Then candles are lighted and incense isburned before them, and afterwards offerings are made to them, con-sisting of libations of water and food of some kind, as boiled rice,grain, butter, sweetmeats, etc. The holy water is also drunk by thefaithful and sprinkled over them. Nepal, India. (Cat. No. 154845,U.S.N.M.)52. Conch shell {sharikha).?In the worship of the Hindus, theimages of the gods are bathed, decorated with flowers, and dressed incostly garments before oft'erings are made to them. For this purposesometimes a conch is used, which is one of the attributes of many ofthe Hindu divinities, especially of Vishnu, the second member of theHindu triad (trimurti). India. (Cat. No. 154854, U.S.N.M.)53. Conch s^eZZ.?Bengal, India. (Cat. No. 54075, U.S.N.M.)Gift of Rajah Sourindro Mohun Tagore.54. Stand for conch (teapoy).?Made of brass. India. (Cat. No.154855, U.S.N.M.)55. Tripodfor holding conch (tripodi).?Made of brass and decoratedwith red sealing wax. Calcutta, India. (Cat. No. 92740, U.S.N.M.)Gift Rajah Sourindro Mohun Tagore.56. Vessel for holy water {jpunj patur).?Made of brass. Benares,India. (Cat. No. 154847, U.S.N.M.)57. Oil vessel (suJcunda).?Made of brass. In the Hindu templeslamps are lighted before the shrines and images of the gods. Nepal,India. (Cat. No. 154846, U.S.N.M.)58. Five-fold lamp (pancha-prodipa)
.
?Made of brass. A crownedfemale figure, standing with crossed legs on a hexagonal base, holdsin her hands a tray of five lamps. The lamps and the edge of the baseare decorated with red and black sealing wax. The lamps are lightedand waved before the images of the gods in a circular manner as partof the worship. Calcutta, India. (Cat. No. 92737, U.S.N.M.)Gift of Rajah Sourindro Mohun Tagore.59. Temple lamp.?Made of brass. On top is the dish-shaped oilreceptacle with seven notched spouts extending from it to hold sevenwicks. India. (Cat. No. 2947, U.S.N.M.)60. Lamp.?Made of brass. Supported by a female figure, perhapsa goddess. Poona, India. (Cat. No. 154852, U.S.N.M.)61. Brass lamp.?Surmounted by a divinity riding on elephant.Madras, India. (Cat. No. 154849, U.S.N.M.)62. Brass Zamp.?Provided with holes through which wicks dip-ped in oil are drawn and lighted. India. (Cat. No. 158462, U.S.N.M.)63. Bronze lamp.?Made in shape of a bird. Perhaps representingthe mythical bird garuda, the vehicle (vahan) of Vishnu. India.(Cat. No. 311788, U.S.N.M.) Bequest of Miss Elizabeth S. Stevens.
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 10964. Bronze lamp.?A dragon holds in its mouth the tail and in theforeclaws the triangular holder for inserting the lamp proper, which ismissing. India. (Cat. No. 311789, U.S.N.M.) Bequest of MissElizabeth S. Stevens.65. Bronze lamp.?From the stand branch out five rods, fan-shaped,supporting spoon-shaped receptacles for the oil. India. (Cat. No.311786, U.S.N.M.) Bequest of Miss Elizabeth S. Stevens.66. Elephant with rider.?Made of bronze. Behind the rider is adented small dish which may have served as a receptacle for oil.India. (Cat. No. 311787, U.S.N.M.) Bequest of Miss Ehzabeth S.Stevens.67-69. Three bronze spoons.?Used with the clarified butter (ghee),in anointing the images of the gods and at other religious ceremonies inthe Hindu ritual. Central India. (Cat. Nos. 205330-205332,U.S.N.M.)70. Bronze vessel.?Oval or boat shaped, tapering toward the openend. Inside is soldered on what seems to be a spoon for ladling out theclarified butter (ghee) used in the Hindu ritual. India. (Cat. No.324628, U.S.N.M.) Gift of Victor J. Evans.71. Censer (dhoopdan).?Used for burning sandalwood in Hindutemples before the shrines or images of the gods. Made of brass.Nepal, India. (Cat. No. 154853, U.S.N.M.)72. Temple hell (ghunta).?Surmounted with three figures. Brass.Bells are rung in the Hindu temples three times daily, when offeringsare made to the gods. A bell is also set up in the entrance of the tem-ples, which the worshipers strike several times before they enter thetemple. Nepal, India. (Cat. No. 154844, U.S.N.M.)73. Temple horn (Nursingha).?-Made of tin. India. (Cat. No.154870, U.S.N.M.)74. Wooden shoes (Kharoo).?Used in Hindu temples. India.(Cat. No. 154861, U.S.N.M.)75. PujaJi set, or utensils used in Hindu family worship.?Made ofbrass. The set comprises the following, from left to right: Candle-sticks, a table, image of the god with bathtub, hourglass cups, incenseholders, urns, spoons, brass plates and cup for clarified butter (ghee)seals or caste marks, bell, and cymbals. The Hindus devote everymorning one hour to family worship. India. (Cat. No. 3750,U.S.N.M.)76. Plate for holding family divinity (tat).?Made of brass. Uponthis plate is placed the salagrama, a black fossil ammonite, found inthe river Gaudak in Nepal, under the form of which the Brahmans usu-ally worship Vishnu in their daily devotions at home. The stone is, asa rule, round and commonly perforated in one or more places byworms. According to the number of perforations and of the spiralcurves in each, the stone is supposed to contain Vishnu in various char-
110 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
acters. The stone is frequently perfumed and bathed and the water,which is beheved to have acquired cleansing virtues, is drank by theworshiper. Calcutta, India. (Cat. No. 92736, U.S.N.M.) Gift ofRajah Sourindro Mohun Tagore.77. Stand for the plate holding a family divinity (garurasana)
.
?Thesupport upon which the plate or tat is placed is sun-shaped, and mayrefer to the discus or chacra, one of the attributes of Vishnu. Thesupport is held up by a kneeling figure with wings terminating in ele-phants' heads, and with hands clasped as in adoration, which prob-ably represents the Garuda, a composite being, half man and halfbird, the vehicle or vahan of Vishnu. Calcutta, India. (Cat. No.92739, U.S.N.M.) Gift of Rajah Sourindro Mohun Tagore.78. Zebu {Bos indicus).?Of marble, painted and gilded. Zebu isthe name of the common domestic ox of India, which is also foundin China, Japan, and East Africa. Its distinguishing characteristicis one, more rarely two humps of fat on the shoulders. Those ofwhite or light gray color are sacred to Siva, the third member of theHindu triad or Trimurti. The cow is the most sacred animal amongthe Hindus. All that comes from her is thought to possess extraor-dinary purifying qualities. Once a year images of the cow, like thoseof the gods, are bathed in the river. India. Height, 10% inches;length, 11% mches. (Cat. No. 214327, U.S.N.M.)79. Sacred cow.?Miniature model of wood. Burmah. (Cat. No.16697, U.S.N.M.) Gift of Otis T. Mason.80. Two worshippers before an altar.?Statuette of marble, paintedand gilded. Height, 10 mches. India. (Cat. No. 154901, U.S.N.M.)
3. ASCETICSAsceticism primarily consists in the contradiction and suppressionof natural desires under the mandate of some higher or supposedhigher ideal. Its aim is to discipline the body into subjection to thesoul's development. Through self-inflicted privation or sufferingman also seeks to appease the assumed anger of gods or demons andto win their favor. In India ascetic practices have been widely prev-alent from the earliest times. There is probably no country inwhich asceticism has been so widely and constantly practiced and inwhich its ideals have been held in such high regard as in India. Themortification of the body and the self-inflicted penances associatedtherewith have been carried to lengths beyond anything familiar toother peoples. The thought that essentially underlies the Indian con-ception of asceticism and prompts the adoption of the ascetic life isthe desire to escape from the never-ending cycle or round of succes-sive existences (samsara), in which all created beings are involved andwhich brings in its train the suffering and misery to which all suchbeings are subject. It is also a conviction of Hindu thought that the
OBJECTS OF KELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 111power of austerities and detachment from the world is a means ofattaining superhuman powers or of reaching ecstatic communion withthe deity. The profession of the ascetic has always been held in Indiain the highest esteem and his claim to support at the public charge bygifts and alms universally allowed. It is estimated that more than5,000,000 of "holy men" {sadhus or sannyasis), revered for theirspirituality or feared for their superhuman powers, wander about thecountry, supported entirely by alms. For according to the teachingof the Hindu sacred books, benefit accrues also to the donor who for-wards the holy man on his way by gifts of money or food, or ministersin any way to his personal needs.81. Ascetic lying on stones.?Model of terra cotta. Length, 12inches. Delhi, India. (Cat. No. 154863, U.S.N.M.)82. Ascetic lying on vases.?Model of terra cotta. Length, 12inches. Delhi, India. (Cat. No. 154868, U.S.N.M.)83. Ascetic holding up one hand.?Model of terra cotta. One ofthe many forms of self-imposed physical mortification (tapaz),adopted by Hindu devotees, in order to gain the favor of the deity,is holding one or both arms aloft till they become immovably fijfed inthat position and withered to the bone. Height, 8}i inches. Delhi,India. (Cat. No. 154864, U.S.N.M.)84. Ascetic gazing into the sun.?Model of terra cotta. Among themany forms of mortification which Hindu devotees undergo, one isto keep their necks bent back and fixing the gaze on the sun's disktill sight has been extinguished. Height, 7 inches. Delhi, India.(Cat. No. 154865, U.S.N.M.)85. Ascetic reclining.?Model of terra cotta. One of the forms ofausterities practiced by Hindu ascetics is to assume immovable atti-tudes till their sinews shrink and they can no more use their limbs.Length, S% mches. Delhi, India. (Cat. No. 154867, U.S.N.M.)86. Hindu yogi or fakir.?Model of terra cotta. The yogis areprofessional devotees who undergo various austerities. They wanderabout or live as hermits or in cloisters near sacred places. Theypractice magic, sell charms, and tell fortunes. Height, lOK inches.Delhi, India. (Cat. No. 154869, U.S.N.M.)87. Ascetic worshipping Siva under various symbols.?Model ofterra cotta. Height, 7 inches. Delhi, India. (Cat. No. 154866,U.S.N.M.) 4. CASTES IN INDIAThe strict division of the people into various castes is in India asocial and religious institution. Caste and all that is implied by theterm is the only thing universally recognized in Hinduism. Theearliest Sanskrit word for caste is varna, "color," which would indi-cate that the first line of demarcation was that between the whiteAryans and the dark-skinned Dravidians. Then came a fixation of
112 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMthe loose division of the people into the four principal castes of theBrahmans, from which the priests are taken, the warriors, or Ksha-tryas, the tillers of the soil and merchants, or Vaisyas, and the menials,or Sudras. The first three castes are called the twice-born, it beingpretended that by the investiture with the sacred cord they attaina second spiritual birth, and of these the Brahman caste occupies aposition of unquestioned social supremacy. The Brahmans as pos-sessing religious sanctity, as mediators between men and gods, assole custodians of the sacred texts, were tacitly recognized as the high-est models of ceremonial and racial purity. Only members of thetwice-born castes are allowed to read the sacred books of the Vedasand to participate in sacrifices and other religious ceremonials. Thefour principal castes are subdivided into countless subcastes, deter-mined by distinctions of race, geographical location, reUgion, or occupa-tion. Food or drink may not be received from members of lowercastes or partaken with them, and expulsion from caste for infringe-ment of caste rules means complete social excommunication.88. Caste mark oj a Brahman.?Made of bronze. India. (Cat. No.154857, U.S.N.M.)89. Caste marh of a warrior, or Kshatrya.?Made of bronze. India.(Cat. No. 154858, U.S.N.M.)90. Caste mark oj a merchant, or Vaisya.?Made of bronze. India.(Cat. No. 154860, U.S.N.M.)91. Caste mark oj a Sudra.?Made of lead. India. (Cat. No.154859, U.S.N.M.)Besides these caste marks, the two principal sects of Hinduism,namely, the worshipers of Vishnu and of Siva, respectively, aredistinguished by special marks. The Vishnuites are marked on theforehead in yellow or vermilion with two perpendicular lines meetingbelow in a curve which denote the footprint of Vishnu; the Sivaitesare marked by three horizontal lines made with white or gray ashes.These marks can only be performed by a Brahman priest and areobligatory before entering a temple.92. Sacred cord.?Is the mark of the three higher castes. By itsinvestiture in boyhood the child attains the Aryan rank and is saidto be twice-born. It is generally a thin coil of three threads of cottonfor a Brahman, of hemp for a Kshatrya, and of wool for a Vaisya, andis worn over the left shoulder and allowed to fall diagonally across thebody to the right hip. The rite of investiture with the cord is per-formed for a Brahman in the eighth year, for a Kshatrya in the elev-enth, and for a Vaisya in the twelfth, though the time may be extendedin each case. Lucknow, India. (Cat. No. 18962, U.S.N.M.)93. Brahman necklace.?Composed of globular beads of wood.Calc\itta, India. (Cat. No. 153538, U.S.N.M.) Gift of Lieut. G. B.Harber, United States Navy.
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEKEMONIAL 11394. Brahman necklace.?Composed of globular beads of wood,Calcutta, India. (Cat. No. 153539, U.S.N.M.) Gift of Lieut.G. B. Harber, United States Navy95. Brahman necldace.?Composed of globular beads of wood.Calcutta, India. (Cat. No. 153540, U.S.N.M.) Gift of Lieut.G. B. Harber, United States Navy.96. Brahman necldace.?Composed of minute lentil-shaped beadsof wood. Calcutta, India. (Cat. No. 153541. U.S.N.M.) Gift ofLieut. G. B. Harber, United States Navy.97. Brahman necldace.?Composed of tubular section of some grass.Calcutta, India. (Cat. No. 153542, U.S.N.M.) Gift of Lieut.G. B. Harber, United States Navy.
6. SACRED BOOKS OF THE HINDUS
1. The Vedas: Veda in Sanskrit means "knowledge,"especiallysacred or inspired knowledge. The Vedas are divided into four parts:(1) Rig-Veda; the Veda of hymns or praise, consists of 1,017 hymnsarranged in 10 books. They were the gradual product of priestlyfamilies who composed and sang them in the conduct of the sacrificesof the early Vedic Aryans, and reflect a polytheistic nature religion,the chief gods addressed being Indra, Soma, Agni, and Varuna.(2) Sama-Veda, containing liturgical chants made up of extractsfrom the Rig-Veda, used at the Soma sacrifice ; that is, the offering ofthe juice of the soma plant (see p. 89) which was one of the importantfeatures of the Vedic religion. It has 1,808 verses and may be con-sidered as a manual of Hindu ritualism. (3) Yajur-Veda, a book ofsacrificial formulae, partly in prose, partly in verse, chiefly extractsfrom the Rig-Veda. The second and third Vedas are thus not orig-inal scriptures, but are scriptures made over into liturgy. (4),Atharva-Veda, containing mostly magic incantations, prayers, andcharms for the success in the various affairs of life. It extends to6,000 verses, chiefly compiled from the Rig-Veda and later songs ofthe Brahmans. Thus the history of the four Vedic books is, first, asimple hymn book of natural religion; secondly, two priestly bookswhich treat the hymns of the first as sacred and made them over intobooks of ritual; and thirdly, a much later new collection of hymns andpieces in which superstition and priestly speculation appear.The authority of the Veda, in respect to all religious questions, is as great inIndia now as it has ever been. It never was uncontested as little as the author-ity of any other sacred book has been. But to the vast majorities of orthodoxbelievers the Veda forms still the highest and only infallible authority, quite asmuch as the Bible with us, or the Koran with the Mohammedans.^'
" F. Max Miiller, Lectures on the origin and growth of religion. New York, Charles Scribner's Sons1879, p. 161. The date of the Vedas is generally set between 1500 and 1000 B. C.
114 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
2. The Brahmanas are prose treatises attached to each of the fourVedas and explanatory of them. In addition to giving detailed ex-planation of the ritual, they lay down religious precepts and dogmas.Vedas and Brahmanas form the revealed scriptures (sruti) of theHindus, the Vedas supplying their divinely inspired psalms, and theBrahmanas the divinely inspired theology, or body of doctrine.3. The Upanishads contain philosophic teaching appended to theVedic texts and the Brahmanas and forming part of the body of reveal-ed scriptures. They teach the way of salvation by knowledge of theessential unity of the human soul with the supreme soul. The earliestUpanishads are dated from before the sixth century B. C.4. The Puranas: A collection of 18 books of the popular religiousliterature of India. The history of the gods, cosmogony, theology,legends of heroes, theories of salvation, and social practice are treatedin popular form. They are the Veda of popular Hinduism of thepresent day.98. The Atharva-Veda.?Facsimile of the original manuscript, nowin the university library of Tubingen, Germany, about 400 years old.The original is written in Sanskrit in the so-called Sarada script (themore common script of Sanskrit is the Devanagari) on leaves of barkof the birch tree, known as Bitula hhojpatra (in Sanskrit, Bhurja-patra), which grows in the Himalaya mountains up to the height of1),000 feet and which was used in Kashmir as writing material up toabout 250 years ago. The manuscript consists of 275 leaves writtenon both sides, making 550 pages, the page measuring 25 centimetersin height by 20 centimeters in width. The facsimile was reproduced bychromo-photography under the editorship of Profs. Maurice Bloom-field, of Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, and Richard Garbe, ofthe University of Tubingen, Germany. Kashmir, North India. (Cat.No. 170.881, U.S.N.M.) Gift of Johns Hopkins University.99. The Mahahharata.?Manuscript written on palm leaves. TheMahabharata (the "great Bharata," that is, the story of the war ofthe Bharatas) is the name of one of the two great epics of ancient India,the other being the Ramayana. It contains 100,000 couplets (sloJcas)divided into 18 books (parvans), and is about eight times as large asthe Iliad and Odyssey combined. Its author and date have not beendetermined with absolute certainty. The leading subject of the epicis the narrative of the great war between the Kurus (Kauravas orBaratas) and the Panchalas and Pandus (Pandavas), ending with theoverthrow of the former. But scarcely one-fourth of the poem istaken up by this main theme. The rest consists of episodes in theshape of folklore, legend, and myth, or didactic and dogmatic matterwhich at diflerent periods have been interpolated and amalgamatedwith the primary portion. Through these constant accretions theMahabharata became a sort of compendium of philosophical, social, and
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 115moral doctrines intended by the Brahman authors for the Kshatryasor military caste.The present copy is written in Sanskrit in Bengal characters andis about 200 years old. Calcutta, India. (Cat. No. 255323,U.S.N.M.) Gift of Rajah Sourindro Mohun Tagore.VIOBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL OF BUDDHISMINTRODUCTIONThe collection described in the following pages includes materialfrom Further India and the Far East. The nucleus of the collection,consisting largely of objects from the Far East, was formed throughthe years since the beginning of the National Museum. Since thebeginning of the present century, besides many smaller accessionswhich have been received, mostly by gift and bequest, three con-siderable collections have enriched the ensemble: (1) A collection ofabout 200 specimens coming from the Laos, a division of the wide-spread Thai or Shan race and ethnographically related to the Siamesein Indo-China, acquired by purchase from Dr. Carl Hansen in 1902;(2) a collection of 40 specimens from Burma, deposited by the lateS. S. Rowland in 1903 and later changed by him into a bequest;and (3) a collection of 35 specimens, partly from Siam and partlyfrom the Far East, collected by the late Maj. Murray Warner andpresented by his widow, Mrs. Gertrude Bass Warner. The greaterpart of the specimens from Tibet has been described by the lateWmiam Woodville Rockhill in "Notes on the Ethnology of Tibet." ^2They are included in the present bulletin for the sake of completeness.FOUNDER OF BUDDHISMBuddhism arose at the end of the sixth or beginning of the fifthcentury B. C. as a schism or reformation of Brahmanism in India.Its founder, known by the names of Gautama, Sakyamuni, andBuddha, was Siddhartha, son of Suddhodanna of the family Gautama,rajah, or chieftain, of the Sakya clan, who were settled in the GangesVaUey, along the southern border of Nepal and the northeast partof Oude (Gudh), about a hundred miles north-northeast of Benares,with Kapilavastu as capital. Gautama, then, is the family namewhich the Sakyas assumed after one of the Vedic seers (Rishis).Sakya-Muni, means sage of the Sakyas, while Buddha is not a properor personal name, but a title.Later tradition has woven around the person and career of thefounder a mass of myths and legends. So, for instance, that beforehis last life on earth he had gone through hundreds of rebirths in allM Report of the U. S. National Museum for 1893, pp. 665-747.
116 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMforms of existence; or that for ages he had lived in Tushita, the heavenof the happy gods, and in the fullness of time was born in a super-natural way, having entered the body of his mother Maya in theguise of a white 6-tusked elephant; that he was prompted to renouncethe world and his career of a prince through the sight of sickness,old age, and death; that he was tempted by the fiend Mara whotried to divert him from his mission of a savior, and other similarmyths. The simple facts of his career, so far as they can be freed fromthe later legendary accretions, may be said to be about as follows:Siddhartha, who was of a reflective and contemplative turn of mindand deeply impressed with the vanity and misery of life, retired fromthe world at the age of 29, after 10 years of married life and thebirth of a son. This is called the "great renunciation." For sixyears he led the hfe of a wandering ascetic sage (muni), devotinghimself to the study of the various systems of philosophy and the-ology of the times, and to severe ascetic practices, without finding ineither a solution of the riddle of existence. In his thirty-fifth yearhe passed through a second mental crisis. While sitting in medita-tion under the famous Bo-tree (a species of Ficus religiosa, pipala)at Bodhi Gaya, south of the present Patna, he attained to the stateof a Buddha?that is, of an "enlightened one," or "awakened one"
?
having found the cause of the evils of existence and the way ofdeliverance from them.For 45 years Buddha went about from place to place in the valleyof the Ganges, proclaiming his good tidings and gathering aroundhim a small band of faithful followers, the earliest members of hisafterwards famous order, and finally died at the age of 80, in themidst of his disciples, at Kusinagara, the modem Kasia, in thedistrict of Gorakhpur, his body being cremated, and the relics dis-tributed among the clans of the adjoining districts.BUDDHA'S DOCTRINES (DHARMA)The substance of the teaching of Buddha is expressed in the "fourexcellent truths": (1) Existence is inseparable from sorrow. Birthis sorrow, age is sorrow, sickness is sorrow, death is sorrow, clingingto earthly things is sorrow. (2) The causes of sorrow are our pas-sions and desires which result in new birth with its consequent oldage, sickness, death, and other miseries. For the present hfe of theindividual is not the first one. Innumerable births have precededit in previous ages. The attachment to life and its pleasures pro-duces a new being, and the moral character of the thoughts andactions of the former existences fixes the condition of the new being.This is called the law of cause and effect, or Karma. The termproperly means "doing," or "action," and comprises the doctrineof the everlasting effect of an act. It is the aggregate result of all
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEKEMONIAL 117previous acts in unbroken succession from the beginning of existence,which in the Buddhist conception of man, constitutes his character,his real self, his ego, as it were. This alone endures when an indi-vidual existence has come to an end, and if the thirst of living andthe fire of passions are not entirely extinguished, it gathers arounditself, as a kind of transmigration of character, new elements andresults in a new sentient being, whose nature, condition, and fortuneit determines. Individuals are merely the present and temporarylinks in a long chain of cause and effect. Each link is the summarizedresult of the various activities of all that have gone before, and isin its turn, part and parcel of all that will follow. By the theoryof Karma, Buddhism explains the mystery of fate in the apparentunequal distribution here of happiness and woe, entirely independentof moral quahties. What a man reaps. Buddhism teaches, that hemust himself have sown, as whatesover a man sows that shall healso reap. (3) The cessation of sorrow through the extinction ofthe passions, of evil desires, and the attachment to material objects,which destroys the power of the senses so that they no longer givebirth to new beings, (4) The way to cessation by following the8-fold path: (1) Right views (that is, freedom from superstitionor delusion); (2) right resolve (high and worthy of the intelligentearnest man); (3) right speech (kindly, open, truthful); (4) rightconduct (peaceful, honest, pure); (5) right way of earning alivelihood (causing hurt to no Uving being); (6) right endeavor (inself-training and in self-control); (7) right mindfulness (the activeand watchful mind); (8) right contemplation (earnest thought on themysteries of life). Each of these terms is a summary of the manifoldenergies of thought, feeling, and will in various combinations andapplications, and the whole may be characterized?to use a moderndesignation?as a system of "ethical culture." The general philo-sophical presuppositions of Gautama's system are: The inevitableconnection of desire and suffering; the nonreahty of any abidingego principle or self, and the impermanence of all individual exist-ence. The ethical teachings of Buddha are grounded on a definitemethod of self-culture and self-discipline which would lead to theextinction of the " three-fold fire" of self-deception, desire, and malev-olence and to a release at once from suffering and becoming
?
nirvana.The term nirvana, which literally means "going out" (like the flameof a candle), is used with thi-ee distinct significations: (1) Eternalbhssful repose, the peace which puts an end to all striving (somethinglike the "beatific vision" conceived by Christians); (2) extinctionand absolute annihilation; (3) to Buddha it seemingly meant thedying down or going out of the fires of lust, hatred, anger, and delusionor dullness, the cardinal sins of Buddhism, and a consequent passion-less calm beyond reach of temptation. By thus uprooting all desire,
118 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMand by perfect detachment from life and its attractions, cessationof the renewal of existence will be attained. "Whence comes peace?"(Buddha is made to say) "When the fire of desire is extinguished,when the fire of hate is extinguished, when the fire of illusion isextinguished, when all sins and all sorrows are extinguished, thencomes peace." So that one may "enter nirvana" while still onearth. What might be the after-death state of such a released beingGautama refused to discuss. Buddhism thus proclaimed a mode ofsalvation in which every man may be his own savior, without refer-ence to God or gods, to priest or ritual. It is the first universalreligion addressing itself to all men and to every nation; the firstreligion which had the ambition to embrace all men, to gather thewhole of mankind into a great unity. "Go into all lands and preachthis gospel; tell them that the poor and lowly, the rich and high, areall one, and that all castes unite in this religion as unite the riversin the sea." BUDDHIST COMMUNITY (SANOHA)The Buddhist community in the strict sense consists of an order ofmonks and nuns {Bhikshus and BhiJcsTiunis) who, as a rule, live inmonasteries and are vowed to celibacy, poverty, and obedience.The following 10 commandments were given to members of theorder: (1) Not to kill or even injure any sentient being; (2) not tosteal; (3) not to commit adultery; (4) not to lie or use any manner ofimproper speech; (5) not to use intoxicating drinks; (6) not to takerepasts at improper times (that is, after midday); (7) not to attenddances, plays, and public spectacles; (8) not to wear costly raimentand garlands, or use perfumes; (9) not to use high seats and beds;and (10) not to receive gold or silver. But already in Buddha's life-time it was impracticable for all his adherents to retire from theworld and join the order. On these lay believers (UpasaJcas) onlythe first 5 of the 10 injunctions are obligatory. Among the virtuesrecommended to the masses are reverence to parents and teachers,care for wife and children, submission to authority, control over self,patience, forbearance, humility and contentment, almsgiving,respect for the life of sentient creatures, and care for the welfare ofall living things.Buddha, his doctrine, and the community form the triad (the
"three jewels," triratna) of Buddhism, and the formula of confessingfellowship with Buddhism is : I take my refuge in the Buddha, in theDharma, and in the Sangha.DIVISIONS OF BUDDHISMBuddhism is divided into two great schools, which are themselvessubdivided into many sects and subsects. The first, the Hinayana,or lesser vehicle (comparing the religion of Buddha to a vessel which
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 119
carries men across the agitated and restless ocean of existence, sam-sara, to the haven of Nirvana), which pretends to have preserved theoriginal teachings of Buddha in greater purity and simplicity, pre-vails in Ceylon, Burma, and Siam, although even there Buddhism isoverlaid and interwoven with animistic notions and practices; thesecond, the Maliayana, or "greater vehicle," which arose in thesecond or first century B. C. in India and spread northward to Nepal.Tibet, China, Mongolia, and Japan, adopted many popular elementsof mysticism and magic and is permeated with metaphysical specu-lations. After the regions in which the Hinayana and Mahayanaare dominant, they are also termed the southern and northernschool, respectively. Some of the distinctive doctrines between theHinayana school and that of the Mahayana are: (1) As regards theendeavor of the believer, the aim in the former is individual salva-tion by becoming an Arhat, or a perfected saint. Through contempla-tion on the four excellent truths and by following the eightfold pathhe is freed from lust and desire and thus from undergoing rebirth; inthe latter the believer strives to emulate Buddha to save others bybecoming a Bodhisattva, an aspirant to Buddahood. For accord-ing to the Buddhist doctrine, Gautama Sakyamuni, the historicalfounder of Buddhism, was only one of many Buddhas who appear inthe world at intervals of many ages (Jcalpas), when there is specialcause for their presence, and they depart again when they have ful-filled the purpose for which they came, have set in motion the wheelof the law which they proclaun, and have founded an order destinedto last for some period of time. With each there is a period in whichthe doctrine flourishes, then a gradual decline, when it is overthrowntill a new teacher appears and once more establishes the lost truths.(2) In the Mahayana vehicle the founder was transformed from aman who coidd be born and die into a supermundane self-existentand everlasting being, surrounded by vast multitudes of Bodhisattvas,numerous as "the sands of Ganges," who occupy various heavens astheir habitations. This is developed in the doctrine of the Adi-Buddha; that is, the first, or primary Buddha, the Buddha unorigi-nated, the principle and ultimate postulate of existence. By fiveacts of contemplation (dJiyani), he produced the five Buddhas ofcontemplation (Dhyani-Buddhas), the celestial prototypes or counter-parts of the five human Buddhas (ManusM Buddhas), of whomGautama was the fourth, and the fifth, Matreya, the Buddha of love,is still to appear (at the end of the present age). By the twofoldpower of knowledge and contemplation they gave birth to Bod-hisattvas of contemplation (Dhyani-Bodhisattvas). These celestialBodhisattvas are charged with the providence of the world and withcarrying on the work of an earthly (Manushi) Buddha after his demiseuntil the arrival of a successor. Tlie most known and most worshiped
120 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMDhyani-Buddha is Amitabha?endless light?the celestial counter-part of Sakya Muni, and president of the Sukhavati heaven, theParadise of the West, and therefore plays a great part in the beliefand ritual of Tibet, China, and Japan as funeral divinity. HisDhyani-Bodhisattva is Avalokitesvara or Padmapani, ruler of thepresent period and protector and patron of Tibet. In China andJapan he was transformed into, or identified with, Kuan-yin andKuannon, respectively, the goddess of compassion and mercy. ^^The opinion of the Mahayana adherents that every leader in theirreligious circles, every teacher distinguished for sanctity of life, was aBodhisattva, besides introducing a crowd of deities from Hinduismand a multitude of attendant spirits and demons, opened the door toa flood of superstitious fancies, to a whole pantheon of gods, angels,saints, which appealed more strongly to the half-civilized racesamong which the Mahayana doctrine was propagated.HISTORY OF THE SPREAD OF BUDDHISMAlready at the death of Buddha the number of Buddhists seemsto have been considerable. About the middle of the third centuryB. C, King Asoka, also called Piyadasi, grandson of Chandragupta,the Sandrokottos of the Greek historians, adopted Buddhism, andfrom the third century B. C. to the fourth century A. D. it was thedominant religion of India. But then its decline set in, and towardthe end of the eleventh century A. D. it was entirely suppressed inIndia itself, the land of its origin. But meanwhile it spread, throughthe zeal of its missionaries, south and north. It was adopted by thekings of Ceylon in the third century B. C, a son of Asoka being thefirst missionary, and it is here that Buddhism is found almost in itspristine purity. From thence it was carried in the fifth centuryA. D. to Burma and in the seventh to Siam.
