Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 103 (2-3), May-Dec 2006 401-407
INDIA'S MARINE TURTLES: SENTES?ELS FROM ANTEDILUVIAN TO POST-MODERN TIMES
JACK FRAZIER'
'Conservation and Research Center, National Zoological Park, Smithsonian Institution, 1500 Remount Road,
Front Royal, Virginia, 2630
Email: kurma@shentel.net
Marine turtles predated as well as outlived the dinosaurs; and their interactions with humans date back millennia. Since
before the Christian era, marine turtle products were of great importance to international trade networks in the Indian
Ocean. People in various societies, all round the world, have not only exploited these ancient reptiles, but also venerated
and celebrated them in diverse forms. During recent times many populations of marine turtles have declined dramatically,
including several in the Indian subcontinent. Many different causes are recognized, including direct exploitation, incidental
capture in fisheries, pollution, and habitat destruction. As a result, marine turtles are recognized, nationally and
internationally, as requiring special attention for conservation. Their antediluvian roots, ancient and diverse history with
society, and endangered status give these animals special importance to humans. Numerous national and international
policies have been directly affected because of the concerns that people have for these reptiles. They have served as
classic 'flagship species' for centuries, and it is important that fiiture generations protect themselves and their environments
by making full use of the motivational attributes of marine turtles.
Key words: marine turtles, conservation, flagship species
Brief description of marine turtles
The oldest fossils of marine turtles are from the Middle
Cretaceous, estimated to be some 115 million years old (Zug
et al. 2001 ). Although today there are just seven living species,
these reptiles not only predated, but also outlived the
dinosaurs. Marine turtles are part of an ancient, yet successfril,
lineage. Their antiquity bestows upon them a distinctive
attractiveness to people of many walks of life.
Although there are species-specific differences, all
living marine turtles share several life cycle characteristics
(see reviews in Miller 1997; Frazier 2001 ). Reproductive females
must crawl out of the sea and lay their eggs in the sand, well
above the high tide mark - that is, they all nest in a terrestrial
environment. Yet, the vast majority of their lives is spent in
the sea, and most marine turtles disperse and migrate widely,
often crossing oceans. Information from satellite tracking
studies that has been accumulating over the past few years
(e.g., Plotkin 2003; ) shows that marine turtles of different
species and from different populations commonly make long-
distance movements. For example, several leatherback turtles
(Dermochelys cori?cea) fitted with satellite transmitters have
been found to traverse the Atlantic Ocean in periods of less
than a month, and studies from the Pacific show comparable
results (Ferraroli et al. 2004; Hays et al. 2004; Dutton in litt.;
Eckert, in litt.). Thus, these reptiles are often referred to as
'highly migratory. ' Added to the immense spatial scale that is
involved is an equally daunting time scale: marine turtles may
take more than a decade just to reach maturity, and it has
been estimated that some populations may need half a century
for individuals to become mature. After reaching adulthood,
marine turtles may continue breeding for decades, so it is
likely that some individuals live for more than a century. These
extraordinary life history characteristics make the animals even
more remarkable than they seem at first appearance.
Marine turtles and humans
But, marine turtles have not just existed in 'natural
isolation'; there has been an on-going relationship with
humans for millennia. Zooarchaeological studies show that
these reptiles have been utilized by coastal peoples in many
parts of the world, and evidence from southern Africa indicates
that humans exploited marine turtles as much as 50,000 years
before present (Plug 2004). Information from eastern Arabia
(see reviews in Frazier 2003 a, 2004) shows that several coastal
societies were exploiting marine turtles more than 7 millennia
ago, in some cases quite intensely.
These generalities must also hold for the Indian
subcontinent, but there is little zooarchaeological information
available in a systematic form. For example, Chandraratne
( 1997) summarised the reptile bones excavated from the Citadel
of Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka; he reported a total of five bones
of Lepidochelys from Phases II and III, dated at 800-250 BC.
Given the length of time that the Subcontinent has been
inhabited, and the abundance of marine turtles along various
sectors of the coast in recent times, one would expect
zooarchaeological remains from various localities, dating back
thousands of years.
In addition to direct use of marine turtles, humans in
diverse societies around the world, over many millennia, have
depicted these animals in countless forms and kinds of media.
