THE MENOMINI INDIANS
WALTER JAMES HOFFMAN, M. D.

'
CONTENTS
Page
Introduction H
History of the investigation 11
Habitat of the tribe 12
The tribal name 12
Discovery and early history 14
Treaties with the Federal Government 20
Present location 31
Population and characteristics 32
Antiquities 36
Tribal government, totems and chiefs 39
The lines of chieftaincy 39
< irigin of totems 39
The totems of the present 41
Totemic organization *2
Genealogy of chiefs **
Language employed iu cult rituals W
Cult societies "°
Mitii'wit, or Grand Medicine society 66
Organization of the society 66
Ceremonies of 1890 "9
Notes on the ceremonies .-- 104
Ceremonies of 1891 113
Notes on the ceremonies 116
Ceremonies of 1892 125
Notes on the ceremonies 127
Ceremonies of 1893 138
Supplementary note on the ceremonies 137
Tshi'saqka, or jugglers 138
The Wa'heno 151
The Dreamers 15
Mythology 1G1
Former condition of the myths 161
The travels of Ma/nabush 162
The origin of maple sugar and of menstruation 173
Mii nabflsh and the Bear ana/maqki'Q 175
How the young Hunter caught the Sun 181
The Hunter and the Elk people, and how the Moose were defeated 182
The young mau and the Bears 196
The Rabbit and the Saw-whet 200
Manabush and the Birds 203
Kaku'ene, the Jumper, and the origin of tobacco 205
The search for Ma'nabiisk 206
Folk tales -° 9
The Moon 209
The Aurora borealis 210
5
6 CONTENTS [ETH.ANN. 14
Folk tales—Continued. Page
Meteors 210
The Porcupine 210
The Kaecoon 211
The Kaecoon and the blind men 211
Shika'ko, the Skunk 213
The Catfish 214
The first meeting of the Menomiui and the whites 211
How the Hunter destroyed the Snow 216
The Bear and the Eagle 217
Miqkii'no, the Turtle 218
The Rabbit and the Panther 221
The Beaver Hunter and his sister 222
Na"hi Naioq'tii, the Ball Carrier 223
( Irigiu of the word Chicago 238
Mortuary customs 239
Games and dances 241
The aVka'qsiwok game 241
Moccasin or bullet game : 242
Lacrosse -'41
Ball game 244
The snow-snake 244
Races 245
Tobacco and Shawano dances 247
Pipes and tobacco 247
Architecture 253
Dwellings and lodges 253
Other structures 255
Furniture and implements 256
Beds 256
Stoves 256
Utensils 256
Mortars and pestles 257
Troughs 257
Cradles and hammocks 208
Products of manufacture 258
Ma ts 258
Baskets 259
Twine ami rope 260
Canning 261
Medicine-bags 261
Snowshoes 263
I tress, ornaments, beadwork and drilling 264
Hunting and fishing 272
Came of the Menomiui region 272
Fish and fisheries 273
Traps 273
Bows and arrows 274
Arrow-making 275
Release 280
Penetration 280
Bows aud bowstrings 280
Quivers 281
Modern stone arrowpoints 281
Poisoned arrows 284
HOFFMAN] CONTENTS 7
Page
Food 286
Food in general 286
Gormandism 287
Offensive food 287
Maple sugar 287
Wild rice 290
Berries and suakeroot 291
Canoes 292
Vocabulary 294
Introductory 294
Menomini-English 295
English-Meuoniini 315

ILLUSTRATIONS
Page
Plate I. Part of Wisconsin showing location of Meuomini reservation 33
II. Group of mounds near Keshena 37
III. Certificate of Tshekatshake'mau 46
IV. Portrait of A'kwine'mi Osh'kosh 4s
V. Building of medicine lodge 71
VI. Interior of ceremonial structure of 1890 73
VII. Shaman's trick with snake hag 96
VIII. Candidate after being shot 101
IX. Candidate receiving medicine bag 102
X. Splitting bark 113
XI. Sudatory with blanket removed from front 117
XII. Mitii'wiko mik of 1892 125
XIII. Ball players 129
XIV. Game of bowl 241
XV. Indians playing moccasin or bullet game 243
XVI. Log house of native construction 253
XVII. Wigwam covered with mats 255
XVIII. Winter habitation of bark 257
XIX. Infant on cradleboard 259
XX. Mat making 261
XXI. Rush mat 262
XXII. Bark mat 264
XXIII. Section of bark mat 266
XXIV. Tanning 269
XXV. Beaded garters showing art figures 270
XXVI. Beaded garters showing art figures 272
XXVII. Beaded garters showing art figures 274
XXVIII. Beaded necklaces 277
XXIX. Dancer's beaded medicine bag 278
XXX. Trap for small game 281
XXXI. Varieties of arrowheads 283
XXXII. Birchbark sap buckets and yoke 285
XXXIII. Camp of sugar makers 287
XXXIV. Camp of berry pickers 289
XXXV. Wooden canoe or dugout 291
XXXVI. Cutting timbers for bark canoe 293
XXXVII. Setting up bark canoe 295
Fig. 1. Copper spearpoint 37
2. Portrait of Nio'pet 49
3. Portrait of Ni'aqtawa'pomi 50
4. Portrait of Shu'nien 59
5. Ceremonial structure of 1890 71
6. Ceremonial baton 73
7. Grave post 74
9
1
10 ILLUSTRATIONS [eth.ann.14
Page
FIG. 8. Graves where least was held 75
9. Diagram of medicine lodge of 1890 75
10. Medicine drum and stick 77
11. Gourd rattle 78
12. Presents suspended from pole 80
13. Otter-skin medicine bag 83
14. Inside construction of snake-bag 97
15. Dance of wooden effigies 98
l(i. Kinie'an's trick with claw and mirror 100
17. Konli'pamik or emblem of the society 101
is. Diagram showing movement of nutS'wok 103
18a. Mnemonic songs 106
19. Hall stick 128
20. Tshi'saqkau or jugglery 147
21. .higgler's rattle 148
22. Thimble charm containing love powder 155
23. Dancing place of the Dreamers 158
24. Diagram of the Dreamers' dancing place 159
25. Place of the drum ll>0
26. Ancient form of protecting graves 239
27. Modern grave-box 240
28. Graves of Osh'kosh and his wife 240
29. Wooden bowl for gambling 241
30. Tambourine drum 243
31. Holding snow-snake preparatory to throwing 245
32. Tecumtha's pipo 248
33. Inlaid stone pipe 249
34. Bark domicile for summer use 25
35. Bedstead of saplings 256
36. Wooden mortar and pestle 257
37. Elm log for making splints 260
38. Mallet - 260
39. Knife of native workmanship 260
40. Coil of basket strips 261
41. Finished basket 261
42. Snowshoe for men—Menomini type 264
43. Ojibwa and Menomini children's snowshoe 265
44. Snowshoe for women—Ojibwa type 265
45. Frame holding unfinished beadwork 269
16. Design of first variety of working in beads 270
47. Design of second variety of working in beads 271
4.S. Third form of working iu beads 272
49. Groundplan of trap for small game 273
50. Apache iron point 277
51. Arrowshaft showing mode of feathering 277
52. Ute stone knife 282
53. Ute stone knife 283
54. Apache stone point 284
55. Birchbark vessel for maple sap 289
THE MENOMINI INDIANS
By Walter James Huffman, M. D.
INTRODUCTION
HISTORY OF THE INVESTIGATION
The circumstances under which the materials for the accompanying
memoir were procured are as follows:
Having succeeded, iu the years 1887-1890, in obtaining from the
Ojibwa Indians of northern Minnesota instruction in the ritual and
ceremonials of initiation into the Mide'wiwin or "Grand Medicine Soci-
ety" of that tribe, together with copies of hitherto unknown mnemonic
charts and songs, on birch bark, relating to their genesis and cosmog-
ony, the results were published in the Seventh Annual Report of the
Bureau of Ethnology.
In consequence of this exposition of what was to them a secret of
vital importance, the attention of some Meuoiniui shamans, who visited
Washington during the first three months of 1890, was gained, and,
after protracted conferences, the proposition was made by the chief,
Nio'pet, that a visit to their reservation, at Keshena, Wisconsin, be
made; that, after proper instruction by some shamans to be appointed,
due initiation into their society, termed the Mitii'wit, would be con-
ferred, iu order that their version of the traditions and dramatized
forms of initiation could be studied and preserved "for the information
of future generations of the Menomini," these arrangements being made
iu anticipation of the consent of the chiefs of the society.
The first visit was therefore made to Keshena in 1890, followed by
four subsequent visits, to attend to the necessary instruction and cere-
monials of the society. It was during these visits that other new and
interesting facts were obtained—material relating to their mythology,
social organization and government, customs, industries, and gentile
system and division into gentes and phratries, together with linguistic
data germane to the subject in general.
These facts were believed to be entirely new to ethnology, as the
Menomini had not hitherto received careful attention by students, the
li
) ;
12 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ann. 14
fugitive papers relating to this tribe being exceedingly brief, and often
difficult of access to the general reader.
HABITAT OF THE TRIBE
The Menomini Indians are located on a reservation in the north-
eastern part of Wisconsin, and occupy almost the same territory in
which they were found by Nicollet in 1634. Their history is intimately
connected with that of the Winnebago, as they have lived with or beside
that tribe from very early times, although their language shows them
to belong to the Algonquian stock, and more nearly related to the
Ojibwa than to any other.
THE TRIBAL, NAME
The word Menomini is from Omii'nomine'fr (mano'me, rice, and
iuii'neuT or ina'ni, man). Shea1 says the "name is the Algonquin term
for the grain Zizania aquatica—in English, Wild Rice. The French
called both the grain and tribe Fol Avoiu—Wild Oats."
The tribe has been designated in literature under a variety of syn-
onyms, of which the following are a list, together with the authorities
therefor, and such additional notes of the respective authors as may be
deemed of interest. Some of the changes in orthography are due to
misprints, but still have a certain value in identification. The people
of the tribe designate themselves "Menomini," or "Meuomoni" giving
preference to the latter, in which the sound of o is heard, although
the letter i of the former term is more in harmony with the etymology
of the word.
Synonymy
Addle-Meads.—Jeffreys, Natural anil Civil History of the French Dominions in North
and South America, pt. 1, London, 1761, p. is.
Fahavoins.—(Johnson, London Doc. xxxvi, 1763) Docs. Col. Hist. New York, vol. vii,
Albany, 1856, p. 583. (Probably that portion of the tribe living near Green bay
enumerates 110 as belonging to Ottawa confederacy.
Falsovoins.—(Harrison, 1814) Drake, Life of Tecumseh, and of his Brother, the
Prophet, etc, Cincinnati, 1852, p. 162.
FcUes aroins.—(State of British Plantations in America, in 1721) Docs. Col. Hist.
New York, vol. v, Albany, 1855, p. 622.
Folle Avoine.—Relations des Jesuites (1671), tome iii, Quebec, 1858, p. 25.
Folle Avoines.—(Mem. of 1718) Docs. Col. Hist. New York, vol. ix, Albany, 1855, p. 889.
Follcs, Les.—Featherstonhaugh, A Canoe Voyage up the Minuay Sotor, etc, vol. i,
London, 1847, p. 174.
FoUesavoine.—(Vaudreuil, 1720) Margry, D^couvertes, tome vi, Paris, 1866, p. 511.
FoUes Avoines.—(Cadillac, 1695) Margry, D<;couvertes, tome v, Paris, 1883, p. 121.
Foh,Le8.—(Baden, 1830) Ann. delaProp.de la Foi . . . , tome iv, Lyons, 1853, p. 537.
Fids Avoin.—Pike, An Account of Expeditions to the Sources of the Mississippi, etc,
Philadelphia, 1810, p. 13.
Fols Avoines.—Brown, Western Gazetteer, Auburn, 1817, p. 265.
FohavoinB.—(Johnson, 1763) Docs. Col. Hist. New York, vol. vii. Albany. 1856. p. 583.
1 Coll. Hist. Soc. Wisconsin, vol. iii, for 1S5G. Madison, 1857, p. 134.
hoffman] MENOMINI SYNONYMY 13
Foh-aioise.— (Scherinerhom, 1812) Col. Massachusetts Soc, vol. li, 2d ser., Boston,
1814, p. 10.
Fulawhi.—(Dalton, 1783) Col. Massachusetts Hist. Soc, vol. x, 1st ser., Boston, 1809,
p. 123.
MacomiU.—(La Chesnaye) Margry, Decouvertes, tome vi, Paris, 1886, p. 6.
Mahnomonie.—James in Tanner's Narrative of the Captivity and Adventures, etc,
New York, 1830, p. 326.
Malhomines.—Charlevoix (1721), vol. ii, London, 1761, p. 61.
Malhoming.—Bacqueville de la Potherie, Histoire de l'Amerique Septentriouale, tome
ii, Paris, 1753, p. 90.
Malhominis.—Ibid.., p. 70.
Malhomins,—La Potherie, op. oit., tome i, p. 206.
Malhominy.—(Cadillac, 1695) Margry, Decouvertes, tome v, Paris, 1883, p. 121;
La Potherie, op. cit., tome ii, p. 49.
Malhommes.—Jeffreys' Natural and Civil History, op. cit., p. 48.
Malhommis.—(Perrot, 1720) Me'inoire sur les Mu'urs, coustumes et relligiou des Sau-
vages de l'Amexique Septentriouale, Leipzig and Paris, 1864, p. 127.
Malomenis.—(Frontenac, 16N2) Docs. Col. Hist. New York, Albany, 1855, p. 182.
Malomimis.—La Hontan, New Voyages to North America, vol. i, London, 1703, p. 231.
Mulomtnes.—Garcilaso, La Florida del Inca, etc, Madrid, 1723, vol. ii, p. 290.
(Quotes—erroneously—from La Hontan.)
Malomine&e.—Blue Jacket (1807) in Drake, Life of Tecnrnseh, etc, op. cit., p. 94.
Malominis.—La Hontan, op. cit., p. 104.
Malouin.—Sagard (1615), Histoire du Canada, etc, tome ii, Paris, 1866, p. 124.
Mdlouminek.—Relations des Jesuites (1658), op. cit., p. 21.
Maloumines.—Warren (1852), Col. Minnesota Hist. Soc, vol. v, St. Paul, 1855, p. :\',\.
(So designated by the French.)
Manomanee.—Kane, Wanderings of an Artist, etc, London, 1859, p. 29.
Manomines.—Henry, Travels and Adventures in Canada and the Indian Territories,
etc, New York, 1809, p. 107.
Maroumine.—Relations des Jesuites (1640), tome i, Quebec, 1858, p. 35.
Mathomenis.—La Potherie, op. cit., tome ii, 1753, p. 70.
Mathominis.—Ibid., p. 81.
Melhominys.—(Croghorn, 1759) Proud, History of Pennsylvania, in North America,
etc, vol. ii, Philadelphia, 1797-98, p. 296.
Melominees.—Perkins and Peck, Ann. of the West, St. Louis, 1850, p. 713.
Memonomier.—Vater, Mithridates oder allgemeine Sprachenkuude, pt. iii, sec. 3,
Berlin, 1806-17, p. 406.
Mennominies.— (Goldthwait, 1766) Col. Massachusetts Hist. Soc, 1st ser., vol. x,
Boston, 1809, p. 121.
Menomenes.—(Pike, 1806) Schoolcraft, Inf. Respecting Ind. Tribes, vol. iii, Philadel-
phia, 1853, p. 262.
Menomenies.—Brown, Western Gazetteer, Auburn. 1817, p. 265.
Menominees.—(Treaty of 1825) U. S. Ind. Treaties, Washington, D. C, 1837, p. 376.
Menominie—(Treaty of 1826) U. S. Ind. Treaties, Washington, D. C, 1837, p. 155.
Menominny.—Featherstonhaugh, A Canoe Voyage, etc, op. cit., vol. ii, p. 25.
Menomoee.—Gale, Map of the Upper Mississippi, 1867.
Menomonees.—(Edwards, 1788) Col. Massachusetts Hist. Soc, 2d ser.. vol. x, Boston,
1823, p. 86.
Menomonei.—McKenney, Rep. Coinm. Ind. Aff., Washington, D. C, 1825, p. 90.
Menomonee.— Long's Narrative of an Expedition to Source of St. Peter's River, vol. ii,
London, 1825, p. 171.
Menomonies.—Boudinot, Star in the West, Trenton, 1816, p. 100.
Menomonys.—Lapham, Indians of Wisconsin, map. 1870.
Menonomees.—(La Pointe Treaty, 1842) Col. Minnesota Hist. Soc, vol. v, St. Paul,
1855, p. 494.
14 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ann.h
Mimonomiea.—Howe, Historical Collections of Virginia, Charleston, 1*52, p. 436.
Meynomiuys.—(Johnson, London Doc. xxxvi, 176",) I >oc. Col. Hist. New York, vol, vii,
Albany, 1856, p. 583. (Mentions 110 as belonging to the Ottawa confederacy.)
Heynomineija.—(Johnson, 1764) Ibid., p. 648.
Hineamies.—(James Madison, MS., 1778) Schoolcraft, Inf. respecting Ind. Tribes, vol,
iii, Philadelphia, 1853, p. 560.
Miniamis.—Keane, in Stanford's Compendium, Loudon. 1878, p. 522.
Minominees.—Jones, History of the Ojihway Indians, London, 1861, p. 39.
Minomonees.—(Edwards, 1788) Coll. Massachusetts Hist. Soe., 1st ser., vol. ix, Boston,
1804, p. 92.
Minonimies.—(Warren, 1852) Coll. Minnesota Hist. Soc, vol. v, St. Paul, 1885, p. 33.
Minoniones.—Boudinot, Star in the West, Treuton, 1816, p. 107.
Minoomenee.—Jones, History of the Ojihway Indians, Loudon, 1861, p. 178.
Monomins.—Henry, Travels and Adventures in Canada, etc, New York, 1809, p. 107.
Monomonees.—Schoolcraft, Inf. respecting Ind. Tribes, vol. v, Philadelphia. 1855,
p. 145.
Monomony.—Long, Yoyages and Travels of an Indian Interpreter, London, 1791, map.
Monomunies.—(Liudesay, 1749) Doe, Col. Hist. New York, vol. vi, Albany, 1855, p. 538.
Moon-calres.—Jeffreys, Natural and Civil History, op. cit., p. 48.
Mynotnamies.— Imlay, A Topograph. Descrip. of the Western Territory of North
America, London, 1797, p. 292.
Mynomanies.—(Hutchins, 1778) Schoolcraft, Inf. Respecting Ind. Tribes, vol.vi, Phila-
delphia. 1857, p. 714.
Omanominen.—Father Zephyriu. Prayer Book iu Menomoni, St. Louis, 1882.
Omanomini.—Kelton, Annals of Fort Mackinac. Chicago, 1882, p. 149. (So called by
the O.jibwa.)
O-mun-o-min-eeg.—(Warren, 1852) Coll. Minnesota Hist. Soc,vol. v, St. Paul, 1885, p. 33.
Oumaloininis.—(Prise de Possession, 1671) Margry, Dc5couvertes, tome i, Paris, 1875,
p. 97.
Oumaloiimvnek.—Relations des Jesuites (1670), iii, Quebec, 1858, p. 94.
Oumaloumines.—Relations des Jesuites (1671), iii, Quebec, 1858, p. 25.
Oumalouminetz.—Relations des Je'suites (1670), iii, Quebec, 1858, p. 100.
Oumaominiecs.—(Du Chesneau, 1681) Doc. Col. Hist. New York. vol. ix, Albany, 1855,
p. 161.
Onnahuiins.—( Prise de Possession, 1671) Doc. Col. Hist. New York, op. cit., p. 803.
Walhominies.—McKenney and Hall, History of the Indian Tribes of North America,
etc, vol. iii, Philadelphia, 1854, p. 79.
White Indians.—Long, Narrative of an Expedition to the Source of St. Peter's River,
etc, vol. ii, Philadelphia, 1824. p. 175.
Wild OaU (Nation of the).—Of various authors.
Wild Iiice.—CDoc. of 1701) Doc. Col. Hist. New York, vol. ix. Albany, 1855, p. 722.
Jfild L'ice Eaters.—Lapham, A Fapei on the number ... of the Indians of
Wisconsin, Milwaukee, 1870, p. 3.
DISCOVERY AND EARLY HISTORY
Although the Jesuits had early penetrated the country west of Lake
Michigan, and although La Salle had, in 1G82, taken formal possession
of the valley of the Mississippi iu the name of Louis the Great, King of
France and Navarre, it was not until 1G09 that Lemoine d'lberville
planted the germ whence sprang the colony of Louisiana. 1 Thencefor-
ward various posts were established at remote points, to facilitate
intercourse between the outlying missions and settlements and to guard
1 Parkman, Conspiracy of Pontiae, vol. i, Bostou, 1886, p. 61.
hoffman] NICOLLET WITH THE MENOMINI 15
against invasion along tbe several waterways. Detroit guarded the
approach from Lake Erie; Michilimackinac protected the entrance to
Lake Michigan ; while the forts at St. Joseph and at the head of Green
bay (called La bay) commanded the routes between the lakes and the
Mississippi.
Sieur Jean Nicollet arrived on the "Baie des Puants," or Green bay, 1
about the year 1634, although the account of his voyage thither was
not recorded by Pere Barthelemy Vimont until 1643.
Nicollet's arrival in the land of the Menomini was heralded by some
young Winnebago Indians, who had been sent ahead; so that when he
lauded "this marvelous man" must necessarily have made a profound
impression, appearing as he did in a robe of Obina damask profusely
decked with flowers and birds of various colors, and " carrying thunder
in his hands." Tins gaudy display, together with tbe firing of pistols,
caused the terror-stricken women and children to flee. Between 4,000
and 5,000 people partook of the feasts, at one of which, it is recorded,
120 beavers were consumed.2
In the notice of tbe discovery of the Menomini by Nicollet, no accu-
rate information is given as to their geographic position. Pere Gabriel
Dreuillettes, who enumerated tbe several tribes located on Green bay,
says that the first ''nation," or tbe nearest to the village or town of St.
Michel, was called in Algouquian, Oupouteouatimik (Potawatomi), and
comprised about 700 men or 3,000 souls, including 100 men of the
"Nation of the Petun," or Tobacco nation. Tbe second nation was
that of tbe Noukek, tbe Ouinipegouek (Winnebago), and the Malou-
minek (Menomini). These people, located a short distance only from
the Potawatomi, gathered a certain reed which grew naturally on their
prairies and which was deemed equal to Indian corn. There were
also 200 Algonkiu, who formerly resided on the rivers and along the
northern coast of Lake Huron, but who had here sought refuge. 3
The enumeration of tribes by Pere Dreuillettes continues, placing
the Maskotin out on tbe prairie, distant three days' journey by water;
and various southward tribes are enumerated, with extravagant popu-
lation—for instance, the Aliniouek (Illinois), living in 60 villages, were
said to number 20,000 meu, or in tbe vicinity of 100,000 souls.
Tbe Noukek of this record were no doubt identical with the Nouquet,
or Noquette, who lived on the northern extremity of Green bay on what
today is designated the Bay of Noquet. Under this name, also, were
tbe Menomini referred to in some old accounts; but no tribe at present
1 From the French designation, "la grande baie."
'
. . . On depeacha plusienrs ieunes gens pour aller an deuant da Manitouirinion, c'est a dire de
I'lionime merueilleux ; on y vient, on le conduit, on porte tout son bagage. II estoit reuestu d'vne
grande robe de damas de la Chine, toute parsemee deneurs at d'oyseaux de diueraes eouleurs. Si tost
qu'onl'apperceut, toutes les femmes et les enfans s'enfui'rent, voyant vn homine porter le tonnerreen
sea deux mains (c'est ainsi quits nommieut deux pistolets qu'il tenoit). La nouuelle de sa venue
a'eapandit incontinent aux lieux circonuoisins: ilaefit vneassembleedequatreou cinq niilh- hornmes;
chacun des principaux fit son festin, on Vvn desquela on seruit au nioius six-vingts Castors.— Rela-
tions des Jeauitea, 1643, pp. 3, 4.
3 Relation dea Jesuites, 1658, p. 21.
16 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ann.u
existing preserves this designation, the. absorption of the group into
some other body being probably the cause of the disappearance of the
name.
The Fox Indians occupied the valley of Fox river in 1714, when a
French expedition under de Louvigny invaded their territory, without
result; but their final expulsion from that country occurred in 1746,
when their allies, the Sauk tribe, with whom they appear to have had
a common origin, were also forced to leave.
The Menomiui finally appear to have concentrated about the head
of Oreen bay and along Menomiui and Fox rivers, but nothing of
interest concerning them is found for some years, though they and
other tribes appear to have distinguished themselves at intervals in
war expeditions. The Menomiui, together with the Ottawa, Winne-
bago, Potawatomi, and other northwestern tribes, rendered conspic-
uous service in the defeat of Braddock, in 1755, at Fort du Qnesue,
where they were led and commanded by Sieur Charles de Langlade.
They also participated in the battle before Quebec on the Plains of
Abraham. Glode (son of Old Carrou), Osauwishkeno (the Yellow Bird),
Kachakawasheka (the Notch-maker), and the elder Canon, were pres-
ent at the fall of Montcalm. 1
On June 7, 1726, peace was effected between M. de Ligney and the
chief of the Fox, Sauk, and Winnebago tribes ("Pauus a la Baie*');
and to make this peace "certain and stable" it was thought proper to
grant to the chief of the first-named tribe his request that a French
officer be stationed in that country, to aid him in " restraining his
young men from bad thoughts and actions." 2 In consequence of this
amicable arrangement a detachment of French troops was sent to gar-
rison La Bay (afterward called Fort Edward Augustus), which post
was thenceforward occupied by the French until 1761. This, like many
other posts throughout the French possessions, was not strictly of a
military character, from the fact that numbers of French settlers had
congregated near there for protection; not on account of agricultural
pursuits—for such were greatly neglected—but chiefly to establish and
maintain traffic with the natives, furs being the chief product desired.
These settlers were generally under the government of the comman-
dant. The relations between these French settlers and the natives were
undoubtedly of an amiable character, as the general attitude and con-
duct of the French were rather of a conciliatory nature, whereby their
representatives gained unusual confidence and good will among the
natives—an attachment which was furthermore strengthened through
the frequent selection by the French of Menomiui wives.
After the British and colonial forces had attained the conquest of
Canada and the Marquis de Vaudreml, the governor-general, had sur-
'Coll. Hist. Soc. of Wisconsin for 1856, vol lii, 1657, pp. 212-214.
2 From translation of II. de Ligney s memoir of June 7, 1726, m Coll. Hist. Soc. of Wisconsin fur
1854, vol. i, 1855, p. 21.
boffman] FRENCH AND INDIAN "WAR 17
rendered, the victors began to take possession of the western posts.
Thus, in 1701, Green bay was governed by a small force of 17 men of
the Sixtieth (or Royal American) regiment, in command of Lieutenant
Gorrell. This party arrived at Green bay on.October 12, at a time of
the year when it was customary for the Indians to be off on their
annual hunting expedition; so that there was but one family remain-
ing at the post. 1 Lieutenant Gorrell states that he had found in his
orders very little regarding the Indians, so that when leaving he
applied to Captain Donald Campbell, at Detroit, for further instruc-
tions; the latter referred him to Sir William Johnson, then present,
who told him orally that unless he did his best to please the Indians
he had better not go there.
On account of the absence of the Indians, no council was held with
the tribes until May 23, 1702; at this time the chiefs of the Menomini
and Winnebago were present and received strings of wampum in return
for prisoners. According to Condi's journal, the number of Indian
warriors dependent on the post was 311,100. The number of Menomini
warriors specified is only 150, which would indicate a total population
of about 800.
After the peace of 1703, when the French troops were withdrawn and
their places tilled by the English, discontent among the Indians became
apparent, and gradually became more and more hostile and in time
developed into a conspiracy for the extermination of the English
throughout the entire western frontier. This hostility was due to a
variety of circumstances. The French had been the fast friends of the
Indians, had been judicious and lavish in the distribution of gifts, and
had liberally supplied all who desired arms, ammunition, and clothing,
until the tribesmen had almost forgotten their aboriginal modes of
living and had become dependent on the garrisons and trading establish-
ments; but with the advent of the English all this was changed, and
the penuriousness with which these now necessary articles were dealt
out—when they were not entirely withheld—caused great distress
and consequent dissatisfaction. 3 Another source of trouble was the
immigration of settlers and the occupancy of Indian lands by white men,
while suspicion and anger were engendered by false reports carried
from place to place by the " couriers de bois" or bushrangers—degraded
itinerants who traversed the forest in search of furs and peltries
which they carried to the trading posts, reaping profits which they felt
would become greatly reduced should the traders themselves penetrate
the wilds. The Indians, becoming alarmed at the rumored advent of
the traders, who were said to be exacting aud of murderous disposi-
tion, made preparations to defend themselves, and finally concluded to
take the initiative and, if possible, prevent intrusion by a people who
1 Gorrell's Journal, Coll. Hist. Soo. of Wisconsin for 1854, vol. i, 1855, p. 25 et. seq.
2 Parkman, Conspiracy of Pontiac, Boston, vol. i, 1886, pp. 172 et seq.
14 ETH 2
18 THE MENOM1NI INDIANS [etii.ann.u
were enemies of the French. A short time later, Poutiac made felt his
power in the northwest; and although the destruction of mauy posts
and settlements resulted, the French inhabitants were usually spared.
In 1073, when the attack on Michiliinackinac was planned, some
Meuomiiii joined the expedition; and they were present at, although
they were not participants in, the massacre.
It had been the plan of Pontiac to capture also the fort at Green
Bay, and a band of Indians at Milwaukee, consisting chiefly of
Ottawa, Ojibwa, and Potawatomi, was detailed for the work. But
the Menomini Indians were friendly to the English and prevented the
attack, and when instructions were received by Lieutenant Gorrell to
abandon the post, Garron and his Menomini tribesmen conducted the
party to Mackinaw. "For his faithful adherence to the English and
rejection of the councils of Pontiac, Carron was subsequently presented
with a large silver medal by the British authorities, with a certificate
of his chieftainship and good services." '
When, in 1764, Sir William Johnson sent messengers to the various
tribes of the Great Lakes, calling them to a council to be held at
Niagara for the purpose of urging them to remain friendly to the
English, a delegation of 499 Menomini went from Green bay,2 confident
of deserving recognition for their services to Gorrell and his band of
soldiers. They were received with cordiality and greeted as brothers,
and on the adjournment of the council they departed well pleased with
their experience.3
The English did not again occupy the post on Green bay, and the
Menomini did not render service to them until at the outbreak of
the Revolution, when a party under Charles de Langlade, in company
with another large Indian force, went to Montreal and there held a
council. About 1780, Captain Dalton, Superintendent of Indian Affairs
for the United States, in an estimate of the Indian tribes employed
by the British in the Revolutionary war, estimated that the Fulawin
(Menomini) had furnished about 150 warriors.4
Grignon, in his Recollections of Wisconsin,5 states that "The Green
bay settlement, from its inception in 1745 to 1785, a period of forty
years, had made but little progress." Carver, who visited the locality
in 1766, found that there had been no garrison since its abandonment
in 1763, and that the fort had not been kept in repair. There were but
two trading establishments in 1785, the only stores at Green Bay prior
to 1812.