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with sacred books, relics, and two monks. In 71 A. D. the firstBuddhist temple was built. The faith thus introduced was what isknown as Mahayana Buddhism. In 526 A. D. Buddhidharma, thefirst of the Buddhist patriarchs to come from India to China, arrived,and from that time China became the seat of a Buddhist patriarchate.Chinese gods and spirits have easily been transformed into Buddhasand Bodhisattvas, so that the new faith was accommodated to Taoismand Confucianism which preceded it. The preponderant role inChinese Buddhism belongs to the celestial (dhyani) Buddha Amitaor Amitabha (Chinese, Omitofoh), the inspirer {spiritus rector) ofSakyamuni, and the Bodhisattva Avolokitesvara, who is here trans-formed into the female goddess of pity, Kuan-yin, and Manjusri, theincarnation of science. But there also figure many Hindu deitiesunder Chinese names, besides numerous indigenous spirits anddemons. There is no clearly marked line of distinction between thedevotees of Buddhism and the adherents of Taoism and Confucianism.The great majority of the people are on friendly terms with all three.But Buddhism has contributed to Chinese thought the conception ofthe hereafter and the hope of a future life which are lacking in Confu-cianism and Taoism, and had on the whole an elevating influence onChinese life.To Korea Buddhism first came in 327 A. D. through a Chinesepriest. From the beginning it was under royal patronage. Thegolden age of Buddhism in Korea was under the Koryou dynasty(935-1392 A. D.), and a steady fall through the Yi dynasty (1392 tothe present). Korean Buddhism is of the Amita type.What has been said about Buddhism in China applies in the mainalso to Japan. Buddhism was first introduced into Japan in thereign of the Emperor Kinmei (552 A. D.), when the King of Koreasent to the Emperor of Japan a golden statue of Buddha, severalsacred books, and other presents, accompanied by some priests witha letter in which he recommended Buddhism as "the most excellentof all teachings." A fierce struggle followed between the partyopposed to the worship of alien deities and the partj^ favoring thenew faith, which ended in the victory of Buddhism. Its mostearnest and powerful adherent was Shotoku Taishi (573-621 A. D.),who had control of the Government during the reign of the EmperorSuiko Tenno (593-628 A. D.), who proclaimed it as the foundationof the state and the highest religion of the universe.The most prominent and popular part in Japanese Buddhism,which is of the Mahayana form, is held by Amitaba (Amida), theheavenly and eternal Buddha (dhyani-Buddha) and lord of thewestern paradise (Sukhavati), and Kwannon (Avalokitesvara),Buddha's representative on earth (dhyani-Bodhisattva) and goddessof mercy. It adopted besides many elements of Shintoism, the61551?29 9
122 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
native religion of Japan, into its system, transforming the principaldeities of the Shintos (the Kami or spirits) into manifestations ofBuddha and Buddhist saints, and thus became the popular religionof Japan.Buddhism soon after its establishment in Japan divided up intomany sects or schools. At present there are counted six principalsects of Japanese Buddhism?Ten-dai, Hokke-shu, Zen-shu, Shin-gon,Shin-shu, and Jodo-shu?and in addition to these the Ryobu, anamalgamation of Buddhism and Shintoism.Buddhism is supposed to have first entered Tibet from Nepal inthe fourth century A. D. But it was only in the seventh centuryunder the patronage of King Srongtsan-Gambo that it took root inthe country and became its established religion. It was already onits arrival in Tibet penetrated with many beliefs and rites of Hindu-ism and was still more corrupted by assimilating many elements ofthe native religion, called Bon, which probably was some kind ofdemonism and Shamanism. In the fifteenth century the monkTsong-khapa undertook a reform of the Buddhism of Tibet to free itfrom its superstitions and abuses; but his efforts seem to have hadlittle success or duration. The Tibetan Buddhism is a mixture ofHindu polytheism and mysticism and native demonolatry and sor-cery. The genuine Buddhist doctrines as taught by GautamaBuddha play a little part in it. It has worked out an elaborate ritualwith tonsured priests, processions, masses, holy water, incense, rosa-ries, confession, exorcism, and so forth, and by means of its powerfulhierarchy it contrived to gain also political supremacy of the country.It developed into a hierarchical monarchy under the suzerainty ofChina. At the head of this church-state stands the Dalai Lama asabbot of the monastery of Gedum Dubpa near Lhasa, the capital andholy city ("God's place") of Tibet. Next to him in dignity is thePanchen Lama, head of the monastery of Tashi Lhunpo, which issituated about 70 miles west of Lhasa, to the right of the river Brah-maputra.^* These dignitaries, the first of whom has always held thehighest rank in the Tibetan hierarchy, are believed to be incarnationsof the Dhyani-Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara (Cenresi), the specialpatron and protector of Tibet, and of the Dhyani-Buddha Amitabha(Odpadmed or Ts'e-pa-med), respectively. On the death of thetemporary incarnation of the Bodhisattva, that is, of the Dalai Lama,the spirit of the latter passes over to a child, the identity of whombeing decided by divination. But also the abbots of the greatermonasteries (chutuktus) are looked upon as incarnations of Bodhisatt-
2< The title dalai, meaning "vast," literally, "ocean," was given to the grand lama of Lhasa by theMongol prince Gusri Khan of Koko-Nor, who in 1640 A. D. conquered Tibet and made a present of it tothe grand lama. The Tibetans called the Lhasa grand lama Gylawa Rinpoche, "the gem of majesty" or
"victory." The Tashi Lhunpo grand lamas are entitled Panchen Rinpoche, "the precious great doctor,"or "great gem of learning," or Qyalgon Rinpoche, "the precious lordly victor." See L. A. Waddell theBuddhism in Tibet, London, 1895, pp. 227 and 235.
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 123
vas. Besides these quasi deified mystical persons, there are in theTibetan church other hierarchical ranks and degrees. "The word
'lama/ written hla-ma and meaning 'the superior one,' is that givenby Chinese and foreigners generally to the members of the Buddhistmonastic order in Tibet. In Tibet, however, this word is reservedfor those monks who have not only taken the hightest theologicaldegrees, but who have also led a saintly life and become famed fortheir knowledge. The word draha is used by Tibetans as a genericterm for all persons connected with the order, monks as well as laybrethern."^^Buddhism wherever it went was modified by the national char-acteristics and inherited beliefs of its converts, so that fundamentaldoctrines were often overshadowed, sometimes destroyed, and itdeveloped into strangely inconsistent and even antagonistic beliefsand practices. In accommodating itself to the genius and thehabits of widely diversed peoples it was obliged to submit to variousfar-reaching compromises. It took on" the color of any local condi-tion and absorbed the native cults. In its development and expan-sion it gathered up into itself, like a snowball, all that it found in itsway and changed even its essentials. But for all that, the impressof Gautama's lofty teachings has not been blotted out. They becamea vehicle of a superior civilization, and their influence in the realmsof art, philosophy and religion has been profound. In the field ofart, in particular, it may be said that Buddhism was creator andoriginator. It gave the keynote to painting, sculpture, and archi-tecture of the East for many centuries much like Christianity did forthe art of the West. COLLECTIONFor the purpose of the descriptive catalogue the collection may bedivided into:I. The Buddhist Pantheon : (1) Images of Buddha; (2) images ofBodhisattvas and other divine beings.II. The Buddhist Scriptures {Dliarma).III. The Buddhist Congregation (Sangha): (1) Saints and priestsand their appurtenances; (2) religious edifices and their parapher-nalia.IV. Miscellaneous: Magic, divination, etc.
I. BUDDHIST PANTHEON
1. IMAGES OF BUDDHAIn the early period of Buddhism no image of Buddha appears.It seems that the Buddhist artists deliberately abstained from at-tempting to model or depict the human form of the divine founder of
? W. W. Rockhill, Notes on the Ethnology of Tibet, p. 730. The political authority of the Dalai Lamais conflned to Tibet itself, but he is the acknowledged spiritual head of the Lamaist Buddhists throughoutMongolia and China, as also by the Buriats and Kalmuks in Russia.
124 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMtheir religion. His presence was indicated by certain signs of hisactivity, or symbols which referred to the main events or crisis ofhis life, as the footprints which he left behind him; the sacred treebeneath which he obtained enlightment; the wheel, which wasadopted by his disciples as the symbol of his doctrine. It was aboutthe beginning of the Christian era?four or five centuries after Bud-dha's decease?that his effigy was brought into common use, and soonbecame the leading feature of Buddhist decoration.^^After the Buddha image was once created, it was considered ameritorious and salutary act to represent as many Buddha figures aspossible. Rows of Buddha figures were employed in the decorationof temple fagades; whole rocks were turned into terrace-reliefsadorned with Buddhas, and caves were filled with thousands ofBuddha statues of all sizes, and millions of Buddhists carry an imageof him about their persons.The most general orthodox type of Buddha images, which is prob-ably the result of a long course of experiment,^^ is that of a Hinduyogi ascetic, sitting cross legged in meditation, clad in a mendicant'sgarb, without any ornaments. The face, usually of Aryan cast offeatures, and unbearded, wears a placid and benign expression ofpassionless repose and serene dignity. ^^ The head is bare and roughlytonsured, the ragged contour of his cropped hair being ascribed tohis having on his great renunciation cut off his tresses with his sword.His short locks are represented by Indian artists in the shape of sea-shells, perhaps following the tradition that once snails came out toshelter Buddha's head from the rays of the sun. In China and Japanthe short locks sometimes take the form of round beads or sharpspikes. Among the 32 superior marks of beauty {maJiapurusha-lakslianas), and the 80 smaller marks {annuvyanjana-ldkshanas)
,
ascribed to Buddha, as the most perfect form of man, are a protu-berance (usJinislia) , on the crown or vertex of the head, being the"hump of perfect wisdom;" a bead or little ball (urna), between theeyebrows; long ear lobes, sometimes reaching to the shoulder; longarms, which in the East is a mark of noble birth (recall Longunanus,epithet of Artaxerxes I). The robe is usually thrown over the leftshoulder, leaving the right bare, except when he is representedpreaching or walking abroad in public. The throne upon which hesits or stands is formed of a lotus flower (j>admasana) , which is some-
*? The same conditions appear in early Christian art. For three centuries there were no pictures of Christ,_but only symbols, as the fish, the lamb, the dove. The catacombs of St. Callistus contained the first pictureof Christ, the date being 313 A. D. Rabulas in 58G first depicted the cruciflxtion in a Syriac Gospel. Imagescome in vague with the developement of cult and ritual. The spirit of adoration necessitates a visual icon;purely abstract symbols can not long content an adoring worshipper." The type of Christ was long a Uuctuating one until that of Byzantium became universal.28 "There is no image so familiar in the East as his (Buddha's) ; he sits everywhere, in monastery, pagoda,and sacred place, cross-legged, meditative, impassive, resigned, the ideal of quenched desire, without anyline of care or thought to disturb the ineffable calm or mar the sweetness of his unsmiling, yet graciousface." A. M. Fairbairn, Philosophy of the Christian religion, p. 270.
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 125times supported by lions, elephants, or other animals, as a sort ofheraldic shield. Behind his head is often displayed a nimbus orhalo, frequently in form of a fig leaf, in rememberance of the tree,(Ficus religiosa), under which he attained to Buddhahood.A prominent part in Buddhist iconography is played by the posi-tion of the hands {mudra) illustrating different incidents or favoritescenes in Buddha's life. They are in the main:1. The attitude of meditation {dhyana-mudra) which occursonly in seated images. The legs are firmly locked and the so'esdirected fully upward, while the hands are placed in the lap, oneover the other.2. The witness or earth touching posture (bliumisparssa-mudra)
.
It marks the moment when Gautama sitting upon the diamondthrone, (vajrasana, so-called on account of its stability and inde-structibility), under the bodhi-tree, was assailed by Mara, the Satanof Buddhist theology, challengmg him to prove his qualification forBuddhahood, Gautama laid his hand upon the earth, calling uponthe Earth goddess, (Prithivi) to bear testimony to his pious acts inhis previous existences. Instantly the Earth goddess appeared andaddressed the saint, saying: "I am your witness." This posture istherefore used to indicate the hodhi, or enlightenment which imme-diately followed the "temptation," as Mara's assault is commonlycalled. The Buddha is invariably seated with the right-hand pendantover the throne, pointing to the earth. It is the most commonform of all seated statues, almost the only one in vogue with southernBuddhism (Burma, Ceylon, and Siam).3. The attitude of preaching, or "turning the wheel of the law"{dharmachakra-mudra) . The two hands are held in front of thebreast, the thumb and forefinger of the right hand being joined andtouching the middle finger of the left hand, or the right index fingerturning down the fingers of the left hand. This posture of thehands is likewise confined to sedent statues.4. Granting protection (ahhaya-mudra) . The right hand is raisedat the level of the right shoulder, with palm of hand turned out-ward. The left hand usually clasps the end of the upper robe,which is turned around the left arm so as to form a sleeve. Thismudra is found both in standing and seated images.5. The gift-bestowing attitude (varada-mudra) . The right armis stretched out downward with the open palm of the hand turnedto the front. This posture is associated only with standing figures.The features of the Buddha miages described in the preceding arein greater part also extended to those of most of the Bodhisattvasor mythical Buddhas. It is therefore not always possible to deter-mine whether an image represents Buddha or a Bodhisattva. Foron the one hand individual Bodhisattvas are often given the rank
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of Biiddhas, though not yet attained by them, and depicted in theBuddha type. On the other hand, the young princely figures ele-gantly draped and decked with ornaments instead of the plain monk'srobe, which are the characteristics of Bodhisattvas, may as wellrepresent Sakyamuni as Bodhisattva, before his attaining Buddha-hood.1. Buddha.?Made of bronze. Seated in meditation. The handsresting in the lap are disposed in such a way that the thumbs ofboth hands touch one another. The meditative repose is emphasizedby the nearly closed eyes and the dreamy look of the countenance.The protuberance of the head in nearly hemispherical. There is abead (urna) both on the head above the forehead and below betweenthe eyebrows. The ears are long and pierced. Behind the head isa circular halo of wood. The robe covers both shoulders, but leavesthe breast bare, waves from the left round the lower part of thebody and falls in ample folds over the feet. On the back of thefigure is engraved a Japanese inscription in 13 lines which has beenrendered as follow:This bronze image of "The Buddha of Five Wisdoms," was made by Saburo-biyoye Katsutanc, son of the great caster, Yoshitane Tsuji of the Fiijiwara clan,whose title was Tajima no Kami, Anson, who lived at the Port of Yasuno in theProvince of Seishiu (Ise).He respectfully cast it for Shichirouyemon Tadanori Takamine, who lives in thetown of Matsuzaka in the district of Jidaka, Seishiu (Ise) whose religious nameand the religious name of his wife are given, and "Who desire the blessings offuture life for (the souls of) their Fathers, Mothers, and of six unnamed relatives,and for themselves."It was respectfully offered by them to the temple of Joshozan Soan in Yamada,Seishiu (Ise), on the 15th day 9th month of the 1st (rat) year of the Period ofKeian?October 30th, 1648, when it was reverently consecrated by Shonin(Rev'd) Kwanseikudatsu, of the Society of Benren (Distinguished pure Lotus)twenty-first Priest of the temple of Sanyenzan Zojo, in the district of Shiba,Yedo, Province of Bushiu (Musashi).Height, 38% inches. Cast in Ise, Japan, 1648 A. D. (Plate 30, Cat.No. 12965, U.S.N.M.) ''2. Buddha.?Made of teak wood, black lacquered and gilt. Stand-ing on a lotus pedestal, the right hand raised to the bosom, the lefthand clasping the upper garment, the pose of granting protection.The robe covers the left shoulder, leaving the right shoulder andarm bare. Around the forehead is a sort of diadem studded wdthcolored stones. The latter also decorate the upper seam of the robeand the girdle round the waist, which terminates in a sash reachingto the anldes.The lotus (Nelumhium speciosum) is the queen of Indian flowers,to which a special sanctity is attached in the eyes of Buddhists and
" A brief sketch of Japanese bronze work in connection with a description of this figure is found in theReport of the U. S. National Museum, 1888-1889, pp. 729-735, under the title " On a bronze Buddha in theU. S. National Museum." By Charles de Kay.
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 127Hindus alike, and both Hindu and Buddhist divinities are usuallyrepresented standing or seated upon a lotus pedestal. With theBuddhist in particular it is a favorite object owing to its resemblance,when full blown, to the wheel, the symbol of the Buddhist doctrine(dhartna). See also below under No. 374.Height, 6 feet 3 inches. Burma. (Plate 31, Cat, No. 129902,U.S.N.M.)3. Buddha.?Statue of wood, lacquered and gilt. Representedstanding upon a lotus, which rests on a hexagonal stepped base,in the attitude of gift bestowing. Height, 6 feet ^Yo inches. Burma.(Cat. No. 317007, U.S.N.M.). Gift of Wilham Liliy.4. Buddha.?Made of wood. Sitting in meditation. Body androbe are painted yellow, the locks of small cones are black, the lipsand insides of the nostrils and of the piercings of the ears are red.The eyes wide open, the mouth with full lips wears a faint smile, theface is round and rather short. The mendicant's robe is thrown overthe left shoulder and comes down in ringed folds over the left armand the legs. In place of a halo, 5 forked flames issue from thecrown of the head. This is common to Buddha statues of Ceylon andSiam and vary in the number of the flames from 3 to 5 and 7. Onthe palm of the right hand are painted in red, blue, and green colors(not seen on the plate), an open and closed lotus and conch shells,while the sole of the right foot is adorned, in the same colors, withwheels, lotuses, and the figures of an elephant and lion. The generalsignification of the lotus in Buddhist symbolism has been touchedupon in the preceding No. 2. The wheel with "a thousand spokes"under the soles of the feet is one of the marks (lalcshanas) , of a Buddha.The symbolism of the wheel in India meant universal dominion,the great circle of power and rule. The "thousand-rayed wheel"on the soles of the feet of a child when born indicated that he wdlleither be a chalcravarti, that is, a universal monarch, whose wheelchaTcra, that is, chariot, rolls unresisted over all the world, or a perfectBuddha. The wheel then marks Buddha as a spiritual chaTcravarti.Legend has it that Buddha as soon as he entered this world walkedseven steps to each of the cardinal points, taking, as it were, spiritualpossession of the universe. In the picturesque language of the ancientBuddhist writings "turning of the wheel-of-the-law " stands forpreaching the doctrine destined to traverse the world like the chariotwheels of a conquering monarch, and the wheel (dharma-chaJcra) , hasbeen adopted as a symbol of Buddha's doctrine and is often repre-sented on the throne of statues, sometimes between two deer, inmemory of the first sermon delivered by him, after he attainedenlightenment, in the Deer Park at Sarnath, near Benares, when he
"set rolling the royal chariot wheel of a universal empire of truthand righteousness."
128 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMThe elephant is the symbol of sovereignty and one of the "sevenjewels" which the chala-avarti possesses, while the lion was theemblem of the Sakya clan from which Buddha sprung. Buddha him-self bears the epithet Sakyasimha, "the lion of the Sakya race."Height to the summit of the flames, 7 feet 2 inches; to the crown ofthe head, 6 feet 7 inches. Ceylon. (Plate 32, Cat. No. 154977,U.S.N.M.)5. Buddha standing on the lotus upon a platform, with an Aureole.?The figure is made of teak, gilded, and studded with colored stones;the platform is of wood, carved, painted, and gilded, and likewisestudded with colored stones; the aureole is inlaid with pieces of look-ing-glass, surrounded by a rim of open carved work, terminating in abird, perhaps the Garuda, the mythical bird of India, or the sacredgoose (hanza). Measurements: Height of the figure, 3 feet 10 inches;height of the platform, 2 feet 4 inches; width, 3 feet; depth, 3 feet 6inches. Burma. (Cat. No. 216137, U.S.N.M.). Bequest of S. S.Howland.6. Buddha.?Bronze, incrusted around the forehead with coloredstones. Seated in witness position. Height, 2 feet 5 inches. Burma.(Cat. No. 216126, U.S.N.M.) Bequest of S. S. Howland.7. Buddha.?Seated in witness position upon a lotus. Carved ofteak and gilded. Height, 3 feet. Burma. (Cat. No. 216131,U.S.N.M.) Bequest of S. S. Howland.8. Buddha.?Seated upon the lotus throne, which is supportedby two hons, the emblem of the Sakya clan, with the nimbus inform of a fig leaf in the back, and attended by Bodhisattvas anddisciples, comprising altogether 15 figures. Made of wood, lacqueredand gilded. Inclosed in a black lacquered shrine which is adornedwith ornamental bronze clasps and fittings and gilded inside. Thedoors of the shi'ine on the inside are painted in colors with figuresof Nios or temple guards, which are sometimes placed on both sidesof the first portal of a Buddhist temple in Japan. The shrine issaid to date from the sixteenth century A. D., and to have comefrom the Vara temple. Measurements of the shrine: Height, 2 feet4 inches; width, 2 feet; depth, 1 foot. Japan. (Cat. No. 216133,U.S.N.M.) Bequest of S. S. Howland.9. Buddha.?Standing in a small pagoda and attended on eitherside by saints seated upon lotuses. The pagoda as well as the lotusesare supported by mythical animals, which rests on an elaboratelycarved pedestal. Wood, carved, lacquered, and gilded. Inclosed ina black lacquered shrine, the interior of which is gilded. Measure-ments of the shrine: Height, 12)^ inches; width, 11 inches; depth,7% inches. Japan. (Cat. No 216134, U.S.N.M.) Bequest of S. S.Howland.
OBJECTS OF EELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 12910. BnddJia or a Bodhisattva.?Seated upon the lotus throne,which is supported by mythical animals. Wood, carved and gilded.Inclosed in a round shrine, lacquered in antique red, with bronzedecorated folding doors, beautifully carved base, and gilded inside.Measurements: Height, 15 inches; diameter of the base, 6}^ inches.Japan. (Cat. No. 216135, U.S.N.M.) Bequest of S. S. Rowland.11. Buddha.?Seated upon an hexagonal pedestal, holding inhis left hand the alms bowl. Wood, carved and gilded. Inclosedin a black lacquered shrine, the interior of which is gilded. Theshrine is said to date from the fifteenth century A. D., and to comefromx the Temple of Matsuma at Yamato, Japan. Measurementsof the shrine: Height, 4K inches; width, 2 inches; depth, 1 inch.Japan. (Cat. No. 216136, U.S.N.M.) Bequest of S. S. Howland.12. Buddha.?Bronze. Seated in meditation. Height, 10}^ inches,inches. Burma. (Cat. No. 216127, U.g.N.M.) Bequest of S. S.Howland.13. Buddha.?Bronze. Preaching or affording protection. Height,13 inches. Burma. (Cat. No. 216125, U.S.N.M.) Bequest of S. S.How^land.14. Buddha.?Wood, lacquered and gilt. Represented standingon an hourglass-shaped base of a double lotus. The arms hangingflat by the sides. From the protuberance of the head (ushnisha)proceed five rays of flames, over which rises a metal umbrella. Thefigure is marked by stiffness and anatomical awkwardness. Height,27 inches. Laos, Further India. (Cat. No. 217560, U.S.N.M.)15. Buddha.?Bronze, lacquered and gilt. Represented in thegift bestowing attitude walking, the right foot advancing, the raisedleft foot resting on the toes. The lotus throne is set on a tripleoctagonal base. From the head rise the five flames. The base israther rudely cast, while the figure shows better work. Height,26 mches. Laos, Further India. (Cat. No. 217506, U.S.N.M.)16. Buddha.?Alabaster, red lacquered and gilt. Rudely exe-cuted. The ushnisha is covered with a headdress resembling a stupawhich is characteristic of many Siamese and Burmese figures. Theright hand points to the earth?the witness pose. The throne issupported by three elephants. Height, 17K inches. Laos, FurtherIndia. (Plate 33, Cat. No. 217613, U.S.N.M.)17. Buddha.?Old bronze. Represented in the witness pose.Round the throne is a frieze in rehef of 1 3 elephant heads, the middleone facing front while the six on either side of him face one another.Height, 12 inches. Laos, Further India. (Cat. No. 217503,U.S.N.M.)18. Buddha.?Old bronze, lacquered and gilt. Represented inthe witness position on a triple base, with the five rays issuing from
130 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMthe ushnisha. Fine work, but the head is broken off. Height, 21inches. Laos, Further India. (Cat. No. 217505, U.S.N.M.)19. Buddha.?Wood, lacquered and gilt. Seated in meditationon a high throne of a triple lotus which is inlaid with pieces of coloredglass. The base of the 5-forked flame on the head is studded withcolored stones. Height, 21 K inches. Laos, Further India. (Cat.No. 217567, U.S.N.M.)20. Buddha.?Bronze. Standing in the gift-bestowing attitude.The head is slightly bent forward, with an intent gaze of the wideopen eyes downward. Around the brow is a circle of colored stones.The right hand is broken off. Height, 20 inches. India. (Cat.No. 158323, U.S.N.M.)21. Buddha.?Bronze. Standing with the hands crossed, rightover the left, in front; a rare position. Height, 17 inches. Laos,Further India. (Cat. No. 217524, U.S.N.M.)22. Buddha.?Bronze. Standing in the attitude of granting pro-tection. The locks of the head are arranged in spirals, On the fore-head between the ej^ebrows is the precious jewel (urna). The robe isfitted around the neck, covering both shoulders, and coming down inwaved folds. The cast of the countenance as well as the arrangementof the drapery show influence of Greek art, which left an indelibleimpress on the religious art of Asia from Gandhara in northwestIndia to Japan. Height, 29 inches. Japan. (Plate 34, Cat. No.95037, U.S.N.M.)23. Buddha.?Bronze. Similar to the preceding No. 22, onlysmaller in size. Height, 12 inches. Japan. (Cat. No. 158320,U.S.N.M.)24. Buddha.?Wood, lacquered and gilt. Seated in witness posi-tion on lotus. Well-executed workmanship. Height, 15K inches.Laos, Further India. (Cat. No. 217565, U.S.N.M.)25. Buddha.?Bronze. Standing in the gift-bestowing attitude, oncrown of the head five rays. Height, 15 inches. Laos, Further India.(Cat. No. 217523, U.S.N.M.)26. Buddha.?Wood, lacquered and gilt. Advancing figure on adouble base, with arms hanging flat on the sides. Height, 13 inches.Laos, Further India. (Cat. No. 217602, U.S.N.M.)27. 28. Buddha.?Wood, lacquered and gilt. Seated in witnessposition. The bases are adorned with conventional floral designs ingold on a black lacquered ground. Height, lOK and 10 inches. Laos,Further India. (Cat. Nos. 217583-217584, U.S.N.M.)29. Buddha.?Wood, gilded. Represented standing on a lotuswhich rests on an hourglass-shaped base, the left hand holding up therobe, the right hanging down flat. The base is inlaid with small roundpieces of colored glass. Height, 11^4 inches. India. (Cat. No.158325, U.S.N.M.)
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 13130. Buddha.?Bronze. Standing in the gift-bestowing attitude.An excellent grade of bronze combined with superior workmanship.The right hand is missing. Height, l-SK inches. Laos, Further India.(Cat. No. 217521, U.S.N.M.)31. Buddha.?Bronze, gilt. Standing in the attitude of grantingprotection, with the usual five rays on the head. Height, 13 inches.Laos, Further India. (Cat. No. 217522, U.S.N.M.)32. Buddha.?Old bronze. Seated in witness position. The throneis raised on three legs. Height, 11 inches. Laos, Further India.(Cat. No. 217508, U.S.N.M.)33. Buddha.?Old bronze. Similar to the preceding No. 32. Thebase is adorned with lotus buds in open work. Height, 12 inches.Laos, Further India. (Cat. No. 217528, U.S.N.M.)34. Buddha.?Old bronze. Similar to No. 32. Height, 11 inches.Laos, Further India. (Cat. No. 217502, U.S.N.M.)35. Buddha.?Wood, lacquered and gilt. Standing with left handon bosom, the right hanging down. Height, 14% inches. Laos, Fur-ther India. (Cat. No. 217593, U.S.N.M.)36. Buddha.?Wood, lacquered and gilt. Seated on a double basein witness position. On back of the base is an inscription in Pali.Height, 11% inches. Laos, Further India. (Cat. No. 217605,U.S.N.M.)37. Buddha.?Wood, gilt. Standing with his right hand resting ona begging bowl {jpatra), the left hand holding some indeterminate ob-ject. The legend relates that the first food offered to Buddha afterthe attainment of supreme knowledge was by two merchants and con-sisted of honey and wheat. But Buddha reflecting that he must havean almsbowl, the four kings of the four quarters of the world (lolapa-las), brought each one of gold, which he refused; then they broughtsilver, emerald, and ruby dishes, which were also refused; lastly, eachbrought an earthenware bowl, and Buddha causing them to unite inone, lest there should be jealousy, accepted the one from all. Thisbowl is now said to be kept in a palace at the bottom of the sea, buton the event of Maitreya, the next Buddha of the present world age,it will divide into the original four, each of which is to be guarded byone of the four regents, as it is the palladium of Buddhism. Height,9% inches. Laos, Further India. (Cat. No. 217606, U.S.N.M.)38. Buddha.?Bronze. Similar to No. 32. Good workmanship.Height, lOK inches. Laos, Further India. (Cat. No. 217509,U.S.N.M.)39. Buddha.?Old bronze. Seated in witness position. With in-scribed base. Height, 10^ inches. Laos, Further India. (Cat. No.217510, U.S.N.M.)40. Buddha.?Bronze. Seated in the witness position. Withseven rays issuing from the crown of the head. Height, 9 inches.Laos, Further India. (Cat. No. 217514, U.S.N.M.)
132 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM41. Buddha.?Bronze. Similar to preceding No. 40. Height, 10)^inches. Laos, Further India. (Cat. No. 217525, U.S.N.M.)42. Buddha.?Bronze, richly gilded and chased. Seated in wit-ness position on an ornamental triple throne. The robe, which isthrown over the left shoulder, is adorned in chased work with lotusesand other designs and studded with colored stones. On the frontof the throne is a sort of shield, or perhaps intended to represent acover hanging down. Height, 7 inches. Laos, Further India.(Plate 35 (left). Cat. No. 217536, U.S.N.M.)43. Buddha or Bodhisattva.?Bronze, richly gilded and chased.Standing on a triple base. The hands are raised in the attitude ofveneration. The dress is decorated in chased work. From thewrists are suspended some ornaments in open and filigree work. Onthe shoulders, close to the neck, are similar ornaments. The ushnishais surmounted by a spire. Height, 9 inches. Siam. (Plate 35(center). Cat. No. 168501, U.S.N.M.) Collected by Gen. John A.Halderman.44. Buddha or Bodhisattva.?Bronze, richly gilded and chased.Seated on a rock, western fashion; that is, both legs pendant (the
"Maitreya pose")> with the hands resting in the lap. The dressis adorned as in No. 43. On the left of the seat a baby elephant isholding up a vessel with w^ater for Buddha to drink, on the right abear cub is presenting a honeycomb. Fine specimen of bronzework. Height, Sji inches. Laos, Further India. (Plate 35 (right),Cat. No. 217535, U.S.N.M.)45. Buddha.?Old bronze. Seated in meditation. Heavy andca^reless casting. Height, lOJo inches. Laos, Further India. Cat.No. 217507, U.S.N.M.)46. Buddha.?Wood, red lacquered and gilt. Standing on the lotus,with the arms hanging flat on the sides. Rude work. Height, 9%inches. Laos, Further India. (Cat. No. 217579, U.N.S.M.)47. Buddha.?Wood, lacquered and gilt. Similar to the pre-ceding No. 46. On the base is an inscription. Height, 9% inches.Laos, Further India. (Cat. No. 217581, U.S.N.M.)48. Buddha.?Carved, of ivory and gilt. Standing with the pos-ture of the arms the same as in No. 46. Height, 6 inches. Laos,Further India. (Cat. No. 217629, U.S.N.M.)49. Buddha and the earth goddess.?In two parts. On the upperportion Buddha seated in meditation. The top of his head is cov-ered with a headdress resembling a stupa. Beneath, on the base,is represented, in high relief, the goddess of the earth wringing herhair. In the contest of Mara with Buddha, when the latter in-voked the earth goddess as witness for his merits (see p. 133), thegoddess, squeezing her hair, caused a huge river to issue therefrom,which swept away Mara and his hordes. Wood, lacquered and
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 133
gilt. Height, 9 inches. Laos, Further India. (Plate 36 (left),Cat. No. 217559, U.S.N.M.)50. Buddha and the nagas.?Bronze relief, representing Buddhaseated in a shrine in the witness attitude. This is set in a lacqueredand gilt wooden plaque which is framed by eight intertwined nagas.The nagas belong to the category of demigods in the syncretisticsystem of later Buddhism. They are serpents having the power toassume human form, fabled to reside under the Trikuta rocks sup-porting Mount Meru, the center of the universe in Buddhist cos-mology, and also in rivers, lakes, etc., watching over treasures,causing rain and certain maladies, and becoming dangerous when inanger. They have been converted by Buddha and showed greatveneration and zeal for him and his doctrine. Nagas are repre-sented on sculptures as giving the infant Gautama his first bath,immediately after his birth. Muchilinda, the King of the Nagas,protected Buddha from the rain after his enlightenment. In Bud-dhist art they are represented either in their animal form, as on thisshrine, or, more usual, in human form with a serpent placed overthe head, or rather springing from behind the neck, as an ornament.Sometimes both forms are combined, the upper part bemg humanwith the heads crowned with serpents' hoods, while the lower partof the body, from the hips downward, is purely animal. Height, 11inches; width, 6% inches. Laos, Further India. (Plate 36 (center).Cat. No. 217595, U.S.N.M.)51
.
Buddha with disciples.?Wood, lacquered and gilt. Buddhaseated in meditation, as in No. 49. Around the base are, in highrelief, eight disciples kneeling, with hands joined, in the attitude ofadoration. Height, 6K inches. Laos, Further India. (Plate 36(right), Cat. No. 217594, U.S.N.M.)52. The earth goddess.?Octagonal plaque, red lacquered, repre-senting, in high relief the earth goddess wringing her hair. Seeabove, under No. 49. Height, 10^ inches; width, 8K inches. Laos,Further India. (Cat. No. 217564, U.S.N.M.)53. Buddha and nagas.?Carved of horn, lacquered and gilt.Buddha, in the witness posture, is sheltered by three nagas in theshape of cobras rising above his head, their coils forming his throne.See above, under No. 50. Height, 5% inches. Laos, Further India.(Cat. No. 217630, U.S.N.M.)54. Buddha and disciples.?Wood, lacquered and gilt. Buddha inthe witness attitude, the throne set on an octagonal hourglass-shapedbase. LTpon the base are crudely carved in the round eight dis-ciples kneeling with uplifted hands in adoration, surrounding thethrone. Compare No. 51. Height, 8% inches. Laos, FurtherIndia. (Cat. No. 217604, U.S.N.M.)
