E51 .U6XMSRLSI SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTIONBUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGYBULLETIN 70 PREHISTORIC VILLAGES, CASTLES, ANDTOWERS OF SOUTHWESTERNCOLORADO BY J. WALTER FEWKES WASHINGTONGOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE1919 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL Smithsonian Institution,Bureau of American Ethnology,Washington, D. 0., January 23, 1910.Sir: I have the honor to transmit the accompanying manuscript,entitled "Prehistoric Villages, Castles, and Towers of SouthwesternColorado," by J. Walter Fewkes, and to recommend its publication,subject to your approval, as Bulletin 70 of this Bureau.Very respectfully, J. Walter Fewkes,Chief.Dr. Charles D. Walcott,Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. ^THSON]^SEP 182009) CONTENTS PageIntroduction <)Historical 10Classification 11Villages 1 (iRectangular ruins of the pure type I (iSurouaro 1 1 iGoodman Point Ruin 17Johnson Ruin ISBug Mesa Ruin 19Mitchell Spring Ruin 1 !)Mud Spring (Burkhardt ) Ruin 20Ruin with semicircular core 22Wolley Ranch RuinBlanchard Ruin 23Ruins at Aztec Spring 2:'.Great open-air ruins south and southwest of Dove Creek post office. 28Squaw Point Ruin 28Acmen Ruin 29Oak Spring House 29Ruin in Ruin Canyon 30Cannonball Ruin 30Circular ruins with peripheral compartments 31Wood Canyon Ruins 32Butte Ruin "2Emerson Ruin 33Escalante Ruin 3GCliff-dwellings 37Cliff-dwellings in Sand Canyon 38Double cliff-house 38Scaffold in Sand Canyon 38Unit-type houses in caves 39Cliff-houses in Lost Canyon 40Great houses and towers 40Masonry 10Structure of towers 42Ilovenweep district 44Ruin Canyon 44Square Tower Canyon ' 'Classification- of ruins in Square Tower Canyon 46Hovenweep House (Ruin 1) 46Hovenweep Castle 47Western section of Hovenweep Castle 47Eastern section of Hovenweep Castle 48Ruin 3 48Ruin 4 49Ruin 5 49Ruin 6 495 6 CONTENTS ( Uassification?Continued.Great houses and towers?Continued.Ilovenweep district?-Continued.Eroded bowlder house (Ruin 7) 49Twin Towers (Ruin 8) 50Ruin 9 50Unit-type House (Ruin 10) 50Stronghold House (Ruin 11) 51Ruins in Holly Canyon 52Ruin A, Great House, Hackberry Castle 52Towers [C and D] 52Holly House 53Ruins in Hackberry Canyon 53Horseshoe House 53Towers in the Main Yellow Jacket Canyon 54Davis Tower 55Lion (Littrell) Tower 55McLean Basin 55Tower in Sand Canyon 57Towers in Road (Wickyup) Canyon 57Towers of the Mancos 58Holmes Tower 58Towers on the Mancos River below the bridge 59Tower A 59Tower B ' 59Megalithic and slab house ruins at McElmo Bluff 60Grass Mesa Cemetery 64Reservoirs 64Pictographs 65Minor antiquities 66Historic remains 68Conclusions 68Index 77 ILLUSTRATIONS 1. a, Butte Ruin, b, Aztec Spring Ruin, c, Surouaro, Yellow Jacket Spring Ruin.2. a, Blanchard Ruin, b, Blanchard Ruin, Mound 2. c, Surouaro, Yellow JacketSpring Ruin.3. a, Acmen Ruin, b, Mud Spring Ruin.4. a, Building on rock pinnacle, near Stone Arch, Sand Canyon, b, Stone Arch,Sand Canyon.5. a, Tower in Sand Canyon, b, Unit-type House in Sand Canyon.6. a, Stone Arch House, Sand Canyon. 6, Cliff-house, showing broken corner.7. a, Scaffold in Sand Canyon, b, Storage cist in Mancos Valley, c, Pictographsnear Unit-type House in cave.8. Double cliff-dwelling, Sand Canyon.9. a, Cliff-dwelling under Horseshoe Ruin, b, Cliff-dwelling, Ruin Canyon.10. a, Kiva of cliff ruin, Lost Canyon, b, Cliff ruin, Lost Canyon.11. a, Square Tower in Square Tower Canyon, b, Tower in McLean Basin, c , Ruinin Hill Canyon, Utah.12. Head of South Fork, Square Tower Canyon.13. North Fork of Square Tower Canyon, looking west.14. a, Hovenweep House and Hovenweep Castle, from the south, b, HovenweepCastle, from the west, c, Hovenweep Castle, from the south.15. a, West end of Twin Tower, showing small cliff-house, b, Twin Towers, SquareTower Canyon, from the south, c, Tower 4, junction of North and SouthForks, Square Tower Canyon.16. ?, Hovenweep Castle, with Sleeping Ute Mountain, South Fork, Square TowerCanyon, b, Entrance to South Fork, Square Tower Canyon.17. Stronghold House, Square Tower Canyon.18. a, Head of Holly Canyon, b, South side of Hovenweep Castle, Square TowerCanyon.19. a, Holly Canyon group, from the east, b, Great House at head of Holly Can-yon, from the north, c, Unit-type Ruin, from the east.20. a, Great House at head of Holly Canyon, from the south, b, Ruin B at headof Holly Canyon, from the west, c, Great House at head of Holly Canyon.21. a, Great House, Holly Canyon, b, Stronghold House and Twin Towers, SquareTower Canyon.22. a, Hovenweep Castle. 6, Southern part of Cannonball Ruin, McElmo Canyon.23. a, Square tower with rounded corners, Holly Canyon, b, Holly Tower in HollyCanyon, c, Horseshoe House.24. a, Horseshoe Ruin, b, Bowlder Castle, Road (Wickyup) Canyon.25. a, Closed doorway in Bowlder Castle, Road (Wickyup) Canyon, b, Broken-down round tower, Square Tower Canyon.26. a, North side of tower, Square Tower Canyon, b, D-shaped tower near Davisranch, Yellow Jacket Canyon, c, Model of towers in McLean Basin.27. Round tower and D-shaped tower in McLean Basin.28. a, D-shaped tower in McLean Basin, showing cross section of wall, b. Roundtower in McLean Basin, showing standing stone slab.29. a, Holmes Tower, Mancos Canyon. 6, Lion Tower, Yellow Jacket Canyon. 8 ILLUSTRATIONS30. a, Tower above cavate storehouses, Mancos Canyon, below bridge, b, Tower onmesa between eroded cliffs and bridge over Mancos Canyon, on Cortez Ship-rock Road.31. a, Tower above cavate storehouses, Mancos Canyon, below bridge, b, Eroded shaleformation in which are small walled cavate storehouses.32. a, Reservoir near Picket corral, showing retaining wall, b, Kiva, Unit-typeHouse, Square Tower Canyon.33. Pictographs, Yellow Jacket Canyon.TEXT FIGURES Page1. Ground plan of Aztec Spring Ruin 262 . Ground plan of Wood Canyon Ruin 323. Metes and bounds of Emerson Ruin 344. Schematic ground plan of Emerson Ruin 355. Ground plan of Unit-type House in cave 396. Square Tower Canyon 457. Ground plan of Hovenweep House 108. Ground plan of Hovenweep Castle 479. Ground plan of Twin Towers 5010. Ground plan of Unit-type House 5111. Holly Canyon Ruins 5212. Horseshoe (Hackberry) Canyon 5313. Ground plan of Horseshoe House 5414. Ground plan of Davis Ruin 5515. Ground plan of Lion House 5516. Ground plan of ruin with towers in McLean Basin 5617. Doorway in Round Tower, McLean Basin 5718. Megalithic stone inclosure, McElmo Bluff 61 PREHISTORIC VILLAGES, CASTLES, AND TOWERS OFSOUTHWESTERN COLORADO By J. Walter FewkesINTRODUCTIONThe science of archeology has contributed to our knowledge someof the most fascinating chapters in culture history, for it has broughtto light, from the night of the past, periods of human developmenthitherto unrecorded. As the paleontologist through his method hasrevealed faunas whose like were formerly unknown to the naturalist,the archeologist by the use of the same method of research hasresurrected extinct phases of culture that have attained a highdevelopment and declined before recorded history began. Noachievements in American anthropology are more striking than thosethat, from a study of human buildings and artifacts antedating thehistoric period, reveal the existence of an advanced prehistoricculture of man in America.The evidences of a phase of culture that had developed and wason the decline before the interior of North America was explored byEuropeans are nowhere better shown than in southwestern Colorado,New Mexico, Arizona, and Utah, the domain of the Cliff-dwellers,or the cradle of the Pueblos. There flourished on what is now calledthe Mesa Verde National Park, in prehistoric times, a characteristicculture unlike that of any region in the United States. This culturereached its apogee and declined before the historic epoch, but did notperish before it had left an influence extending over a wide territory,which persisted into modern times. Through the researches ofarcheologists the nature of this culture is now emerging into full view;but much material yet remains awaiting investigation before it canbe adequately understood. The purpose of this article is to callattention to new observations bearing upon its interpretation madeby the author, under the auspices of the Bureau of American Eth-nology, on brief trips to Colorado and Utah in 1917 and 1918.The peculiar cliff-dwellings and open-air villages of the Mesa Verdeare here shown to be typical of those found over a region many milesin extent. They indicate a distinct culture area, which is easilydistinguished from others where similar buildings do not exist, but 10 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull, to not as readily separated from that of adjacent regions where thebuildings are superficially similar hut structurally different. Inorder to distinguish it from its neighhors and determine its horizon,we must become familiar with certain architectural characteristics.As our knowledge of the character of buildings in this area is incom-plete, the intention of the author is to define the several differenttypes of buildings that characterize it.When, in 1915, there was brought to light on the Mesa VerdeNational Park, Colorado, the mysterious structure, Sun Temple, theauthor recalled well-known descriptions of towers and other relatedbuildings that have been recorded from other localities in south-western Colorado and Utah. The published descriptions of thesestructures did not seem to him adequate for comparisons, and heplanned an examination of these great houses and towers, hoping togather new data that would shed some light on his interpretation ofSun Temple. During the field work in 1917, thanks to an allotmentfrom the Bureau of American Ethnology for that purpose, he under-took a reconnoissance in the McElmo district, where similar buildingsare found and where he believed cultural relatives of the formerinhabitants of Mesa Verde once lived. In 1918 he extended his fieldwork still farther. He investigated ruins as far as the western tribu-taries of the Yellow Jacket Canyon, penetrating a short distancebeyond the Colorado border into Utah. The object of the followingpages is to make known the more important results of this visit, andinterpret the evidence they present as a contribution to our knowledgeof the extension in prehistoric times of the Mesa Verde culture area.HISTORICALAttention was first publicly called, about 40 years ago (1875-1877),by Messrs. Jackson, 1 Holmes, Morgan, and others, to some of theruins here considered. It is difficult to identify all of the ruinsmentioned or described by these pioneers. Their "HovenweepCastle" is supposed to lie in about the center of the district hereconsidered, possibly on Square Tower (Ruin) Canyon, although thelarge castellated building 2 in Holly Canyon would also fulfill con-ditions equally well. Their "Pueblo" may have been situated onthe McElmo near the mouth of Yellow Jacket Canyon. Earlywriters rather vaguely refer to a cluster of castles and towers assituated some distance from the "Burial Place," which is readilyidentified on the promontory at the mouth of the McElmo, as prob-ably those hi Square Tower (Ruin) Canyon, but the cluster may be i Ancient Ruins in Southwestern Colorado. Kept. V. R. Geol. Surv. Terr. (llaydcn Survey) for 1S74,Washington, 1876.2 The situation of a spring near Hovenweep CbsI le Indicates that the Great House may bo t he Hoven-weep Castle of early writers. fewkes] PREHISTORIC VILLAGES, CASTLES, AND TOWERS 11 either at Square Tower or Holly Canyon, both of which are aboutthe same distance from this site. As "Pueblo" is not indicated onthe map accompanying the Hayden. report, the sites of rock shelters"some 7 miles from 'Pueblo' and 3 miles from the McElmo" remaindoubtful. The author retains the name "Hovenweep Castle" forthe rum in Square Tower Canyon.In his account of rums in the region visited, Prof. W. H. Holmes xconsiders several other ruins, as "the triple-walled tower" (herecalled Mud Spring village, p. 20), ruins at Aztec Spring (p. 23),cliff-dwellings and towers of the San Juan and Mancos, the "slabcysts" or burial places on the Dolores, and the promontory at thejunction of the Hovenweep and McElmo (p. GO). The best-preserved towers and castellated buildings which his article considersoccur on the San Juan and Mancos Canyons, districts on the peripheryof the region covered by this account.These pioneer reports of Jackson and Holmes not only calledattention to a new archeological field, but also introduced to thearcheologist several new types of prehistoric American architectureof which nothing was previously known. They have been repeatedlyquoted and are still constantly referred to by writers on southwesternarcheology.Although Jackson made many photographs of the castles andtowers of the Hovenweep, none of these were published in his reports,possibly because halftone methods of reproduction were then un-known. The illustrations that appear in the text of early reportsare mainly reproductions of sketches. These reports, in which thediscovery of the tower type of architecture and its adjacent cliff-dwellings were announced, should thus rightly rank as the firstimportant steps in the scientific investigations of the stone-housebuilders of this district of our Southwest; although the allied "CasasGrandes" or great houses of the Chaco had been described a fewyears before by Gregg, Stimpson, and others.We have, in addition to these pioneer reports, several magazinearticles of about the same date, the material for which was largelydrawn from them. One of the most important newspaper articlesof that date was written by Mr. Ernest Ingersoll, published in theNew York Tribune, and another, of anonymous authorship, is to befound in the Century Magazine for the year 1877. New forms oftowers and castellated buildings were added in these accounts tothose of the earlier authors.One of the most important contributions to the antiquities of theregion about Mesa Verde was made by the veteran ethnologist, Mor-gan, who published notes contributed by Mr. Mitchell on a cluster of ? Report on the ancient ruins of Southwestern Colorado. Tenth Ann. Kept. U. S. Geol. Surv. Terr.(Hayden Survey) for 1870, Washington, is;;). 12 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [boll. 70mounds near his ranch. As no name was given this village it is herecalled the Mitchell Spring Village. Morgan likewise mentions theruin at Mud Spring and a tower in the ruin near his spring. ProfessorNewberry was the first author to affix the name Surouaro to a ruinsituated at the head of the Yellow Jacket Canyon.Several of these ruins were described and figured by Mr. Warren K.Moorehead as "The Great Ruins of Upper McElmo Creek" in theIllustrated American for July 9, 1892, the sixth of a series of articlesunder a general title ''In search of a Lost Race." He gives descrip-tions of a " cave shelter ' ; found near Twin Towers, Square Tower in"Ruin Canyon," a building (Hovenweep Castle), and the tower atthe junction of the North and South Forks of Ruin Canyon. Thispaper is accompanied by a map of Ruin Canyon by Mr. Cowen. InMooreh end's discussion of these remains, individual towers and otherruins are designated by capital letters, A-V, to some of which arealso affixed the names "Hollow Boulder," "Twin Towers," "SquareTower," etc. Details of structure and measurements of the morestriking buildings and a discussion of certain features of structure,some of which will be considered later under individual ruins, arelikewise given.The most important general article yet published on the prehis-toric remains of the region here considered is by Dr. T. MitchellPrudden, 1 who also mentions several of the ruins here treated. Hismost important contribution is a description of what he calls the "unit type/' which he recognized as a fundamental structuralfeature in the pueblos of this region. He also showed that the kivain Montezuma Valley villages is identical with that of cliff-dwellingsin the Mesa Verde, and emphasized, as an important feature, theunion of the tower and the pueblo, a characteristic of the highestform of pueblo architecture.Doctor Prudden has followed his comprehensive paper abovementioned with an account 2 of the excavation of one of the moundsat Mitchell Spring in which he adds to our knowledge of the structureof his "unit type."In "A Further Study of Prehistoric Small House Ruins in the SanJuan Watershed," 3 Doctor Prudden has furnished important addi-tional data which shows the uniformity of the unit type over alarge area of the San Juan drainage.The following among other prehistoric remains in the districtmentioned or described by Doctor Prudden are covered by theauthor's reconnoissance: 1 The Prehistoric Ruins of the San Juan Watershed in Utah, Arizona, Colorado, and New Mexico.,Amer. Allthrop., n, s. vol. v, no. 2, 1908.*The Circular Eivas c>r Small Ruins in the San Juan Watershed. Amer. Anthrop., n. s. vol. xvi, no. 1,1914.3 Memoirs Amer. Anthrop. Asso., vol. v, no. 1, 1918. fewkes] PREHISTORIC VILLAGES, CASTLES, AND TOWERS 13 1. Ruins at Dolores Bend (Escalanto Ruin).2. Wolley Ranch Ruin.3. Burkhardt Ruin (Mud Spring Village).4. Goodman Point Ruin.5. Unnamed ruin west of Goodman Lake.6. Ruin at junction of McElmo and Yellow Jacket.7. Group on Yellow Jacket nearly opposite mouth of DawsonCanyon (Davis or Littrell Tower).S. Surouaro.9. CannonbaH Ruin.10. Towers and buildings of Ruin and Bridge Canyons.11. Pierson Spring Ruin.12. Bug Spring Ruins.The following towers can be identified from his figures: '1. " Square building opposite mouth of Dawson Creek." Prud-den, pi. xviii, fig. 2. (This building is not square, but semicircular.)2. Cannonball Ruin. Prudden, pi. xxi [xxii].3. ".Small tower-like structure ... at the head of Ruin Canyon,in the Yellow Jacket group." Prudden, pi. xxiii, fig. 2. (Thisbuilding is not in Ruin Canyon, but in Holly Canyon.)4. "Tower . . . about the head of Ruin Canyon." Prudden,pi. xxiii, fig. 1. (This is the most eastern of the Twin Towers, butnot about the head of the canyon.)5. Sand Canyon Tower. Prudden, pi. xxiv, fig. 2.Although mainly devoted to descriptions of the cliff-houses of theMesa Verde, Baron G. Nordenskiold's "Cliff Dwellers of the MesaVerde" discusses in so broad a manner the relationship of pueblortiins and cliff-houses that no student can overlook this epoch-makingwork. In fact, Nordenskiold laid the foundations for subsequentstudents of pueblo morphology, although some of his comparisonsand generalizations were premature because based on imperfectobservations which have been superseded by later investigations.The partial excavation of the excellent ruin at the head of Cannon-ball Canyon by S. G. Morlcy 2 sheds considerable light on the mor-phology of prehistoric buildings in the McElmo district. Unfortu-nately no attempt was made by him to repair the walls of this ruinfor permanent preservation, but it is not too laf e still to preventtheir further destruction and preserve them for future students andvisitors. Morley's description of the buildings is accompanied bygood photographs and a ground plan. lie brought to light in thisruin examples of the characteristic unit-type kiva. 1 Aracr. Anthrop., n. s. vol. v, no. 2, 1903.:Tho Excavation of the Cannonball Ruins in Southwestern Colorado. Amcr. Anthrop., a. s. vol. \,no. 4, 1908. 14 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [boll, toThe Latest work on the McElmo Ruins, one part of which has alreadyappeared, is a joint contribution by Morlcy and Kidder. 1 In thispublication accurate dimensions and sites of ruins in the McElmoand Square Ruin Canyons are given, with other instructive data.Morlcy and Kidder have designated the ruins by Arabic numbers,and in a few instances by names. The author has preserved thesenumbers so far as possible in his account.The following ruins in Ruin Canyon and neighboring district cov-ered by this reconnoissance are described by Morley and Kidder:No. 1. Wickyup Canyon, Ruin 1 and Ruin 2, "Boulder Castle."No. 2. Two towers in Ruin Canyon: 1* near the mouth; l b , Towerson or near forks, No. 1 [Iiovenweep Pueblo], No. 2 [HovenweepCastle.]No. 3. [Square Tower.]No. 4. [Oval Tower.]No. 5. [Tower.]No. 6. [6.]No. 7. [Boulder Cliff-house.]No. 8. Twin Towers.No. 9. [9.]No. 10. [Unit-type House.]No. 11. Gibraltar House and rum. [Stronghold House.]No. 12. [12.]The pueblos and cave dwellings of the ''Pivotal group" (those onor near the promontory at the junction of the McElmo and YellowJacket Canyons) were also studied by the authors.Almost the whole article by Morlcy and Kidder, which the editorannounces will be completed in a future number of "El Palacio,"is devoted to descriptions of buildings 2 in Ruin and Road (Wickyup)Canyons and the ruins of the "Pivotal group" at the base of apromontory between the junction of the Yellow Jacket and McElmo.CLASSIFICATIONIn the classification by Morley and Kidder and the majority ofwriters, sites rather than structural features are adopted as a basis,although all recognized that large cliff-dwellings like Cliff Palace arepractically pueblos built in caves. In the following classificationmore attention is directed to differences in structure than to situation,notwithstanding the latter is convenient for descriptive purposes.1. Villages or clusters of houses, each havmg the form of the purepueblo type. The essential feature of the pme type is a compact 1 The Archaeology of McElmo Canyon, Colorado. El Palacio, vol. iv, no. 4, Santa Fc, 1917.2 The dimensions of buildings ami towers given in this article arc welcome additions to our knowledge,but from lack of ground plans one can not fully determine the arrangement of rooms designated in indi-vidual ruins. fewke.s] PREHISTORIC VILLAGES, CASTLES, AND TOWERS 15pueblo, containing one or more unit types, circular kivas of character-istic form, surrounded by rectangular rooms. These units, single, orconsolidated, may be grouped in clusters, as Mitchell Spring orAztec Spring Ruins; the clusters may be fused into a large build-ing, as at Aztec or in the community buildings on Chaco Canyon.2. Cliff-houses. These morphologically belong to the same puretype as pueblos; their sites in natural caves are insufficient to sepa-rate them from open-sky buildings.3. Towers and great houses. These buildings occur united tocliff-dwellings or pueblos, but more often they are isolated.4. Rooms with walls made of megaliths or small stone slabs seton edge.In reports on the excavation of Far View House 1 on the MesaVerde, the author called attention to clusters of mounds indicatingruined buildings in the neighborhood of Mummy hake, a little morethan 4 miles from Spruce-tree House. This cluster he considers avillage; Far View House, excavated from one of the mounds, isregarded as a prehistoric pueblo of the pure type. The forms ofother buildings covered by the remaining mounds of the MummyLake site are unknown, but it is probable that they will be foundto resemble Far View House, or that all members of the villagehave similar forms.This grouping of small pueblos into villages at Mummy Lake onthe Mesa Verde is also a distinctive feature of ruins in the MontezumaValley and McElmo district. In these villages one or more of thecomponent houses may be larger and more conspicuous, dominatingall the others, as at Goodman Point, or at Aztec Spring. The housescomposing the village at Mud Spring were about the same size, but atWolley Ranch Ruin only one mound remains, evidently the largest,the smaller having disappeared.The third group, towers and great houses, includes buildings ofoval, circular, semicircular, and rectangular shapes. Morphologicallyspeaking, they do not present structural features of pueblos, for theyare not terraced, neither have they specialized circular ceremonialrooms, kivas with vaulted roofs surrounded by rectangular rooms, orother essential features of the pueblo type. The group contains build-ings which are sometimes consolidated with cliff-houses and pueblos,but are often independent of them. In this type are included castel-lated buildings in the Mancos, Yellow Jacket, McElmo, and thenumerous northern tributary canyons of the San Juan. i A Prehistoric Mesa Vordc Pueblo and its People. Smithson. Rept. for 1916, pp. 461 188,1917. FarView House?a Pure Type of Pueblo Ruin. Art and Archaeology, vol. vi, no. 3, 1917. 