There are also accounts about marine turtles in ancient historic
documents, in different languages: even cuneiform tablets
more than 5 thousand years old are thought to have accounts
INDIA'S MARINE TURTLES
about catching marine turtles (see reviews in Frazier 2003a,
2004). In societies all round the world, humans have fashioned
a wide variety of articles out of marine turtle parts, to the
point where one could consider these reptiles as the 'ultimate
tool kit' for pre-industrial societies (Frazier 2005). Evidence
from various sources shows indisputably that marine turtles
and humans have been interacting for millennia.
The Indian subcontinent is clearly endowed with
numerous cultural artefacts involving turtles. A terracotta
representation of a marine turtle is known from Harappa/
Mohenjodaro, dating to well before the Christian Era.
Moreover, there is abundant evidence of contact and trade
between the ancient Indus Valley civilizations and those from
Mesopotamia and the Gulf (Kohl 1979), and there are diverse
representations of marine turtles in the latter (see reviews in
Frazier 2003a, 2004). For contemporary times in the
Subcontinent it is well known that there are rich and varied
representations, in mythology and religious contexts, in
which turtles play central roles, being celebrated and
venerated. A Tamil poem describing a nesting turtle dates
from about the 4* century AD (Sanjeeva Raj 195 8), and surely
there must be many more ancient writings about these reptiles
in India. However, what is lacking are systematic studies of
prehistoric and ancient depictions that clearly show marine
turtles. Nonetheless, there is little doubt that human-turtle
interactions in the Subcontinent are both diverse and very
old.
There are indications that in certain situations -
particularly desert oceanic islands and arid coasts - some
human groups may have survived because of access to marine
turtles, which provided critical food resources. Moreover,
products made from marine turtles may have been fundamental
in the development of certain human institutions, particularly
trade. At least by the time of Christ a well-organized trading
network existed around the Indian Ocean, designed especially
to provide raw materials and slaves to the urban centres of
the Mediterranean, and possibly other areas such as the
Middle East and China. An unknown author, evidently an
Egyptian Greek, wrote in the middle of the first century AD
what is essentially a traders' handbook for the Indian Ocean,
particularly for luxury goods. Known to contemporary
scholars as the Periplus Maris Erythraei, this describes in
remarkable detail well-established, highly organized
commercial enterprises, involving a great diversity of activities
and commodities in trade (Mathew 1975; Casson 1989: 6,7,
15). One of the most important items for exporting to the
Mediterranean was tortoiseshell: it was traded in all the major
ports that were described in the Periplus, including those in
the Red Sea, the horn and east coast of Africa, and the
southern coast of Arabia, as well as India, Sri Lanka, and
Malaya or Sumatra (Casson 1989:17,101). In fact, 'Tortoise
shell' receives more mention in the Periplus than any other
object of trade'; 'the finest quality was brought to Muziris/
Nelkynda all the way from Malay to be made available to
Western merchants' (Casson 1989: 17, 101). Other details
highlight the importance of commerce in marine turtles, such
as explanations that at 'Menuthias Island', dugout canoes and
sewn boats were used for catching turtles (Casson 1989: 59).
It is not clear when the tortoiseshell trade began, but
wide-ranging commerce in the Indian Ocean had been in
existence for at least two millennia before the Periplus was
written (Casson 1989: 11): that is, more than four thousand
years ago. Scholarly studies of ancient historic information
on seafaring shows clearly that there were well developed
maritime activities between the great centres of ancient
civilizations by no later than the P' millennium BC; Arabic,
Indian, Jewish, Persian, Phonecian fleets and enterprises that
transported trade items are all well documented from this
region; and as early as the 3"^ millennium BC Egyptian vessels
were sailing extensively in the Red Sea (Hourani 1951 ). There
is ample evidence for well-established Arabic trading networks
in the region before the Christian era (Hourani 1951;
Whitehouse2001).
Accounts of Chinese trade as early as the T'ang Dynasty
(AD 618-907), and into the Sung Dynasty (12*-13* centuries)
also show the importance of tortoiseshell ?tai-me ') as a desired
commodity, sought by Chinese traders from as far away as
Africa (Duyvendak 1949:14,17,21; Wheatley 1959: 39,83;
Hirthand Rockhill 1966:3,4,16,19,21,77,85, 111, 128,129,
156, 158, 160, 238), with the "Berbera" coast (present-day
Somalia) noted as providing the thickest shell (Hirth and
Rockhill 1966:128). There is ample evidence that tortoiseshell
trade continued to be substantial into the Ming Dynasty (14*-
17* centuries), with repeated mention in state customs and
tax records (Chang 1991 ; Ptak 1991 ; Wade 2005).