134 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM55. Buddha.?Wood, lacquered and gilt. Seated in the witnessposition. The head covering is in form of an open lotus, from whichproceed seven rays. The figure with its base is socketed into athrone formed of a crouching demoniac figure wound with the coilsof two serpents, the tails of which he holds in his mouth. Perhapsintended for the Garuda, the mythical bird of India, who, like theNagas (serpents), has the faculty of assuming human form, but istheir deadly enemy, killing and injuring them whenever he can.Height, 1 5 inches. Laos, Further India. (Plate 37, Cat. No. 21 7566,U.S.N.M.)56. Buddha.?Wood, lacquered and gilt. Seated in the witnessattitude, with inscription on front of the base. Height, 7)^ inches.Laos, Further India. (Cat. No. 217570. U.S.N.M.)57. Buddha.?Bronze, gilt and red painted. Found in the templeruins of a buried city in Siam. Height, 21)^ inches. Siam. (Cat.No. 316327, U.S.N.M.) Collected by Maj. Murray Warner and pre-sented through his widow, Mrs. Gertrude Bass Warner.58. Buddha.?Bronze, heavily gilt. Seated in the witness position.On the sole of the left foot are represented in low relief Buddhist
"wheel of the law." Height 23 inches. Siam. (Cat. No. 316328,U.S.N.M.) Collected by Maj. Murray Warner and presented throughhis widow, Mrs. Gertrude Bass Warner.59. Buddha.?Bronze, gilt and red painted. Seated in the witnessposition on a lotus. Height, 20K inches. Siam. (Cat. No. 316329,U.S.N.M.) Collected by Maj. Murray Warner and presented throughhis widow, Mrs. Gertrude Bass Warner.60. Buddha.?Bronze. Seated in the witness position on the lotusthrone. Height, 20^ inches. Siam. (Cat. No. 316330, U.S.N.M.)Collected by Maj . Murray Warner and presented through his widow,Mrs. Gertrude Bass Warner.61. Buddha or Bodhisattva.?-Bronze. Seated in meditation on thelotus throne. In the right hand is probably the begging bowl. Theright foot is placed on the left, the reverse from the usual position.Height, 16% inches. China. (Cat. No. 316331, U.S.N.M.) Col-lected by Maj. Murray Warner and presented through his widow,Mrs. Gertrude Bass Warner.62. Buddha or Bodhisattva.?Bronze. Seated in meditation. Thestand and halo are in openwork. On the stand, in the four corners, arefour figures, probably the four guardians of the world. The halo isedged with flames, and has, in relief, a lion, tiger, and some othermythical animals. The stand and halo did not originally belong to thefigure. Height, 12)^ inches. China. (Cat. No. 316332, U.S.N.M.)Collected by Maj. Murray Warner and presented through his widow,Mrs. Gertrude Bass Warner.
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 13563. Buddha or BodJiisattva.?Bronze, gilt. Seated in meditation onthe lotus throne, wearing a diadem and necklace. Height, 7K inches,China or Tibet. (Cat. No. 316333, U.S.N.M.) Collected by Maj.Murray Warner and presented through his widow, Mis. GertrudeBass Warner.64. Buddha or BodJiisattva.?Bronze gilt. Seated in the attitude ofteaching. On the five spikes of the mural crown or diadem are in reliefminiature figurines of Buddha, probably for the five celestial medita-tion Buddhas. Height, 7% inches. China or Tibet. (Cat. No.316334, U.S.N.M.) Collected by Maj. Murray Warner and presentedthrough his widow, Mrs. Gertrude Bass Warner.65. Buddha.?Bronze. Seated in the witness position. Height, 8inches. China. (Cat. No. 316335, U.S.N.M.) Collected by Maj.Murray Warner and presented through his widow, Mrs. GertrudeBass Warner.66. Buddha.?Bronze. Seated in meditation. Height, 8 inches.China or Mongolia. (Cat. No. 316336, U.S.N.M.) Collected byMaj. Murray Warner and presented through his widow, Mrs. GertrudeBass Warner.67. Buddha or Buddhist saint (Lohan).?Bronze. Seated in the
"easy posture" on a carved wooden stand. Height, 5% inches.China. (Cat. No. 316337, U.S.N.M.) Collected by Maj. MurrayWarner and presented through his widow, Mrs. Gertrude BassWarner.68. Buddha.?Bronze. Seated in the witness position. From thehead rise nine flamxcs or rays which take the place of a halo. Found inthe temple ruins of a buried city in Siam. Height, 24 inches. Siam.(Cat. No. 316325, U.S.N.M.) Collected by Maj. Murray Warner andpresented through his widow, Mrs. Gertrude Bass Warner.69. Buddha.?Bronze, partly gilt. Seated in the witness position.From the head rise seven rays. Found in the temple ruins of a buriedcity in Siam. Height, 22^ inches. Siam. (Cat. No. 316326,U.S.N.M.) Collected by Maj. Murray Warner and presentedthrough his widow, Mrs. Gertrude Bass Warner.70. Buddha.?Wood, lacquered and gilt. Seated in the attitude ofteaching on lotus throne in lacquered shrine. Height of shiine, 15inches. Japan. (Cat. No. 316338, U.S.N.M.) Collected by Maj.Murray Warner and presented through his widow, Mrs. GertrudeBass Warner.71. Buddha.?Carved sandal-wood. Seated in meditation in lac-quered shrine. Height of shrine, 8)2 inches. Japan or India. (Cat.No. 316339, U.S.N.M.) Collected by Maj. Murray Warner and pre-sented through his widow, Mrs. Gertrude Bass Warner.72. Buddha.?Bronze. Seated m the witness posture on lotusthrone, which rests on a base. Height, 9 inches. Laos, FurtherIndia. (Cat. No. 217517, U.S.N.M.)
136 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM73. Buddha.?Wood, lacquered and gilt. Seated in witness posi-tion on a double lotus. The robe in form of a folded shawl covershis left shoulder. Height, 8% inches. Laos, Further India. (Cat.No. 217561, U.S.N.M.)74. Buddha.?Wood, lacquered and gilt. Standing. The head issurmounted by seven rays. Fine work, but both arms are brokenoff. Height, 8 inches. Laos, Further India. (Cat. No. 217580,U.S.N.M.)75. Buddha.?Bronze. Seated in witness position. The robe isfolded over the left shoulder, falling over the knees. Height, 5^inches. India. (Cat. No. 158324, U.S.N.M.)76. Buddha.?Bronze, gilt. Similar to No. 72. Height, 10mches. Laos, Further India. (Cat. No. 217534, U.S.N.M.)77. Buddha or Bodhisattva.?Bronze. Seated. The head is bentforward and is covered with a liigh-peaked crown. The arms areadorned with armlets and bracelets. The hands, with fingers bent,are held one over the other. Height, 6% inches. Japan. (Plate 38(left). Cat. No. 220138, U.S.N.M.) Gift of Miss Eliza R. Scidmore.78. Buddha.?Bronze. Seated in meditation on an ebony chaircarved with lotus in openwork. The protuberance (ushnisha) onhe head is gathered to a knot or tuft and is surrounded with a sortf diadem in openwork. The robe is fitted around the neck, cover-,ng both shoulders, incasing the arms in wide sleeves and fallingdown in ample folds over the knees. Height, 9K inches. China(Plate 38 (center), Cat. No. 281273, U.S.N.M.) Gift of Mrs. BelleBushnell.79. Buddha.?Bronze chased. Seated on an ornamental throne,with something like a shield in front, similar to No. 42. The righthand is holding a rice ball, while the left rests on the knees. It isthe custom of the temple service in Laos to place a vessel of steamedrice and a vessel of water before the image of Buddha. Height, 5%inches. Laos, Further India. (Plate 38 (right). Cat. No. 217515,U.S.N.M.)80. Buddha or Bodhisattva.?Bronze, originally gilded, but thegilding has largely disappeared. Seated in meditation. The formof the protuberance, the arrangement of the robe, and the muralcrown or diadem are the same as in No. 78. This figure is, in addi-tion, adorned with necklaces and pendants and holds in the handsa mace or scepter. Height, 7% inclies. China. (Cat. No. 236805,U.S.N.M.) Lent by August Wall.81. Buddha.?Soft stone. Seated, with the hands resting squarelyon the knees. The head is covered with a low, flat cap. The robecovers both shoulders and falls in folds over the knees. Height, 13
K
inches. Torai, Korea. (Cat. No. 151600, U.S.N.M.)
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 13782. Buddha.?Bronze. Seated in witness position. The throneis raised on three legs. Height, 6% inches. Laos, Further India.(Cat. No. 217518, U.S.N.M.)83-4. Buddha.?Wood, lacquered and gilt. Seated in witnessposition on an hourglass-shaped base. Height, 7% inches. Laos,Further India. (Cat. No. 217568-9, U.S.N.M.)85. Buddha.?Wood, lacquered and gilt. Seated with handsfolded in the robe in lacquered and gilt shrine. Height, 5% inches.Japan. (Cat. No. 311798, U.S.N.M.) Bequest of Miss ElizabethS. Stevens.86. Buddha.?Wood, gilt. Standing in the gift-bestowing atti-tude. The left hand is broken off. Height, 4% inches. Japan.(Cat. No. 154271, U.S.N.M.)87. Buddha.?Wood, lacquered and gilt. Standing in the gift-bestowing attitude. Height, 6 inches. Kobe, Japan. (Cat. No.154822, U.S.N.M.)88. Buddha.?Wood, lacquered and gilt. Seated in the witnessposture. Height, 5K inches. Laos, Further India. (Cat. No.217587, U.S.N.M.)89. Buddha.?Bronze. Seated in witness position. Height, !){inches. Laos, Further India. (Cat. No. 217519, U.S.N.M.)90. Buddha.?Bronze, gilt. From the top of the head issue threerays. The base on which the lotus throne rests is adorned with afrieze of openwork in which are set five figurines in pointed arches.Perhaps intended for the five Buddhas of the present world-age{Kalpa), of whom Gautama was the fourth, and the fifth is still toappear as Maitreya, the Buddha of love. Height, 6)4 inches. Laos,Further India. (Cat. No. 217520, U.S.N.M.)91. Buddha.?Wood, lacquered and gilt. Standing in the atti-tude of gift bestowing. Height, 4% inches. Japan. (Cat. No.127274, U.S.N.M.)92. Buddha.?Marble. Seated in the witness position. Therobe, in form of a folded shawl, is thrown over the left shoulder.Height, 6 inches. Burma. (Plate 39 (left). Cat. No. 151432,U.S.N.M.)93. Buddha.?Gray alabaster. Seated in the witness position.The head is surmounted by a stupa-like crown, with a sort of halobehind it, w^iile the arms are adorned with armlets. Height, 7Minches. Burma. (Plate 39 (center), Cat. No. 129543, U.S.N.M.)94. Buddha.?Gray alabaster. Seated in the witness position.Height, 8 inches. Burma. (Plate 39 (right), Cat. No. 175192,U.S.N.M.)61551?29 10
138 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM95. Buddha.?Gray alabaster. Seated in the witness position.Height, 4% inches. Burma. (Cat. No. 311813, U.S.N.M.) Bequestof Miss Elizabeth S. Stevens.96-7. Buddha.?y^hiie limestone. Seated in the witness posi-tion. Height, 8% inches each. Burma. (Cat. Nos. 175191, 175192,U.S.N.M.)98. Buddha.?White alabaster, red lacquered and gilt. Seated inthe witness position, the lotus resting on a high base which is in-scribed on ihQ back. The garment is folded on the left shoulder. Onthe head is the high-peaked crown and round the neck three bands.Height, 17% inches. Laos, Further India. (Cat. No. 217612,U.S.N.M.)99-100. Buddha.?WhiiQ alabaster. Similar to No. 98. Thesealabaster figures are rather crudely carved. The ej^es and mouth areindicated by mere lines, the dress is represented by a gilded band orsash on the left shoulder. But they are highly valued by the LaosBuddhists on account of their being white, which is believed to bedue to a Deva (semidivine being) guarding the figures and keepingthem white and pure. During a drought they are carried in pro-cession to cause a rainfall. Height, 4 to 8)^ inches. Laos, FurtherIndia. (Cat. Nos. 217614-217624, U.S.N.M.)101. Buddha.?Wood, lacquered and gilt. Standing on a doublelotus, which is surrounded by an hexagonal railing, resting on arichly carved and gilt triple base. There is a double urna (preciousbead) over the forehead and between the eyebrows as in No. 1. Therobe covers both shoulders and comes down in graceful folds to thefeet. The cast of the face and the arrangement of the drapery exhibitstrong Greek influence. The halo, in form of a fig leaf, rises fromthe lotus base and terminates in a sharp pomt overarching the head.The arms, which probably were in the posture of affording protection,are missing. Height of the figure, 12 inches; of the base, 6 inches.Japan. (Cat. No. 154271, U.S.N.M.)102. Buddha.?Wood, black lacquered and gilt. Seated in thewitness position. Height, 5}^ inches. Laos, Further India. (Cat.No. 217591, U.S.N.M.)103. Buddha.?-Bronze, gilt. Seated in the witness position.Height, 5% inches. Laos, Further India. (Cat. No. 217608,U.S.N.M.)104. Buddha or Bodhisattva .?Bronze, richly gilt with variousadornments. Much oxidized. Height, 3 inches. Laos, FurtherIndia. (Cat. No. 217529, U.S.N.M.)105. Buddha.?Wood, lacquered and gilt. Witness position, withthe posture of the hands reversed ; that is, the left hand is pointing tothe earth, instead of the right. Rudely carved. Height, 3K inches.Laos, Further India. (Cat. No. 217586, U.S.N.M.)
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 139106. Buddha.?Old bronze relief. Buddha walking, stepping outwith the left foot. The head is facing front, while the body is slightlyturned to the left. The left arm is raised to the breast, while theright hangs flat on the side. Shows Greek influence. Height, 0%inches. Laos, Further India. (Cat. No. 217530, U.S.N.M.)107. Buddha.?Wood, lacquered and gilt. Seated in meditation.Rude carving, and there is no throne or base. Height, 2^ mches.Laos, Further India. (Cat. No. 217588, U.S.N.M.)108 Buddha.?M&de of a gummy substance, lacquered and gilt.Seated in meditation. Height, 3% inches. Laos, Further India.(Cat. No. 217590, U.S.N.M.)109. Buddha.?Wood, lacquered and gilt. Seated in witness posi-tion. Height, 2% inches. Laos, Further India. (Cat. No. 217589,U.S.N.M.)110. Buddha.?Bronze, lacquered and gilt. Seated in witness posi-tion. Height, 2% inches. Laos, Further India. (Cat. No. 217531,U.S.N.M.)111. Buddha.?Bronze, gilt. Seated in meditation. Crude work.Height, 3 finches. Laos, Further India. (Cat. No. 217532, U.S.N.M.)112. Buddha.?Bronze, lacquered and gilt. Seated in the witnessposition. Height, 2)^ inches. Laos, Further India. (Cat. No.217533, U.S.N.M.)113. Buddha.?Seated in the witness position. The head is ofsilver; the body and base of a gummy substance which has beenoverlaid with a casing of silver foil, most of which has disappeared.The base is traced with a net pattern and checkers. Height, 6inches. Laos, Further India. (Cat. No. 217609, U.S.N.M.)114. Buddha:?Similar to the preceding No. 113. On the base aretracings of a net pattern and floral designs. Height, 5 inches. Laos,Further India. (Cat. No. 217610, U.S.N.M.)115-6. Buddha.?Seated in the witness position. Made of agummy substance, overlaid with silver foil. The bases are decoratedwith a tracing of geometrical designs. Height, 2 to 2K inches. Laos,Further India. (Cat. Nos. 217553-217558, U.S.N.M.)117. Buddha.?Brass. Seated in meditation in lacquered and giltshrine. Height, 3% inches. Japan. (Cat. No. 77125, U.S.N.M.)118. Buddha.?Wood, lacquered and gilt. Seated in the witnessposition. Height, 4^ inches. Laos, Further India. (Cat. No.217592, U.S.N.M.)119-20. Buddha.?Bronze relief, gilt. Seated in the witnessposition on a double lotus throne within an arch which rests oncolunms. Height, 4 inches; width, V/s inches. Laos, FurtherIndia. (Cat. Nos. 217641 and 217643, U.S.N.M.)121. Buddha.?Carved flat shrine or niche, black and red lacquered,set with beads of colored glass. In the recess of the niche is a bronze
140 BtTLLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
relief representing Buddha seated under a canopy in the witnessposture. In the background is seen the sacred Bo tree under whichGautama attained to Buddhahood. Height, 8)2 inches. Laos,Further India. (Cat. No. 217576, U.S.N.M.)122. Buddha in a niche or shrine.?Similar to the preceding (No.121), only that in this the attitude is of meditation. The head of theBuddha figure is broken off. Height, 8 inches. Laos, FurtherIndia. (Cat. No. 217577, U.S.N.M.)123. Buddha.?Bronze relief, representing Buddha seated in thewitness posture on a double throne with a halo in shape of a fig leaf.Height, 3K inches; width, Iji inches. Laos, Further India. (Cat.No. 217692, U.S.N.M.)124. Buddha.?Antique ivory carving, in form of a pointed cone,gilt and mounted. Obverse, two seated Buddhas, one above theother, the upper in meditation, the lower in the witness attitude;reverse, the sacred Bo tree. Height, 9)2 inches. Laos, FurtherIndia. (Cat. No. 217627, U.S.N.M.)125. Buddha.?Antique ivory carving, in form of a pointed cone,gilt and mounted. On both sides, Buddha in the witness positionunder the Bo tree. Height, Q% inches. Laos, Further India. (Cat,No. 217628, U.S.N.M.)126. Buddha.?Terra cotta relief, Buddha, in the attitude ofgift bestowing, standing on a lotus which rests on an elaboratelycarved base. The dress, which covers the whole body, is adornedwith horizontal bands modeled of floral designs in relief. On thearms are bracelets. On either side of the figures are richly carvedcolumns which closed on to an arch which has broken away. Therelief is of ancient Cambodian workmanship and was apparentlyremoved from the wall decorations of a temple. Height, 7% inches ^width, dji inches. Laos, Further India. (Cat. No. 217638, U.S.N.M.)127. Buddha.?Terra cotta relief (fragment), showing Buddhaseated in meditation. Over his head is an umbrella, and on the sideslotus buds (?), Height, 5 inches; width, 3K inches. Laos, FurtherIndia. (Cat. No. 217632, U.S.N.M.)128-132. Buddha.?Old terra cotta rehefs, representing Buddhain the witness position. Height, 2% to 2% inches. Laos, FurtherIndia. (Cat. Nos. 217634-217637, U.S.N.M.)133. Buddha.?Clay plaque, rounded at the top, with a raisedrim all around. Inside is a miniature figurine of Buddha in the center^surrounded by some 50 still smaller figurines of disciples. Height,.4K inches; width, S% inches. India (?). (Cat. No. 276834, U.S.N.M.)134. Plaster cast of the face of Buddha.?From, an ancient statuein Korea. Height, Qji inches. Korea. (Cat. No. 129594, U.S.N.M.)135. Buddha.?Bust, made of a gummy substance, lacquered andgilt. Height, 5 inches. Laos, Further India. (Cat. No. 217611^U.S.N.M.)
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 141136. Buddha in a double shrine.?Wood, carved, lacquered, andgilt. Japan. Height, 20 inches. (Cat. No. 277567, U.S.N.M.)Gift of Mrs. B. H. Buckingham and Miss Isabelle C. Freeman.137. Buddha.?Seated in the witness position in a shrine. Wood,carved, lacquered, and gUt. Height, 6 inches, Japan. (Cat. No.276174, U.S.N.M.) Gift of Mrs. Julian-James.138. Buddha.?Statuette of wood, carved, lacquered, and gilt.Japan. (Cat. No. 276175, U.S.N.M.) Gift of Mrs. Julian-James.139. Buddha.?Statuette of alabaster, painted and gilt. Repre-sented upon a rudely carved base in the witness position. Height18M inches. India. (Cat. No. 317009, U.S.N.M.) Gift of WilhamLilly.140. Buddha.?Statuette of alabaster, painted and gilt. Repre-sented seated in witness position. Height, 14 K inches. India. (Cat.No. 317010, U.S.N.M.) Gift of WiUiam Lilly.141. Buddha.?^isiiwaiie of alabaster. Represented seated inwitness position. Height, llK inches. India. (Cat. No. 317011,U.S.N.M.) Gift of Wilham Lilly.142. Buddha or BodJiisattva.?Bronze, chased and gilt. Seated inmeditation on double lotus. Adorned with earrings, necldaces, andbracelets. On the upper palm is a hole in which was inserted someattribute. The head is surmounted by a stupa. Height, 9 inches.Tibet. (Cat. No. 315106, U.S.N.M. Gift of Mrs. John Van Rens-selaer Hoff.143. Buddha.?Bronze. Represented seated on a lotus throne inthe attitude of granting protection. Height, 6% inches. Nepal.(Cat. No. 315106, U.S.N.M.) Gift of Mrs. John Van RensselaerHoff.144. Buddha.?Bronze, gilt. Seated in meditation <Jn the lotusthrone. Adorned with diadem, earrings, necldaces, and bracelets.The statue was bought at the auction of Mr. Bavier's things inShanghai, China. It was taken from the Imperial Palace when Pe-king was looted after the Boxer uprising. Inside the statue are manyprayer rolls wrapped up in yellow silk. Height, 17 inches. Peking,China. (Cat. No. 316600, U.S.N.M.) Collected by Maj. MurrayWarner and presented through his widow, Mrs. Gertrude Bass Warner.145. Buddha.?Statuette of brass. Represented standing upon alotus flower which rests on an hexagonal triple base, with a leaf-shapedhalo in openwork. Height, 4K inches. India. (Cat. No. 317655,U.S.N.M.) Bequest of Miss Nettie Lovisa White.146. Buddha.?Statuette of wood, carved and gilt. Representedseated in meditation on a lotus which rests on a double base, with aleaf-shaped halo behind. Inclosed in a lacquered shrine. Height,5% inches. Japan. (Cat. No. 329755, U.S.N.M.) Gift of MissAlice Tracy Thayer.
142 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM147. Buddha.?Statuette of wood, carved, lacquered, and gilt.Represented standing on a lotus which rests on a tangle of flowerswithin some sort of a throne. The latter is set on an elaboratelycarved triple base. On the lowest base are at either end Kirins.Height, 13K inches. Japan. (Cat. No. 325103, U.S.N.M.) Gift ofMiss Carrie S. Tisdel.148. Bi'onze Tiead of BvddJia.?From a statue found in the ruins ofthe Wat-Pra-Shan-Tan temple, near Lakawu Lampang. The faceshows a noble tranquil expression. From the crown of the headissue five rays. Traces of gilding are discernible. Height, 6 inches.Laos, Further India. (Cat. No. 217511, U.S.N.M.)149. Terra cotta head qf Buddha.?From a statue found in theruins of Wat-Yaphra-Khaw, "the temple of the women of the whitecloth." Fine work. Laos, Further India. (Cat. No. 217639,U.S.N.M.)150. Buddha figurines in clamshell.?These images on a shell aremade by the natives of China by taking a large kind of clam {Alas-modonia), and gently attaching leaden images of Buddha under themantle, after which it is thrown back into the water. Nacre isdeposited over the lead, and after a few months the shells are retaken,cleaned, and sent abroad as proofs of the power and presence ofBuddha. 6K by 4% inches. Ningpo, China. (Plate 40, Cat. No.127111, U.S.N.M.)151. Parinirvana.?Buddha dying, or, as the Buddhist ritualexpresses it, entering nirvana. Alabaster. Length, 34 inches.India. (Plate 41, Cat. No. 158322, U.S.N.M.)152. Parinirvana.?Buddha entering nirvana. Wooden canopy,red and gold lacquered. It consists of a scpiare base around theedges of which are set uprights and at one end is a panel carved inopenw^ork, while the roof has extended eaves. On the platform is afigure of Buddha lying on the right side, the head resting on some lowsupport, surrounded by eight disciples. Of these one holds a vase(with medicine, or the ambrosia of nirvana), another is weeping,and the hands of the rest are in the posture of adoration. One of thedisciples is missing. Height, 21 inches; length, 13 inches; width,9 inches. Laos, Further India. (Plate 42 Cat. No. 217668,U.S.N.M.)153-154. Parinirvana.?Buddha entering nirvana. Antique bron-zes, representing Buddha hang on his right side, his head resting ona round pillow. Height, 4 inches; length, 7 to 8K inches. Laos,Further India. (Cat. Nos. 217512, 217516, 217526, 217527,U.S.N.M.)155. Parinirvana.?Buddha entering nirvana. Terra cotta relief,gilt. Length, 4% inches. Laos, Further India. (Cat. No. 217633,U.S.N.M.)
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 143156. Buddha reclining (passing into nirvana).?Alabaster, giltand encrusted with colored stones. Length, 2 feet 5 inches. Burma.(Cat. No. 216130, U.S.N.M.) Bequest of S. S. Howland.157. Buddha reclining.?Bronze. Length, 10 inches. Burma.(Cat. No. 216129, U.S.N.M.) Bequest of S. S. Howland.158. Buddha.?Bronze. Represented reclining (entering nirvana).The eyes are inlaid. Round the brow is a sort of diadem, formedof a band encrusted with pieces of colored glass. Length, 9% inches.Burma. (Cat. No. 315526, U.S.N.M.) Bequest of Alfred LouisMoreau Gottschalk.159. Horns of Buddha.?Bronze, lacquered and gilt. Accordingto the tradition preserved in the Jatakas, which form a part of theBuddhist sacred literature, Gautama had passed through 550 exis-tences in all created forms?as God, as man, as animal?till in hislast incarnation, as the son of Suddhodanna, he appeared as thesavior of mankind. These horns are believed by the Laos to be theactual horns of Buddha from a former incarnation as a bull. Theywere found at a relic shrine (stupa) claimed to have been erected onthe spot where this bull is said to have died. The shrine and the lakenear by still bear the name of this bull and are regarded as a sacredspot. On the front of the horns is carved in archaic style Buddha inthe witness position; on the back, standing with the arms hangingflat on the sides. Height, 7% inches; length of the base, 8% inches.Laos, Further India. (Plate 43 (upper). Cat. No. 217625, U.S.N.M.)160. Buddha's footprint (Buddhapada)
.
?Cast from the original atBuddhagaya, Magadha, India. Supposed footprints of Buddha are"found in various Buddhist countries, to which devout Buddhistsmake pilgrimages and present offerings. Most celebrated are thefootprints on the gateways of the tope of Sanchi, in Bhopal (centralIndia) on which are marked beside the wheel 108 compartments,each occupied by some sacred object, (as a trident, a flower, a candle,a book, angels, the planets, etc.).^? Length, 25K inches. India.(Plate 43 (lower), Cat. No. 76219, U.S.N.M.)
2. IMAGES OF BODHISATTVAS AND OTHER DIVINE BEINGS161. Amitabha.?Wood, lacquered and gilt. Seated in the "easypose" (Jalita sana), the left leg hanging down with inclination slightlyinward, the right drawn up and loosely bent. The ushnisha isgathered to a knot or tuft. The forehead was adorned with a metal
"o Most famous is the footprint on Adam's Peak in Ceylon, which Buddha is said to have left on theoccasion of his mythical visit to Ceylon. The cavity of about 5 feet long on the summit of the peak hasbeen claimed by the Buddhists for Buddha, by the Sivaites for Siva, by the Christians for St. Thomaswho, according to tradition, had carried Christianity to India, and by the Mohammedans for Adam, whoalighted on it when he was expelled from Paradise. The name Adam's Peak was given to the mountainby the Portuguese, who called it Pico de Adam. The Portuguese authorities were divided between theconflicting claims for the footprint of St. Thomas and the eunuch of Queen Candace, mentioned in Act?viil, 27. The footprint of Buddhagaya is now worshipped as that of Vishnu.
144 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMornament resembling a diadem, which has fallen off. The dress iselaborate and ornate. The right hand holds a wand or scepter; theobject which was in the left hand is missing. Behind the head isa circular halo and another one behind the body, both with a beadedborder and set in a fig leaf-shaped aureole carved with scrolls in openwork. The seat represents a rock round which is coiled a dragon, theemblematic mythical animal of China and Japan. Amitabha, or asthe Japanese name him, Amida, is one of the five celestial meditation(dhyani) Buddhas, who rules over the Sukhavati heaven of the west.He is the celestial reflex or counterpart of Guatama Buddha. He isthe "Buddha of infinite light," and is in the entire northern Buddhismthe most popular divinity and his image the most widely spread.The identification of this figure as that of Amitabha is, however,tentative. Height of the figure, 25 inches; of the base, 19 inches;length of the base, 20 inches; width, 16 inches. Japan. (Plate 44,Cat. No. 154964, U.S.N.M.)162. Amitabha.?Wood, lacquered and gilt. Seated in meditationon a full-blown lotus throne which is supported by a lion couchanton a rock which rests on a plinth, in a wooden shrine. The headwears an elaborate crown, in a filigree work. On the ears are simi-larly worked ornaments from which a necklace or chain hangs downover the breast. Height of the figure, 12^ inches; of the shrine, 24inches. Shei Sheiva, Japan. (Cat. No. 154293, U.S.N.M.)163. Tse-pa-med (Sanslcrit Amitayus).?Bronze, chased and gilt.Amitayus with the Tibetan Buddists is the active spiritual reflex ofAmitabha and is worshipped as the Buddha of long life (while Ami-tabha is the Buddha of "boundless light"). The Chinese confusehim with Amitabha. He is represented seated on a double lotus,holding before him in his right hand a bowl (often a skull) filled withwater of life, which is one of the eight luck-compelling symbols ofancient India, the left hand rests with upturned palm in his lap underthe right. The head is painted in blue.^' Height, 8 inches. DoionNor, Tibet. (Cat. No. 130400, U.S.N.M.)164. Euan-Yin.?Porcelain, seated on a lotus around which iscoiled a dragon; the right hand holds a child, the left rests on her knee,and on the sides are a male and female suppliant. Kuan-Yin, inJapan, Kuannon, her full name being Kuan-Shai-Yin, signifying,"a being who hears or perceives the cries of man," is in both countriesthe goddess of mercy and the female transformation of Avalokitesvara
31 "Copper is found both native and in the form of pyrites in Tibet, where it is wrought with uncommonperfection. Several localities are well known for their famous foundries, which supply the whole of theBuddhist east with statuettes of divinities. Lhasa has a special reputation for small figures in gilt copper,which are esteemed the more the smaller they are. The statuettes made by the monks and craftsmen ofTashilumppo are equally esteemed. Most of the bronze statuettes come from the workshops of the Tsangand Khams Provinces. The bronzes from the region last named are famous for the perfection of their exe-cution in details and their wonderful patina."?Vincent A. Smith, A History of Fine Arts in India andCeylon, Oxford, 1911, p. 19S.
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 145("the one who looks down from above," namely, upon sufferinghumanity with compassion), the emanation or contemplation (dhyani)Bodhisattva of Amitabha, of whom Gautama Buddha was theearthly embodiment. Avalokitesvara has, therefore, charge of theworld until Gautama's successor, the next Buddha in the person ofMaitreya appears. Kuan-Yin is bodily healer as well as conveyor ofthe souls to the Paradise of Amitabha in the "bark of salvation."Seven cases of distress are generally specified in which she is ready toextend her hand of mercy: Dangers caused by the sword; fetters orchains; fire; water; demons; goblins; and an enemy. Sometimesdanger by storm is added, to make four couples complete. As childbestowing, she is represented carrying a male infant in her arms and isinvoked by women desiring offspring. Her worship is most widelyextended in China and Japan. Height, 8K inches. Foochow, China.(Plate 45, Cat. No. 216026, U.S.N.M.) Gift of Gen. G. W. Bailey.165. Kuannon.?Wood, painted and decorated. Standing on a bluebase, holding an infant in the left hand. Face, hands, bosom, andinfant are painted white, the lower dress, brownish green with broadgold border; the upper, blue. Height, 6 inches. Kobe, Japan.(Plate 46, Cat. No. 154824, U.S.N.M.)166. Kuannon.?Lead, bronzed, standing in a shrine of plain woodon a green lotus, holding in her right hand a sort of scepter (ju-i), inthe left, the precious ball (mani). Height, 7K inches. Shigisan,Jamato, Japan. (Cat. No. 150581, U.S.N.M.)167. Kuan-Yin.?Wood, painted. Holding infant. Faces, hands,and feet are painted white; the dress, brown. Height, 6 inches.Foochow, China. (Cat. No. 21 6027, U.S.N.M.) Gift of Gen. G. W.Bailey.168. Kuan-Yin {?).?Pewter, red lacquered and gilt. Seated inmeditation. Height, 9K inches. China. (Cat. No.311805,U.S.N.M.)Bequest of Miss Elizabeth S. Stevens.169. Kuan-Yin.?Copper, silvered. Statuette without base. Thehands are wrapped in the voluminous folds of the dress, which, how-ever, do not conceal the necklace with three pendants. The veil isdrawn over the head and hangs down behind. Height, 4J^ inches.China. (Cat. No. 311808, U.S.N.M.) Bequest of Miss Elizabeth S.Stevens.170. Tshen-ju-Kuannon {thousand-Mnded Kuannon).?Relief of in-durated clay, representing the goddess with many arms standing on alotus. The distinctive attribute of the goddess, namely, mercy, is illus-trated in this realistic manner by an image with many hands that areever ready to help the needy. Height, 3 inches. Kobe, Japan.(Plate 47 (left), Cat. No. 116220, U.S.N.M.)1 71
.
Kuannon.?Wooden statuette painted and gilt, with six armsseated in lacquered shrine. Height, 4 inches. Japan. (Plate 47(right), Cat. No. 154272, U.S.N.M.)