In 1810 messengers arrived from Tecumseh and the Prophet, inviting
the Menomini to join the Indian confederacy against the Americans;
1 Grignon, in Coll. Hist. Soc. of Wisconsin for 1856, vol. iii, 1857, pp. 226-227.
• CoU. Mass. Hist. Soc, vol. x, Boston, 1809, p. 122.
3 Turkman, Conspiracy of Pontiac, p. 165 et seq.
4 Coll. Massachusetts Hist. Soc, vol. x, Boston, 1809, p. 123 {from an account published in Phila-
delphia, August 5, 1783).
6 Coll. Hist. Soc. of Wisconsin for 1856, vol. iii, 1857, p. 241.
hoffman] NEIGHBORING TRIBES 19
but they responded in the negative and joined the British in the war
of 1812-14. They served under Colonel Robert Dickson, who had
arrived at Green Bay with a party of Sioux Indians; for although
there was a traditional feeling of hatred by the Sioux against the
Menomini aud Ojibwa, still, wben circumstances demanded union
against a common enemy under one standard for attack or defense,
all tribal differences were for the time set aside. The party under
Dickson participated in the attack on the Americans at Mackinaw,
but they were not actively engaged in the battle.
The Winnebago, who may properly be termed the head of the Siouan
family, were from the earliest historical times near neighbors of the
Menomini and on friendly terms with them and also with the Ojibwa,
who until 1795 or later occupied the country as far east as Lake
Shawano. The Winnebago warriors occasionally came to Green Bay
on a spree, passing through the Menomini and Ojibwa territory on
their way. It wasbecauseof this constantcomminglingthat representa-
tives of all of these tribes were generally found together in their war
excursions.
The expulsion of the Fox and Sauk Indians from the country on Fox
river and the head of Green bay (already referred to) is specially men-
tioned by Jedidiah Morse' in his report to the Secretary of War in
1822, in the following words:
Major Irwin 'informed me, on the authority of Colonel Bowyerand an old Ottawa
chief, living at Ma-nitoUrWauk, the river of bad spirits, that more than a century ago,
the Fox and Sac Indians, who then inhabited the country on Green bay and Fox
river, were conquered and driven away by the Menominees, aided by the Ottawas
and Chippewas; that the Menominees hold this country by conquest, and that their
title is admitted to be good by the Sacs, Foxes, Chippawas, and Ottawas.
This statement no doubt originated from Charlevoix's remarks (1) that
the Fox Indians were the original possessors of the land adjoining Fox
river, and (2) that their principal settlement was about 60 miles up that
river. They had made some depredations on French traders and
exacted tribute of them, whereon the French commandant of the post
took a party of his men iu covered boats and, while distracting the
attention of the Indians, opened fire on them at the same time that his
Menomini allies attacked the tillage from the rear. Those who sur-
vived the slaughter removed to Mississippi river.
Carver 2 reached Green bay in 1766, and on his map of that date two
Menomini settlements are located; the northern one on the western
shore of the bay, near the present site of Oconto, while the southern
camp or "castle" is on the western bank of Fox river, a short distance
south of "Fort la Bay.''' South of these towns the country is marked
as occupied by the Winnebago, while that immediately westward is
designated as "Saukies Land."
1 Heport to Secretary of War, New Haven, 1822, p. 57.
"Travels through the Interior Parts of North America, in the years 1766, 1767, and 1708, London,
1778, map.
20 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ahh.H
The traditions relating to the origin of the totems of the Menomini
refer to Menomini river (near the mouth) as the place where the Bear
emerged from the ground, and also to Wisconsin river as the place of
the subsequent meeting of this anthropomorphic being with the Wolf.
These streams appear to bound the earliest traditional locality claimed
by the Menomini; so, too, other mythic transactions connected with
the origin of other totems relate to the same region. Further infor-
mation on this subject will be found in connection with the description
of the Menomiui totems.
TREATIES WITH THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT
The Menomini had been in the service of the British in past years,
and as the war of 1812-14 found them still true to their old allies, it
became necessary to establish a treaty of peace between the United
States and the tribe. So commissioners were duly appointed on behalf
of the Federal Government, and after conference with the headmen of
the tribe the following was adopted March 30, 1817. l
A treaty of peace and friendship made and concluded by and between William Clark,
Xinian Edwards, and Auguste Chouteau, commissioners on the part and behalf of the
United States of America, of the one part, and the undersigned chiefs and warriors,
deputed by the Monomenee tribe or nation of Indians, on the part and behalf of their
said tribe or nation, of the other part.
The parties, being desirous of re-establishing peace and friendship between the
United States and the said tribe or nation, and of being placed in all things, and
in every respect, on the same footing upon which they stood before the late war,
have agreed to the following articles:
Art. 1. Every injury, or act of hostility, by one or either of the contracting parties,
against the other, shall be mutually forgiven and forgot.
Art. 2. There shall he perpetual peace and friendship between all the citizens of
the United States and all the individuals composing the said Menomenee tribe or
nation.
Art. 3. The undersigned chiefs and warriors, on the part and behalf of their said
tribe or nation, do, by these presents, confirm to the United States all and every
cession of land heretofore made by their tribe or nation to the British, French, or
Spanish government, within the limits of the United States, or their territories;
and also, all and every treaty, contract, and agreement, heretofore concluded between
the said United States and the said tribe or nation.
Art. 4. The contracting parties do hereby agree, promise and oblige themselves,
reciprocally, to deliver up all prisoners now in their hands, (by what means soever
the same may have come into their possession,) to the officer commanding at Prairie
du t'hien, to be by him restored to the respective parties hereto, as soon as it may be
practicable.
Art. 5. The undersigned chiefs and warriors as aforesaid, for themselves and those
they represent, do hereby acknowledge themselves to be under the protection of the
United States, and of no other nation, power, or sovereign, whatsoever.
In witness whereof, the commissioners aforesaid, and the undersigned chiefs and
warriors, as aforesaid, have hereunto subscribed their names and affixed their
seals, this thirtieth day of March, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight
1 Treaties between the United Stales of America and the several Indian Tribes, from 1778 to 1837,
Washington, D. C, 1837, pp. 205, 206.
hoffman] LAND CLAIMS 21
hundred and seventeen, and of the independence of the United States the
forty-first.
William Clark, l. s.
Ninian Edwards, L. s.
Auguste Chouteau, l. 8.
Towanapee, Roaring Thunder, his x mark, l. s.
Weekay, the Calumet Eagle, his x mark, L. s.
Muequomota, the Fat of the Bear, his x mark, L. s.
Waeaquon, or Shomin, his x mark, L. s.
Warhano, the Dawn, his x mark, L. s.
Iuemikee, Thunderer, his x mark, L. s.
Leharnaco, the Bear, his x mark, L. S.
Kai kundego, his x mark, L. S.
Shashamanee, the Elk, his x mark, L. s.
Penouame, the Running Wolf, his x mark, L, S.
Ihtie at St. Louis, in the presence of
R. Wash, Secretary to the Commie- S. Gantt, Lieut. U. S. Army,
sioners, C. M. Price,
R. Graham, V. S. I. J. for Illinois Richard T. McKenney,
Territory, Amos Kibbe,
T. Harrison, Nathaniel Mills,
Nimrod H. Moore, Samuel Solomon.
Dr Morse, who made an official visit to Green bay in 1820, says:
The Menominees claim the whole of the waters of Green-Bay, with its islands. On
its north-west shores, aud on Fox river, they claim from the entrance of Menomine
river, in length, one hundred and twenty miles, south-west and north-east; and in
breadth sixty miles. On the south-east shore of the Bay, and on Fox river, from
the river Rouge, on Red river, to the Grand Cockalaw, a distance of forty-five miles,
and twenty-four in breadth. 1
Roughly estimated, this area would embrace over 8,000 square miles.
The true extent of the territory claimed by the Menomini, or recog-
nized as theirs by the surrounding tribes, is not positively known;
though the assertion has been made that the western boundary was
Mississippi river. The Winnebago, who had always been friendly with
the Menomini, were no doubt coclaimants to at least a portion of the
lands in the eastern or Green bay section, as may be inferred from the
fact of their being a party to the treaties of relinquishment.
To make intelligible the reason for the sale by these Indians of some
of their lands, it is necessary to present a short sketch of the Holland
Laud Company of New York, which had for many years held a preemp-
tive right of purchase from the Indians, covering most of the lands of
western New York, this right having originated through the common-
wealth of Massachusetts, and having been confirmed subsequently by
the state of New York. A large purchase was made from the Indians
by Phelps and Gorman, embracing nearly all the lands east of Genesee
river. Of the remaining portion, lying west of the river, a large
cession was made to the Holland Land Company at a council of the
Seneca Indians held in Geneseo in September, 1797, certain large
reservations of choice land being excepted.
' Op. cit., pp. 51, 52.
22 THE MENOMINI INDIANS iethann.U
General Albeit G. Ellis, 1 iu his "Account of the advent of the New
York Indians into Wisconsin," says:
In 1810, the Holland Laud Company sold all their pre-emptive right to the Indian
reservations to David A. Ogden, for lifty cents per acre. Mr. Ogdeu and his asso-
ciates in this purchase were afterward known as the "Ogden Company." Up to
1817, they had succeeded in extinguishing but a part of the Indian title; the large
reservations of Cattaraugus, Alleghany, Tounewauda, Tuscarora, and Buffalo, still
remaining. The anxiety of the company to effect the extinguishment of the Indian
title to these reservations, and the removal of the Indians, had exhibited itself in
various forms, and sundry unsuccessful efforts, for years. In this year, a new plan
was conceived, and its accomplishment set on foot, to wit:—to secure in the West,
by consent and aid of the General Government, an extensive grant of lauds from the
western tribes, as a home or hunting ground for the several tribes holding the
reservations in Western New York. This plan -was pondered with great care,
thoroughly matured, decided and acted upon by the Ogden company, with equal
skill and vigor. One of the first steps, was to secure the consent and co-operation of
the War Department, which was obtained.
A band of Indians, known as the Stockbridges—more properly the Mo-he-kun-
nucks—had moved from Massachusetts at an early day, having obtained a cession of
some five by seven miles square from the Oneidas, on the southern border of their reser-
vation, in the county of Oneida, N. V. The Mo-he-kun-nucks sold off a small tract
on their southern border, to a few associated Indians from the remnants of various
bands of New England tribes, now known as the Brothertowna. These two tribes
had resided for several years on their new possessions near the Oneidas.
About the year 1817, a young leader, chief of the Mo-he-kun-nucks, Solomon U.
Hendrick, a man of much more than ordinary energy and talent among the Indians,
succeeded to the head of affairs. He regarded the languishing condition of his
people as a reproach to the former name and glory.of the old Mo-he-kun-nucks, and
used all his eloquence to persuade the young men to arouse, and make at least one
effort to retrieve their name and character. He argued, with equal force and sound
reason, that their then paralyzed condition was owing to their confinement to a
small space of ground, and being surrounded aud preyed upon, by the white inhab-
itants, from whose pernicious contact and example, especially with regard to drunk-
enness, they were sustaining a loss of all moral aud physical energy aud action;
and urged, that their only hope for the future lay in emigration westward, ami the
securing of such an extent of country, as would enable them to form new settlements,
at such distance from the whites, as to escape from grog-shops and whiskey.
Their resident missionary, Rev. John Sergeant, fell in with and seconded the views
of the young chief. In a short timo the whole tribe was indoctrinated with the new
scheme, and anxious for its consummation. The American Board of Missions gave
their influence and aid ; through whose suggestions the late Dr. Jedediah [sic] Morse,
of New Haven, became deeply interested in the plan. This gentleman counselled the
Indians and their friends to take immediate measures to have a visit paid, by some
discreet agents, to the Western tribes, to select a proper point for location, and open
negotiations for a cession id' lands. Dr. Morse himself was thought to be the very
person to undertake such a mission. Application being made to the Secretary of
War, Dr. Morse was commissioned to make a general tour among the North Western
Indians, with a view to forming a. better understanding between those tribes and
the Government. Under this appointment, this gentleman spent the summer of
1820 in visiting several of the North-Western tribes. Whatever other purposes may
have occupied the attention of this commissioner, it is certain that of securing a
western retreat for the Stockbridges and other New York Indian tribes was a leading
one: though the writer lias no evidence of any collusion in the matter, at this date,
with the Ogden Land Company. Green Bay was a point specially visited by Dr.
1 Hep. and Coll. Hist. Soc. of "Wisconsin, vol. ii, Madison, 185t>, pp. 415-417.
boffmax] ELEAZER WILLIAMS 23
Morse, where he spent nearly three weeks, and preached the lirst protestant sermon
ever delivered at that place.
During the year 1810-17 a remarkable personage appeared among the
Oneida Indians; this was no other than Eleazer Williams, a descendant
of Beverend John Williams, of Deerfleld memory, but who claimed to
be the Dauphin of France—Louis XVII. General Ellis ' says of hiin:
In the summer of 1816, he made a tour in the State of New York, among the several
tribes of the Six Nations. The Oneidas received him with kindness and attention.
They were more inclined to civilization, and a party of them to Christianity, than
any other tribe of the Six Nations.
Whether Mr. Williams borrowed the idea from Dr. Morse, the Mo-he-kun-nucks,
or the Ogden Land Company, or whether it was, as he stoutly maintained, original
in his own mind, certain it is, that some time in 1818, ho began to broach cautiously
among his Indian people a proposition of removing all the Indians of that State, is
well as many of those of Canada, and the Senecas at Sandusky, to the neighborhood
of Green Bay, and there unite them in one grand confederacy of cantons, hut all
under one federal head; the government to lie a mixture of civil, military, and
ecclesiastic, the latter to he pre eminent, . . .
Having secured this point among the Oneidas, he visited the other tribes of the
Six Nations, and by holding out dazzling promises of future glory and aggrandize-
ment, he enticed a few young men of each tribe to enter into his scheme. He next
addressed the War Department, in imitation of the Stoekbridges, soliciting its
countenance and assistance to enable a delegation of twenty from the several tribes
of the Six Nations to visit the Western tribes, for the purpose of obtaining a cession
of country for a new home. The response of the Department was favorable, having
doubtless been inilnenoed by other parties moving for the same objects.
Thus, it is to be observed, that whether singular or not, there was a combination
of influences, dissimilar iu motive but perfectly consonant, in purpose, all operating
at the same moment iu urging a removal of the New York Indians to Green Bay.
Each one of the parties claimed the eclat of originating the scheme: we incline to
the belief, however, that they all. the Laud Company, the Mo-he-kun-nucks ami Mr.
Williams, might, and probably did conceive, at pretty near the same period of time,
the idea of a new home for these Indians in the West.
The late Honorable Lyman 0. Draper,2 formerly secretary of the
Wisconsin Historical Society, referring to this subject, says:
Rev. Eleazer Williams, with a deputation of the Oneidas, lirst visited the Green
Bay region with a view of finding a new home, in the summer of 1820. Reporting
favorably, in August, 1821, Williams again repaired to Green Bay, himself as the
deputy of the St. Regis Indians, accompanied by a delegation of Oneidas, Stock-
bridges, Ououdagoes, Senecas, and Munsees, who made a treaty with the Menomonees
and Winnebagoes, and purchased a considerable territory from them. In September
1822, this territory was largely increased by an additional purchase. The New York
Indians emigrated from time to time in bands, and settled on their purchase.
There has recently been called to my attention an editorial notice of
Eleazar Williams, in The Xation (N. Y.) for May 31 , 1894, which elicited
a communication to the same periodical for June 14, 1894. After a
few preliminary remarks, the letter continues:
As early as 1810, Eleazar Williams called himself ••Count de Lorraine" and
wore a large tinsel star. My grandfather was acquainted with the man and fully
1 Op. cit., vol. ii, pp. 418, 419.
2 Coll. Hist. Soc. Wisconsin for 1854, vol. i, 1855. p. 68, footnote.
— —
24 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ahn.M
impressed with his ignorance and pretence, Tlie BuhaequeDt developments of his
fiction broughl him to the notice of the family, and it was with this, knowledge that
my father, Dr. Williams of the Baldwin Locomotive Works, happened to be in
Caughnawaga when those of the tribe who knew of the childhood of Eleazar were
questioned regarding his origin. Dr. Williams was then locating and laying the
railroad through the Indian reservation, and was not only intimately acquainted
witli Oronhiatekha (De Lorimier), the head chief, with Taiaike (Jean Baptiste
Rice, better known as "Grand Baptiste"), the pilot of the Ea chine rapids, and other
subordinate chiefs, but was adopted by the tribe, and is still remembered by the
older members as " Kanstcseres."
In the fall of 1851 two gentlemen came to Caughnawaga to investigate the story
of Eleazar Williams. It was on a Sunday afternoon that De Lorimier summoned
the mother of Eleazar, Mary Ann Rice (Kanoutewanteta), and an old man and
woman who were with the parents at the time of his birth, as well as others who
could tell of his youth. It may be wrell to say here that Eleazar was in had odor
with tlie tribe. This fact has been made much of by the upholders of the French
origin, and lias been stated by them as due to the lapse of the man from the Romish
faith, and an attempt to avenge on him the slighted creed. Tlie real facts are that
the Romish Church, if it had any feeling in the matter, rejoiced in getting rid of
a black sheep, as Eleazar had made his 1ribe the victims of a favorite habit of his
the collection of money for a specific purpose, and its immediate conversion to his
own use.
All the persons gathered on that Sunday afternoon knew of the character of the
man, and that was all. They were then entirely ignorant of his pretensions, and
spoke only Iroquois and a French jtatnis. They were taken singly into the room where
they were to be questioned, and a Scotchman named McNab, who was a notary and
greatly trusted by the Iudians, acted as interrogator and interpreter. The old woman
first told how she was present at the birth of Eleazar, and that he was the son of
Mary Ann (Rice) Williams, and that the birth took place at Lake George, New York,
where the party had gone on a fishing excursion. It was immediately after the
Revolution. The old man followed and said that the birth took place as stated, and
he further told how Eleazar had fallen from high rocks when a boy and received
injuries to his legs and knees that had left sears. The mother then told her story in
corroboration of what had been told. After all the testimony had been taken, there
was no one present but felt that Eleazar Williams was an Indian. Mr. McNab then
translated to them the printed account of the pretended French origin of the man.
It made the mother cry, and she said that she knew that Eleazar had done mauy bad
things, but she did not think he would deny his own mother. The matter was
talked over by the tribe, and they did not hesitate to call him a liar. The peculiar (?)
Bourbon features of Eleazar were possessed by De Lorimier, Francis Mount—by all,
in fact, who were descended from white captives.
Father Marcoux stated to my father that the early mission records were very
incomplete, and, in general, those children born outside of the mission had no place
on the. record. This seems to cover the whole case. Edward II. Williams, jr., IVcnt-
worth, June 4, 1S94.
Returning to a period before the consummation of the treaty of 1821,
another phase of the subject may be noted. General Ellis continues:
The Menomonees and Winnebagoes having been apprised of the intended visit
of their grandfathers, the Not-ta^ways, but a few days delay occurred before they
appeared on tlie bank of Fox river, to meet their eastern brethren. The reception of
the delegates was cordial by the. Menomonees and Winnebagoes, and had there not
been a third party to interfere, the New York Indians would probably very soon
have accomplished their object. The French inhabitants and half breeds settled at
Green Bay, numbered about live hundred souls; their alliance with the Iudians, par-
ticularly the Menomonees, was very close, and their influence with them very strong,
Hoffman] LAND TREATY 25
almost potential. Some of the mure shrewd among them very soon penetrated the
ambitions design of Williams, which was no less than a total subjugation of the
whole country, and the establishment of an Indian government, of which he was to
be the sole dictator. The French and traders immediately organized into an oppo-
sition to the whole programme of the delegates. They were familiar with the
Menomonees and Winnebagoes, present at their debates, counselled and advised with
them in their deliberations, and when the answer of the Menomonees and Winneba-
goes was given, it was a deliberate and decided refusal to cede them an inch of soil
west of Lake Michigan. It was plain to all, that the French and half breeds had
answered, and not the Indians. Tho delegates expressed as much in their reply and
affectionately requested their brothers to re-cousider the matter, and answer for
themselves, independent of tho French and half breeds.
Several days were spent by both parties in out-door discussions. Tho French and
half breed interest, rinding their position not safely tenable, counselled a kind of
compromise, which being adopted, resulted in proposing a cession to their eastern
brethren, the Not-ta-ways, of a strip of land live miles in width, running across the
Fox river at Little Chute as a centre, and thence to the north-west and south-east,
equi-distant with their claims or possessions. In offering this cession to the dele-
gates as their ultimatum, these tribes urged their limited possessions, the poverty
of their hunting grounds, and their inability in consequence to subsist their people!
The possessions of the Menomonees then reached from the mouth of Green Bay to the
Milwaukee River, North and South, and from Lake Michigan to the Mississippi, South-
east and North-west. Those of the Winnebagoes included all the remainder of what
is now known as southern Wisconsin, except the inconsiderable tract west of Sugar
River, claimed by the Sauks and Foxes. They were very much crowded, of course!
The delegates saw that the object was, by placing them on a great thoroughfare, the
Fox River, between these two tribes, to establish such a surveillance over them as
effectually to prevent any design or movement the New York Indians might ever
attempt, contrary to tho wishes or interests of the grautees, or the French inhabi-
tants. After much deliberation, and a good deal of hesitation, it was concluded on
the advice chiefly of lleudnck, the Mo-he-kun-nuck chief, to accept the graut. A
treaty was accordingly drawn up by Mr. Trowbridge, and signed by the parties
on the 18th of August, and witnessed by the citizens and U. S. officers at the post.
Five hundred dollars were paid the Menomonees and Winnebagoes at the time, and
fifteen hundred dollars stipulated to be paid in goods the following year, in full for
the cession.
In about ten days the Menomonees and Winnebagoes assembled to greet their new
friends the Xot-ta-ways, as they called the New York Indiaus, and to receive the
$1,500 payment, in goods, on the cession of 1821. Such an assemblage of wild
Indians, young and old, women and papooses, was seldom seen. Of the two tribes,
there could not have been less than five thousand souls, besides the New Yorkers,
the French, half breeds, and Americans. The best specimen of Indian character,
aud especially of a war dance, ever seen by the writer, was there given for several
days. The Winnebagoes, of that day at least, exhibited the largest, most perfectly
formed set of both men aud women, almost ever seen anywhere. Tho great display of
action and muscle in these dances, struck the beholder with admiration and terror.
The ring round the dancers contained several thousand, all singing in chorus to
the load of the chief drummer; the voices of the Winnebago women prevailing in
clarion tones above the whole.
The payment of the fifteen hundred dollars worth of goods, was made with as
much ceremony as possible by the delegates, accompanied by a set speech setting
forth the great advantages that would be derived to their western brethren by
their settling among them. After the payment and the proper receipts of acknowl-
edgment on the treaties, followed feasting, dancing, and a general hilarity for two
days. The delegates then invited the Menomonees aud Winnebagoes to a formal
council, aud renewed the effort for a further extension of territory. Every argument
26 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [ktii. ann. 14
ami a most liberal offer iu the shape of annuities for ten years, were proposed in vain.
The \Yinnebagoes gave the answer, stoutly refusing further negotiations. That tribe
s i left in a body to repair to their hunts. The Menomoneeslingered, and were again
got. into council with the delegates, which conference continued for several days, and
finally resulted in the great transaction which gave the New York Indians the foot-
hold on Fox River, which they have in part maintained to this day. The Menomonees,
for a trifling consideration, ceded to the New York Indians a right in common to the
whole of their lands. Although some two of the principal chiefs were not present to
join in this important cession, this treaty, as well as the one of the previous year,
were approved by the President, and the New York Indians thereby recognized as
joint owners with the Menomonees of all their immense territories comprising nearly
half of the State af Wisconsin. 1
Tile several tribes of the New York Indians now hoped to be able to occupy,
without further hindrance or trouble, their new homes, jointly with the Menomo-
nees; but subsequent events proved their wishes but half attained. The whites
and traders at Green Bay saw that the. Menomonees had been grossly over-reached
by their new friends, the New York Indians, in a bargain. They very soon showed
that tribe, that in making the Not-ta-wai/8 equal owners with them in their country,
they could no longer control their own affairs, especially in the great business of
treating with their great Father; that the New York Indians, if their treaties were
to stand, would, in a short time, out-general them in tactics, and probably in nttni-
bers, and put them completely in the back ground in all public matters. The
arguments had their effect, and in a short time the Menomonees repented of the
bargain, and sought means to invalidate the treaties. The same ingenuity which
had helped them to a dislike found a ready pretext for denying and repudiating the
treaties, especially the last one. It was said, that at the treaty of 1822, several of
the chiefs highest in authority were not present, which, being true, gave the tribe a
good reason for denying and with-holding sanction to the arrangement. As usual in
such cases, the Menomonees separated into two parties, the one adhering to the
treaties and the interest of the New York Indians, the other denying them and
resisting their rights to any part of the country. The adverse party had the support
of all the trading interest, together with most of the half breeds, and soon became
the strongest, both iu point of influence and numbers.
'This treaty or purchase included all the oountry, beginning at the Grand Kakalin, on Fox River,
thence east on the lower Hue of the purchase of the New York Indians of the preceding year, to or
ei Hi-distant with theMan-a-wah-ki-ah (Milwaukee) river; thence down said river to its| mouth; thence
northerly, on the borders of Lake Michigan, to and across the mouth of Green Bay. so as to include all
tin- islands of the Grand Traverse; thence from the mouth of Green Bay northerly, to the Bay de
Noqne, on Lake Michigan ; thence a westet ly conrse, on the height of laud separating the waters of
Lake Superior and Michigan, to the head of t lie Menomonee river ; thence continuing nearly the same
course until it strikes the north-eastern boundary line of tin land purchased by the Xevr York Indians
tin- year preceding, and thence south-easterly to the place of beginning. This appears to have been a
complete 1 1 ssionof "all the right, title, interest, and claim" of the Menomonees, totheconntrydescribed,
reserving, however, "the free permission and privilege of occupying and residing upon tint lands
herein ceded, in common with them—the Stockbridge, Oneida, Tuscarora, St. Regis and Munsee
nations; Provided nevertheless. That they, the Menomonee nation, shall not in any manner infringe
upon any settlements or improvements whatever, which may be in any manner made by the said
Mori, lu-idge, Oneida, Tuscarora, St. Regis, or Munsee nations." The consideration was one thousand
dollars iu goods to he paid iu hand, and one thousand dollars more in goods the nest year, and a similar
amount the year following. This treaty was concluded September 23d, 1S22. But. President. Mouroe
did not approve, to its full extent, this purchase his approval, bearing date March 13th,; 1823, is thus
qualified: "The aforegoing instrument, is approved so far as it conveys to the Stockbridge, Oneida,
Tuscarora, St. Kegis, aud Munsee tribes or nations of Indians, that portion of the country therein
described, which lies between Sturgeon Bay. linen Bay, Fox River, that part i>f the former purchase
made by said trities or nations of Indiana of the Menomonee and Winnebago Indians, on the 8th of
August. 1821, which lies south of F\»x River, and a line drawn from the south eastern extremity of said
purohase to the head of Sturgeon Bay, and no further; that quantity being deemed sufficient for the
use of the first before-mentioned tribes or nations of Indians." This treaty, and that of the preceding
year, may be found in full, appended to the address of Hon. Morgan L. Martin before the \Yisconsin
State Historical Society, January 21, 1851.
hoffmax] BUTTE DES MORTS TREATY 27
The dissatisfaction among some of the Menomiui respecting- these
treaties increased with time, and things were extremely discouraging for
the success of Williams' plans and the views of the Ogden Company,
until the year 1827, when the following treaty was made, viz:
Articles of a treat// made and concluded at the Unite dis Moris, on Fox river, in the
Territory of Michigan, between Lewis Cass and Thomas L. McKenney, commissioners
on the part of the United States, and the Chippeway, Menomonie, and Winnebago tribes
of Indians.
Art. 1. Whereas, the southern boundary of the Chippeway country, from the
Plover Portage of the Ouisconsin easterly, was left undefined by the treaty con-
cluded at Prairie du Chien, August 19, 1825, in consequence of the non-attendance
of some of the principal Menomonie chiefs; and, whereas, it was provided by the
said treaty, that, whenever the President of the United States might think proper,
such of the tribes, parties to the said treaty, as might be interested in any particu-
lar line, should be convened, in order to agree upon its establishment:
Therefore, in pursuance of the said provision, it is agreed between the Chippe-
ways, Menomonies, and Winnebagoes, that the southern boundary of the Chippeway
country shall run as follows, namely: From the Plover Portage of the Ouisconsin,
on a northeasterly course, to a point on Wolf river, equidistant from the Ashawano
and Post lakes of said river; thence, to the falls of the Pashaytig river of Green
Bay; thence, to the junction of the Neesau Kootag or Burnt-wood river, with the
Menomonie; thence, to the big island of the Shoskinaubie or Smooth Rock river;
thence, following the channel of the said river to Greeu Bay, which it strikes
between the little and the great Bay de Noquet.
Art. 2. Much difficulty having arisen from the negotiations between the Menomonie
and Winnebago tribes and the various tribes and portions of tribes of Indians of
the State of New York, and the claims of the respective parties being much con-
tested, as well with relation to the tenure and boundaries of the two tracts, claimed
by the said New York Indians, west of lake Michigan, as to the authority of the
persons who signed the agreement on the part of the Menomonies, and the whole
subject having been fully examined at the council this day concluded, and the alle-
gations, proofs, and statements, of the respective parties having been entered upon
the journal of the commissioners, so that the same can be decided by the President
of the United States; it is agreed by the Menomonies and Winnebagoes, that so far
as respects their interest in the premises, the whole matter shall be referred to the
President of the United States, whose decision shall be final. And the President is
authorized, on their parts, to establish such boundaries between them and the New
York Indians as he may consider equitable and just.