16 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [boll. 70Villagesrectangular ruins of the pure typeAs the word is used in this report, a village is a cluster of housesseparated from each other, each building constructed on the same plan,viz, a circular ceremonial room or kiva with mural banquettes andpilasters for the support of a vaulted roof, inclosed in rectangularrooms. When there is one kiva and surrounding angular rooms weadopt the name "unit type." When, as in the larger mounds, thereare indications of several kivas or unit types consolidated?the sizebeing in direct proportion to the number?we speak of the buildingas belonging to the "pure type." Doctor Prudden, who first pointedout the characteristics of the "unit type," 1 has shown its wide dis-tribution in the McElmo district. The Mummy Lake village has 16mounds indicating houses. Far View House, one of these houses, ismade up of an aggregation of four unit types and hence belongs tothe author's "pure type."While villages similar to the Mummy Lake group, in the valleys nearMesa Verde, have individual variations, the essential features are thesame, aswill appear in the following descriptions of Surouaro, and ruinsat Goodman Point, Mud Spring, Aztec Spring, and Mitchell Spring.Commonly, in these villages, one mound predominates in size overthe others, and while rectangular in form, has generally circulardepressions on the surface, recalling conditions at Far View moundbefore excavation. These mounds indicate large buildings in blocks,made up of many unit forms of the pure type, united into compactstructures. One large dominant member of the village recalls thoseruins where the village is consolidated into one community pueblo.The separation of mounds in the village and their concentration inthe community house may be of chronological importance, althoughthe relative age of the simple and composite forms can not at presentbe determined; but it is important to recognize that the units of con-struction in villages and community buildings are identical.SurouaroThe cluster of mounds formerly called Surouaro, now known asYellow Jacket Spring Ruin, is situated near the head of the canyonof the same name to the left of the Monticello road, 14 miles west ofDolores. This village (pis. 1, c; 2, c) contains both large and smallhouses of the pure pueblo type, covering an area somewha t less than theMummy Lake group, on the Mesa Verde. The arrangement of moundsin clusters naturally recalls the Galisteo and Jemez districts, New 1 The situation of the cemetery, one of the characters of Prudden's "unit type," appears constant inone-kiva buildings, but is variable in (lie pure type, and, as shown in the author's application of the unittype to the crowded condition in Spruce-tree House and other cliff-houses, does not occur in the sameposition as in pueblos of tho pure type open to the sky. fewkes] PREHISTORIC VILLAGES, CASTLES, AND TOWERS 17Mexico, where, however, the arrangement of the mounds and thestructure of each is different. The individual houses in a Mesa Verdeor Yellow Jacket village were not so grouped as to inclose a rectangu-lar court, but were irregularly distributed with intervals of consider-able size between them. 1The largest mound in the Surouaro village, shown in plate 1, c,corresponds with the so-called "Upper House" of Aztec Spring Ruin,but is much larger than Far View or any other single mound in theMummy Lake village.Surouaro was one of the first ruins in this region described byAmerican explorers, attention having been first called to it by Pro-fessor Newberry, 2 whose description follows: "Surouaro is the nameof a ruined town which must have once contained a'population ofseveral thousands. The name is said to be of Indian (Utah) origin,and to signify desolation, and certainly no better could have beenselected. . . . The houses are, many of them, large, and all built ofstone, hammer dressed on the exposed faces. Fragments of pot-tery are exceedingly common, though like the buildings, showinggreat age. . . . The remains of metates (corn mills) are abundantabout the ruins. The ruins of several large reservoirs, built ofmasonry, may be seen at Surouaro, and there are traces of acequiaswhich led to them, through which water was brought, perhaps froma great distance." Goodman Point RuinThis ruin is a cluster of small mounds surrounding larger ones,recalling the arrangement at Aztec Spring. They naturally fallinto two groups which from their direction or relation to the adja-cent spring may be called the south and^north sections.The most important mound of the south section, Block A, meas-ures 74 feet on the north, 79 feet on the south, and 76 feet on thewest side. This large mound corresponds morphologically to the"Upper House" at Aztec Spring (fig. 1, A). About it there arearranged at intervals, mainly on the north and east sides, othersmaller mounds generally indicating rectangujar buildings. Thesoutheast angle of the largest is connected by a low wall with oneof the smaller mounds, forming an enclosure called a court, whosenorthern border is the rim of the canyon just above the spring. Adetermination of the detailed architectural features of the building i In his valuable study, Pueblo Ruins of the Galisleo Basin, New Mexico (Anthrop. Papers of the Amer.Mus. Nat. Hist,, vol. xv, pt. 1, 1914), Mr. Nelson figures (Plan I, B) an embedded circular kiva in what hecalls the "historic part" of the Galisteo Ruin, but does not state how he distinguishes the historic fromthe prehistoric part of this building. The other kivas at Galisteo are few in number and not embedded,but situated outside the house masses as in historic pueblos.5 Report of the exploring expedition from Santa Fe, New Mexico, to the Junction of the Grand and GreenRivers of the Great Colorado of the West in 1S59, under the command of Capt, J. N. Macomb, p. 88, Wash-ington, 1876.10SS52 ?19?Bull. 70 2 18 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 70buried under Block A is not possible, as none of its walls stand abovethe mass of fallen stones, but it is evident, from circular depressionsand fragments of straight walls that appear over the surface of themound, that the rooms were of two kinds, rectangular forms, ordwellings, and circular chambers, or kivas. This mound resemblesFar View House on the Mesa Verde before excavation.A large circular depression, 56 feet in diameter, is situated in themidst of the largest mounds. A unique feature of this depression,recognized and described by Doctor Prudden, are four piles of stones,regularly arranged on the floor. The author adopts the suggestionthat this area was once roofed and served as a central circular kiva,necessitating a roof of such dimensions that four masonry pillarsserved for its support. The mound measures about 15 feet in height,and has large trees growing on its surface, offering evidence of aconsiderable age. Several other rooms are indicated by circularsurface depressions, but their relation to the rectangular rooms canbe determined only by excavation.Johnson RuinThis ruin, to which the author was conducted by Mr. C. K. Davis,is about 4 miles west of the Goodman Point Ruin near Mr. John-son's ranch house, in section 12, township 36, range 18. It is saidto be situated at the head of Sand Canyon, a tributary of the McElmo,and is one of the largest ruins visited. The remains of former housesskirt the rim of the canyon head for fully half a mile, forming a con-tinuous series of mounds in which can be traced towers, great houses,and other types of buildings, and numerous depressions indicatingsunken kivas. The walls of these buildings were, however, so tum-bled down that little now remains above ground save piles of stonesin which tops of buried walls may still be detected, but not withoutsome difficulty. In a cave under the "mesa rim" there is a smallcliff-house in the walls of which extremities of the original woodenrafters still remain in place.In an open clearing, about 3 miles south and west of Mr. J. W.Fulk's house, Renaraye post office, there is a small ruin of rectangu-lar form, the ground plan of which shows two rectangular sectionsof different sizes, joined at one angle. The largest section measuresapproximately 20 by 50 feet. It consists of low rooms surroundingtwo circular depressions, possibly kivas. Although constructed ona small scale, this section reminds one of the Upper House of AztecSpring Ruin. The smaller section, which also has a rectangularform, has remains of high rooms on opposite sides and low walls onthe remaining sides. In the enclosed area there is a circular depres-sion or reservoir, corresponding with the reservoir of the LowerHouse at Aztec Spring Ruin. fewkes] PREHISTORIC VILLAGES, CASTLES, AND TOWERS 19Bun Mesa UuinThe author was guided by Mr. H. S. Merchant to a village ruin,one of the largest visited, situated a few miles from his ranch house.This village is about 10 miles due south of the store at the head ofDove Creek, and consists of several large mounds, each about 500feet long, arranged parallel to each other, and numerous isolatedsmaller mounds. Nor far from this large ruin there is a prehistoricreservoir estimated as covering about 4 acres. Many circular depres-sions, indicated kivas, and lines of stones showed tops of buried rec-tangular rooms. Excavations in a small mound near this ruin wereconducted by Doctor Prudden. 1The canyon which heads near the corral on the road to Merchant'shouse revealed no evidence of prehistoric dwellings.Mitchell Sprinu RuinThis ruin takes its name from the earliest known description of itby Morgan, 2 which was compiled from notes by Mr. Mitchell, one ofthe early settlers in Montezuma Valley. Morgan's account is asfollows : "Near Mr. Mitchell's ranch, and within a space of less than a milesquare, are the ruins of nine pueblo houses of moderate size. Theyare built of sandstone intermixed with cobblestone and adobe mortar.They are now in a very ruinous condition, without standing walls inany part of them above the rubbish. The largest of the number ismarked No. 1 in the plan, figure 44, of which the outline of theoriginal structure is still discernible. It is 94 feet in length and 47feet in depth, and shows the remains of a stone wall in front inclosinga small court about 15 feet wide. The mass of material over someparts of this structure is 10 or 12 feet deep. There are, no doubt,rooms with a portion of the walls still standing covered with rubbish,the removal of which would reveal a considerable portion of theoriginal ground plan."The author paid a short visit to the Mitchell Spring village and bymeans of Morgan's sketch map was able to identify without difficultythe nine mounds and tower he represents. The village at MitchellSpring differs from that at Mud Spring and at Aztec Spring mainlyin the small size and diffuse distribution of the component moundsand an absence of any one mound larger than the remainder. Ithad, however, a round tower, but unlike that at Mud Spring village,this structure is not united to one of the houses. The addition oftowers to pueblos, as pointed out by Doctor Prudden3 several yearsago, marks the highest development of pueblo architecture as shown 1 Memoirs Amer. Anthrop. Asso., vol. v, no. 1, 1918.2 Houses and House-life of the American Aborigines. Cont. N. Amer. Elhn., vol. iv, pp. 1S Mud Spring mounds cover a muchlarger area than descriptions or ground plans thus far published wouldindicate.Originally Mud Spring Ruin consisted of a cluster of pueblos ofvarious sizes, each probablywith a circular kiva and rectangular rooms,combined with one or more towers at present too much dilapidatedto determine architectural details without excavations. Like theother clusters of pueblos in the McElmo and Montezuma Valley, thecemetery near Mud Spring Ruin has suffered considerably frompothunters, but there still remain many standing walls that are wellpreserved. Ruin with Semicircular CoreThis ruin is situated on the San Juan about 3 miles below thesandy bed of the mouth of the Montezuma, on a bluff 50 feet abovethe river. The ground plan by Jackson 1 indicates a building shapedlike a trapezoid, 158 feet on the northeast side, 120 on the southeast,and 32 on the northwest side. The southwest side is broken mid-way by a reentering area at the rim of the bluff over the river.In the center of this trapezoidal structure there is represented aseries of rooms arranged like those of Horseshoe House, but com-posed of a half-circular chamber surrounded by seven rooms betweentwo concentric circular walls. Thus far the homology to HorseshoeHouse is close but beyond this series of rooms, following out thetrapezoidal form, at least five other rooms appear on the groundplan. The position of these recalls the walls arranged around thetower at Mud Spring village. In other words, the ruin resemblesHorseshoe House, but has in addition rectangular rooms added onthree sides, forming an angular building. So far as the author'sinformation goes, no other ruin of exactly this type, which recallsSun Temple, has been described by other observers.WOLLEY RANCII RuiNWolley Ranch Ruin, situated 10^ miles south of Dolores, is one ofthe largest mounds near Cortez. There are evidences of the formerexistence of a cluster of mounds at this place, only one of whichnow remains. This is covered with bushes, rendering it difficultto trace the bounding walls. i Tenth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv. Terr. (Hayden Survey) for 1876, pi. xlviii, fig. 2, 1S79. fewkes] PREHISTORIC VILLAGES, CASTLES, AND TOWERS 23 I'.i ANciiAHi) RuinSeveral years ago private parties constructed at Manitou, nearColorado Springs, a cliff-dwelling on the combined plan of Spruce-tree House and Cliff Palace. The rocks used for that purpose weretransported from a large mound on the Blanchard ranch near Leba-non, in the Montezuma Valley, at the head of Hartman's draw,about 6 miles south of Dolores. Two mounds (pi. 2, a, b), aboutthree-quarters of a mile apart, are all that now remain of a consider-able village; the other smaller mounds, reported by pioneer settlers,have long since been leveled by cultivation. As both of these moundshave been extensively dug into to obtain stones, the walls thairemain standing show much mutilation. The present condition ofthe largest Blanchard mound, as seen from its southwest angle, isshown in plate 2, b. About half of the mound, now covered witha growth of bushes, still remains entire, exposing walls of fine masonry,on its south side. The rooms in the buried buildings are hard tomake out on account of this covering of vegetation and accumu-lated debris; but the central depressions, supposed to be kivas, almostalways present in the middle of mounds in this district, show thatthe structure of Blanchard Ruin follows the pure type.Ruins at Aztec SpringThe mounds at Aztec Spring (pi. 1, b), situated on the easternflank of Ute Mountain, at a site looking across the valley to thewest end of Mesa Verde, were described forty years ago by W. W.Jackson 1 and Prof. W. H. Holmes.2 The descriptions given by boththese pioneers are quoted at length for the reason that subsequentauthors have added little from direct observation since that time,notwithstanding they have been constantly referred to and theillustrations reproduced.As a result of a short visit, the author is able to add the few fol-lowing notes on the Aztec Spring mounds. The ruin is a villageconsisting of a cluster of unit pueblos of the pure type in variousstages of consolidation. No excavations were made, but the surfaceindications point to the conclusion that the different mounds indi-cate that these pueblos have different shapes and sizes.The author's observations differ in several unimportant partic-ulars from those of previous writers, and while it is not his intentionto describe in detail the Aztec Spring village he will call attentionto -certain features it shares with other villages in the MontezumaValley. i Rept. U. S. Cool. Survey Terr. (Hayden Survey) for 1874, Washington, 1876. > I p. eit. 24 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 70The best, almost the only accounts of this village are the follow-ing taken from the descriptions by Jackson and Holmes publishedin 1877. Mr. Jackson gives the following description: 1 "Immediately adjoining the spring, on the right, as we face itfrom below, is the ruin of a great massive structure [Upper House ?]of some kind, about 100 feet square in exterior dimensions; a portiononly of the wall upon the northern face remaining in its original posi-tion. The debris of the ruin now forms a great mound of crumblingrock, from 12 to 20 feet in height, overgrown with artemisia, butshowing clearly, however, its rectangular structure, adjusted approx-imately to the four points of the compass. Inside this square isa circle, about 60 feet in diameter, deeply depressed in the center.The space between the square and the circle appeared, upon a hastyexamination, to have been filled in solidly with a sort of rubble-masonry. Cross-walls were noticed in two places; but whetherthey were to strengthen the walls or divided apartments couldonly be conjectured. That portion of the outer wall remainingstanding is some 40 feet in length and 15 in height. The stones weredressed to a uniform size and finish. Upon the same level as this ruin,and extending back some distance, were grouped line after line offoundations and mounds, the great mass of which is of stone but notone remaining upon another . . . Below the above group, some 200yards distant, and communicating by indistinct lines of debris, isanother great wall, inclosing a space of about 200 feet square [LowerHouse?] . . . This better preserved portion is some 50 feet inlength, 7 or 8 feet in height, and 20 feet thick, the two exterior sur-faces of well-dressed and evenly laid courses, and the center packedin solidly with rubble-masonry, looking entirely different from thoserooms which had been filled with debris, though it is difficult toassign any reason for its being so massively constructed . . . Thetown built about this spring is nearly a square mile in extent, thelarger and more enduring buildings in the center, while all aboutare scattered and grouped the remnants of smaller structures, com-prising the suburbs.'The description by Professor Holmes 2 is more detailed andaccompanied by a ground plan, and is quoted below:"The site of the spring I found, but without the least appearanceof water. The depression formerly occupied by it is near the centerof a large mass of rums, similar to the group [Mud Spring village]last described, but having a rectangular instead of a circular buildingas the chief and central structure. This I have called the upperhouse in the plate, and a large walled enclosure a little lower on theslope I have for the sake of distinction called the lower house. ? Op. Cit., pp. 377-378. 