An exhaustive review of diverse sources of historic
information on trade in the Indonesian archipelago showed
that tortoiseshell was one of the most valuable trade items,
and this was evident over a period of many centuries (Meilink-
Roelofsz 1962). Numerous historic accounts, from Arabic to
Chinese, describe trade activities in ?rivijaya, the celebrated
Buddhist kingdom that arose around the beginning of the
11* century and could be regarded as the predecessor of
Malacca or (Melaka), Malaysia. For example, a Chinese source
from the beginning of the 13* century indicates that the
'products brought by the Ta-che (the western Asians) or
'The term used in the Periplus was 'chelone' which commonly refers
product of the turtle (Casson pers. com.; Margaritoulis in litt., 13 June
to the animal, but in the context it is interpreted as referring to the
2002).
402 PROCEEDINGS OF THE JOURNAL CENTENARY SEMINAR
INDIA'S MARINE TURTLES
exported by ?rivijaya included not only turtles, camphor,
valuable kinds of wood, spices such as cloves and cardamom,
pearls, perfumes, ivory and coral, but also woollen and cotton
cloth' (Meilink-Roelofsz 1962: 14), clearly grouping turtles
and their products together with the other prized items of
trade and luxury products. The importance of tortoiseshell as
a valued trade commodity in this region, with connections
east to China and west to Europe, has been pointed out time
and again. The fast-expanding Portuguese trading network
established a base in Malacca in the early 16* century to
have greater access to - and profits Irom - major trade items;
by the second half of the 16* century regular trade between
Malacca and Macassar (now Ujung Pandang, Sulawasi,
formerly Celebes) had become well established. 'Tortoiseshell,
obtained from the turtles which occurred in great numbers off
the coast of Celebes, was brought from Macassar to Malacca
by the Javanese.' (Meilink-Roelofsz 1962: 163). Other
Europeans were also attracted to the tortoiseshell from the
region: 'Spaniards iromthe Philippines also traded on Borneo
and obtained there in exchange for cloth many small but
valuable goods such as diamonds, pearls, gold, bezoar stones,
camphor, and tortoiseshell.'(pg. 164). And, of course, Chinese
traders remained very active in the region, despite which
European nation was in power; for example, when the Dutch
began to take control of trade in Indonesia at the beginning
of the 17* century, there was regular and large scale trade at
Bantam, West Java, with China: ' [bjesides pepper, the Chinese
also exported sandal wood, fine species such as nutmeg and
cloves, tortoiseshell and elephant tusks from Bantam.'
(Meilink-Roelofsz 1962:246).
Similarly, other archipelagic territories have been
involved in wide-ranging trade for centuries, if not millennia.
In the case of the Maldives, the trade in cowries was well
established by the 9* century, and among the other
commodities that were shipped regularly to ports such as
those in Arabia, was tortoiseshell (Vogel 1991:235). Mainland
ports were also involved in the regular export of marine
products. For example, between the 14* and 18* centuries the
capital of the Thai court, Ayuttahaya, was of enormous
importance for trade in Asia. Among the items exported to
China, tortoiseshell was in high demand, not only for its
ornamental value, but also because of medicinal values - it
was believed to have properties of warding off evil (Breazeale
1999: 21). For the European trade, however, it was the
ornamental value that stimulated the high demand in
tortoiseshell. Items such as a silver-gilt tortoiseshell casket
are recorded among the possessions acquired by the likes of
the viceroy of Goa in the 1630s (Disney 1991: 442). There
were other types of use, such as shields made of tortoiseshell
reported in Tenasserim in the 16* century by Ludovicio de
Varthema (Hammond 1963:168; see also Chamey 2004:40),
but the demand for these items must have more localised and
been less significant.
The quantities and patterns of trade in the Indian Ocean,
especially during the late 1800s and 1900s, indicate centuries
of intense exploitation, particularly on nesting females and
eggs. Because some populations of these reptiles were
exploited at extraordinary levels, many populations have been
greatly depleted, and some have been exterminated -
economically if not biologically (Frazier 1974; King 1982; Ross
1982). Unfortunately, few data from the Indian subcontinent
are adequate to interpret trends. A19-year study at Hawksbay,
Karachi, Pakistan, indicates that there has been a decline in
the annual numbers of nesting Green Turtles (Chelonia
mydas) (Firdous 2001). Likewise, an evaluation of massed
nesting Olive Ridleys (Lepidochelys oliv?cea) in Orissa, India,
over the past 25 years indicates that annual numbers nesting
have declined in the wake of heavy mortality, first from intense
egg exploitation and more recently from massive fisheries
bycatch of reproductive animals (Shanker et al. 2003).