Art. 3. It being important to the settlement of Green Bay, that definite boundaries
should be established between the tract claimed by the former French and British
governments, and the lauds of the Indians, as well to avoid future disputes as to
settle the question of jurisdiction. It is therefore agreed between the Menomonie
tribe and the United States, that the boundaries of the said tracts, the jurisdiction
aixl title of which are hereby acknowledged to be in the United States, shall be as
follows, namely:—Beginning on the shore of Green Bay, six miles due north from
the parallel of the mouth of Fox river, and running thence in a straight line, but
with the general course of the said river, and six miles therefrom to the intersection
of the continuation of the westerly boundary of the tract at the Grand Kaukaulin,
claimed by Augustin Grignion; thence, on a line with the said boundary to the
same; thence, with the same to Fox river; thence, on the same course, six miles;
thence, in a direct line to the southwestern boundary of the tract, marked on the
plan of the claims at Green Bay, as the settlement at the bottom of the bay ; thence,
with the southerly boundary of the said tract to the southeasterly corner thereof;
and thence with the easterly boundary of the said tract to Green Bay. Provided,
that if the President of the United States should be of opinion that the boundaries
28 THE MENOMINI INDIANS lETH. ANN. 14
tlms established interfere with any just claims of the New York Indians, the President
may then change the said boundaries in any manner he may think proper, so that
the quantity of land contained in the said tract be not greater than by the boundaries
herein defined. And provided also, That nothing herein contained shall be construed
to have any effect upon the land claims at Green bay ; hut the same shall remain as
though this treaty had not been formed.
Art. 1. In consideration of the liberal establishment of the boundaries as herein
provided for, the commissioners of the United States have this day caused to be dis-
tributed among the Indians, goods to the amount of fifteen thousand six hundred
and eighty-two dollars, payment for which shall be made, by the United States.
Art. 5. The sum of one thousand dollars shall be annually appropriated for the
term of three years; and the sum of fifteen hundred dollars shall be annually there-
after appropriated as long as Congress think proper, for the education of the children
of the tribes, parties hereto, and of the New York Indians, to be expended under the
direction of the President of the United Stales.
Art. 6. The United States shall be at liberty, notwithstanding the Winnebagoes
are parties to this treaty, to pursue such measures as they may think proper for the
punishment of the perpetrators of the recent outrages at Prairie du Chien, and upon
the Mississippi, and for the prevention of such acts hereafter.
Ait. 7. This treaty shall be obligatory after its ratification by the President and
the Senate of the United States.
Done at the Butte des Mortes, on Fox river, in the Territory of Michigan, this
eleventh day of August, 18-7.
Lewis Cass, Powoiysnoit, his x mark,
Thomas L. McKenney. Manbasseaux, his x mark,
ippeways. Myaumechetnabewat, his x mark,' 'h
Pemabeme, his x mark,
Shinguaba Wossin, his x mark,
Wayishkee, mark, Kegisse,
his x mark,
his x
L'Espagnol, his x mark,
Sheewanbeketoan, his x mark,
Kichiaemtort, his x mark,
Mozobodo, his x mark, Hoo Tshoop, (or four legs, ) his x mark,
Gitshee Waubezhaas, his x mark.
Tshayro-tshoau Raw, bis x mark,
Moazoninee, his x mark,
Karry-Man-nee, (walking turtle,) his x
Mishaukewett, his x mark,
mark,
Monomiuee Cashee, his x mark,
Saii-say-mau-nee, his x mark,
Attikumaag, his x mark.
Maunk-hay-raith, (tattood breast,) his x
Umbwaygeezhig, his x mark,
mark.
Moneeto Penaysec, his x mark,
Shoank Skaw, (white dog,) his x mark,
Akkeewaysee, his x mark,
Sboank-tshunksiap, (black wolf,) his x
Sheegad, his x mark.
mark,
Wauwaunisbkau, his x mark,
Kaw-Kaw-say-kaw, his x mark,
Ananiikee Waba, his x mark,
Wheank-Kaw, (big duck,) hisx mark,
Ockewazee, his x mark.
Shoank-ay-paw-kaw, (dog head,) his x
Menomonies. mark,
Oskashe, his x mark, Sar-ray-nuin-nee, (walking mat,) his x
Josette Caron, his x mark, mark,
Koniinikey, jun. his x mark, Waunk-tshay-hee-sootsh, (red devil, ibis
Kimiown, his x mark, x mark,
Koniinikey, sen. his x mark, Wau-kaun-hoa-noa-nick, (little snake.)
Keshiminey, his x mark, his x mark,
Woiniss-atte, his x mark. Kaw-nee-shaw, (white crow,) hiss mark.
Witnesses:
Philip B. Key, Secretary, Uenry R. Schoolcraft, U. States In-
E. Boardman, Captain ,Jd V. S. 7h- dian Agent,
fan try, Henry B. Brevoort, U. S. I. Aijt.,
hoffman] STAMBAUGH TREATY 29
Thomas Rowland, Jn. Bpt. Fcoia Fauvel, Clergyman,
D. G. Jones, Jesse Miner,
R. A. Forsyth, Henry Conner, Interpreter.
S. Coiiant, John Kinzie, Jim.
E. A. Brush,
NOTE.—The above treaty was ratified with the proviso, "That the said treaty
shall not impair or affect auy right or claim which the New York Indians, or any of
them, have to the lands, or any of the lands, mentioned in the said treaty,''
The action of the United States Senate, in its ratification of this
treaty, known as the "Treaty of Butte des Morts," failed to bring
about a satisfactory condition of affairs, and new commissioners were
appointed in 1830 to endeavor to bring about a satisfactory conclusion
of the matter. The leading Menomini were inflexible, stating that
their chief men had not been consulted in the previous treaties, unau-
thorized or uninfluential Indians assuming such authority without any
right thereto. The expression of opposition was that the New York
Indians were simply regarded as tenants at will and in no sense con-
sidered as owners or controllers of the soil.
The commission failed to effect anything, and it was not until 1831
that the treaty, since familiarly known as the Stambaugh treaty, was
definitely concluded, and signed by the parties. Mr Ellis 2 remarks:
The New York Indians were not parties to the treaty. In order to a proper under-
standing of the subject, it is necessary to make copious extracts. Tbe treaty sets
forth the boundaries as claimed by the Menomonees, taking all the lands east of
Fox River, Green Bay, and Lake Winnebago, and from Fond du Lac south easterly to
the sources of the Milwaukee River, and down the same to its mouth—this tract was
ceded to the United States. They claimed westerly and north-westerly, everything
west of Green Bay from the Shoskonabie (Es-co-ua-ba) River to the upper forks of
thi' Menomonee, thence to Plover Portage of the Wisconsin, and thence up that
river to Soft Maple River; west to Plume River of the Chippewa, tlieuce down the
Chippewa 30 miles; thence easterly to the fork of the Monoy or Lemonweir River,
and dowu that river to its mouth; thence to the Wisconsin Portage, thence down
the Fox to Lake Winnebago.
The first article of the treaty relates exclusively to the New York Indians, and is in
the following words : The Menomonee tribe of Indians declare themselves the friends
and allies of the United States, under whose pi rental care and protection they desire
to continue; and though always protesting that they are under no obligation to rec-
ognize any claim of the New York Indians to any portion of their country; that they
neither sold, nor received any value, for the land claimed by these tribes yet, at the
;
solicitation of their Great Father, the President of the United States, and as au evi-
dence of their love and veneration for him, they agree that such part of the land
described, being within the following boundaries, as he may direct, may be set apart
as a home to the several tribes of the New York Indians, who may remove to, and set-
tle upon the same, within three years from the date of this agreement, viz. : Begin-
ning on the west side of Fox River, near the " Little Kackalin,'' at a point known as
the "Old Mill l>am," thence north-west forty miles; thence north-east to the Oconto
creek, falling into Green Bay; thence down said Oconto creek to Greeu Bay; thence
up and along Green Bay and Fox River to the place of beginning; excluding there-
1 Treaties between the United States of America and the several Indian tribes, from 1778 to 1837,
Washington. ls:;7, pp. 412-415.
s Op. cit., vol. ii, pp. 435, 436.
30 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [bth.ami.14
from all private claims confirmed, and also the following reservation for military
purposes: Beginning on the Fox River, at the mouth of the first creek above Fort
Howard, thence north sixty-four degrees west to Duck Creek; thence down said
Duck Creek to its mouth; thence up and along Green Bay and Fox River to the
place of beginning. The Menomonee Indians also reserve, for the use of the U.
States, from the country herein designated for the New York Indians, timber and
firewood for the United States garrison, and as much land as may be deemed
necessary for public highways to be located by the direction and at the discretion
of the President of the United States. The country hereby ceded to the United
States, for the benefit of the New York Indians, contains by estimation, about five
hundred thousand acres, and includes all their improvements on the west side of
Fox River.
In consequence of this treaty the hopes of Eleazer Williams were
crushed, and those of the Ogden Laud Company were not encouraged.
The land set apart for the New York Indians was evidently too limited
for agricultural purposes. Colonel Stambaugh feared that his treaty
would not be adopted by the Senate, and also that his appointment as
Indian agent—which had not yet been acted upon—would not be con-
firmed; so he again had the Meuomini called before the commissioners
and some supplements made to the treaty, by which two of the most
objectionable features were remedied. The Senate refused to take up
the treaty at the ensuing session, and it was not till 1832 that it was iu
shape for promulgation. Even then the Menomini opposed the plan of
the New York Indians to put a fort on the land south of the Little
Kakalin, and their assent was necessary, so that an amicable settle-
ment was not reached till 1832.
In 1838 another treaty was made between the Oneida Indians
and the United States regarding some money which they wanted, as
sole representatives of the large cession of the treaty of 1831, by the
Menomini on the western side of Fox river. The following extracts
will serve to indicate the chief points upon which the Oneida were ad-
vised, by their missionary, to base their claim, viz:
Art. 1. The First Christian and Orchard parties of Indians, cede to the United
States all their title and interest in the land set apart for them in the first article of
the treaty with the Menomonees, of February Nth. 1831, and the secoud article of the
treaty with the same tribe, October 27th. 1832.
Art. 2. From the foregoing cession there shall be reserved to the said Indians, to
be held as other Indian lands are held, a tract of land containing one hundred acres,
for each individual, and the lines shall be so run as to include all their settlements
and improvements in t ho vicinity of Green Bay.
Art. 3. In consideration of the cession contained in the first article of this treaty,
the United States agree to pay to the Orchard party of the Oneida Indians three
thousand dollars, and to the First Christian party of Oneida Indians thirty thou-
sand and five hundred dollars, of which last sum three thousand dollars may be
expended, under the supervision of the Rev. Solomon Davis, in the erection of a
church and parsonage house, and the residue apportioned, under the direction of
the President, among the persons having .just claims thereto; it being understood
that said aggregate sum of thirty thousand and five hundred dollars is desigued to
be in reimbursement of monies expended by said Indians, and in remuneration of
the services of their chiefs and agents, iu purchasing and securing a title to the
HOFF.MANJ LAND TREATY OF 1848 31
land ceded in the 1st article. The United States further agree, to cause the traits
reserved in the 2nd article, to be surveyed as soon as practicable
There are several other aiticles to this treaty, but they are unim-
portant and are therefore omitted. The treaty was rati lied by the
Senate and promulgated on May 17, 183S, and by it the possessions of
the Six Nations in Wisconsin were reduced to the present reservation
of the Oneida on Duck creek, near Green bay, containing- about CI,000
acres.
By a treaty made October 18, 1848, between the United States and
the Menommi Indians, the latter agreed to cede, sell, and relinquish to
the United States "all their lauds in the State of Wisconsin, wherever
situated." For this they were to receive certain lands ceded to the
United States by the Ojibwa Indians of the Mississippi and Lake
Superior in the treaty of August 2, 1847, as well as some other lands
ceded (and not yet assigned) to the Winnebago, laud which was guar-
anteed to comprise not less than 600,000 acres. There was also a money
consideration. This treaty was ratified January 23, 1849. Another
treaty supplemental to this was made May 12, 1854, because of the
desire of the Menomini to remain in the state of Wisconsin, and their
special unwillingness to remove to the Ojibwa country west of Missis
sippi river which had been assigned them. Consequently, all lands
which had been granted to them by the treaty of 1848 were relin-
quished, and in consideration thereof the United States gave them
"for a home, to be held as Indian lands are held, that tract of country
lying upon the Wolf river in the State of Wisconsin, commencing at
the southwest corner of township 28 north, of range 16 east, of the
fourth principal meridian, running" west twenty-four miles, thence north
eighteen miles, thence east twenty-four miles, thence south eighteen
miles, to the place of beginning, the same being townships 28, 29, and
30, of ranges 13,14, 15, and 16, according to the public surveys." This
treaty was assented to by Osh'kosh and Kesheua, and was proclaimed
August 2, 1854.
On February 11, 1856, another treaty was made by which the
Menomini ceded to the United States a tract of land, not exceeding-
two townships in extent, and selected from the western part of their
reservation, for the purpose of giving a reservation to the Stockbridge
and Munseo Indians. This treaty was proclaimed April 24, 1856.
PRESENT LOCATION
Under the treaties with the United States, the Oneida, the Stock-
bridge and Munsee, and the Menomini have each their respective
reservations. The Oneida, numbering over 1,200, have a reservation of
60,800 acres near Green bay ; the Stockbridge and Munsee Indians, num-
bering about 250, occupy a reservation southwest of the Menoimui,
containing 60,SO0 acres, while the Menomini are located on a reserva-
tion of ten townships, equal in round numbers to 360 square miles or
1 Coll. HiBt. Soc. Wisconsin for 1855, vol. ii, 1856, p. 447.
32 THE MENOM1NI INDIANS [eth. ann. 14
230,400 acres. 1 The reservation is located iu the northeastern interior
of tlie state of Wisconsin. The tract embraced within its limits is well
wooded and is tilled with lakes and rivers, affording an abundance of
game and fish (see plate i).
The Indians removed to their present home in < Jctober, 1852, most of
them ascending Wolf river in canoes; yet today a canoe is looked
upon by them with as much interest and curiosity as it would be iu au
eastern city, so rarely is one found.
By an act of Congress of February 13, 1871, provision was made for
the sale of a portion of the Menomiui reservation, but as the consent
of the Indians was not obtained, no portion of their lands have yet
been disposed of.2
POPULATION AND CHARACTERISTICS
According to the report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for
1892, the "whole number of Menomini reported on the reservation is
1
1,335, with 3-13 children of school age. ' To this should be added about
300 representatives of the tribe scattered throughout the country east
of the reservation, at Oconto, Meuoinonee, and several other places.
This would raise the aggregate population to 1,635, which corresponds
with the number estimated during the summer of 1893.
But little is known of the early population of the Menomini tribe,
inasmuch as in most instances reference is made to villages, or simply to
the warriors. If an estimate is to be based on the number of fighting
men, various processes may be adopted to determine the approximate
population of the entire tribe.
In the Paris documents of 1718, number vn,3 the statement is made
that "The Puaus and the Folle Avoines are not numerous; each nation
may number 80 or 100 men. . . . All these tribes are very indus-
trious, and the women are four times more numerous than the men."
Here we have a specific comparison of numbers between the males and
females, but when Charlevoix arrived at the mouth of Menomonee river,
in 1721 , he found a village of this tribe, and says: "The whole nation
consists of this village, and that not very numerous." 4
Lieutenant (lorrell, commandant of La Bay (Green Bay) in 1761,
states that "There are, by both French and Indian accounts, 39,100
Indian warriors, besides women and children, depending on this post
tin supplies." 5 Among the tribes enumerated he mentions 150 warriors
of the Folles Avoines, occupying two towns at La Bay. According to
numerous comparisons made, as pertain to other tribes, this would
place the entire population at about 751) souls, thus allowing five to
1 According to the land surveys, about 10,000 acres additional are embraced in lakes and meandered
streams.
2 Report of Commissioner of Indian Affairs for 1872, Washington, isTl', p. 20.
Docs. Coll. Hist. New York, vol. ix, Albany, 1835, p. 889.
4 Journal of a Voyage to North America, vol. ii, London, 1781, p. 61.
* Gorrell's Journal, Coll. Hist. Soc. of Wisconsin, vol. i, ls.">4, p. :12.


boffmax] EARLY POPULATION 33
each warrior. In Purcell's enumeration of " warriors, gunmen," ' etc,
the Creek and Seminole Indians had about one warrior in three of the
population ; the Chickasaw one in four, the Choctaw, Cherokee, and
Catawba one in tbree. If the same ratio should be applied in the
enumeration of the Menomini, the population of that tribe would be
nearer 600.
There appears to have been a rapid increase in the population sub-
sequently if we may credit Dr Morse,2 who visited Green bay in 18:30,
with reference to the subject of removing to that country the New
York Indians. He says, "The Menoiniue.es, or Folles Avoines, have
GOO warriors, 900 women, 2,400 children, total 3,900; they live in ten
villages, north-west of Green Bay, on Menomine river, which is their
north-east boundary, but chiefly ou Fox river, on and near Winnebago
lake." A few are mentioned, also, as scattered at other places. In
this enumeration the proportion of warriors to the whole number
would be about one to six and a half.
According to an enumeration made in September, 1842, the popula-
tion was found to be 2,464,-' but in 1850 they were estimated at only
500 souls.4 In 1856 the number reported was 1,930, while in 1857 the
total number was given as 1,697, comprising 358 men, 425 women, and
914 children; the discrepancy being doubtless due to inaccuracy in
counting and not to death. Great difficulty has been experienced at
various times in endeavoring to obtain an accurate census, as Indians
are frequently governed in their statements and conduct by the motive
which they conceive to prompt the agents or other authorities in
procuring such enumeration. When, for instance, they believe that it
is to their advantage to exaggerate their population, women have
been known to report themselves with their family, and to increase
the latter by borrowing an infant to swell the number; when, a few
moments later, the same infant, wrapped in another blanket, would
be brought forward by another woman to add to her household. < >u
the contrary, if the question of population be such that it would be
advantageous for the Indians to report as small a number as possible,
scarcely any infants could be readily found.
The report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for 1863 places the
Menomini population at 1,724 souls, while some years later (in 1872)
the population on the reservation was 1,362. The report of the same
officer for the year 1882 places the population at 1,500; for the year
1884 at 1,400; for 1890 at 1,311, and for the year 1892, as above stated,
the total is given as 1,335, not including those residing at and in the
vicinity of Oconto, who number about 300.
The Menomini Indians are rapidly adopting the pursuits of civilized
people, considering the comparatively short period of time since they
' Coll. Mass. Hist. Soc, vol. iv, 1795 pp 99-lui).
2 Report to the Sec of War, New Haven, 1822, p. 51.
3 Report Commissioner Iml. AS.. Washington, 1843, p 440
4 History of the Catholic Missions, John Gilmary Shea, New York (1854 h
14 ETH 3
34 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [kth.ann.u
wore blankets and subsisted almost exclusively by the chase. But
little hunting is done at this day, although deer, bear, and smaller
animals are abundant. This tribe has always beeu friendly to the
whites, and their reception of strangers is hospitable. Major Zebulon
Montgomery Pike, in his "Expeditious," mentions a meeting in Min-
nesota with Shawano and his band, who had gone hunting, and after
recounting the statements concerning the personal appearance of the
people, says:
From my own observation, I had sufficient reason to confirm their information as
respected the males ; for they were all straight and well made, about the middle size;
their complexions generally fair for savages, their teeth good, their eyes large and
rather languishing; they have a mild but independent expression of countenance,
that charms at first sight ; in short, they would be considered any where, as hand-
some men. 1
Charlevoix, after referring to the single village which he found, and
remarking that the nation was not numerous, says: "'Tis really great
pity, they being the finest and handsomest meu in all Canada." 2 It is
to be regretted that this statement can not.now be substantiated.
Colonel Charles Whittlesey, in his Recollections of a Tour through
Wisconsin in 1832, says of the Menomini:
In person they are a thick-set frame, less tall, and in hetter condition than most
Indians, aud at least equally indolent. The thief is not bo common a character with
them as with many other tribes. Their attachment to the United States has not
beeu exceeded by any Indian people. 3
Mr Grignon, 4 whose authority regarding the Menomini is beyond
question, since he was himself connected with this tribe by blood and
was a life- long resident among them, remarks:
The Menomonees were less warlike than the Sauks and Foxes; they, at least, did
not get embroiled in wars with other Indian nations as much as the other tribes
. . . My grandfather remarked, that he regarded the Menomonees as the most
peaceful, brave, and faithful of all the tribes who ever served under him. This was
a high compliment, hut in my opinion richly merited. They have ever proved, as a
nation, friendly to the whites; and in the general Indian plot of Fontiae, in 1763,
the Menomonees alone kept aloof, and rendered signal services to Lieut. Gorrell aud
party at Green hay.
Of the aggregate population of 1,035, 1,000 are reported as members
of the church, services being conducted by the Franciscan fathers;
while the two schools accommodate over 300 pupils, who are makiug
satisfactory progress in education. Drunkenness is the most serious
evil from which the Indians suffer, though the number of instances of
intoxication is not so great as on many reservations more favorably
situated for obtaining liquor. Crime is rare among the Menomini;
during the fiscal year ended June 30. 1802, only six criminals were con-
victed by the Indian court. This court, which is a model of its kind,
1 Acct.of Expeds. ti> the Sources of the Mississippi, Phil'a, 1810. p. 83.
2 Op. cit., vol. ii,p. 61.
3 Recol. of a. Tour Through Wis. in 1832; in Coll. Hist. Soc. of Wisconsion for 1854, vol. i, 1855, p. 09.
4 Augustin Griguoii, Coll. Hist. Soc. of Wis. for 1856, vol. iii, 1857, p. 265.
:
hoffman] CAPTIVES HELD AS SLAVES 35
is composed of Nio'pet, Chickeny (Ma'tshikineuT ), and M'aqtawa'pomi,
tbree worthy representatives of the Menomini, the former being at the
same time civil chief of the tribe, while the last named is second chief.
During the early part of the present century Indian captives were
held as slaves. Augustin Grignou ' is responsible for the following
statement
During the constant wars of the Indians, several of the Wisconsin tribes were in
the habit of making captives of the Pawnees, Osages, Missouries, and even of the
distant Mandans, and these were consigned to servitude. I know that the Ottawas
and Sauks made such captives; but am not certain about the Menomonees, Chippe-
was, Pottawottamies, Foxes and Wiunebagoes. The Menomonees, with a few indi-
vidual exceptions, did not engage in these distant forays. The Menomonees, and
probably other tribes, had Pawnee slaves, which they obtained by purchase of the
Ottawas, Sauks and others who captured them ; but I never knew the Menomonees to
have any by capture, and but a few by purchase. For convenience sake, I suppose,
they were all denominated Pawnees, when some of them were certainly of other
Missouri tribes, as I have already mentioned, for I have known three Osages, two
Missouries, and oue Mandan among these Indian slaves. Of the fourteen whom I
have personally known, six were males and eight females, and the most of them
were captured while young. I have no recollection as to the pecuniary value of
these slaves or servants, but I have known two females sold, at different times, each
for one hundred dollars.
Speaking of the treatment of slaves by their owners, Mr Grignon
continues: 2
When these Pawnee slaves had Indian masters, they were generally treated with
great severity. ... A female slave owned by a Menomonee woman, while sick,
was directed by her unfeeling mistress to take off her over-dress, and she then delib-
erately stabbed and killed her; and this without a cause or provocation, and not in
the least attributable to liquor. It should also be mentioned, on the other hand*
that Mas-caw, a Pawnee among the Menomonees, was not treated or regarded as a
slave, and married a chief's daughter, and lived with them till his death, and has
now a gray-headed son living at Lake Shawanaw.
It has already been stated that Osh'kosh, fifty years ago, publicly
asserted that his family was without doubt the only one of pure Men-
omini blood. From an examination of the genealogies of many of the
old men, this statement does not seem at all incredible, and it may be
questioned if at this day there remains a. single individual free from
the taint of foreign blood, either white or Indian. Concerning this
Dr Morse makes the following statement:
Jud—ge Reaume, an Indian Trader, who has resided at Green Bay thirty years, saidto me "The Menomonees, in great part, are of mixed blood, Ottawas, Chippewas,
Pottawattamies, Sacs, and Foxes, with whom they intermarry. There is an inti-
mate intercourse between all these tribes, who have a common language, (the Chip-
pewa), which they all understand, and many of them hunt together in the interior
of the N. W. territory, on the headwaters of tbe Fox and Ouisconsin rivers." 3
The better informed men of the tribe at the present time are aware
of the intermixture of blood, and marriages are frequently formed with
1 Seventy-two years' Recol. of Wis. ; in Coll. Hist. Soc. of Wis. for 1856. vol. iii, 1857, p. 256.
3 Ibul.,p.258.
3 Report to Secretary of War, New Haven. 1822, pp.57, 58.
36 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ann. 14
Ojibwa, Potawatomi, and other Indian tribes, as well as with whites.
This may be one of the reasons for the imperfect grammatic structure
of the language as well as for its rather limited vocabulary.
Reverend Allied Branson, 1 in his account of the early history of
Wisconsin, refers to this tribe as follows:
Tbe Meuomouees were the uext tribe, in point of importance, though of prior date
to some others, among the first Aboriginal occupants of what is now the State of
Wisconsin. They were of the Algonquin race, but appear to have quarreled with,
or rebelled against tbe national authorities of the Chippewas, and were probably
driven from Canada on account of it, and took shelter with other straggling and
adventurous bauds on the common battle-field between the Algic and Dahkota races,
in the vicinity of Green Bay.
Charlevoix visited Green bay in 1721, and after relating his experi-
ence in navigating down the western shore, says:
We found ourselves abreast of a little island, which lies near the western side of
the bay, and which concealed from our view, the mouth of a river, on which stands
the village of the Malhomines Indians, called by our French Folles .troti/ex or Wild
Oat Indians, probably from their living chiefly on this sort of grain. The whole
nation consists only of this village, aud'that too not very numerous. 'Tis really
great pity, they being the finest and handsomest men in all Canada. They are even
of a larger stature than the Poutewatamies. I have been assured that they had the
same original and nearly the same languages with the Noquets, and the Indians at
the Falls. But they add that they have likewise a language peculiar to themselves,
which they never communicate. I have also been told several stories of them, as of
a serpent which visits their village every year and is received with much ceremony,
which makes me believe them a little addicted to witchcraft. -
The Noquets are also mentioned by Charlevoix as not a numerous
nation, living on a bay or gulf of the Noquets. They originally ''came
from the coasts of Lake Superior, and of which there remain only a
few scattered families, who have no fixed residence."
ANTIQUITIES
Mounds are reported as very numerous throughout the area embraced
within the boundaries of the Menomini reservation, but thus far no
special Examination of them has been made. The mounds are most
numerous along the lake shores, especially north and northeast of
Keshena, though but few relics have as yet been unearthed. Major
Thomas II. Savage, the preseut Indian agent, informed me that he had
opened several mounds, about S miles east of the agency, and had
found human remains, as well as a few cupper spearheads, one of which
is illustrated in figure 1. The specimen is quite neatly made, and
appears originally to have been sharpened along the edges, as the cut-
ting edge is still in very good condition.
The greater number of these mounds appear to be entirely barren-
One group, situated between 7 and S miles north-northeast of Keshena,
is represented in plate rr. They are situated about 400 yards west of
1 Ooll. Hist. Soc. of Wisconsin, vol. iv. 1859. pp. 242. 243.
3 Journal of a Voyage to North America, London, 1781, vol. ii, p. Gl.

BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY FOURTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. II
A
m i'
N
m
Mm.
€g :SJ (J
f
Ml =iS
' II
GROUP OF MOUNDS NEAR KESHENA
MOUNDS NEAR KESHENA 37
the shores of a small lake, and perhaps 50 feet above the water level.
Pine, oak, and other trees grow plentifully all over the area. In nearly
every instance there is present about the base of the mound a slight
depression, perhaps scarcely perceptible, 1 to inches in depth, and
one-third or one-half as broad as the width of the mound itself. This
appears to have resulted from the removal of the earth for the construc-
tion of the mound. The height of these mounds varies from li to 3
feet, and they are of varying dimensions, as noted below. They are
nearly all so constructed that the longitudinal axis is north-and-south.
In the following measurements only approximate dimensions are given,
as frequently the outlines can not be determined accurately. A num-
ber of excavations were made, but no implements or other
objects were found. The soil forming the mounds is
usually light and sandy.
The mound a (platen) is slightly curved longitudinally
toward the east of north; it measures 42 feet long and 14
feet broad. The surrounding depression is well marked,
while the greatest height of the mound is U A feet.
The mound marked b measures 58 feet in length by Hi in
width, and shows a shallow ditch around its base. It
is about the same height as the preceding.
The mound c is of rather curious form, and although
nearly 3 feet high along its central ridge, the sides arc
considerably worn down. There are two projections, one
at each end, the one at the northeast measuring about
20 feet across its entire width and the southwestern one
28 feet, the length of the mound from southwest to
northeast being 48 feet. The depression around the out-
line of this mound is pronounced.
The fourth mound, d, is placed almost at right angles Fig. 1—Copper
to the axis of the preceding and measures 30 feet in length spearpoiot.
and 24 in width. On the center of this mound stands a pine tree over
2 feet in diameter.
Mound e measures 20 feet in length by 18 feet in width; both this
and the preceding are less than 2 feet in height.
Mound /"measures 32 feet in length by 15 in width.
Mound g is slightly curved toward the west of north, and measures
70 feet in length by 30 feet in average width.
The mound at h is slightly narrower along the middle than at the
extremities, and measures about 50 feet in length by 20 in width. A
large pine tree occupies the middle of the northern extremity. (Several
trenches were cut transversely through this mound.)
The mound at i measures 22 feet by 12 feet in area, showing a slight
indentation in the western side.
Mound j measures 65 feet in length, 20 feet across at the southern
extremity, and only 10 at the opposite end. This extremity is somewhat
38 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ann.U
straightened across and indented, as if it might have been an attempt
at forming an animal mound.
The next mound, k, toward the south, extends 80 feet from southwest
to northeast, and is only 12 feet across. The surrounding depression
is at several places about a foot in depth. It is much overgrown with
saplings and brush, a circumstance not occurring in connection with
any of the other mounds.
A short distance east of mound k are two other mounds, / and /»,the
former measuring 50 feet in length by IS in width, the latter 50 feet in
length by 15 or 10 in width.
East of this area, as well as north and south of it, at varying dis-
tances, mounds were visible, and many others were reported.