2 Op. cit., p. 400. fewkes] PREHISTORIC VILLAGES, CASTLES, AKl> TOWERS 25 "Those ruins form the most imposing pile of masonry yet [1875]found in Colorado. The whole group covers an area about 480,000square feet, and has an average depth of from 3 to 4 feet. Thiswould give in the vicinity of 1,500,000 solid feet of stonework. Thestone used is chiefly of the fossiliferous limestone that outcropalong the base of the Mesa Verde a mile or more away, and its trans-portation to this place has doubtless been a great work for a peopleso totally without facilities. ."The upper house is rectangular, measuring 80 feet by 100 feet,and is built with the cardinal points to within a few degrees. Thepile is from 12 to 15 feet in height, and its massiveness suggests anoriginal height at least twice as great. The plan is somewhat < lifficultto make out on account of the very great quantity of debris."The walls seem to have been double, with a space 7 feet be-tween; a number of cross walls at regular intervals indicate that thisspace has been divided into apartments, as seen in the plan."The walls are 26 inches thick, and are built of roughly dressedstones, which were probably laid in mortar, as in other cases."The enclosed space, which is somewhat depressed, has two linesof debris, probably the remains of partition-walls, separating it intothree apartments, a, b, c [note]. Enclosing' this great house is anetwork of fallen walls, so completely reduced that none of thestones seem to remain in place; and I am at a loss to determinewhether they mark the site of a cluster of irregular apartments,having low, loosely built walls, or whether they are the remains ofsome imposing adobe structure built after the manner of the ruinedpueblos of the Rio Chaco."Two well-defined circular enclosures or estufas [kivas] are situatedin the midst of the southern wing of the ruin. The upper one, A,is on the opposite side of the spring from the great house, is 60 feetin diameter, and is surrounded by a low stone wall. West ofthe houseis a small open court, which seems to have had a gateway openingout to the west, through the surrounding walls."The lower house is 200 feet in length by ISO in width, and itswalls vary 15 degrees from the cardinal points. The northern wall,a, is double and contains a row of eight apartments about 7 feet inwidth by 24 in length. The walls of the other sides are low, andseem to have served simply to enclose the great court, near thecenter of which is a large walled depression (estufa B)."The number of buildings that composed the Aztec Spring village(fig. 1) when it was inhabited can not be exactly estimated, but asindicated by the largest mound, the most important block of roomsexceeds in size any at Mitchell Spring Ruin. While this village alsocovered more ground than that at Mud Spring, it shows no evidenceof added towers, a prominent feature of the. largest mound of the 26 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [ROLL. 70latter. Two sections (fig. 1, A, B) may be distinguished in thearrangement of mounds in the village; one may bo known as thewestern and the other as the eastern division.The highest and most conspicuous mound of the western section(A) is referred to by Professor Holmes as the "Upper House."Surface characteristics now indicate that this is the remains of acompact rectangular building, with circular kivas and domiciliaryrooms of different shapes, the arrangement of which can not be dc- Fig. 1.?Ground plan of Azto? Spring Ruin.tcrmined without extensive excavations. The plan of this pueblopublished by Holmes 1 shows two large and one small depression,indicating peripheral rectangular chambers surrounded by walls ofrectangular rooms.The author interprets the depressions, K, as kivas, but supposesthat they were not rectangular as figured by Holmes, but circular,surrounded on all four sides by square secular chambers, the "UpperHouse" being formed by the consolidation of several units of the purepueblo type. Although Aztec Spring Ruin is now much mutilated i Op. cit., pi. xl. pewkes] PREHISTORIC VILLAGES, CASTLES, AND TOWERS 27and its walls difficult to trace, the surface indications, aided by com-parative studies of the rooms, show that Holmes' "a," "h," and"e," now shown by depressions, are circular, subterranean kivas.They are the same kind of chambers as the circular depressions inthe mounds on the south side of the spring. The height of themound called "Upper House" indicates that the building had morethan one story on the west and north sides, and that a series of roomsone story high with accompanying circular depressions existed onthe east side.The "Upper House" is only one of several pueblos composing thewestern cluster of the Aztec Spring village. Its proximity to thesource of water may in part account for its predominant size,* butthere are evidences of several other mounds (E-II) in its neighbor-hood, also remains of pueblos. Those on the north (C) and westsides (E-II) are small and separated from it by intervals sometimescalled courts. The most extensive accumulation of rooms, next the"Upper House" is situated across the draw in which the springlies, south of the "Upper House " cluster already considered. Theaggregation of houses neap the " Upper House " is mainly composed oflow rectangular buildings among which are recognized scatteredcircular depressions indicating kivas. The largest of these buildingsis indicated by the mound on the south rim of the draw, where wecan make out remains of a number of circular depressions or kivas(K), as if several unit" forms fused together; on the north and westsides of the spring there are small, low mounds, unconnected, alsosuggesting several similar unit forms. The most densely populatedpart of the village at Aztec Spring, as indicated by the size of themounds clustered on the rim around the head of the draw, is abovethe spring, on the northwest and south sides.There remains to be mentioned the eastern annex (B) of the AztecSpring village, the most striking remains of which is a rectangularinclosure called "Lower House," situated east of the spring andlower down the draw, or at a lower level than the section alreadyconsidered. The type of this structure, which undoubtedly belongedto the same village, is different from that already described. Itresembles a reservoir rather than a kiva, inclosed by a low rectan-gular wall, with rows of rooms on the north side. The court of the"Lower House" measures 218 feet. The wall on the east, south,and west sides is only a few feet high and is narrow; that on thenorth is broader and higher, evidently the remains of rooms, over-looking the inclosed area.Perhaps the most enigmatical structures in the vicinity of AztecSpring village are situated on a low mesa south of the mounds, a fewhundred feet away. These are circular depressions without accom-panying mounds, one of which was excavated a few years ago to the 28 BUREAU OP AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY I bull. 70depth of 12 feet; on the south there was discovered a well-made wallof a circular opening, now visible, by which there was a communica-tion through a horizontal tunnel with the open air. ^The author wasinformed that this tunnel is artificial and that one of the workmencrawled through it to its opening in the side of a bank many yardsdistant.No attempt was made to get the exact dimensions of the com-ponent houses at Aztec Spring, as the walls arc now concealed in themounds, and measurements can only be approximations if obtainedfrom surface indications without excavation. The sketch plan hereintroduced (fig. 1) is schematic, but although not claimed as accurate,maj; serve to convey a better idea of the relation of the two greatstructures and their annexed buildings than any previously advanced.The author saw no ruined prehistoric village in the MontezumaValley that so stirred his enthusiasm to properly excavate and repairas that at Aztec Spring, 1 notwithstanding it has been considerablydug over for commercial purposes.Great Open-Air Ruins South and Southwest op Dove Creek Post OfficeIn the region south and southwest of Dove Creek there are severallarge pueblo ruins, indicated by mounds formed of trimmed stone,oolean sand, and clay from plastering, which have certain charac-ters in common. Each mound is a large heap of stones (pi. 3, a)near which is a depression or reservoir, with smaller heaps winch indifferent ruins show the small buildings of the unit type. Theseclusters or villages are somewhat modified in form by the configura-tion of the mesa surface. The larger have rectangular forms regu-larly disposed in blocks with passageways between them or arewithout any definite arrangement.Squaw Point RuinThis large ruin, which has been described by Doctor Prudden asSquaw Point Ruin and as Pierson Lake Ruin, was visited by theauthor, who has little to add to this description. One of the smallheaps of stone or mounds has been excavated and its structurefound to conform with the definition of the unit type. The subter-ranean communication between one of the rectangular rooms andthe kiva could be well seen at the time of the author's visit andrecalls the feature pointed out by him in some of the kivas of Spruce-tree House. The large reservoir and the great ruin are noteworthyfeatures of the Squaw Point settlement.It seems to the author that the large block of buildings is simply acongeries of unit types the structure of one of which is indicated by i Mr. Van Klecck, of Denver, has offered this ruin to the Public Parks Service for permanent preser-vation. It is proposed to rename it the Yucca House National Monument. fewkes] PREHISTORIC VILLAGES, CASTLES, AND TOWERS 29the small buildings excavated by Doctor Prudden, and that structur-ally there is the same condition in it as in the pueblo ruins of Monte-zuma Valley, a conclusion to which the several artifacts mentionedand figured by Doctor Prudden also point.The same holds true of Bug Point Ruin, a few miles away, alsoexcavated and described by Doctor Prudden. Here also excavationof a small mound shows the unit type, and while no one has yetopened the larger mound or pueblo, superficial evidences indicate thatit also is a complex of many unit types joined together. Until morefacts are available the relative age of the small unit types as com-pared to the large pueblo can not be definitely stated, but there islittle reason to doubt that they are contemporaneous, and nothing tosupport the belief that they do not indicate the same culture.Acmen RuinFollowing the Old Bluff Road and leaving it about 5 miles westof Acmen post office, one comes to a low canyon beyond Pigge ranch.The heaps of stone or large mounds cover an area of about 10 acres,the largest being about 15 feet high. East of this is a circulardepression surrounded by stones, indicating either a reservoir or aruined building.The top of the highest mound (pi. 3, a)?no walls stand above thesurface?is depressed like mounds of the Mummy Lake group on theMesa Verde. This depression probably indicates a circular kivaembedded hi square Walls, the masonry of which so far as can bejudged superficially is not very fine. There are many smaller moundsin the vicinity and evidences of cemeteries on the south, east, andwest sides, where there are evidences of desultory digging; fragmentsof pottery are numerous.These mounds indicate a considerable village which would wellrepay excavation, as shown by the numerous specimens of corrugated,black and white, and red pottery in the Pigge collection, made in asmall mound near the Pigge ranch.The specimens in this collection present few features different fromthose indicated by the fragments of pottery picked up on the largermounds a mile west of the site where they were excavated. Theyare the same as shards from the mounds in the McElmo region.Oak Spring HouseAbout 15 miles southwest of Dove Creek on Monument Canyonthere is a good spring called Oak Spring, near which are several pilesof stones indicating former buildings, the largest of which, about aquarter of a mile away, has a central depression with surroundingwalls now covered with rock or buried in soil or blown sand. Verylarge pinon trees grow on top of the highest walls of this ruin, the 30 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 70general features of which recall those at Bug Spring, though theirsize is considerably less. In the surface of rock above the springthere are numerous potholes of small size. One of these, 4 feet deepand about 18 feet in diameter, is almost perfectly circular and hassome signs of having been deepened artificially. It holds watermuch of the time and was undoubtedly a source of water supply tothe aborigines, as it now is to stock in that neighborhood.Ruin in Ruin CanyonOne of the large rim-rock ruins may be seen on the left bank of RuinCanyon in full view from the Old Bluff Road. The rum is an immensepile of stones perched on the very edge of the rim, with no wallsstanding above the surface. The most striking feature of this ruinis the cliff-house below, the walls and entrance into which are visiblefrom the road (pi. 9, b). It is readily accessible and one of thelargest in the country. On either side of the Old Bluff Road fromRuin Canyon to the "Aztec Reservoir" small piles of stone mark thesites of many former buildings of the one-house type which can readilybe seen, especially in the sagebrush clearings as the road descends tothe Picket corral, the reservoirs, and the McElmo Canyon.Cannonball RuinOne of the most instructive rums of the McElmo Canyon region issituated at the head of Cannonball Canyon, a short distance acrossthe mesa north of the McElmo, at a point nearly opposite the store.This ruin is made up of two separate pueblos facing each other, oneof which is known as the northern, the other as the southern pueblo(pi. 22, b). Both show castellated chambers and towers, one of whichis situated at the bottom of the canyon. The southern pueblo wasexcavated a few years ago by Mr. S. G. Morley, who published anexcellent plan and a good description of it, and made several sug-gestions regarding additions of new rooms to the kivas which arevaluable. Its walls were not protected and are rapidly deteriorating.This pueblo, as pointed out by Mr. Morley, 1 has 20 secular roomsarranged with little regularity, and 7 circular kivas, belonging to thevaulted-roofed variety. It is a fine example of a composite puebloof the pure type, in which there are several large kivas. Morley haspointed out a possible sequence in the addition of the different kivasto a preexisting tower and offers an explanation of the chronologicalsteps by which he thinks the aggregation of rooms was brought about.Occasionally we find inserted in the walls of these houses large arti-ficially worked or uncut flat stones, such as the author has mentionedas existing in the walls of the northwest corner of the court of FarView House. This Cyclopean form of masonry is primitive and may ? Amer. Anthrop., n. s. vol. x, no. 4, pp. 596-610, 1908. pewkes] PREHISTORIC VILLAGES, CASTLES, AND TOWERS 31be looked upon as a survival of a ruder and more archaic conditionbest shown in the Montezuma Mesa ruins farther west, a good ex-ample of which was described by Jackson. 1 I lUOULAR RUINS WITH PERIPHERAL COMPARTMENTSIt has long been recognized that circular ruins in the Southwestdiffer from rectangular ruins, not only in shape hut also in struc-tural features, as relative position and character of kivas. The rela-tion of the Ceremonial chambers to the houses, no less than theexternal forms of the two, at first sight appear to separate them fromthe pure type.2 They are more numerous and probably more ancient,as their relative abundance implies.These circular ruins, in which group is included certain modifica-tions where the curve of one side is replaced (generally on the south)by ft straight wall or chord, have several concentric walls; again, tinytake the form of simple towers with one row of encircling compart-ments, or they may have a double wall with inclosed compartments.Many representations of semicircular ruins were found in the regionhere considered, some of which are of considerable size. The simplestform is well illustrated by the D-shaped building, Horseshoe House,in Haekberry Canyon, a ruin which will be considered later in thisarticle. Other examples occur in the Yellow Jacket, and there areseveral, as Butte Ruin, Emerson, and Escalante Ruins, in the neigh-borhood of Dolores.In contrast to the village type consisting of a number of pueblosclustered together, but separated from each other, where the growthtakes place mainly through the union of components, the circularruin in enlarging its size apparently did so by the addition of newcompartments peripherally or like additional rings in exogenoustrees. Judging from their frequency, the center of distribution ofthe circular type lies somewhere in the San Juan culture area. Thistype does not occur in the Gila Valley or its tributaries, where wehave an architectural zone denoting that a people somewhat differentin culture from the Pueblos exists, but occurs throughout the "Cen-tral Zone," so called, extending across New Mexico from Colorado asfar south as Zuni. Many additional observations remain to be madebefore we can adequately define the group known as the circular typeand the extent of the area over which it is distributed.The following examples of this type have been studied by theauthor: J Op. pit., pp. 428-429.2 It is premature to declare that the kivas In circular ruins do not belong to the vaulted-roofed typesimply from want of observation to that eil'ecl. In Fenasco Blanco and other ruins of the Chaco Canyongroup, as shown in ground plans, (hey appear to be embedded in secular rooms. Additional studies ofthe architectural features of circular pueblos are desirable. 32 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY I BULL. 70Wood Can von RuinsReports were brought to the author of large ruins on the rim ofWood Canyon, about 4 miles south of Yellow Jacket post office, inOctober, 1918, when he had almost finished the season's work. Tworuins of size were examined, one of which, situated in the open sage-brush clearing, belongs to the village type composed of large andsmall rectangular mounds. The other is composed of small circularor semicircular buildings with a surrounding wall. The form of thislatter (fig. 2) would seem to place it in a subgroup or village type. Fig. 2.?Ground plan of Wood Canyon Ruin.Approach to the inclosed circular mounds was debarred by a highbluff of a canyon on one side and by a low defensive curved wall (E),some of the stones of which are large, almost megaliths, on the sideof the mesa. From fragmentary sections of the buried walls of oneof these circular mounds (A, B), which appear on the surface, itwould seem that the buildings were like towers (C, D). This is oneof the few known examples of circular buildings in an area protectedby a curved wall. In the cliffs below Wood Canyon Ruin m a cliff-dwelling (G II, J) remarkable mainly in its site.Butte RuinThe so-called Butte Ruin, situated in Lost Canyon, 5 miles east ofDolores, belongs to the circular type. It crowns a low elevation,steep on the west side, sloping more gradually on the east, and sur- fewkbs] PREHISTORIC VILLAGES, CASTLES, AND TOWERS 33rounded by cultivated fields. The view from its top looking towardUte Mountain and the Mesa Verde plateau is particularly extensive.The butte is forested by a few spruces growing at the base andextending up the sides, which are replaced at the summit by athick growth of sage and other bushes which cover the mound,rendering it difficult to make out the ground plan of the ruin onits top.From what appears on the surface it would seem that this ruinwas a circular or semicircular building about 60 feet in diameter, thewalls rising about 10 feet high. Like other circular mounds it showsa well-marked depression in the middle, from which radiate wallsor indications of walled compartments. Like the majority of thebuildings of the circular form, the walls on one side have fallen,suggesting that a low straight wall, possibly with rectangular rooms,was annexed to this side.In the neighborhood of Butte Ruin there is another hill crownedwith a pile of stones, probably a round building of smaller size andwith more dilapidated walls. Old cedar beams project in places outof the mounds.The cliff-houses below the largest of these mounds show well-made walls with a few rafters and beams. There are pictographs onthe cliff a short distance away.Emerson RuinThis rum crowns a low hill about 3 miles south of Dolores (fig, 3).The form of the mound is semicircular with a depression in themiddle around which can be traced radiating partitions suggestingcompartments. Its outer wall on the south side, as in so manyother examples of this type, has fallen, and the indications are thathere the wall was straight, or like that on the south side of Horse-shoe Ruin.The author's attention was first called to this ruin by Mr. GordonParker, supervisor of the Montezuma Forest Reserve, it having beendiscovered by Mr. J. W. Emerson, one of his rangers. The circularor semicircular form (fig. 4) of the mound indicates at once that itdoes not belong to the same type as Far View House; the centraldepression is surrounded by a series of compartments separated byradiating walls like the circular rums in the pueblo region to thesouth. Mr. Emerson's report, which follows, points out the mainfeatures of this remarkable ruin, 1 1 The letter referring to'the circular ruin near Polorcs was prepared by Mr. Emerson, (he discoverer ofthis ruin, and was transmitted tolhe Smithsonian Institution as pari of a phase ofcooperative work withthe Forest Service, by Mr. Gordon Parker, superintendent cf the Montezuma Forest Reserve.10S852 ?19?Bull. 70 3 34 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 70Dolores, Colorado, July 7, 1917.In August, 191G, I visited Mesa Verde National Park. While there Doctor Fewkcainquired in regard to ruins in the vicinity of the Big Bend of the Dolores River. Heinformed me that the log of two old Spanish explorers of 1775 described a ruin nearthe bend of the Dolores River as of great value.Later, during October, 1916, I visited a number of ruins in this vicinity, includingthe one which (for the want of a better name) I have mapped and named Sun DialPalace. Later, last fall, I again visited these ruins with Mr. R. W. Williamson, ofDolores, Colorado.8 ! W*MMay. jon > iij xervoir (Mup \Feb.25J881 \3^? reservoir \ Chas.A.King.Ed.May 5,1883. SecifcJessieM CShaunessyEdOct. 21, 1912 Filed on.All of section filed on,but since last date on mapso not patented. Scale 4in.=lmi. Varl4?30'E. Fig. 3.?Metes and bounds of Emerson Ruin. (After Emerson.)On July 5, 1917, I again visited these ruins, which I have designated as ReservoirGroup and Sun Dial Palace. 1 For location and status of land on which they lie seemap of sec. 17, T. 37 N., R. 15 W., N. M. P. M. [fig. 31.While examining Sun Dial Palace I noted the "D-shaped construction, also thatthe south wall of the building ran due east and west." Also please note the regu-larity of wall bearings from the approximate center of the elliptical center chamber.I also noted that a shadow east by the sun apparently coincides with some of thesewalls at different hours during the day. This last gave suggestion to the name. 1 Also see detailed map of construction of Sun 1 >ial Palace [fig. 4]. fewkes] PREHISTORIC VILLAGES, CASTLES, AND TOWERS 35Also please note that, the first tier of rooms around the middle chamber does not showa complete set of bearinga but seems to suggest that these regular bearings wereobtained from observation and study of a master builder. The result of his studywas built as the next circular room tier was added. The two missing rooms on thewestern side of the building seem to suggest that this building was never completed,and also bear out my theory of an outward building of room tiers from the middlechamber.On the ground this building is fully completed on the south side and forms a deceast and west line. An error in mapping the elliptical middle chamber has giventhe south side an incomplete appearance.I believe that the excavation and study of this ruin will recall something of value,as Father Escalante wrote in his log in 1775.Respectfully sul unit ted. (Signed) J. Ward Emerson,Forest Banger. *,M V\r-* -f?/?f ? /- r \ \?A \ \ *-E. h v? Scale 20'-linch.# t *SFig. 4.?Schematic ground plan of Emerson Ruin. (After Emerson.)A personal examination of the remains of this building loads theauthor to the conclusion that while it belongs to the circular group,with a ground plan resembling Horseshoe House, and while the centralpart had a wall completely circular, the outer concentric curved wallsdid not complete their course on the south side, but ended in straightwalls comparable with the partitions separating compartments. Theauthor identifies another ruin as that mentioned by the Catholicfathers in 1775. 