146 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM172. Euan-Yin, the goddess of mercy.?Bronze. Seated in the easyposition on a rock, a paroquet on her right, a vase on her left. Height,15}.< inches. China. (Cat. No. 316340, U.S.N.M.) Collected byMaj. Murray Warner and presented through his widow, Mrs. GertrudeBass Warner.173. Statuette of Euan-Yin.?Wood rudely carved. Representedholding child. Height, 8 inches. China. Gift of Miss Alice TracyThayer.174. Euanti, Chinese god ojwar.?Wood, carved, lacquered and gilt.Height, 24 inches. China. (Cat. No. 216150, U.S.N.M.) Bequestof S. S. Rowland.175. The CJiines$god of peace.?Wood, lacquered and gilt. Height,24 inches. Chma. (Cat. No. 216151, U.S.N.M.) Bequest of S. S.Howland.176. Euanti, Chinese god oj war.?Sandal wood, carved. Standingon a mythical animal with two attendants, Kuanti, one of the deities ofTaoism, was admitted into the temples of pacificistic Buddhism be-cause as god of war he was considered as a valuable champion to enliston the side of the true religion, and also because he was tutelarydeity of the Manchu dynasty. Height, 5 inches. China. (Plate 47(center). Cat. No. 158284, U.S.N.M.)177. Euanti, Chinese god oj ivar.?Wood, carved, painted, andgilded. Height, 28 inches. China. (Cat. No. 158312, U.S.N.M.)178. Euanti.?Relief carved of basaltic lava, with an mscription inintaglio. Height, 15 inches; width, 9 inches. Yokohama, Japan.(Cat. No. 75060, U.S.N.M.)179. Tien-How.?Indurated clay. Woman seated, holding in herright arm an infant, in the left hand a lotus. Originally a Taoist divin-ity, the "queen of heaven," Tien How is worshipped in China as themother of Buddha, whom she had miraculously conceived. She laidher cloak upon an island when she bathed in the sacred Ganges. Onreturning she found a lotus bud in the garment and, having eaten it,she conceived Buddha. Perhaps it was this divinity which gave rise ofthe coordination of Avalokitesvara with Kuan-Yin. Height, 4%inches. China. (Cat. No. 130815, U.S.N.M.) Gift of Mrs. J. G.BrufF.180. Maitreya.?Wood lacquered and silvered. Seated in medita-tion. Maitreya is the Bodhisattva of Gautama Buddha and the nextand last Buddha to appear on earth during the present world-age(kaljpa). He is the only Bodhisattva known to southern Buddhism(Burma, Ceylon, Siam). He is sometimes represented seated in Euro-pean fashion, that is, with the legs let down, with the attributes of avase (of ambrosia), and a wheel and lotus. Height, 9^^ inches. Laos,Further India. (Cat. No. 217582, U.S.N.M.)181. Maitreya (f).?Wood. Seated figure on a throne, wearing acrown, with the feet resting on a footstool. The right hand is resting
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 147on the knee, the left on the breast, and beneath it is a carved mask of amonster. Height, 10 inches. China. (Cat. No. 216029, U.S.N.M.)Gift of Gen. G. W. Bailey.182. Jambyang {Sanskrit, Manjusri).?Bronze, gilt and polished.The name Manjusri means something like "having a lovely bril-liance." He is the Bodhisattva of the celestial Buddha Akshobhya,and is the representative of transcendental wisdom. He is repre-sented seated, holding in his right hand the sword of knowledgewith which he cleaves the clouds of mental darkness. His other at-tribute is a book which rests upon a lotus rising behind his left arm.The high diadem is painted blue. His principal temple is at Wu-tai-shan in the Chinese Province of Shanhsi. Height, 8 inches.Lhasa, Tibet. (Cat. No. 130396, U.S.N.M.)183. BodJiisattva (.?).?Wood, carved, gilt and encrusted \^?ithpieces of colored glass. Standing on a base, holding a long stalkextending from the feet to above the head and probably terminatedin a lotus bud, which is broken away. The robe, richly carved withbands of floral designs and beaded lines, reaches down to the feet,ending in a train behind. Over this is a short closely fitted coat,descending to the hips, while from the arms hang folded scarfs.The head is covered with a diademed cap, from which rises a conicalcrown. The rather small ears have red stones attached to the lobesand are set in a triangular ornament. On the bosom is an ornament,formed of four lozenge-shaped pieces of glass with a boss in the cen-ter. Height, 19% inches. Burma or Siam. (Plate 48 (left), Cat.No. 311804, U.S.N.M.) Bequest of Miss Elizabeth S. Stevens.184. Bodhisattva (.?).?Bronze, cast and chased, gilt and polished.Standing on a base. The robe, descending to the feet, with a sortof waist held by a belt, is finely chased with floral designs. Thehands, with the fingers bent and placed the right over the left, wouldindicate something like a wand or scepter, which is missing. Height,9% inches. China or Mongolia. (Plate 48 (right). Cat. No. 311807,U.S.N.M.) Bequest of Miss Elizabeth S. Stevens.185. Drolma (Sanslcrit, Tara).?Bronze, gilt and polished; Tara,the name meaning "savioress," is the female energy or counterpart(saJcti), of the compassionate Avalokitesvara and like him she showsher gracious disposition toward mankind by her right hand beingstretched out in the gift-bestowing gesture, while the left holds alotus stalk. An ornamental fiUet with a crest in the middle adornthe forehead. The other ornaments are large circular earrings, adouble necklace, a long string of beads fastened between the breasts,richly studded armlets, bracelets, and anklets, and an elaborategirdle. The headgear is painted dark green. Behind the left armrises a lotus. Height, 6K inches. Chamdo, Eastern Tibet. (Cat.No. 130395, U.S.N.M.)
148 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM186. Drolma (Sanshrit, Tara).?Brass. Similar to preceding No.185. With a fig leaf shaped halo. Crude workmanship. Height,5% inches. Tibet. (Cat. No. 311792, U.S.N.M.) Bequest of MissElizabeth S. Stevens.187. Two statuettes oj Tara {Drolma).?Bronze, gilt, adorned withmural crowns or diadems, necldace, and armlets, and holding a lotusstalk. Height, 11 inches each. Tibet or Nepal. (Cat. Nos. 316341-316342, U.S.N.M.) Collected by Maj. Murray Vfarner and pre-sented through his widow, Mrs. Gertrude Bass Warner.188. Tara {Tibetan, Drolma).?Bronze, gilt. Seated in medita-tion. Adorned with diadem, earrings, necklaces, and bracelets.Tibet. (Cat. No. 315107, U.S.N.M.) Gift of Mrs. John Van Rens-selaer Hoff
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189. Tara {Tibetan, Drolma).?Old bronze. Seated on a highpedestal, and adorned with diadem, earrings, necklaces, and brace-lets. In the upper palm is a hole in which was inserted some attribute.Tibet. (Cat. No. 315108, U.S.N.M.) Gift of Mrs. John Van Rens-selaer HofF.190. Tara {Tibetan, Drolma).?Bronze. The necklaces werestudded with colored stones, which have fallen out. Tibet. (Cat.No. 315109, U.S.N.M.) Gift of Mrs John Van Rensselaer Hoff.191. Marichi {Tibetan, Odzer Ganma).?Bronze, gilt. Seated inthe "easy position," with six arms, holding various attributes.Originally the goddess of dawn, Merichi v/as coupled with the prime-val productive sow, and is believed to be incarnated in the abbessof the convent of Palti Lake in Tibet. Tibet. (Cat. No. 315110,U.S.N.M.) Gift of Mrs. John Van Rensselaer Hoff.192. Fudo.?Wood, carved and gilt. Seated in the easy position{lalita Sana) on a rock, holding a sword in the right hand and a snarein the left, with a flame-shaped halo in open work, in a lacquered,gilt shrine. Fudo (the name meaning, "without movement") is con-sidered as the Bodhisattva of Vairochana, the celestial reflex ormeditation Buddha of Krakuchanda, the assumed first earthly{manushi) Buddha of the present world period. Fudo's function isto combat evil in the world, and his attributes are a sword and asnare to catch and bind the wicked and smite the guilty. In thefuneral ritual of the Shingon sect of Japanese Buddhism a Fudosword is placed in front of the celebrant in the belief that he takescharge of the soul after death. Fudo is also patron of soldiers.Height, 6K inches. Japan. (Plate 49 (left), Cat. No. 311812,U.S.N.M.) Bequest of Miss Elizabeth S. Stevens.193. Tamdrin, or Tamdin {Sanskrit, Hayagriva).?Bronze, gilt andpolished, Hayagriva-Tamdrin is one of the eight dreadful gods,united by the Tibetans in the group of Dragshed ("terrible slayer").They are Hindu or local Tibetan gods brought into the Buddhist
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 149system as protectors of the true faith against the demons of theirseveral spheres. They are represented as beings of ferocious aspect,with broad and hideous heads, protruding tongues, and huge teeth.Their Hmbs are enormously strong, but short, and their bodies aremisproportioned ; they are surrounded with flames or smoke, andon their forehead they bear a third eye (the "eye of wisdom"). Inthe present figure Hayagriva-Tamdrin is represented kneeling onhis left knee, with three faces of hideous expression, and on his heada crown of flames (painted red). Around his waist is a girdle ofleaves, and a large rosary hangs around his neck. He has six arms.In his upper right hand he holds a snare to catch the demons, and inthe lower an arrow; in his upper left hand is a three-leaved flower(?) and in his lower left a bow. The middle right hand which heholds before him has in it the vajra (Tibetan dorje), the thunderbolt ofIndra, the Hindu god of the atmosphere; the middle left hand isempty, the thumb touching the second and third fingers, the indexand little finger held extending. He is horse-necked and frightensthe demons by his neighing. For this reason the Mongolians con-sider him protector of horses. Height, 8 inches. Lhasa, Tibet.(Cat. No. 130398, U.S.N.M.)194. God oj riches {Jamhala or Euhera, Tibetan, Gurikar YizinNorhu).?Bronze, gilt and polished. The god of riches is one of theDragsheds (for which see No. 193). He also appears as one of thefour world guardians (LolcajJalas) , who dwell around Mount Meru,the reputed center of the Buddhist world. He is 3-faced, with acrown of flames (painted red), standing on two elephants. He has sixlegs and arms adorned with anklets and bracelets. The middle handsare held before him with offerings in them. The upper right handholds a vajra {dorje, the thunderbolt of Indra), the upper left a three-forked club, perhaps intended to represent the trisula, or trident,the scepter of the Hindu god Siva. The lower right a small handdrum (damaru), and the lower left a snare. Height, 4K inches.Lhasa, Tibet. (Cat. No. 130399, U.S.N.M.)195. Kubera.?Wood, painted, in lacquered shrine. Representedwith six arms holding various objects, as a club, snare, the dorje,drum. Height of shrine, 8 inches. China or Tibet. (Cat. No.316343, U.S.N.M.) Collected by Maj. Murray Warner and presentedthrough his widow, Mrs. Gertrude Bass Warner.196. GandJiarva.?Wood, red lacquered and gilt. Human kneelingfigure in the attitude of adoration, set on wings. The Gandharvasbelong to the Devas, secondary deities or attendants. In the Hindusystem, whence they were introduced into Buddhism, they are themusicians of Indra, who with their master serve and worship Buddha.They are sometimes represented with a human bust on the body of abird, playing a musical instrument. Height, 6 inches. Laos,Further India. (Cat. No. 217607, U.S.N.M.)
150 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM197. Maha Upakut.?Wooden figure, lacquered and guilt. Repre-sented with the hands pressed on the prominent abdomen, wearing aflat red cap in form of an open lotus and red garment thrown on theleft shoulder. The Laos described the Maha Upakut as a son ofBuddha, who was born in the water of the river god. His skin isrough in imitation of a fish's scales. They believe that touching hisfigure after it has been dedicated to the temple will cure pains of thestomach. Height, 10 inches. Laos, Further India. (Plate 49 (right)
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Cat. No. 217596 U.S.N.M.)198-203. Maha Upahut.?Wood, lacquered and gilt. Similar tothe preceding No. 197. Height, 2^-6)^ inches. Laos, FurtherIndia. (Cat. Nos. 217597-217601, U.S.N.M.)204. Daikoku.?Wood, lacquered and gilt. Daikoku is one ofthe Japanese seven gods of good fortune (ShicM-fuku-jin) which arederived from Hinduism, Buddhism, Taoism, and Shintoism, andform a sort of popular appendage to Japanese Buddhism. Theyare, in the order of their popularity, as follows
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1. Daikoku (the "great black one") is Mahakala of the Hindus.But while the Hindu god is one of the most destructive and awe-inspiring deities of the Hindu pantheon, his Japanese counterpart isthe smiling god of wealth. He is usually represented as a sturdyfigure habited in the ancient dress of a well-to-do Chinese burgher,,with a flat cap. In his right hand he holds the magic ham.mer, asingle stroke of which gives M^ealth, while his left hand grasps themouth of a sack that is slung across his shoulder. He stands or sitsupon a well-filled pair of rice bales. The mallet being the attributeof miners, and the rice the product of agriculture, are emblematic ofthe two principal sources of the wealth of ancient Japan. Some-times he also carries a turnip. His picture is frequently found atthe entrance door to the house.2. Ehisu (the "stranger") is, notwithstanding his name, an indige-nous product of Japan. He was the younger brother of the Shintosun goddess Amaterasu (from whom the emperors of Japan derivedtheir descent). He somehow incurred the displeasure of his familyand was expelled to the western sea, where he spent his remainingfife as a fisherman. He is, accordingly, represented with a fishingrod in his right hand and a fish (Pagrus cardinalis or major, which isconsidered by the Japanese the most delicious provision on the table.)He is the patron of merchants and tradesmen and is usually in thecompany of Daikoku, the patron of the farmers.3. Benzaiten (popularly abbreviated to Benten) is identified withSarasvati, the spouse of Brahma, the Hindu goddess of eloquence andlearning, and her character has remained the same in Japan. She isalso the popular goddess of love and beauty and everything thatadorns life. In Hindu mythology she is depicted as riding on a pea-
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 151cock as her vehicle (vahan). In Japan she is often represented asstandmg or sitting on a dragon and holding a musical instrument.4. Bishamonten {Bishamon) is the Hindu Kubera or Vaisravana,the god of riches and the Buddhist Maharaja of the northern quarterof Mount Meru (see above under No. 194). In Japan he is the godof strength and wealth, but also the patron of knowledge. He isusually represented as a stately knight, holding a model of a castleor tower and a spear and standing on a conquered foe, which sj^m-bolize his function as guardian warrior god.5. Hotel ("linen bag") is believed to have been a Chinese priestwho lived in the tenth century A. D., celebrated for his fatness, hislove of children, and especially for always carrying a large linen bag,from which his name is derived. In China he is worshiped underthe name of Pu-tai as an incarnation of Maitreya, the Buddha of thefuture. He is a sort of a Japanese Santa Claus, the god of mirth andlaughter.6. Jurojin (''old venerable man") is of Chinese origin. Hesymbohzes longevity. His attributes are a stag or crane, both(together with the peach and tortoise) being emblems of longevity.7. Fukurokuju ("bliss, wealth, longevity"). His most prominentphysical mark is his tall head, being at least twdce as long as his face,as if an ordinary-sized cranium was not large enough to hold all hisvirtues, knowledge, and happiness. He is the companion of Jurojin,and their names and attributes are often interchanged.Height of the Daikoku figure, 13 inches. Japan. (Plate 50 (right),Cat. No. 130458, U.S.N.M.)205. Daikoku.?Lead, silvered. Height, 3 inches. Kobe, Japan.(Cat. No. 154827, U.S.N.M.)206. Ehisu.?Lead, silvered. Height, 3 inches. Kobe, Japan.(Cat. No. 154826, U.S.N.M.)207. Jurojin.?Sitting beside a stag. Bronze, black lacquered.Height, 2K inches. Japan. (Cat. No. 311809, U.S.N.M.) Bequestof Miss Elizabeth S. Stevens.208. Fukurokuju.?Bronze. Height, 6% inches. China or Japan.(Plate 50 (left). Cat. No. 311811, U.S.N.M.) Bequest of MissElizabeth S. Stevens.209. Fukurokuju.?Miniature mask, brass, gold plated. Height,IK inches. China or Japan. (Cat. No. 311863, U.S.N.M.) Bequestof Miss EHzabeth S. Stevens.210. Hotel.?Bronze. Kepresented squatting, the right knee drawnup, holding in the right hand a chaplet. Height, 9% inches. Chinaor Japan. (Cat. No. 316344, U.S.N.M.) Collected by Maj. MurrayWarner and presented through his widow, Mrs. Gertrude BassWarner.
152 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
2. BUDDHIST SCRIPTURES (DHARMA)The sacred books supposed to embody the word of Buddha areconsidered by Buddhists as forming the second member of theTriratna?the three precious ones?to whom the pious Buddhistdaily takes his refuge. The books themselves receive divine honors.They are held materially sacred, are placed in high places andworshipped.The two main divisions of Buddhism, the Hynayana and Mahayana,or the southern and northern schools, respectively (compare theintroduction, p. 118), have different canons of scriptures. Thesouthern canon is written in the Pali language and contains on thewhole the older and purer exposition of Buddha's doctrines, thoughit already shows a considerable development. The scriptures of theMahayana, or northern school, which are written parts in Sanskritand in a mixed dialect of Sanskrit and Middle Indian or the Gattadialect, parts in Chinese, Tibetan, Mongolian, and Japanese, are intheir contents more or less influenced by Hinduism, and contain notonly what is found in the Pali scriptures but a great deal more. Thesouthern canon is about twice as large as the English Bible and isassumed to have been fixed in the third century B. C. and reducedto writing in Pali in the first century B. C. The northern canon isabout a hundred times larger than the Pali canon. Thus, theChinese scriptures are seven hundred times the amount of the NewTestament, comprising 5,000 books, which represent 1,662 differentworks. The Tibetan canon, called Ka-gyur (Kan-jur), contains 100or 108 volumes of about 1,000 pages each and representing 1,083difi^erent works.The Buddhist scriptures go by the name of the Tripitaka (threebaskets), because when the scholars classified the sacred writings,which were written on palm leaves, the books were put into baskets.Another explanation expresses the idea of how the scriptures werehanded down from one generation to another. In the Orient it is acommon custom to have v/orkmen stationed in a line who handfrom man to man a series of baskets filled with something to beremoved from one place to another. In the case of the scripturesit expresses figuratively the long line of teachers who handed downto generation after generation the teachings of the founder.211. Sacred writings of the southern Buddhists {Tripitaka).?Printed edition in 39 volumes, in the Pali language (the sacredlanguage of the southern Buddhists), and in the Siamese alphabet.The three "baskets" contain:1. '^Vinaya-pitaTca," collection of rules and precepts especially in-tended for the monks (vols. 1-8).2. '^ Suttanta-pitalca, or Sutras," containing discourses, proverbs,hymns, and legends for general instruction (vols. 9-28).
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 1533. "Ahhidhamma-'pitalca," devoted to the metaphysics of Buddhism(vols. 29-39).Bangkok, Siam. (154,989.)Presented by His Majesty Somdetch Phra Paramindr Maha Chula-lonkorn Phra Chula Chom Klao, King of Siam, in commemorationof the twenty-fifth anniversary of his reign, March 20, 1895.212. Prajna Paramita (Tibetan, Shirah).?Tibetan manuscript,written on 366 ornate cardboards, consisting of several layers of paperpasted together and varnished over with a black pigment, in goldletters, and held between two covers of lacquered and gilt wood.The Prajna Paramita, or "transcendental wisdom," properly, "themeans of arriving at the other side of wisdom," consists of mythicaldiscourses attributed to Buddha and addressed mostly to super-natural hearers on the Vulture's Peak at Rajagriba (the moderndistrict of Patna, Bengal). It is the most sacred book of the Mahay-anist scriptures. It is ascribed to Nagarjuna, a converted Brahmanphilosopher to Buddhism, who possibly lived in the second centuryA. D., and who is counted the fourteenth of the twenty-eight patri-archs of the Mahayana hierarchy. Nagarjuna alleged that he receivedthe book from the Nagas, who dwell in the ocean (for which seeabove under No. 50), and they received it from the mouth of Gautamaand kept it until a generation arose which was capable of understand-ing it. Height, 10 inches; width, 17^ inches; thickness, 7 inches.Tibet. (Cat. No. 237929, U.S.N.M.) Collected by Lieut. Col.L. A. Waddell, archeologist of the Indian Government expedition toTibet in 1904-5, and presented by the Government of India.213. Buddhist Sacred Boole.?Written on palm leaves, which areheld together between two boards by a cord passed through them.The writing is done by means of a sharp stylus, and then ink is rubbedover so as to make the markings with the stylus visible. Dimensions:16 inches by 2}^ inches by IK inches. Burma. (Cat. No. 216139,U.S.N.M.) Bequest of S. S. Howland.214. Printing hlocJc of wood in Manchu and Chinese characters.?From the library of the Temple of the Colossal Buddha in the palacegrounds of Peking. Length, 25 inches; width, 8 inches. Peking,China. (Cat. No. 222152, U.S.N.M.) Gift of Miss Eliza R.Scidmore. 3. BUDDHIST CONGREaATION (SANGHA)SAINTS AND PBIESTS AND THEIR APPURTENANCES21 b-2l^. Pair oj arhats.?Wood, lacquered. Seated figures. Theterm arhat (Chinese, lohan, Japanese, rohan) is in a specific senseapplied to the original disciples of Buddha, the apostles, who arevariously counted from 10 to 500. More generally it designates adisciple or follower of Buddha who has attained the highest degree81551?29 11
154 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
of perfection and completed the chain of existence so that he neednot be born again. In a still wider sense it is applied to any virtu-ous and learned saint. The chief apostles or missionaries are usuallyprovided with some attribute or emblem, such as a book or scroll, afly whisk and vase, as seen on these figures, a jeweled snare, a crown,and so on, and receive worship in the temples. Height, 19)^ inches.Tokio, Japan. (Plate 51, Cat. No. 130460, U.S.N.M.)217. Two Buddhist saints, (Arhats).?Made of teak. Height, 2feet. Burma. (Cat. No. 216132, U.S.N.M.) Bequest of S. S.Howland.218. Arhat.?Bronze, gilt. Seated figure, with hands joined inthe attitude of veneration. Height, 4 inches. Laos, Further India.(Cat. No. 217668, U.S.N.M.)219. Arliat.?Wood, red lacquered and gilt. Kneeling figure, withhands joined. Height, 4% inches. Laos, Further India. (Cat. No.217575, U.S.N.M.)220. Arhat.?Bronze. Seated figure, with hands raised in rever-ence. The inscription on the base states that it was dedicated inthe year 1151 of Buddha. Height 4}^ inches. Laos, Further India.(Cat. No. 217513, U.S.N.M.)221. Arhat.?Wood, lacquered and gilt. Kneeling figure, withhands folded in adoration. Height, 5}^ inches. Laos, Further India.(Cat. No. 217562, U.S.N.M.)222. Arhat.?Wood, lacquered and gilt. Kneeling figure, holdingbegging bowl, or medicine base, with both hands of the outstretchedarms. Height, 6% inches. Laos, Further India. (Cat. No. 217563,U.S.N.M.)223. Tibetan saint, supposed to represent Ch'os-bjin jamba.?Bronze,gilt and chased. Seated in meditation, clothed in a mantle fallingover the arms. The base is chased with floral designs. Height, 7%inches. Kumbum, Sifan, near the western frontier of China. (Cat.No. 167270, U.S.N.M.)224. Holy man, probably Chinese saint.?Bronze, gilt. Seated inwestern fashion. Height, 6}^ inches. Kumbum, Tibet. (Cat. No.167269, U.S.N.M.)225. Saint.?Terra cotta figurine, seated, holding begging bowlinfront. Height, 3% inches. Tibet (?). (Cat. No. 311810, U.S.N.M.)Bequest of Miss Elizabeth S. Stevens.226. Maha Krachai.?Porcelain figure of a saint, apparently ofChinese make. It is called by the Laos Maha Krachai and regardedby them as a learned saint. It is the only figure outside of Buddhafound in Laos temples. Height, 4 inches. Laos, Further India.(Cat. No. 217626, U.S.N.M.)227. Tsong-Khapa.?Bronze. Tsong-Khapa was a Tibetan Budd-hist saint and religious reformer who lived in the fifteenth century,A. D. Height 4}^ inches. Tibet. (Cat. No. 316345, U.S.N.M.)
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 155Collected by Maj. Murray Warner and presented through his widow,Mrs. Gertrude Bass Warner .228-229. "Neophytes."?Wood, red lacquered and gilt. Kneelingfigurines with heads bowed to the ground and joined hands to theright side of the head in the attitude of adoration. Height, 2 ^ to 3inches. Laos, Further India. (Cat. Nos. 217571-217574, U.S.N.M.)230. Chinese Buddhist ecclesiastic.?Wooden seated statue, cladin the regulation dress of Buddhist monk. These consist (1), of thelower garment (antavarasatta), fastened by a girdle at the waist; (2),the middle robe (uttarasanga) ; (3) the outer shawl {sanghati), a stripof yellow cloth, 10 to 20 feet long and 2 to 3 feet broad. It is throwTiover the left shoulder and passed under the right arm, leaving theright shoulder bare. But both shoulders and the chest are coveredby an inner vest on entering the house of a layman. And over all isthrown a plaited cloak or cape, crescentic in shape. Height, 50mches. China. (Plate 52 (left). Cat. No. 127562, U.S.N.M.) Giftof the Chinese Centennial Commission, 1876.231. Buddhist priesfs robes.?Consisting of strips of yellow cloth.Ceylon. (Cat. No. 154979, U.S.N.M.)232. Buddhist ecclesiastic.?Wood, painted. Seated m a chair inceremonial robes. Height, 40 inches. China. (Plate 52 (right), Cat-No. 216028, U.S.N.M.) Gift of Gen. G. W. Bailey.233. Buddhist ecclesiastic.?Wood, painted and gilt. Seated inceremonial robes on a carved and gilt double base. Height, 3Kinches. Kobe, Japan. (Plate 53 (left). Cat. No. 154823, U.S.N.M.)234. Buddhist monk.?Model carved in wood. Represented withfan, staff, beads, and vessels for receiving rice, all of which a Buddhistmonk carries when begging. Height, 5% inches. Burma. (Plate53 (center). Cat. No. 176647, U.S.N.M.) Gift of M. A. Tribolet.235. Two Buddhist monks, holding begging bowls.?Carved on teakplaques. Buddhist monks shave their heads and wear a yellow robe.They get their living by begging each morning from house to house,when they collect rice and fruit enough for the morning and middaymeal, as their rule forbids them eating after midday. The equipmentof a Buddhist monk consists of a begging bowl (potni), and fruit bag,a rice spoon, a ewer, or water vessel {uda patra), a staff (pinda), arazor, a sewing needle, and a waistband. Measurements: Height, 2feet; width, 1 foot 6K inches. Burma. (Cat. No. 216147, U.S.N.M.)Bequest of S. S. Howland.236. Pair oj ornamental begging bowls.?Carved of wood and inlaidwith pieces of looking-glass. Measurements: Height, llK' inches;diameter, 16 inches. Burma. (Cat. No. 216138, U.S.N.M.) Be-quest of S. S. Howland.237. Daruma.?Glazed pottery. Represented seated holding abowl. Daruma (Sanskrit, Bodhi Dharma), was the twenty-eighth
156 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMIndian and first Chinese Patriarch. He arrived in China in 520 A. D.and established himself in a temple in Loyang. During nine years ofliis stay there he remained sunk in profound meditation, neithermoving nor speaking, so that his legs had become paralyzed owingto their long disuse. In popular art his figure is often treated in ahumorous manner, being reduced to a comical head and round bodywithout arms or legs, which are supposed to have withered away fromdisuse. Height, 12}^ inches. Japan. (Cat. No. 325102, U.S.N.M.)Gift of Miss Carrie S. Tisdel.238. Miniature of a Tibetan Buddha.?Statuette of bronze, gilt,inclosed in a small shrine. Height of image, 2}^ inches; of shrine,3K inches. Shanghai, China. (Plate 53 (right). Cat. No. 158309,U.S.N.M.)239. Kammaracham.?Ordination service of a Buddhist monk.Manuscript written on strips of palm leaf, written on both sides inthe Pali language in the Laos characters. The writing is done bymeans of a sharp stylus, and then ink is rubbed over so as to makethe markings with the stylus visible. GUt on the edges, inclosed bytwo wooden tablets secured by a cord passing through them. Atthe end of the cord is a fish carved of wood and a bundle of bamboorings. The fish as a symbol was adopted by the Buddhists fromHinduism. In Hindu mythology a fish, that was the disguise ofBrahma or Vishnu, was the savior of Manu (the Hindu Noah), in thegreat flood. The first incarnation of Vishnu was in the form of afish {the matsya avatar), and generally is the fish considered symbolof good luck and favorable omen. In the late Mahayana textsBuddha is compared to a fisher. Length, 23 K inches; width, 2%inch. Laos, Further India. (Cat. No. 217669, U.S.N.M.)240. Pair of Buddhist saints or worshipers.?Statuettes of wood,lacquered and gilt, standing on a base of rocks which rest on a plat-form. Height, 15K inches. Japan. (Cat. No. 325101, U.S.N.M.)Gift of Miss Carrie S. Tisdel.241. Japanese vajra.?Bronze. The vajra (Tibetan, dorje), lit-erally, diamond, or that which is indestructible, symbolic of the truedoctrine which can not be destroyed, is the ritual scepter or wand ofMahayana or northern Buddhism. It is originally the thunderboltof Indra, the Hindu god of the atmosphere, only that the points ofthe darts are closed. "The Nepalese scriptures say that a contestonce occurred between Buddha and Indra, in which the latter wasdefeated, and had wrested from him his chief and peculiar instrumentof power, the vajra or thunderbolt, which was appropriated as atrophy by the victor, and has ever since been adopted by his followersas the favorite emblem of their religion." ^^ The Tibetans believe
52 William Woodville Kockhill, Notes on the Ethnology of Tibet. Report rfthe U. S. National Museum1893, p. 740.
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 157the dorje to have fallen from heaven and to have alighted in a?monas-tery at Lhasa, where the original is still retained. It is called inTibetan serapun-dze. An annual festival has been established in itshonor and is one of the principal religious fetes." The 3-prongedvajra is called by the Japanese san-ko; the 5-pronged, go-ko; thesingle-pointed vajra which is in use in Japan is called do-Jco. Length,5% inches. Japan. (Cat. No. 130390, U.S.N.M.)242. Japanese vajra.?Bronze. Length, 5K inches. Japan. (Cat.No. 167172, U.S.N.M.)243. Tibetan dorje.?Bronze. Length, 4% inches. Tibet. (Cat.No. 167268, U.S.N.M.)244. Vajra (dorje).?Bronze. Size, 6}; inches. Tibet or Nepal.(Cat. No. 316347, U.S.N.M.) Collected by Maj. Murray Warner andpresented through his widow, Mrs. Gertrude Bass Warner.245. Temple hell (Tibetan, drilhu).?Bronze. On the outer surfacenear the handle are in relief eight mystic syllables. The handle iscylindrical and has a head, representing the Dharma (doctrine), sui'-mounted by a dorje. The bell is used in the performance of dailyservices, and the great lamas are often represented with a bell in thehand. This bell was m.ade in Derge, which country is famous forthe clear-toned bells cast there. Tibet. (Cat.No. 131011, U.S.N.M.)246. Temple hell.?Bronze. Similar to the preceding No. 245,less the head of Dharma on the handle. Monastery of Dolon nor,eastern Mongolia. (Cat. No. 130389, U.S.N.M.)247. Vajra.?Bronze. Similar to No. 241. Length, 4^ inches.Japan. (Cat. No. 77137, U.S.N.M.)248. Vajra.?Copper. Six-pronged, with one prong in the middle.Crude casting. Length, 6 inches. Shanghai, China. (Cat. No.158311, U.S.N.M.)249. Vajra.?Brass. Eight-pronged, with one prong in the middle.Length, 4% inches. Probably Chma. (Cat. No. 311802, U.S.N.M.)Bequest of Miss Elizabeth S. Stevens.250. Vajra-dagger (Tibetan, phurhu).?Bronze. The 3-angulardagger is set into an animal's (elephant's (?)) head. The centralportion is in form of a vajra, and the hilt end is terminated by atriple demon's head and surmounted by a horse's head, representmgTamdrin or Hayagriva (for which see above No. 193). It is used inincantation to stab the demons. Length, 7% inches. Tibet. (Plate54 (left), Cat. No. 311803, U.S.N.M.) Bequest of Miss Elizabeth S.Stevens. ^^251. Tibetan temple bell.?Bronze. The neck is adorned with achased lotus flower; the handle is in form of a vajra {dorje). Height,6% inches; diameter, 2% inches. India. (Cat. No. 316597, U.S.N.M.)Gift of Mrs. F. F. Hilder.M Edward Paske, Joornal of the Archaeological Institute of Great Britian and Ireland, vol. 8, p. 202.