Added to the pressures of direct exploitation are other,
perhaps more insidious, factors that are tremendous threats
to marine turtles total. Increased fishing activities - in relation
to depleted fish stocks, expanded export markets, spiralling
investments and over-capitalization in the industry, and
'improved' technology - has resulted in ever greater incidental
captures of marine turtles (Lewison et al. 2004), with
subsequent increases in mortality during life history phases
that were previously not under such pressures. Massive
development activities on tropical coasts around the world
have destroyed prime nesting areas. Pollution, not only in
marine and coastal environments, but also in terrestrial areas
that subsequently drain into the sea, has had substantial
impacts, altering critical environments, food webs, and the
toxins to which the turtles are exposed (Lutcavage et al. 1997).
Given the intensity of human population growth and
development, especially in coastal areas, it is only to be
expected that there has been a general decline in marine turtles
throughout India and the rest of the region.
Marine turtles as a symbol for humanity
Marine turtles are categorised as endangered in national
laws and international agreements (see Frazier 2002), and this
confers upon them a special status for conservation reasons.
Yet, this status goes beyond the strictly legal considerations
of national and international laws and agreements: when
people appreciate that an animal is categorised as endangered,
they usually make some effort, no matter how slight, to avoid
harming it (Metrick and Weitzman 1996; Gunnthorsdottir
2001).
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc, 103 (2-3), May-Dec 2006 403
INDIA'S MARINE TURTLES
Despite the fact that humans have exploited, and
decimated, marine turtle populations, these reptiles continue
to exist and to enjoy a very special relationship with people.
This is not just the case with prehistoric, 'traditional' cultures,
for in 'post-modern' (viz. contemporary) societies these
animals play unique roles in education, research, and tourism.
As charismatic 'flagship species', they have been used
countless times to draw attention to complex issues, with
resulting alterations to policies that have promoted biological
conservation and environmental protection, not just for marine
turtles, but also for the vast habitats on which they depend
and thus the environment in the broader sense, with
tremendous relevance to society (Frazier, in press).
There is no clearer illustration of the relevance of marine
turtles to post-modem societies than a case involving as
powerful a body as the World Trade Organisation (WTO).
Dispute number 58, the 'shrimp-turtle' dispute, was brought
before the WTO in 1996 and resulted in a long, complex
process. In short, this involved the governments of India,
Malaysia, Pakistan, and Thailand contesting a US law that
prohibited the import of shrimp not caught in trawls using
turtle excluder devices (TEDs). In the end, after extended
debate, more than 130 countries that formed the WTO at the
time adopted, by consensus, the October 12, 1998 report by
the Appellate Body that included several fundamental
findings; three of these are of particular relevance.
Endangered species can be considered as 'exhaustible
resources' and as such a country may adopt unilateral trade
measures to promote their conservation. Importing countries
may distinguish products by the way that they were produced
(e.g., not all fisheries products have to be treated the same,
but those that have been caught by environmentally [or
socially] damaging means can be regulated differently -
namely banned). Dispute Settlement Panels of the WTO have
no reason to reject outright third party submissions (the effect
of this is to open up the process to more forms of participation)
(Frazier and Bache 2002; Bache and Frazier, in press). These
profound policy changes - which affect societies around the
planet - were brought about specifically because of a dispute
centred on marine turtle conservation.
In this same light, it is important to point out that there
are a number of international agreements that have been
created explicitly for the conservation of marine turtles and
their habitats. These include a legally binding treaty (Frazier
2000), three regional memoranda of understanding, a trilateral
accord, and a bilateral accord (Frazier 2002; Bache and Frazier,
in press). Considering that there are only seven living species
of marine turtle, it is remarkable that there are so many
international instruments focused specifically on them. Of
these, the most relevant to the Indian subcontinent is the
Memorandum of Understanding on the Conservation and
Management of Marine Turtles and Their Habitats of the
Indian Ocean and South-East Asia (lOSEA), which has been
in effect since September 1,2001 and now has 21 Signatory
States, with the Secretariat based in the UNDP offices in
Bangkok. Signatory States from Asia make up more than a
third of the present membership, including Bangladesh,
Cambodia, Indonesia, Myanmar, Pakistan, Philippines, Sri
Lanka, Thailand and Vietnam. The governments of India,
Maldives, and Malaysia participated in the negotiations
leading up to this instrument, but to date none of them has
signed the MoU; neither Brunei nor Singapore have
participated in any meetings so far.