36 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull, toESCALANTE RuiNThe name Escalante Ruin, given to the first ruin recorded by awhite man in Colorado, is situated about 3 miles from Dolores ontop of a low hill to the right of the Monticello Road, just beyondwhere it diverges from the road to Cortez. The outline of the pileof stones suggests a D-shaped or semicircular house with a centraldepression surrounded by rooms separated by radiating partitions.The wall on the south or east sides was probably straight, renderingthe form not greatly unlike the other ruins on hilltops in the neigh-borhood of Dolores.This is supposed to be the ruin to which reference is made in thefollowing quotation from an article in Science: 1 "There is in the Congressional Library, among the documentscollected by Peter Force, a manuscript diary of early exploration inNew Mexico, Colorado, and Utah, dated 1776, written by two Cath-olic priests, Father Silvester Velez Escalante and Father FranciscoAtanacio Dominguez. This diary is valuable to students of arche-ology, as it contains the first reference to a prehistoric ruin in the con-fines of the present State of Colorado, although the mention is toobrief for positive identification of the ruin. 2 While the context indi-cates its approximate site, there are at this place at least two largeruins, either of which might be that referred to. I have no doubt whichone of these two ruins was indicated by these early explorers, but myinterest in this ruin is both archcological and historical. Ourknowledge of the structure of these ruins is at the present day almostas imperfect as it was a century and a half ago."The route followed by the writers of the diary was possibly anIndian pathway, and is now called the Old Spanish Trail. Afterentering Colorado it ran from near the present site of Mancos to theDolores. On the fourteenth day from Santa Fe, we find the followingentry: 'En la vanda austral del Vio [Rio] sobre un alto, huvo anti-quum (te) una Poblacion pequciia, de la misma forma qe las de losIndios el Nuevo Mexico, segun manifieran las Ruinas qe de inventoregistramos.'"By tracing the trip day by day, up to that time, it appears thatthe ruin referred to by these early fathers was situated somewherenear the bend of the Dolores River, or not far from the present townDolores, Colo. The above quotation indicates that the ruin was asmall settlement, and situated on a hill, on the south side of the riveror trail, but it did not differ greatly from the ruined settlements ofthe Indians of New Mexico with which the writers were familiar, andhad already described." 1 Fewkcs, J. W., The First Pueblo Ruin in Colorado Mentioned in Spanish Documents. Science, vol.xi.vi, Sept. II, 1917.2 Diario y Dereotcro de las nuevas descubrimientos de tierras a los r'bos N. N. OE. OE. del Nuevo Mexicopor los R. R. P. P. Fr. Silvester Velez Escalante, Fr. Francisco Atanacio Dominguez, 177G. ( Vide Sen.Ex. 1 )oc 33d Congress, No. 7X, pt. 3, pp. 119-127.) fewkes] PKEHISTORIC VILLAGES, CASTLES, A:Nt I> TOWERS 37Cliff-DwellingsThere are numerous cliff-houses in this district, but while, as urule, they are much smaller than the magnificent examples in theMesa Verde, they are built on the same architectural lines as theirmore pretentious relatives. Both large and small have circularsubterranean kivas, similarly constructed to those of Spruce-treeHouse, and have mural pilasters (to support a vaulted roof, now de-stroyed), ventilators, and deflectors.There are also many rooms in cliffs, possibly used for storage orfor some other unknown purposes, but too small for habitations. Itis significant that these are identical so far as their size is concernedwith the "ledge houses," near Spruce-tree House, indicating similaror identical uses.The kivas of cliff-dwellings of size in the region considered have thesame structural features as those of adjacent ruins, but very littleresemblance, save in site, to those of cliff-dwellings in southern Ari-zona, as in the Sierra Ancha or Verde Valley, the structure of whichresembles adjacent pueblos.The absence in the McElmo region of very large cliff-houses is duepartly but not wholly to geological conditions, the immense caves ofthe Mesa Verde not being duplicated in the tributaries of the McElmo;but wherever caverns do occur, as in Sand Canyon, we commonly finddiminutive representatives. While differences in geological featuresmay account for the size of these prehistoric buildings, the natureof the site or its size is not all important. 1Here and there one sees from the road through the McElmo Canyona few small cliff-houses, and if he penetrates some of the tributaries,he finds many others. The canyon is dominated by the Ute Moun-tain on the south, but on the north are numerous eroded cliffs inwhich are many caves affording good opportunities for the con-struction of cliff-houses.These buildings do not differ save in size from the cliff-houses ofthe Mesa Verde. Their kivas resemble the vaulted variety and themasonry is identical.Although the existence of cliff-dwellings in the tributaries of theMcElmo has long been known, the characteristic circular kivas whichoccur in the Mesa Verde had not been recognized previous to thepresent report.The relative age of the pueblos and great towers and the samestructures in caves can not be decided by the data at hand, but theindications are that they were contemporary.On account of the similarity in structure of the McElmo cliff-dwellings to those on Mesa Verde, only a few examples from the i Attention may be called to the fact that often we find very commodious eaves wil hout correspondinglylargo cliff-houses, even in the Mesa Verde. 38 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [buix. 70former region are here considered. It may be worthy of note thatwhile McElmo cliff-dwellings are generally accompanied by largeopen-air pueblos and towers or great houses on the cliffs above, inthe Mesa Verde open-air buildings 1 are generally situated somedistance from the cliff-dwellings.CLIFF-DWELLINGS IN SAND CANYONSeveral small cliff-houses occur in Sand Canyon, one of the northerntributaries of the McElmo. Stone Arch House, here figured (pi.6, a), so called from the eroded cliff (pi. 4, b) near by. It is situatedin the cliff, about a mile from where the canyon enters the McElmoCanyon near Battle Rock. Abundant pinon trees and a few scrubbycedars grow in the low moimds of the talus below the ruin, near which,on top of a neighboring rock pinnacle, still stand the well-constructedwalls of a small house (pi. 4, a).DOUBLE CLIFF-IIOUSEThe formerly unnamed cliff-house shown in plate S 2 is one of thebest preserved in Sand Canyon. It consists of an upper and a lowerhouse, the former situated far back hi the cave, the latter on a pro-jecting terrace below. Unfortunately it is impossible to introducean extended description of this building as it was not entered by theauthor's party, but from a distance the walls exhibit fine masonry.It is unique in having double buildings on different levels, an arrange-ment not rare in a few examples of cliff-dwellings on the Mesa Verde.As shown in plate 8, the character of the rock on which the lowerhouse stands is harder than that above in which the cave has beeneroded. The upper house is wholly protected by the roof 3 of the caveand occupies its entire floor. The lower house shows from a distanceat least two rooms, the front wall of one having fallen.From a distance the walls of both the lower and the upper houseseem to be well preserved, although many of the component stoneshave fallen to the base of the cliff.SCAFFOLD IN SAND CANYONOne of the cliffs bordering Sand Canyon has an inaccessible cavein which is an artificial platform or lookout shown in plate 7, a.Although this structure is not as well preserved as the scaffold inthe neighborhood of Scaffold House in Laguna (Sosi) Canyon, on theNavaho National Monument, it seems to have had a similar purpose. 1 Sun Temple, however, is a seeming exception and follows the McElmo rule of proximity; several largecliff-dwellings occur under the cliff on which this mysterious building stands.2 Taken from a point across the canyon, the only one from which both houses can he included in the samephotograph.5 For a good example of clilf-houses at different levels, see Clill'-J >wellings in Fewkes Canyon, Mesa VerdeNational Park, Holmes Anniversary Volume. pewkes] PREHTSTORTO VILLAGES, CASTLES, AND TOWERS 39It is constructed of logs reaching from one side of the cave to theother supporting a floor of flat si ones and adobe. Its elevatedsituation would necessitate for entrance either holes cut in the cliffsor ladders. UNIT-TYPE HOUSES IX CAVESIn subsequent pages the author will describe a ruin called theUnit-type House, situated in the open on the north rim of SquareTower Canyon. A similar type of unit-type house is found in acave in Sand Canyon. The reader's attention may first be calledto the definition of a unit type, which is a building composed of acircular kiva, with mural banquettes and pedestals supporting avaulted roof, with ventilator, reflector, and generally a ceremonialopening near a central fire hole in the floor. This kiva (fig. 5) isgenerally embedded in or surrounded by rectangular rooms. Tlio VjL-yr^df'iv *?*?? "a 1 ijiff?&aY*Z+********** ' Fig. 5.?Ground plan of Unit-type nouse in cave. single-unit type has one kiva with several surrounding rooms; the so-called pure type is composed of these units united.In an almost inaccessible cave (pi. 5, V) in Sand Canyon a fewmiles from the McElmo road near the scaffold already mentionedthere is a cliff ruin, so far as known the first described single-unithouse in a cave. It covers the whole floor of the cave (fig. 5) andits walls are considerably dilapidated, but the kiva shows this instruc-tive condition: The walls are double, one inside the other, with twosets of pedestals, the outer of which are very much blackened withsmoke of constant fires; the inner fresh and untarnished, evidently oflate construction. A similar double-walled kiva known as "Kiva A"exists in Spruce-tree House, as described in the author's account ofthat ruin. 1 On the perpendicular wall of the precipice at the righthand of the ruin in the cave above mentioned are several pietographsshown in plate 7, c. i Antiquities of the Mesa Verde National Park: Spruce-tree nouse. Bull. 41, Bur. Amer. Ethn., 1909. 40 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [boll, toThe rectangular rooms about the kiva are in places excavated outof the cliffs, but show standing walls on the front. These werenot, however, constructed with the same care as those of the kiva.The cliff-house in Hackberry Canyon (pi. 9, a) is one of the mostinstructive. It lies below Horseshoe House and appears to be a sec-ond example of a unit-type kiva and surrounding rooms.The cliff-dwelling in Ruin Canyon 1 visible across the canyon fromthe Old Bluff City Road is well preserved. On the rim of the canyonare piles of stone indicating a very large pueblo, with surface circu-lar depressions indicating unit-type houses.CLIFF-HOUSES IN LOST CANYONLost Canyon, a southern tributary of the Dolores River, containsinstructive cliff-houses to which my attention was called by Mr.Gordon Parker, superintendent of the Montezuma Forest Reserve,who has kindly allowed me to use the accompanying photographs.This cliff-house (pi. 10, a, b) belongs to the true Mesa Verde typeand shows comparatively good preservation of its walls, some ofthe beams being in place. It is most easily approached from Mancos.There are small cliff-houses in the same canyon not far from Dolo-res, but these are smaller and their walls very poorly preserved.An interesting feature of these cliff-houses in Lost Canyon is thatthey mark the northern horizon of cliff-dwellings of the Mesa Verdetype, having Mvas similarly constructed.Great Houses and TowersGreat houses and towers differ from pueblos of the pure type butmay often be combined with them, forming composite houses ar-ranged in clusters called villages. Castles and towers may be iso-lated structures without additional chambers, or may have manyannexed rooms which are rectangular, round, or semicircular inform. Semicircular towers surrounded by concentric curved wallsconnected by radial partitions forming compartments are shown inHorseshoe Ruin, to which attention has been called in precedingpages, and possibly in the circular or semicircular ruins on hilltopsnear Dolores. MASONRYThe masonry of the great house and tower type (pi. 11, a, b)varies in excellence, not only in different examples but also in dif-ferent portions of the same building. Some of the walls containsome of the best-constructed masonry north of Mexico; others (seepi. G, b) arc crudely made. In the Great House of the Holly i The name Ruin Canyon, often applied also to Square Tower Canyon, is retained for this canyon. fewkes] PREHISTORIC VILLAGES, CASTLES, AND TOWERS 41group, where the walls show superior construction, the lowest coursesof rock are larger than those above, but in Hovenweep Castle smallstones are found below those of larger size; the Hound Tower inMcLean Basin shows small and large stones introduced for orna-mentation.The ambitious constructors of several towers have built the foun-dations of these towers on bowlders sloping at a considerable angle,and it is a source of wonder that these walls have stood for so manyyears without sliding from then- bases. Although so well constructedin many instances, the courses were weak from their want of bindingto the remaining wall. As a consequence many corners have fallen,leaving the remaining walls intact. The builders often failed to ticin the partitions to the outer walls, by which failure they lost abrace and have sprung away from their attachment.In a general way we may recognize masonry of two varieties.l.'That in which horizontal courses are obscure or absent. Thishas resulted from the use of stones of different sizes, the intervalsbetween which are filled in with masses of adobe. These stones arelittle fashioned, or dressed only on one side, that forming the faceof the wall.2. That constructed of horizontal courses, constituting by far thelarger number of these buildings. Each course of this masonry ismade of well-dressed stones, carefully pecked, and of the same size.In this horizontal masonry the thickness of stones used may varyin different courses (pi. 11, b). They may be alternately narrow orthick, or layers of thick stones may be separated by one or morelayers of tabular or thin stones. This method of alternation may beso regular as to please the eye and thus become decorative, a modeof decoration that reached a high development in the Chaco Ruins.The stones in the horizontal style of masonry are equal in size through-out the whole building in some cases, and show not only care inchoice of stones but also in dressing them to the same regulationsize. In these cases the joints fit so accurately that chinking hasnot been found necessary and a minimum use of adobe was required.The inner walls of kivas are much better constructed than theouter walls of the same or of the walls about them. The masonryhere is regular horizontal. The sides, lintels, and thresholds of door-ways are among the finest examples of construction. With theexception of walls sheltered by overhanging cliffs, the plastering hascompletely disappeared, but there is no reason to doubt that theinteriors of all the great houses and towers were formerly plastered.It is instructive to compare the masonry of the great houses andtowers of the Mancos with that of the towers in Hill Canyon (pi. 1 1, c)in Utah, the most northern extension of these two types. In EightMile Ruin, one of the largest of these buildings in Hill Canyon, we have 42 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [toll, to a circular tower with annexed great houses, all constructed of well-dressed stones, the masonry in the walls showing on one side of thetower. No excavations, however, have yet been undertaken in HillCanyon Ruins, and it is not known whether the unit type of kiva isfound there, but the combination of great houses and towers is evi-dent from the ground plans elsewhere published. 1The feature of the towers in Hill Canyon is the clustering intogroups, somewhat recalling the condition in Cannonball Ruin, where,however, they are united. In the Eight Mile Ruin one of the towersis separated from the remaining houses.Several towers have accompanying circular depressions withsurrounding mounds. This association can well be seen in HolmesTower on the Mancos Canyon and in Davis Tower and one or twoothers on the Yellow Jacket. These depressions, sometimes calledreservoirs, have never been excavated, but from what is known ofrooms accompanying towers in the western section of HovenweepCastle it may be that they indicate kivas. Some towers have nosunken area in the immediate vicinity, especially those moimted onrocky points or perched on bowlders. At Cannonball Ruin thereare several kivas side by side in one section and towering above themis a massive walled tower and other rooms.STRUCTURE OF TOWERSNone of the towers examined have evidences of mural pilastersto support a roof or recesses in the walls as in vaulted-roofed kivas.They are sometimes two stories high, the rafters and flooring restingon ledges of the inner wall. Lateral entrances are common andwindows are absent.2While the author has found no ruin of the same ground plan as SunTemple on the Mesa Verde, D-shaped towers or great houses fromseveral localities distantly recall this mysterious building, and theremay be an identity in use between Sun Temple and the massive-walled structures of the McElmo and Yellow Jacket; what that usewas has not thus far been determined. 3 If they were constructed forobservatories we can not account for the square tower in the SouthFork of Square Tower Canyon, from which one can not even lookdown the canyon, much less in other directions, hemmed in as it is i Smithson. Misc. Colls., vol. 68, no. 1, 1917.2 Our knowledge of the entrances into kivas of the vaulted-roofed type is not all that could be desired.Kiva D of Spruce-tree House has a passageway opening through the floor of an adjacent room, and Kiva Aof Cliff Palace has the same feature Doctor Pruddcn has found lateral entrances from kivas into adjoin-ing rooms in his unit-type pueblo. The majority of cliff-dwellers' kivas show no evidence of lateral en-trances.3 Mr. Jackson, op. cit., p. 415, regarded it likely that the towers were "lookouts or places of refuge forthe sheep herders who brought their sheep or goats up hero to graze, just as theNavajos used to and asthe Utes do at the present time." This explanation is impossible, for there is no evidence that thebuilder': of the towers had cither sheep or goats, the Navajos and the Utes obtaining both from theSpaniards. fewkes] PREHISTORIC VILLAGES, CASTLES, AND TOWERS 43by cliffs. Isolated towers are often too small lor defense; and theyshow no signs of habitation.Are they granaries for storage of corn or places for rites and cere-monies? Do they combine several functions?observation, defense,and storage of food? Thus far in studies of more than 30 towersand great houses not one has been found so well preserved thatenough remains to determine its use, and yet their Avails are amongthe best in all southwestern ruins. Some future archeologist mayfind objects in towers that will demonstrate their function, butfrom our present knowledge no theory of their use yet suggested issatisfactory.It is impossible from the data available to determine the centuryin which the towers and great houses of the region were constructed.Thus far a few were seen with great trees growing in them, but nonewith roofs; the state of preservation of the walls does not point to agreat age. Several writers have regarded them as occupied subse-quently to the Spanish conquest, while others have ascribed to thema very remote antiquity. It can hardly be questioned that the cliff-dwellers, and by inference their kindred, the tower builders, weresuperior in their arts to modern Pueblos.It is important to determine first of all the forms of these towers;whether their ground plans are circular, oval, square, rectangular, orsemicircular. The northern wall of many is uniformly curved andthe last to fall, which might lead to the belief that the southern side,generally straight, was poorly made, but one can not determine thatby direct observation, since the latter has fallen. As a matter of factthe south wall was generally low and straight, over 50 per cent ofthe "round" towers being semicircular, D-shaped, or some modifica-tion of that form ; but we also have square and rectangular towers. Itis also important to determine whether these had single or multiplechambers and the arrangement of the rooms in relation to them.This is especiall3r desirable in towers with concentric compartments.It is also instructive to know more of the association of towerswith pueblos and cliff-dwellings or to analyze component archi-tectural features. The tower type often occurs without appendedrooms. At Cliff Palace and Square Tower House it is united with apueblo village under cliffs; hi Mud Spring Ruin it has a like relationto rooms of a pueblo in the open. Has its function changed by thatunion? What use did the tower serve when isolated and had itthe same use when united with other kinds of rooms in cliff-dwellingsand pueblos ?No writer on the prehistoric towers of Colorado and Utah hasemphasized the fact that a large number of these buildings aresemicircular or D-shaped, but it has been taken for granted that thefallen wall on the south side was curved, rendering the tower circular 44 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull, to or oval. 1 In most cases this wall was the straight side of a D-shapedtower. Doctor Prudden, who first recognized the importance of aunion of towers with other types of architecture in the McElmodistrict, says: 2 "Towers of various forms and heights occasion-ally form a part of composite rums of various types." He saysalso: "Several of the houses are modified by the introduction of around tower." And again: "At the head of a short canyon north ofthe Alkali, which I have called Jackson Canyon . . . each buildingconsists of an irregular mass of rooms about 200 feet long, with lowtowers among them."As our studies are morphological, dealing with forms rather thansites of towers, little attention need be paid to their situation onbowlders, in cliffs, or at the bottoms of canyons. The majority ofthe castellated ruins considered in the following pages are in theproposed Hovcnweep National Monument, but there are others inthe main Yellow Jacket and its other tributaries.HOVENWEEP DISTRICTThe name Hovenweep ("Deserted Valley") is an old one in thenomenclature of the canyons of southwestern Colorado and formerly(1877) was applied to the canyon now called the Yellow Jacket, butat present is limited to one of the tributaries. The name is hereused to designate an area situated just over the Colorado State line,in Utah, part of which it is hoped will later be reserved from thepublic domain and made a monument to be called HovenweepNational Monument.The ruined castles and towers in this district are marvelously wellpreserved, considering their age and imperfect masonry. We can de-termine their original appearance with no difficulty and use them inreconstructing the possible forms of more dilapidated ruins, now pilesof debris. The best castles and towers known to the author are local-ized in three canyons: (1) Square Tower Canyon, (2) Holly Canyon,(3) Hackbcrry Canyon. There are, of course, other castles and towersin the Yellow Jacket-McElmo region, but there is no locality whereso many different forms appear in equal numbers in a small area.Ruin CanyonThe Old Bluff Road from Dolores diverges southward from that toMonticello at Sandstone post office and passes a pile of rocks visiblefrom the road on the Ruin Canyon long before it reaches SquareTower Canyon (fig. 6). This large ruin is situated on the east rim andunder it in the side of the cliff are fairly well-preserved cliff-houses. 