158 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM252. Tip of a mendicants staff (hikila, Tibetan, Tchargsil).?Consist-ing of a socketed brass bar with a circular loop on which are strungsix jingling rings. It is carried by mendicant monks to drown outby its jingling worldly sounds, and to warn off small animals, lestthey be trod upon and killed. Height, 4% inches. Probably Tibet.(Plate 54 (right). Cat. No. 311791, U.S.N.M.) Bequest of Miss Eliz-abeth S. Stevens.253. Pilgrim''s staff.?Wood carved with a figurine of Buddha, seatedon a lotus, forming the top, while around the staff is wound a dragon.Used in climbing mountains. China. (Cat. No. 331677, U.S.N.M.)Prayer wheels.?The prayer wheel (Tibetan, mam chos Tcor), is acylinder of metal, or, in the larger wheels, of wood or even leather,through which runs an axis prolonged below to form a handle.Around this axis are rolled, one on top of the other, sheets of paperor leaves of a book inscribed with some formula or spell. The sheetsare wound on the axis from right to left, and the wheel when set inmotion must revolve in the opposite way, so that the writing passesin front of the person turning the wheel in the way in which it is tobe read; that is, from left to right. A piece of metal attached by asmall chain to one side of the barrel facilitates the turning of it.Each complete revolution of the wheel counts as one repetition ofall the prayers contained in the cylinder. The prayer wheel is usedespecially by the Buddhists of Tibet, and the most usual invocationinscribed on the rolls in prayer wheels consists of the words: "Om!mani padme! Hum," which is rendered: "Hail, jewel in the lotus."The repetition of this formula is the most common mode of prayingmet with among the Mongols and Tibetans. It is addressed toAvalokitvsvara (Padmapani), who appeared from out of a lotus forthe deliverance of mankind. By the Tibetans he is held in specialveneration as the protector and patron of Tibet, and is being incar-nated in the Dalai Lama, the head of Tibetan Buddhism. Prayerwheels are placed in the entrance to temples and houses, to be turnedby each person passing on gables of houses, or over the hearth,where they are twirled by the wind or smoke. Sometimes a wheelis fixed to the bed of a stream and kept in motion by the current,thus praying night and day for the owner. Besides the small handprayer wheels, usually measuring from 3 to 5 inches in height and from2 to 3 inches in diameter, there are large machines set up in templesand monasteries, which are sometimes 30 or 40 feet high and 15 or20 feet in diameter. In these are placed a collection of the canonicalbooks of lamaism (ka-gyur, see p. 152), and by means of bars fixedin the lower extremity of the axis of the barrel it is put in motion.It is a materialistic putting into practice of the symbolical phrase
"Turning the wheel of the law."254. Small stationary prayer wheel.?Bronze. The axis projectsabove the top, so that it may be put in motion without removing it
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 159from the stand on which it rests. It is adorned with a raised orna-mentation of the dorje and an invocation in Nepalese Sanskrit char-acters, while the top of the cylinder is ornamented with a wheel andthe bottom with four dorjes. Tibet. (Cat. No. 130393, U.S.N.M.)255. Hand prayer wheel.?Bronze. The top is decorated with asilver wheel, studded with coral and turquoise beads. The bottomhas four dorjes, and on the sides is the 6-syllable spell in Landzacharacters in silver. Bands above and below are decorated withdorjes and lotus flowers, respectively. The axis terminates in apineapple-shaped knob of silver. Tibet. (Cat. No. 130392, U.S.N.M.)256. Prayer wheel.?Bronze. The top is dome-shaped. The bar-rel is divided into two compartments by a ridge, which is decoratedwith coral and turquoise beads. Darjeeling (on the border of Tibet),India. (Cat. No. 74494, U.S.N.M.)257. Prayer wheel.?Bronze. Similar to the preceding. No. 260.The bottom is decorated with scroll patterns. Darjeeling, India.(Cat. No. 74493, U.S.N.M.)258. Prayer wheel.?The barrel of bronze is divided by a band ofbrass into two compartments, which have the invocation. Top andbottom, as also the pineapple-shaped laiob on top and the bead onthe side, are likewise of brass. The top is in shape of a fluted dome;the bottom is decorated with four dorjes, all in repouss6. ProbablyTibet. (Cat. No. 311794, U.S.N.M.) Bequest of Miss Elizabeth S.Stevens.259. Prayer wheel.?Bronze. Resembling the preceding. Leh,Ladak. (Cat. No. 175152, U.S.N.M.) Gift of W. L. Abbott.260. Prayer wheel.?Bronze. Flat top; otherwise similar to thepreceding. Leh, Ladak. (Cat. No. 175153, U.S^N.M.) Gift ofW. L. Abbott.261. Prayer wheel.?The barrel is of felt covered with coarsewoolen cloth. An iron pivot runs through the barrel and fits in aroughly carved wooden handle. The cylinder is covered with apiece of red cotton cloth, to the corners of which are attached glassbeads. Tibet. (Cat. No. 167169, U.S.N.M.)262. Prayer wheel.?Bronze. Height, 2}^ inches; diameter, 3inches. Burma. Bequest of S. S. Rowland.2QZ. Prayer wheel.?Made of copper. Height, UK inches. Tibet.(Cat. No. 315523, U.S.N.M.) Bequest of Alfred Louis MoreauGottschalk.264. Strip of Chinese paper.?On which the formula "Cm, manipadme hum" is nearly four hundred times repeated in print. Asabout 100 of such sheets can be wrapped in the cylinder, a revolutionof the wheel would be equivalent to repeating the formula fortythousands times. Tibet. (Cat. No. 131014, U.S.N.M.)
160 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM265. Two inscribed yarchment scrolls for the prayer wheel.?Tibet.(Cat. Nos. 331754-331755, U.S.N.M.) Gift of Rev. David C.Graham. ROSARIESThe rosary, like the prayer wheel, is especially peculiar to thenorthern, or Mahayana, school of Buddhism, with its belief in themerit and efficacy of meditation and in the potency of repeatingmystic spells and formulas. The Buddhist full rosary is composedof 108 beads, and this number is given a symbolic signification. Thenumber 108 is said to correspond to a like number of mental condi-tions, or sinful inclinations, which are to be overcome by the recita-tion of the beads. The number 108 generally plays a great part inthe tradition and philosophy of Buddhism: 108 Brahmans weresummoned at Gautama's birth to foretell his destiny. The Burmesefootprints of Buddha have sometimes 108 divisions. The Ka-gyur,the Tibetan canon of scriptures is composed of 108 volumes, and thewhite pagoda at Peking is surrounded by 108 columns. In Japan,on the festival of the dead (bommatsuri or honku), which is celebratedfrom the 13th to the 15th of July, 108 welcome fires {mukaeli) arelighted along the shores of the sea of lake or river by which a city orvillage is situated.The full rosary of 108 beads is usually divided by three beads of adifferent size or material into four groups of 27 beads each. Thetwo ends of the string before being knotted are passed through threeextra beads, called "retaining beads," or "union holders," as theykeep the proper rosary beads in position and indicate the completionof a cycle. They symbolize the Buddhist triad?the Buddha, thedoctrine (dharma), and the community (sangha). Attached to themain string are two small pendant strings, having each 10 smallerbeads. These pendants are used as counters to keep count of thenumber of times the rosary is said. A bead of one pendant string isslid down on completion of a single recital of the rosary, while thebeads of the second note each 10 repetitions. They thus serve toregister the utterance of 108 multiplied by 10 multiplied by 10,equaling 10,800 prayers or formulas. Sometimes there are twoadditional pendants.Alongside of the full rosary of 108 beads, employed by the monks,there are in vogue rosaries of 18 and 16 beads, representing, respec-tively, the 18 lohans or chief disciples of Buddha counted by the Chi-nese, and the 16 rohns of the Japanese. The common people, more-over, use indifferently rosaries with various numbers of beads.The material of the Buddhist rosaries varies according to thetaste, wealth, and rank of the owner. The commonest are made ofseeds, wood, pebbles, shells, glass, or bone; the more costly of jade,turquois, coral, amber, silver, and gold, and even of pearls and other
OBJECTS OF KELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 161gems. The countries in which the Buddhist rosary is most widely-used are China, Tibet, and Japan.^*266. Chinese rosary (su-chu).?The 108 beads of the main stringare palm-wood balls. The dividing and retaining beads are of silver,richly enameled, measuring 1}^ inches in diameter. The threecounter strings have each 10 beads, likewise of enameled silver butof smaller size, being only one-half inch in diameter. From the re-taining beads is suspended a silk ribbgn embroidered with smallglass beads of diverse colors to represent the swastika and othersymbols, with a silver enameled medallion, measuring 2}^ by 1% inchesin the center, and terminating in an oblong or oval bead 2 incheslong. Such an oval bead is also at the end of each of the threecounter strings, each 1% inches long. They are called the "fourdewdrops." which they resemble, or the "disciple beads," or the
"regents of the four heavens." They typify the emperor, father,mother, and the teacher, to whom a Chinese subject owes reverenceand obedience. This rosary is the official necklace which used to beworn by dignitaries on state occasions. China. (Cat. No. 202869,U.S.N.M.) Gift of Yang Yu, Chinese minister to the United States,1897.267-269. TTiree Chinese rosaries.?Consisting of 108 globular beadsmade of black wood. Hoihau, China. (Cat. No. 154242, U.S.N.M.)270. Chinese rosary.?Consisting of 18 olive-shaped beads, probablymade of some wax or resin composition, each being carved into animage of one of the 18 lohans or saints. China. (Cat. No. 130388,U.S.N.M.)271. Chinese rosary.?Consisting of 18 beads made of the fruit ofthe Trapa hicornis of China, which resembles a buffalo's head withtwo blunt horns. China. (Cat. No. 5503, U.S.N.M.)272. Tibetan rosary (trengwa, "string of heads").?Consisting of108 disk-shaped shell beads, divided into four groups of 27 beadseach hj three red coral beads. The three retaining beads {do dzin)are a large spherical amber bead, a smaller disk-shaped one, and aconical one of coral. The four counter strings (drang dzin), with 10silver beads on each terminate in various ornaments. This form ofrosary is in common use among the lamas. The rosary in Tibet isnot only an essential part of the outfit of the lamas, but is every-where in appearance. Nearly every man and woman carries a rosary,holding it in the hand, or attached to the girdle, or wearing it aroundthe neck as a necklace, or twisted arount the wrist as a braclet. Lay-men also use it to assist in ordinary calculations, like the sliding ballsof the Chinese, in their business transactions. Kumbum, Tibet.(Cat. No. 167272, U.S.N.M.)
"Compare also "The collection of rosaries in the U. S. National Museum," by I. M. Casanowicz.Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum, vol. 36, pp. 333-360, with pis. 21-30.
162 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM273. Tibetan rosary.?Consisting of 108 disks cut from humanskull, divided into four sections of 27 each by three larger disks ofconch shell, with two retaining beads of amber and wood, respec-tively, but without counters. Such rosaries are especially used inthe worship of Dorje jig-ch'e (Sanskrit, Yama), the king of thedead. Tibet. (Cat. No. 130387, U.S.N.M.)274-275. Tibetan rosaries.?Made of small disks of rosewood, withred coral beads as dividers. It has no counters, and the dividingbeads, as also the three retaining ones, have to be counted to com-plete the number of 108. Beads of reddish color, usually of redsandalwood, are used in the worship of the fierce Tamdrin (Haya-griva, see above No. 195), the demon patron of lamaism. Tachien-lu, China. (Cat. No. 167267, U.S.N.M.)276. Tibetan rosary.?^Consisting of 108 disks of yellow wood,with the dividing beads of the same material only slightly larger andthicker. It has only two retaining beads and no counters. Batang,Chma. (Cat. No. 131058, U.S.N.M.)277-278. Tibetan rosaries.?Consisting of 108 spherical beads ofyellow wood, without counters and with only one retaining bead,said to have been brought from Lhasa, the holy capital city of Tibet.Ladak. (Cat. Nos. 178119-178120, U.S.N.M.) Gift of W. L.Abbott.279. Tibetan rosary {Go Mulla).?Composed of disks from the skullof a lama. Rosaries made of the bones of a lama are prized above allothers by the Tibetans. Darjeeling, India. (Cat. No. 334018,U.S.N.M.) Gift of Robert J. Umbstaetter.280. Japanese rosary (jiu-dzu).?Consisting of 112 globular beadsmade of cherry wood. In the Japanese jiu-dzu the Buddhist rosaryattained its highest development. The rosary of 112 beads (shozoJcijiu-dzu), which is used by all sects in common, is divided by 2 largebeads, called parent beads {oya-dama) into two equal parts. Theyare distinguished into the upper parent bead {ten-no oya-dama), alsocalled father, sun, Buddha, and lower parent bead {chi-no oya-dama),mother, moon, Bo, divine spirit, which inspired and perfected the en-lightenment of Buddha. The ends of the string before being knottedare drawn through the 2 parent beads which have for this purpose athird opening. From the upper parent bead extend 2 pendant stringson which are strung 21 beads, smaller than those on the main string, inthe following manner: Immediately above the large parent bead, onthe left-side pendant string, is a solitary bead. Beyond this thestrings are knotted. Then come 5 beads on each string, when they areagain knotted. Still again there are another 5 beads on each pendant,which then terminates in an elongated bead, called dewdrop {tsuyu-dama). The use of the solitary bead is that in holding the rosary,with the upper parent bead uppermost, it should be in the left hand;
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 163this will insure a right signification to each bead during prayer. Thecollective name of these pendant beads is Tcami-deshi, superior disciples.Extending from the lower parent bead are 3 strings, on 2 of which are5 small beads, called sTiima-desTii, or inferior disciples, each terminatingin a dewdrop bead, while the third has 10 small beads without a dew-drop. They are used as counters and are called Tcadzu-tori. The 4dewdrop beads are also termed shi-ten-no, the four regents who are sup-posed to preside over the four quarters of the universe. The rosarythus represents symbolically the Buddhist pantheon. On the mainstring, at an interval of 7 beads on either side from the upper parentbead, are 2 beads, smaller than the others, and again, at an interval of14 beads from these, on either side, are other 2 of the same kind. Theyindicate where a special invocation is to be uttered while the rosary islifted to the forehead with a reverence.A smaller rosary of 16 beads, corresponding to the Japanese roJians,or chief disciples of Buddha (analogous to the 18 lohans of the Chinese),is chiefly used by lay peoples on ceremonial and social occasions.Japan. (Plate 55, Cat. No. 130683, U.S.N.M.)281-282. Two Japanese rosaries.?Consisting each of 112 globularbeads made of plum-tree wood. The same as the preceding No. 280.Japan. (Cat. No. 130683, U.S.N.M.)283. Prayer heads, (male-nap).?Made of small black seeds, strungon a cord. The invocations repeated by the Laos by means of thebeads are: Sabbe sangkara anicca, three hundred times; sabbe sang-kara dukkha, repeated four hundred times; sabbe sangkara anatta,repeated five hundred times. Laos, Further India. (Cat. No,217666, U.S.N.M.)284. Buddhist monlc's legging howl.?Spherical, of thin iron, withwooden base. Inclosed in an open work bag formed of bands of cot-ton, the ends of which serve as handles. To this cloth is secured a lac-quered base. From the bottom hang models of the perquisites of amonk, namely, (1), the water strainer, used to exclude the small ani-mals which might be found in the water from being killed ; (2), a drum
;
(3), sandals; (4), steel and flint for striking fij-e; (5), vessel for pouringout water when performing acts of merit; (6), a shaving knife.Height, 10% inches; diameter, 9K inches. Laos, Further India.(Cat. No. 217664, U.S.N.M.)285. Buddhist monk's legging howl.?Old bronze, decorated withgroups of rosette-shaped dots. Height, 4 inches; diameter, 8 inches.Japan. (Plate 56a, Cat. No. 158321, U.S.N.M.)286. Buddhist monk's legging lowl.?Earthenware, black lacquered.Height, 7 inches; diameter, 9 inches. Burma. (Cat. No. 129555,U.S.N.M.)287. Buddhist monk's rice spoon.?Made of shell. Rice and fruitconstitute the diet of Buddhist priests. They obtain these viands by
164 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMbegging from house to house, and an alms bowl, rice spoon, and fruitbag belong to the equipment of a Buddhist priest. They are bound toabstain from meat and intoxicating liquors, and from partaking of anyfood after midday. Length, 6 inches. Siam. (Plate 566, Cat. No.127163, U.S.N.M.)288. Buddhist monk's rice spoon.?Made of alabaster. Length, 4mches. Tokio, Japan. (Plate 56c, Cat. No. 127552, U.S.N.M.)289. Fly flap.?Lacquered and gilt. The feathers are arranged inshape of a heart. "It is properly a screen, and is never used as a fanbut to cover the face when presenting the alms bowl for alms so thatthe monk may receive the gift without knowing the giver. The Bud-dhist beheves it is more blessed to give than to receive, and the meritbelongs to the giver." Length, 26 inches; width, 14 inches. Laos,Further India. (Cat. No. 217665, U.S.N.M.)RELIGIOUS KDIFICES AND THEIR PARAPHERNALIA290. The Wat Chang pagoda of Bangkok, Siam.?The Wat Chang(''great monastery") pagoda, of which the United States NationalMuseum possesses a model in wood, is considered the most magnificentone in Bangkok, the capital of Siam. It is an octagonal brick structurerising in three elegantly tapering stages upon a quadrangular platform,the whole conveying the idea of a gigantic bell. Staircases lead upfrom one stage to the other. Upon the last rests the dome, which, how-ever, is more in the form of a come or an octagonal prism with a rounded,dome-like top, than of a hemisphere, terminating in a metal tree-shapedspire. Four smaller domes, likewise surmounted by spires, surroundthe principal one. Underneath each of these are rectangular nicheswhich formerly held images of Buddha. Rows of sculptured images ofBuddhas and Bodhisattvas (candidates for Buddhahood, or futureBuddhas, and saints) seated on mythical animals, surround the octa-gon at various stages, and the whole building is lavishly adorned both incolor and carving. Its outside plastering is wTought into a mosaic bymeans of porcelain of different colors set in it so as to form figures of ele-phants, griffins, demons, flowers, etc. It is assumed that the pagodameasures, from the base to the tip of the spire, about 250 feet in height.It is surrounded by an ornamental carved rail, at the four corners ofwhich are small pagodas of a design similar to the central one, and in theniches are still seen the Buddha images riding elephants. In the centerof each side is a kind of decorative gate, joining by platforms with themain pagoda, the whole thus constituting a cruciform plan. Insidethe inclosure are dwellings for the monks in attendance on the sanctu-ary, flower and fruit gardens, ponds, grottos, and various stone images.Pagodas ^^ are religious structures which originated with Buddhismin India and are characteristic of Buddhist countries. Their original
" The word paffoda is probably derived from the Singhalese dojofia or dapafta; in Sanskrit s<?po, Pali tftupo,whence Anglo-Indian tope.
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 1G5purpose was to receive the relics of Buddha, or the remains of suchof his disciples as distinguished themselves by piety or learning.Thus, according to tradition, the remains of Buddha, after cremationof his body, were divided into eight portions and distributed amonghis followers, who erected pagodas over them, and legend makesKing Asoka, the patron and propagator of Buddhism in the thinlcentury B. C, build 84,000 stupas all over India in commemorationof the same number of discourses supposed to have been deliveredby Buddha, or in honor of the number of atoms of which Buddha'sbody consisted. But already in the early periods of Buddhismstupas were constructed ex voto either for marking some importantevent in the life of Buddha and the history of Buddhism or fordecorating the monasteries and temples. At present pagodas arebuilt chiefly as an act of devotion on the part of some pious persondesirous of acquiring merit. In keeping with the original purposeof the pagoda, its earliest architectural style was derived from thetomb or tumulus. The earliest stupas are simple cupolas or hemi-spheres raised on a low basement, about half the diameter in height.With the exception of the small chamber for the ashes or relics,these shrines were solid masses of bricks or stone. One of the mostimportant surviving structures of this kind is the Sanchi stupa, alsoknown as the Bhilsa tope, in central India, which is a solid dome ofstone, 106 feet in diameter and 46 feet in height, and which Cunning-ham would ascribe to the third century B. C. Gradually the plinthwas increased until it rose from 1 to 2 diameters in height, of whichthe finest existing example is the great stupa of Dhamek at Sarnath,Benares, which was built about the sixth century A. D.*The apex of the dome was usually surmounted by a disk placedhorizontally, on which rose, as a terminal, an opened umbrella, themost common emblem of royalty and state among eastern nations,or perhaps to symbolize the wandering mendicant monks of Bud-dhism. Ferguson " surmises that the umbrella, or tee, in its earliestform was, or at all events represented, a relic box, assuming thatoriginally the relic was very likely not placed in the tope but on itstop. Later the number of umbrellas was increased to 3, 7, 9, 11,nd even 13 (always on odd number), placed one above the other.In Tibet, and more especially in China, the terminal has frequentlybecome the whole monument, the dome being wholly omitted. Themost magnificent example of this style is the porcelain pagoda ofNankin, China, generally called the "Temple of Gratitude," whichin its nine stories rises to a height of 236 feet.The pyramidal shape observed in the Wat Chang pagoda is themost common for these religious edifices of Buddhism, and in this
" Compare A. Cunningham, Mahabodhl, or the Great Buddhist Temple under the Bodhi Tree atBuddha-Qaya, London, 1892, p. 47.
?' Handbook of Architecture, London, 1859, p. 10.
166 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
respect they recall the terraced Temple Towers in Babylonia. Dimen-sions: 3 by 3 by 3 feet. Bangkok, Siam. (Cat. No. 158420, U.S.N.M.) Gift of the Marquis Visuddha, minister of Siam to England.291. Chinese pagoda.?Model of wood. Consisting of nine stories,surmounted by a spire, called in Japanese Tciu-do (nine rings), resem-bling a corkscrew such as may be used to uncork a columbiade. Theform of the Chinese pagoda is probably derived from the spire ringedwith umbrellas, described in the preceding No. 290, of the Hindu stupa.The umbrella-shaped roof is the main element in the Chinese pagoda,the walls being mere screens, set between pillars. Each platform, asit towers upward in decreasing size, is supposed to denote a world.To the roofs of the various stories are attached small bells and tin-kling copper leaves, which are swung and rung by the wind, to denotethe eternal music of the spheres, and the carved balustrades and pro-jecting eaves are emblems of the habitations of the happy beingsdwelling in the supernal regions. Of the several stories only thefirst is used as a shrine for relics and images, while the others arehollow, with staircases leading up to the top.The roofs are black lacquered, the railings and halls are red lac-quered, the spire is gilt lacquered. Height, 5 feet by 23 inchessquare. China. (Cat. No. 313624, U.S.N.M.)292. Pagoda.?Model of wood, lacquered and gilt. Consisting ofthree stories, surmounted by the nine-ringed spire (Jciu-do), ter-minating in the jewel or sacred pearl, one of the three treasures oremblems of royalty in Japan. Height, 30 by 15 inches square. Japan.(Plate 57, Cat. No. 154965, U.S.N.M.)293-294. The Temple Hongwanji and hair rope.?The great Hong-wanji temple of the "True Sect" {Shin shu), at Kioto, Japan, wascompleted in 1895. Its dimensions are those of a western cathedral.Ninety-six massive pillars support the roof at a height of 126 feet.The timbers were all dragged from the mountain and lifted into theirplaces by 29 immense ropes made of human hair, the voluntaryofferings of innumerable women, which are still preserved within theprecincts. Tokio, Japan. (Plate 58: Upper left), plan of the templeHongwanji; (lower), section of a hair rope, measuring 32 inches inlength and 4)^ inches in diameter, used in the erection of the temple;(upper right), photograph of the ropes made of human hair. Cat.Nos. 150829-150831, U.S.N.M.) Gift of V. Marshall Law.295. Naga Shrine.?Wood, carved, red painted, gilt and inlaidwith green glass pieces. Consists of a cylindrical box with a tri-angular opening on one side for holding an image (which is wanting),formed of the coils of a large serpent (naga), round which are coiledfour smaller serpents. It rests on a lotus and ornamented baseHeight, 4 feet 6 inches. Burma. (Cat. No. 317008, U.S.N.M.)Gift of William Lilly.
OBJECTS OF KELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 167296. Porcelain model oj a Chinese pagoda.?Height, 16 inches.China. (Cat. No. 316348, U.S.N.M.) Collected by Maj. MurrayWarner and presented through his widow, Mrs. Gertrude BassWarner.297-298. Pair of Nios.?Models of wood, painted and decorated.The Nios or Niolcongas ("the two bold golden kings") are usuallyplaced on both sides of the lofty portal to a Buddhist temple inJapan as gatekeepers or guardians. They are the Hindu godsBrahma and Indra. They are represented naked, close-set, athleticfigures, 10 or 12 feet high, with eyes and features distorted, paintedvermilion red, wrestling against the powers of evil. Height, 16^mches. Japan. (Plate 59, Cat. No. 166079, U.S.N.M.)299-300. Pair of Nios.?Models of wood, black lacquered. Height,14 inches. Japan. (Cat. No. 130457, U.S.N.M.)301. BuddMst temple.?Model of wood (in sections), red painted.Miniature copy of a Laos Buddliist temple, carved and set up by apriest, with the carvings, placement of the timbers, and the severalparts of it, as the throne for the image of Buddha, the pulpit fromwhich the scriptures are read, the Nagas on each side of the entrance,representing in every detail a copy of a Buddhist temple in Laos.Laos, Further India. (Cat.No. 217670, U.S.N.M.)302-303. Temple lanterns.?The lids of these two lanterns are oflacquered wood. The upper lid of each is provided with a bronzehandle representing a dragon; the lower lid with bronze cocks. Thelids have openings to admit a candle, for which an iron spike is pro-vided on the bottom of the lower lid, upon which the candle is stuck.By raising the upper lid, the painted paper cyhnder, which emits thelight, is unfolded. The lanterns can be hung up by the handlesor suspended on poles which are passed through holes in both lidsprovided for that purpose. Height, 12^ inches; diameter, 13%inches. Japan. (Plate 60 (upper) shows the lanterns opened; plate60 (lower left) exhibits the top; (right) the bottom. (Cat. No.154967, U.S.N.M.)304. Temple lantern.?Copper. Hexagonal, with dome-shaped topin open work. Richly enameled in various colors and decoratedwith a profusion of floral designs. Height, 21 inches; diameter, 10inches. Korea. (Cat. No. 154983, U.S.N.M.)305. Pair of temple lamps.?Open fretwork. On the top is the re-ceptacle for oil in shape of a dish, from which fig leaves are suspended.The whole has a kind of aureole as a background and is surmountedby Ganesa, the Hindu god of sagacity with the elephant head, who alsofound a place in the Tibetan pantheon. Made of bronze. Measure-ments: Height, 3 feet 9 inches; diameter of the base, 13}^ inches.Tibet. (Plate 61, Cat. No. 216141, U.S.N.M.) Bequest of S. S.Howland.
168 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM306. Bowl or lamp.?Brass. Made in form of a demoniac maskwith open mouth, adorned with colored stones on the foreheadand a rayed diadem, behind which is a small standing figure. Thehead rests on a sort of tripod. The earlobes are in form of coiledsnakes. Height, 7 inches. Tibet (?). (Cat. No. 315325, U.S.N.M.)Bequest of Alfred Louis Moreau Gottschalk.307. Altar covering (Chinese, liuan mun-tiao-lnua)
.
?Made of browncloth, consisting of a center piece scalloped at the lower edge, withtw^o side pieces which descended over the edge of the altar. Em-broidered in gold with dragons and Icilins (kirins), a mj^tliical animal,pictured as resembling a stag in its body and a horse in its hoof,but possessing the tail of an ox and a parti-colored or scaly sldn,and a single horn, having a fleshy tip, proceeds out of the forehead.The Icilin is believed to exhibit great benevolence of disposition towardother living animals, and to appear only when wise and just kings orsages are born. Dimensions, 24 by 30/4 inches. Shanghai, China.(Cat. No. 158307, U.S.N.M.)308-311. Four altar coverings (Chinese, Jiuan mun-tiao-kua)
.
?Made of oblong pieces of brown cloth, with centerpieces of red cloth.The edges are embroidered in silk with floral designs, while on thebody is an inscription in Chinese characters pasted on. Dimensions,37 by 8K inches. Shanghai, China. (Cat. No. 158307, U.S.N.M.)312-313. Pair of candlesticks.?Made of pew^ter in the shape ofthe Chinese character for longevity (slieu). The candles are stuckon the points at the top of the candlesticks, and lighted whenever aceremony takes place. This is done in the temple service as well asin home worship. Height, 19 inches. Shanghai, Cliina. (Plate 63(upper), figs. 1 and 3, Cat. No. 158294, U.S.N.M.)314. Incense burner (kong-po-to)
.
?Made of pewter. On the frontare in relief the Chinese characters for longevity (sJieu) and bliss (fu).Height, 7% inches; length, 5% inches; width, 4 inches. Shanghai,China. (Plate 63 (upper), fig. 2, Cat. No. 158295, U.S.N.M.)315. Imitation candlesticlcs.?Wooden sticks with inserted pointsfor candles to be stuck on them. Height, 8 inches. Japan. (Cat.No. 130678, U.S.N.M.)316. Censer.?Bronze. Supported on three legs formed of doublevolutes or spirals. The handles are in shape of dragons. The cover,in open work, is surmomited by a mythical bird perched on somemythical animal. The circumference is embossed with dragons andother monsters. Height 10 inches; diameters, 6 and 4% inches.Japan. (Plate 62 (upper left), Cat. No. 220057, U.S.N.M.) Lentby Miss Eliza R. Scidmore.317. Candlestick.?Bronze. Consisting of the figure of an emaci-ated ascetic holding a long dragon, the head of which rests on thebase, while the tail terminates in a bowl for inserting a candle.
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 169Height, 6)2 inches. Kobe, Japan. (Plate 62 (upper right), Cat. No.154825, U.S.N.M.)318. Censer.?Brass. Height, Qji inches. Kobe, Japan. (Cat.No. 254828, U.S.N.M.)319. Censer.?Brass. The cover, in open work, is surmounted bya knob. Height, 4 inches. Japan. (Cat. No. 158314, U.S.N.M.)320. Censer.?Bronze. The cover, in openwork is surmountedby a crouching mythical animal. Around the circumference areembossed trees with various birds perching in them. Height, 5Kinches; diameter, Sji inches. Japan. (Cat. No. 311806, U.S.N.M.)Bequest of Miss Elizabeth S. Stevens.321
.
Censer.?Bronze. Resting on three legs which are of animal-headed human figures. The lid is surmounted by a mythical animal.Height, ^Yi inches; diameter, 4% inches. Seoul, Korea. (Cat. No.151618, U.S.N.M.)322. Bronze figurine.?Being the lid of a censer. Holding in theright hand a basket or pail with flowers; in the raised left, a coin (?).Height, 5K inches. India or Japan. (Cat No. 316346, U.S.N.M.)Collected by Maj. Murray Warner and presented through his widow,Mrs. Gertrude Bass Warner.323. incense.?Burma. (Cat. No. 129531, U.S.N.M.)324. incense.?Japan. (Cat. No. 130685, U.S.N.M.)325. Flower vase.?Brass. Placed before Buddhist shrines. Height,5 inches; diameters, 4 and 2)^ inches. Probably China. (Cat. No.158313, U.S.N.M.)326. Lotus cup.?Bronze. Eight-fluted cup set in a quadrupleeight-petaled lotus, with short stem and base of an inverted eight-petaled lotus. The hd has 20 perforations for inserting flowers.Height, 4% inches; diameter, 2]^ mches. India (?). (Cat. No. 311796,U.S.N.M.) Bequest of Miss Ehzabeth S. Stevens.327. Holy water vase (Tibetan, humha or tsehum).?Made of brassheavily gilded in Persian shape, with a large spherical body and slenderbent spout. The neck is short and narrow and terminates in a flar-ing mouth in shape like an overturned bowl. In the top of this is asmall circular opening, in which a chased metal tube fits, reachingfar down into the vase, and in its upper end a bunch of the sacred Tcusagrass and some peacock feathers. This instrument is the aspergil.The vase has a covering of silk fastened around the neck so as tocompletely hide the vase. Such coverings are put on most objectsused in the temple worship, on the sacred miages, books, etc., prob-ably as a mode of honoring these sacred objects. The water used inthese vases has a Httle saffron in it, and sometimes a little sugar.The vase is used especially in the ceremonies connected with the wor-ship of Tsepamed (Amitayus), the Buddha of long life (see No. 163),61551?29 12
170 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMand is called the vase of life. Height, 6)2 inches. Kumbum, Tibet.(Cat. No. 130402, U.S.N.M.)328. Libation howl.?Made of a human skull with a lining of ironand an ornamented copper gilt rim fitting on it. The cover ofcopper gilt is finely and intricately chased and has on each sidethe mystic syllable Om with an arabesque design surrounding it.The top of the cover is surmounted with four half vajras (dorjes),at right angles, a fifth and larger one forming the handle. Thestand on which the skull rests is of gOt copper and triangular inshape. At the three angles are human heads painted red, white,and green. The skull bowl is hkewise used in the worship ofTsepamed, when it is filled with nectar brewed from chang. Afterthe ceremony it is drunk by those present?a kind of a lamaisteucharist. The custom of using skulls as holy vessels, or even aseating bowls, is a very old one in Asia. Height, 9K inches; diameters,8 and &% inches. The specimen in the Museum came from Kum-bum, Tibet. (Cat. No. 130384, U.S.N.M.)329. Prayer banners (Chinese, yen-lcou-fo, or tong-hoan).?Consist-ing of five brass figurines holding small suspended banners of cloth.They are set up on the altar during recital of prayers for the soulsof the dead, especially for the souls of those who failed to receiveburial. Their number probably corresponds to the five earthly{manushi) Buddhas of the present age (kalpa) (see p. 119, note 1).Height, 15^^ inches. Shanghai, China. (Plate 63 (lower), Cat. No.158303, U.S.N.M.)330. Pair of prayer wands (Chinese, yen-lcou tsi-tao).?Made ofxjopper. Used in reciting prayers for the souls of the dead. Theyare placed crosswise one over the other. Length, 7% inches. Shang-hai, China. (Cat. No. 158310, U.S.N.M.)331. Scent sprinkler.?Made of white metal in form of a long-necked narrow vase. Used at Buddhist funerals. Height, 14^inches. Ceylon. (Cat. No. 154975, U.S.N.M.)332. Temple sword.?On one side of the blade is incised a windingdragon, on the .other a vajra (dorje). The scabbard is red and giltlacquered, crossed by bands in red and black. The hilt is coveredwith shark skin and set on either side with bronze dragons. Thelower end of the scabbard and the head of the hilt are framed in amarine animal (lobster ?), of bronze. A sword is placed on the altarin front of the celebrant in the worship of Fudo (see above No. 192).
.Length, 45 inches. Japan. (Cat. No. 154969, U.S.N.M.)333. Temple sword.?On one side of the blade is incised a dragonwinding around a vajra (dorje), on the other, a vajra. The scabbardis decorated in cloisonne enamel on a blue ground with rosette?