At the other extreme of the political spectrum are villages
of coastal fishers, routinely marginalized from the political
and commercial mainstreams of society: even so, peoples'
lives in rural villages have been affected by marine turtles. In
some places, such as Orissa and the Gulf of Mannar, directed
exploitation had been carried out for generations, providing
sources of food for local consumption, as well as commodities
for trade and commerce. With declines in numbers of nesting
females, loss of nesting habitat, and subsequent concern for
the conservation of turtles that has developed during the last
few decades, direct exploitation of the animals and their eggs
is now prohibited by state and national laws. Moreover, in
India, as in most other countries, there are a number of national
laws that regulate coastal development, access and use of
marine and coastal areas, pollution, and otherwise protection
of the marine environment; and although these laws do not
specifically mention marine turtles, they do provide protection
for the habitats on which the animals depend (Upadhyay and
Upadhyay2002).
More specifically, various kinds of marine protected
areas (MPAs) have been created by state and federal
governments to provide beach sanctuaries for turtles to nest
and coastal marine sanctuaries for them to feed and rest.
While the principal motivation for creating a protected area
may have been the conservation of marine turtles, the effects
go far beyond these reptiles. Other species of plants and
animals, and even coastal processes, are safeguarded when
these sanctuaries are created. At the same time, the various
forms of regulation limit the sorts of activities in which coastal
peoples can engage without falling foul of the authorities, or
being castigated by other members of their societies. In
conservation parlance when the principal motivation for
restricting human activities is the conservation of marine
turtles, but various other environmental benefits are provided
for other species, these animals are said to be 'focal species'
(Miller et al. 1999; Zacharias and Roff 2001; Frazier, in
press).
404 PROCEEDINGS OF THE JOURNAL CENTENARY SEMINAR
INDIA'S MARINE TURTLES
With the diversity and gravity of environmental
problems confronting contemporary societies, and the
competing forces of expansion of commerce and
consumerism, promoted under the socially acceptable guise
of modernisation, economic growth (Czech 2000), and
sustainable development (Frazier 1997), there is an urgent
need to employ tangible and charismatic symbols to motivate
people toward more responsible behaviour in regard to their
interactions with the environment. In many countries, the
first exposure that students have to field projects and/or the
complexities of biological conservation is through a turtle
project (Frazier 2003b), and this is certainly true in India
(Shanker and Kutty, in press). For diverse societies around
the world, marine turtles have served to promote a greater
interest in biological conservation and environmental
protection: they are 'flagship species' for diverse sectors of
society and peoples of many different cultures and
nationalities (Frazier in press).
Given that marine turtles not only predated the
dinosaurs but also out-survived them, they represent
antiquity combined with a unique capacity of survival.
Ancient values stemming from diverse human-turtle
interactions, ranging from direct exploitation to veneration,
and dating back countless generations, are combined with
contemporary values that are founded on the non-material
aspects of humanity. Marine turtles have a variety of values
for contemporary societies - with or without the
homogenizing effects of globalisation. Hence, there are few
better sentinels available for post-modem societies that have
as many diverse cultural, ecological, emotional, social, and
spiritual values for so many peoples, from different sectors of
society, and from different nationalities.
To a large extent, the conservation movement is founded
upon, and directed by, field biologists, dedicated to increasing
the quality, profundity, and diversity of research. However,
we need to understand that biological conservation exists
and functions independent of the quality of information
available: what is absolutely essential is motivation, and
'flagship species' provide the key to motivation. Far beyond
the increase in scientific knowledge and technological
capacity, initiatives to enhance environmental protection and
wildlife conservation urgently need to find means to motivate
people from all walks of life to behave more responsibly.
Marine turtles provide this basic function, and serve as
sentinels for today's societies.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The US Fish and Wildlife Service covered international
transportation to the Centenary Seminar of the Bombay
Natural History Society, and the organizers of the meeting
provided hospitality and other kind support. The deepest
thanks go to the BNHS for serving steadfastly as a sentinel
for natural history studies and conservation for over a century.
Melania Y?nez Quezada made valuable comments on an earlier
draft of this paper.
REFERENCES
BACHE, S.J. & J. FRAZIER (In press): International Instruments and
Marine Turtle Conservation. In: Marine Turtles in India (Eds:
Choudhury B.C. & K. Shanker). Wildlife Institute of India and
Longman Orient; Hyderabad.