1 The tower figured by Prudden (Amer. Anthrop., n. s. vol. v, no. 2, pi. xviii, fig. 2) as a "round tower"is really semicircular, as shown in the ground plan (fig. 14) here published.2 Ibid., pp. 241, 263, 273. fewkes] PREHISTORIC VILLAGES, CASTLES, AND TOAVERS 45Other ruins with high standing walls were reported in Rum Canyonbut were not visited.The duplication of names of canyons in this district is misleading.Names like Ruin Canyon are naturally applied to canyons in whichthere are ruins. When the author learned at Dolores of Ruin Canyon,he supposed it was a tributary of the Yellow Jacket or McElmo,but while the canyon known to cowboys at Dolores by this namehas large ruins on its rim, it is not the "Ruin Canyon" to whichattention is now directed. The duplication of names has led me toretain the name Rum Canyon for one and to suggest the name SquareTower Canyon for the other.After leaving Ruin Canyon the Old Bluff Road takes a southerlycourse, passing through the cedars until a sagebrush clearing replacesthe "timber/' where it crosses two well-preserved Indian reservoirs,or bare surfaces of rock, dipping south, the southern border having as Fie. (i.?Square Tower Canyon. a retaining wall a low ridge of earth to hold back the water. Theretaining wall of the second reservoir has been built up by stockmenand, when the author was there, contained considerable water. Cross-ing the second reservoir a trail turns east or to the left and followsthe road to Keeley Camp, near which arc the "Keeley Towers."At present an automobile can approach within a mile of theseruins. Square Tower CanyonTo reach the Square Tower Canyon (pis. 11-17) one returns to thereservoir on the Bluff Road and continues east about 3 miles farther,where a signboard on the left hand indicates the turn off to SquareTower Canyon. Following the new direction about southeast thegreat buildings are visible a mile away. An automobile can go to thevery head of this canyon and a camp can be made within a few feetof Hovenweep House. If the visitor approaches Square TowerCanyon from the McElmo, he passes through Wickyup Canyon, wherethere are two towers on the summits of elevated buttes, not far fromthe junction of the canyon and the Yellow Jacket, 46 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull, roThe castles and towers in Square Tower Canyon have been knownfor many years and have been repeatedly photographed. 1Several descriptions of these ruins have been printed, but no satis-factory studies of their structure have been published. They arerecognized as prehistoric and are generally thought to have beeninhabited contemporaneously with the cliff-dwellers of the MesaVerde, being built in the same style of architecture.Classification of Ruins in Square Tower CanyonThe ruins in Square Tower Canyon are classified for conveniencein description as follows:(1) Ruins which have indications of inclosed circular kivas, withmural pilasters and banquettes, and closely approximated surround-ing rooms. To this class belong ruins 1, 2, and 10. Of these, Unit-type Rum (No, 10) has only one kiva and belongs to the simplest orunit form of the pure type. Ruins1 and 2 have two or more kivas andare formed by a union of severalunits, combined with towers andgreat houses. (2) Ruins, the mainfeature of which is absence of a cir-cular kiva. The Twin Towers be-long to this second or " great house "type. The few cliff-dwellings hithis canyon are small, generallywithout kivas, resembling storagecists rather than domiciles.Hovenweep House (Ruin 1)This ruin (fig. 7), the largest in thecanyon, is situated at the head ofthe South Fork. Although manyof its walls have fallen, there stillremains a semicircular great house (B, C, D) with high walls con-spicuous for some distance. The ruin is a pueblo of rectangularform belonging to the pure type, showing circular depressions iden-tified as kivas (K), embedded in collections of square and rectangularrooms, and massive walled buildings (E) on the south side.The standing walls of the ruin are remains of a conspicuousD-shaped tower (B, C, D), which is multichambered. Its straightwall measures 23 feet, the curved wall 56 feet, and its highest wall,which is on the northeast corner, is 15 feet high. At the northwestangle of the ruin (A) there stand remains of high walls which indi- Fig. 7.?Ground plan of Hovenweep House. 1 Among the older photographs .sen by ( lie author are those of W. II. Jackson, prints of which are onexhibition in the State Historical Museum at Denver, Colo. fewkes] PREHISTORIC VILLAGES, CASTLES, AND TOWERS 47 cate that corner of a rectangular pueblo. Hovenweep House (pi.14, a) was the largest building in this canyon, but with the exceptionof the addition of a semicircular tower or great house, does not differgreatly from, a pueblo like Far View House on the Mesa Verde. Thepiles of stone and earth indicating rooms below justify the conjec-ture that when the fallen debris is removed the unfallen walls willstill rise several feet above their rocky foundations. If properl}?-excavated, Hovenweep House would be an instructive building, butin its present condition, while very picturesque, its structure isdifficult to determine. Fio. 8.?Ground plun of Hoyenweep Castle.Hovenweep CastleThis ruin (pis. 14, b, c; 18, b), like the preceding ,x has circular kivascompactly embedded in rectangular rooms arranged about them, indi-cating the pure type of pueblos. The massive-walled semicirculartowers and great houses are combined with square rooms and kivas,indicating that it is distinguished by two sections, an eastern and awestern, which, united, impart to the whole the shape of a letter L(fig. 8). WESTERN section of hovenweep castleThe western section (fig. 8, A-D, M) of'Hovenweep Castle is madeup of five rooms, the most western of which, M, is semicircular, whileA, B, C, and D are rectangular. Room A is almost square, one of itswalls forming the straight wall of the south side of the semicircular 48 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 70tower, M. At the union its walls are not tied into the masonry ofthe circular wall of the tower, as may be seen in the illustration,plate 14, b, implying that it was constructed later. There is anentrance into A from the south or cliff side, and a passageway fromA to Room B, which latter opens by a doorway into Room C. Allrectangular rooms of the western section communicate with eachother, but none except A seem to have had an external entrance.The photograph of the south wall of the west section of the ruin(pi. 14, c) shows small portholes in the second story and narrow slitsin the tower walls. The lower courses of masonry are formed ofthinner stones than the rows above, but smaller stones compose thecourses at the top of the wall. A view of the north wall of thewestern section (pi. 22, a) shows the tower and rooms united to it.There is no kiva in the western section.EASTERN SECTION OF HOVENWEEP CASTLEThe longest dimension of the western section (pis. 12, 14, c) isapproximately cast-west; that of the eastern is nearly north-south.The eastern section (fig. 8, E-L), like the western, has a tower (L),which is situated between two circular depressions or kivas (K). Onthe north and south ends the eastern section is flanked by rectangularrooms. Those at the north end were better constructed, and evennow stand as high as the walls of the western tower. The viewsshow that their corners are not as well preserved as their faces, whichis due to defects in masonry, as lack of bonding. Although muchdebris has accumulated around the kivas, especially in their cavities,it is evident that these ceremonial rooms were formerly one storied,and practically subterranean on account of the surrounding rooms.Several fragments of walls projecting above the accumulated debrisindicate rooms at the junction of the eastern and western sectionsof the rum, but their form and arrangement at that point are notevident and can be determined only by excavation. The inner kivawalls show evidences of mural pilasters and banquettes like those ofcliff dwellings and other pure pueblo types.Ruin 3The square tower (pi. 11, a), standing on a large angular rock inthe canyon below Hovenweep Castle, is a remarkable example ofprehistoric masonry so situated that it is shut in by cliffs, renderingthe outlook limited. Several published photographs of this towergive the impression that it stands in the open and was an outlook,but that this is hardly the case will be seen from a general viewlooking west up the South Fork. i-EWKEs] PREHISTORIC VILLAGES, CASTLES, AND TOWERS 49Ruin 1This ruin is a small tower situated in a commanding position onthe point of the mesa where the canyon forks. The section of thewall still standing indicates a circular form, the north side of whichhas fallen; the part still intact, or that on the south side, exhibitsgood masonry about 8 feet high (pi. 15, c).Ruin 5The walls of the north segment of a tower stand on a large angularblock of stone rising from a ledge above the arroyo, or bed of thecanyon, below Ruin 4, on the South Fork. What appears to havebeen a doorway opens on its north side ; this opening is defended bya wall, remains of a former protected passageway into the tower.On the perpendicular cliff of the precipice near Ruin 5 and belowthe point on which Ruin 4 stands there are several almost illegiblepictographs, below which are rather obscure evidences of a building,the features of which can be determined only by excavation.Instructive features of Tower No. 5 are two parallel walls, one oneach side of the doorway, like those of the circular towers on thepromontory at the junction of the Yellow Jacket and McElmo. Othertowers on the canyon rim show defensive walls, as in Ruin 9, con-structed about their entrances from corners of the buildings to themesa rim, effeotually preventing passage. Morley and Kidder havesuggested that the walled recess in the cliff" below Ruin 9 was probablybuilt to prevent access from below. This feature is found in thefloor entrances of a building near the Great House of the Holly group.Ruin GThis ruin is a small tower whose curved walls are so broken downthat the form is not evident. It is situated in the base of the talusat the head of the South Fork (pi. 2(5, a).Eroded Bowlder House (Ruin 7)This house, more remarkable from its site than its structure, wasconstructed in an eroded cave of a bowlder halfway down the talusof the cliff. The front walls are somewhat broken down, but othersbuilt in the rear of the cave still remain intact. On the top of thebowlder is the debris of fallen walls, suggesting a former tower, butnot much remains in place to determine its outlines. Where thewalls are protected the mortar shows impressions of human handsand at one place there are the indentations of a corncob used bythe plasterers to press the mortar between the layers of stone. Therewere formerly at least two rooms in the rear of the cave, the frontwalls of which have fallen and are strewn down the talus to thebottom of the canyon.10SS52 ?19?Bull. 70 i 50 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BOLL. 70 Fig. 9.?Ground plan of Twin Towers. Twin Towers (Ruin 8)The so-called Twin Towers, which seen together from certain pointsappear as one ruin (pi. 15, a, b), rank among the most impressivebuildings in Square Tower Canyon. They stand on the south sideof the canyon on a rock isolated by a cleft from the adjoining cliff.The larger (fig. 9, A-E) hasan oval ground plan and adoorway in the southwestcorner; the smaller (F, G,H, I) is horseshoe shapedwith a doorway in the eastwall, which is straight. Thearrangement of rooms is seenin figure 9. Small walled-up caves are found below the foundationon the northwest base of the larger room.Ruin 9The ground plan of this ruin is rectangular in form, 19 feet 6 incheslong by 10 feet wide. The standing walls measure 11 feet in altitude.It is situated on the south rim at the mouth of the South Fork, justabove Ruin 7, a few feet back from the cliff. A doorway opening inthe middle of its north wall was formerly made difficult of entranceby walls, now fallen, extending from the northeast and northwestangles to the edge of the cliff. The masonry throughout is rough;projecting ends of rafters indicate a building two stories high. Thereare peepholes with plastered surfaces through the southeast and westwalls, which suggest ports. A short distance east of the building isa circle of stones reminding the author of a shrine.Unit-Type House (Ruin 10)This pueblo (pi. 19, c), from a comparative point of view, is one ofthe most interesting ruins in the Hovenweep, and is situated on thevery edge of the canyon on the North Fork not far from where itbegins. It is the simplest form of prehistoric pueblo, or the unit *of a pure type, made up of a centrally placed circular ceremonial room(fig. 10, 70 embedded in rectangular rooms, six in number (A-F).The resulting or external form is rectangular, oriented about due northand south; the southern side, which formerly rose from the edge ofthe canyon, being much broken down and its masonry precipitatedover the cliff.The central kiva (fig. 10) is made of exceptionally fine masonry andshows by what remains that it had mural banquettes, and pilastersto support the roof, with other features like a tyjncal kiva of the i The " unit type " was first recognized by Doctor Pruddcn in his illuminating studies of the pueblos ofthe San Juan Basin. The author was the first to point out its existence in cliff-houses of the same area. fewkes] PREHISTORIC VILLAGES, CASTLES, AND TOWERS 51Mesa Verde cliff-houses. A side entrance opens in one corner into asmall room (fig. 10, G) in which ceremonial objects may have beenformerly stored (pi. 32, b).The kiva of Unit-type House is architecturally the samo as thosewith vaulted roofs at Spruce-tree House, Cliff Palace, and Far ViewHouso on the Mesa Verde. A similar structure, according toPrudden, 1 occurs at Mitchell Spring Ruin in the Montezuma Valley,and near the Picket corral. The same type was found by Morley 2 atthe Camionball Ruin and by Kidder 3 in a kiva on Montezuma Creekin Utah, where clusters of mounds would appear to be composed of Fiu. 10.?Ground plan of Unit-type House. single or composite ruins of this type. This small pueblo was prob-ably inhabited by one social unit, and may bo regarded as tho firststage of a compound pueblo.Stronghold House (Ruin 11)Ruin 1 1 is composed of a cluster of several small buildings, one ofwhich is situated on the north edge of the mesa somewhat east of Ruin10 (pi. 25, b) ; another, called by Morley and Kidder Gibraltar House,formerly of considerable size, was built on the sloping surface of anangular bowlder (pi. 17, 21, b). Although many walls have fallen,enough remains to render it a picturesque ruin, attractive to tho visitorand instructive to the archeologist, by whom it has been classed as atower. This building from the east appears to be a square tower, but itis in reality composed of several rooms perched on an inaccessible rock. i Circular Kivas in San Juan Watershed. Amer. Anthrop., n. s. vol. 16, no. 1, 1914.2 Excavation of the Cannonball Ruins in southwestern Colorado. Amer. Anthrop., n. s. vol. x, no. 4,1908.3 Explorations in southeastern Utah. Amer. Journ. ArchseoL, 2d ser., vol. xiv, no. 3, 1910. 52 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [hull.Ruins in Holly CanyonThe towers in Holly Canyon (fig. 11) are in about the same con-dition of preservation as those in Square Tower Canyon. Theycluster about the head of a small canyon (pi. 18, a) and may beapproached on foot along the mesa above Keeley Camp, about a miledistant. Two of the Holly ruins belong to the tower type and werebuilt on fallen bowlders. One of these has two rooms on the groundfloor. (Pis. 19, a, b\ 20 a, c.) Fig. 11?Holly Canyon Ruins.RUIN A, GREAT HOUSE, HACKBERRY CASTLERuin A (pi. 21, a), the largest building of the group, which standson the edge of the canyon, is rectangular in form, measuring 3 1 by 9feet, and is 20 feet high (fig. 11,-4). Evidences of two rooms appearon the ground plan, one of which is 14 feet long, the other 12 feetinside measurement. The partition separating the two rooms is nottied into the outer walls, an almost constant feature in ancientmasonry. The ends of the rafters are still seen in the wall at a level12 feet above the base. Fallen stones have accumulated in therooms to a considerable depth, and the tops of the remaining wall,where the mortar is washed out, will tumble in a short time.Ruin B (pi. 20, &), situated a short distance north of Ruin A, alsostands on the canyon rim. The north wall is entire, but the southwall has fallen. What remains indicates that the ruin was aboutsquare, with corners on the north side rounded, imparting to it asemicircular form. The entrance into this room may have beenthrough the floor. TOWERS [C AND D]These towers (pi. 23, a, b) show some of the finest masonry knownin this region, being constructed on fallen bowlders which their fewkes] PREHISTORIC VILLAGES, CASTLES, AND TOWERS 53foundations almost completely cover. Holly Tower (pi. 23, b)measures 16 feet high and 21 feet in diameter. It is 7 feet wide, itstop rising to a height level with that of the mesa on which stand build-ings already considered. One of the two rooms of this tower isnarrower and wider than the other, shown in an offset as if con-structed at a different time. Its foundations are 17 feet long by 8feet wide, the highest wall measuring, at the southeast corner, 12feet 8 inches. There is a fine doorway, wide above and narrow below,in the north wall. The approach at present is difficult on, account ofthe height of the rock on which it stands, but there are evidences offormer footholes. HOLLY HOUSESeveral broken-down walls, some of which are over (i feet high,situated east of Ruin A, appear to belong to a pueblo of considerablesize (fig. 11, E, F), but the large foundation rock on which it issituated has settled, its top having separated from the edge of thecanyon, so that the corner of the building (F) is out of plumb. Thewalls on the adjoining cliff are also much broken down, althoughseveral sections of them rise a few feet above the general surface.The cause of this change in level of the base may have been an earth-quake or the settling or sliding of the bowlder on the talus down thehill. The united building appears to have been a pueblo of rectan-gular form. Its walls are so broken down that it was not possible todetermino its exact dimensions. Horse Shot House Ruins in Blackberry Canyonhorseshoe houseThe large building in Hackberry Canyon, one of the terminal spursof Bridge Canyon, a mile northeast of the cluster in Holly Canyon, isparticularly instructive from the factthat surrounding the remains of acircular tower, for two-thirds of itscircumference, is a concentric wallwith compartments separated byradial partitions (fig. 12, 1).Horseshoe House (pi. 23, c) standson the north edge of the canyon (fig.12, 1), having its straight wall on thesouth side, as is usually the case,the well-preserved north side beingcurved. The northeastern corner still stands several feet high. Thesoutheastern corner formerly rested on a projecting rock, which recallsthe cornerstone of Sun Temple. The masonry of most of the southernsegment of the enclosed circular room or tower has fallen down the cliff. Fig. 12.?Horseshoe (Uackberry) Canyon. 54 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull, toThere does not appear to have been a doorway on the south side, andthere is not space for rooms on this side on account of the nearnessto the edge of the cliff. While the form (fig. 13) of Horseshoe Ruin re-calls that of Sun Temple, in details of room structure it is widelydivergent. The length of the south wall, or that connecting the twoends of the horseshoe, is 30 feet, its width 27 feet; the highest wall onthe northwest side is 12 feet. Figure 13 shows the arrangement ofthe rooms and the mutilation of the south wall of the ruin. The dis-tance between the outer and inner concentric walls averages 4 feet;the circular room is 17 feet in diameter.In the same cluster as Horseshoe Rum (pi. 24, a) there is anotherwell-made tower (fig. 12,4), constructed on a point at the entrance tothe canyon, and below it in a cave are well-preserved walls of a cliff-dwelling. s. Fig. 13.?Ground plan of Horseshoe House.A short distance due north of Horseshoe House, at the head ofa small canyon, a tributary of Bridge Canyon, there are two largepueblos and a round tower. The pueblos are mentioned by Prudden,who gives a ground plan which indicates an extensive settlement.TOWERS IN THE MAIN YELLOW JACKET CANYONOf the several towers and great houses of the main Yellow JacketCanyon two may suffice to show their resemblance to those in SquareTower Canyon. The two towers considered belong to the D-shapedvariety, the straight wall, as is almost always the case, being on thesouth side. fewkes] PREHISTORIC VILLAGES, CASTLES, AND TOWERS 55Davis TowerMr. C. K. Davis, who lives not far from the Yellow Jacket Spring,conducted the author to a tower of semicircular ground plan (fig. 14 ) near his ranch. This ruin (pi. 26, b), is situated on a rocky ridge ontop of the talus halfway down ?to the bottom of the canyon, onits right side.Lion (Littrell) Tower 'This tower (pi. 29, b) is builton a bowlder situated in YellowJacket Canyon a mile from Mr.Littrell's ranch and about 5 milessouth of the Yellow Jacket postoffice; approximately 20 milesfrom Dolores, Colorado. Itsground plan (fig. 15) is D-shaped,the lower story being divided bypartitions into four rooms. The wall of the middle room seems tobe double, or to have been reenforced. It measures 40 feet on thestraight side, the highest wall being about 25 feet above the base.The foundations rest on the irregular surface of a bowlder to whichit conforms. Fig. 14.?Ground plan of Davis Ruin. - M LEAN BASINMcLean Basin is 3 miles from the Old Bluff City Road near Picketcorral, 32 miles from Dolores. It has been a favorite wintering placefor stock and is well known to herdsmen. One .can approach theruin from the road to Bluff City and the towers here referred toare easily reached by a traildown the mesa to the high-est terrace. There are saidto be several ruins in theMcLean Basin, the two tow-ers (pis. 20, c, 27, 28, a, b)visited being placed in anexceptional position infig. i5.