In the immediate vicinity of Keshena there are many remains of
this character. North of the village is a high ridge covered with
immense pines and oaks, which elevation separates the valley of Wolf
river from some marshy lakes on the south. The top of this ridge is
just wide enough to use as a roadway, and is about 75 feet above the
river, which is distant some 200 yards. The ridge extends from south-
west to northeast, and appears to have been formed by glacial action;
its total length between the two areas in which it merges into the nat-
ural prairie level is about one-third of a mile, and at various places
along the upper surface there are the remains of mounds averaging 12
to 15 feet in diameter and from 'J.i to i feet in height. Some of these
have been opened at some time during the past, and it is reported that
one or two of them contained human bones.
Ten miles north of Keshena, near "Wolf river, there are several large
circular mounds, but no examination of them has been made.
This country was, previous to the appearance of the Menomini in
1852, claimed by the Ojibwa, bands of this tribe having lived east of
Keshena, about Shawano lake. The Ojibwa of Wisconsin, as well as
of Minnesota, allege, however, that they do not know who built these
mounds; but they generally attribute them to the Dakota, who, they
claim, were the first occupants of the country.
Fragments of pottery are occasionally found in the vicinity of mounds,
ami these, likewise, are attributed by the Menomini to their predeces-
sors. Occasional arrowheads of quartzite, jasper, and hornstone occur,
which also are believed to have been made by the Dakota or some other
Siouan tribe now residing westward from this locality.
About .'5 miles northwest of Keshena. near Wolf river, there is a
large conical bowlder of pink granite, measuring about 6 feet in height
and 4 feet in diameter at the base. This rock is in a state of disinte-
gration, and is regarded by the Menomini as a manido. In a myth
given elsewhere it is related that a party of Indians once called on
Ma'nabush to ask for favors, and that all of them were accommodated
save one. who had the temerity to ask for everlasting life. Ma'nabtish,
it is related, took this man by the shoulders and thrust him upon the
boffman] MYSTIC BOWLDER 39
earth, saying, "You shall have everlasting life," whereupon he instantly
became a rock. This rock, on account of its flesh like tint, is believed
to be the remains of the unfortunate Indian, who has now become a
niauido. It is the custom for all passing Indians to deposit at the base
of the rock a small quantity of tobacco.
TRIBAL GOVERNMENT, TOTEMS AND CHIEFS
THE LINES OF CHIEFTAINCY
Since the time of the conspiracy of Poutiac, the Meuomini Indians
have figured in history to greater or less extent, and it is from such
sources, as well as from tradition, that some knowledge is derived
pertaining to the chiefs of the tribe. There appear to be two lines,
from both of which there have arisen, from time to time, claimants to
the civil chieftainship of this tribe; although the Indians generally
admit that the Owa/sse, or Rear, totem is traditionally the oldest, as
well as the gens from which the civil chief should be selected. To
make intelligible the reasoniug on which the Menomini base their
sociologic organization, and the order of precedence and civil govern-
ment, the following explanation of the mythic origin of their totems
and totemic organization is presented somewhat fully. The myth was
obtained from a number of the older and influential chiefs, subchiefs,
and nntii'wok, prominent among whom were Nio'pet, Nia'qtowa'pomi,
and Mii'tshi Kine'uT .
ORIGIN OF TOTEMS
It is admitted that originally there were a greater number of totems
among the Menomini than at the present time, but that they gradually
became extinct. The tradition relating to some of them is here given,
the translation being literal so nearly as possible:
When the Great Mystery ' made the earth, he created also numerous
beings termed mauidos or spirits, giving them the forms of animals
and birds. Most of the former were malevolent ana'niaqki'u (" under-
ground beings"); the latter consisted of eagles and hawks, known as
the Thunderers, chief of which was the Invisible Thunder, though rep-
resented by Kine'uT , the Golden Eagle.
When Mashii' Ma'nido—the Good Mystery—saw that the bear was
still an animal, he determined to allow him to change his form. The
Bear, still known as Nanoqke, was pleased at what the Good Mystery
was going to grant him, and he was made an Indian, though with a
light skin. This took place at Mi'nika'ni se'pe (Menomini river), near
the spot where its waters empty into Green bay, and at this place also
the Bear first came out of the ground. He found himself alone, and
L Maaha' Ma'nido, or Great Unknown. This term is not to be understood as implying a belief in one
supreme being; there are several manidos, each supreme in his own realm, as well as many lesser
mysteries, or deities, or spirits. Neither is it to be regarded as implying a definite recognition of spir-
ituality corresponding to that of civilized peoples, for the American Indians have not fully risen to
the plane of psychotheism j compare the Siouan concept as defined by Horsey, Eleventh Annual
"Report, 18'.M, p. 395 ct seq.
40 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [etb.ann.14
decided to call to himself KinS'u*, the Eagle, and said, " Eagle, come
to me and be my brother." Thereupon the eagle descended, and also
took the form of a human being. While they were considering whom
to call upon to join them, they perceived a beaver approaching. The
Beaver requested to be taken into the totem of the Thunderers, but,
being a woman, was called Nama'kuklu' (Beaver woman), and was
adopted as a younger brother of the Thunderer. (The term younger
brother is here employed in a generic sense, and not specifically.) The
totem of the Beaver is at present termed the Powa'tinot'. Soon after-
ward, as the Bear and the Eagle stood on the banks of a river, they saw
a stranger, the Sturgeon (NIoma'eu), who was adopted by the Bear as a
younger brother and servant. In like manner Omas'kos, the Elk, was
accepted by the Tliunderer as a younger brother and water-carrier.
At another time the Bear was going up Wisconsin river, and becom-
ing fatigued sat down to rest. Near by was a waterfall, from beneath
which emerged Moqwai'o. the Wolf, who approached and asked the
Bear why lie had wandered to that place. The Bear said that he was
on his way to the source of the river, but being fatigued and unable to
travel farther, he had come there to rest. At that moment Ota'tshia
(the crane), was Hying by, when the Bear called to him and said:
"Crane, carry me to my people at the head of the river, and I will
take you for my younger brother." As the Craue was taking the Bear
on his back, the Wolf called out to the Bear, saying, " Bear, take me
also as a younger brother, for I am alone." The Bear answered, " Come
with nie Wolf, and I will accept you also as my younger brother." This
is how the Crane and the Wolf became younger brothers of the Bear;
but as Moqwai'o, the Wolf, afterward permitted Aniim', the Dog, and
Aba/shush, the Deer, to join him, these three are now recognized as a
phratiy, the Wolf still being entitled to a seat in council on the north
side and with the Bear phratry.
Ina'maqkI'uT (the Big Thunder) lived at Winnebago lake, near Fond
da Lac. The Good Mystery made the Thunderers the laborers, and to
be of benefit to the whole world. When they return from the south-
west in the spring, they bring the rains which make the earth green and
cause the plants and trees to grow. I* it were not for the Thunderers,
the earth would become parched and the grass would wither and die.
The Good Mystery also gave to the Thunderers corn, the kind commonly
known as squaw corn, which grows on small stalks and has ears of
various colors.
The Thunderers M'ere also the makers of fire, having first received it
from Ma'nabush, who had stolen it from an old man dwelling on an
island in the middle of a great lake.
The Thunderers decided to visit the Bear village, at Mi'nika'ni, and
when they arrived at that place they asked the Bear to join them,
promising to give corn and fire in return for rice, which was the prop-
erty of the Bear and Sturgeon, and which abounded along the waters of
Mi'nika'ni. The Bear family agreed to this, and since that time the
hoffman] THE TOTEMIC SYSTEM 41
two families have therefore lived together. The Bear family occupies the
eastern side of the council, while the Thunderers sit on the western side.
The latter are the war chiefs and have charge of the lighting of the fire.
The Wolf came from Moqwai'o O'sepe'ome (" Wolf, his creek"). The
Dog (Amim') was born at Nomawi'qkito (Sturgeon bay); the Abii'shush
(deer) came from Sha'wano Nipe'se (Shawano or Southern lake) and,
together with the Bog, joined the Wolf at Menomini river.
After this union, the Bear built a loDg wigwam, extending north-
and-south, and a fire was kindled by the Thunderers in the middle.
From this all the families receive fire, which is carried to them by one
of the Thunderers, and when the people travel the Thunderers go on
ahead to a camping place and start the fire to be used by all.
THE TOTEMS OF THE PRESENT
The Menomini totems or gentes as they exist at this day are as fol-
lows, arranged in their respective phratries and in order of importance:
I. Owa'sse wi'dishi'anuu, or Bear phratry:
Owa'sse Bear
Kitii'mi Porcupine
Miqka'no Turtle
Ota/tshia Crane
Moqwai'o Wolf
Mikek' Otter
Nomii'eu Sturgeon
Naku'ti Sunfish.
Although the Wolf is recognized as a member of the Bear phratry,
his true position is at the head of the third phratry.
II. Ina'maqki'fr wi'dishi'anuu. or Big Thunder phratry:
Kiue'u T Golden Eagle
Shawa'nani' Fork-tail Hawk
Pinash'iu Bald Eagle
Opash'koshi Turkey-buzzard
Pakask'tsheke'u' .... Swift-flying Hawk
Pe'kike'kuue Winter Hawk (remains all
winter in Wisconsin)
Ke'shewa'toshe Sparrow Hawk
Maq'kwoka'ui Bed-tail Hawk
Kaka'ke Grow
Imiq'tek Baven
Piwat'inot' Beaver (former name Noma'i)
Omas'kos Elk
Una'wanink' Pine Squirrel.
III. Moqwai'o wi'dishi'anuu, or Wolf phratry:
Moqwai'o Wolf
Anam' Dog
Abii'shush Deer.
42 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth. ann. u
According to Shu'nien and Wios'kasit the arrangement of totems into
phratries and subphratries was as follows:
T. The Owa'sse wi'dishi'anun, or Bear phratry, consisting of the follow-
ing totems and subphratries:
Owa'sse Bear \
Miqka'no Mud-turtle y Totems
Kita'mi Porcupine J
Nama'nu Beaver \ Subphratries (these
0"sass Muskrat j two being brothers).
II. The Kine'u 1' wi'dishi'anun, or Eagle phratry, consisting of the fol-
lowing totems:
Piniish'iu Bald Eagle
Kaka'ke Crow
Inii'qtek Raven
Ma'qkuana'ni Red-tail Hawk
"Hinana'skhr" Golden Eagle
Pe'niki'konau Fish Hawk
III. The Otii'tshia wi'dishi'anun, or Crane phratry, consisting of the
following totems:
Otii'tshia Crane
Shakshak'eu Great Heron
Os'se "Old Squaw" Duck
O'kawa'siku Coot
IV. The Moqwai'o wi'dishi'anun, or Wolf phratry, consisting of the
following totems:
Moqwai'o Wolf
" Hana" [anii'm] Dog
Apaq'ssos Deer
V. The Mo"s wi'dishi'anun. or Moose phratry, with the following totems:
Mo*s Moose
Oma'skos Elk
Waba'shiu Marten
Wu'tshik ... Fisher
TOXEMIC ORGANIZATION
After Hie several totems congregated and united into an organized
body for mutual benefit, according to the myth, they still were without
the means of providing themselves with food, medicinal plants, and
the power to ward off disease and death.
When the Good Mystery beheld the people on the new earth, and
found fchem afflicted with hardship and disease, and exposed to constant
annoyance from the malevolent underground beings (the ana'maqki'u),
lie concluded to provide them with the means of bettering their condi-
tion, and accomplished it by sending down to the earth one of his
'
boffman] DESCENT OF CHIEFS 43
companion mysteries named Ma'nabQsh. This is explained in the
tradition called The Story of Ma'nabush; or, "Ma'nabfish A'tano'-
qen," and forms one of the lectures delivered by the Mita'wok, in the
mita'wiko'mik, at the initiation into that order of a new candidate.
From the foregoing it will be observed that the claims to authority
by the family of which Nio'pet, the present chief, is the head are well
founded. Furthermore, mother-right, the older form of descent in the
female line, is not now recognized by the Menomini, who have advanced
to the next stage, that of father-right, or descent in the male line.
Mr Sutherland, in his remarks on early Wisconsin explorations and
settlements, makes note of the existence of totems or gentes, the heads
of each of which were entitled to a certain degree of authority through
which they were designated as chiefs or sachems. The existence of
such various grades of rank often gives rise to confusion, unless the
exact grade of such rank be ascertained. Regarding the descent of
chiefs this author remarks:
There were, in some instances, several clans existing among the same general trilie
or nation, whose principal or leader was also denominated a sachem or chief. Hence
we account for the fact, that several persons in the same tribe bear the title of
"chief These minor chiefs, however, held only subordinate positions. Indeed,
the leading chief, in time of peace, was not invested with any extraordinary powers.
All matters of importance had to be settled by the tribe, in general council. When
a chief died, his position was claimed, as a general rule, by his son, or some kinsman,
as a hereditary right; but ol'tener, perhaps, the succession was in the female line.
In some instances, when this right fell to one who was judged unworthy to possess
it, the tribe chose their own chiefs. As instances of this kind, Brant of the
Mohawks, and Tomah of the Menomonees, were placed in that position, for their
superior wisdom and valor.
Some of the ancient customs respecting the disposition of property
and children, in the event of the death of either parent, are still spoken
of, though now seldom, if ever, practiced. As descent was in the
mother's line, at her death both children and personal effects were
transmitted to the nearest of the mother's totemic kin, while at the
death of the father his personal property was divided among his
relatives or the people of his totem.
Another interesting condition was the general belief i.i the common
relationship of not only the individuals of a certain totem within the
tribe, but of all persons of a similarly named totem of another tribe
belonging to the same linguistic family; and in the belief of the
Menomini (and Ojibwa of Red lake, Minnesota) this extended also to
tribes other than those of the same linguistic family. An instance of
this may be referred to in the remarks of several mita'wok of the Bear
totem, who stated that the individuals of the Bear totem of the Sioux
must be of the same kinship with themselves, as they had the same
common ancestor. This peculiarity of belief obtains also among some
of the Australian peoples.
1 Col. Hist. Soo. of Wisconsin, vol. x, pp. ISO, 281, 1888.
44 THE MKNOMINI INDIANS [eth.ann.H
Reference is made elsewhere to the killing of animals which are the
same as the totem of the hunter. Although a Bear man may kill a
bear, he must first address himself to it and apologize for depriving it
of life; and there are certain portions only of which he may eat, the
head and paws being tabu, and no member of his totem may partake
of these portions, although the individuals of all other totems may
do so.
1 1 may be of interest in this connection to state that one of the nearest
linguistic allies of the Menomiui, the Ottawa, claim to be originally of
the Mo'\s. or Moose, totem. This is stated by Mr A. J. Blackbird, one
of the most intelligent of the tribe, as well as oue of the headmen, to
be the designation of the "true" or full-blood Ottawa, and that other
totems were added through the intermarriage of Ottawa women with
men of other tribes because children inherit the mother's totem. He
stated also that his father had been of the I'i'pigwe"', or " Little Hawk,"
totem of another tribe, and in this wise the totem became added to the
Ottawa. In like manner was the Wabus', or ''Babbit," totem added,
this tribe coming from the vicinity of Hudson bay or Lake of the
Woods, where they are said to have occupied "caves and holes in the
ground." Intermarriage with the Potawatomi was common, but this
tribe designated the Ottawa as Nisai'"en and Nisa'sa, "big brother" or
"elder brother."
GENEALOGY OF CHIEFS
The Menoniini claim always to have had a first or grand chief, and a
second or war chief, beside many subchiefs who were heads of bands
or of families. In the event of the death of the grand chief, the eldest
son succeeded, unless a more popular pretender could enroll in his own
behalf the greater influence in the tribe. Since the election of Xio'pet,
the second chief has been i^i'aqtawa'pomi, a man of steady habits and
influence, and one in whom the tribe has confidence. Ni'aqtawa'ponii,
however, is not related to Nio'pet's family or gens, but was designated
to fill this office because the legal claimants adopted the manners and
pursuits of civilization, and will probably never permit their names to
be proposed as successors to their father's position. When the chief
of the tribe dies and leaves a minor son, the second or war chief acts
as regent until the heir attains an age at which he is deemed com-
petent to govern.
The present divisions or bands of the Menomini are named after the
heads of each band, and number eleven, viz: (1) Osh'kosh; (l!) Aia'-
miqta; (3) Sha'kitok, at present under Ni'aqtawa'ponii (!) Ma'nabu'-;
sho; (5) Le Motte; (G) Piwa'qtiuet; (7) Pesh'tiko; (8) O'hope'sha;
(9) Ke'shok, or Ke'so; (10) Aqka'mot, now under charge of Ma'tshiki-
ne'uv (11) Shu'nu'ni'iV", or Shu'nien.
;
In addition to the several chiefs, there was formerly more need of
the services of a spokesman or orator, upon whom devolved the duties
of promulgating the wishes of the supreme chief; or, in the event of a
HOFFMAN] DIVISIONS OF THE TRIBE 45
council or treaty with another tribe or with a civilized nation, his ser-
vices as orator and diplomat were demanded in behalf of the tribe.
The incumbent of such an office was not eligible for, nor in line of, pro-
motion to the office of either war chief or grand chief, although such an
accession could be accomplished at the desire of the tribal council, or
by the tribe itself, in the event of the legitimate heir being a minor or
an idiot, or in case there was no direct heir, or perhaps even when the
incumbent had gained a following in the tribe sufficiently influential
and powerful to insure him safety in his promotion.
From the following genealogies of the two lines of chiefs, the so-called
Oarron family and the Osh'kosh family, it will be observed that the
former gained their hold on the affairs of the tribe during the last cen-
tury, although the ancestors of the present chief, Nio'pet, are the legit-
imate heirs, from botli traditional and historical evidence, to the office
of grand chief, an office which has always been one of the prerogatives
of the Owa'sse doda'mi, or Bear totem.
Tsheka'tshake'mau—or Sheka'tshokwe'mau " Old Chief," or " The
Old King," as he is generally designated in literature—was chief in 17(53,
when Carron, a French half-blood trader, was his spokesman, and subse-
quently became his successor (see Carron's genealogy). A number ofthe
headmen of the tribe, as well as descendants of Carron, affirm that he
was the offspring of a French Canadian father and an Abnaki woman.
Be this as it may, they all acknowledge that Tsheka/tshake'niau was
chief when Carron appeared at Green bay.
The late Mr Draper, in his compilation of historical data relative to
the settlements at Green bay, says:
Cha-kau-cho-ka-ma sickened ami died, while temporarily at Prairie du Chien
with some of his family, about 1821; he was then nearly blind, and I think he was
at least one hundred years old. He was a man of good sense, but no public speaker,
and was highly esteemed by his nation. His certificate as Grand Chief of the
Menomonees, given him by Gov. Haldimand, of Canada, August 17, 1778, which
has been preserved by his family, is now in the Cabinet of the Historical Society. 1
It is believed that Tsheka'tshake'mau was about a hundred years of
age at the time of his death, but for this impression no reliable data
are at hand. The name of " Old Chief" was without doubt applied to
this man late in life, and as the above-mentioned diploma bears the
name of Chawanou (Sha'wano), ''Southerner," it is probable that he
may have been so named in his earlier life, or that, perhaps, the Cana-
dian authorities may have so designated him at the time of naming him
chief of the Meuomini, because he came from a more southerly tribe.
A facsimile of his cortificate as grand chief of the Menomini is pre-
sented herewith as plate III.
The genealogy of the Oshkosh family is as follows:
1. Tsheka'tshake'mau, " Old Chief," head of the Owa'sse doda'mi,
married (name of wife unknown) and had issue.
(2) I. A'kwine'mi.
1 Coll. Hist. Soc. of Wisconsin, vol. iii, p. 226. note.
:
46 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ann.14
2. A'kwine'mi (Tsheka'tshake'mau) of the Owa'sse doda'mi, married
(name of wife unknown) and had issue.
(3) I. Osh'kusli.
(4) II. Oshkiq'hina'niuT.
3. O.sh'kosh (A'kwine'mi) "Bear's Claw;" of tlie Owa'sse doda'ini,
boru 1795, died August 21, 1858. Osh'kosh was a celebrated
character; Mr Grignon, who knew him personally, says: ]
Osh-kosh, and bis brother Osh-ka-he-nah-niew, or The Young Man, are
grandsons of Cha-kau-cko-ka-ma, or The Hid King, so long the grand chief
of the nation, and whose place Osh-kosh, by inheritance, has possessed
since 1827. As we have seen, Osh-kosh was upon the war-path in 1812-14,
under the special superintendence of Tomah, and under Stambaugh in
1832. The word Osh-kosh signifies brave, and such this chief has always
proved himself. He is now sixty-two years of age, while his brother, 27ie
Young Man, whose name begins to be a misnomer, is now fifty-one. Osh-
kosh is only of medium size, possessing much good sense and ability, but
is a great slave to strong drink, and two of his three sons surpass their
father in this beastly vice.
Keferring to the treaty of Butte des Morts, in 1827, General
Albert G. Ellis 2 says:
It was at this treaty, that Oshkosh. the present head Chief of the Menomo-
nees, was first recognized. After the Councir was open, Gov. Cass said
" We have observed for some time the Menomonees to be in a bad situa-
tion as to their chiefs. There is no one we can talk to as the head of the
nation. If anything should happen, we want some man, who has author-
ity iu the nation, that we can look to. You appear like a flock of geese,
without a leader, some fly one way and some another. Tomorrow, at the
opening of the Council, we shall appoint a principal chief of the Menomo-
nees. We shall make enquiry this afternoon, and try to select the proper
man. We shall give him the medal, and expect the Menomonees to respect
him."
The following note respecting Osh'kosh, is quoted at secoud
hand from Lyman 0. Draper, 3 and relates to the time of the
same treaty:
On August 7th, two young men were called in front of the commission-
ers (one named Oiscoss, alias Claw, the other was (ailed Carron). Col.
McKinney then addressed them, and put medals around theft necks. Oiscoss
or Oskoshe, . . . was made head chief, and the future organ of com-
munication with the Commissioners. A short story, will show who Oiscoss
was, and what a "proper person" was found iu him. One morning, at
dawn of day, about a year previous to the treaty of Butte des Morts, a
young half breed Indian, who was a distant relative of Mrs. Jourdan, was
paddling in his canoe down Hell Creek, a branch of the Fox River. It was
still dark, so that objects could not be distinctly discerned. As he glided
by the tall rushes growing near the bank, he observed them move, as if
some animal was among them. Supposing it to be a deer, he fired at the
spot where he saw the motion, and then paddled through an opening in
the reeds to see the effect of his shot. To his inexpressible horror, he
1 Seventy-two years' Recollections of Wisconsin, in Rep. and Col. Hist. Soc. of Wisconsin, vol. iii,
1857, p. 285.
•Coll. Hist. Soc. of Wis. for 1855. vol. ii, 1856, p. 430, note.
•Ibid. pp. 430, 431 quoted from Hanson's Lost Prince, or Life of Rev. Eleazer Williams.
, ;

BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY
P&X:*#>»#^^
FREDERICK HA
Province ofQuebec, &C.&,
Province, and Frontiers', &
A
JL N confideration of thejFidelity. zeala attachment, teftii
to the Kings Government, and by virtue of the power and autl
rity in me veiled, I do hereby confirm the faid 6fra*oas7Wy^
%ii>/<rr dhe i/p&s (^v-t^LeS aforefaid having bellowed uj
him the &?ad>/ Medal, willing all and fingular the India
Inhabitants thereof, to obey him as yr&std Chief, and
Officers and others in hij> Majefly's Service to treat him ace
dingly. GIVEN under niy hand and Seal at Arms, at Monti
this saefenforrdi Day of &t&**s</ One thoufand feven h
dred and feventy CiOfip in the (^.caSr/te&nA? Year of
Reign of our Sovereign liord George tne Third, by the Gr
of God of Great Britain, France and Ireland King, Defen
of the Faith and fo Forth
(
BY HIS EXCEL
CEKTIKICATE '
• 'I PL III
U»
VLrYNX). Captain-General a^d GovernpH^R*JCbisd' of the &!
?<?>*#/ tfW Commander in Chief of pis -Majeftys Forces in
9.
&VV7Z&
U R les bons temoignages qui IOUS ont ete endus de la
lite, le zele & l'attachement
jTroass jZe^rxrres au Gouvernei kit du Roi ; & en vertu
pouvoir a nous donne , nous l'avd confirme fr***v?/jfref
t ^cr&ktf {2&t&*?7^tf fufdit J ui ayant donne la <^r<x>rzdz
daille , Ordonnons a tous Sauvaj s & autres dudit Village ,
i'obeir comme (fra-nd Chef, & J ous nos OfHciers & autres
Service de Sa Majefte , d'avoii ur lui les egardsjdus a la
lite feyrattd£%&/?&&az Cvctrii Medaille : en foi de cpioi
is avons {igne la Prefente , a i e fait appofer le Cachet I
nos Armes , & contre-figne par un de nos Secretaires , a
ntreal ce /2^ <^6,/t&rr?eJ, jou^ &r^6<ttfz-^ l'annee mil
: cent foixante & oty-rfec*/
IKATSIIAKKMAU

BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY
&#&:#*;^
'Pf
FREDERICK HALiPlMAND^ Captain-General a«d Gover^*^
General and Commander in Chief of%is 'Majejlys Fo
&frt&Z&
m attachment, jUR les bons temoignagesN quiI lous ont ete endusconfutation of the ifidelity^ealand teMed de la
fidelite, le zele & l'attachement
Government and by virtue of the power and autho- dej
jbccks /%c*>mes au Gouvernei du Roi & en vertu
to the Kings
me do confirm the bAO^^Cnud
,
du pouvoir a nous donne , nous Favd is confirme yr***??/*??^
rity in veiled, I Oh^erfseby &jiaLw'^e?J^ aforefaid having bellowed upon! d* ^^ &~~*~ fufilit lui ayant donne la <2r/z**d* W
?s & autres dudit Village
.1 hito the fre*/ , #<tous nos Ofliciers & autres
"% SIInhabitants thereof,
| and others in his Vlajefty's Service to — ... de* ^W^~^ our lui les egardsjt^a #.Officers fa,
\ dinclv. GIVEN under my hand and Seal at Arms, at Montreal
quahte C^ctn Medaille : en foi de quoi jg.
*&**W thoufand feven hun- nous avons figne la Prefente , a l le fait appofer le Cachet
this \jU>enAe*>/A Day bf One #
j em £j9r** in the £M6*A( Year of the de nos Armes & contre-figne par un de nos Secretaires , a &* adreda anad feventy , /?.
George tne Tihmlrrod, buyv tuhiec Grace Montreal ce
/2k*
, M,ue™&)» y,s ,ou
^E^^t^zi--, l'annee mil #
'S Reign of our Sovereign l^ord <,'
| feptFrance and Ireland King, Defender cent foixante
v #
of God of Great Britain, & «^**/
of the Faith and fo Forth
Vi
* I '

—
HOFFMAN] osh'kosh 47
found an Indian in his canoe, which was half drawn on shore, drooping
lifelessly over the side of his hark, with a shot through his head. As the
deed was accidental, he had no wish to conceal it, and putting the body
iu his canoe, paddled down to Green Bay, to the encampment of Oiscoss,
as the Indian killed belonged to his party. On landing, he weut straight
to Oiscoss, and informed him of what had happened, when Oiscoss, who
was drunk at the time, drew his knife, aud plunging it repeatedly into
his body, continued stabbing him till he was dead. He was arrested for
murder, but as he was a man of great influence among the Indians, was
acquitted. But though he had escaped the law, there was another tri-
bunal, of a different kind, to which he was still exposed. There is a tra-
ditional institution among the Indians, very similar to the avenger of
blood. Mrs. Jourdan, as the relative of the slain, and a medicine woman
,
had only, according to the custom of the nation, to take a pipe and a war-
club, aud lay them down at the feet of any of the chiefs of the Menomouees,
and pronounce the name "Oiscoss/' in order to insure a just and immediate
retribution. When the day appointed for the council at Butte des Morts
drew near, fearing that unless he was reconciled with her, his life might
he taken, he proceeded to her house, acknowledged the murder, threw
himself on her mercy, and implored pardon. It was granted, and the only
puuishmeut he received was the fierce invective which the eloquent tongue
of an indignant woman can bestow.
Concerning the death of Osh'kosh, the following is from A. D.
Bonesteel, United States Indian agent at Green Bay agency,
Wisconsin, who in his report to the Commissioner of Indian
Affairs, 1858 (page 31), says:
The Meuomonees have recently met with a severe loss in the death of
Oshkosh, their principal chief [which occurred onAugust31]. . . The31st
day of August was a day the like of which will never be seen again by the
Meuomonee nation—a day on which not only the red man but the white
man mourued the loss of a brave and noble hearted man, whose place will
never be filled with another as much respected and honored ; as an orator
his equal has never been known in the Menomonee nation, and he would
rauk with many of his white brethren.
Nio'pet, son of Osh'kosh, and at present head chief of the
tribe, says that Ma'qkata'bit acted as regent during Osh'kosh's
minority. Several years since a scheme was proposed to
removt the remains of the chief to the city of Osh'kosh, and
there to erect a monument; but at present the matter is in
abeyance. Osh'kosh died, and was buried near Keshena, the
village on the present reservation.
Osh'kosh was married several times, his first wife being
Bamba'ni ("Flyiug-aboiit-the-sky") of the In;i'maqki'uv
, or
Thunder doda'mi, by whom there were three children
(5) I. A'kwine'mi,
(6) II. Nio'pet,
(7) III. Koshka'noqnt^'.
On the death of Bamba'ni, Osh'kosh married Shaka'uom'uT
("Decorated-with-plumes"), by whom there was no offspring.
— — ——
48 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ann.14
On the death of this woman, Osh'kosh married Tomo'ko'um,
by whom be bad a daughter
(8) IV. Kino'ke.
4. Oshkiq'hinaniuv (A'kwine'mi—"Tonng man") of the Owii'sse
dodii'mi, was born in 1800. He was speaker for tbe tribe at
Green Bay in 1X20, when Morse visited tbe Menomini. He was
married and has offspring
I. Joseph.
5. A'kwine'mi (Osh'kosh " In-the mouth-of everybody") is of the
Owii'sse doda'mi. He was born in 1822, and in 1859 succeeded
his father as chief. In 1871, while under the influence of liquor,
he stabbed a man, in consequence of which he was convicted
and sentenced to imprisonment, and for this reason was deposed,
Nio'pet succeeding. On his release, A'kwine'mi endeavored
to the utmost to recover his chieftaincy, but without avail. He
is still a well preserved man, but without influence (his por-
trait forms plate iv). He was married to Midii'skamo'qki
("Something coming"), also of the Owii'sse doda'mi, and had
eight or nine children, all deceased.