BREAZEALE, K. (1999): The maritime trade and the ministry responsible.
Pp. 1-54. In: From Japan to Arabia: Ayutthaya's Maritime
Relations with Asia (Ed: Breazeale K.). Toyota Thailand
Foundation and The Foundation for the Promotion of Social
Sciences and Humanities Textbooks Project; Bangkok.
CASSON.L. (1989): The Periplus Maris Erythraei. Princeton University
Press; Princeton, New Jersey, xvii + 320 pp.
CHANDRARATNE, R.M.M. (1997): Some reptile bones from the Gedige
excavation in 1985, the Citadel of Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka.
Lyriocehpalus 3(2): 7-15.
CHANG, S.T.S. ( 1991 ): Commodities imported to the Chang-chou Region
of Fukien during the Late Ming Period. Preliminary analysis of
the tax lists found in Tung-hsi-yang k'ao. Pp. 159-194. In:
Emporia, Commodities, and Entrepreneurs in Asian Maritime
Trade, C. 1400-1750 (Eds: Ptak R. & D. Rothermund). (Beitr?ge
zur S?dasien Forschung S?dasien-Institut, Universit?t Heidelberg,
141) Franz Steiner Verlag; Stuttgart.
CHARNEY, M.W. (2004): Southeast Asian Warfare, 1300-1900. Brill;
Boston, xix-319 pp.
CZECH, B. (2000): Economic growth as the limiting factor for wildlife
conservation. Wildlife Society Bulletin 28(1): 4-14.
DISNEY, A. ( 1991 ): The Viceroy as entrepreneur: The Count of Linhares
at Goa in the 1630's. Pp. 442-444. In: Emporia, Commodities,
and Entrepreneurs in Asian Maritime Trade, C. 1400-1750 (Eds:
Ptak R. & D. Rothermund). (Beitr?ge zur S?dasien Forschung
S?dasien-Institut, Universit?t Heidelberg, 141) Franz Steiner
Verlag; Stuttgart.
DuYVENDAK, J.J.L. (1949): China's Discovery of Africa. Lectures given
at the University of London on January 22 and 23, 1947. Arthur
Probsthain; London. 35 pp.
FERRAROLI, S., J.Y. GEORGES, P. GASPAR & Y. LE MAHO (2004): Endangered
species - Where leatherback turtles meet fisheries conservation
efforts should focus on hot spots frequented by these ancient
reptiles. Nature 429(6991): 521-522.
FiRDous, F. (2001): Some aspects of bioecological studies of green
turtle (Chelonia mydas) and olive ridley turtle (Lepidochelys
oliv?cea) from Karachi coast. Ph.D. thesis. Department of
Zoology, University of Karachi, xlvi + 452 pp. + 32 pis.
FRAZIER, J. (1974): Sea Turtles in Seychelles. Biological Conservation
6(1): 71-73.
FRAZIER, J. (1997): Sustainable Development: Modem Elixir or Sack
Dress? Environmental Conservation 24(2): 182-193.
FRAZIER, J. (2000): Building Support for Regional Sea Turtle
Conservation in Indian Ocean Region: Learning Irom The Inter-
American Convention for the Protection and Conservation of
Sea Turtles. Pp. 277-306. In: Sea Turties of the Indo-Pacific:
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc, 103 (2-3), May-Dec 2006 405
INDIA'S MARINE TURTLES
Research, Conservation and Management (Eds: Pilcher N. &
G Ismail). ASEAN Academic Press, London, UK.
FRAZIER, J. (2001): General natural history of marine turtles. In:
Proceedings of a Regional meeting Marine Turtle Conservation in
the Wider Caribbean Region - A Dialogue for Effective Regional
Management, 3-17 (Eds; Eckert K.L. & F.A. Abreu Grobois).
Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, 16-18 November 1999,
WIDECAST, lUCN Marine Turtle Specialist Group, WWF, and
UNEP-CER
FRAZIER, J. (ED.) (2002): International instruments and marine turtle
conservation. Journal of International Wildlife Law & Policy 5
(1/2): 1-207.
FRAZIER, J. (2003a); Prehistoric and Ancient Historic Interactions
Between Humans and Marine Turtles. Pp. 1-38. In: The Biology
of Sea Turtles Vol 2. (Eds: PL. Lutz, J.A. Musick, and J. Wyneken).