-Ground plan of Lion House. reference to surroundingrooms. One of these towers is circular, the other D-shaped or semi-circular in ground plan (fig. 16, A, B).Previously to the author's study of the southwestern towers twoforms of these structures were recognized; the square or rectangular,and the circular or oval. It is now known that several of the towers i This tower is reputed to bo the home of a mountain lion, hence the name Lion nousc. 56 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 70previously described as circular are in reality D-shaped, and thisform is probably more common than the circular.The rectangular building in the McLean Basin has a circulartower (pi. 28, b) on the southwest angle and a D-shaped tower (pi.28, a) on the northeast. They resemble two turrets rising abovethe remaining walls that form the sides of the rectangles. Thesetowers average about 12 feet high, and are well constructed, whilelow connecting walls of coarse masonry rise slightly above the surface.It would appear from the amount of debris that the remaining wallsindicate a row of buildings, one story high, with circular subterraneankivas, but this can not be accurately determined without excavationof the ruin. Outside of (he rectangle, however, there are at least Fig. 16.?Ground plan of ruin with towers in McLean Basin.two circular areas, possibly kiva pits. The rectangular buildingmeasures about 50 feet square. The ground on which the buildingsformerly stood slopes to the south, and back of it on the north risesa low perpendicular bluff which effectually shelters it in that direction.The union of a circular and a semicircular tower with a rectangularruin is a feature not common in the McElmo-Yellow Jacket region,but appears in Hovenweep Castle, elsewhere described. Lower downthe sides of the basin and near by are many indications of walls ofbuildings.The pottery in the neighborhood belongs to the same black andwhite types commonly found in the Hovenweep and Mesa Verdeareas.Except for their peculiar relation to the rectangular buildingthe McLean towers do not differ essentially from others, which fewkes] PREHISTORIC VILLAGES, CASTLES, AND TOWERS 57leads to the inference that they were used contemporaneously andfor the same purpose. There is a well-made doorway (fig. 17) inthe Round Tower. TOWER IN SAND CANYONSand Canyon, which opens into McElmo Canyon near Battle Rock,has several types of prehistoric ruins, viz, towers, cliff-houses, and largerim-rock pueblos. The tower type of architecture represented bythe example here figured (pi. 5, a) is isolated from other forms ofbuildings. This tower is figured by Doctor Prudden, who mentionsanother in the neighborhood which the author did not visit.TOWERS IN ROAD (WICKYUP) CANYONThe nomenclature of the northern canyons of the McElmo hasconsiderably changed in the last 40 years. What we now call theYellow Jacket was formerly known through its entire course as theHovenweep. A small canyon opening near its mouth, now knownas Road Canyon, was formerly called the Wickyup. The Old BluffCity Road from Dolores, Colorado, to Bluff City, Utah, divides intotwo branches a short distance beforeit descends into the McElmo, its leftbranch passing through Road Canyon,the right bank of which follows theYellow Jacket, which the travelerfords a short distance above its junc-tion with the McElmo. WickyupCanyon may be called picturesque,its cliffs being worn into fantasticshapes by water and sand. It has im-portant antiquities, among the most <^f^^^^striking of which are two towers (pi.24, Z>), crowning the tops of lowbuttes or hills. The walls of thesetowers are well constructed, one being a simple structure witha single room, the other having appended rectangular rooms ex-tending toward the northwest, some distance along a ridge ofrocks. An examination of these two towers, which are aboutone-quarter of a mile apart, shows that they belong to the sametype as the simple forms of those above mentioned, and as theentrance to Square Tower Canyon is not far away, they probably be-long to the same series. The first of the towers, called "BowlderCastle," is situated a few hundred feet east of the road, from which itis easily seen. This ruin is rectangular in shape and rises from a basalmass of debris indicating: broken-down walls of rooms. At a level with Fig. 17.?Doorway in Round Tower,McLean Basin. 58 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull, tothe top of this debris on its southern side stands a well-constructedtower with well-made doorway, the threshold and lintel of whichare smooth stones, whose edges project slightly from the surface ofthe wall. One remarkable feature of this tower is that the doorwayhas been walled up with rude secondary masonry (pi. 25, a). Thesouth wall of this building has tumbled over, as is usually the case,but the north wall rises several feet above the base. The masonryof the second tower is also broken down on the south side, but thestanding remains of the north wall, which is circular, are over 10feet high. The indications are that the ground plan of this buildingwas oval in shape and that it inclined inward slightly from founda-tion to apex. Scattered over the surface are the remnants of fallenwalls, and near it there is a well-marked depression, not unlike thosefound in unit-type mounds, indicating kivas.TOWERS OF THE MANCOSThe author's examination of the towers in the region consideredembraced likewise a few in the Mancos Canyon and valley. In allessential features the Mancos towers resemble those of Mesa Verde,the McElmo, and the Yellow Jacket Canyons, and were evidentlybuilt by the same people who constructed the towers on NavahoCanyon and elsewhere on the Mesa Verde National Park. A briefreference to two or three of these Mancos Iliver towers may sufficeto point out their general structure.Holmes TowerOne of the towers figured by Holmes in 1877 is still among the bestpreserved in this region and can be visited by following up the MancosCanyon from the west about 10 miles from where the Cortez roadcrosses the Mancos River before going on to Ship Rock. There is atthis point a bridge and near the crossing an industrial farm of the UteReservation where accommodations were obtained. The MancosValley widens after leaving the canyon, the southern side of MesaVerde appearing as a series of high mesas separated by canyons. Inthe neighborhood of the western end of Mesa Verde are lofty buttes,one called Chimney Rock, another the Ute Woman. This valley andthe canyons extending into the Mesa Verde contain numerous piles ofstone indicative of buildings of rectangular shape with numerouscircular depressions. No cluster of mounds like those in MontezumaValley was seen, but about 40 sites of buildings were distributed atintervals. None of these have standing walls above ground.Following up the Mancos Canyon in a wagon about 9 miles anarroyo was encountered and from there horses were taken and theriver crossed to its south bank, above which, on the shelving terrace,is the Holmes Tower, visible many miles down the canyon. This pewkes] PREHISTORIC VILLAGES, CASTLES, AND TOWERS 59tower (pi. 29, a) is in much the same condition as when sketched byHolmes over 40 years ago. It is circular in form, about 10 feet indiameter, and about 16 feet high, with a broken window on the northside. The sky line is irregular. It is one of the best preservedtowers, but not as high or as well constructed as some of the Hoven-weep specimens.Accompanying this tower on the north there are mounds indicativeof rooms and two circular saucer-like depressions. Excavationsrevealing a few human bones, including a well-worn human skull,have been made in a burial place southeast of the tower, where thesurface is covered with fragments of pottery. Except in size HolmesTower does not differ from others already described, but, like them, isconnected with rectangular rooms. Farther up the Mancos Canyonthere are other towers, one of which, Great Tower, is mentioned b}THolmes in his report.On the way up the canyon, perhaps two-thirds of the distance fromthe bridge to the Holmes Tower, midway in the alluvial plain and onthe right bank of Mancos Creek, stands a circular ruin which conformsto Holmes's description of Great Tower but is too poorly preservedto be positively identified. All that now remains of this building isa large pile of rocks with a central depression, but no signs of radiatingpartitions, although such may have existed when it was constructedand for many years after it began to fall into ruin.Towers on the Mancos River Below the Bridge There are two towers situated on the south side of the Mancos belowthe bridge on the Ship-rock Road, one about G, the other 7 milesdistant. The walls of the first of these (pi. 30, b) are visible for somedistance and are about G feet high, evidently very much broken downon the south and east sides. Its shape is round and there is a pile ofstones indicating rooms on the east side separated from the towerby a depression. It would be a valuable contribution to our knowl-edge of these ruins if some one would determine the nature of thesepits, which can hardly be regarded as reservoirs, but suggest kivas.row Kit i!The tower (pi. 31, a) situated farther down the Mancos River has amore commanding position than Tower A and is conspicuous becauseit stands on a projecting precipice, below the rim of which are walled-up artificial caves. These caves have apparently never been enteredby white men; the walls of masonry are unbroken and there arcsquare openings, windows or doorways, which can be made out longbefore reaching the place. 60 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull, toThis tower (pi. 30, a) is almost perfectly round, about 10 feet indiameter, and stands at least feet high. The south wall has fallen.In the pile of rocks on that side may be readily seen the top of astraight wall reaching to the edge of the cliff as if for protection, butno other fallen walls may now be seen in the neighborhood. Theface of the cliff below this tower (pis. 7, h; 31, h) is almost perpen-dicular, the component strata of soft shale alternating with harderrocks, the former well fitted for artificial excavations.The author was not impressed with the idea that any considerablenumber of troglodytic inhabitants dwelt in the small cliff rooms(pi. 31, b) 1 dug in it. Farther on there are other caves the walls ofthe entrance to which are still in sight. It is true the surface of thecliff may have been eroded and fallen in the time since they wereabandoned. They appeared to be storage cists rather than inhabitedrooms.Along the valley by the side of the road down the Mancos from thebridge to the ruins many heaps of stone were noticed in the valleybut none of these were extensive or had walls standing above ground.Nor were they arranged in clusters as is common in the MontezumaValley. On top of these heaps were found large fragments of slagin which was embedded charred corn, indicating a great fire. Similarslag also with burnt corn has often been found by the author on thefloor of excavated rooms.Megalithic and Slab House Ruins at McElmo BluffThe ruined walls on the bluff situated at the junction of the McElmoand Yellow Jacket Canyons are areheologically instructive. As themesa between the two canyons narrows in a promontory, about 100feet in altitude, its configuration reminds one of the East Mesaof the Hopi. It is inaccessible on three sides, but on the fourth,where the width of the mesa is contracted, there are remains of alow zigzag wall, extending from one side to the other. At the westernbase of this promontory, on the ledge higher than the river, there areartificial walls built on bowlders in the sides of which shallow cavesare eroded and near by them circular depressions. There are likewiseremains of a small pueblo with walls much broken down and acrossthe river the ruins of a community house, one of the largest in thedistrict. The exceptional character of the ruins on top of thispromontory has been mentioned or described by several visitors,as Holmes, Jackson, and Morley and Kidder, and various conjectureshave been made as to their character and relation to the other ruinsin this neighborhood. 1 A good figure of these cavate rooms is given by Holmes, op. cit. Comparing the photograph with Insfigure it appears that their surrounding shale has worn away somewhat in the last four decades. PEWKBS] PREHISTORIC VILLACKS, CASTLES, AND TOWERS 61The ruins on this mesa arc of two kinds: small inclosures madeof slabs of stone set on edge and semicircular structures (fig. 18),also constructed of upright stone slabs or megaliths. Three of thelatter have concentric surrounding walls with a "vestibule"entrance ( ?) at the south somewhat like rooms at the bases of towers.One of these is said by Morley and Kidder to have three concentricwalls. The small box-like structures are numerous, and are rudelyconstructed, united in an imperfect ring about the circular rooms.In verification of the various theories that have been suggestedto account for these rectangular structures?their interpretation asstorage bins, burial places, and cremation rooms?we have no proof.Similar rooms of megaliths g^S> <^H^exist on Sandstone Canyonand at other places to thenorth and in MontezumaCanyon to the west. Therude, massive character of themasonry leads me to referthem to the slab-house cul-ture of Kidder and the im-perfect masonry suggeststhey were habitations in aperiod antedating that of thepure pueblo culture. Suchfragments of pottery as werefound were, like the archi-tecture, rude and archaic,adding weight to the inter-pretation that they belongedto a very old epoch.The author regards thestructures made of stones seton edge as very old, possibly examples of the most primitive buildingsin the McEhno region, antedating the pueblos with horizontal masonryfarther east. West of the mouth of the Yellow Jacket, especiallyon the Montezuma Mesa, these megalithic walls are more pretentious,as if this was the center of the earlier phase of house buildings. In theeastern ruins these slabs of stone set on edge sometimes appear as atFar View House with horizontal masonry, but more as a survival.Since then discovery and description by Jackson and Holmes 40years ago, little has been added to our knowledge of these inclo-sures, although similar remains have been reported at various pointsfrom Dolores far into Utah. They are called cemeteries and crema-tories by the farmers and stockmen, but skeletons or burnt bonesdo not occur in them; the charcoal shows wood liber, and is not boneash. More knowledge must be obtained through excavations before Fig. 18.?Megalithic stono iuclosure, McEliuo ISlulT. 62 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bum., totheir significance can be determined. Their association with cir-cular rooms appears in Jackson's account1 of the stone structures onthe promontory at the mouth of the Yellow Jacket. He says: "The perpendicular scarp of the mesa ran round very regularly, 50to 1 00 feet in height, the talus sloping down at a steep angle. On cave-like benches at the foot of the scarp is a row of rock shelters, muchruined, in one of which was found a very perfect polished-stone imple-ment. Gaining the top of the mesa with some difficulty, we foimd aperfectly flat surface, 100 yards in width by about 200 in length,separated from the main plateau by a narrow neck, across which awall had been thrown, but which is now nearly leveled. Almostthe entire space fenced in by this wall was covered by an extendedseries of small squares, formed by thin slabs of sand-rock set on end.All were uniform in size, measuring about 3 by 5 feet, and arrangedin rows, two and three deep, adjusted to various points of the com-pass. There were also a few circles disposed irregularly about theinclosed area, each about 20 feet in diameter, their circumferencesbeing formed of similar rectangular spaces, leaving a circular space of10 feet diameter in the center. These rectangles occur mainly ingroups, and are found indiscriminately scattered through the wholeregion that has come under our observation upon the mesa tops andin the valleys. They all have the same general shape and size, andare seldom accompanied by even the faintest indication of a mound-like character. We have always supposed them to be graves, buthave not as yet found any evidence that would prove them such.Some that we excavated to the depth of 5 and 6 feet in a solid earththat had never been disturbed did not reward our search with thefaintest vestige of human remains. In nearly every case, however, athin scattered layer of bits of charcoal was found from 6 to 18 inchesbeneath the surface. In one instance, near the Mesa Verde, theupright slabs of rock which inclosed one of these rectangles weresunk 2 feet into the earth and projected 6 inches above it. " Holmes (op. cit., pp. 385-386) describes similar structures:"The greater portion of what are supposed to be burial placesoccur on the summits of hills or on high, barren promontories thatoverlook the valleys and canons. In these places considerable areas,amounting in some cases to half an acre or more, are thickly setwith rows of stone slabs, which are set in the ground and arrangedin circles or parallelograms of greatly varying dimensions. At firstsight the idea of a cemetery is suggested, although on examination itis found that the soil upon the solid rock surfaces is but a few inches i Tenth Ami. Kept. U. S. Geol. Surv. (Hayden Survey) for 1876, p. 414, 1879. pewkes] PREHISTORIC VILLAGES, CASTLES, AND TOWERS 63deep, or if deeper, so compact that with the best implements it isvery difficult to penetrate it."On the west bank of the Dolores, near the second bend, I cameupon a cluster of these standing stones on the summit of a low,rounded hill, and in the midst of a dense growth of full-grown pinonpines."The rows of stones at this place, according to the same author,were composed of undressed slabs, many of which had fallen, theparallelograms averaging 3 by 8 feet in dimensions. Thin layers ofbits of charcoal and pottery occur in the neighborhood. The datethese slabs were placed upright was very early, for trees growing inthe inclosures were estimated to be three or four hundred years old.These stones were sometimes " embedded in the sides and roots ofthe trees." Holmes had the "impression that these places, if notactually burying grounds, were at least places used for the per-formance of funeral rites . . . the remains of the dead beingburned or left to decay in the open air."The interiors of the inclosures were found on excavation to befilled to a depth of about a foot with soil mixed with ashes. Therewere many fragments of pottery, and some other objects near them,but nothing to indicate, as suggested by previous observations, thatthey were burial cists or even crematories for burying the dead. Nocharred human remains occur, but charcoal is abundant. It may havebeen that these places were used as ovens for roasting corn or forsome culinary purposes, the neighboring circular rooms being pos-sibly used for the same purposes as towers by the people who formerlyinhabited this region. They are not large enough for dwellings andthe soil in them is too shallow for burial purposes. They belong to atype which is widely distributed over the district visited by the author.Especially fine examples occur north of Sandstone Canyon district.At the base of the great cliff, on the top of winch the remains inquestion are found, under the shelter of an overhanging bowlder,may be seen one of the finest collections of pictography of animalsand human beings. Not far from the last-mentioned bowlder thewalls of a large pueblo can readily be traced along the banks of theMcElmo Canyon. In his studies of the antiquities of this region theauthor did not penetrate west of the mouth of Yellow Jacket Canyon,but he was told by stockmen and sheep herders of the existence ofmany other rums contiguous to the road all the way from this pointto Bluff City. The most important of these have already beendescribed in a general way. 64 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [sou., toGRASS MESA CEMETERYGrass Mesa, a plateau with precipitous sides overlooking the DoloresRiver, is about 10 miles down the river from Dolores on the rightbank of the stream. There remain few signs of former buildings atthis place, but very many artifacts, pottery, stone implements, andfragments of well-worn metates occur at various places, some ofwhich are among the best ever seen by the author. This bluff seemsto have been the site of a settlement, possibly pre-Puebloan, likethat on McElmo Bluff, with rough walls, resorted to for refuge, andlater used as a cemetery. It is well adapted for these purposes, itstop being almost inaccessible on the river side. There are manyother similar sites of Indian settlements farther down the river, butthis is one of the most typical. The scenery along the road that fol-lows the banks of the river from Dolores is ever to be rememberedon account of high cliffs on each side.RESERVOIRSMany artificial reservoirs dating to prehistoric times were observedin the area covered by the author's reconnoissance. These fall intotwo well-marked types, one form being a circular depression, ap-parently excavated and sometimes walled up with earth or stones.The other form was not excavated by man, but the sloping surface ofrock was surrounded on the lowest level by a bank of earth, forming adam or retaining wall. Both types of reservoirs are commonly formednear some former center of population, but sometimes occur far frommounds, wherever the surface of the land has a convenient slopeand the water can be compounded by a retaining wall. The heightof the bank that holds back the water of these prehistoric reservoirshas been increased in some cases by stockmen; the walls of othersstill remain practically the same height they were when constructedby the aborigines. One of the best examples of the second type ofreservoir, the retaining wall of which is shown in plate 32, a, is crossedby the road to Bluff City near the ruins in Holly Canyon, not far