G. Nio'pet (Osh'kosh—"Four-in-a den"), a member of the Owii'sse
dodii'mi, was born sixty-one years ago, and, as above stated,
was elected chief in 1875 after the conviction and imprison-
ment of his brother A'kwine'mi. Nio'pet and his brothers are
perhaps the only full-blood Menomini Indians alive today.
Osh'kosh himself claimed this distinction for himself nearly
fifty years ago. Nio'pet is about 5 feet 9 inches in height, of
light brown color, high cheek bones, and in general expression
of countenance very decidedly like a Japanese. He has been
appointed judge of the Indian court, and is a man of honor
and veracity, and universally respected (figure 2). Ni'aqta-
wa'pomi is second chief and an able assistant, though not a
member of the same family and gens (figure 3).
Nio'pet is one of the chiefs of the Mitii'wit, and is enthusi-
astic in his devotion to the traditions and rites of the order.
Notwithstanding the fact that he is a so-called pagan, Nio'pet
has readily yielded to and in fact urged the adoption of the
Christian religion by his children, and nothing affords him
greater satisfaction and contentment of mind than the fact
that his late favorite daughter had been a devout and active
member of the church. His wife, a sister of Shu'nien, named
Wa'benomitii'mu "( Wabeno woman " ), of the Pa'kaa'qkiu
dodii'mi, is a quite good looking but rather stout woman, by
whom he has had fourteen children, the two survivors being
the sons
(9) I. Reginald,
(10) II. Ernest.
BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY FOURTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. IV
PORTRAIT OF A'KWINE'MI OSH'KOSH

—
HOFFMAN] OSH KOSH GENEALOGY 49
7. Koshka'noi^'e" (Osh'kosli), known also as John Oshkosh; was
married (name of wife unknown) and had a son
I. A'paixri'sia (married his cousin Kino'ke after the death of her
husband).
s. Kino'ke (Osh'kosli); was married first to Charles McOall, second
to her cousin A'paini'sia.
Fig. 3—Portrait of Nio'pet.
9. Reginald (Nio'pet, Osh'kosli) ; a young man twenty-five years of
age, a student in the Normal school at Lawrence, Kansas;
his education is quite good, indeed it is considerably beyond
the standard usually attained by Indian youth. He is direct
heir to the office of chief. He was married to Miss Roey Wil-
bur (who has some Menomini blood), and has one son, born
February 22, 1893.
14 eth 4
:
50 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [ETH. ANN. II
10. Ernest, (Xio'pet, Osh'ko.sh); lives at Keskena, the headquarters
of the tribe. He is twenty-one years of age, a steady young
man, and promises to make a good citizen.
The preceding- list of descendants of Sheka'tshokwe'mau is presented
graphically in the diagram on page 52, while the diagram on page 53
presents in a similar manner the genealogy of Thomas Carron, the
French Canadian mixed blood, who, with some of his descendants.
<*V*>
Fig. 3—Portrait of Ni'aqtawa'pomi.
has figured so extensively and indeed creditably in the history of the
Meuomini tribe.
The Carron genealogy is as follows
1. Carron (Thomas Carron, or Old Carron, called by the Indians
Kii'ron, Ko'ro) was born about the year 1700, probably in the
vicinity of Montreal, as he is mentioned as having come from
that locality to join the settlement at Green Bay, Wisconsin,
shortly after its founding by the Sieur de Langlade and his
few companions. Carron was a French trader. He married
—
hoffmanJ BIOGRAPHY OF CARRON 51
Waupesesiu ("The Wild Potato"), a sister of a prominent
Menomini, was inveigled into taking part with the Indians in
Pontiac's scheme for the capture of all the British frontier
posts, and was also persuaded to carry among his adopted peo-
ple a red wampum belt and to invite their assistance. Con-
cerning Garron, Augustin Grignon, 1 says:
At my father, Pierre Grignon's, then residing at Green Bay, Wau-pe-se-
pin was met by Old Carron, who, addressing him, said: ''I know the
object of your visit, and the purport of Pontiac's message ; I want no such
message as that, as I mean to do no wrong to my British friends. Is it
possible that you, too, are leagued with the Milwaukee band f Go back,
then, to your home among them, and let me see your face no more!"
Failing to inlluence his brother-in-law Carron, Wau-pe-se-pin gave up his
mission as hopeless, and retired to his cabin, instead of retracing his steps
to Milwaukee. While Carron and his faithful Menomonees were on the
alert, strictly watching lest the Milwaukee band might attempt some
mischief, which, however, they did not dare attempt, at length Lieut.
Gorrell, the commandant of the fort, receiving instructions to abandon
the post, left Green Bay, guarded to Mackinaw by Carron and a party of
Menomonees; and for his faithful adherence to the English, and rejection
of the counsels of Pontiac, Carron was subsequently presented with a
large silver medal by the British authorities, with a certificate of his
chieftainship and good services.
Carron was well liked by the French, and his marriage with
a Menomini woman gave him considerable influence with that
tribe, so that in 1703 (at the time of Pontiac's preparations for
attacking the British posts) he had become speaker for the
head chief of the Menomini, Sheka'tskokwe'niau, "Old Chief,"
or, as he is termed in history, "The Old King." It appears
from Grignou's statement, above cited, that Old Carron, beside
having offspring by his Menomini wife, "had two children
each by two other women, one of them a Sauk with whom he
became acquainted while on a war expedition against either the
Osage or Pawnee. He was regarded as the handsomest man
among the Menomini." Carron died in 1780, at the age ofeighty
. years. He had the following children, by his Menomini wife
(2) I. Konot',
(3) II. Tomau',
(4) III. Kii'ron, or Shekwa'nene',
(5) IY. Aia'mita,
V, VI, VII, daughters, one of whom was named Katlsh'.
2. Konot' (Carron); tins word is the Menomini pronunciation for
Claude, generally referred to in history as Glode. He was
born about 1716, and at the death of his father in 1780 suc-
ceeded him as chief.
About the fall of 1803 Glode went on a winter's hunt, taking his two
wives and five or six children with him, and somewhere on or near the
'Coll. Hist. Soc. of Wisconsin, veil. iii. 1S57. pp. 226. 227
U
THE MENOMINI INDIANS
EIH. ANN-
52
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H IFFMAN] GENEALOGY OF CARRON 53
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54 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ahh.M
Menomonee River, of Chippewa, the chief and all his family, save two
children by another marriage, sickened and died during the ensuing winter.
Glode was then not very far from sixty-four years of age. He was a
tall and well-proportioned man, of great personal prowess; sometimes at
a ball-play, when two or three would pitch on to him to keep him back, he
would dash ahead, not seeming in the least to mind them. As the orator
of his nation, he was a fine speaker, and his speeches were sensible and
to the purpose. He was a very successful hunter and trapper—accom-
plishments quite as popular with the Indians, as to be able to speak well
on public occasions. 1
Kouot' was married, but the name of his wife is not known.
He died in 1804, and had children
(6) I. Konot',
(7) II. Ka'roii,
(8) III. Dzho'seqkwai'o,
(9) IV. Sha'not,
(10) V. Margaret,
(11) VI. A'shawa'kiinau.
3. ToMAU' (Carron); known also as Toman, and Toinah. He was born
at Old Carron's village, opposite- Green Bay, on the western
bank of Fox river, about the year 1752.2 Mr Bidclle 3 says he
was a British Indian, while Shu'nien (a grandson) informed
the present writer that he came from Montreal, his mother in
all probability having belonged to the Abnaki tribe. Con-
cerning' Toman' Mr Grignon says:
Tomah was in early life regarded as a chief, and from my earliest recol-
lection, he seemed to be as much respected, and as influential, as Glode,
though the latter as his father's successor as chief speaker or orator of
the nation, really held the highest rank; and upon Glode's death, in 1804,
he became practically the head of the Menomoneea, though Cha-kan-cho-
ka-ma, or The Old King, was nominally the head chief, and out-lived
Tomah. 1
Captain Zebulon M. Pike 5 met Tomau' in the spring of 1806,
above Clearwater river, on the upper Mississippi, where Tomau
and a large baud of Fols Avoin (Menomini) were engaged in
their winter hunt. He says of him: '-This Thomas is a fine
fellow, of a very masculine figure, noble and animated delivery,
and appears to be very much attached to the Americans." He
remarks furthermore: "This chief was an extraordinary
hunter; to instance his power, he killed forty elk and a bear
in one day; chasing the former from dawn to eve."
Mr James W. Biddle, in his Recollections of Green Bay in
1816-17, remarks:
Tecumseh in 1810 or 1811, when forming his great combination for driv-
ing the Americans back, who like the waves of the sea, were encroaching
1 Grignon, in Rep. and Col. Hist. Soc. of Wisconsin, vol. iii, 1857, pp. 266, 267.
2 Ibid., p. 2117.
5 Ibid., vol. i, pp. 49-63.
4 Ibid., vol. iii, p. 267.
* An Account of Expeditions to the Sources of the Mississippi, etc., Philadelpbia, 1810, pp. 77. 7-.
:
hopfman] ACCOUNT OF TOMAU' 55
upon their hunting grounds, visited Green Bay, obtained a council and
hearing from Toman and his people, whom he addressed in a manner he
best knew how to do ; and in the course of which, in true Indian spirit, he
pictured the glory, as well as certainty of success, and as omens of this,
recapitulated to them his own hitherto prosperous career—the number of
battles he had fought, the victories he had won, the enemies he had slain,
and the scalps he had taken from the heads of warrior-foes. Tomah
appeared sensible of the influence of such an address upon his people, and
feared its consequence, for he was opposed to leading them into war.
His reply was in a tone to allay this feeling, and he closed with the remark
to them, that they bad heard the words of Tecumseh—heard of the battles
he had fought, the enemies he had slain, and the scalps he had taken. He
then paused; and wbilo the deepest silence reigned throughout the audi-
ence, he slowly raised his hands, with his eyes fixed on them, and in a
lower, but not less prouder tone, continued "But it is my boast that these
hands are unstained with human blood!" The effect is described as tremen-
dous—nature obeyed her own impulse, and admiration was forced even
from those who could not, or did not, approve of the moral to lie implied,
and the gravity of the council was disturbed, for an instant, by a murmur
of approbation—a tribute to genius, overpowering, at the moment, the
force of education and of habit. He concluded with remarking, that he
had ever supported the policy of peace, as his nation was small and conse-
quently weak; that he was fully aware of the injustice of the Americans
in their encroachments upon the lands of the Indians, and for them feared
its consequences, but that he saw no relief for it in going to war, and
therefore, as a national thing, he would not do so, but that if any of his
young men were desirous of leaving their bunting grounds, and follow-
ing Tecumseh, they had his permission to do so. His prudent counsels
prevailed. 1
Toman' and probably a hundred of his warriors accompanied
Colonel Uobert Dickson, in 1812, in the capture from the
Americans of Fort Mackinaw, though they did not have any
fighting. During this expedition Osh'kosh, subsequently head
chief of the tribe, was placed under Tomau"s special care. He
and a number of chiefs also accompanied Proctor and Dickson
in the attack on the fort at Sandusky. In 1814, with about
eighty of his Menomini, he again accompanied Colonel Dick
son to Mackinaw. They took an efficient part in the battle in
which the American commander, Major Holmes, fell.
Mr Biddle affirms that Tomau' had no hereditary claim to
the chieftaincy
This was held, at the time, by a man nearly as old as himself, who was
an idiot, but who they always took with them in their excursions. Tomau
merely ruled as the acknowledged strongest man of the nation, and this
he had continued to do for a great many years. 2
There is a slight difference of opinion as to the date of the
death of Tomau', Jedidiah Morse 3 giving the date of this event
as July 8, 1818, Biddle 4 also observing that the tombstone on
Col. Hist. Soc. of Wisconsin for 1854, vol. i, 1855, pp. 53, 54.
• 2 Ibid., p. 53.
3 Report to Secretary of War, Xew Haven, 1822, p. 53.
* Op. cit.. i, p. 58.
— — —
56 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ank.14
Mackinaw island bears this date, whereas Mr. Grignon 1
remarks:
It was in the summer of 1817, the next year after the arrival of the
Americans, that Tomah died at Mackinaw, at the age of about sixty-five
years. I fully agree with Mr. Biddle, that it was in 1817 that he died. He
was about six feet in height, spare, with a dark-colored eye, and hand-
some features, and very prepossessing: he was, in truth, the finest looking
chief I have ever known of the Meuomonees or any other tribe. His
speeches were not lengthy, but pointed and expressive. He was firm,
prudent, peaceable and conciliatory. He was sincerely beloved alike by
whites and Indians.
Biddle says that Tomau' died of excessive drinking- under
disappointment and mortification over a change in the policy
of the British authorities in their treatment of the Indians.
He adds:-'
I was present at his funeral. ... I never saw so distressed and
broken-hearted a people. They said they were no longer a nation—no
longer anything. Tomah could alone command and keep them together,
but now they would be scattered and .ost.
Tomau' was of the Pa'kaa'qkiu, or Prairie-chicken doda'mi,
and was married, first, to Kiwa'komu'qkifr ("Wandering
around"), a Meuomini woman by whom he had two sons
(12) I. Josette.
(13) II. Ma'qkata'bi.
Separating from this wife he formed, according to Grignon,
a second marriage, with two sisters, with both of whom lie
lived at the same time and until they died. By one of these
he had four children, the son being
(14) III. Glode.
4. Ka'ron (Carron) ; known also by his Menomini name as She'kwa-
ne'ne, concerning whom neither traditional nor historical infor
niation of interest is obtainable.
5. Aia'mita (Carron). Grignon, speaking of this chief in 1854, ! says
I-om-e-tah was born about 1772. . . . He was upon the war-patl
during the war of 1812-15. He has been a very good hunter in his day.
He is among a very few Menomonees who contract debts, and
pay them as they promise. He is the oldest chief of his nation, being now
about eighty-five; his hunting days are past, his sight is growing dim,
anil his manly form and benignant countenance we shall soon see no more.
Aia'mita was still alive in 1857, and only one of three chil
dren remains
(15) I. Shfipoi'tok (was married to Ta'sawau, and lias children).
G. Konot' (Konof): known also as Glode, a corruption of Claude
Was married to an Ojibwa woman and moved away.
i Col. Hist. Soc. of Wisconsin for 1857, vol. iii, p. 283.
'Ibid., vol. i. 1855, pp. 56,57.
sil.iil., vol. iii. p.2M.
— ——— —
hoffman] CAERON'S GENEALOOIC RECORD 57
7. Ka'bon (Konof). Was named after liis grandfather, old Carron,
and born in 1707. He married and had children
(16) I. Na'matau.
(17) II. O'wauo'qnio (daughter).
8. Dziio'seqkwai'o (Konof); corruption of the word Josephine.
Married a Mr Gauthier, and had one son
(18) I. Joseph.
9. ShanO't (Konof). Female, died unmarried.
10. Margaret (Konof). Female, died unmarried.
11. A'shaava'kanau (Konof). Female; married Kiikwai'tosh, a,
mixed-blood Ottawa, and had children
I. Nika'nawoha'ni,
II. David,
III. Sa'batis (Jean Baptiste),
IV. Sha'nik,
Y. Margaret.
VI. Susan.
12. Josette (Tomau'); known also as Sosette, and as Joseph Carron
;
was born in 1800. He is of the Pa'kaa'qkiu, or Prairie-chicken
doda'mi; married Wa'bao'qkiu ("White wing"), and suc-
ceeded his father to the chieftaincy. He died in 1831, leaving
children
(19) I. Tomau',
(20) II. A'qkiwii'si,
(21) III. Shu'nien,
(22) IV. Kesk'i'ene,
(23) V. Wa'beno mitii'mu,
(24) YI. O'kemawa'bou,
(25) VII. Kosev'.
13. Ma'QKATa'bi (Tomau', Carron). Grignon, in his Seventy-two
Years' Recollection of Green Bay says that Tomau' had two
sons by his first wife, both of whom became chiefs, "Mau-kau-
fcau-pee" and Josette Carron; and that "Mau-kau-tau-pee,"
who served on McKay's Prairie du Chien expedition, died in, or
shortly after, 1820. In repeated conferences with both Shu'-
nien, an exceedingly intelligent man, a brother of Ma/qkata'bi
and Josette Carron, and in councils of leading men of the tribe,
I am informed that Ma/qkata'bi never held the office of chief,
as successor to Tomau', but that he had acted as regent for
Osh'kosh. He died about 1820, without offspring.
14. Glode (Tomau', Carron), a corruption of the word Claude. He
was of the Pa'kaa'qkiu doda'mi, and a son of Tomau' by the
second wife. He died in 1848 without offspring.
16. Na'matam (Kii'ron. Konof, Carron): a daughter who married
Kone'koshe'u. and has one daughter
I. Rose (unmarried).
— — ——— —— —
58 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [kth.ahn.14
17. Owa'noqni'o (Ka/ron, Konot', Carron); a daughter, married to
A'potawa'noqkwet, and lias children
I. Antoine,
II. Angeline,
III. Susan,
IV. Si'mo (married Pa'tawa'sapan) and has children
a. Antoine,
b. Susan,
e. Joseph.
IS. Joseph (Dzko'seqkwai'o, Konot', Carron); was born about 1818.
He was married, and had one son, who died. His wife was
tbe widow of a white trader, named Cown, with whom she had
children who took the name of Gauthier
I. Joseph, married to Julia Grignon, and has offspring
a. Frank (married Mary Driscoll, a native of Ireland, and
has one son, Joseph Aloysius, aged one year),
b. Mary Ann,
c. John,
(I. Lewis,
e. Christine, died at age of 8 or 10 years.
10. Tomau' (Josette); corruption of the word Thomas. He is of the
Pa'kaa'qkiu doda'mi; married Osa'win ("Yellow") and had
one daughter
I. Tanii's (Theresa—married Dominick Morgan and had six chil-
dren).
20. A'qkiwa'si( Josette); known as Charles Carron: also of thePa'kaa'-
qkiu doda'mi; married Ka'paia'qsam. He left for the Ojibwa
country, and has not since been heard of. He left one child
1. M'sepfit (Elizabeth Maria), who was married to "Jim" Phalien,
(deceased), and left no issue.
21. Shu'MEN (Josette). Shu'nien ("Silver") was born in 1827, and is
today one of the finest figures, physically, among the Menomini
(figure 4). He is of the Pa'kaa'qkiu doda'mi; has been recog-
nized as a chief of his band, and has made several trips to
Washington on missions relating to the tribe. He was married
twice; his first wife was Ki'waqko'wa ("Wandering-in-the-
clouds"), who had one child
I. Owano'qiu ( a daughter, who married Kapsko'ii; (deceased) and
had nine children of whom six survive).
Shu'nien's second wife was Ka'kika'tshiwan, of the <>ta'-
tshia (Crane) doda'mi, and had issue
II. Jane (married to Shepe'qkau; no children).
III. Sose't (Sosette=Joseph) (commonly known as "Jim" Shu'-
nien, a man of fine build and an enthusiastic until' v dancer;
he married A'paqtau Ki'shiku'qkiu, and has two sons and
two daughters).
— —
BOFFMAN] GENEALOGY OF SHU NIEN 59
22. KESHir£NE (Josette); was born about 1S30, and succeeded his
father as chief, though during his minority Osh'kosh acted as
regent. The word Keshi'ue, signifying "The-swiffc-flying," orig-
inated in the following manner, as related by Shu'nien, his
brother: Their father, Josette, was at one time fasting, and in
a vision he thought he saw the air filled with eagles and hawks,
the representatives of the Thunder phratry, flying swiftly by.
This circumstance caused him to give the name "The-swift-
flying," to his next male child, born shortly afterward. Kesh-
Si
Fig. 4—Portrait of Shu'nien.
i'Y'ne was twice married, the first wife, Oshe'pe'u ("River")
having offspring
I. O'kwemu'qklu (=Jane, married to Joseph Law; no children).
Keshi 'One's second wife was Taki'shiku'q ("Broken-clouds"),
and her children were
II. Katl's (married Bakome, and has five children).
III. Ma'ni (=Mary, married to lJaina'(jsika'uv , and has four chil-
dren).
IV. Xoma'qkuqki'iV (Female, deceased after marriage to David
Wabiis, leaving one female child).
—
60 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ann. 14
23. Wa'eeno Mita'mu (Josette) "Wa'beno-woman." Was bom about
1840, and is an active, well preserved, and quite good looking
woman. She is married to Nio'pet, the present chief of the
Menomini,' and is the. mother of fourteen children of whom
but two survive
I. Reginald Osb'kosh,
II. Ernest Osb'kosh.
24. O'kemawa'bon (Josette—daughter, married Ope'taq, has two
children).
25. Kose'V (Josette—a young man).
As already stated, the Osh'kosh family at present, and evidently
legitimately, furnishes the executive chief of the tribe, which personage
is at the same time the presiding judge of the Indian court at Keshena.
The members of the Carron family have no further authority in the
affairs of the tribe than any other heads of families, though the recol-
lection of the deeds of their ancestors appears to add to their name a
glamor of romance, shared in even by their political opponents.
LANGUAGE EMPLOYED IN CULT RITUALS
I am informed by the Franciscan fathers at Keshena that they have
frequent need of words to express clearly the terminology of the cat-
echism and ritual and to present intelligently the exposition of the
scriptures, words which do not occur in Menomini, but for which they
seek convenient aud expressive terms in Ojibwa, a language noted at
once for its close linguistic relationship to the Menomini, as well as
for its rich vocabulary and the remarkable flexibility of its grammatic
structure.
In his notes on the Indian tribes of Wisconsin,2 John Gibnary Shea,
speaking of the Menomini, states that " their language is a very
corrupt form of the Algonquin." This may not be surprising when the
Menomini language is compared with the Algonkin proper, but still the
fact remains that the Menomini appeared to him defective in some
manner or other.
Through long-continued practice of this character, the Indians have
become sufficiently familiar with some Ojibwa words to comprehend
the teachings of the fathers, but apart from this an Ojibwa conver-
sation is almost entirely unintelligible to the Menomini, unless the
language of the former had been specially acquired by intimate com-
munication.
It has been observed at the ceremonials of the Menomini that both
Ojibwa and Potawatomi mita'T visitors participated, and although their
knowledge of Menomini was so slight as to deter them from enjoying
more than casual interchange of greetings, yet they were sufficiently
1 See the Osh'kosh genealogy, ]). 48.
»Col. Hist. Soc. of Wisconsin for 1856, rol. iii. 1857, p. 134.
hoffmajO OJIBWA CEREMONIAL TERMS 61
apt in acquiring' the words of a chant, never before heard by them, to
join after two or three repetitions and assist as if they had known it
always. Thus these strangers unconsciously acquire a vocabulary at
first of unknown meaning to them, but by repetition and association
with actions and familiar gestures they ultimately become, sufficiently
advanced to comprehend the new language limited to this ceremonial.
From the foregoing remarks it will be observed that the ceremonials
of the cult societies may be tinctured, to greater or less degree, by the
intrusion of extra-tribal ritualistic traditions and beliefs, the ceremo-
nial forms of the Ojibwa, however, being considerably in excess of those
of any other tribe.
For many years there lias been constant intercourse between the
Menomini and the Ojibwa of Lac Court Oreille and Lac Flambeau, on
account of occasional intermarriage between these tribes and the
mutual attendance at the cult ceremonies, [t appears probable, also,
that on account of this intercourse the Menomini ritual of the Mita/wit,
or Grand Medicine society, has been very perceptibly molded after the
Ojibwa, but that during this process of adaptation much of the ancient
ritual has been lost.
A great portion of the phraseology of the Ojibwa ritual is in an
archaic form of language, and is thus unintelligible to the ordinary
Indian, and frequently to many members of the society. This archaic
phraseology naturally appears impressive and important to the general
populace, and the shamans delight to dwell on such phrases, during
ceremonials, not only to impress their hearers but to elevate themselves
as well.
Honorable \Y. W. Warren, in his History of the Ojibwa Indians, says:
Iii tin- Me-da-vre rite is incorporated must that is ancient amongsl them—songs
and traditions that have descended, not orally, but in hieroglyphics, for at least a
long line of generations, in this rite is also perpetuated the purest and must ancient.
idioms of their language, which differs somewhal from that of the common every-
day use. 1
The Menomini ceremonies of the same society are. as above stated,
very much curtailed, and apparently worn down by careless transmis-
sion from generation to generation. The chants are, in general, in
Menomini. though that portion of the ritual pertaining to the Indian
cosmogony and genesis of mankind is to a great extent mixed with
Ojibwa words, and is therefore unintelligible to almost every one save
those familiar with this language.
It has already been shown with what persistency the Menomini and
the Winnebago Indians have dwelt side by side from the earliest his-
torical times, and it is a subject of interest to know with what surpris-
ing similarity these two tribes have, up to a recent period, conducted
their medicine ceremonials. The entire ritual and its dramatization
appear to be of Algonquian elaboration; and the adaptation thereof
'Coll. Minnesota Hist. See. TO1. v, 1885, p. G7.
62 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ann. M
by the Winnebago, a tribe belonging to another linguistic stock,
would be so readily accomplished only when the tribes are in constant
and intimate communication. 1
The Ojibwa embellishments in the Winnebago ritual appear to have
been acquired through the intermediary of the Menomini rather than
from the Ojibwa direct, as the Siouan tribes in general have at all times
been more or less antagonistic to the Algonquian tribes, and vice versa,
exceptiug the Menomini, who appear always to have been of a peaceful
disposition.
There is another class of mystery men, or shamans, differing from
the mita", of which representatives are found among nearly all the
Algonquian tribes even at this day. Such persons are termed
tshi'saqka, or jugglers, and are referred to in the Jesuit Relations as
jongleurs and sorciers. The Nepissiug Indians of Canada were even
designated the Nation of Sorcerers as early as 1G32, and the tales
recited regarding them and their powers are of the most marvelous
character. This subject will be more definitely referred to in connec-
tion with the subject the of tshi'saqka. There is no special organization
among these performers, each preferring to act independently of the
other, and it is only during the performance of the invocation of guard-
ians or ma'nidos that pretended conversation with the latter takes
place, such pretended conversation consisting in reality of a soliloquy,
the questions of the juggler being answered apparently in another tone
of voice and indeed sometimes in mumbled words wholly unintelligible
in character.
The language employed by a juggler is the language of the tribe of
which he is a member; and to acquire the power of prophecy and to
become able to cause manifestations of various kinds, it is necessary
to receive instruction from some one of reputed skill. His power is fur-
thermore dependent upon the reputed power of his personal ma'nido,
or tutelary daimon, which was selected by him in accordance with
dreams, consequent upon fasting, which ordeal was experienced during
his youth.
There is still another class of shamans, known as the wa'beno, i. e.,
''daylight men," or "men of the dawn," who pretend to cure disease
by the administration of charmed remedies. The number of wa'benoak
as compared with the mitii'wok is small, the whole number in the
Menomini tribe not exceeding ten or twelve. Singular as it may
seem, there are more women wa'benoak than men, though it appears
that in former times the reverse was the case. The performances con-
sisted in handling burning brands and live coals with apparent immu-
nity from harm, thus gaining the attention and confidence of the
credulous, after which their charms, amulets, or fetishes were sold, as
'Since writing the above, Mr Frank La Flesobe, of Washington, son of tin- late Joseph La Flesohe,
one of thoohiefa of the Omaha Indians', informs me that his tribe acquired the ritual of the Grand
Medicine society from the Winnebago.
hoffman] CEREMONIAL INNOVATIONS 63
required by the unsuccessful hunter, the disconsolate lover, or the
unlucky gambler.
No organization exists between the different pers ms of this class,
each practicing his art, or pretensions, as best he may. A tambourine
drum is necessary as an accompaniment to the chant, as the personal
manido is thus invoked for aid in the accomplishment of whatever task
may have been assigned to the performer. More specific mention of
the method of practice of these shamans will be presented under the cap-
tion of "The Wa'beno."
Siuce the advent of the Paiute messiah, " Jack Wilson," a new
society has been organized, designated the "Dreamers' society," i. e.,
a society for indulgence in drumming, dancing, and exhortation by cer-
tain designated persons, to form the order of exercises. Some of the
initii'wok, who, for various reasons, have left the Medicine society, claim
that the Dreamers' society is founded on a ritual specially granted by
Kisba' Ma/nido as a substitute for the former, that being alleged to
have become degraded and debased by the introduction of innovations.
Inquiry into the history of the society seems to indicate, however, that
the performances by the Dreamers' society are a remote imitation of
the Ghost dance, which originated several years since when the Paiute
messiah made his appearance, and when many discontented and bellig-
erent young men of various tribes took advantage of the craze to
further their own designs.
Some Menomini Indians more communicative than others have inti-
mated that a time would surely come when the whole country would be
restored to the Indian as it once was, when the heads of all the whites
would be severed from their bodies as a scythe cuts the wheat. This
belief has always had a greater or less number of believers who were in
a state of expectancy', so that when a delegation of Sioux and other
Menomini river Indians arrived among the Menomini to preach the
doctrine of the messiah and to give instruction in the dance, the expect-
ant ones were ready to accept almost anything that appealed to their
indefinite and unformed tradition. The ceremony conducted at these
dances is not of the same character as that of the Ghost dance of the
prairie Indians, sufficient change having been wrought since its intro-
duction to prevent any apparent analogy between the two.
To further illustrate the quickness with which such advautages for
deception may be embraced by designing and deceitful Indians, I shall
only recur to Sitting Bull of the Sioux nation, a medicine man of no
mean order—as viewed by his people—but not a chief in the full sense
of the word, as generally supposed from the newspaper notoriety given
him. During my residence among these Indians in 1872-73, I had
ample opportunity to become well acquainted with him, particularly
after acquiring the language and an ultimate adoption into the " Buffalo
society," by which means a "brotherhood" was formed with Punning
Antelope, then orator of the northern Sioux aud chief of the Uncpapa
branch of that tribe.
64 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eih.ann.14
Sitting Bull was general director of the discontented element of the
Sioux nation, and acquired his influence by his audacious pretensions
and by the coincident occurrence of events of minor importance, as
well as by the occurrence of certain atmospheric changes which he had,
in part, prophesied. Attaining some distinction in this manner, he
cautiously pushed his claim to greater powers, stating that he was
enabled to foretell events affecting himself and his adherents. He pre-
tended that his deceased half-brother always appeared to him in the guise
of a gray wolf to warn him of any impending personal danger. In fact,
this man is said to have once gone so far as to allow himself to be discov-
ered by some officers talking to a wolf which had, in utter astonishment,
stopped to learn the source and nature of the peculiar noise which SO
suddenly broke the silence of the locality!