CRC Press; Boca Raton, Florida.
FRAZIER, J. (2003b); Why do we do this? Marine Turtle Newsletter 100:
9-15.
FRAZIER, J. (2004); Marine Turtle of the Past; A Vision for the Future?
Pp. 103-116. In: The Future from the Past: Archaeozoology in
Wildlife Conservation and Heritage Management. (Eds; Lauwerier
R.C.G M. & I. Plug). Proceedings of the 9'" Conference of the
Intemational Council for Archaeological Zoology, Durham, August
2002, Vol 3. Oxbow Books, Oxford, UK.
FRAZIER, J. (2005); Marine turtles; The ultimate tool kit. A Review of
worked bones in marine turtles. Muinasaja teadus (Estonia)
Proceedings of the 4"' Worked Bone Research Group Conference.
FRAZIER, J. (ED.) (in press); Marine Turtles as Flagship Species. Maritime
Studies (MAST) Special Issue, 3(2/3).
FRAZIER, J. & S.J. BACHE (2002): Sea turtle conservation and the big
stick - The effects of unilateral U.S. Embargos on intemational
fishing activities. Pp. 118-121./?; Proceedings of the 20"' Annual
Symposium on Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation. NOAA Tech.
Memo. NMFS-SEFSC-477 (Eds: Mosier, A., A. Foley & B. Brost).
GuNNTHORSDOTTiR, A. (2001): Physical attractiveness of an animal
species as a decision factor for its preservation. Anthrozo?s 14(4):
204-216.
HAMMOND, L.C. (1963): Travellers in Disguise. Narratives of Eastern
Travel by Poggio Bracciolini and Ludovico de Varthema. (English
translations by John Winter Jones). Department of Romance
Languages and Literatures of Harvard University, Harvard
University Press; Cambridge, Massachusetts, xxxii-239.
HAYS, GC, J.D.R. HOUGHTON & A.E. MYERS (2004); Pan-Atlantic
leatherback turtle movements. Nature 429: 522.
HiRTH, F & W.W. ROCKHILL (EDS. & TRANS.) (1966): Chau Ju-kua: His
work on the Chinese and Arab Trade in the twelfth and thirteenth
Centuries, entitled Chu-fan-ch?, / Oriental Press; Amsterdam (first
published St. Petersburgh, 1911). x + 288 + map + 2 + [35 Chinese
text].
HouRANi, GF. (1951): Arab Seafaring in the Indian Ocean in Ancient
and early Medieval times. Princeton University Press; Princeton,
New Jersey, ix + 131 pp.
KING, F.W. (1982): Historic review of the decline of the green turtle
andthehawksbiU. Pp. 183-188./?; The Biology and Conservation
of Sea Turtles. (Ed; Bjomdal K.A.). Smithsonian Institution Press,
Washington, D.C. (reprinted in 1995).
KOHL, PL. (1979): The 'World-Economy' of West Asia in the Third
Millennium BC. Pp. 55-85./?; South Asian Archaeology 1977.
Vol 1. (Ed: Taddei M.). Seminario di Studi Asiatici, Series Minor,
6 Naples.
LEWISON, R.L., S.A. FREEMAN & L.B. CROWDER (2004): Quantifying
the effects of fisheries on threatened species; The impact of
pelagic longlines on loggerhead and leatherback sea turtles. Ecology
Letters 7: 221-231.
LuTCAVAGE, M.E., P. PLOTKIN, B. WITHERINGTON & PL. LUTZ (1997):
Human impacts on sea turtle survival. Pp. 387-409. In: The
Biology of Sea Turtles (Eds: Lutz PL. & J.A. Musick). CRC Press;
Boca Raton, Florida.
MATHEW, G (1975): The dating and significance of the Per/pteo/?/je
Erythrean Sea. Pp. 147-163. In: East Africa and the Orient:
Cultural syntheses in Pre-colonial times (Eds; Chittick H.N. &
R.I. Rotberg). Africana; New York.
MEILINK-ROELOFSZ, M. A.P. (1962): Asian Trade and European Influence
in the Indonesian Archipelago between 1500 and about 1630.
Martinus Nijhoff; The Hague, x + 471 pp.
METRICK, A. & M.L. WEITZMAN (1996); Patterns of behavior in
endangered species preservation. Land Economics 72(1): 1-16.