fromPicket corral. A few miles north of this reservoir, at the edge of thecedars, the road crosses another of these ancient reservoirs, whoseretaining bank has been considerably increased in height by stockmen.The ancient reservoir at Bug Mesa covers fully 4 acres, and the reser-voir near Goodman Point Ruin is almost as large, and, althoughsomewhat changed from its aboriginal condition, is still used byfarmers dwelling in the neighborhood. The latter belongs to thefirst type; the former to the second. Reservoirs of one or the othertype are generally found in the neighborhood of all large heaps ofrocks, the so-called mounds that indicate the former existence ofpueblos. The reservoir of the Mummy Lake village on the MesaVerde belongs to the excavated type. fewkesI PREHISTORIC VILLAGES, CASTLES,, AND TOWERS 65PICTOGRAPHSAt many places covered by this reconnoissance there were foundinteresting collections of engraved figures of ancient date cuton bowlders or vertical cliffs. These are generally situated inthe neighborhood of ruins, but sometimes exist far from humanremains. They generally have geometrical forms, rectangular andspiral predominating. Associated with these occur also representa-tions of human beings, birds, and animals, and figures of bird tracks,human hands, and bear claws. There is a remarkable similarity inall these figures which sometimes occur on the stones composing themasonry of the buildings which indicates they were contemporaneous.They were pecked on the stones with rude stone chisels, but as arule show no indication of paint. None of these figures could beregarded, without the wildest flights of the imagination, as letters orhieroglyphics, and there is no indication that inscriptions wereintended. Their general character, as shown in a cluster (pi. 33),indicates rather clan symbols; in some instances spiral forms wereprobably made to indicate the presence of water. The incised figureson the walls of buildings were probably decorative in character, thefirst efforts of primitive man to embellish the walls of his dwellingan art which reached a very high development in Mexico and CentralAmerica. There are, however, indications that these figures werecovered with plaster and were therefore invisible, so that we mightsuppose them to be masons' signs, indicating the clan kinship ofthose who constructed the walls. Perhaps the largest group of thesepictographs occurs on an eroded bowlder near the mouth of theYellow Jacket Canyon, just below the great promontory separatingit from the McElmo, on the surface of which are the remarkabledwellings composed of slabs of stone set on edge. Another largecluster, the members of which are of the same general style as thatalready mentioned, was seen in Sandstone Canyon, a few milessouth of the road from Dolores to Monticello. There are severalgroups of pictographs in the neighborhood of the large towers else-where described. The most noteworthy of these is situated at thehead of the south fork of Square Tower Canyon on a vertical cliffbelow the ruined Tower No. 4. The face of the cliff is very mucheroded, and the figures are in places almost illegible. They consist ofbird designs, accompanied with figures of snakes, rain clouds, andother designs, portions of which are obliterated and impossible ofdetermination. As a rule, these pictographs resemble very closelythose in the cliff-houses of the Mesa Verde and add their evidenceof a uniformity of art design in these two regions.In addition to pictographs cut on the surface of the cliff, we alsofind in sheltered caves others not incised but with indications of10SS52 ?19?Bull. 70 -5 66 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull, to color, showing the former existence of painted figures. Some ofthese, however, are not ascribed to the Indians who built the towers,but to a later tribe who camped in this region after the house build-ers had disappeared. They were probably made by wandering bandsof Ute Indians, and are not significant in a comparison of the differ-ent kinds of buildings described in this article.MINOR ANTIQUITIESThe preceding pages deal wholly with the immovable antiquities,as buildings, reservoirs, and the like. In addition to these evidencesof a former population, there should be mentioned likewise the smallerantiquities, as pottery, stone objects, weapons, baskets, fabrics, boneand other implements. No excavation was attempted in the course ofthe reconnoissance, so that this chapter in the author's report is natu-rally a very brief one. The few statements which follow are mainlybased on local collections, one of which, owned by Mr. Williamson, ofthe First National Bank of Dolores, is comprehensive. The most sug-gestive of these minor antiquities are objects of burnt clay or pottery,which occur generally in piles of debris or accompany human burials.It was the custom of these people, like the cliff-dwellers, to deposit,near the dead, food in bowls and other household utensils, varying inshape, technique, decoration, and color. The most important factregarding these ceramics is that they belong to the same archaic typeas those from the ruins of the Mesa Verde. The predominating colorsare white or gray with black figures, within and without, almostuniversally geometrical in form. There occurs also a relatively largenumber of corrugated vessels, and those made by using coils of clay,the figures on their exterior being indented with some implement, asa bone, stone, or even with the finger nail. While the majoritybelong to the black-and-white group, the red ware decorated withblack figures is found but comparatively rarely, which is also true ofthe pottery of the cliff-dwellers. In the large variety of forms ofburnt clay objects, the most remarkable in shape is a double waterjar, connected by a transverse tube, the ends of which project beyondthe opening into the jar, much in the form of an animal with a headat one end, body elongated, terminating in a short tail, the legs notbeing represented. While the number of unbroken mortuary bowlsobtained from this region thus far known is comparatively small,we find in many places large quantities of broken fragments, all ofwhich belong to the varieties of ware above enumerated.None of the bowls, vases, dippers, or other ceramic objects fromthe region of the rums described have that significant feature com-monly called the "life line;" the encircling lines are continuousaround the vessel, and not broken at one point. The broken linenever occurs on archaic pottery like black-and-white ware, and we fkvs-kes] PREHISTORIC 1 VILLAGES, CASTLES, AXD TOWERS 67may accept the hypothesis that the conception which gave rise to itwas foreign to the people of the Mesa Verde and adjacent areas. Itwould be instructive to map out the distribution of this custom whichwas so prevalent in pottery from the Gila and Little Colorado and itstributaries, and absent in that from ruins on the San Juan andMimbres. It occurs in ware from certain Rio Grande prehistoricruins, as if it were a connecting link with the ancient culture of theLittle Colorado.Of the stone implements found m this region the most characteristicis the celt called tcamahia which is not found in regions not affectedby the San Juan culture. These objects are found from Mesa Verdeto the Hopi pueblos. 1 A peculiar form of prehistoric chipped chertimplement occurs at Mesa Verde and elsewhere in the area. A flintknife in the Williamson collection at Dolores was purchased froma Ute woman who said it was found on a ruin. She wore it attachedto her belt by a buckskin thong fastened to a bead-worked cover.Bone objects were mainly needles, dirks, and bodkins, presentingin the main no essential differences from those repeatedly described,especially by Nordenskiold in his important memoir on the cliff-dwellers of the Mesa Verde. Objects made of marine shell are rare.The presence of flattened slabs of stone or metates showing on thesurface evidences of grinding occur with human bones in manylocalities, indicating either that a custom still extant among thePueblos of burying the metates with the dead was observed, or thatthe burials were made under floors of these long-abandoned houses.It would seem, on the former hypothesis, that these objects wereburied with the women, but as the condition of the skeletal remainsis poor the sex could not be determined by direct observation.The unprotected nature of the sites and the condition of the ruinsprevented the preservation of fragile articles like baskets and fabrics,which frequently occur in caves, in one or two instances buried underthe floors. There is little doubt that excavations in cemeteries ofthe open-sky ruins would reveal considerable material of this nature,which would probably duplicate that which has been produced fromthe adjacent cliff-houses. Many parts of wooden beams, mainly theremains of flooring and roofs, were seen still in the walls, but theseas a rule were fragmentary. The ends of the timbers still adheringto the walls show that they were cut into shape by stone implements,aided by live embers. They appear to have been split by means ofwedges made of stone and often rubbed down smooth with polishinginstruments of the same material. The majority of these woodenbeams plainly show the action of fire, but no roof was intact. Fromthe size of the logs shown in fragments of beams, it is evident that i The use of these objects as heirlooms in the Antelope altar of the Hopi supports the tradition of theSnake people that their ancestors brought them from the San Juan. 68 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 70the roof supports had been brought there from some distance; treesof the magnitude they imply do not now grow in the neighborhoodof some of the ruins where these beams occur.HISTORIC REMAINSThe various objects found in the ruins or on the surface of theground as a rule are characteristic of a people in the stone-age cul-ture, ignorant of metals, and therefore prehistoric, but here and thereon the surface have been picked up iron weapons which belongedto the historic period. The old "Spanish Trail" mentioned in pre-ceding pages was the early highway from Santa Fe, New Mexico, to theGreat Salt Lake, and followed approximately an old Indian trail thatwas probably used by the prehistoric inhabitants or the builders ofthe towers. Not far from the head of Yellow Jacket Canyon aranchman discovered on his farm a few years ago the blades of twoSpanish iron lance heads or knives, still well preserved, the hilts,however, being destroyed. These objects, now in Mr. Williamson'scollection at Dolores, may have belonged to a party of Spanish sol-diers who explored this region, but their form, in addition to the mate-rial, is so characteristic that no one would assign them to aboriginalmanufacture. Fragments of a stirrup of metal, parts of the harnessor saddle, also belonging to the Spanish epoch, have also been found.The indications are that these objects are historic, but their ownersmay have been Indians who obtained them from Europeans. Theyprobably do not antedate the middle of the eighteenth century,when two Catholic fathers, with an escort of soldiers, made theirtrip of discovery from Santa Fe into what is now Utah. They shedno light on the epoch of the aborigines who constructed the castlesand towers considered in this paper.CONCLUSIONSIn the preceding pages the author has considered several differenttypes of buildings, which, notwithstanding their variety in forms,have much in common and can be interpreted as indicating an iden-tical phase of pueblo development. A comparative study of thendistribution shows us that they occur in a well-defined geographicalarea. In comparison with stone buildings in other parts of theSouthwestern States, this phase shows superior masonry. It isconsidered as chronologically antedating the historic epoch and post-dating an earlier, and as yet not clearly denned, phase out of whichit sprung in the natural evolution from simple to complex forms.These buildings express the communal thought of the builders,since they were constructed by groups of people rather than by indi-viduals. Architecture representing the thoughts of many minds is fewkes] PREHISTORIC VILLAGES, CASTLES, AND TOWERS 69 conservative, or less liable to innovation or departure from pre-scribed forms and methods. These community houses express thethought of men in groups at different times, and, so far as archeologyteaches, are the best exponents of what we call contemporary socialconditions, while pottery and other small portable objects, being prod-ucts of individual endeavor, furnish little on social organization, orgeneral cultural conditions of communities. Although determinationof cultural areas built on identity of pottery often coincides withthose determined by buildings, this is not always the case. Special-ized culture areas determined by highly conventionalized designs onceramics are localized, more numerous, and as a rule more modern.Hence a culture area determined by architectural features may includeseveral subareas determined by pottery.The author has thought it possible to differentiate two distinctepochs or phases of house building in the upper part of the San Juandrainage, viz, the early and the middle stages of development. Thereare included in the early condition certain crude architectural effortssimilar to the non-Pueblos represented in regions adjoining the Puebloarea. This early condition, though not clearly defined, is begin-ning; to be revealed by intensive studies of the so-called slab-housedwellings and isolated brush houses. Evidences of this stage havebeen found in several localities, as on McElmo Bluff, or combinedwith walls of what may be called true pueblo buildings. The dif-ferences between some of the buildings of the early stage and thoseof the aborigines in southern California, or of the Utes and Shoshoneantribes, are slight; resemblances which point to relations are notconsidered in detail.From their advance in house building, it has been commonlystated that the Pueblo people were either derived from Mexicantribes or, as was customary in the seventeenth and eighteenth cen-turies to suppose, their descendants had made their way south anddeveloped into the more advanced Mexican culture as the Aztecs.These conclusions are not supported by comparison with availablearchitectural data observed among these two peoples. The basalerror is the mistake in considering the earth houses of the Gila thesame as pueblos. The habitations of the Gila compounds werestructurally different from pueblos, and their sanctuaries or ceremo-nial rooms had not the same form or relation to the dwellings. TheGila compounds are allied to Mexican buildings; but there is littlein common between them and pure pueblos. The same is true ofthe type of stone dwellings on the Verde, Ton to, and Little Colorado.Certain likenesses exist between the Casas Grandes of the Gila andthose of Mexico, although little relationship exists between the tem-ples or ceremonial buildings of the valley of Mexico and the CasasGrandes of the Gila. The architecture of the Pueblos and the Az- 70 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 70tecs is very different; the habitations of Mexican tribes resemblethose of the Gila. The forms 1 of ceremonial chambers differ, onebeing rectangular mounds or pyramids, the other circular, generallysubterranean.Rather than seek the origin of the house builders of the San Juan,or the parent Pueblos, from Mexican sources, the author believesthe custom of building stone houses in the pueblo region was notderived from any locality not now included in the pueblo area, butit developed as an autochthonous growth, the earliest stages as wellas the most complex forms being of local origin. Incoming Indiansmay have introduced ideas of foreign birth but they did not bring inthe mason's craft. That custom developed in the Southwest, wherewe find the whole series from a single stone house or a cave withwalls closing the entrance to the most highly developed architec-tural production north of Mexico. There are cliff-dwellings in manyother localities in the world but there are nowhere, except in theregion here considered, cliff-dwellings with circular kivas constructedon this unique plan. It is generally supposed that a type of roomcalled "small house" was the predecessor of the multiple commu-nity dwelling throughout the Southwest. This type, defined as asimple four-walled, one-story building with a flat roof, is widelyspread in New Mexico and Arizona. The strongest arguments infavor of its greater antiquity are possibly its simplicity of form andthe character of accompanying ceramics?corrugated, black andwhite, and red pottery. Characteristic small houses of the MesaVerde and McElmo Canyon belong to the same type of pueblo as thelargest extensive villages which are more complicated than the so-called small house. It is what the author has called the pure typewhich is structurally different from the "small house," the so-calledarchaic form of the mixed pueblos of the Rio Grande. This unittype is likewise unlike the small house of the Little Colorado, includ-ing those of the Zuni Valley and the Hopi Wash, although the Hopikivas show the influence of the Mesa Verde culture in the persist-ence of the ceremonial opening in the floor called the sipapu.A cluster of small houses or the village such as we find at MummyLake on the Mesa Verde is composed of several scattered members,each containing for the religious and secular life the "pure type"rooms constructed on the same plan. In a village like the AztecSpring House several unit buildings are united, forming one com-munity house larger than the rest, which was the dominant one ofthe village, the remaining houses being smaller and scattered.Aztec Spring, Mitchell Spring, and Mud Spring villages show asimilar consolidation of units with outlying smaller houses, and thenumber of units in such a union is believed to be indicated by the 1 Temples of Quetzalcoatl, the Plumed Serpent Sun God, are circular buildings like towers. fewkes] PREHISTORIC VILLAGES, CASTLES, AND TOWERS 7lnumber of circular rooms, or kivas. Thus, four kivas might besupposed to indicate four consolidated social units.The complete concentration of several unit pueblos into one ormore large communal buildings x is also found in several cases inthe area we have studied, but we must look to the great ruin atAztec or those on the Chaco Canyon for examples of almost com-plete amalgamation. Thus these large pueblos where an almost com-plete consolidation has occurred have resulted from a fusion orcondensation of what might have formerly been a rambling villagecomposed of several separate units. This clustering of small separatedhouses in a village is not peculiar to the San Juan but exists elsewherein the Southwest, as in the Rio Grande region, where, however, thestructure of each component small house is different. These separatemounds do not indicate the unit type as denned, and the Rio Grandepueblo of modern date has its kiva separated from the house masses,which have grouped themselves in rectangular lines or rooms sur-rounding courts. There are, perhaps, examples in this region wherea circular kiva is found embedded in house masses, but these are sofew in number that they may possibly be regarded as incorporatesurvivals due to acculturation.In the Gila Valley compounds, as Casa Grande, and on the LittleColorado, the unit type is unknown. Several blocks of buildingson the Gila are surrounded by a rectangular wall which is wantingin ruins of the Little Colorado and its tributaries. Here one of theunits may be enlarged, following in some respects the conditionsat Aztec Spring Ruin. A surrounding wall also appears in someof the Pueblo villages and pueblos, but when we compare one ofthe units of a Casa Grande compound with that of a MontezumaValley village, we find little in common, the main difference, so faras form is concerned, being the absence of a circular kiva. 3 There isnothing in a Gila Valley compound we can structurally call a cir-cular kiva, and no morphological equivalent of the circular kivain ruins on the tributaries of the Salt and Gila. On the horizon ofthe Gila culture area there are no circular kivas, due to accultura-tion. There are rooms analogous to kivas used for ceremonials atHopi and Zuni, but they are not true kivas as we have interpretedthem in the San Juan area. Both Hopi and Zuni are compositepeople and have elements derived from Gila and Pueblo influences,but neither belong to the pure type in the sense the author defines it.The author has attempted to show that the structure of thehouses whose clustering composes villages^in the Montezuma Val- i The likeness of the Mesa Verde cliff-houses to the pueblos of Chaeo Canyon was long ago suggested byNordenskiold. The excavation of Far Mew House proved that suggestion to bo true. * This subject is treated at length in my report on Casa Grande in the Twenty-eighth Annual Report ofthe Bureau of American Ethnology. 