When the attack was made upon our cavalry escort in 1873, in Yel-
lowstone valley. Sitting Bull was foremost in the approaching line,
chanting and "making medicine," but when one of his chief assistants
was shot down the line wavered and broke the moment the troops
charged. Later on, as the Ghost dance became a better means of
having his aids act the part of prophets, Sitting Bull's words were
promulgated through the mouths of the chief dancers who had appar-
ently fainted and readied an ecstatic state. In this wise the hostility
of a certain portion of the tribe was maintained and controlled, chiefly
tor personal gain, until the death of Sitting Bull, when the spell was
broken.
Until quite recently it was customary for each Indian youth to pass
through a certain process of "fasting and dreaming,'' whereby he
might receive a manifestation from the Great Unknown as to what par-
ticular animate form he might adopt as his own tutelary daimon, as
termed by the Greeks, or, as more familiarly designated, his guardian
mystery. The course of procedure necessary tor the young aspirant
for honors to pursue was to leave the camp and go into the forest, there
to remain in meditation, abstaining from all food, until gradual exhaus-
tion produced that condition of ecstasy during which various forms of
animals, or birds, appeared to him. The first of these forms to clearly
impress itself on his mind was adopted as the special gift of the Great
Mystery, and was thereafter supposed to act as an adviser in times of
indecision; a monitor when the Indian was in danger, or an interces-
sor with the superior nia'nidos when special power or influence was
desired. During the period of probation the lad's friends or parents
would keep watch that no danger overtook him while in the forest, and
furthermore, that his fasting was not carried to the point of danger to
life and health.
Among some of the Algonquian tribes the animal or bird forms that
may thus be adopted by an Indian are sometimes the same as the totem
of which he is a member. Under such circumstances the animal repre-
senting the totem, and the "familiar" or ma'nido, is seldom hunted or
hoffman] COMPARISON WITH NAGUALISM 65
shot; but should he, be permitted to hunt such an animal the hunter
will first address the animal and ask forgiveness for killing him, telling
him that certain portions, which are tabu, shall be set up in the place
of honor in the wiko'mik. For instance, should an Indian of the Bear
totem, or one whose adopted guardian is represented by the bear, desire
to go hunting and meet with that animal, due apology would be paid to
it before destroying it. The carcass would then be dressed and served,
but no member of the Bear totem would partake of the meat, though
the members of all other totems could freely do so. The hunter could,
however, eat of the paws and head, the bones of the latter being sub-
sequently placed upon a shelf, probably over the door, or in some other
conspicuous place. 1 Due reverence is paid to such a relic of the totem,
and so strictly observed is this custom that no greater insult could be
offered to the host than for anyone to take down such bones and to cast
them carelessly aside.
Due reverence must be had by the Indian for his so-called guardian
or ma'nido, neglect in this direction sometimes being considered as the
direct cause of misfortune or sickness. A feast then becomes necessary
as an offering to induce the ma'nido to return and to again manifest its
favor to the Indian. Without going further into this special subject, as
it obtains among the tribe under discussion, it may be interesting to
present in this connection an account of the striking similarity of belief
in the ma'nido, or nagual, of the Mexicans, as given by Herrera, who,
in speaking of the religion and superstitions of the inhabitants of Cer-
quin, in Honduras, says:
Among the many Idols worahipp'd, there was one call'd, The great Father, and
another, The great Mother, of whom they hegg'd Health; to other Gods they pray'd
for Wealth, Relief in Distress, to supply them with Provisions, hreed up their Chil-
dren, preserve their Harvest, and assist them in their Improvements, which Super-
stitions continu'd long among the old Men; and the Devil deluded them, appearing
in the Shape of a Lion, or a Tiger, or a Coyte, a Beast like a Wolf, or in the Shape
of an Alligator, a Snake, or a Bird, that Province abounding in Creatures of Prey,
which they call'd Xaguales, signifying, Keepers, or Guardians, and when the Bird
dy'd the Indian that was in League with him dy'd also, which often hapned, and was
looked upon as infallible. The manner of contracting this Alliance was thus, the
Indian repair'd to the River, Wood, Hill, or most obscure Place, where he call'd upon
the Devils by such Names as he thought lit, talk'd to the Rivers, Rocks, or Woods, said,
lit- went to weep, that he might have the same his Predecessors had, carrying a Cock,
or a Dog to sacrifice. In that melancholy fit he fell a sleep, and either in a Dream,
or Waking, saw some one of the aforesaid Birds, or other Creatures, whom he intreated
to grant him Profit in Salt, Cacao, or any other Commodity, drawing lilood from his
own Tongue, Ears, and other Parts of his Body, making his Contract at the same
Time with the said Creature, the which, either in a Dream, or Waking, told him,
'The Abbe J. A. Maurauit Bays of the totemic marks of the Abiiaki : "Chaqur tribu avail sea arnioi-
ries, que cnnsistaienl en la figure il'un animal, on d'uu oiseau, on d'un poisson. Chaque guerrier peig-
nait ordinairement snr sea braa, ses jambes et sa poitrine les amies <le sa tribu. Quaiit lea aauvages
allaient en voyage on en excursion, ils peignaient leura amies eur (les arbres a ehaque campement,
surtout lorsqu'ils avaient reussi dans quelque campagne. Ils faiaaient aussi connaitre, par ce moyen,
lenouibre de leurs prisonniers et celui des chevelures qu'il* avaient levees."—Hist, des Abenakis,
Quebec, 1866, p. 23.
14 ETH ~>
66 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [bth.amk.14
such a Day you shall go abroad a sporting, and I will be the first Bird, or other Ani-
mal you shall meet, and will he your Nagual, and Companii t all Times, whereupon
such Friendship was contracted between them, that when one of they dy'd the other
did not survive, and they faney'd that he who had no Nagual could not be rich. 1
The Abbe Maurault 2 says of this belief among' tlie Abnaki Indians
of Canada, a tribe allied linguistically to the Meuoinini:
Coinme tontea les autres nations sauvages, ils avaient one idee de la Divinite.
Dieu, suivaut eux. etait uu Grand-Esprit, qu'ils appelaient '• Ketsi NiSask"." Ce
(jrand-Esprit icsidait sur une ile du grand lac (l'Oce"an Atlantique). lis avaient une
graude conlianee eu sa protection. Ils croyaient que le meilleur moyen pour attirer
seur eux cette protection etait de s'efforcer a devenir de braves guerriers et de bons
chasseurs, etant persuades que plus ils serendaient remarquables en ces deux choses,
plus ils devenaient agr. -aides aux yeux du Grand-Esprit.
Ils croyaient anssi a l'Esprit du Mai, qu'ils appelaient "Matsi NiSask"." Cet
Esprit i tait tres-pnissant dans le monde. Ils pe.nsaient que les maladies, les acci-
dents, les malheurs et tous les autres inaux de ce genre venaieut de lui. Comme ils
craignaient beanooup ces mam, l'Esprit du Mai etait le principal objet de leur
devotion, et ils s'adressaient sans cesse a lui, le priantde ne leur fane aucnn mal.
Ils croyaient, eu outre, qu'il y avait d'autres Esprits, d'nnordresnperieura l'homme;
que ces Esprits Ctaient toujnurs portes au bien, et qu'ils protegeaient l'homme contre
l'Esprit du Mal; c'est pourquoi, ils leur demandaient protection.
CULT SOCIETIES
To present more intelligibly the ritualistic observances and preten-
sions of the several classes of shamans, the subject will be arranged
under the following' captions:
I. Mitii'wit, or Grand Medicine society;
II. Tshi'saqka, or Juggler;
III. Wa'beuo, or Men of the Dawn, and
IV. Dreamers' society.
MITA'WlT, OR GRAND MEDICINE SOCIETY
Organization of the Society
» In order to present clearly to the reader the status of the Mitii'wit,
or so-called "Grand Medicine society," 3 of the Meuoinini Indians of
Wisconsin, it becomes necessary to refer briefly to the corresponding
society aud ritualistic ceremonies of the Ojibwa Indians of Minnesota.
Among the latter are found four classes of mystery men, viz, (1) mide',
or "medicine man," whose profession is incantation, exorcism of demons,
and the administration of shamanic or magic remedies; (2) the je'ssak-
kld, or juggler, who professes prophecy and antagonizes the evil
charms of rivals; (3) the wa'beno, literally " easterner," or " daylight
man," whose orgies are continued throughout the night only to cease
The Genera] History of that Vast Continent and Islands of America, translated by Capt. John
Stevens, London, 1726, vol. iv. pp. lis, 130.
2Histoire des Abenakis, Quebec, 180(i, pp. 18-19. It will be observed t hat the alibi- falls into the pre-
vailing misapprehension as to the conception of spirituality among the I ndians.
3 This term originates in the designation " la grande medecjne," applied to this society by the < ana
dians and early French explorers.
Hoffman] OJIBWA MEDICINE SOCIETY 67
at the approach of day, and who also professes ability to prepare lucky
charms for the hunter and potent love powders for tlie disappointed
lover; and (4) the mashkikikewinini, or herbalist, who professes knowl-
edge of the properties of plants, and administers, as the name implies,
"medicine broths" or decoctions and infusions. All of these, save the
mide', practice their respective professions singly and alone, and there-
fore do not affiliate with others of like pretensions so as to constitute a
regularly organized society, at the meetings of which the members hold
ceremonial services for the instruction and initiation of candidates for
membership.
The mide', on the contrary, are organized into a society termed the
Mide'wiwin, which consists of an indefinite number of persons of both
sexes, and is graded into four separate and distinct degrees. Admis-
sion to membership in the degrees of this society is a matter of great
importance, and consequently of great difficulty. The male candidates
are selected usually from among those who in their youth were desig-
nated for this distinction, which occurred at the period of "giving a
name" by a selected mide' priest, who thus assumed the office of god-
father. From that date until the age of puberty of the boy, his parents
gather presents with which to defray the expenses of preliminary
instruction by hired mide' priests, and the feasts to be given to all
those who might attend the ceremonies of initiation, as well as to
defray the personal services of the various medicine men directly assist-
ing in the initiation. Frequently the collecting of skins and peltries
and other goods that have to be purchased involves a candidate hope-
lessly in debt; but so great is the desire on the part of some Indians
to become acknowledged medicine men that they will assume obligations
that may require years of labor or hunting to liquidate; or, should they
fail, then their relatives are expected to assume the responsibility thus
incurred.
In this society, as maintained by the Ojibwa, are preserved the tradi
tions relating to cosmogony and genesis of mankind, to the appearance
on the earth of an anthropomorphic deity whose primary services con-
sisted of interceding between Ki'tshi Ma'nido and the Indians, that
the latter might be taught the means wherewith they might provide
themselves with the good things of the earth and with the power of
warding off disease and death, and who gave to the Indian also the
various plants and instructed them how to prepare the objects neces-
sary to be used for special purposes in specified ways. The being who
thus originally instructed the Indians is called Ml'nabo'zho, and the
method pursued by him is dramatically rehearsed at the initiation of a
candidate into the society of the Mide'. By the Ojibwa this entire
proceeding is firmly believed to be of a sacred or religious character.
There is another body among the Ojibwa termed the Ghost society,
to which reference is necessary. When a child who has been set apart
to be dedicated to the society of the Mide' dies before reaching the
68 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [ktii.ann. 14
proper age to receive initiation, the father (or under certain circum-
stances the mother) announces the fact to the chief priests, when a
meeting of the members is called and a feast prepared at the wigwam
of the mourner. Dishes of food for the dead are set apart in a separate
structure, after which the chief mourner is initiated into the society as
a substitute for the deceased. Thus we find among the Ojibwa two
distinct services, one for the initiation of members into the society of
the Midc', the other a least of the dead, designed to release his
"shadow" and to permit it to depart to the land of mysteries, or the
place of the setting- sun.
It will be observed, then, that the membership of the Midc' society
is not limited to any particular number of persons; and that the cere-
monies of the Ghost society are held at irregular intervals and never
at the death of a member of the Mide' society.
With this brief notice of the ojibwa Mide'wiwin, or Grand Medicine
society, a description of the ceremonies as practiced by the Menomini
Indians will be presented for the purpose of comparing with the pre-
ceding t heir version and dramatic rendering of a belief and practice
which no doubt survives to a certain degree among the greater number
of tribes embraced within the western group of the Algonquian lin-
guistic family.
The Mita'wit, or society of shamans, commonly termed the Grand
Medicine society of the Met'omini Indians, consists of men, women,
and a few young boys and girls, who have been initiated into the mys-
teiies of that organization, either directly or byproxy. Initiation of
the person himself may be accomplished (1 ) by his being adopted by a
member to fill a vacancy caused by death; or (2) when proof of eligi-
bility has been furnished and the necessary presents and tWs are deliv-
ered to the chief of the society to defray the expenses incurred in
holding the ceremonies.
Although initiation by proxy is rare, yet it may occur when a very
sick young person is brought to the ceremonial structure for restoration
to health. This is done only as a last resort, and after the usual attend-
ance of shamans with their incantations and exorcisms has proved
futile. The aid of Masha' Ma'nido is thus sought, and as the sick child
maybe carried in the arms of one already a mita' v , it is soon deposited
in the arms of one of the family, while the person who carried it. con
tinues to take the part of a new candidate, notwithstanding the. fact
that he already possesses (he secrets. Should the patient recover
health, he or she is thenceforth regarded as a regularly initiated mem-
ber, although subsequent instruction is necessary to a better under-
standing of the pretensions of the society. It is customary on the
death of a member of the society for the head of the family of the
deceased, if lie be a mitii' 1 or the nearest mitii" relation or friend, to,
approach the corpse at burial and to address it. The chief mourner,
looking down upon the coarse box containing the remains, says: "Go,
hoffman] PLANS FOR THE CEREMONY 69
my brother [or substituting the term of relationship], follow the sun to
the place prepared for the shades of the dead, where you will see the fire
built by Na'qpote; that will light your course beyond the sun's path.
Abide there until the proper time [a certain period of a summer month
is usually named], when I shall give a feast and bring a substitute to
occupy your place; then shall Na'qpote permit you to return to observe
the fulfillment of my promise, do!" The grave box is then placed
over the coffin, the medicine stick erected before it, and a piece of cloth
or a board is also placed before the grave box, on which is deposited
from time to time small quantities of tobacco.
At the return of summer the person who has made the promise of
procuring a substitute prepares himself by bringing together the pres-
ents necessary to be delivered as fees, and collecting food for the attend-
ants and visitors. A favorite member of the family, a relation, or even
a dear friend, may receive the honor of an invitation to become the
candidate. In the meantime the furnisher of the feast, i. e., the person
who is to procure the candidate, makes known to the chief officiating
members of the society his choice, with the desire that a meeting time for
initiatory purposes be decided upon, to be held at some time in the near
future. The chiefs receive this communication and deliberate, meditat-
ing on the course to follow and selecting several groups of assistants
to aid in the ceremonies. The candidate, in the meantime, is instructed
in the mysteries of the remedies known to his instructor. Each remedy
must be paid for separately, as no two preparations, or roots, or other
substances are classed together as one; furthermore, the knowledge
relating to different remedies is possessed by different medicine men,
each of whom will dispose of the properties and uses thereof for a con-
sideration only.
Although four annual ceremonies of the Grand Medicine society
were held near Keshena, Wisconsin, in the years 1890, 1891, 1892, and
1893, the first will be described only insofar as it pertains to the mode
of adopting a member to fill a vacaucy caused by death; and to make
the description more intelligible it may be of importance to state
under what circumstances the writer's admission into the Mita'wit was
obtained.
Ceremonies of 1890
Having obtained during the years 1887-1890, from the Ojibwa In-
dians at Red Lake and White Earth, Minnesota, complete instruction
in the secrets and ceremonies of the Mide'wiwiu, or Grand Medicine
society, the information of this unique occurrence had spread south-
ward into Wisconsin, as far as the Menomini reservation. In the
winter of 1889-90, a number of these Ojibwa shamans went to Wash-
ington in the interest of their tribe, and it happened that a small dele-
gation of Menomini Indians from Keshena, Wisconsin, also visited the
capital on a like errand. These two delegations were furthermore quar-
tered at the same house, so that the object of my constant visits to,
70 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ahn.14
and consultations with, the Ojibwa soon became known to the Menom-
ini, who at once manifested great interest, as they themselves were
members of the society of shamans. The Ojibwa then informed the
Menomini of what had been done with reference to the preservation of
the traditions and ritual of the Ojibwa society, and suggested to the
former the propriety of having the Government publish the Menomini
version of the Grand Medicine ceremonies, thus preserving for future
generations their ancient beliefs and practices concerning the origin of
the Indians, the history of the services of Ma'nabush, and the institu-
tion and initiatory ceremonies of the Mitii'wit, or Grand Medicine
society.
Three members of the Menomini delegation were chiefs of the society,
and as such were competent to decide whether it would be appropriate
and in accordance with their ancient custom to permit the admission
into the society of a white man and stranger. After protracted delib-
eration, I was informed that in so far as they were person ally concerned
they very much desired that a visit be made to Keshena, where a coun-
cil of the chief shamans would be called for the purpose of presenting
for their approbation the subject of making public the so-called secret
or mystic ceremonies. The visit to the reservation was made during
the spring of 1800, when a meeting of the council was called by Nio'pet
and Ni'aqtawa'pomi, at which the chief representatives of the society
unanimously agreed that I should be received at the next regular meet-
ing. Then, when once within the sacred structure, I might without
fear of misfortune ask any questions that I might desire, and receive
explanation so far as lay in the power of the chief mitii'wok.
When a meeting of the society is desired, either for the benefit of
the sick or for regular initiation, the proceedings are as follows : A con-
sultation is held as to the designation of the four chief medicine men,
the selection of a second set of four, and also a third set, each of which
groups have special duties to perform during the ceremonies. Two
general assistants or ushers are also chosen, whose duties consist in
the proper arrangement of the interior of the structure and accesso-
ries, the proper location on a ridge pole of the presents, especially the
blankets, pieces of calico, mats, etc., which form part of the gifts made
by or for the candidate as the price of his admission. A location
for the erection of the mita'wiko'mik 1 is also decided upon, and the
women members of the society—usually the wives of the chief officiat-
ing medicine men—who are to erect the structure and to prepare the
feasts, are also designated.
These preliminary arrangements being completed, the "giver of the
feast" presents to the chief medicine man several gifts of tobacco,
which are divided into small heaps, and then immediately sent by a
•From "ruita'V a member of thr society or fraternity of the Mitiiuit; and "wiko'mik," a corrup-
tion of tin- \vor<l wig'wam—from ' wigwas'," bark—a structure or lodge of bark. Though now built
of poles, mats, etc., the original covering was no doubt of bark, thus giving rise to this designation,
"wigwam," for all bark habitations.


HOFFMAN] ERECTION OF THE LODGE 71
courier to members of the society, one Leap to each member. The run-
ner, on his arrival, places the tobacco before the person for whom it is
intended; he, being aware of the purpose of the visitor, merely says,
"When and where?" The courier then informs flic mita" as to the day
and place of the ceremony, and after a short rest departs to fulfill his
mission. In the meantime the medicine men have adjourned, each to
attend to his own duties in so far as his individual services will be
demanded, and to consult with the second and third sets or groups of
medicine men designated to assist at the initiation.
It is customary, when an Indian is to be initiated to till a vacancy
caused by death, for the medicine wiko'mik to be erected a. short dis-
tance east of the grave of the deceased member, so that the members
of the society may be enabled to march westward when visiting the
Fig. 5—Ceremonial structure of 1800.
grave, thus following the direction named in the ritual as followed
by Na'qpote when his shade went in the direction of the setting sun,
where the world is cut off.
The medicine lodge (ceremonial structure) termed mita'wiko'mik, or
mita'wi'kiop, is erected by the medicine women detailed for the pur-
pose, and is constructed on the following plan : A piece of level ground
is sought at a convenient location east of the grave, when long poles,
from 2 to 3 inches thick at the base, are planted at irregular intervals
along the sides of an oblong. The length of the structure is usually
60 or 70 feet, and its width about 20 feet. The poles are then brought
together at the top so as to form an archway, and secured by strands of
basswood bark. Plate V represents the skeleton framework of the end
of the structure. Mats made of rushes are then placed along the
sides, the lower row touching the earth, and a second row placed above
1
7 .2 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ann.H
them, but projecting slightly over the tops of the lower ones so as to
shed rain. Other mats, pieces of birch bark, and even pieces of canvas,
are then placed across the top to shade the interior or to keep out the
rain. The mats, a detailed description of which will be given later,
are usually a yard wide, and vary from to 12 feet in length.
The exterior of the medicine wiko'mik erected in 1890 is represented
in figure 5. At this ceremony Shu'nien was recognized as chief offici-
ating shaman, the application for membership having been first made
to him, and he in turn having selected his three chief assistants, all of
whom, after due deliberation, decided on the order of ceremony. After
the wiko'mik was erected, branches of cedar were placed on the ground
around the interior, though near the wall, and on these were placed
mats of rush leaves to serve as seats for the attendants. The gifts
presented by the candidate, or his sponsor, were suspended from the
long poles placed lengthwise a short distance beneath the top center of
the arched iuclosure. At various places lanterns also were suspended
to furnish light during the night service. The large mat on which
the candidate was finally obliged to kneel was spread on the ground
about 20 feet from the western exit and along the middle line of the
interior, while the space along each side, immediately before the seat
mats around the interior, formed the pathway invariably followed by
the officiating medicine, men and the attending members of the society
(sec plate vi).
It is customary to hold meetings on Saturday afternoon, beginning
at the approach of sunset and continuing uninterruptedly until the next
day at sunset. Formerly no special day was selected, but since many
of the Indians have become farmers, Sunday is thus employed so that
as little time as possible may be lost from their labor.
By Saturday afternoon, on the occasion described, the vicinity of the
mitii'wiko'inik became a scene of great animation. Wagons bearing
the families, tents, and cooking utensils of members of the society began
to arrive from various directions. The young men and boys caine on
horseback, clad in their best and gaudiest attire; children ran hither
and thither while chasing one another in play; and the scene was occa-
sionally enlivened by a rush toward a particular spot to witness or to
stop a dog fight, as numerous and various specimens of gaunt, snarling
curs had congregated from all parts of the reservation.
The members of the society were yet in their hastily erected lodges
preparing themselves for public exhibition: but as the sun began to
sink, eight of the most prominent members of the society, together with
the chief mourner or giver of the feast and his family and relations,
proceeded westward to the grave, distant about 200 yards, around
which they formed a circle, while Shu'nien stepped nearer toward the
head of the grave box, and produced the mii'tshida'qtokwan, or cere-
monial baton. This is a round piece of pine or other soft wood, an
inch thick and 30 inches long, with one end slightly pointed so as to


:
HOFFMAN J CEREMONIAL HATON AND FEAST 73
admit of being' easily thrust in tlie ground. The baton is ornamented
by having cuts made around it near the top, the shavings being allowed
to remain attached at one end but projecting- slightly from the stick so
as to resemble miniature plumes. About G inches below the top cluster
is another, as also farther down the baton, until three or lour clusters
have been made. At the base of each cluster of cuts
a band of vermilion an inch wide, encircles the stick.
Figure G represents the general form of the baton.
Shu'uien, after taking the baton at the sharpened L
end, struck the grave box with the other end, and spoke
as follows
"There were two brothers, Ma'nabush and aSTa'qpote,
the Wolf. Ma'nabush lived to mourn for Na'qpote,
who was destroyed by the evil underground beings,
but who now abides in Tshi'paia'qki, the final resting
place, where he awaits the arrival of the shades of the
dead. The dance to be held at the bottom of the hill is
held for Na'qpote, that hemay return and transport the
shade of this dead one to the mita'wiko'rnik, where
we shall have our ceremonies this night. AH the aged
whiteheads are invited to it. While Ma'nabush was
still on this earth he said that he should build a fire in
the northwest, at which the Indians would always be
enabled to obtain warmth for themselves, their children,
and their successors. He said that afterward he should
go to the place of the rising sun, there to abide always
and to watch over the welfare of the Indians. He said
if the Indians desired to hold a meeting of the Mitii'wit,
that they must first have a feast at the head of the grave.
We will now sit and eat."
The mita'v women, assisted by relatives of the deceased,
then spread a tablecloth upon the ground, and deposited
thereon various kinds of meats, vegetables, bread, and
pastry—quite a contrast to the primitive method pur-
sued before the adoption of linen tablecloths, china,
and silver-plated knives, forks, and spoons. All the
invited guests partook of the food placed before them,
but nothing was so eagerly sought alter as the green
cucumbers, which were peeled and eaten raw. Fig. 6—Ceremonial
baton.
After the feast, Shu'uien, the chief priest and master
of ceremonies, again took the ceremonial baton, and handing it to one
of his assistants, requested him to make an address. The speaker
first struck the grave box, and during the time of his remarks frequently
struck the box, as if to emphasize his words. The addresses made by
him and his three successors related to exploits performed by them at
various times, particularly during the civil war, when most of them had
74 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [KTII. ANN. 14
served as soldiers in the Union army. This digression was prompted
because the deceased had been one of their comrades.
Shu'nien, in the meantime, had taken the grave post—winch had been
previously erected before the grave box—and painted a band of vermil-
ion around the top, a band as broad as a finger, and five crosses on one
of the fiat sides to denote the number of addresses made at the grave;
while on the reverse were four transverse bars and three crosses, de-
noting that the deceased had performed eight noteworthy exploits
during his life. On the grave post were incised
the outlines of animals, totemic in character;
VI
over each of these some of the animals were
again drawn in vermilion, though with another
band, as the dotted and shaded lines in the ac-
companying illustration (figure 7) show. The
general appearance of the grave box, with the
baton, the grave post, the board with the offer-
ing of tobacco, and the stick ornamented with a
white cloth, is shown in figure S. The adjoining
graveboxes arethose of relationsof the deceased,
for whose benefit the feast was here given.
By the lime the speaking had concluded the
sun had gone below the horizon, and Shu'nien
suggested returning toward the medicine wiko'-
mik, the persons present falling into line two by
two. The procession inarched slowly down the
hill toward the east, and passing toward the
south side of the structure to the main or east-
ern entrance, where only Shu'nien and his three
chief assistants, the four highest ofliciating
mit;i' v for this ceremony, entered the inclosure
and took seats on the northern side, though near
the eastern entrance. Figure It, representing
the ground plan of the medicine wiko'mik, will
serve to illustrate the respective positions of
the several persons officiating, as well as those
of the candidate, visitors, etc.
At. such gatherings it is customary for each
Fig. 7—Grave post
individual to dress as elaborately as his dr.
cumstances will permit. The head is adorned with a turban made of a
silken handkerchief, a hat, feathers, or even a turban consisting of a
native-made woolen waist scarf. Bead bags, measuring from 10 to 12
inches in length and from 12 to 16 inches in width, with a shoulder
Strap or baldric across the opposite shoulder, are worn on the hip or
side: frequently two or three are woni by the same mita /v , and even
as many as a dozen have been seei a single individual. There
arc also amulets, worn above the elbows, which consist of strands of
headed work, metal bauds or skunk skins, while bracelets of shells,
HOFFMAN] MEDICINE BAG FACIAL DECORATION 75
buckskin, or metal also arc worn. About the waist is a long varicolored
scarf of native manufacture, and in addition some persons wear beaded
belts, or belts of saddler's leather adorned with brass tacks. The legs
are decorated with garters, varying from 2 to 3 inches in width and
Fm. 8—Graves where feast was held.
from 11! to 15 inches in length, the ends terminating in woolen strings
of various colors. The moccasins are sometimes neatly embroidered.
The chief article of value, however, is the medicine sack, in which are
carried several small sacred articles, and particularly the kona'pamik,
O ooooooooooo d o a a ooooooooooo
19 18 17 16
Z 3 4 9 10 H
O O O O O O * o o o o I? 13 »* ISo • • • • o o
Fig. 9—Diagram of medicine lodge of 1890.
a. The eastern or main entrance; b, the western exit 1. Nio'pet, fourth or lowest of the first four;;
2, Ak'wine'mi Ho'shikat, second or next lowest; 3, Sho'min, third or next to chief; 4, Shu'nieii, chief
and leader of ceremonies; 5, candidate. Na'tskiu'iqkO ('He who bullies") ; 6, 7, 8, medicine women,
relations of the candidate; 9, seat occupied by the writer; 10. seat occupied by the interpreter; 11,
usher and general assistant; 12, 13, 14, 15, second group of assistant medicine men; 16, 17, 18, 19, third
group of medicine men, detailed to assist in initiation 20, mat on which candidate kneels when he is;
to be "shot" with the konii'pamik or magic shell; 21, the place of the fire; 22, place of presents sus-
pended from a pole. The remaining spaces around the interior of the inclosure, indicated by small
circles, are occupied by the members of Uv socirly ami visiting medicinemen who may be known and
entitled to admission.
or shell, used in shooting at the candidate anil in conveying sacred or
mystic influence to a patient. The medicine sack or hag, together with
the several articles of dress above named, are fully described and illus-
trated in connection with art work and ornamentation.
In addition to adornment of the body by means of various kinds
of apparel, beaded and ornamented with metal, feathers, etc, facial
76 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ann.H
decoration is indulged in liberally. At present there is no special rule
governing the arrangement of color designs employed, though formerly,
when the society still conferred four degrees, there were distinctive
arrangements of color to designate the several degrees by which the
rank of the various members could readily be identified. The colors
employed were earthy pigments, generally obtained at trading estab-
lishments. The mita" who had received but one initiation into the
society was allowed, as well as expected, to adorn his face by making
a white stripe horizontally across the forehead, a band of white clay of
a finger's width, and extending outward as far as the outer angle of
each eye. In addition, a spot of green about an inch in diameter was
placed upon the middle of the breast.
Those having received two degrees were usually honored by their
preceptor by being permitted to adopt the facial decoration of the latter;
this consisted of a fanciful application to the face of red ocher, or ver-
milion, and one spot of green beneath each eye.
The third degree mit;i' v placed a stripe of green so as to extend hori-
zontally outward from the corners of the mouth.
To distinguish a mita'T of the highest rank, one of the fourth degree,
the chin was colored with green paint.
These arrangements were the generic and specific features in color
decoration, but slight additions thereto were made, to such an extent
only, however, as not to intrude upon or to obscure the typical decora-
tions characteristic of the several grades.
No regularity of color arrangement, in so far as it relates to rank, is
now found. No two faces presented any similarity at the meeting
under consideration, the greater number of the members having simply
besmeared their cheeks, the chin, or other parts of the face, with ver-
milion, with here and there a stripe of bine, red, or green. One would
have his face colored yellow with ocher or chrome yellow, with a
stripe of red running outward from each side of the mouth. Another
would have three lines of red passing down over the chin, a central
line with one nearer the outer corners of the mouth, between which
lines were others of dark blue. Another had black spots the size of a
dime, on a red forehead ; while still another, who had recently lost a near
relation, had his cheeks and forehead blackened with ashes.