MILLER, B., R. READING, J. STRITTHOLT, C. CARROL, R. NOSS, M. SOUL?,
O. S?NCHEZ, J. TERBORGH, D. BRIGHTSMITH,T. CHEESEMAN &
D. FOREMAN (1999): Using focal species in the design of nature
reserve networks. Wild Earth Winter 8(4): 81-92.
MILLER, J.D. (1997): Reproduction in sea turtles. Pp. 51-81. In: The
Biology of Sea Turtles (Eds: Lutz PL. & J.A. Musick). CRC Press;
Boca Raton, Florida.
PLOTKIN, P. (2003): Adult migrations and habitat use. Pp. 225-241. In:
The Biology of Sea Turtles Vol 2 (Eds; Lutz, PL., J.A. Musick &
J. Wyneken. CRC Press; Boca Raton, Florida.
PLUG, I. (2004): Resource exploitation: Animal use during the Middle
Stone Age at Sibudu Cave, KwaZulu-Natal. South African Journal
of Science 100: 151-158.
PTAK, R. (1991): China and the trade in tortoise-shell (Sung to Ming
Periods). Pp. 195-230. In: Emporia, Commodities, and
Entrepreneurs in Asian Maritime Trade, C. 1400-1750. (Eds:
Ptak R. & D. Rothermund). (Beitr?ge zur S?dasien Forschung
S?dasien-Institut, Universit?t Heidelberg, 141). Franz Steiner
Verlag; Stuttgart.
Ross, J.P. (1982); Historie decline of the loggerhead, ridley, and
leatherback sea turtles. Pp.189-195. In: The Biology and
Conservation of Sea Turtles (Ed; Bjorndal K.A.). Smithsonian
Institution Press, Washington, D.C. (reprinted in 1995).
SANJEEVA RAJ, P.J. (1958): Egg-laying Habits of Sea Turtles Described
in the Tamil Sangam Literature. Journal of the Bombay Natural
History Society 55(2): 361-363.
SHANKER, K., B. PANDAV & B. C. CHOUDHURY (2003): An assessment of
the olive ridley turtle (Lepidochelys oliv?cea) nesting population
in Orissa, India. Biological Conservation 115: 149-160.
SHANKER, K. & R. KUTTY (in press); Sailing the flagship fantastic:
Different approaches to sea turtle conservation in India. In:
Maritime Studies (Ed: Frazier J.). M^Sr (Special Issue) 3(2).
UPADHYAY, S. & V. UPADHYAY (2002): International and National
Instruments and Marine Turtle Conservation in India. Pp. 65-86.
In: Intemational instruments and marine turtle conservation (Ed;
Vrazier}.). Journal of International Wildlife Law & Policy. Special
Issue. 5(1/2).
VOGEL, H.U. (1991); Cowry trade and its role in the economy of
Yunnan, the Ninth to the Middle of the Seventeenth Century.
Pp. 232-262. In: Emporia, Commodities, and Entrepreneurs in
Asian Maritime Trade, C. 1400-1750. (Eds: Ptak R. & D.
Rothermund). (Beitr?ge zur S?dasien Forschung S?dasien-Institut,
Universit?t Heidelberg, 141) Franz Steiner Verlag; Stuttgart.
WADE, G (2005): Southeast Asia in the Ming Shi-lu: An open access
resource. Asia Research Institute and the Singapore E-Press,
National University of Singapore. [accessed 2 May 2005].
WHEATLEY, P. (1959): [i.e., 1961]. Geographical notes on some
commodities involved in Sung maritime trade. Journal of
the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 32(Pt. 2)(186):
1-140.
406 PROCEEDINGS OF THE JOURNAL CENTENARY SEMINAR
INDIA'S MARINE TURTLES
WHITEHOUSE, D. (2001): East Africa and the maritime trade of the Indian marine conservation and management; A review and critique.
Ocean, A.D. 800-1500. Pp. 411-424./?; Islam in East Africa; New Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 11:
Sources (Archives, Manuscripts and Written Historical Sources. 59-76.
Oral History. Archaeology). (Ed: Scarcia Amoretti B.). Universit? ZUG, G.R., L.J. VITT & J.P. CALDWELL (2001); Herpetology; An
degli Studi de Roma "La Sapienza", Herder; Rome. introductory biology of Amphibians and Reptiles. Academic Press;
ZACHARIAS, M.A. & J.C. RoFF (2001): Use of focal species in London, xiv + 630 pp.
Printed by Bro. Leo at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Mumbai 400 103 and published on July 27, 2007
by J.C. Daniel for Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, Dr. S?lim Ali Chowk,
Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India.