72 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull, tolev is the same as that of Far View House of the Mummy LakeTillage on top of Mesa Verde; and that these architectural resem-blances are close enough to indicate that the villages of the twolocalities were inhabited by people of the same general culture.He has proved that the pure type of such a village as shown inFar Mew House was constructed on the same plan as a cliff-dwelling,notwithstanding one is built in the open, the other in a cave. Thegeographic extension of this type has been traced into Utah. Ruinedpueblos on the Chaco Canyon or mt Aztec on the Animas, whichis geographically nearer the Mesa Verde, are more concentrated butindicate the same culture. Renewed research is necessary to deter-mine the southern and western extension of the pure type; thenorthern and eastern horizon is fairly well known.Granting that the great ruins on the Chaco Canyon belong tothe same people as those on Mesa Verde, the question arises, Whichbuildings are the most ancient, those on the Mesa Verde or thoseon the Chaco? A correct answer to this question should revealthe cradle of the culture indicated by the pure or prehistoric typeof pueblo. The author believes that the pure pueblo culture origi-nated in the northern part of the area and migrated southward to theChaco Valley in prehistoric times, ultimately affecting the people ofthe Rio Grande, where sedentary people no doubt lived before writtenhistory of the area began. The result was a mixture; the mixedpopulation are the modern Pueblos.In the great cliff-houses of the Mesa Verde and the extensivepueblos of the McElmo we find towers combined wTith pure types ofpueblos, either simple or complex. In the Chaco ruins these towersare not found in this combination. To this may be added thegreat-house type of the McElmo, also absent in the Chaco. Herethere appears to be an essential difference on which the authorventures a suggestion, but which future research must elucidate.If this pure type originated in the southern tributaries of the SanJuan as the Chaco and migrated to the northern we would expect inthe latter more distinctly southern objects, as shell ornaments,turquoise mosaics, and a great variety of pottery of a southern type.The pure or unit type is believed to be autochthonous in the SanJuan Basin and characteristic of a middle phase of architecturaldevelopment, the highest north of Mexico. It is self-centered andhas preserved its characteristics over an extensive area, influencingregions far beyond.The evolution of this type took place in the region mentionedbefore the fifteenth century of the Christian era. Traces of itsinfluence have persisted into the country of mixed pueblos down tothe present time, but the architectural skill has deteriorated and shows fewkes] PREHISTORIC VILLAGES, CASTLES, AXD TOWERS 73evidence of acculturation 1 from sources outside the San Juan areawhere it originated.One word in regard to the adjectives, prehistoric and historic,applied to southwestern ruins. They are relative ones and obtainedfrom data somewhat diverse in character. Casa Grande on theGila was called a ruin when first seen by the European. It w;tsinhabited in prehistoric times. From documentary evidence thehistorian learns that certain other buildings were not inhabited atthe advent of the Spaniards, and if their statements are trustworthythese also are prehistoric. Legends of modern Pueblos claim thatcertain other ruins were inhabited houses of their ancestors beforethe coming of the white man. The author sees no good reason tothrow this evidence out of court without investigation because someof the incidents in it betray late introduction. Many other ruinsare classified as prehistoric from the purely negative, but not decisive,evidence that no objects of European make have been found inthem. The ruin Sun Temple, on the Mesa Verde, is consideredprehistoric from the fact that a tree with over 360 annual rings ofgrowth was found growing on top of its highest wall. We are justi-fied in calling this a prehistoric ruin.The evidences that villages, cliff-dwellings, castles and towers,and other types considered in this article antedate the advent of thewhite man are as follows: No historian has recorded an inhabitedbuilding of this form in this or other regions; no objects of Europeanmanufacture have been found in them, and the buildings and pottervwhich characterize them are different from those of any inhabitedwhen the Spanish entered the Southwest.The complex, which is thought to be the highest form of puebloarchitecture, is composed of the following elements united: (1) Sev-eral "pure types" 2 representing a religio-sociological complexion ofthe inhabitants: (2) towers of various forms?round, D-shaped, andrectangular; (3) the great houses; (4) unit type in cave. In CliffPalace these four types occur united in a pueblo built in a naturalcave; in Mud Spring Ruin two and possibly three of these types arefound in one open-air village, more spread out as site permits. InAztec Spring and Mitchell Spring pueblos the arrangement is moredefined. In the cluster at the head of South Fork of Square TowerCanyon we have all the elements united in Hovenweep House andHovenweep Castle. Unit-type House shows the single-unit typewith tower near by; in Twin Towel's we have the great house withcave pueblo and towers separated. Several other towers isolatedfrom other types also occur. 1 These acculturation modifications due lo Hispanic influences in modern pueblos arc too well markedto need more than a mention.2 The author uses the words "pure type" instead of "unit type" as a general term to denote "one-unittypes," "two-unit types," "three-unit types," etc. 74 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 70The Holly Canyon group shows the types separated. The greathouse is represented hy Holly Castle; the towers are situated onhuge bowlders. The unit type of this group is represented by HollyHouse, the foundation of part of which has fallen, covering the ruinsof another pueblo of the unit type formerly in the cave below.The Hackberry group is also composed of three elemental typesseparated; the great house is represented by Hackberry House, theunit type by the cliff-dwelling below and by the pueblo on the oppo-site side of the gulch, and the towers by isolated towers.A similar analysis may be made of other ruins. Sometimes thecomponent types are united; often one type only occurs, the othersbeing absent. The union of all is best marked in the northern tribu-taries of the San Juan, as at Aztec, and in the southern tributaries, asat Chaco Canyon and Chelly Canyon. These pueblos, whether in theopen or in caves, belong to the pure or concentrated multiple unit type.Some light may be shed on the probable process of consolidationof the individual units of a community house by a comparative studyof the pueblos on the East Mesa of the Hopi. Hano, for instance,was settled by a group of Tanoan clans about 1710 A. D. The listof Hano "clans that originally came to the East Mesa is known fromlegends and the present localization of their survivors has been indi-cated in the author's article on "The Sun's Influence on the Formof Hopi Pueblos." 1 In 1890 Hano was composed of four blocks ofrooms, each housing one or more clans. Earlier there were six, oneof which had fallen into disuse, a few less than the traditional numberof clans. When the colonists arrived, they settled near CoyoteSpring, the houses of which are now covered with drifted sand, butwhen they constructed their village on the mesa at the head of thetrail each house of a cluster housed a clan. Increase in population,both internal and external, led to the union and enlargement of thesehouses so that they inclosed a central plaza. A similar growth hastaken place in Sichomovi, the pueblo halfway between Walpi andHano; first single houses, then rows of houses with terraces on thesouth and east sides. Some of the original houses have been desertedand rebuilt nearer the others. Thus at Hano the Katcina clanhouse was north and east of the chief kiva but is now in the east row.In the same way we may suppose that in a consolidation of a com-munity dwelling several units may have drawn together and united.There is evidence of a union of this kind in many ruins in the South-west.The data here published should not be interpreted to mean thatthe author regards the builders of the towers and great houses heredescribed as evidences of a race other than the Indians. Indeed hebelieves that in both blood and culture they have left survivals 1 Amer. Anthrop., n. s. vol. viii, no. 1, 1906. fewkes] PKEHISTOEIC VILLAGES, CASTLES, Al^D TOWERS 75among the modern Pueblos. He also does not hold that as a wholethey necessarily belonged to a radically different phase of culture,notwithstanding the buildings they constructed show a greatervariety of form and masonry superior to that of their descendants.The evidences are cumulative that there existed and disappearedin a wide geographical area of the Southwest a people whose build-ings differed so much from those of any other area in North Americathat the area in which they occur may be designated as a character-istic one.The variety and type of buildings have a bearing on social organi-zation. A large building composed of many units is probably butnot necessarily later in time than a single house; an isolated singlehouse would probably be of earlier construction than a collection ofseveral single houses of the same character compactly arranged in avillage; a complete consolidation of several houses of such a villageinto a community house would naturally be more modern than agroup of isolated single houses.City blocks postdate hamlets. Between a stage indicated bysingle houses and one characterized by consolidated building, thereis a phase in which the buildings are grouped in clusters and are notunited. We may theoretically suppose that the single house wasinhabited by one social unit as a clan or family. As the food questbecame more intensified and defense more urgent, social units, asindicated by single houses, would be brought together, and as thepopulation increased the amalgamation would be more complete.This social organization, in the beginning loose, in the course of timewould become more homogeneous, and as it did so the union of theseseparate social units would have been closer; and if we combine withthat tendency the powerful stimulus of protection, we can readilysee how a compact form of architecture characteristic of the buildingshere described was brought about. The element of defense in thevillages with scattered houses does not appear to have been veryimportant, but might be adduced to explain the consolidation ofthese into large community houses.If the growth of the large pueblos has followed the lines aboveindicated, and if each unit type indicates a social unit as well, wenecessarily have in this growth of the community house the story ofthe social evolution of the Pueblo people. Clans or social units atfirst isolated later joined each other, intermarriage always tendingto make the population more homogeneous. The social result of theamalgamation of clans seeking common defense would in time bemarked. The inevitable outcome would be a breaking down of clanpriesthoods or clan religions and the formation of fraternities ofpriesthoods recruited from several clans. This in turn would leadto a corresponding reduction and enlargement of ceremonial rooms 76 ' BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull, to, fewkes] remaining. Two kivas suffice for the ceremonies of the majority ofthe Rio Grande pueblos; but Cliff Palace with a population of thesame size had 23 and Spruce-tree House, a much smaller cliff pueblo,had 8.One can not fail to notice a similarity in sites of some of the greathouses of the McElmo to neighboring cliff habitations and a likerelation of Sun Temple to the cliff-dwellings in Fewkes Canyon in theMesa Verde. Possibly the purpose of these great houses and SunTemple was identical. Some of the great houses were probablygranaries and Sun Temple may have been intended partly for a likeuse. No indications of remains of stored corn have been observed inany of these buildings, but Oastaneda ' speaks of a village of sub-terranean granaries (" silos") in the Rio Grande country, which isinstructive in this connection. i Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethn., pt. 1, p. 523. This village is spoken of as "lately destroyed;"in other words it was a ruin in 1540. INDEX PageAcmen Ruin, described 29Antiquities, minor 66Architecture , culture areas determined by . 69Architecture, Pueblo?elements of 73of local origin 70Aztec architecture, unlike that of Pueblos. 69Aztec Spring, ruins at 23described by Holmes 24described by Jackson 24ground plan of 26Beams, "wooden, method of shaping 67Blanchard Ruin 23Bone, objects made of 67Bowlder Castle, description of 57Bowls, mortuary 66Bug Mesa Ruin, description of 19Bug Point Ron, excavation of, showing unittype 29Burial customs 66, 67Burul places?mentioned by Morgan 21near Holmes Tower 59on Grass Mesa 64on the Dolores 11Burkiiardt Ruin. See Mud Spring Ruin.Butte Ruin, description of 32Cannonball Ruin?description of 30structural features of 42Castles, structural features of 40Caves?apparently used for storage 60walled-up 59Cemeteries. See Burial places.Ceremonial rooms, Hopi and Zufii, not truekivas 71Chaco Canyon Ruins, comparative age of . . 72Circular Ruins?distribution of 31structural features of 31Cliff-dwellers?culture of 9region occupied by 9Cliff-dwellings?architectural features of 37classification of ISdouble 38in Lost Canyon 40small, in the McKlmo region 37Communal dwellings 71preceded by "small house" 70social conditions indicated by 69Consolidation of units, process of 74Corn, charred, found embedded in slag ? 60Davis Tower?ground plan 55location of 55 PageDepressions indicating kivas 42Dove Creek Ruins 28Eight Mile Ruin, masonry in 41Emerson, 3. W., description of ruin by 34Emerson Ruin, description of 33Entrances?to kivas 42to towers 42walled-up 07Eroded Bowlder House, description of... 49Escalante and Dominguex, manuscriptdiary of 36Escalante Ruin, description of 36Far View House, a pueblo of pure type 1 5, 16Gibraltar House. S>structural features of 40Hackberry Canyon cliff-house, a "unittype " 40Hackberry Castle, descript ion of 52Hackberry group, elements composing 74Hill Canyon Ruins 42masonry of 42Holly Canyon?ground plan 52ruins of 52Holly Canyon group, elements composing. 74Holly House Ruins, description of 53Holmes, W. H.?on probable use of towers 42on tower at Mud Spring 20report of, as reference work 11report on ruins by 10, 11slab inclosures described by f-2Holmes Tower , deseri pi ion of 58Hon ceremonial rooms, not true kivas 71Horseshoe House?compared with Sun Temple 54description of 53ground plan 54structural features of 40Hovenweep Castle?description of 47ground plan of 47Hovenweep district?a proposed National Monument 44canyons of, containing ruins 44ruins of -14Hovenweep House, description of 46Implements, stone 67Ingersoll, Ernest, newspaper article by... 1177 78 INDEX Jackson, Wm. H.?report of, as work of reference 11report of, on ruins 10, 11slab inclosures described by 62Johnson Ruin, description of 18Keeley Towers, location of 45Kidder, A. V. See Morley and Kidder.Kiva of Unit-type House, architecturalfeatures of 51Ktvas?double-walled 39entrances to 42indicated by depressions 42indicative of social units 70structural features of 37Lion Tower?description of 55ground plan of 55Littrell Tower. See Lion Tower.Lost Canyon cliff-houses 40"Lower House," of Aztec Spring Ruin 25,27McElmo Bluff, ruins at 60McElmo district?distinctive feature of ruins of 15investigations in, of 1917 10McElmo Ruins, latest work on 14McLean Basin?ground plan of ruins of 56pottery found in 56ruins of, described 55towers of 56Mancos region, towers of 58Masonry?of Hill Canyon Ruins 42skill shown in construction 40varieties of 41Megalithic ruins 60Megaliths, circular structures of 60Mesa Verde?cliff-dwellings and villages of 9culture of inhabitants of 9Mesa Verde Ruins, comparative age of 72Metates?found at Surouaro 17with skeletal remains 67Mexican tribes and the Pueblos, rela-tion between 69Mitchell, H. L., notes contributed by 11Mitchell Spring Ruin, description of 19Mitchell Spring village, origin of thename 12Monoliths in walls 30Montezuma Valley, distinctive feature ofruins in 15Moorehead, Warren K., ruins describedby 12Morgan, L. H.?investigation of ruins by 10,11notes of, on ruins of Mesa Verde 11on Mitchell Spring Ruin 19on Mud Creek village 21Morley, S. G.?excavations conducted by 30work of 13Morley, S. G., and Kidder, A. V., ruins de-scribed by 14Mounds?near Mummy Lake 15of Mud Spring Ruin 21 PageMud Spring Ruin, description of 20Mummy Lake mounds 15Nelson, N. C, on Pueblo ruins 17Newberry, J. S., on Surouaro 17Nordenskiold, Baron G., work of 13Oak Spring House, description of 29Old Spanish Trail, route of 36,68Open-air ruins of Dove Creek 28Parker, Gordon, assistance of 40Pictographs?colored 65covered with plaster 65incised on stone 65near Ruin 5 49near slab inclosures 63Pierson Lake Ruin. See Squaw PointRuin.Pilasters lacking in towers 42Plastering, interiors covered with 41Pottery?culture areas determined by 69description of 66Prudden, T. Mitchell?articles by, on ruins of San Juan water-shed 12excavations conducted by 19on towers as part of composit e ruins 44Pueblo architecture?elements of complex 73of local origin 70Pueblo culture, direction of its migration. 72Pueblo tribes, origin of 69"Pure TYPE"defined 16Reservoir Group, named by J. Ward Em-erson 34Reservoirs, Indian?crossed by Old Bluff Road 45natural and artificial 64Road Canyon, formerly called the AVickyup . 57Rooms, with megalithic walls 15Ruin 3, description of 4SRuin 4, description of 49Ruin 5, description of 49Ruin 6, description of 49Ruin 7. See Eroded Bowlder House.Ruin 8. See Twin Towers.Ruin 9, description of 50Ruin 10. Sec Unit-type House.Ruin 11. See Stronghold House.Ruin Canyon?duplication of name misleading 45ruin in 30unit-type houses of 40Ruins?classification of 14evidences of age of 73Sand Canyon?cliff dwellings in 38scaffold in 38tower in 57Scaffold for lookout 38Semicircular ruins, description of 22Slab inclosures?described by Jackson 62described by Holmes 62Slab structures?box-like 60circular 60 INDEX 79Slab structures?Continued. Pagepottery found near 61theories concerning 61"Small-house" type of architecture 70Social organization, relation between arch-itecture and 75 "Spanish Trail." See Old Spanish Trail.Square Tower Canyon?classification of ruins in 46directions for reaching 45map of 45new name for Ruin C anyon 45Squaw Point Ruin, described 28Stone Arch House, location of 38Stronghold House, description of 52Sun Dial Palace, named by J. Ward Emer-son 34Sun Temple?discovery of 10evidence of age of 73possible use of 76unique ground plan of 42Surouaro?description of 16named by Newberry 12signification of name 17Towers?D-shaped 44date of construction undetermined 43entrance to 42entrance walled up 57forms of 43of Holly Canyon 52of McLean Basin 56of Mancos region 58of Sand Canyon 57of AVickyup Canyon 57possible use of 42 Towers?Continued. Pagestructural features of 40windows absent in 42Towers and great houses?form and construction of 15situation of 15"Triple-walled tower"?at Mud Spring Ruin 20condition of, in lssi 21visited by Holmes 11Twin Towers?description of 50ground plan of 50Unit type?defined 16,39described by Prudden 12origin of 72unlike small house of Little Colorado 70Unit-type House?description of 50ground plan of 51Unit-type houses?in cave 39in Hackberry Canyon 40"Upper House" of Aztec Spring Ruin .. 25,26,27Villages?defined 16essential features of 14, 16Weapons, iron 68Wickyup Canyon?description of 57towers in 57Wolley Ranch Ruin, description of 22Wood Canyon Ruins, description of 32Yellow Jacket Canyon?formerly known as Hovenweep 57investigations in 10towers of 54Zufri ceremonial rooms not true kivas . . 71o BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY iULLETIN 70 PLATE 1 a, BUTTE RUIN b, AZTEC SPRING RUIN '^^m -2*? iT.v*&& ?? "* c, SUROUARO, YELLOW JACKET SPRING RUIN(Photographs by Jacob Wirsula) BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY SULLETIN 70 PLATE 2 -*fc: a, BLANCHARD RUIN b, BLANCHARD RUIN, MOUND 2 A, - ?**&y c, SUROUARO, YELLOW JACKET SPRING RUIN(Photographs by Jacob Wirsula) BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 70 PLATE 3 a, ACMEN RUIN(Photograph by T. G. Lemmon) b, MUD SPRING RUIN(Photograph by Jacob Wirsula) ..s?^ If,K^P la-' BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY iULLETIN 70 PLATE 5 a, TOWER IN SAND CANYON b, UNIT-TYPE HOUSE IN SAND CANYON(Photographs by T. G. Lemmon.) BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 70 PLATE 6 4ffju W' te. ./ *:> a, STONE ARCH HOUSE, SAND CANYON b, CLIFF-HOUSE, SHOWING BROKEN CORNER(Photographs by Jacob Wirsula) BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 5ULLETIN 70 PLATE 7 a, SCAFFOLD IN SAND CANYON .2 ?4-) | BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 70 PLATE 14 a, HOVENWEEP HOUSE AND HOVENWEEP CASTLE, FROM THE SOUTH b, HOVENWEEP CASTLE, FROM THE WEST F_ * J&. Mm****** i ;?:? c, HOVENWEEP CASTLE, FROM THE SOUTH(Photographs by Jacob Wirsula) BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY iULLETIN 70 PLATE 15 a, WEST END OF TWIN TOWER, SHOWING SMALL CLIFF-HOUSE(Photograph by J. Walter Fewkes) *1 3u b, TWIN TOWERS, SQUARE TOWER CANYON, FROM THE(Photograph by Jacob Wirsula) c, TOWER 4. JUNCTION OF NORTH AND SOUTH FORKS, SQUARE TOWER CANYON(Photograph by Jacob Wirsula) BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY iULLETIN 70 PLATE 16 a, HOVENWEEP CASTLE, WITH SLEEPING UTE MOUNTAIN, SOUTH FORK, SQUARETOWER CANYON **1ESS?!\J**""V *?-.b, ENTRANCE TO SOUTH FORK, SQUARE TOWER CANYON(Photographs by Geo. L. Beam. Courtesy of the ]>enver & Rio Grande Railroad) SUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY ULLETIN 70 PLATE 17 STRONGHOLD HOUSE, SQUARE TOWER CANYON(Photograph by Geo. L. Beam. Courtesy of the Denver & Rio Grande Railroad) BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 70 PLATE 11 war- '. ..-V' ,'V. 'Av * ? . V.. * fe a, HEAD OF HOLLY CANYON *S*"^ !sB.b, SOUTH SIDE OF HOVENWEEP CASTLE, SQUARE TOWER CANYON(Thotographs by Geo. L. Beam. Courtesy of the Denver & Rio Grande Railroad) BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 70 PLATE 19 a, HOLLY CANYON GROUP, FROM THE EAST(Photograph by Jacob Wirsula) b, GREAT HOUSE AT HEAD OF HOLLY CANYON, FROM THE NORTH(Photograph by T. G. Lemmon) C, UNIT-TYPE RUIN, FROM THE EAST(Photograph by T. G. Lemmon) BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 70 PLATE 20 dAfef b, RUIN B AT HEAD OF HOLLY CANYON, FROM THE WEST c, GREAT HOUSE AT HEAD OF HOLLY CANYON(Photographs by Jacob Wirsula) BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 70 PLATE 21 a, GREAT HOUSE, HOLLY CANYON b, STRONGHOLD HOUSE AND TWIN TOWERS, SQUARE TOWER CANYON(Photographs by Geo. L. Beam. Courtesy of the Denver & llio Grande Railroad) BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 70 PLATE 22 a, HOVENWEEP CASTLE' b, SOUTHERN PART OF CANNONBALL RUIN, McELMO CANYON(Photographs by T. G. Lemmon) BUREAU OF AMERICAN BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 70 PLATE 24 a, HORSESHOE RUIN(Photograph by Jacob Wirsula) *? 1^&*m ** 5 wl> "/x.^'.aggfcy* ' * b, BOWLDER CASTLE, ROAD (WICKYUP) CANYON(Photograph by T. G. Lemmon) BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 70 PLATE 25 a, CLOSED DOORWAY IN BOWLDER CASTLE, ROAD (WICKYUP) CANYON(Photograph by J. Walter Fewkes) BROKEN-DOWN ROUND TOWER, SQUARE TOWER CANYON(Photograph by Jacob Wirsula) BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 70 PLATE. 26 a, NORTH SIDE OF TOWER, SQUARE TOWER CANYON(Photograph by Jacob Wirsula) b, D-SHAPED TOWER NEAR DAVIS RANCH, YELLOW JACKET CANYON(Photograph by Jacob Wirsula) c, MODEL OF TOWERS IN McLEAN BASIN(Photograph by De Lancey Gill) BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 70 PLATE 30 a, TOWER ABOVE CAVATE STOREHOUSES, MANCOS CANYON BELOW BRIDGE b, TOWER ON MESA BETWEEN ERODED CLIFFS AND BRIDGE OVER MANCOSCANYON ON CORTEZ SHIP-ROCK ROAD(Photographs by T. G. Lemmon) % "M BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 70 PLATE 32 y . ' - ??-..?.,,. a, RESERVOIR NEAR PICKET CORRAL, SHOWING RETAI NING .WALL ^Gfe^ -** V w^ b, KIVA, UNIT-TYPE HOUSE, SQUARE TOWER CANYON(Photographs by T. G. Lemmon} THSONIAN INSTITUTION LIBRARIES 3 9088 01422 0222? in 8P1 ;;- :':. '".?