One young man displayed rather more than ordinary taste in the
decoration of his face; there being a stripe across each cheek from the
nose to near the ears, curving slightly upward, consisting of alternate
squares of vermilion and white, the squares being about three-fourths
of an inch across and bordered with black. A row of spots also
extended from the upper lip outward toward the ears, each spot being
as large as a dime; those nearest the mouth were red, the next two white
with a bar sinister in blue, and the last ones red. While scarcely beau-
tiful, these facial paintings of the men were very striking.
The facial decorations of the women members of the society were not
so elaborate, their chief form consisting mainly of reddened cheeks,
]
HOFFMAN MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS 77
with a spot of blue on the forehead, or a vertical stripe or two across
the chin.
When the four medicine men had taken their proper stations and
were seated on the mats, the usher brought the goods that had been
furnished by the candidate and placed them before Nio'pet, the east-
ernmost of the four. The medicine drum was then also placed before
Nio'pet, who removed the drum head, wet it, and after putting some
water into the drum—to the depth of perhaps 2 inches—he replaced
the drum head and
tightened it down by
means of a cloth-cov-
ered iron hoop. Figure
10 represents the drum
and drumstick.
The mit;i' v drum dif-
fers from that ordi-
narily used in dances;
it consists of a cylin-
drical piece of wood
carefully hollowed out,
about 16 inches high
by 12 inches in diam-
eter at the base, gently
narrowing toward the
top. A piece of raw-
hide is permanently
attached across the
bottom, while the top
piece is secured only
by means of the iron
hoop fitting over it
and around the drum.
About a quart of water
is poured into thedruui,
and after thedrumhead
Fig. 10—11,. i and stick.
has been thoroughly
softened by soaking, it is tightly stretched across the top and secured
by the hoop.
The drumstick used with the drum consists of a piece of wood curved
downward and forward at the front end, so that the point of percussion
is but little larger than the tip of the finger. On account of the water
in the bottom of the drum, the sound, when one is near by, is merely
a series of dull thuds; but on a still night it is audible for the distance
of a mile or more.
While the mita'T was using the drum, the two seated next accom-
panied him with rattles, one consisting of a round tin box, the other
of a hollow gourd, each with a stick passing through it lengthwise
78 THE MENOMINI INDIANS f ETH. ANN. 14
to serve as a handle. These were partly tilled with grains of corn to pro-
duce a rattling sound. (Figure 11 represents one of the two specimens
procured and now in the United States National Museum.) Other
members are admitted at this stage of the ceremony, but as my visit
to the meeting was made at the request of some of the mitii /T and by
virtue of my affiliation with the Ojibwa society, I was invited to sit at
the right of the chief priest.
The service, which continued from the time of the meeting at the
grave until daylight of the following morning, was for the benefit of the
shade of the dead, which had been permitted by N'a'qpote to return and
to be present within the mita'wiko'mik. At daybreak, however, the
shade is free to return to its last abode, but it is
believed to make a last visit to the same spot lour
years later.
After the procession arrived at the medicine
wiko'mik, only the four highest officiating medicine
men reverentially entered, and, after taking the
seats reserved for them, produced their pipes and
tobacco. A ceremonial smoke was then indulged in
by blowing a mouthful of smoke toward the east,
another toward the south, one toward the west, one
toward the north, and another toward the sky, the
abode of Mashii' Ma'nido, or the Great Mystery.
Smoking continued, then, until the pipes went out,
when Nio'pet, sitting at the eastern extremity of the
row of four, and recognized, during these ceremonies
only, as the fourth in rank, began the ceremonies.
Looking about him to see that his associates were
ready to proceed, he remarked to each of the three,
in succession, " Nika'ni, nika'ni, nika'ni, kaue" (my
colleagues, my colleagues, my colleagues) ; to which
the others responded in like manner. Then betook
Fig. 11—Gourd rattle.
the drumstick, and giving the drum several soft
though rapid taps, to call attention, the two sitting to his right assist-
ing in gently shaking the rattle, the medicine man softly chanted the
following words:
"My grandson will now be placed on the correct path. It gives me
pleasure to see the goods before me, which have been brought here as
an evidence of the good will of my grandson, and his desire to become
instructed in the way to go through life. 1 can hear beneath the ground
the approach of our enemies, the ana'maqki'ii, who destroyed the brother
of Ma'nabiish,and who now would wish to oppose our proceedings, but
Ma'nabush said: 'Whenever you are in trouble, place some tobacco
aside for me, aud when the odor of your smoke ascends 1 shall help
you.' Therefore, we have before us some tobacco to be offered to
Ma'nabush, that he may be present at the meeting and fill us with con-
tentment."
Hoffman] CEREMONIAL CHANTS 79
When this recitation was ended, all uttered rapidly the words, "H5,
ho, ho, ho, ho," while the drum was pushed toward the right, to the next
medicine man, A/kwine'mi Mo'sihat, the rattles being now used by
Sho'niiu and Shu'nien. The attendant usher also came forward from
his station, down toward the middle of the northern side of the iuclosure,
and placed the goods and presents before the drummer, who, after say-
ing to each of his companions, "Nika'ni, nika'ni, nika'ni, kane'," began
gently to tap the drum, and gradually reciting his words they blended
into a chant and finally into rapid utterances, as follows:
"The shades are looking toward us and are watching our procedure,
as we are looking toward them for their approbation. They favor our
work and will not oppose us. Our fathers have always done thus before
us, and they did well, because they had been instructed by Ma'niibush
to do so. Therefore we too follow our fathers in obeying the injunc-
tions of Ma'niibush, that all may be well with us." As this recitative
chant was concluded, the other medicine men uttered the sameinterjec-
tional words, " Ho, ho, ho, ho. ho."
The chant appears brief; but the peculiar manner of its delivery, by
duplicating the phrases, and by some interjected meaningless notes,
to give emphasis and to fill up the measure of drum beats, caused it
to be more prolonged than one would suppose possible. As usual,
everything was done with apparent premeditation and studied delay, to
make it as impressive as possible to those not members of the society.
The drum and goods were then pushed along to a spot before the third
singer, Sho'min, who in turn handed his rattle to Nio'pet, Shu'nien still
retaining his, while A/kwine'mi, who had just completed his chant,
rested. Shu'nien also saluted his confreres with the words, "Mka'ni,
nika'ni, nika'ni, kane'," then began to drum very gently, and soon to
chant the following:
"In teaching the one who desires to become a mita' v to follow the
right path, we are ourselves following the directions given to us by the
Great Mystery. He caused the Mystery [Mii'iiabush] to come and to
erect a mita'wiko'mik, where we should receive instructions, and where,
also, others might receive it from us. The old whiteheads received
instruction in this manner, and we, as their children, received our infor-
mation from them. Therefore, we now teach the true way of life. We
do that even today." As before, the three other medicine men uttered
the words, "Ho, ho, ho, ho, ho," as an intimation of approbation and
concurrence with the thoughts expressed, while the drum and goods
were placed before Shu'nien, who, though the last of the four, was the
chief officiating medicine man for the time. Gently tapping the drum,
he began uttering and continuing more and more rapidly, in a spas-
modic or disconnected manner, the following words, the phrases grad-
ually assuming the nature of a chant:
"Long ago the grand medicine was observed with more care and
reverence than it is now. The sun was bright when the whiteheads
80 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [ETH. ANN. H
assembled, but now it is dark, and I can not see the reason. Children
were better taught to respect the truth and to be honest. Once a man
came to me in search of his children. They had become lost to him,
and he was unable to find them. But 1 could see the children, far, far
away, and I told the father that I could see his children, but that there
was a great Are raging bet ween them and me, and that they were beyond
reach. He could not recover them. Therefore, teach your children that
they may not stray beyond your control and find themselves separated
from you by the barrier of fire from which it is impossible to rescue
them. Teach them also to be honest; do not permit them to learn to
lie and to steal."
At the conclusion of this recitation the companions of Shu'nien gave
exclamations of approbation by rapidly uttering, "Ho, ho, ho. hi}, h5."
The usher then came forward, gathered up the goods, and carried them
Fia. 12—Presents suspended from pole.
toward the middle of the eastern half of the iuclosure, where, with the
assistance of some friends of the candidate, he suspended the blanketst
cloth, calico, mats, etc., from the longitudinal ridge pole, placed a short
distance below the roof arch for this purpose (figure 12).
In the meantime the singers had again produced their pipes to take
a smoke. Other members of the society who were to take active part
in the ceremonies now entered the iuclosure at the eastern door. All
who were permitted to enter at this stage of the ceremonies had dressed
themselves as became their station, and in entering passed along the
right side of the inclosure nearest the mats occupied by the four medi-
cine men, and as they passed by them each held his right hand toward
the seated figures, the back of the hand toward the person addressed,
and saluted him by designating him by the proper term of relation-
ship; or, if no such connection existed, then by "my elder brother,"
"my younger brother," as the relative ages of the speaker and the per-
son addressed may have been. The person thus addressed bowed his
head and responded by saying, " Hau'ka" (it is well), and when each of
hoffman] CEREMONIAL CHANTS 81
the four had responded those who had passed went to their places and
before seatiug themselves looked around the inclosure, as if address-
ing a number of invisible persons present, and said, "Nika'ni, nika'ni,
nika'ni, kane'," to which the others again responded, "Hau'kii." Each
visitor then seated himself and took a ceremonial smoke. He took his
seat, as did all subsequent visitors, either on one or the other side of
the structure, according to the phratry of which he was a member.
It has already been stated that a second group of four medicine men
had been selected to assist in the ceremonies of initiation; and these,
having by this time dressed themselves in their ornamented head-
dresses, with beaded medicine bags suspended at their sides, and with
beaded garters and other ornaments adorning their persons, now ap-
peared at the eastern entrance, entering in single file, keeping step to
a forward dancing movement, which consisted of quick hops on the right
and left foot alternately. These medicine men were Ni'aqtawa'pomi,
Mai'akint'VT, Na'qpatii, and Kime'an. All of them had gourd or tin
rattles, with which to accompany the singer. The four passed along
before the others, who were already seated, holding their hands toward
the latter, and saluting them by expressing such terms of relationship
as existed, or by terming one an elder brother or a younger brother, as
their relative ages demanded. They then continued their dancing step
down on the right side to the west, where they gradually turned to their
left side so as to return on the opposite (southern) side of the inclosure
to the inside of the eastern entrance, where they halted and faced west-
ward. The leader, Ni'aqtawa'pomi, then began to keep time with his
rattle, addressing those present by saying, "Nika'ni, nika'ni, nika'ni,
kang';" whereupon all present responded by saying, "Hau'kii," when he
began to chant the words:
"I am glad you are all working at that, of which the old medicine
men taught me. It puts back my thoughts to bygone years, when I
was young and just about to be made a member of this society. This
is the way all of you feel at realizing how the many winters have
whitened our hair."
Then the singer, accompanied by his three assistants, renewed his
dancing along the path to the western end of the mita'wiko'mik, where
they halted and, facing eastward, Ni'aqtawa'pomi continued his chant:
"'Take pity on your poor,' is what the old people always told me to
do; that I now say to those within the hearing of my voice; my sou,
you will be happy when you dance with the dead today."
At the conclusion of this chant the four medicine men again started
on their dancing step to make the circuit of the interior of the inclos-
ure, but as they approached the east, the one who first chanted quietly
stepped to the rear of the line, leaving the second one, Mai'akine'uv
, to
become the leader, and as they took their former position at the eastern
entrance, facing westward, he also addressed those present with the
14 eth 6
82 THE MEXOMINI INDIANS [ethannU
twins of kinship or friendship to which each was entitled, after which
he also saluted his colleagues by saying, "Mka'ni, nika'ni, nika'ni,
kane','' to which they responded, "Ilau'ka." Mai'akine'uT then began
to chant in a recitative manner the following words:
"It is good for you and for us to follow the injunctions of Mii'nabush,
and to gather about within the mitii'wiko'inik. The old people before
us have spoken about the benefits to be gained by gathering here, and
I also call to your attention the good that is to be derived by our meet-
ing here. I have now spoken about what the whiteheads have told
me. 1 have thanked them for their words to me."
Then the procession of the four medicine men again started off on its
dancing arou 1 d the inclosure, as before, to the west, where they stopped
anil faced e jtward. Mai'akineTr again sang the foregoing words, after
which tli- four started along the southern path eastward, during which
movement the last singer dropped to the rear, thus leaving Na'qpata
as the leader, and the one to chant next. By this time they had reached
the eastern part of the inclosure and, facing westward, Na'qpatii saluted
those present with the appropriate terms of relationship, and then
addressing his colleagues, as his predecessors had done, began his
chant, as follows:
"Our old customs appear well; the words that are spoken sound
well. This is the Great Mystery's home. The practices which our old
parents taught are beautiful in my eyes. The sky used to be bright,
but nowit is dark.'' Then the singer, followed by the three beside him,
again danced toward the west, where they stopped, and, facing west-
ward, Na'qpata continued:
"Mii'nabush told our parents to do as we are now doing. Hereafter
the Indians will continue to follow our footsteps and teachings, as we
are following the way of those before us. The sky has four openings, for
which we must look. The openings are the places we much look for and
ask the Great Mystery to close, for this rain interferes with our work.''
The frequent references to "dark sky" and "openings" in the sky,
were because of the rain which had begun to fall shortly after the
beginning of the ceremonies.
At the conclusion of the above chant, the medicine men again made the
entire circuitofthe inclosure, dancing all theway, but asthey approached
the east agaiu, the singer fell to the rear, thus causing Kime'an, the
fourth and last, to become the leader and to chant the next song.
Saluting those present with appropriate kinship terms,he also addressed
his colleagues, as the others had done, t lien chanted these words:
"We have now arrived at that part of the dance wheu all the medi-
cine men may enter the mita'wikS'inik. Let them be notified that we
shall be pleased to see them seated with us, and partake of the cere
mony which Mii'nabush enjoined upon us to continue. We shall be
able to induce the (treat Mystery to help us, so that the sun may not
remain obscured."
HOFFMAN] MEDICINE BAG 83
Immediately on the completion of this recitation, the four medicine
men again made the tour of the inclosuro along the northern side, and
when at the western extremity they stopped,
faced eastward, and Kime'an repeated his
song. Then the party went to the eastern
part and, lacing westward, listened to the word
"Hau'ka" uttered by the chief medicine men
who were seated at the northeastern corner.
Then the second group of medicine men, those
who had lately ceased chanting, walked along
the northern path toward the west to the seats
reserved for them (marked 12, 13, 14, and 15, in
figure 9).
Ceremonial smoking was now indulged in for
a considerable time, during which the mem-
bers of the society and visiting medicine men
entered the inclosuro and took seats according
to the phratry to which they belonged, or ac-
cording to the office to be tilled during the cere-
monies. Each one saluted those already seated,
in succession, as he went along the right side
path to a seat. The candidate also came into
the structure, accompanied by his nearest rela-
tion, or friends as well, also the member of the
society who made the promise of giving a feast
at the grave of the deceased. The candidate
took a seat next to Nio'pet, on the left, while
the candidate's friend sat at the left side of the
latter. A third group of four medicine men,
who also had been selected to assist in the cere-
monies, now entered, and, after passing around
and saluting each one in succession, went to the
western side of the inclosure, where they took
seats midway between the center and the east-
ern door (at the places marked 10, 17, IS, and 10,
figure 9). These men were Shawaq'ka, ^'ish-
a'noqkwot', Wiiba'sh;ii'iiv, and KowapamTuv.
The medicine women who also had been selected
to assist, both in the erection or superintend-
ence of the ceremonial structure, in the prepa-
ration of the feast, and in the ceremony of
initiation, were located thus: Sa'suss at the
southeastern angle of the inclosure and l'i
Fia.13—Otter-xkin medicine bag.
skiinani'uqkifr' at the northwestern angle.
Each member had his medicine bag, usually consisting of the skin of
an animal, such as the mink, beaver, otter, or weasel, though a bear's
84 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [ETH. ANN. 14
paw may be used for the same purpose; or, perhaps, a panther paw
poach, a snake skin, or any other material which may have been pre-
sented as a gift at an initiation, or dreamed of by the medicine man sub-
sequently to his being admitted to membership. (See figure 13. This
subject is described more fully in connection with beadwork and orna-
mentation.) The audience became large and interesting, not only
because of the large number of members, but on account of the crowd
of people gathered about the medicine wikS'mik, who peeped through
every available crevice and opening in the mats covering the frame-
work of the lodge.
The following list comprises the names of the male and female mem-
*
bers of the Mita'wit, with the signification of nearly all of them, as
furnished by the chiefs of the society at the annual meetings held in
July, 1S90, August, 1891, August, 1892, and August, 1S93, as well as at
a conference with the chief mita'wok held during the months of Feb-
ruary and March, 1892, at Washington:
Hales.
A k winr mi Mo'sihat ' . .Willi in -the-month. Nmiiiish' Fish.
Anii'maqkl'sii Little Thunder. O'bimash' Younger-chief.
A.'patake'zhXk Half-the-sky. O'kweinawa'peshlir Chief-oi' the swans.
A | k i n;ikn slir
< .Terrible-looking. O'kwitshiwa'nd < )n-th< -summit.
Baifi \\ Bqshi1 That-which-ratties. Pfim6'n6tJ Flying-by.
R5h5'pesh3' Little-whoops. rip.. nanS't^1 Winter Hawk.
Ish'kwa&'ban a Breaking I>;iy. Pi'tiwfi krshld Coming noisily.
Ka'dabaqshl'u1 .< >ne wbo-broils. I'it wash'kiim Coming-with-a sound.
Kaia'nam£k' Kdq"ea ...(Unknown). Shaka aaqkwfid' Peeping-cloud.
B tia aoxni I - l (Unknown). Shaboi i ok Penetrating-sound.
Ka'shekoqka'ti, 4 One-who-carries-light. Sha'batis' (Iiaptiste, Fr.).
Kawi'klt' 1 Kough-face. Sha'wanake'zhtk Sunt hern-sky.
ESne'sha Eaglet. Shawaq'ka Yellow-wings.
Ke"sh6 Moon. Sho'mln Raisin.
K' 'ehSka'weshaVt The Moon? Shoshat' (Unknown).
Kime'an Rain. Mm n it'ii .Money (Silver).
KiahB'wadd'sha' Swift-little-hawk. Tamas Ivokosh , Thomas Hog [dor.
Kowa'pami'&T B (Unknown), Tshl-Kwa'set The-sound-of-the thuu-
MaIa'kiuL-'uT True Eagle. [goes. W&'bakine'u* White-Eagle,
Miitwash'kiit Making-a-somid-as-he- \v.i band Easterner.
Hiq'kiniy ni Partisan. Wa'basha'Ift' White-dressed skin.
Mishi'nawe 6 A Waiter. WS ba I shlk! White Fisher.
Nai&q/td Certain-one. Waima"tekit With -bow ami-arrow.
Ni'a'qtaw&'pomi The-most-conapicuous. Wai'shikwoniit' Tail-of-the great-fish.
NaVmotam' Tells-the-tnith, Wa oaqko lsh8 Little-apex.
Naq'pa'tii' Marksman. W.i in- Cam (Unknown).
Na'sbikaVpawe1 Stands-izi-the-dark. Weq-KS'-sha Little-calamus.
N&tshi'wIqkS" He-who-bullies. WlBa Unshed' Good-one.
Nawaq kwt slikuin' Ilalf-a-niouth. Wisha'noqkwut' Dense-cloud.
Ni kunish' Foremost-man. WSsho'" (Unknown).
Nio'pfil Fourin a-den. Witshi'wfitl'" Goiug-fur-somebody.
Fern dies.
Ange'Mk (Angelioa i. IHi'tewiata'mo (girl) Rumbling Noise.
A |'.ii;i Kc /iitkukl'uT ...lla!l :i ikiy. Kakik.itshiwan Everlasting-falls.
Awa'nnqui'na F"g- Ivii'tshemlqtii'a One-who-dances.
1 Died .luring the- winter of 1894-95. 4 The Moon.
2 An Ojibwa word. fi Potawatomi words.
'Word adopted from some other tribe; unknown. 6 Corruption of a French name.
HOFFMAN) NIGHT CEREMONY 85
Females—Continued.
Ke'niaqki'sau Little Eagle. Ki'knni<i /sakwii'u T Shewho-leads.
Ke'niaqki'sau I Little Eagle. Ni'sBt (girl) "Elizabeth."
Ke'waiatshlwan The-eddy. O'shona'muniq'klil Vermilion-woman.
Ke'shluqka'fj 2 Moon-woman. Pa'raikVshik6k' Scattering-clouds.
Ke'shikoq'kl'u 2 iloon-woman. Pasa'niiqkwatuq'klu . . .The-touching-clouds.
Ej'niaqhi'ii Eagle woman. Paskiina'ni'uqkl'iV The-bird'stail-tonching.
Kl'nlaqki'sa Little-she-eagle. PO'tJiu'iiudii'mo Bird-woman.
Klno'ka The-long-one. Pi'shiiqku'uqkru Cattle-woman
Ki'sba'no'wlii One-who-sheds-teurs. Pi'tn'nowe Approaehing-light.
Ki'shiwii'tshiwan Roaring-rapids. Pi'taqka mikuq'ktu That-which grows
Kiwaqkwo"amuqk' . . . Flying-clouds. Sa'su.ss (Unknown)
Kushe'aqkrci French-woman. Shi'awaqkliV Bend in-the-river.
Kushe'aqki'u French woman. Ta'k ki'zhikoqk' Day-woman.
Kushe'aqki'u 3 French woman. TamO'n Gray-squirrel.
Mishkwo'panoq Red-dawn. TshO batsh' 4 (French.)
Mushaq'kwutuq'klu Sky-woman, [tree. Wa'banu mita'mo Wabano-woman.
Nuq'k;iha"anm Picks • blossom - oil- the W&'bano mita'ino 6 Wabano-woman.
Niisr. | ' kui'Ik Travels-alone. Wa'hataunoq'kwctuk (Unknown).
Na'wata'winc'u She-who picks-berries. (girl).
Darkness having come on, the usher and the medicine woman put
more wood on the fires, built near each end of the inclosure, and also
lit the lanterns suspended from the archway of the wiko'mik at vari-
ous places. In a short time the candidate was called forward, to stand
before the left-hand medicine man of the first group. The candidate's
friends and family, to the number of eight, stood in a semicircle around
the candidate and kept time to the chant and drumming by dancing
in a shuffling manner, in the spot first taken by them.
Kio'pet now chanted to the candidate, and the women in a few
moments caught the monotonous air, if such it may be designated, and
sang in a peculiar high-pitched voice, reminding one of the sound made
by a bagpipe. The translation of Nio'pet's chant is as follows:
"When Ma'nabush erected the niita'wiko'mik he placed tobacco
before the Great Mystery as an offering. Therefore it is always used as
an offering when one seeks to become a member of the Mita/wit."
These words were repeated, as before stated, and reiterated so that
their delivery consumed from ten to fifteen minutes. The candidate at
the conclusion of the song returned to his seat, as did also his friends.
A ceremonial smoke having been taken by most of those present, the
drum was pushed along westward to the medicine man next to Nio'pet,
who was now accompanied by the rattle and by the other two perform-
ers to his right. When the drumming began the candidate and his
friends again came forward and stood reverentially before the drum-
mer, when the latter began to chant the following:
"Ton see how the mitawikS'mik is built; it is the same as that
directed by the Great Mystery to be built by MaVnabush for the Indians.
Not related to preceding of same name.
s The slight difference in the spelling is due in this and in similar eases to individual peculiarity
in pronunciation.
3 The women bearing these three similar names are not related.
4
1 '(irruption of the French je passe.
6 Not related to the preceding of similar name.
86 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ann. u
It is strong, and gives life to those who meet within it. This is the
northern side, and it was made by Mashii' Ma'uido. When yon require
strength you must meet within the walls of the structure."
Again the candidate and his friends retired to their seats, and another
delay occurred, during which smoking and conversation in a low tone
went on. In the meantime the drum was passed once more toward the
right for the third of the chief medicine men to use with his chant, and
when he began to tap the drum the candidate and his friends again
came forward and formed a semicircle before the singer. His words
(translated) were as follows:
"I am speaking of the southern side; it is not so strong as the other,
side. The strong side must always aid the weaker one. The goods
and the tobacco that have been given for the feast will induce the
mysteries to aid us to keep our strength while we continue to perform
the ceremonies instituted by Ma'nabfish at the desire of Mashii' Ma'-
uido."
Thecandidate and his friends again retired to their seats as the chant
ended, while the drum was passed on to Shu'nien, whose turn came
next. The character of the recitation was now changed, as reference
to the presents and the benefits to be obtained by frequently gathering
together were omitted, while the myth relating to the birth of Ma'uabiish
and his subsequent deeds in procuring for the Indian all the benefits
which they enjoy was begun.
Shu'nien and the rest of his chief assistants now sat with heads
bowed down, as if in deep meditation on the sacreduess of the mitii' v
ritual, the most important part of which is the recitation by the
singer of the myth as it had been handed down from the past.
After some water had again been poured into the drum and the head
moistened, replaced, and tightly stretched, Shu'nien began gently to
tap it, his eyes directed forward or upward, and at the moment of sup-
posed inspiration began the chant, keeping time with the drumstick,
and accompanied by the rattling of the three companion mita'wok.
The candidate presented himself before Shu'nien, standing there rev-
erentially to listen to the recitation, while his friends and other medi-
cine men and women, to the number of twelve, gathered about him.
As before, these recitations were uttered at first in an earnest manner,
gradually becoming more vehement and rapid, until the singer reached
an apparently ecstatic condition. His eyes had a vacant, far-away look,
the perspiration began to roll from his face and body, and the muscles
of his neck and arm swelled out clear and distinct with excitement
and muscular exertion, so that at the end of the chant the performer
appeared thoroughly exhausted.
The most remarkable feature of all the chants was the repetition of
phrases, each set of from four to six words being rapidly repeated all
through that portion of the ritual recited by the first class of four
mitii'wok. The original phraseology requires a much longer time than
hoffman] MENOMINI GENESIS 87
is indicated by the translations, and as this duplication doubled the
time, the several chants covered a period varying from twenty minutes
to three-quarters of an hour. In the following" translation the original
phraseology has been followed as closely as possible, so as to maintain
intelligible sequence without additional explanation.
After Shu'nien had tapped the drum sufficiently to attain the proper
time to suit his chant, he began with the following traditional history
of Menomini genesis:
"The daughter of Noko'mis, the Earth, is the mother of Ma'niibush,
who is also the Fire. The Flint 1 grew up out of Noko'mis, and was
alone. Then the Flint made a bowl and dipped it into the earth ; slowly
the bowlful of earth became blood, and it began to change its form.
So the blood was changed into Wabus, the Rabbit. The Rabbit grew
into human form, and in time became a man, and thus was Ma'niibush -'
formed. Ma'nabush was angry because he was alone on the earth ; and
because his enemies, the ana'maqki'u, who dwelt beneath the earth,
were constantly annoying him and trying to destroy him.
"Then Ma'nabush shaped a piece of flint to make an ax, and while he
was rubbing it on a rock he heard the rock make peculiar sounds,
'Ke kit', ke kii', ke kii', ke kii', goss, goss, goss, goss.' He soon under-
stood what this signified, that he was alone on the earth and that he
had neither father, mother, brother, nor sister. This is what the Flint
said while Ma'nabush was rubbing it upon the rock.
"While he was meditating on this, he heard the sound of something
approaching, and when he looked up he beheld Moqwai'o, the Wolf, who
said to Ma'nabush, 'Now you have a brother, for I too am alone; we
shall live together and I shall hunt for you.' Mii'nabush replied, 'I am
glad to see you, my brother. I shall change your form and make you
like myself;' and in a short time Moqwai'o became as a man. Mii'na-
bush and his brother then moved away to the shore of a lake, where
they built a wigwam. Ma'niibush told his brother that the ana'maqki'u
dwelt beneath the water of the lake, and that he should never go into
the water nor cross the ice.
"One day the brother of Ma'niibush was out hunting, and it was late
in the day when he started to return to his wigwam. He found him-
self on the shore of the lake, just opposite to where the wigwam stood,
and could easily see it; and as he did not want to make a long journey
around by the lake shore, he hesitated awhile, but at last decided to
cross over on the ice. When he reached the middle of the lake the ice
broke, and the ana'inaqki'u. pulled him under, and he was drowned.
'Tht.' Abnaki Indians of Canada, a tribe linguistically allied to tin- Menomini, also believe the first
man and the first woman to have been created of a stone. Tin- Abbfe Maurault remarks: " IN cro-
yaient que le premier hommc et la premiere fernme sauvages avaient fete crfefes d'nne pierre; quele
Grantl-Esprit, non satisfait de ce premier coap-d'essai. avail detruit ce premier couple, ei en ;i\:iit
crfefe nn autre d'un arbre; que ce second couple etait presqu'aussi par fait que le Grand-Esprit, et que
lea sauvages en descendaient."— Uistoire dea Abenaki* depuis 1605 .jusqu a nos jours, Qufebec, 1806,
pp. 19,20.
2 From Maska', great: and wabns . rabbit.
—
88 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.anh.H
"Ma'nabush knew that his brother had been killed, aud mourned for
him for four days. On the fifth day, while Ma'nabush was out looking
for the trail of game, he chauced to look up from the ground and beheld
his brother approaching. Then the brother of Ma'nabush said: 'My
fate will be the fate of all our friends and descendants; they will die,
but after four days they will return again.' Then Ma'nabush found that
what he thought was the body of his brother was only the shade, so he
said ': My brother, return to the place of the setting sun you are now;
called Na'qpote, and will have .the care of the dead.' The mystery
replied : ' If I go there and our friends follow me we shall not be able
to return again when we leave this place.' Ma'nabush again spoke to
the shade of his brother, saying: 'Go, Na'qpote, and prepare a wig-
wam for our friends; build a large fire, that they may be guided to it
that on their arrival they may find an abode.'
" Then Na'qpote left, to abide in the land of shades, in the direction
of the setting sun, where the world is cut off."
Shu'nien ceased chanting at this point, and the candidate and his
friends returned to their seats. The usher came forward and placed
the drum before Nio'pet, at the left side, while the rattles were appro-
priated by the other medicine men. A ceremonial smoke having again
been taken, Nio'pet began to tap the drum gently, and as the rattles
were heard the candidate and his companions presented themselves
before Nio'pet. The following is a translation of the words chanted:
" When Ma'nabush found himself deprived of his brother, he looked
about him and found that he was not now alone on the earth, but that
there were other people, his uncles and aunts, also children of Xoko'niis.