-alternating in pale green and crimson red, with other floral designsbetween them. The hilt, which is in shape of a vajra, is decorated
OBJECTS OF EELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 171in champlev^ enamel. Used in the worship of Fudo (No. 192).Length, 23 inches. Japan. (Cat. No. 1 54968, U.S.N.M.)334. Japanese prayer hook.?Folded. This prayer book comesfrom the famous temple Mis-kru-saw in Japan. The temple is aresort for invahds, particiilary for those having affections of theeye, and the prayers contained in this book are for special use inthe temple. Japan. (Cat. No. 130676, U.S.N.M.)335. Temple drum.?Hung in a lacquered wooden frame set on a4-legged support. On the flattened faces of the drum are paintedin gold lacquer a bird and leaves. Drums or bells are put up in frontof Buddhist temples, on which the priests strike to announce theceremony. Japan. (Cat. No. 168815, U.S.N.M.)336. Small gong. (Chinese, yin-to).?Made of copper in shape of apan or flat plate, with a wooden carved handle. It is struck with acarved slender stick as introductory to prayers in Buddhist temples.Diameter, 6% inches. Shanghai, China. (Cat. No. 158302, U.S.N.M.)337. Small hell (Chinese, siao-chung).?Made of copper, suspendedfrom a carved wooden frame. It has no clapper, but is struck witha stick on the outer circumference. Used in the temple service.Height, 14K inches. Shanghai, China. (Cat. No. 158306, U.S.N.M.)338. Inverted hell (Chinese, ch'm'g to).?Made of copper in form ofa pot or kettle, sounded on the outer surface with a stick in Buddhistworship. Height, 4}^ inches; diameter, 9 inches. Shanghai, China.(Cat. No. 158297, U.S.N.M.)339. Small hetl.?Made of copper. Suspended from a slenderwooden carved stick which is held in the hand, while the bell is struckon the outer surface during the recital of prayers. Height, Iji inches;diameter, 2}^ inches. Shanghai, China. (Cat. No. 158308, U.S.N.M.)340. Pair of large cymhals {Chinese, da-pa).?Made of brass. Thesecymbals are employed in the temple service, and also in private cere-monies, such as weddings, funerals, etc. They are supposed to havebeen introduced into China from India. Diameter, 9}^ inches. Shang-hai, China. (Cat. No. 158298, U.S.N.M.)341. Pair of small cymhals (Chinese, siao-pa).?Made of brass.Used only in the temple service of the Buddhists. Diameter, 8 inches.Shanghai, China. (Cat. No. 158299, U.S.N.M.) '342. Pair of cymhals.?Made of brass. Used in Buddhist pro-cessions. Diameter, 7 inches. Laos, Further India. (Cat. No.217504, U.S.N.M.)343. Drum of slculls (Tibetan, damaru).?Made of two skullsattached together by a wooden disk cemented to them. A band ofembroidered satin, decorated with elaborately knotted silk tasselsof Chinese make, covers the disk between the two heads, by whichthe person using the drum may hold it in his hand, his thumb andforefinger being placed around the disk of wood between the drum-heads. From the band are depending small knobs covered with cloth
172 BULLETIN 14S, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMby short strings of such length that when the drum is sharply twirledaround the}^ strike the heads. Used by the lamas in the templeservice in Tibet. Height, 3 inches; diameter, 4K inches. Kumbum,Tibet. (Cat. No. 130385, U.S.N.M.)344. Drum qf skulls (damaru).?Painted in red and blue withheads of demons and skulls. The band around the wooden disk is ofcotton. Height, 5}4 inches; diameter, 6)2 inches. India. (Cat. No.153363, U.S.N.M.)345. Temple drum.?Mounted on a vase-shaped wooden standcarved, gilded, and studded with colored stones. Drums or bolls are-put in front of Buddhist temples, on which the priests strike to an-nounce the hours of prayer. The worshipers also strike them to invite-the presence of the deity. Drums are likewise used in Buddhistworship to accompany the chanting of the priests. Measurements:Height, 2 feet 6 inches; diameters, 14K and 11 inches. Burma. (Cat.No. 216142, U.S.N.M.) Bequest of S. S. Rowland.346. Wooden carved Jigure holding gong.?Gongs are used in Budd-hist w^orship to make known the presence of the worshiper, and also-as introductory to prayer. Height, 4 feet. Burma. (Cat. No.216148, U.S.N.M.) Bequest of S. S. Howland.347-348. Pair qf temple drums.?Set on 4-legged lacquered woodenstands and surmounted by cocks The circumferences of the drums,are covered with red cloth. On the flattened surfaces are paintedthree comma-shaped segments, the Japanese modification of theChinese (and Korean), tah-goolc, formed of two seginents, the com-mon representation of the yang and ym, the two first causes and greatprinciples of the universe, or contrary influences, such as darknessand hght, male and female, good and evil, etc. The figure also>represents the Japanese magatama, or "crooked jewel," one of theemblems of sovereignty in Japan. As regards the cocks perched ontop of the drums. Dr. John Ellerton Lodge, curator of the FreerGallery of Art, kindly offered the foUowing interesting story:The familiar Japanese or Chinese design of a cock on a drum is intended to>suggest a well-known story of the famous Emperor Yao, who is said to haveascended the throne of China in the year 2357 B. C. This enlightened monarchcaused a drum to be placed in front of his palace gate, with the announcementthat whoever had any complaint to make to the sovereign should come to thegate and beat upon the drum, thereby attracting the Emperor's attention. So-wisely, however, did this ruler govern his people, that none ever came to enter a.complaint, and in the course of time the fowls went to roost on the silent drum.Height, 26 inches. Japan. (Plate 62 (lower), Cat. No. 159966^U.S.N.M.)349. Wooden JisJi (Japanese, moTcugio; Chinese, mo-yii).?Carvedand red lacquered. Used as drum in Buddhist ceremonies. Theshape is accounted for by the supposition that the fish is sleepless^keeping its eyes always open on accoimt of the lack of eyelids and
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 173
eyelashes. It is therefore an emblem of wakefulness and watch-fulness in the striving after perfection. Height, 12 inches; length18 inches. Japan. (Plate 64 (upper) front; Plate 64 (lower) back.<Cat. No. 150893, U.S.N.M.) 3*350. Wooden fish (Chinese, mo-yii; Japanese, moJcugio).?Carved,and painted red, with wooden mallet for striking it. Similar to thepreceding No. 349. Height, lOK inches; length, 14 inches. Shang-hai, China. (Cat. No. 158296, U.S.N.M.)351. Wooden drum (Chinese, siao-Jcu).?Shaped like two flatplates put together. It is carried by the priest in processions andstruck on the side. Diameter, 7}2 inches. Shanghai, China. (Cat.No. 155300, U.S.N.M.)352. The 9-toned hell (Chinese, chin yin-lo).?Made of copper.Consisting of 10 small gongs suspended in a screen or gate-like cabinetwhich is struck with a small stick as an accompaniment to prayer.Height, 24 inches; width, 22 inches. Shanghai, China. (Plate 65,Cat. No. 158305, U.S.N.M.)353. Triratna, or the three jewels?namely, Buddha, the law (dharma),und the congregation (sangha).?Wood, red and black lacquered andgilt. Represented by three columns set on a base. The center cone,which represents Buddha, issues from a lotus flower and in its cir-<}umference are set five Buddha figurines of ivory, of which threeare seated in the witness position and two in that of meditation.They are probably intended to represent the five mundane {inanushi)Buddhas of the present age. Between the petals of the lotus arecarved five open lotuses and beneath them five leaves inlaid with piecesof shell and looking-glass. The two side columns, which representthe law and the congregation, respectively, are carved in the shape ofa closed lotus, flattened on one side, into which is inserted an ivorypanel, representing Buddha standing in the gift-bestowing attitude.Height, 17 inches; width, 12^ inches. Laos, Further India. (Plate66, Cat. No. 217501, U.S.N.M.)354. Triratna.?Wood, lacquered and gilt. Representing Buddhastanding in the center, while the two figures on the right and left aresitting. On the base is an inscription in Pali. Height, 14 inches;width, 7 inches. Laos, Further India. (Plate 67, Cat. No. 217585,U.S.N.M.)355. Triratna.?Terra cotta relief, finely molded. Buddha seatedin the witness position in a niche, formed of a pointed arch resting oncolumns, an elaborate halo of rays rising above liis head. The two
' sThe Rev. David Crockett Graham in his dissertation, Religion in Szechuan Province, says (quotingfrom the manuscript): "While reading [the scriptures! the Chinese priest beats a wooden fish with awooden mallet, one stroke for every word. There is a legend that the Buddhist scriptures were once lostin a sea or a river and were swallowed by a great fish. The fish was caught and by beating compelled togive the scriptures back. The wooden flsh is, therefore, beaten even by Taoist priests, when scripturesare ceremonially read."
174 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
smaller figures on his sides sitting in meditation. Height, 3% inches *width, 2K inches. Laos, Further India. (Cat. No. 217631,U.S.N.M.) KAKEMONOSA Tcakemono is a scroll of paper or canvas, with a picture or inscrip-tion painted or printed upon one side. The designs are usuallyreligious. They are rolled upon a cylindrical stick, and are intendedto be hung upon the wall.356. Kakemono.?Representing Buddha in the center, surroundedby saints or Bodhisattvas. Painted in gold and various colors. Thestyle much resembles that of the illuminated missals of the MiddleAges. Washington, D. C. (Cat. No. 305813, U.S.N.M.) Gift ofMrs. B. H. Buckingham and Miss. Isabelle C. Freeman.357. Kakemono.?Representing Buddha in a temple, surroundedby divinities and saints in gold on a black ground, with borders inpurple and cream color. Measurements, 6 feet by 35 inches. Japan.(Cat. No. 316349, U.S.N.M.) Collected by Maj. Murray Warnerand presented through his widow, Mrs. Gertrude Bass Warner.358. Kakemono.?Buddha seated under a canopy, with large entour-age. Painted in gold, scarlet, green, and yellow, with border in goldbrocade. Measurements, 6 feet 11 inches by 31^ inches. Japan.(Cat. No. 316350, U.S.N.M.) Collected by Maj. Murray Warnerand presented through his widow, Mrs. Gertrude Bass Warner.359. Kalcemono.?Buddha under a canopy surrounded by worship-ers (similar to the preceding No. 358). Painted in gold, scarlet,green, and cream, with blue border. Measurements, 5 feet 3 inchesby 22% mches. Japan. (Cat. No. 316351, U.S.N.M.) Collectedby Maj. Murray Warner and presented through his widow, Mrs.Gertrude Bass Warner.360. Kakemono.?In the center is a bearded figure holding in hisraised right hand a vase or box around which is a winding dragon.Below is a water landscape. The colors are scarlet, blue, and cream,with a border in gold-brown brocade. Measurements, 6 feet by 21inches. China. (Cat. No. 316352, U.S.N.M.). Collected by Maj.Murray Warner and presented through his widow, Mrs. GertrudeBass Warner.361. Kakemono.?In the center is a female figure (perhaps intendedfor Kuan Yin). The rest and the colors are similar to the precedingNo. 360. Measurements, 6 feet by 21}^ inches. China or Japan.(Cat. No. 316353, U.S.N.M.) Collected by Maj. Murray Warnerand presented through his widow, Mrs. Gertrude Bass Warner.362. Kakemono.?Bearded figures and a water scene. Measure-ments, 6 feet 5 inches by 28 inches. China or Japan. (Cat. No.316354, U.S.N.M.) Collected by Maj. Murray Warner and presentedthrough his widow, Mrs. Gertrude Bass Warner.
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 175363. Kakemono.?Representing a Bodhisattva on a lotus throne,
./hich is set on a ornate base. Measurements, 4 feet 11 Jo inches by17K inches. China or Japan. (Cat. No. 316355. U.S.N.M.) Col-lected by Maj. Murray Warner and presented through his widow,Mrs. Gertrude Bass Warner.364. Kakemono.?Representing Buddha with 12 saints or arhats.The faces are painted white, the caps red, the robes yellow, the haloslight green. China (?). (Cat. No. 154273, U.S.N.M.)365. Kakemono.?Monochrome. Representing Daruma by Totekuof the Unkoku School (1538-1610 A. D.). Daruma w^as the twenty-eighth Buddhist patriarch. He arrived in China in 520 A. D. andconverted the then emperor. It is said he came to Japan in 613A. D. and died there. During nine years he sat in profound medita-tion, neither moving or speaking, and when he returned to conscious-ness of his surroundings his legs had become paralyzed owing to theirlong disuse. He is often depicted in a humorous manner, with acomical head and round body, without arms and legs, which aresupposed to have withered away from disuse. Japan. (Cat. No.154273, U.S.N.M.)366. Tibetan painting.?Representing Buddha in the midst of24 saints and divinities. The robes of the ensemble are paintedscarlet, the halos green. Height, 50 inches; width, 24 inches. Leh,Ladakh. (Cat. No. 178126, U.S.N.M.) Gift of W. L. Abbott.367-373. Seven water colors.?Painted in guasche on muslin, beingcopies of wall paintings in temples of Laos. Representing scenes fromthe life of Buddha. Noticeable is the flight of Buddha from Kapila-vastu on his faithful horse Kantkaka, whose hoofs are supported bygoddesses rising from the earth. Dimensions: 3 bj^ 3 feet to 6 by 3feet. Laos, Further India. (Cat. Nos. 217656-217662, U.S.N.M.)374. Lotus.?Model of wood. The lotus {Nelumbium speciosum), is,as has been said previously (No. 2), the favorite flower of India andinvested with much symbolism. Among others, it is the symbol ofpurity. The lotus upon the lake seems to spring from the body of thewaters without contact with the earth, and no matter how muddy thewater may be, the lotus preserves its own purity undefiled. ThusBuddha is made to say: "Just as a lotus born in water, bred in water,overcomes water and is not defiled by water, so I, born in the worldand bred in the world, have now overcome the world." The wor-shipers of Amitabha, or Amida, in China and Japan believe that eachman while living on earth is represented in paradise by a lotus, whichflourishes or languishes according to his spiritual condition. Thesaved dead (by faith in the invocation of Amitabha), are carried tothe lake of lotuses where they are reborn with a spiritual body withinthe calyx of one of the lotuses. According to their merits, the lotusopens sooner or later. Some are imprisoned for thousands of ages
176 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
within the closed calyx of their lotuses?a kind of painless purgatory.Height, 3}^ inches. Koba, Japan. (Cat. No. 154830, U.S.N.M.)375. Inscribed paper sheet for the prayer wheel.?Tibet. (Cat. No.331752, U.S.N.M.) Gift of Rev. Da\dd C. Graham.376. Inscribed circular paper sheet Jor the prayer wheel.?Tibet.(Cat. No. 331753, U.S.N.M.) Gift of Rev. David C. Graham.377. Libation cup.?Brass. Diameter, 2}^ inches. China. (Cat.No. 331675, U.S.N.M.)378-379. Two statuettes of Buddha or Buddhist saints.?Height, 7inches. China. (Cat. No. 329760, U.S.N.M.) Gift of Miss AliceTracy Thayer.
4. MISCELLANEOUS OBJECTS CONNECTED WITH THE RELIGIOUS LORE OFVARIOUS PEOPLES AND COUNTRIES380-381. Pair of mythical lions.?Bronze. Lions of metal or stone,sometimes of colossal size, are often placed at the entrance of Buddhisttemples as protectors from evil spirits. They are also emblematic ofBuddha who bears the epithet Saliyasimha, "the lion of the Sakyarace." Length, 2 inches. Kobe, Japan. (Cat. Nos. 154831-154832,U.S.N.M.)382. Mythical lion (singto).?Wood, red lacquered. Height, 6inches. Laos, Further India. (Cat. No. 217578, U.S.N.M.)383-384. Pair of Icirins {Chinese, Icilin).?Wood, black lacqueredand gilt. Standing on lacquered bases. For a description of themythical kirin see above under No. 311. Height, 7% inches. Japan.(Cat. No. 154296, U.S.N.M.)385. Kirin (kilin).?Made of brass. Height, SK inches; length,6 inches. China or Japan. (Cat. No. 315524, U.S.N.M.) Bequestof Alfred Louis Moreau Gottschalk.386. Mythical animal, dog Fo (?).?Wood, painted brown withgray spots, lacquered and gilt. Height, 27 inches; length, 32 inches.China or Japan. (Cat. No. 313625, U.S.N.M.)The following small collection of bronze animal figurines from Laosmay be votives or weights
:
387. Bronze dog.?Height, % of an inch. Laos, Further India.(Cat. No. 217551, U.S.N.M.)388. Bronze monkey.?Height, % of an inch. Laos, Further India.(Cat. No. 217552, U.S.N.M.)389. Bronze zebu, standing on base.?Height, 1% inches. Laos,Further India. (Cat. No. 217547, U.S.N.M.)390. Bronze zebu couchant.?Height, three-fourth of an inch. Laos,Further India. (Cat. No. 217548, U.S.N.M.)391. Bronze cow (?).?Height, three-fourths of an inch. Laos,Further India. (Cat. No. 217549, U.S.N.M.)392. Bronze horse.?Height, seven-eighths of an inch. LaosFurther India. (Cat. No. 217550, U.S.N.M.)
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 177393. Bronze hear, on hase.?Height, 1 inch. Laos, Further India.(Cat. No. 217546, U.S.N.M.)394-402.
?
Nine griffins, or dragons, on bases.?Bronze. Called bythe Laos "noble animals," which peacefully roam through the splen-did gardens of the gods. Height, % to 3K inches. Laos, Further India.(Cat. Nos. 217537-217545, U.S.N.M.)403. Demon-queller (Chinese, Chung Kw'ei; Japanese, STiolci).?Made of wood; carved and painted. On his head in the upstandinghair is perched a dragon; at his feet is a crouching demon, and overthe belt is carved the mask of a monster. The demon queller is inChinese mythology supposed to be a ghostly protector of the EmperorMing Hwang (713-762 A. D.). He is usually represented as a trucu-lent giant, clad in official garb and armed with a 2-edged sword. He issometimes shown as riding upon a lion, but more commonly is engagedin punishing the pigmy demons. The subject forms one of the mostfrequent inspirations of the Japanese artist, and appears in numberlessspecimens of porcelain, ivory, wood carving, and other works.This statuette is a specimen of old Japanese carving. Height, 39inches. Japan. (Plate 68, Cat. No. 130461, U.S.N.M.)404. Devil dancer's dress.?Consisting of a blue cotton jacket withthin strips of palm leaves stuck into it, giving it the form of fur.Ceylon. (Cat. No. 154980, U.S.N.M.)405. Devil dancer's dress.?The same as No. 404, only that thejacket is of white cotton. Ceylon. (Cat. No. 154981, U.S.N.M.)406. Devil dancer's lasli.?Ceylon. (Cat. No. 154982, U.S.N.M.)Sir James Emerson Tennent gives the following explanation anddescription of the devil dance in Ceylon
:
The Singhalese have demon or Sanne for each form of disease, who is supposedto be the direct agent and infiicter, and who is accordingly invoked for its removal.Hence on every domestic occurrence, as well as in every domestic calamity, theservices of the katadias or devil priests are to be sought and their ceremoniesperformed * * *, Especially in cases of sickness and danger the assistanceof the devil-dancers is implicity relied on: An altar, decorated with garlands, iserected within sight of the patient, and on this an animal, frequently a cock, isto be sacrificed for his recovery. The dying man is instructed to touch and ded-icate to the evil spirit the wild flowers, the rice, and the flesh which have beenprepared as the pidarieys, or offerings to be made at sunset, at midnight, and themorning; and in the intervals the dancers perform their incantations, habited inmasks and disguises to represent the demon which they personate, as the immedi-ate author of the patients' suffering. In the frenzy of these orgies the kaladia,having feigned the access of inspiration from the spirit he invokes, is consultedby the friends of the afflicted, and declares the nature of the disease, and theprobability of its favorable or fatal termination. At sunrise, the ceremonycloses with an exorcism chanted to disperse the demons who have been attractedby the rite; the devil dancers withdraw with the offerings and sing, as they retire,the concluding song of the ceremony, "that the sacrifice may be acceptable andthe life of the sufferer extended." ''
" Sir J. E. Tennent, Ceylon. An account of the island, physical, historical, and topographical. London,1860, vol. 1, p.540.
178 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMAnd describing the performance of such a dance the same author says
:
We witnessed the extravagances of two professional devil dancers, who wereperforming a ceremony in front of a little altar, for the recovery of a patient whowas dying close by. It is difficult to imagine anything more demoniac than theaspect, movements, and noises of these wild creatures; their features distortedwith exertion and excitement and their hair tangled in ropes, tossed in all direc-tions, as they swing round in mad contortions.^"407. Geomantic compass (Chinese, lo-Jcing or lo-pan).?Consistingof a disk of lacquered wood, beveled down at the bottom to the shapeof a saucer. The upper surface carries in its center a small compass,around which run 17 inscribed concentric circles, containing thesundry geomantic factors, as the 8 permutations of the trigram, the12 signs of the zodiac, the 24 celestial constellations, and so forth.It represents the ancient Chinese system of cosmogony and naturalphilosophy, and forms the basis of a system of divination.Geomancy, or, as the Chinese call it, "wind and water," rules(fung-sTiui) , is much used by the Chinese for divining future events,or ascertaining the luckiness or unluckiness of any event, or selectingsites for houses, cities, and especially burial places, which are supposedto have important results on the prosperity of the living. The prin-ciples of geomancy depend on two supposed currents running throughthe earth, known as the dragon and the tiger; a propitious site hasthese on its left and right. A skillful observer (fung-shui siensang,or "wind and water doctor") can detect and describe such currentswith the help of the compass, also the direction of the watercourses,shapes of the male and female ground and their proportions, positionof rivers, trees, and mountains, color of the soil, and the changes ofthe elements.*! (New York, 1853, vol. 2, pp. 245-247). Diameter,7K inches. China. (Plate 69, Cat. No. 126954, U.S.N.M.)*^408. Divination slips (Chinese, cJii en-toong).?Consisting of twobamboo tubes containing slips of bamboo which are inscribed with dif-ferent characters. The person wishing to know the will of the gods orhis fortune shakes the tube and, with averted face, draws out a slip andreads the answer on it. Shanghai, China. (Cat. No. 158304, U.S.N.M.)409. Divination hlocks (Chinese, cTiiao).?Consisting of two piecesof split bamboo, kidney shaped, with one side convex and the otherflat. The supplicant tosses them into the air in front of the altarsof the gods he is supplicating. If both convex sides turn up, theanswer is yang-yang, which signifies the male principle of nature, andmeans "indifferently good"; if both flat sides turn up it is yin-yin,which signifies the female principle of nature, the answer is understoodto be negative and unfavorable; if one convex and the other flat, the
<? Idem, vol. 2, p. 581." S. Wells Williams, The Middle Kingdom.' For a detailed explanation of the geomantic compass see j. j.M. de Oroot, The Religious of China, Leide,1897, vol. 3, p. 959, and Paul Cams, Chinese Thought, Chicago, 1907, p. 58.
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 179answer is considered as absolutely affirmative and the prayer asgranted. Shanghai, China. (Cat. No. 158301, U.S.N.M.)410. Divination cards.?Five disks of rough cardboard, painted inred, green, blue, and yellow with concentric circles, with Tibetanletters in the center and surrounded by flames on the margin. Dia-meter, 4K inches. Tibet. (Cat. No. 311864, U.S.N.M.) Bequestof Miss Elizabeth S. Stevens.411. Divination cards.?Nine cardboards, painted in the samecolors as the preceding No. 410, with various grotesque monstrousanimals. Length, 4K inches; width, 3% inches. Tibet. (Cat. No.311865, U.S.N.M.) Bequest of Miss Elizabeth S. Stevens.412. BooJc oj divination.?Manuscript in Pali on palm leaves,inclosed in a wooden case. The leaves and the case are perforatedthi'ough the center for the passing of a cord which holds the booktogether. Length, 2)2 inches; width, V/i inches. Laos, FurtherIndia. (Cat. No. 217647, U.S.N.M.)413. Divination blocJcs.?The same as No. 409. Carved on theinner flat sides with the symbols of the Yang and Yin. China.(Cat. No. 331670, U.S.N.M.)414-417. Native medicine.?Four bags containing from 4 to 24different substances, as various woods, bones, pieces of Buddha'salms bowl, etc. These are rubbed on a stone, and the resultingpowder washed off in water which is given to the patient to drink.Each bag is labeled and selected according to the sickness. Laos,Further India. (Cat. No. 217654, U.S.N.M.)418. Piece of oval sandstone.?Cut out on the upper surface. Sup-posed to have been used for grinding or rubbing medicine, but moreprobably for sharpening some instrument. Length, 3 inches; width.IK inches. Laos, Further India. (Cat. No. 217655, U.S.N.M.)419. Print.?Sheet of yellow paper stamped with the Chinesesign for longevity and other symbols. China. (Cat. No. 329762,U.S.N.M.) Gift of Miss Alice Tracy Thayer.420. Five wooden figurines.?Rudely carved. They are presentedas offerings to the gods to obtain male offspring. Height, 5}^ to7K inches. China. (Cat. Nos. 331747-331751, U.S.N.M.) Gift ofRev. David C. Graham.421. Piece oj iurial wood.?Consisting of a strip of wood, lac-quered and inscribed, with a tassel of red silk threads. Dimensions,6% by 1% inches. Japan. (Cat. No. 329757, U.S.N.M.) Gift ofMiss Alice Tracy Thayer.422. Ancestral tablet.?Wood, inscribed. On stated occasionsprayers are recited and offerings made before the ancestral tablets.They are inscribed with, the name and titles of the deceased ances-tor. Height, 10% mches. China. (Cat. No. 329758, U.S.N.M.)Gift of Miss Alice Tracy Thayer.
180 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM423. Ancestral tablet.?Wood, lacquered and gilt and inscribed.Height, 9% inches. China. (Cat. No. 329759, U.S.N.M.) Giftof Miss Alice Tracy Thayer.424. Ancestral tablet.?Inscribed with the name of a noted Chinesescholar of a great and powerful family from Western China. China.(Cat. No. 331672, U.S.N.M.)425. Paper money.?Paper money, as also paper clothing, is burnedat the grave of a Chinese funeral. This custom is a transformationof the original rite when real money and clothing were buried withthe dead. The paper money and clothing are forwarded, as it were,to the deceased through the fire. China. (Cat. No. 329763-329764,U.S.N.M.) Gift of Miss Alice Tracy Thayer.426. Paper clothing.?See under the preceding number. China.(Cat. No. 329765, U.S.N.M.) Gift of Miss Alice Tracy Thayer.427. Confucius.?Seated statue of old bronze. Confucius^?inChinese, Kung-fu-tze, or also, Kung-tze?was a celebrated Chinesesage and teacher who lived 551 to 479 B. C. His system, preservedin the "Four Shu," or classical books, consists mainly in the worshipof spirits, especially of deceased ancestors, and in the observance of anelaborate morality adapted to practice, and applied to private, social,and political life. His authority as moral teacher is also very greatamong the educated classes of Japan and Korea. Height, 30 inches.Chma. (Cat. No. 316322, U.S.N.M.) Collected by Maj. MurrayWarner and presented through his widow, Mrs. Gertrude Bass Warner.428. Chinese sage.?Seated statuette of bronze. Perhaps Mencius(Meng-tze), a follower of Confucius of the fourth century B. C.Height, 15}^ mches. China. (Cat. No. 316323, U.S.N.M.) Col-lected by Maj. Murray Warner and presented through his widow,Mrs. Gertrude Bass Warner.429. Chinese sage.?Seated statuette of bronze. Perhaps a dis-ciple of Confucius. Height, 13 inches. China. (Cat. No. 316324,U.S.N.M.) Collected by Maj. Murray Warner and presentedthrough his widow, Mrs. Gertrude Bass Warner.VIIOBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL OF PARSEEISMINTRODUCTIONPARSEESThe Parsees are the descendants of the ancient Persians, who, atthe overthrow of their country by the Arabs in 641 A. D., remainedfaithful to Zoroastrianism, which was, for centuries previous to theMohammedan conquest, the state and national religion of Persia.They derive their name of Parsees from the Province of Pars orFars, broadly employed for Persia in general. According to thecensus of 1911 the number of Parsees in India, including Aden, the
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 181Andaman Islands, and Ceylon, the Straits Settlements, China, andJapan, amounted to 100,499, of whom 80,980 belonged to the Bombay-Presidency .^^ About 10,000 are scattered in their former homeland ofPersia, mainly in Yezd and Kerman, where they are known by thename of Gebers, Guebers, or Gabars, derived by some from the ArabicKafir, infidel.ZOROASTER (AVK3TA, ZARATHUSHTRA; PAHLAVI TEXTS, ZARTUSHT; MODERN PERSIAN, ZARDUSHT)The religious beliefs and practices of the Parsees are based on thoteachings of Zoroaster, the Prophet of the ancient Iranians; that is,those Aryans who at an unknown early date separated from the Aryo-Indians and spread from their old seats on the high plateau northof the Hindu Kush westward into Media and Persia on the greatplateau between the plain of the Tigris in the west and the valley ofthe Indus in the east, the Caspian Sea and the Turanian desert inthe north, and the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean in the south,surrounded on all sides by high mountain ranges, with a great saltdesert in the center.There are few authentic data about Zoroaster and his life. Con-cerning the age in which he lived there is wide diversity. Greekwriters assigned him dates ranging between 6,500 B. C. and 200B. C, while some native sources and many modern scholars place himin the seventh century B. C. But the fact that by the sixth centuryB. C. Zoroastrianism had taken root in Persia, where it did notoriginate, as evidenced from the Behistun inscription of DariusHystaspis (521-485 B. C), which show him a worshiper of Ahura-Mazda, the supreme god of the Zoroastrian faith, and that it waswell known to the classical authors from the sixth century on as theestablished religion at least of Media, would seem to accord best withthe date of about 1000 B. C, assumed by some scholars. The ques-tion of the birthplace of Zoroaster is also a subject of dispute, butwestern Iran, probably Atropatene, the mountainous district ofancient Media, corresponding nearly to the modern Province ofAzerbaijan in Persia, is commonly believed to be the region in whichhe arose. Tradition is quite in accord that Bactria in Eastern Iran,about the modern district of Balkh in Afghanistan, was the stage ofZoroaster's life and work.Legend made of Zoroaster, as of other great religious teachers, aglorified and supernatural man. He was born in a miraculous wayby immaculate conception, his soul having been kept in the sacredHaoma plant, till God's glory had purified his mother's body. Athis birth all creation laughed with joy, while the evil demons fledaghast. When grown he was conducted b}^ an archangel into thepresence of God and in glory unutterable received divine revelations.
?3 James Hastings, Encylopaedia of Religion and Ethics, vol. 9, p. 641.
182 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMAfter seven visions he was tempted by Angra-Mainyu (Ahriman),the Evil One, who, foreseeing the discomfiture he and his creatureswere to suffer at Zoroaster's hands, first sent demon emissaries tokill him, but Zoroaster routed him by reciting the confession of faith,not to speak of rocks as big as houses that he had ready to pelt thedevils with, defiantly declaring his purpose to destroy the fiends'creation. Angra-Mainyu thereupon offered him vast possessions andearthly dominion if he renoimced the good religion (daena). ButZoroaster rejects the offer and declares that he will put the devilsto flight with the apparatus of worship and the holy words. There-upon the whole host, with cries of terror, precipitately flee down tothe world of darkness.What with some plausibility can be gathered from Zoroaster's ownwords and the earliest parts of the Zoroastrian scriptures, is thathe was a man of good birth, belonging to the noble family of Spitama,and pure nature, who arose as a prophet and reformer of the oldreligion of the Iranians. At flrst his preaching met with much oppo-sition and for years was without effect. But at last he succeeded inwinning the king Hystaspes (Vishtap, Gushtap, not to be confoundedwith Hystaspes, the father of Darius), for his teaching, and withhis aid converted by force in religious warfare the whole kingdom.At the age of 77 the aged warrior-prophet fell in one of these religiouswars, while fighting against the fierce Turanians?says tradition.(Plate 70.) SACRED LITERATURE OF THE PARSEESThe oldest and original Zoroastrian literature goes under the gen-eral name of Avesta or Zend Avesta, which is rendered, "text" or"law" and commentary. It consists of the following divisions:1. Yasna, the chief liturgical work and the oldest and most sacredpart of the Avesta, including as it does the Gathas, hymns or psalmscomposed in an older dialect, some of which may have been com-posed by Zoroaster himself.2. Visparad, containing minor litanies, invocations to the variouschiefs of the spiritual and terrestrial creation.3. YasTits, invocations and hymns to the ancient Iranian divini-ties and heroes.4. Khorda Avesta, or Little Avesta, comprising minor liturgical texts,as the Nyaishes and GaJis, or the five daily prayers, the Afringans, orbenedictions, etc., a kind of extract from the Avesta for laymen.5. Vendidad, a code of religious and civil laws and precepts, akind of Zoroastrian Pentateuch.**
" The present Avesta, which equals perhaps one-tenth of the Bible in extent, is believed to be but a smallremnant of the original Zoroastrian sacred literature which was lost during the invasions of Persia byAlexander the Great (330 B. C), and the Arabs (641 A. D.). According to the Arabian chronicler Tabari(died 923 A. D.), the Persian sacred scriptures were inscribed on 12,000 cowhides, and Hermippus, aGreek philosopher of the third century B. C, credits Zoroaster with the composition of 2,000,000 verses.
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 183Besides the Avesta scriptures, the language of which is akin to San-skrit, the Parsee religious literature includes many works of a laterdate written in other languages, chiefly in Pahlavi. Among these arethe Dinkard, the Bundahish, the historical account of the reformer-king Ardeshii', the vision of Arda Viraf in his journey through heavenand hell, a crude forerunner of Dante and his Divina Commedia, etc.ZOROASTRIAN THEOLOGYThe supreme figure in Zoroastrianism is Ormuzd (Ahura- Mazda,"Wise Spirit," properly "Lord Wisdom"), the all-w^ise Lord, the God,who made heaven and earth and all that is therein, who governs every-thing with wisdom, righteousness, and goodness. Associated withhim in the government of the world as his ministers are the Ameshas-pands (AmesTia Spentas, "Immortal Holy Ones"): 1, Vohu Mano,good mind (the good principle, the idea of good that works in man,inclining him to what is good); 2, Asha, right (as conformity to themoral law and order) ; Kshathra, the wished-for kingdom, (the King-dom of God); 4, Armaiti, devotion (humble piety, reverence for theDivine); 5, Haurvatat, welfare or perfection; Amertat, immortality.With these six, to make up the sacred seven, Sraosha, the genius ofobedience, of "faithful hearing," is sometimes joined. They were atfirst mere attributes of God, or personified qualities and ideals of hu-man character in the likeness of God; later certain specified parts ofthe world were put under their care; they were also assigned to differ-ent days and months, and each has a peculiar flower and color.Besides the Amshaspands, who are termed the "children" of Or-muzd, or may be designated as archangels, the Avesta mentions someminor spiritual beings of the celestial hierarchy, such as the Yazatas(modern Izads), "worshipful or holy ones," ordinary angels; the Frav-asJiis, protecting spirits, who help men in battle and accompany soulsto the next world, and some mere abstractions, as Arshtat, watchful-ness; Parendi, riches; AsM, rectitude, etc.Over against the realm of law and righteousness (asJia), ruled byOrmuzd and his beneficient ministering spirits, is the sphere of the Lie(druj) and wickedness, dominated by Ahriman (Angra-Mainyu,"enemy spirit"), at the head of the daeras, a body of malevolent andharmful powers. The relation of the opposing powers is variouslyrepresented as the different parts of the Zoroastrian scriptures. In theearlier Avesta (the GatJias), two primeval principles or causes of lightand darkness, of life and death, of good and evil, personified in Spenta-Mainyu, the Holy Spirit of Ahura-Mazda, and Angra-Mainyu, respec-tively, are assumed, both being subordinate to and united in Ahura-Mazda. As they met they produced life and unlife, determining howat last there should be for the wicked the worst state, and for the right-eous the "best mind". Zoroaster is made to say: "In the beginning
184 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMthere was a pair of twins, two spirits, each of a peculiar activity. Theseare the good and the base in thought, word, and deed. Choose one ofthese two spirits. Be good; not base. When the two spirits cametogether at the first to malce life and death (not life) and to determinehow the world at the last shall be for the wicked the worst life, for theholy the best mental state." In the younger Avesta (especially in theBundahish) the distinction between the Holy Spkit and God is notpreserved, both beiQg identified, so that the opposition thenceforthstands between Ahriman and Ormuzd, and the conflict between themis extended from the moral sphere?the antithesis of good and evil as afact in human life?to the physical realm. The ethical dualism hard-ened into a theological dualism. Over against Ormuzd stands Ahri-man as an evil being of supernatural power at the head of the host ofmalevolent spirits, the cause of all that is evil and noxious in the world.Each of the Ameshaspands has for an opponent some archfiend (Akem-mano, Andia, Saurva, Taro-Maiti, Tauru, Zairirica, and Aeshma),(= Asmodeus, Tobit iii, 8; vi, 15). Below these stand the daevas,drujes, pairikas (peris), j^atus, etc. Unceasing warfare goes onbetween these opposite powers. Ormuzd makes; Ahriman mars.The one dwells in endless light, the other in eternal darkness. To Ahr-iman are attributed the creation of all evil things. He created thekilling cold of winter and the intemperate heat ; serpents, locusts, ants,rapine, and lust; magic and witchcraft; pride, doubt, and unbelief;evU spirits, demons, and men of devilish character, beasts of prey andnoxious vermin; floods and droughts; and the nine hundred andninety-nine diseases the flesh is heir to are Ahriman's inventions.The dualism implied in the Zoroastrian doctrine is saved from beinga duo-theism in so far as Ahriman is never the equal of Ormuzd.Ahriman is neither omniscient nor almighty. He possesses only"backward knowledge"; he can not foresee. Hence, he is always toolate in his machinations. Moreover, Ormuzd 's limitation of power ismerely temporary. Ahriman is coeval with Ormuzd but not coeter-nal. His doom is fixed. At the last judgment his creatures will perishand he himself will be banished from the regenerated earth .^^The Parsees protest against the imputation of dualism to theirtheological system. The primeval principles of good and evil (Vo-
" The dualism of Zoroastrianism is an attempt to account for the evil of the present world, physical as wellas moral, upon the premises of an ethical theism which can not admit that God is the author of any kind of?vil. But because God is almighty as well as perfectly good, it can as little admit that evil, even in hell, isa permanent factor in tho universe. The Zoroastrian theologians were concerned with the solution of theethical problem rather than with the remoter problem which their solution raised. The evil spirit appearsX)n the scene like a diaboius ex machina; whether he was eternal they do not seem to have asked, nor wouldthey probably have been much disturbed if their logic had carried them to that conclusion, for since they didnot define God metaphysically as the infinite and eternal but as the good, an eternal devil would not there-by become God.?George Foot Moore, History of Religions, New York, 1913, vol. 1, p. 405.Zoroastrianism, though dualistic, was essentially a monotheism, teaching the existence of one suprememoral ruler of the universe.?E Washburn Hopkins, Origin and Evolution of Religion, New Haven, 1924,D. 286.
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 185humano and Akemmano, or Spenta-Mainyii and Angra-Mainyu),the Parsees claim, were, though opposed to each other, united inevery existing being, even in Ahura-Mazda himself, and by theirunion produced the world of material things and of spiritual exist-ences, while the Dastoor (high priest) Rastamji declares: "ByAtigra-Maiayu nothing is meant but man's evil spirit or thought.Man receives from Ahura-Mazda the gifts of superior powers, abusesthem, and by abusing causes all moral and physical disturbances inhimself and in the condition of the world he lives in."''^ There iano question that the modern Parsees are mionotheists.ZOEOASTRIAN ETHICSZoroastrianism is a religion of struggle and exertion. The cardi-nal doctrine that the world is a great battle field, on which beneficentpowers ceaselessly contend with baleful forces is one of the hingeson which the entire system of Zoroastrian etliics turns. Man is nota passive spectator of this war on whose issue his fortune in timeand eternity depends, but a combatant in the thick of the fight.Every man, being treated as a free agent, is by his own choice ar-rayed under one banner or the other, contending for the good worldor the bad.The moral teachings of Zoroaster are summed up in the triad:Good thoughts, good words, good deeds Qiumata, Tiul'Jita, Tivarshta;contrast: Dushmata, duzhvMita, duzhvarshta) . Character lies not inovert act alone, but in the inner springs of conduct. The virtuesinculcated may be comprised in general terms as purity alike of bodyand soul, uprightness, humility, obedience, peaceableness, charity, andbenevolence. In addition to these good qualities particular stress islaid upon truthfulness and the faithful keeping of one's word andpledge. "Never break an agreement, O Spitama, neither one thatyou make with a wicked man nor with an upright man of your ownreligion; for an agreement holds with both wicked and upright."Next to falsehood and deceit making debts is to be shunned, for thatleads to lying and fraud. ^^The tilling of the soil, the reclamation of waste land by rootingout weeds and thorns, and extending irrigation to make grain andfruits grow is part of practical religion. "Who makes glad the earth?He who plants the most grain, grass, and fruit trees, who bringswater to a field where there is none and draws it off where there is
<6 Rastamji Edulji Dastoor Peshotan, Zerathushtra and Zarathushtrianism in the Avesta. Leipzig, 1906,p. 159; compare also Dosabhai Framji Karaka, History of the Farsis, London, vol. 2, p. 187; Martin I'r.ug,Essays on the Sacred Language, Writings, and Religion of the Parsees, Bombay, 1862, p. 258." Compare Herodotus, book 1, pp. 130 and 138: "Beginning with the age of 5 years to 20, they [thePersians] instruct their sons in three things?to ride, to use the bow, and to speak truth. * ? ? Totell a lie is considered by them the greatest disgrace; next to that, to be in debt, and this for many reasons,but especially because they think that one who is in debt must ol necessity tell lies."1)1551?29 13
186 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMtoo much. * * * How is the Mazdaean religion nourished?By zealously sowing grain. He who sows grain sows good. * * *.
"
The useful animals, especially cattle and dogs, are to be kindly treated,well fed and cared for; cruelty and neglect are grave sins, wantonkilling of cattle a crime. On the other hand, the destruction of beastsof prey and noxious vermin is a highly meritorious act.Zoroastrianism did not ignore the body for the elevation of the soul.Physical cidture was extolled, and it allowed generally a whole-soidedenjoyment of life. Wealth and a large famUy are signs of virtue."He who has children is far better than he who is childless; he whohas riches is far better than he who has none. * * * " *8The Parsees, constituting one of the smallest religious communitiesin the world, occupy a most prominent place among the severalnationalities and religious sects of India, and exemplify in their lifethe true worth of the teachings of the great prophet of Iran. Theyuphold the best of the tenets of the old faith with regard to religiousobservations. They are distinguished by temperance, purity of life,energy, enterprise, and capacity, and their reputation for benevolenceand generosity toward all men is world-wide.
THE HEREAFTER, OR ESCHATOLOGT IN ZOROASTRIAN THEOLOGYGod's righteous rule involves the idea of judgment and retribu-tion, and Zoroastrian eschatology provides a judgment both forthe individual and for the world. The judgment of individualstakes place at death, in which each man's destiny is determined byhis religion and by his thoughts, words, and deeds in this life. Afterdeath the soid lingers three days and three nights near the body.During these intervening days the soul of the pious tastes " as muchof felicity and joy as the entire living world can taste," and thesoul of the wicked tastes "as much of misery as the entire living worldcan taste." On the fourth day at dawn the soul sets out on itsjourney to the place of judgment at the chinvat bridge. To therighteous comes a perfumed breeze wafted as if were from the south,while the wicked is struck by a cold blast as out of the demonicnorth, laden with foul stench. At the bridge Mithra, Sraosha, andRaslmu sit in judgment.^^ Rashnu weighs the merits and demeritsof the departed on an "undeceiving" golden scale, and his fate is
<' Zarathustrian doctrine is the first serious attempt to conform material interests and duties with thespiritual needs and longings of mankind, and to reeoncOe the temporal with the eternal, by regarding theformer as reflecting and preparing for the latter. The religious root-idea of Zarathushtrism, when firstdistinctly expressed, which, as history shows, has not remained fruitless, is that the life of the pious is asacred labor and struggle, constantly directed against the evil and impure in what wo are wont to distin-guish as the world of nature and that of the spirit, in order that both may at last be thoroughly purified?inshort, that every pious man, according to his ability, is a fellow-worker with God." (C. P. Tiele, Elementsof the Science of Religion, Edinburgh and London, 1897, vol. 1, p. 192.)" Parallel to Minos, Aeacus, and Rhadamanthus, the three judges of the dead, in Greek mythology.
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 187decided according to the result of the weighing, whether the goodworks or the bad ones tipped the scales. Thereupon the soul has tocross the chinvat bridge, which is spanning the abyss of hell. Tothe good soul it appears to be 9 spear lengths, or even a parasang(between three and four miles) wide, led by a fair maiden?theembodiment of his good deeds and pious observances, and guidedby the good dogs, who keep watch over the bridge. Through thethree forecourts of good thoughts, good words, good deeds the soulpasses into the "infinite light," or "light eternal" (Garonmana,"house of songs"), the abode of Ahura-Mazda with the archangelsand the spirits of the just, where it is regaled with angels' food andset on a richly adorned throne. "Forever and everlasting theyremain in all glory with the angels of the spiritual existenceseternally."Very different is the lot of the wicked. A demon lassoes hissoul with his evil noose and drags him to the bridge, where Rashnuwith his balances detects all his wickedness. His evil ways con-front him in a foul hag whose ugliness is the expression of his char-acter. He finds no helper, becomes frightened on the hair-broadbridge and tumbles down into the abyss. Through the vestibulesof evil thoughts, evil words, evil deeds he arrives in the "infinitedarkness," the "home of the Lie," (druj), where the wicked deadsurround him, the demons mock him, and Angra-Mainyu bids bringhim loathsome and poisonous food. "And until resurrection hemust be in hell in much misery and torments of many kinds." Ifthe good deeds are equal to the bad ones he goes to the place called
"equilibrium," (Hamestakan) . The suffering here is slight, beingonly a change from cold to heat, inclement cold and burdensomeheat following one after the other.But hell is not eternal, and the bliss of souls in heaven and theirtorments in hell are not the final state of mankind. When thepresent world age is at an end there will be a great assize and ageneral judgment for all mankind. According to Zoroastrian cosmicchronology the whole drama of the world will be played out in acycle of 12,000 years, divided into four periods of 3,000 years each.The first 3,000 years is the period of purely spiritual existences, asmodels of the future types of things. In the second period Ormuzdcreates the material world. In the third Ahriman breaks into thecreation of God. This is the age of human history characterized bythe conflict between the rival powers of good and evil. At the begin-ning of the fourth period (anno mundi 9.000), Zoroaster appears,and at its close the great consummation begins. Saoshyant, theSavior, born miraculously of a pure maiden from the seed of Zoro-aster which was hidden for thousands of years in the Seistan lake,
188 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMin which she bathes, will appear, and all the dead will be raised,their bodies being reconstituted of their original materials. Therisen dead will be assembled in one place and will know one another;the deeds of all will be manifest. Then the righteous and the wickedwill be separated, the former going to heaven, while the latter arecast into hell to be punished in the body for three days, certain mon-sters of iniquity being subjected to exemplary sufferings. When thisis over, the fire will melt the metal in the mountains till it over-pours the whole world and makes it pure. To the righteous it will belike warm milk; to the wicked it will be like molten metal. Sao-shyant then sacrifices the ox Hadhayous, and of his marrow andthe juice of the Haoma is prepared the ambrosia which is given tothe righteous as the food of immortality. All men become of onespeech. Those who died old are restored to the age of 40, and ifyoung to that of 15.^? Ahriman and his hordes of evil spirits willbe conquered and slain, or driven unresisting into outer darkness.Hell itself is purified by the molten metal and added to the earth.And in this enlarged world, where there will be no more ice and nomore mountains, which had been created by the evil one, men are tobe immortal, and to live forever united with their families and rela-tions, but without further offspring, in pure and peaceful bliss.^^COLLECTION
1. Fire urn.?Brass, nickel plated. The Zoroastrian ritual consistsmainly in the tending of the sacred fire and in the offering of Haoma.On account of the former part of the worship the Zoroastrians arefrequently denominated "fire worshipers." The Parsees reject thisimputation with indignation. They pay reverence, not worship, tofire as bearing by reason of its brightness, activity, purity, and incor-ruptibility the most perfect resemblance to the nature and perfec-tions of the supreme God, and therefore as his m^ost adequate symbol.M According to another version, vegetarians are raised young, and the eaters of flesh as of middle age.5' Mohammedan eschatology has borrowed much from the Zoroastrian. The conscience of the departedis in the Mohammedan version personated in a male figure in place of the female of Zoroaster's system."To the good a man with beautiful face comes, elegantly dressed and perfumed, and says: 'Be joyful inthat which made thee so; this is the day which was promised thee. ' Then the dead person says to him:
' Who art thou, for thj^ face is perfectly beautiful? ' And the man replies: 'I am thy good deeds. ' To thewicked a man with a hideous countenance comes, shockingly dressed and of a vile smell, and says: 'Bejoyful in that which makes thee miserable, for this is the day which was promised thee. ' Then the deadman says: 'Who art thou? Thy face is hideous and brings wickedness.' Ue says: 'I am thy impuredeeds.' " The balance (mizan) is held by the angel Gabriel and is so vast in size that its two scales, oneof which hangs over paradise and the other over hell, are capacious enough to contain both heaven andearth. The bridge which is laid over hell, and named by the Mohammedans Cirat (properly, road, path),is finer than a hair and sharper than the edge of a razor and beset on each side with briars and hookedthorns. The good will pass with wonderful ease and swiftness, like lightning or the wind, Mohammedleading the way, while the wicked will miss their footing and fall down into hell which is gaping beneaththem. (T. P. Hughes, Dictionary of Islam, 1885, pp. 79, 80, 543, and 544.) The bridge of separation hasalso a parallel in the log over which the American Indian has to come to get to the happy hunting grounds.If an Indian has been virtuous (that is, brave), the log lets him over, but otherwise he can not pass overit, but slips into the foul swamp never to emerge.
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 189All the elements, as the pure creatures of Ahura-Mazda, are investedby the Zoroastrians with sanctity, but fire especially was consideredas the earthly form of the heavenly light, the eternal, infinite, divine,the first creature of Ahura-Mazda, and in the Avestan scriptures,called his son. "I sacrifice to thee. Fire, son of Ormuzd, and to allfires and all waters and to all plants, for they are all made by God."The Parsee temple {dar-i-mihr or agiaris) is divided into two parts:(1) the adaran, or place of fire, is a small domed room where the fireis kept burning in a metal urn resting on a stone stool (adasJit),with a metal tray hanging from the dome (taj); (2) the izishu-gah,a large quadrangular room, divided by small channels (pavis), whichis used for the celebration of ceremonies. According to the qualityof the fire kept within, three grades of temples are distinguished:1 , Attash-dagdah, in which the ordinary lire preserved in a fire templeor even in houses and used in sacred ceremonies is kept; it may betouched both by priests and laymen; 2, Attash-adaran. The conse-cration of the fire requires great ceremonies; the utmost care is takenin watching it and keeping it perpetually burning; it may not betouched by anyone but by priests; 3, Attash-bahran, the highest of all.The consecration of the fire entails heavy expenses and a long seriesof ritual for a year or more. The sacred fire is constantly watchedby priests who have undergone the highest purifications. Its extinc-tion would be regarded by the Parsees as a great calamity. Non-Zoroastrians are excluded from any fire temple.The fire in the fire temple is purified in the following manner:Over a fire taken from various places of manufacture, to w^hich, ifpossible, fire caused by lightning is added, a perforated metal traycontaining small chips of fragrant sandal wood is held until thechips are kindled by the heat. After a 'new fire is in this mannerproduced from the impure one, the latter is taken away, dispersed,and extinguished. Again, by means of the heat of this first new fire,another bundle of sandal wood is ignited, and another fire is producedfrom it, and the first new fire is then taken way, dispersed, and ex-tinguished. Each of the new fires is treated in the same manneruntil the ninth is reached, which, "being derived from the impureone through seven intermediate fires, more and more distant fromthe original impurity, represents the fire in its native purity." Thefire in the temple is guarded from every kind of pollution; is fedwith scrupulously selected wood (the Parsees in Bombay use sandalwood) ; the priest wears a thick veil, called padan, over his nose andmouth that his breath may not fall on the fire, his hands are encasedin long gauntlets and the wood is handled with tongs. Five times aday, at the canonical hours (gahs), the priest cleans the room, washesthe stone stool on which the fire urn rests, and puts fresh wood on
190 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMthe fire. Height, 13% inches; diameters, IIK and 7}^ inches. Bom-bay, India. (Plate 71 (upper center), Cat. No. 216051, U.S.N.M.)"2. Fire ladle.?Brass, nickel plated. The sacred fire and all that isconnected with it must not come into contact with anything that maydefile it. A ladle is therefore used for putting wood chips into thefire urn. Length, 13)^ inches. Bombay, India. (Plate 71 (upperleft). Cat. No. 216053, U.S.N.M.)3. Fire tongs.?Brass, nickel plated. Used for picking up thewood chips of the sacred fire which would be defiled if touched withthe hands. Length, 13K inches. Bombay, India. (Plate 71 (upperright), Cat. No. 216052, U.S.N.M.4. Sprigs of the Haoma plant.?The haoma (Sanskrit, soma,Pahlavi and Persian, Jiom), also called moon-plant and swallow-wood, of the milkweed family, Sacrostemma brevistigma {Asclepiasacida). To the juice expressed from its stems were attributed inspir-ing and healing properties, and it played an important part in theritual and sacrifices of ancient India. It was personified and deifiedand worshiped as a god by the Hindus. In the Parsee ritual thehaoma is one of the offerings made in the service of the Yasna, theprincipal of Zoroastrian liturgy, which is recited or chanted by twopriests, known as the Zaoti and Rathvi, before the sacred fire. Thetwigs of the sacred plant are washed and purified while reciting aprayei, then laid aside in a metal box for at least 13 months and13 days before using in the ceremony. Under elaborate ceremoniesthe twigs are pounded in mortar, the expressed juice is mixed withmilk and holy water and strained. The draft thus obtained concen-trates in itself all the virtues of plants, animals, and the waters.It is drunk sacramentally by the priests in the course of the service,and is administered to the dying as a "draft of immortality." The
"green haoma" of this world is a type of the "white haoma" Qiaoma-i-sapTiid) of the gaokorena-tree, the emblem of immortality. Inaddition to the haoma the pomegranate and the barsom (Avesta,baresman) are used in the ceremony. The barsom consists of twigsor sprays of a certain plant or, where these are not obtainable, as inwinter, of brass rods, from 5 to 35, tied in a bundle and held by thepriest at a certain point of the sacrifice. Besides the sacred plantsthe offering comprises small cakes (drana), peculiarly marked, goats'milk {shir), an egg and melted butter (ghee). These are also eaten bythe officiating priests in the course of the service.The true Zoroastrian sacrifice, the Parsees say, is the offering ofgood thoughts, good words, and good deeds. Yezd, Persia. (Cat.No. 231789, U.S.N.M.) Gift of A. V. Williams Jackson.M Fire altars, not necessarily in temples, were erected all over ancient Iran. Early reliefs and coins showthe king standing before a fire altar under the open sky. But from the Achaemenian times on there wereshrines in which the sacred fire was kept burning as at present.
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 191
5. offering tray.?Brass, nickel plated. Used in the service of theAfringans, which are prayers from the Khorda-Avesta (see p. 182),recited only by priests. They are recited on a carpet spread onthe floor on which are placed, either in a metal tray or on plantainleaves, the choicest fruits and the most fragrant flowers of the seasonand glasses filled with fresh milk, pure water, wine, or sherbet.These prayers are recited either with the object of expressing remem-brance of the souls of the departed or with that of invoking the helpof the protecting spirits. Diameter, 17% inches; depth, IK inches.Bombay, India (Plate 71 (lower). Cat. No. 216054, U.S.N.M.)6. Offering tray.?Brass, nickel plated. Similar to the preceding,No. 5, only smaller in size. Diameter, 12}^ inches; depth, 1% inches.Bombay, India. (Cat. No. 216055, U.S.N.M.)7. Sudra.?Every Parsee?male or female, priest or layman?mustbe invested between the ages of 7 and 15 with two articles of dress,called sudra (Avesta, anahdata) and the Kusti (Avesta, aiwyaong-hanem). The former is an undershirt of muslin, linen, or gauze andis worn next to the skin; the latter is a girdle made up of 72 threadsof white wool, representing the 72 chapters (has) of the Parseescriptures, in the sacredness of which the neophyte is figurativelybound. The investiture with these two sacred garments, calledNovzot, which somewhat corresponds to the Christian ceremony ofconfirmation, takes place under elaborate solemn ceremonies and isthe first important religious ceremony performed over a Parsee child,consists of two parts?the Nahan and the Navzot proper. The nahanis the religious ablution. The candidate is made to sit on three ormore stones either in a temple or on the ground floor of the houseand is washed by the priest with consecrated urine of bulls (nirang) ^^and holy water, while reciting certain holy texts. When the washingis done the candidate is dressed in a pair of trousers and cap with awhite clean linen sheet wrapped around the upper part of the body.He or she is then conducted into the room where the navzot properis to be performed. The candidate is made to sit on a flat stoolfacing the east, the emblem of light. The officiating priests taketheir place on a rich carpet spread on the floor, while the guests sitaround on chairs. A fire is kept burning with sandal wood, frank-incense, and other pure fragrant substances. The priest as well asthe candidate recite the Patet?that is, the confession of sins and re-pentance. After this the candidate is required to hold the sudra withboth hands, and the chief priest, placing his own upon them, causesthe candidate to recite the Zoroastrian confession of faith (Kalma-i-din): "Most true, full of wisdom and good is the religion which
?? Bull's or cow's urine was thought to possess great purifying and medicinal qualities and an antisepticfor demonic infection. It is called in the Avesta gaomeza, Pahlavi and Persian, gomez, and when conse-crated by special prayers, nirang.
192 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMGod has sent through Zoroaster to this world. This is the rehgionof Ahura-Mazda brought to man by Zoroaster." Then with therecitation of certain holy texts the chief priest removes the linensheet and puts in its place the sudra. The chief priest then passesthe kusti round the child's w^aist three times, to remind the wearerof the three cardinal virtues of the Zoroastrian religion, namely,good thoughts, good words, and good deeds, and ties it with fourknots, two in front and two behind, while chanting a short hymn.At the first knot he says, "There is only one God, and no other is tobe compared with him." At the second, "The religion given byZoroaster is true." At the third, "Zoroaster is the true prophet,who derived his mission from God." And the fourth, "Performgood actions and abstain from evil ones. ' After this the candidateis reseated on the stool and the chief priest delivers the Hoshan, ashort sermon in praise of honesty, truth, and purity. This over, hepronounces blessings upon the candidate, throwing over his or herhead small pieces of dry fruits, such as cocoanuts, almonds, raisins,rice, etc.The investiture with the sudra and kusti initiates one into fullmembership of the Zoroastrian community, entitling to be presentin all religious ceremonies and assemblies. And after having under-gone the navzot ceremony the Zoroastrian has to put on the sudraand kusti day and night; the performance of any function of lifewithout wearing these two sacred articles of dress is considered asin called "Running uncovered with sudra and kusti." The cere-mony of untying and retying the kusti (jmdyah Icusti), reciting ashort prayer during the process, has to be performed several timesin the day; for instance, early in the morning on rising from bed,before prayers, before meals, after ablutions, etc.If a child die before the performance of the ceremony of navzot,he is considered to have gone back to Ahura-Mazda, who gave him,as pure as he entered this world, having not reached the age of ac-countability. Bombay, India. (Plate 73, showing the ceremony ofinvestiture with the sudra and kusti, Cat. No. 230800, U.S.N.M.)Gift of Rastamji Edulji Dastoor Peshotan Sanjana, Deputy HighPriest of the Parsees, Bombay, India.8. Costume of a Parsee.?It consists of the sudra and kusti (seeunder the preceding, No. 7), loose cotton trousers, an ample double-breasted coat of cotton, reachmg to the ankles, called jama; a belt,called pichori, made of cotton, about 1 yard wide and several yardsin length, which is folded once and passed around the v?^aist as manytimes as its length will admit; a pair of cotton gloves; a skullcap ofcotton; and a turban peculiar to the Parsees. It is made of figuredchocolate-colored silk, stift'ened, without any rim, and has an anglefrom the top of the forehead. This costume is only used on formaland solemn occasions.
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 193The dress of the priests is the same only that it is made solely ofwhite cotton cloth, including the turban. Bombay, India. (Plate72, Cat. No. 216056, U.S.N.M.)9.. Suit of a Parsee schoolgirl.?It consists of the sudra and kusti(for which see under No. 7); trousers of blue silk, richly embroidered;white silk waist, embroidered in various colors; skullcap of cotton; ^*and a flat, rimless hat, adorned all over with silver embroidery.Bombay, India. (Plate 74, showing a Parsee family, Cat. No. 4009,U.S.N.M.)10. Tower of silence {Dakhma).?Model of wood, painted. Therules of clean and unclean and the purifications necessary to repairwitting or unwitting infractions of them constitute a large part ofpractical religion of Zoroastrianism, It is the outcome of the beliefthat the elements, fire, water, earth, and air are the creations andsublime gifts of Ahura-Mazda, and that on the preservation of theirpurity depended the weal and welfare of the world. Uncleanlinessin the religious sense is considered a demonic contagion, and thesphere in which the presence and agency of demons is most clearlyseen is death, and here the greatest precautions must be taken. In-expiable is the sin that one commits by bringing a corpse, a carcass,or any impure object in contact with the elements. If a corpse befound in the water of a well, a pond, or running stream, the water isnot fit to drink until the corpse is removed and great part of thewell or stream is dra\^'n off. A field in which a dead body is foundlying must remain fallow for a year. The ground in which a bodyhas been bnried is unfit for agriculture for 50 years. Even if aman lets fall and remain on earth a bone, a nail, haii-, or any likething he commits a grievous sin. The Parsees, accordingly, neitherburn or bury their dead nor consign them to water, but expose themon mountain heights upon the so-called towers of silence (daJcTimas)
.
to be consumed by vultures.The dakJima is a circular structure of stone, from 60 to 90 feet indiameter and from 20 to 30 feet in height, open at the top and re-sembling a gasometer. Inside is a cii'cular platform paved with largestone slabs, called jpavis, upon which the dead bodies are laid. Thepavis are ranged in three concentric rows, the outer being for men,the middle for women, and the inner for children. The pavis areseparated from each other by ridges, called dandas, which are aboutan inch in height above the level of the pavis, and channels are cutinto the pavis for the purpose of conveying all the liquid matter flow-ing from the corpse and rainwater into the pit. The "heaven-sentbirds," which are alwa.ys in the vicinity, swoop doMm upon the corpseas soon as it is exposed, and it is said that it is quite stripped of flesh
"< The Parsees consider it sinful to leive tbe head uncovered either by d;iy or night hence neither mannor a female is ever without some head covering.
194 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMin an hour or two. In the center of the platform is a pit (bhandar),about 30 feet in diameter, from which four drains lead into fourwells sunk in the ground outside of the tower. Into this pit thedenuded bones are later deposited where they, under the tropical sun,crumble into dust and are then with all other remaining matterconducted through the drains to the wells, The drains are providedwith disinfectants (charcoal and sandstone), to purify the matterbefore it enters the ground so as to preserve the earth from defilement.When death is near, a priest is called in who recites the confessionof sin (patet), and sundry passages from the Avesta which affordconsolation to the dying person. If he is in possession of his senseshe himself joins in these exercises; if not, the words are repeatedin his ears. The priest puts into his mouth some drops of the haomajuice (see above under No. 4), as a last sacrament. When life becomesextinct the body is cleaned by first sprinkling a few drops of nirang(for which see note to No. 7), and then washing whole with purewater. It is then laid out on the ground on which a clean sheet ofcotton has been spread out, and wrapped in clean clothes, whichmust be old and worn, in order to admit of ready destruction. Fromthat time none is allowed to touch the corpse except the professionalcarriers of the dead (nasasalars) . Two priests standing side byside, holding a cord or piece of cloth, called the paivand, betweentheir hands, recite the funeral service, called Gahan-savayashni,which consists of seven chapters of the first Gatha of Zoroaster.A dog?if possible, one with "four eyes," that is, with spots oflight color above the eyes, or a white dog with yellow ears?isbrought into the chamber in which the body is laid out. This cere-mony is called Sagdid "glance of the dog," and is repeated severaltimes, for the glance of the dog is a terror to demons. Fire also isbrought into the room and is fed with fragrant materials, such assandal wood, frankincense, etc., the odor of which kills the demonswherever the wind carries it. At the close of the funeral service thecorpse bearers having purified themselves, put on white clothes andperform the kusti ceremony (see above under No. 7), place the bodyupon an iron bier, called Gehan, and the funeral procession sets out.This must take place in daytime, for it is essential that the bodyshould be exposed to the sun, and the corpse-devouring birds be pres-ent at the tower. The body is covered with a white shroud and se-cured to the bier with pieces of cloth. Four of the corpse bearers liftthe bier on their shoulders and walk toward the tower of silence.They are followed by the funeral procession, headed by priests. Allin the procession walk two and two, joined with paivand and recitingprayers. When the procession reaches the tower the bier is put onthe ground and the face of the deceased is uncovered. All those whoare present take a last look at the deceased, bowing and standing at a
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 195distance of 3 paces. The last sagdid is performed and the bier iscarried by two nasasalars into the tower, w^ho, removing the bodyfrom it, place it wholly uncovered on one of the pavis. The clotheswhich were removed from the body are thrown into a deep pit outsidethe tower, which is purposely made to receive them, and left to decom-pose by heat, air, and rain. All the participants recite a last prayer,undergo a religious purification, washing their faces, hands, and feetwith nirang and water, and perform the kusti ceremony. The nasa-salars have to remain in segregation and pass through the NavshahehBarashmim purification which lasts nine days and nine nights.Religious services for the benefit of the deceased are kept up forthree days, during which, in the Parsee belief, the soul remains inthis world. (See p. 186.) The prayers, recited by a priest before aburning fire fed with fragrant substance, are especially directed toSraosha, the guide and protector of the souls. On the fourth day,on which the soul confronts the judgment at the chinvat bridge,the Uthama ceremony is performed, when after the service the rela-tives of the deceased, if rich, give sums of money for charitable pur-poses, feed the poor, and give presents to the priests. During thistime the mourners are required to abstain from every kind of flesh.The female relatives sit on a carpet spread on the floor near the spotwhere the dead body had lain and receive visits from their femalefriends and connections. No food is prepared in the house beforethe removal of the corpse, in some families not for the three subse-quent days, it being provided for them by relatives and friends."The principal towers of silence in use at present by the Parsees areon Malabar Hill, at Bombay, India. Height, 17K inches; diameter,28 inches; length of the platform, 48 inches; width, 40 inches.Bombay, India. (Plate 75, Cat. No. 215412, U.S.N.M.)11. Tower oj silence (Dakhma).?Model of wood, painted. Sim-ilar to the preceding. No. 10. Height, 10% inches; diameter, 29inches; length of base, 40 inches; width, SOK inches. Bombay, India.(Cat. No. 301554, U.S.N.M.) Presented to the Library of Congressin Washington, D. C, by Romonjee Dinshaw Petit in March 1892,and transferred by the Library of Congress to the United StatesNational Museum.
w Among orthodox Jews a mourner, both male and female, for a near relative?father or mother, son ordaughter, brother or sister, wife or husband?is confined to the house for seven days (hence the mourning iscalled Shib'ah: that is, seven) in which he sits on the floor in stocliing feet and has to refrain from manuallabor or business transactions. The first meal after the funeral is prepared by a neighbor.
196 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMVIIIOBJECTS OP RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL OF SHINTOINTRODUCTIONShinto is the old indigenous religion of Japan, It is in the main aworship of nature, the personification of natural objects and phe-nomena. According to the ancient records a divine couple, Izanagiand Izanami, before the gods themselves were born, brought forth theJapanese Islands, the gods, and all things. Two of the offspring,Amaterasu and Susa-no-wo, produced eight children. From one ofthem was decended Ninigi, who came down from heaven to rule theworld; that is, Japan, and became the ancestor of Jimmu Tenno,the first human Mikado, from whom the imperial house of Japanderives its descent. ^^ SHINTO PANTHEONShinto means the "way of the gods"?that is, the doctrine of thegods?and was coined in the sixth century A. D., when Buddhismwas introduced into Japan from Korea, in contrast to Butsuto?theway of the Buddhas. The Japanese word for god is Kami. Itmeans "above," "superior," and suggests the theory that celestialbeings were the first deities. (Compare Latin, superi, or coelicoli, asdesignations of the gods.) As is always the case in nature worship,Shinto has "godsman}^" and "lords many," and the term " kami " isapplied not only to the gods who reside in heaven, but also to men,animals, and inanimate things?any being that is strange, wondrous,and for the extraordinary and preeminent powers or qualities whichit possesses, inspires awe, reverence, or dread. The number of godsis fluctuating. So is also their character vague and ill-defined, andtheir functions much confused. A god may have originally somespecial function or department, but in course of time he acquires thefunctions of a general providence that watches over human aft'airs.Besides the functions of a god vary in different places of worship, andver}^ often a god is worshiped simply as the deity of a particular localshrine, nothing more being known of him. The Pantheon of Shintois thus formed of two main groups?deified nature and deified men.Shinto has no supreme being, nor is the sky deified as in China.It is the region where the gods reside. Theie has been, however, atendency to exalt some of the gods to an eminent position. The
'? The oldest Japanese mythological and quasi-historical narratives are the Kojiki, ' ' Records of ancientmatters," compiled by imperial order in 712 A. D., and the Nihongi,"Chronielo of Japan," also an officialcompilation made in 720 A. D. The former was translated by B. H. Chamberlain in Transactions of theAsiatic Society of Japan in 1882; the latter by G. W. Aston in Transactions and Proceedings of the JapanSociety, 2 volumes, London, 1896. A German translation, under the title' Die historischen Quellen derShinto-Religion, of both the Kojikj and Nihongi was made by Karl Florenz, Gottingen and Leipzig, 1919.Numerous extracts from these works are given by G. W. Aston in Shinto, the way of the gods, {passim),Longmans, Green and Co., London, New York, and Bombay, 1905.
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 197sun goddess, Amaterasu no oho Jcami ("heaven-shining-great-deity")is the most exalted of the Shinto deities. She is the ruler of heaven,"unrivaled in dignity," from whom the Mikados derive their descentand authority. Yet, she is hardly what is understood by a supremebeing. Her rule does not extend to the sea and the nether world,(the land of Yomi). Her special solar quality having becomeobscured, she is conceived simply as a general providence whowatches over human affaii's, more especially over the welfare of theMikados, her descendants. Ise, on the west coast of the mainland,is the center of her worship.Shusa-no-wo, brother of the sun-goddess, is the god of the rainstormand lover of destruction, but at the same time provider of fruit treesand timber for mankind. He is also v/orshiped (with his wife) as adeity of love and v/edlock.Olionamachi ("great name possessor"), son of Shusa-no-wo, is thegreat earth god. His shrine is at Idzumo, on the east coast, thesecond great center of the Shinto cult.TTkemoclii (food-possessor"), the goddess of food, after the sungoddess, is perhaps the most popular deity in Japan. She also hasher shrine at Ise.Inari, the rice god. But, as so often happens, his functions havebeen enlarged so as to make him a sort of general providence. He issometimes identified with Ukemochi, the food goddess. He isrepresented as an elderly man with a long beard, riding on a w hite fox.A pair of these animals, carved in wood or stone, may usually be seenin front of his shrines.Miisuhi, the god of growth, deification of the process of growth.Then there are gods of mountains, seas, and rivers, of storm, rain,and thunder, of fire and furnace, of earthquake and pestilence, oftrees and harvest?in short, the usual constituents of a naturalpolytheism have a place in worship as well as in the mj^thology.In a much less degree is the Shinto pantheon derived from thesecond group, the deification of men. It comprises rulers, heroes,great patriots, or men eminent in various arts or pursuits. "Inmodern times the Shinto pantheon has been recruited pretty largelyfrom the ranks of human beings. Trees are still deified, and we havesometimes a new deitj^ making his appearance from nobody knowswhere." "SYMBOLS OR REPRESENTATIONS (MITAMA-SHINTAI) OF THEGODSIn the worship of nature deities three successive stages of theconception of divinity in nature may be distinguished. 1, the naturalobject is regarded as sentient, and direct worship is paid to it; 2,
" Q. W. Aston, Shinto, the way of the gods, p. 67.
198 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMthe god is thought of as an anthropomorphic being; and 3, heis conceived not as the natural object or its human form, but as asort of spiritual emanation
?
mitama? from him which resides in histemple on earth and exercises his influence there. Thus the sungoddess was primarily the visible orb in the sky, but at the same timein a myth she is represented as a woman who hid in the rock caveof heaven, and with her maidens wove garments in the hall of herpalace. Yet, it is neither the orb of the sun nor the sun goddessin human form who inhabits the shrine of Ise, but her mitama orspiritual presence.With the development of the religious sentiment arises the need ofsome visible concrete token of the presence of the god through whichthe worshipper may come into direct contact with the god. This isknown as the mitama-shiro ("spirit representative," "spirit token"),or more commonly, as the shintai ("god-body") in which the spirit-ual presence of the deity resides. The shintai varies much in form.The shintai of the sun goddess in Ise is a metallic mii-ror, which shegave with a sword and a jewel to Ninigi when he was about to descendto earth; that of Susa-no-wo, a naginata or halberd; of Ohonamochi,a necklace of jewels; of Inari, a stone or wooden ticket with his nameinscribed on it. The shintai is not always the same for the same godworshipped in different places. It is usually inclosed in a box whichis seldom opened. ^^The doctrine of the mitama may be considered as an attempt toreconcile such facts as, for instance, the presence of the sun goddessat the same time in the sky and in her temple at Ise. It is a steptoward the conception of the omnipresence of the deity.Shinto has not developed a system of ethics. There is no directmoral teaching in its scriptures. It lays great stress on physicalpurity and cleanliness. There are two semiannual national acts ofpurification?one on the last day of the sLxth month and the other onthe last day of the twelfth month, when all the sins committed andimpurities incurred by the whole nation during the past half yearare purged away. In a general way Shinto enjoins absolute respect ofinferior to superiors, kindliness and mutual helpfulness.Nor is there in Shinto any definite teaching regarding the hereafter.The immortality of the soul is nowhere explicitly taught. There areno prayers for the dead or for happiness in a future life. The land ofYomi, which is often referred to in the sacred books, corresponds tothe Greek Hades and the Hebrew^ Sheol. Funeral ceremonies were
5S The mirror of the sun goddess in her shrine at Ise, measuring about 8 inches in diameter, "is kept in abox of chamaeoeyparis wood, which rests on a low stand covered with a piece of white silk. It is wrapped ina bag of brocade which is never opened or renewed, but when it begins to fall to pieces from age another bagis put on, so that the actual covering consists of many layers. Over the whole is placed a sort of wooden cage,with ornaments said to be of pure gold, over which again is thrown a cloth of coarse silk falling to the flooron all sides." (Murray's Japan, ed. 5, p. 308, quoted by Aston, Shinto, etc., p. V.\5, footnote.)
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 199not recognized as having anything to do with the older Shinto. Notuntil the revolution of 1868 was there instituted an authorized form ofShinto burial .^^ SHINTO SHRINESIn the earliest times the gods did not dwell in houses made by men'shands; the place of worship was merely a sacred precinct inclosed by awall. According to tradition, the first temples were erected about thebeginning of the Christian era. The Shinto shrine, miya ("augusthouse"); yashiro ("representative house") is a small building, usu-ally constructed of natural wood and of plain and simple construction,resembling, it is said, that of the old Japanese houses. Those at Iseare buUt of white cedar wood, unpainted, with a thatch of rushes. Thecharacteristic features are the gable timbers crossed and continuedbeyond the apex. The interior has two rooms: The Jiaidon, an openprayer hall in front, for the worshipers, and the sanctuary, honden,containing the symbol (shintai), of the god, which only priests mayenter. In the court stand a laver (mitarashi), for ceremonial ablutionsand sometimes a stage (Jcagura-do) , for religious dances and pantominesperformed by a corps of dancing girls at festivals. The entrance tothe temple court is marked by a kind of portal, Torii, consisting oftwo uprights, usually of natural v/ood, with a crossbeam resting onthem and projecting at both ends.Many houses have their domestic shrine, Tcamidana ("god-shelf"),consisting of a shelf in a corner of the living room on which standtablets or strips of paper inscribed with the names of the gods pecu-liarly venerated and the tutelary god of the owners' calling, or one ormore small unpainted wooden shrines for the habitation of the gods.
"Broadly speaking, Shinto has no idols. There is usually no attemptto give the shintai any resemblance to the supposed form of the godwhom it represents. * * * The pictures of the gods sold at Shintoshrines in the present day are owing to Chinese or Buddhist injfluence. " *?PRIESTHOODThe most common name for a Shinto priest is 'kannusM, contractedfrom Icami-nushi, "deity master." The kannushi are appointed bythe state. Many combine other avocations with their sacerdotalfunctions. They are not celibates, and may return to the laity whenthey please. Only when engaged in religious functions do they weara distinctive dress, consisting of a loose robe with wide sleeves, con-fined at the waist by a girdle, and a black mitre, called ehoshi, bound bya broad white fillet
?
a survival of an old form of court dress.
S5 Aston. Shinto, etc., p. 61. "' Idem, p. 7!.
200 BULLETIN 148, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMWORSHIPThere is no accommodation provided in the Shinto shrines forjoint worship of the congregation of believers. The individualworshiper stands outside in front of the shrine, calls the attention ofthe god by ringing a bell or striking a gong provided for the purpose,bows his head reverently twice before and after prayer, deposits anoffering in the money box, clasps or fold his hands, and retires.The daily ritual is simple, consisting in the offering of food anddrink morning and evening. At Ise the offering to the two deitiesthere worshiped, the sun goddess and the goddess of food, are to-da}'^four cups of sake?^rice wine, 16 saucers of rice, and 4 of salt, besidesfish, birds, fruits, edible seaweed, a,nd vegetables. At festivals morefood is offered with pieces of silk and other presents.To the outfit of the domestic god shelf belong tvvo jars for sake,a pair of vases to hold flowers or a twig of sakaJci {Cleyera japonica),the sacred tree of Shinto, and a miniature lamp, lighted every even-ing. The sake and flowers are renewed on the 1st, 15th, and 28th ofeach month. PILGRIMAGESBy pilgrimage is understood a journey to a holy place or shrine.The object of a pilgrimage is to obtain some benefit, material, moral,or spiritual, which the sanctity of the chosen spot is thought to confer.In Japan pilgrimages are an ancient institution. The Mikado him-self formerly paid frequent visits to the shrines of Kioto and the vicin-ity. The private worshiper, besides visiting the shrine of his localdeity, generally makes it his business, at least once in his lifetime, topay his respects to more distant gods, such as those of Ise, the Meccaof the Shintos, Meha, Ontaka, Fujiyama, etc. It is recorded that in934 A. D., 10,000,000 pilgrims of all classes visited the shrines ofIse, and after the national shrine of Ise the great temple of Idzumo issaid to be visited by 200,000 to 250,000 pilgrims every year.HISTORY OF SHINTOShinto was the only cult of Japan prior to the introduction of Bud-dhism from Korea in the sixth century A. D. This is the period duringwhich Shinto I'emained almost in the state of original purity and maybe termed the "period of pure Shinto." The medieval period ofthe history of Shinto begins with the seventh century and comesdown to the latter half of the seventeenth century, when it had tocompete with Confucianism and Buddhism. Confucianism, as acode of morals, as the science of state, as an educational force, com-ported well with Shinto. But not so Buddhism. A conflict followed,and Shinto had to give way. Its simple and na'ive content was nomatch for the orderly and profound teaching of Buddhism, and thesplendor of its cult. But the triumph of Buddhism was not complete.
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 201It had to admit the native gods, the Icamis, as manifestations ofthe Buddha or as Bodhisattvas. In this manner and through theefforts of such men as Dengyo Daishi (died in 822) and KoboDaishi (died in 834) arose the so-called Ryohu Shinto?mixed Shinto.At the beginning of the eighteenth century the revival of pure Shintoset in under national and patriotic influences. It was only therevolution, however, of 1868 which reinstated the Alikado, the livingkami, that made Shinto once more the religion of the state, andeffected, as far as possible, the separation of the two systems.
"Shinto is kept alive mainly by popular festivals and pilgrimages,of which religion forms a small part. To Shinto also belongs thereligious element in the cult of the Mikado, and the sensibility to thedivine in nature, which is characteristic of the Japanese nation." ^^COLLECTION1. Shrine.?Made of plain wood. Inside is a rudely carved woodenfigurine of Daikoku, one of the Japanese gods of good fortune. Height15 inches; width, 25 inches; depth, 7^ inches. Japan. (Cat. No.4287, U.S.N.M.) Collected by the United States expedition toJapan under Commander Perry in 1854.2. 5'Anne.?Made of plain wood and inclosed within a structureof latticework. Inside are plain wooden tables and three figurines ofDaikoku. Height, 20 inches; width, 40 inches; depth, 14 inches.Kobe, Japan. (Cat. No. 154843, U.S.N.M.)3. Shrine.?Wood, painted red and green, with a Torii in red andblack and steps leading up to the entrance. Inside is the mirror inform of a disk of white metal on a stand. Height, 16 inches; width,17 inches, depth, 18 Inches. Japan. (Cat. No. 150612, U.S.N.M.)4. Shrine.?Plain wood. Resting on a platform with steps leadingup to the entrance. Surrounded by a sort of gallery or portico.Height, 163^ inches; width and depth, 814 inches. Japan.5. Milcoshi, or portable shrine.?Model of wood and wickerwork.From the overhanging roof on the four corners are suspended bells.Provided with Toriis and entrances on all four sides, and on the roofis perched some mythical bird.The milcoshi is carried about in procession on festivals and containsthe usual objects (shintais) of a Shinto shrine, such as the mirror andgohei, and tablets on which the names of the gods are inscribed. Thebells are attached to it and are rung while the procession is in prog-ress. Height, 15^ inches; and 13^^ inches square. Kobe, Japan.(Cat. No. 154820, U.S.N.M.)6. Household shrine {Boko mamore).?Wood, carved, decoratedwith brass fittings and ornaments, tassels, and embroidered cloth.
?i G. W. Aston, Hastings Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, vol. XI, 1921 ,p. 47161551?29 14
202 BULLETIN 14S, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMIn every Shinto home a small shrme is put up to the Jcami, orspii'its of the ancestors, before which the head of the family performsdevotions. Height, 13.^ inches; width, 7 inches; depth, o}/2 inches.Kobe, Japan. (Cat. No. 150580, U.S.N.M.)7. Metal mirror.?One of the objects found in most Shinto shrinesis a metal mii'ror, being the shintai of Amaterasu, the sun goddess andsymbol of purity and the splendor of the divinity. The muTor, aprecious stone, and a sword, to which a brocaded banner was addedafterwards, are also the insignia of the imperial house. Diameter, 5inches. Kobe, Japan. (Cat. No. 154833, U.S.N.M.)8. Gohei.?The gohei is a wand supporting a pendant of paperzigzags. The paper slips are intended to represent the strips of clothwhich were formerly hung as offerings on trees. The use of the wandis connected with an old Japanese rule of etiquette that presents to asuperior should be delivered attached to a branch of a tree, the objectbeing to mark a respectful aloofness from the giver to the receiver."By virtue of long association the offerings were looked upon asrepresentation of the deity, and thus the gohei instead of being givenby the worshiper to the shrine is now given out by the priest to theworshiper, who takes it home and sets it up in his kamidana (godshelf), or domestic altar. The gohei is also used in purificationceremony. It is flourished over or rubbed against the person to beabsolved of ritual uncleanliness, or to dispel any evil influences whichmay have attached themselves to his person." ^^ Kobe, Japan. (Cat.No. 154834, U.S.N.M.)9-10. Two straw hoops.? They are offered at Shinto shrines andare supposed to symbolize purity. Japan, (Cat. No. 130680,U.S.N.M.)11-12. Two sTiime-naka.?The shimenaka, also called shimenawa,are chaplets of rice straw. A rope of this kind was used to prevent thesun goddess returning into the rock cave of heaven whither she hadretired in her anger. At the present day it is hung in front of shrines,and at New Year before ordinary dwellings. Sacred trees are girtwith it. It is also suspended across the road to prevent the passage ofevil spirits. Diameter, 9,^o inches. Japan. (Cat. No, 130680,U,S,N,M.)13. Pair ofjoxes.?Carved of v>-ood, covered with white gesso, andlacquered. Represented sitting on a rock formation with large erecttails, each holding up one foot; one has a jewel in form of a ball in themouth, the other a key. The rock bases are placed on wooden stands,which are painted black, lacquered, and gilt.The fox was originally sacred to Inari, the god of rice, which was thestaple food and basis of wealth of ancient Japan, just as some othergods have theu' animal attendants. But in the course of centuries the
" Aston, Shinto, etc., p. 217.
OBJECTS OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL 203fox assumed divinity for himself. Indeed, among the lower classesthe cult of the fox overshadowed and almost effaced the cult of thegod. Images of foxes in wood or stone, in a sitting posture, are placedat the entrance of shrines as guardians. A post of especial favor isassigned to white foxes, and anyone who meets in the course of hislife a white fox considers it a particularly lucky circumstance. TheChinese regard the fox as the animal into which human spirits enter inpreference to any other, and are, therefore, afraid to kill or displeaseit. Height, 18 inches. Tokio, Japan. (Cat. No. 130449, U.S.N.M.)14. Fox.?-Earthenware, painted white with tongue, inside of ears,and tips of the feet red. Sitting on oval gilt base in the same postureas in the preceding number. In the mouth he holds what looks like astaff, probably representing the key. Height, 3K inches. Japan.15. Vase.?Cream-colored clay, with narrow mouth and expandedshoulder. Used in Shinto offerings. Height, bfi inches. Japan.(Cat. No. 94313, U.S.N.M.)16. Tiny vase.?Cream-colored clay. Height, 1 inch. Japan.(Cat. No. 94313, U.S.N.M.)17. Flower vase.?Earthenware, pj^ramidal in shape and graycolored. Height, 3% inches. Japan.18. Vase.?Earthenware, gray colored, in shape like No. 15.With cover. Height, 3 inches. Japan.19. Vase.?Earthenware, gray colored, glazed inside, with pointedcover. Height, 2}^ inches. Japan.20. Small saucer.?Keddish clay, with black bottom. Diameter,4 inches. Japan. (Cat. No. 94314, U.S.N.M.)21-22. Two temple maslcs.?One, made of wood, painted and sil-vered, represents a demoniac head on which a dragon is perched, withmovable jaws; the other, of some composition, the front part of abull's head.On temple festivals (matsuri), in Japan, a festival car (dashi),adorned with little flags, strips of bright-colored stuff and greenboughs, is dra-wn through the streets. The image of the deity on thecar is surrounded by priests blowing trumpets and ringing bells.Upon a second story of the car, maskers, with the heads of variousanimal figures, move to and fro in merriment. In Tibet the Bud-dhist priests (lamas), perform a dance in masks at the harvestfestival. Height, 16 inches and 21 inches, respectively. Japan.(Cat. Nos. 154971-2, U.S.N.M.)

U. S NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 148. PLATE
Veil of the Holy arkfor explanation of plate see page 4
6ir.51?29- -15
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 148. PLATE 2
BREASTPLATE OF THE TORAH SCROLL (UPPER) ANDPHYLACTERIES (LOWER)For explanation of plate see pages 5 and 7
U. S. NATIONAU MUSEUM BULLETIN 148. PLATE 3
Lamps and Slaughtering Knife (upper), Instruments of CircumcisionAND Spice box (lower)For explanation of plate see pages 9. 15. 18. and 21
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 143. PLATE 4
PASSOVER PLATE (UPPER) AND OMER TABLET (LOWER!FOR EXPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGES 12 AND 13
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 148. PLATE 5
Marriage ContractFor explanation of plate see page 19
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 148. PLATE 6
Ode of a siYUMFOR EXPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 23
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 148, PLATE 7
ECCLESIASTICAL CANDLESTICKS (UPPER) AND ALTAR LAMPS ANDCENSERS (LOWER)FOR EXPUANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGES 26 AND 27
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 148, PLATE
Incense Boats, Holy Water Vessel and Sprinkler (upper); Paten.Chalice, and Ostensory (lower)For explanation of plate see pages 27 and 34


U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 148. PLATE 11
BISHOPS MITER. CROZIER. AND PECTORAL CROSS (UPPER); CAPEAND STOLE (LOWER)FOR EXPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGES 32 AND 34
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 148, PLATE 12
OSCULATORIES (UPPER); AND WOODEN TRIPTYCH (LOWER)FOR EXPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGES 33 AND 34
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 143. PLATE 13
WOODEN TRIPTYCH (.UPPER); AND HOLY WATER FOUNTAINS (LOWERFOR EXPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 35
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 148, PLATE 14
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U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 148, PLATE 16
PROCESSIONAL CROSS FROM MEXICOFOR EXPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 37
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 148. PLATE 17
PROCESSIONAL CROSS FROM ITALYFOR EXPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 3861551?29 16
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 148, PLATE U
Wooden Figure of Christ from the PhilippinesFor explanation of plate see page 43
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 148, PLATE 19
Engraved Shells (upper); and Processional banners (lower)FOR EXPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGES 43 AND 45
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 148. PLATE 20
Religious Medals from ItalyFor explanation of plate see page 50
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 148. PLATE 21
Rosary of Mother-of-Pearl (upper); and Roman CatholicRosaries (lower)For explanation of plate see pages 52. 53. and 54
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 148, PLATE 22
ROMAN CATHOLIC ROSARIES (UPPER) ; AND DISCIPLINARYGIRDLE AND SCOURGE (LOWER)FOR EXPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGES 54, 55 AND 56
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 148. PLATE 23
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 148. PLATE 24
HEADGEAR WORN BY PRIESTFOR EXPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGES 65 AND 69
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 148. PLATE 25
Icon of Mary and infant iupper;; and Brass ico-js i^lowerjFor explanation of plate see pages 65 and 66

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 148, PLATE 27
PARAPHERNALIA OF THE ARMENIAN CHURCHFOR EXPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 69
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 148. PLATE 28
Musical Instruments of the Armenian ChurchFor explanation of plate see page 69
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 143. PLATE 29
Mosque lamp (upper); and Model of a Hindu Temple iLOWERiFOR EXPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGES 79 AND 107
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 148. PLATE 30
Bronze BuddhaFor explanation of plate see page 126
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 148. PLATE 31
Teakwood Buddha from BurmaFor explanation of plate see page 127
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 148. PLATE 32
WOODEN BUDDHA FROM CEYLONFOR EXPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 128
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 148. PLATE 33
M*
ALABASTER BUDDHA FROM LAOS. FURTHER INDIAFOR EXPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 12961551?29 17
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 148, PLATE 34
Bronze Buddha from JapanOR EXPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 130


U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 143, PLATE 37
Wooden buddha and garuda from LaosFOR EXPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 134


U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 148. PLATE 40
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Buddha Figurines on Clam Shell from ChinaFOR EXPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 142

U S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 143. PLATE 42
Wooden Buddha Entering Nirvana, from LaosFOR EXPLANATION OF PUATE SEE PAGE 142
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 148. PLATE 43
BRONZE HORNS OF BUDDHA (UPPERS CAST OF BUDDHA S FOOT-PRINT. FROM INDIA (.LOWER!FOR EXPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 143
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 148. PLATE 44
Wooden amitabha. from JapanFOR EXPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 144
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 148, PLATE 45
PORCELAIN KUAN-YIN FROM CHINAFOR EXPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 145
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 148, PLATE 46
Wooden Kuannon from Kobe, JapanFor explanation of plate see page 145

U. S NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 148. PLATE 48
Wooden Bodhisattva (left); Bronze Bodhisattva (right)FOR EXPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 147
61551?2? -18




U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 148, PLATE 54
BRONZE VAJRA-DAGGER (LEFT); BRASS TIP OF MENDICANTS STAFF (RIGHT)For explanation of plate see pages 157 and 158
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 143. PLATE 55
Cherrywood Japanese Rosary, from JapanFOR EXPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 163
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 148, PLATE 56
IBronze Begging Bowl (a); Shell and Alabaster Rice Spoons ofBuddhist Monks (b and oFOR EXPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGES 163 AND 164
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 148. PLATE 57
Model of a Wooden pagoda from JapanFor explanation of plate see page 166
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U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 148. PLATE 60
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Open Temple lanterns (upper); Closed Temple Lanterns (lower)For explanation of plate see page 167
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 148. PLATE 61
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PAIR OF Temple lampsFor explanation of plate see page 167
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 148. PLATE 62
BRONZE CENSER (UPPER LEFT); BRONZE CANDLESTICK (UPPER RIGHT)TEMPLE DRUMS (LOWER)For expuanation of plate see pages 168 and 172
U S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 148. PLATE 63
Pewter Candlesticks (upper left and Right): Pewter Incense burner(upper center); prayer banners (lower)For explanation of plate see pages 168 and 170
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 148. PLATE 64
Wooden Fish. Front View (upper); Back View (lower)For explanation of plate see page 173
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 148. PLATE 65
Copper Nine-toned Bell from ChinaFor explanation of plate see page 173
01551?20 10
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 148, PLATE 66
Wooden triratna from LaosFOR EXPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 173
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 148. PLATE 67
Wooden Triratna from LaosFor explanation of plate see page 173
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 148. PLATE 68
Wooden Demon-Queller from JapanFor explanation of plate see page 177
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 148. PLATE 69
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Geomantic compass from ChinaFOR EXPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 178
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 143. PLATE 70
Portrait of ZoroasterFor explanation of plate see page \i
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 148, PLATE 7t
FIRE LADLE (UPPER LEFT ) ; Fl RE U RN , UPPER CENTER > ; FiRE TONGS UPPERRIGHT); AND OFFERING TRAY (LOWER)FOR EXPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGES 190 AND 191
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 148, PLATE 72
Parsee Gentleman. Showing CostumeFor explanation of plate see page 193

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 148. PLATE 74
PARSEE MOTHER AND CHILDREN, SHOWING COSTUMESFOR EXPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 194
Tower of silenceFor explanation of plate see page 195

INDEX
PageAhriman, god of evil .., 183Altar, specimens of 25Altar coverings, China 168Ameshaspands, minister of Ormuzd 183Amitabha, image of 143Architecture, India, styles.-. 105-107religious, India 104Armenian Church, buildings of 09ceremonial objects 68orders of 68Ascension, engraving on shell 43Asceticism, India... 110Ascetics, models of 111Atharva-Veda, facsimile of 114Avesta, sacred books, divisions of 182Bell, Chinese 171temple, India 109Benediction, service of 34Benzaiten, image of 150Bible, Armenian 70Bishamon, image of 151Bodhisattva, images of 143-147Books, liturgical, Jewish . 10Brahma, member of Hindu triad 91Brahmanism, account of 90Brahmans, India 112Buddha, attitudes 125luonze figure, Japan 125doctrines of llG-118entering Nirvana 142footprint of 143founder, life of 115-116images, Burma 127Ceylon 127-128Laos 129-141symbols of 127Buddhism, divisions of 118-120religious ceremonial 115saints and priests 153-155spread of 120-123Buddhist images, Tibetan 147-148monk, ordination of 156outfit of 163pantheon, images 123Bull, Papal 59Burial, customs, Parsees 193-195prayers on.. 21tower, Parsee 193Candlestick, altar 20Caste, India HImarks, India 112Censer, description of... -. -- 26India 109Japan - 168
PageChalice and paten 27Christian ceremonials, objects of 24Circumcision, rile of 17Cloths, for altar _. 2^Compass, geomantic, China 17^Conch shell, India lu^Confession of faith, Zoroastrian I'JlConfucius bronze statue IM)Cord, sacred, India 112Costumes of rabbi 2iCrescent, symbol .v.iCross, classification of 37processional 37with signs of the Passion 38-39Crozier, bishop's 32Cymbals, Chinese... 17iDaikoku, image of 15|)Demon queller, Japan 177Dervish, dancing, costume of 83objects used by 84orders of . 83Devil dancers, Ceylon 177-178Divination slips and blocks 178Drum, fish, Japan 172of skulls, Tibet. 171temple, Burma 172pair, Japan 172Eastern Church, art of 6oEbisu, image of 150Ecclesiastical edifices 70Eschatology, Zoroastrian, and Mohammedan 188Esther, feast of 15Ethical system, lack of in Shinto 19nFestivals, Jewish 9Fire ladle and tongs, Parsees 190light, symbol of Ormuzd... 189purification, Parsees 189urn, Zoroastrian 188Fish, symbol of '"^Flag, Mecca pilgrimage ^-'Fountain, for holy water 35Fox legend, Shinto 202Fukurokuju, image of 151Ganesa, god of wisdom 95Ganga, river god 101Gong, Chinese 171Greek Catholic, monk, costume of 65priest, vestments of 63-64Greek Church, architecture of.. 61branches of 62history of 60-62Hair rope ollcrings, Japan -. 166Ilanukah, feast of - 1-"'Uanuman, monkey god 102205
206 INDEX
I'ngeIlaoma (soma) phuit, Parsees 190Hell, Zoroastriaii 187Hereafter, Shinto 198Hindu family worship, utensils 109religion, phases of 89-91Hinduism, account of 90ceremonial objects of__. 89sacred books of 91Holy water vase, Tibet 109vessel, India 108and sprinkler 27Hotel, image of 151Icons and crosses, Kussian 6.5-('i7Images, decrees on 42Imam, costume of Persian 82Turkish 83Immortality, Zoroastrian 188Judgment of the wicked, Persia 187Jurojin, image of 151Kaaba, at Mecca 78Kakemonos, religious 174Kirin, Chinese mythical animal 108Knife, for slaughtering 21Koran, description of 7.3manuscripts of 84-85Krishna, incarnation of Vishnu 99-100Kuannon, image of, Japan 145Kuanti, Chinese god of war 146Kuan-Yin, image of 144-145Lakshmi, wife of Vinshnu - - 94Lamps, altar _ 26Christian 59Hanukah 15mosque 79temple 108Tibet 167Lantern, church _. 60Libation bowl, Tibet 170Lions, tenijjle, bronze, Japan 176Liturgical books. Greek Catholic 07-08works 36Lotos, symbolism of 175Alahabharata, manuscript of on palm leaf _ _. 114Marriage, contract of 18-20Masks, temple, Shinto 203Mass, service of 24-25Mecca, pilgrimage to 78Medals, religious .50Mirror, Shinto symbol 202Misericordia, costume of .'.6Missal, Latin 36^^zrah, manuscript 22Mohammedan religion, sources of 74^Mohammedanism, doctrines of 74history of 72rites and practices of 75sects and divisions of 76spread of 75-76Mortuary money, Chinese 180Mosque, Mecca 77-78Mohammedan 70service in 82New fire, Parsees 189-190New Moon, observances of 10New Year, observances of __. 13Offerings, votive 50
PageOrders, religious, habits of 55Ormuzd, Persian God 183Osculatory 33Ostensory 34Pagoda, Chinese 166Wat Chang, Slam 164Pagodas. Buddhist 164Pahlavi, literature 183Pantheon, Shinto, Japan 190Parsee, costume of 192Persia and India 180religious ceremonial of 180Parvati, wife of Siva 94Passover, observance of 10Pentecost, explanation of 12Phylactery 6-7Pilgrimage, rites of 80-81Shinto in Japan 200Pisa, cathedral of - 70Prayer book, Japan 171shawl 7-8wheels, Tibetan 158-159Priesthood, Shinto 199Prints, religious 46-50Purification, religious 193Relics 41Religious collection, history of 2Reliquaries 40-42Rosary, Buddhist 160C hinese 161description of 51-52Franciscan 54full Dcmiinican 52J apanese 162Mohammedan 86-88Tibetan 161Rug, prayer ._- 79Russian Church, history of 62Sabbath, observance of 9Sarasvati, wife of Brahma _._ 91Scapulars, origin of 57Scriptures, Buddhist _ 152-153Shinto, ceremonial of 196godsof. 197history of 200religion, history of 196worship in 200Shrine, household, Shinto 201Naga, Burma 166Shinto 199Silence, Tower of 195Siva, member of Hindu triad 93-94Siyum, ode of a 23Stand for Koran 86Sudra, investiture with 191Symbols of the gods, Shinto 197Synagogue, arrangement of 3Tabernacle, Mormon 71Tabernacles, Feast of 13Tablet, ancestral 180Temple, Hindu 103lamps, Tibet 167lanterns, Japan 167Mormon _. 71sword, Japan. 170the, in India 104
INDEX 207PageTheology, Zoroa.'^truui I83-18.TThrone, Indian, for divinities 107Torah scroll A-riTriptych, Gothic _. MTriratna symbol, Laos 17:5Vajra, Japanese l.'iOVedas, India 113-114Vedism, account of 89Veil of the Holy Ark 4A\'stments, Roman Catholic. 2G-32
PageVishnu, avatars of 96-97incarnations of 97-99member of Hindu triad _. 91-92Wands, gohei, Shinto __ 202Zebu idol, India
_ noZoroaster, legends of-
.
181-182life of 181moral teachings of 185Zoroastrian theology, the hereafter 18C-188Zoroastrianisin, ethics of 185o




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