He found that they were greatly harassed by the ana'maqki'u, and
became very angry with Mashii' Ma'nido for allowing them so much
power. He therefore determined to destroy the ana'maqki'u, and cried
out for the waters of the lake to disappear, Four times he cried oat,
when the waters began to disappear in the earth, leaving on the mud
aud sand of the bottom many of the ana'maqki'fi, while stranded near
the shore lay the chief of them all, Mi'sikine'bik, the Great Fish.
Then Ma'nabush said to him, ' I want to destroy you because you will
not permit my people to approach the water that they may drink ;' but
just as he was about to carry out his threat the smaller ana'maqki'u
again caused the waters to return to the lake, thus depriving Ma'na-
bush of the satisfaction of killing their chief. Thus they escaped.
"Then Ma'nabush went to seek some birch trees, and getting bark
sufficient to make a canoe, he prepared one and decided to destroy
Mi'sikine'bik by attacking him in the water. As he left the shore to go
out upon the lake, he sang 'Mi'sikine'bik bina' ni'na koq'slna' [Great
Fish, come and swallow me]. Mi'sikine'bik paid no attention to this,
as hi? thought his young could easily destroy Ma'nabush. They came
toward the canoe, but Ma'nabush said to them, 'I do not want you; it
hoffman] CONSTRUCTION OF THE WlKo'llIK 89
is your chief and parent whom I want to come and swallow me;' and
pushing them forcibly away from him, the old Mi'sikine'bik became so
enraged that he darted forward and swallowed Mii'iiiibusk.
"When Mii'nabush found himself inside the belly of Mi'sikine'bik, he
began to look about and found many of his people—some who had but
recently been swallowed, some who had become sick and weak from
long confinement, and the remains of many others who had perished
there. Then Mii'nabush asked the Buffalo, 'My uncle, how did you get
here'? I never saw you near the water, but always on the prairie.' The
Buffalo replied, saying, 'I was near the lake to get some green, fresh
grass, when Mi'sikine'bik caught me.' He asked many of the others
how they happened to be so unfortunate as to be in that place.
Then Mii'niibush said to them all, 'We will now have to go to my
grandmother's shore, but you will have to help me.' Then they all
began to dance around in the interior of Mi'sikine'bik, which made
him very sick and caused him to swim toward the shore. Then Mii'nii-
bush, who had a short knife with him, began to cut into that part of
the body over his head, while the dancers sang, 'Ke'sikina'miu; ke'si-
kina'min' [I see the sky; I see the sky]. Mii'niibush kept cutting the
body of Mi'sikine'bik so much that he was heard to say, ' I have too many
of them within me; I am getting very sick; I shall swim to the shore
where Noko'mis lives'; and going forward rapidly he was soon stranded
on the beach, when Mii'niibush finished by cutting a hole in the body of
Mi'sikine'bik large enough for them to emerge and again be free.
"They were all pleased because Ma'niibush had helped them to return
to the earth. Mii'nabush then left his uncles and went toward the rising
sun, when one day as he was approaching a high mountain he saw on it,
basking in the sun, a large white bear, Owa'sse, who was one of the
most powerful of the ana'maqki'u. Mii'niibush approached very cau-
tiously, and drawing an arrow from his quiver, he fixed it to his bow-
string and shot it through the body of Owa'sse, killing him. The blood
ran down the mountain side and stained it so that it is visible even
at this day. There we get some of the medicine which is used by the
mitii'wok."
At the termination of the above chant, the candidate and his attend-
ants returned to their seats, while the performer passed the drum and
drumstick to the mitii" on his right, who appeared to continue the
ritualistic chant. The nature of the recitation was again changed,
for instead of continuing the traditional exploits of Mii'niibush, the
explanation of how the mitii'wiko'mik came to be constructed and
the privileges which Mii'niibush received from the Great Mystery were
recounted. It was also stated how and why the mitii'wok do certain
things connected with the ceremony.
The second of the mitii'wok who now prepared to chant was the third
in rank. The candidate and his followers returned and stood before the
:
90 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ann. 14
singer, wheu, after a short preliminary drumming, the beats slowly ;md
gradually swelling in intensity, the medicine man began a chant, of which
the following words are a translation
"The mita'wiko'mik must always be built so as to extend from the
direction of the rising of the sun to the direction of the setting thereof.
Masha' Ma'nido gave to Ma'nabiish charge of the entrance toward the
setting sun. Masha' Ma'nido also informed Ma'nabiish of what should
be done and encountered by him, as well as by those who should here-
after become members of the Mita'wit. A path leads from the wigwam
toward the place of the rising sun, and at a short distance sit two aged,
gray-haired men facing each i >ther. When Ma'nabush reached this place
the elder of them said, ' My son, as you follow this path you will come to
a ridge; ascend it until you reach a tree growing on one side of the path.
The roots of this tree reach to the four worlds beneath, while its branches
ascend to the entrance of the sky, where four ma'nidos guard it and watch
all those who approach. Some enter, while others are obliged to cont inue
on the path. The four ma'nidos are Kine'uv the Bald-eagle; Piuash'iu,
,
the Golden-eagle; Mania T'tshe'au, the Indian; and Y\ apis'hketa-pa'u,the
White-hair. The last is the chief of those who have charge of the
entrance to the sky.
"'The mita'wok get their sacred staffs from the branches of the tree
which rises to the sky. From the place of the tree forward we are
told to continue on the path toward the rising sun, but on the way you
shall find a large poplar log lying across it, over which you must not
pass, but will have to go around it at the top end of the tree. The
small branches typify theft, and if you have sinned you will be drawn
to them and bite them with your teeth. Should you have committed
such an offense you will be punished.
'"A little farther on you will find another tree, a thorn apple, against
which you must not put your fingers, nor lean against it, nor take any
fruit therefrom. You must pass it on the left side. After a short
journey you will come to a stream of water which crosses the path,
where, as you stoop to drink, you will perceive the reflection of your
image and that your head is turning gray. Then, as you meditate how
many days you have lived you will become nervous at the sight and
thoughtful iif what you may have done. When you continue on your
path, you will in time come to a country covered with green plants of
many kinds; there are medicines, roots and leaves. You will dig some
and pluck others, which you will prepare to give to those who need
them. Then as you look to the sky, for this is the end of the path, you
will find that you can go no farther.
"'Many points have you passed ere this which may have tempted
you to tarry, but had you done so you would not have reached the end
of the entire path of life, but would have perished.'"
On the completion of this chant the candidate again retired, as did
those who accompanied him, while the members generally indulged in
a smoke. The medicine women retired to set more food for those
hoffman] sho'min's chant 91
officiating, which consumed considerable time, and during this digres-
sion there was considerable going and coming and visiting of old
friends, who may have chanced to have met only once a year and under
similar circumstances. When all had again become quiet, the third
medicine man, Sho'min, received the drum, and while he was tapping
it preparatory to chanting, the candidate and his friends came forward
and stood in trout of him, remaining- throughout the chant, which was
supposed to recount the manner in which Ma'nabttsh received the
assistance of various ma'nidos, who were instructed by the Great Mys-
tery to place at the disposal of Ma'nabttsh their several powers. The
translation of his recitation is as follows:
"When Ma'nabnsh sat in the mita'wiko'mik, which he had erected as
Masha' Ma'nido had instructed him to do, he sat thinking as to how he
should further be enabled to obtain necessary powers to aid his ancles
am! their descendants.
"Then from the east came Owa'sse, the Bear, who entered the mita'-
wiko'mik and said to Ma'nabttsh, 'My brother, I come to yon to offer to
you my strength, that you may be able to withstand the power of the
ana'maqki'u.' Ma'nabnsh was pleased to receive from the Bear the
power. Then Wabon, the Daylight, also came in from the east, follow-
ing the Bear, saying, 'My brother, I come to offer myself to you, that
you may lie able to hold your mita'v meeting.' Again Ma'nabttsh was
gratified at this gift, and thanked the Daylight. Then another ma'nido
came flying from the place of the rising sun—he whose bones can
be heard to rattle, and he of whom those who dream become faint
with fear; this is Pa'ka. Pa'ka told the Bear and the Daylight that
he too would inspire Ma'nabttsh, so as to fill with tei'ror those who
were antagonistic to the mitii'v. Again Ma'nabttsh thanked his
brothers for their aid. Then came another from the east, who was
brighter than the Daylight, he who is called Mislq'kwan, followed by
Masse'nii, the Turkey. To Man'abusk the Turkey gave the red color
from his neck, that the mita'T might paint themselves, and from his tail
the bars, which signify days, that there might be. a division of time
when the mita'v might dance. 'These,' said the Turkey to Ma'na-
bttsh, 'I give to you.' Ma'nabttsh was greatly pleased at this assist-
ance, and thanked the Turkey, as he had the other ma'nidos. Then
came Kuku'kuii', the Great Owl, who said to Ma'nabttsh, 'I shall
come and sit by the burial place of the dead, to see that their resting
place is not disturbed.' Then Wa'kii, the Fox, came also to Ma'na-
bttsh, saying, 'My brother, I also will make you a gift—my voice;
then those who have lost their friend may always be able to cry in
lamentation.' Ma'nabnsh then spoke to the ma'nidos who had come
from the east, and again thanked them for their aid in giving strength
to the Mita'wit.
"From the south then came Mikek', the Otter, who said to Ma'na-
bttsh, 'My brother, I come to give you the kona'pamik you will
;
find it on a rock in the waters of the lake; there you will find it and
92 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [kth.ann.u
give it to your mit;i' v brothers.' Then Ke'so, the Sun, came from the
south and said, 'J too, my brother, will appear above you when you all
gather in the lnita'wiko'mik, and as I go westward you will see my
path, which you will, in time, follow.'
"From the west came the Ina'maqki'iV', the Thunderers; A'sa'-
nikaq'ki, the Small Eagle; Ki'tshe waqdOse, the Eagle; Wabaq'ke' and
Pinash'iu, the Bald-eagle; Maqkwa'nanl'tl', the Hawk, and PSpo'nenS',
another Eagle. They all approached Mii'iialmsh, and as they came the
sky became dark with clouds. 'This, Ma'nabush, we give to you
to make a covering to one side of your lnita'wiko'mik.' Ma'nabush
thanked the [na'maqkl'u* for their help, and we have today the shelter
granted to our uncle for the lnita'wiko'mik.
"Then from the sky was heard the sound of voices. Two old men
were heard to speak about the gifts of Ma'nabush, and one said to
him, 'Msi'niibiish, we will put some stones near your mitii'wiko'mik
which shall be heated in the fire; we also give you water to pour on
the stones when they are heated. This you will do before you dance
in the mitii'wiko'mik. Carry this news to your people that they may
all hear of it and know how to prepare themselves when they wish to
dance.' We all use the hot stones and pour water upon them when we
have the ceremony of the Mita'wit.
"The North Wind then came to the lnita'wiko'mik and said, 'Ma'na-
bush, and all of you ma'nidos have contributed for the welfare of the
people the gifts which you possess, but 1 will grant you one which
will surpass them all; I will give them the North Wind so that sickness
will not affect them.' Then Mii'nnbush said, 'I thank you all for these
gilts with which you have endowed me and my brother. I am grateful
to the ma'nidos from the east, the south, the west, and the north.'
"The ma'nidos then returned to the respective directions whence
they had come."
Again there came a tedious pause in the proceedings when Sho'min
had ended his chant, and while the candidate and his companions
returned to their respective seats the medicine men smoked and medi-
tated. In time the drum was pushed along to Shu'nien at the right
hand, whose turn now came to chant; and while he began to tap the
drum, his companions began to shake their rattles as the candidate
and his followers again presented themselves for further instruction.
The translation of Shu'nien's chant is as follows:
"When Ma'nabush had built the lnita'wiko'mik as Mashii' Ma'nido
directed, he found his brothers without the plants and medicines neces-
sary for their comfort and health.
"Then Ma'nabush said to his grandmother, 'Grandmother, make me
a large bag;' to which she replied by asking, 'What do you want with
a bag, Ma'nabush :'' He then said, '1 want to call together the Ina'-
maqki'iV' and ask them for their assistance in providing us and my
uncles with hunting medicines, and medicines with which they , may
boffman] STORY OF Ma'nABUSH 95
be able to cure the diseases with which they are afflicted.' She then
made the bag as Ma'nabttsh had requested, and handed it to him,
saying, 'Here, Mii'niibush, is your bag,' whereupon he took it, and
laying it on the ground so that he could open the top, he spoke to
the Ina'miiqki'fr, through the bag, 'My friends, come to me aud
give me your aid; let plants and roots grow beneath the surface,
and also upon it, that I may be able to prepare medicines. The
Inii'maqki'iV came together from all directions, some from beneath the
earth, and others from various parts of the sky. They granted the
request made by Ma'niibush, and then he called out to the four good
mysteries in the sky above him to aid him by granting him their favor.
The good mysteries gave him instructions how to fast that he might
dream of his ma'uido, who would always be his servant and guardian,
and also told him to take the black ashes from the lire wherewith he
could blacken his face when he fasted.
"Then he also received from the good mysteries two large drums,
one of them to be used in making medicine for good purposes, the other
to be employed when he wanted to possess himself of the power for
doing harm to his enemies.
"Then the good mysteries gave him the tshi'saqkan, the wigwam
built with four posts and wrapped with bark, in which he could fast
and dream, so as to enable him to see at any distance where game was
to be found, and where his enemies were in hiding.
"Then the good mysteries gave him the small flat rattle, that he
might invoke the good ma'nidos when he required their assistance, or
when he was fasting and dreaming.
"The good mysteries then instructed him how to make the hunting
medicines aud also those used to heal the sick. There were to be many
varieties of medicines. The sturgeon scale and red medicine were to
be used for hunting bear; another substance was good to carry when
hunting deer, while another kind was to be used to catch beaver. Mii'nii-
bfish was told that, when using the beaver medicine, he was to cut two
short sticks, each as long as a finger, and to lay one over the other like
a cross, putting the medicine on the sticks where they crossed. This
was then to be put in the trap, so that beavers would smell it and come
to the place where the trap was set. A beaver would then hunt for the
medicine and put his paw into the trap to take it out, when his paw
would be caught.
"When Ma'nabfish had been instructed in the preparation of these
medicines and the manner in which they were to be used, he gathered
together the gifts to keep for his uncles and their descendants upon the
earth."
By the time the above chant had been completed it was approaching
midnight and the greater number of the members of the society retired
to their own tents, which had beeu erected near by. Those, however.,
who had been selected to assist remained until later in the night.
94 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ann.u
Smoking proceeded for quite a while, and those of the medicine men
who had thus far officiated lay down in their places and slept. The
usher carried the drum toward the western end of the inclosure and
placed it in front of the first of the second group of four medicine men,
whose companion also received the rattles to accompany the singer.
The drumming began very gently, hut as the singer continued he began
to show more and more emotion and vehemence in his actions. His
song related to his own personal knowledge of remedies, which knowl-
edge had been obtained by fasting and dreaming, and the purpose of
it was that he might thus induce some of his hearers to buy the secrets.
Each medicine man claims to be the owner of certain remedies, each of
which must be paid for if instruction relating thereto be wanted. In
like manner the second medicine man in due time chanted the proper-
ties of his specialty, and so also did the third and fourth. During
some of the chants the candidate would be called forward, especially
at such passages as related to any participation in originally procuring
remedies by or through the mediation of Ma'nabush.
The second group of medicine men thus continued to chant, in an
interrupted manner, throughout the greater portion of the night. Just
before dawu everyone present seemed tired out, not from bodily exer-
tion merely, but from the effect of the dull thuds of the drum beats,
which seemed to give one's ears and head a most distressing sensation.
Although most of the medicine men had lain down and were now appar-
ently only shapeless masses of color and beads, yet, on account of keeping
up appearances, some one would, at odd intervals, begin an intermittent
soliloquy relating to Ma'nabush and his good services to the Indian, or
more frequently to some special charmed remedy owned by the speaker,
or some conspicuous service or exploit performed by him.
As approaching daylight was beginning to show by the roseate tints
along the eastern horizon, the entire camp of visitors were wrapped in
slumber. A general suspension of work was apparent; and nothing
further was done within the inclosure until after breakfast, although
some of the medicine men were always present and appeared to be just
sufficiently occupied to cause the impression that there was constant
labor.
Shortly after sunrise the greater number of the medicine men left the
inclosure to get something to eat, but the women brought food to those
left on duty. There was no haste manifested, and by about 8 oclock
the usher and an assistant returned to put things in order for the cere-
monies of the new day. Mats were rearranged and the floor cleared
of charred wood and ashes of the preceding night's fires, and the lower
ends of the upper row of mats covering the structure were propped
up with short sticks for the purpose of affording ventilation, aud also
to give the friends of the members and visitors to the ceremony an
opportunity of watching the proceedings. When breakfast was over
the officiating priests returned and took their former seats. The can-
hoffmam] MORTUARY SERVICES 95
didate also returned and was again placed on the left of the first group
of officiating medicine men, and almost every one of the male members
joined in a ceremonial smoke. In a short time the left-hand member of
the first group of four, Mo'pet, began to tap tbe drum, wbile the other
accompanied him with rattles, and as the candidate approached, sur-
rounded by about a dozen men and women, Nio'pet began to chant:
'•My grandson will now be placed on the right path; he shall learn
to feel the strength of the Mitii'wit and to be able to survive all danger.
He shall be taught how to obtain life from Mashii' Ma'nido. It is a
pleasure to see the goods and other presents before us ; it shows good
will toward the Mitii'wit and reverence for the teachings of our fore-
fathers—the whiteheads. Always live up to what you are taught."
During tbis recitative chant the candidate moved his body slightly
ii] i and down by gently flexing and extending the limbs, while those
surrounding him indulged in more active movement, dancing slowly a
little toward the right and back again to the left by hopping on both
feet just sufficiently to clear the ground. The movement of the figures
and the sound of footfalls was in unison with the drumming. At the
conclusion of the dance all returned to their seats, while the drum was
pushed to the next singer, M'aqtawa'pomi.
After a pause the drumming continued, the candidate again presented
himself with his friends, and the chant was renewed. The recitations
continued in this manner, differing from the preceding night's program
only in individual variations in the songs relating to the Mitii'wit, its
origin, benefits, and success. At intervals also one or another of the
chief singers would again allude to the death of Na'qpote, the brother
of Ma'niibush, and his abode where he awaits the arrival of the shades
of those who die. In this manner the mortuary services, occupying the
interval of time from the beginning of the ceremonies until about 1
oclock, were conducted. The belief was expressed that Na'qpote had
permitted the shade of the dead medicine man to return to the medicine
lodge, there to abide from the commencement of the ceremony until its
conclusion, and thus to behold the fulfillment of the promise made at his
own grave.
At midday the medicine women brought food to the singers and
their assistants in the ceremony, while many of the other medicine
men left the iuclosure and took dinner with their families, who were
encamped near by. An hour or more was consumed in this way, and
when all returned to their seats withiu the inclosure, ceremonial
smoking was indulged in for a short time. During this interval the
usher called upon someone to assist him iu removing the blankets and
mats from the horizontal pole from which they were suspended, and to
carry them to the western end of the inclosed area, where the candi-
date was to kneel. Here they were spread out, one overlapping the
other toward the center of the iuclosure, so as to form a covered space
of a yard in width and 3 or 4 yards in length.
96 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ann.U
When the ceremony of smoking was concluded, the lowest in rank of
the first group of four medicine men, Nio'pet, began to tap the drum,
whereupon his three companions took up the rattles; all four now
arose, and as they began to drum and chant the candidate fell in
behind the medicine men. The procession then moved slowly along
the right or northern side of the iuclosure, followed by the second
group of four medicine men, and finally, also, by the third set, who
had been seated on the southern side. The singer chanted a song, of
which the following is a translation:
"The time has now come for us to teach our brother how to secure
life. He has been waiting a long time. He has been liberal in giving
presents to the Mita'wit, as Ma'nabush taught us to do."
These words were repeated in short sentences, which prolonged the
song considerably. At each end of a phrase were added a few pro-
longed musical tones, meaningless but effective, which also added to the
apparent waste of time. This, however, is purposely done to empha-
size the importance of the ceremonial.
By the time the song was ended the procession had gone round the
iuclosure four times. All then took seats, when the drum was passed
to the second group of four medicine men, one of whom, remaining
seated, then drummed and chanted, beiug accompanied by rattles in
the hands of his associates. The candidate then approached the
singer and was surrounded by his friends to the number of twelve or
fifteen. The words of the song related to the duty of a medicine man
in always following the proper course in life, not to diverge from what
is right, and never under any circumstance to discard the teachings of
the Mita'wit.
Again the candidate and his friends returned to their seats, while
the drum was carried by the usher to the third group of medicine men,
seated on the opposite or southern side of the inclosure. They, in
regular order, used the drum and chanted, reciting personal exploits in
shainauistic practices and boasting of their powers in exorcism, and
the value and efficacy of plants employed by them in certain specified
affections. At each chant the candidate approached the singer and
stood reverentially before him until the song was ended, when he
returned to his seat. Finally, the drum was returned to the chief group
of medicine men, the chief officiating one then announcing that the
coming portion of the ceremonies would be of an especially important
and sacred character, and at the same time reminded his associates
that care and deliberation should be exercised in the performance of
their duties and services. As other announcements of interest to the
members may be made at this stage of the ceremonies, Shu'nien
informed the late arrivals of the purpose of my admission into the
society. He also stated that several well known members who were
jugglers, or tshi'saqka, would perform tricks to impress the audience
with the powers possessed by these men.
FOURTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. VII
BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY
SHAMAN'S TRICK WITH SNAKE BAG

hoffman] THE SNAKE-BAG TRICK 97
During a short interval of smoking-, in which most of the medicine
men participated, one man retired to arrange for the exhibition of his
trick. In a few moments lie returned to the western entrance of the
iuclosure, and stood there for an instant until a confederate could
approach him to assist. The performer held before him a red flannel
bag which measured about 20 inches in width by 30 in depth. Aloug
the top of the opening of the bag were attached fluffy white feathers.
The upper corners were held by the hands so as to spread out the bag-
like a single piece of goods. Then taking the bag between his hands,
he rolled it into a "ball to show the beholders that there was nothing
within. Again takiug one of the upper corners in each hand, the per-
former held the bag once more before the face like a banner, and as
he began to dance slowly forward along the southern side of the inclo-
sure, his confederate preceded him, dancing backward, chanting with
the performer, and making various gestures before the bag. Presently
two snake heads began to emerge from the top of the bag, and gradually
became more and more exposed to view, until their bodies protruded
perhaps 6 iuches (see plate vu).
Slowly the heads retreated into the f)
bag, until the performers had turned
at the eastern eud of the iuclosure
and were approaching the group of lKS^p^kf
chief medicine men, when the singing
increased in tone and time, and the
snakes again emerged, only to disap-
pear in thebagbythetime the perform-
ers arrived at the point of starting. |S§||
The 1princi1pal pL erformer then doubled „, 1.. -Fig. 4— .ITnsid, e ,cynst,riicttion of snak, e-b, ag.
up the bag, put it in the breast of his
coat and left the wiko'mik, while the assistant returned to his seat.
That the trick had made a profound impression on the audience was
apparent, and silence reignedeverywhere. Although seemingly complex,
the whole construction of the interior of the bag became apparent as
the performer reached a position between myself and the sunlight. The
bag was not fully stretched out, and between the corners held by the
thumb and forefinger of each hand was visible a strip of cloth or tape,
to the middle of which were attached the ends of the stuffed snakes.
These ends were only about 8 inches long, and as the tension upon the
tape was lessened, the weight of the snakes' bodies forced them down
into the bag. The heads and necks emerged through loops, made of
pieces of calico, just large enough for those members to slide through
easily (figure 14).
Another medicine man then came forward to exhibit his skill in
jugglery. His trick consisted in making some small wooden figures of
human beings to dance. Sitting flat on the ground in the middle of
the iuclosure, he stretched out his legs, when an assistant threw across
14 eth 7
98 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [ETH. ANN. 14
them a woolen blanket. Two small wooden effigies, about 4 inches in
height, were then placed first in a standing posture, but subsequently
extended on their backs, at the side of the blanket opposite the per-
former (figure 15). After a little manipulation, as if adjusting the
blanket and figures, the assistant seated himself on the side opposite
to and facing the operator. Both then began to chant, very softly at
first, but soon reaching higher and shriller notes, when, in accordance
with the rhythm, the figures began to move, very slightly at first, but
gradually apparently rising higher and higher until they were almost
vertical, thus seeming to dance to the song of the juggler and his con-
federate. It was pretended that the operator had sufficient power to
cause the figures to dance, the motion being caused by the operator's
\ /
N}-l-W-
Fio. 15—Dance of wooden effigies.
ma'nido, or tutelary daimon, whose aid could be invoked after proper
fasting and chanting. This performance lasted but a very short time,
and as the song was concluded, the assistant quickly arose, grasped the
figures, and put them into a small flannel bag, while the operator care-
fully folded up his blanket and returned to his seat.
It was observed that the movement of the figures was produced by
threads connecting them with the operator's great toe. During the
adjustment of the blanket and figures by the assistant the principal
reached beneath the blanket and removed his moccasins so as to be
able to utilize the threads already attached to them. The other end
was secured to the wooden figures by means of a small ball of spruce
gum.
The chief event of the afternoon's performances, however, was yet to
come. Kime'an, a juggler of renown, was to do a very wonderful
Hoffman] CLAW AND MIRROR TRICK 99
trick; hi fact, lie pretended to make a bear's claw stand upright on the
polished surface of a small mirror, and then to cause the claw to hang
to the same surface while the mirror was turned toward the earth.
Perfect silence prevailed in the medicine wiko'mik as Kime'an arose
and approached the eastern middle of the iuclosure. Taking from his
medicine bag a small, round, old-fashioned pocket mirror, he held it up
so as to give everyone an opportunity of satisfying himself that there
was nothing mysterious apparent; turning around in every direction,
he then produced the claw of a black bear, which he grasped about the
middle and held up toward the audience. Then, while slowly and
softly chanting, he gradually brought the mirror, which was in his left
hand, to a level before him, then slowly brought the claw down to the
surface of the mirror, stood it up on end and left it there, while he
continued to turn in every direction, so as to exhibit the trick, at the
same time pretending to take great care lest the claw fall over. In a
few moments he stooped a little lower, and with a quick movement of
the left hand turned the glass so as to place the claw in the position
of being suspended from the glass, without any visible means of sup-
port or attachmentto the mirror (figure 10), Turninground and round,
carefully watching the magic claw, he quickly swung his hand over on
its back so as again to bring the mirror surface uppermost. The claw
was then removed and the glass put back into the medicine bag, but not
quickly enough to deceive at least one of the spectators, for the spot of
resin which had held the claw was observed. The resin had previously
been placed on the end of the claw, where its presence was visible only
under careful inspection.
This trick had great effect on the audience, and gave additional
notoriety of the powers of the old juggler.
After the various medicine men had participated again in a cere-
monial smoke (partly to allow sufficient time to regain order within the
wiko'mik), the three sets of shamans, twelve in number, arose, and as
the senior quartette began to move westward, along the northern side,
the three lower in rank took the drum and rattles and began to chant.
As these shamans reached the place occupied by the second group of
shamans, they too arose and followed the leaders, as did also the third
set of four on the south, until the entire set of shamans were slowly and
impressively marching around the interior of the inclosure, chanting in
unison a song of but few notes, though often repeated so as to prolong
it as much as possible.
The musicians continued to inarch until they had made the circuit of
the inclosure four times, when they retired to their seats, as did also
the medicine men from the southern side, leaving only the second group
of four medicine men to continue the performance, which now assumed
a serious character, and which was most important of all to the candi-
date, as he was about to receive the new life. The four medicine men
now began to move more rapidly toward the candidate, dancing along
100 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [ETH. ANN. U
by hopping twice on one foot and then on the other, each at the same
time grasping his medicine bag as if holding a gun and making a charge
upon an enemy. ' At the same time and in rhythm with the movement
they repeated the word "Ho", ho, ho, ho." as they came along from the
eastern end toward the candidate until just before his body, when each
breathed on and thrust forward his medicine bag, with the loud excla-
(I W-
Fig. 16—Kirm- an's trick \\ i tli claw and mirror.
mation •• Ho!" This utterance is made with a strong, quick sound, as
in imitation of the cry of a startled animal, and is intended to typify
the approach of the shade of the bear, as it is said to have approached
the candidate when Ma'nabush himself conducted the first ceremonies
at the command of Kishii' Ma'nido.
A.s the first medicine man thrust his bag toward the candidate and
passed by, he gradually fell to the rear of the file, allowing the second


:
hoffman] THE KONX'pAMIK 101
to become the first, when lie also in similar manner pretended to shoot
at the candidate's breast. At this gesture of shooting, the candidate's
body quivered, the motion being, in part, transmitted by Shn'uieu,
who sat behind and prompted him. The four came around for the
third time, making the same curious noise, and when the third medicine
man came to the front, breathed on his bag, and pretended to shoot
the candidate, the latter's body quivered still more violently than
before. As the medicine men passed around for the fourth time, the
one to lead the last time, in like manner, fell to the rear, permitting the
fourth of the party to become the leader. Thus the dancers advanced,
uttering their curious cry of "Ho, lid, ho, ho," louder aud louder until,
when a short distance before the candidate, the medicine man breathed
on his bag and thrust it forward, and as he did so the candidate fell
forward on his face, apparently lifeless. The magic
influence contained in the medicine bag had been shot J |
into the candidate's heart, and, being too powerful M %
for him to bear, he became unconscious. It is the / |\
belief that if the small shell, called the kona/pamik f)
(GyprcB moneta), the sacred emblem of the Mitii'wit, be
swallowed by the medicine man, all he is obliged to
do to transfer his power to the medicine bag is to
breathe on it, the mysterious power and influence
being then transmitted by merely thrusting the bag
toward the desired object or person. Figure 17 rep-
resents the. shell used as the koria'pamik.
As the candidate !fell forward on the ground, Shu -
nien arose and joined his associates, and all gathered fig. 17—Konii'pamik
around the prostrate body. The other assisting med- or «ml>lei11 of the
icine men also came forward, and the whole number
then formed two files, one on each side of the candidate, and laid 011
his back their medicine bags (plate viii). Shu'nien then chanted a
few phrases, but repeated them a number of times to heighten the
effect on the feelings of the audience. The following is a translation
of the original phraseology
"Thus is shown to you the strength of the Mitii'wit; the kona'pamik
was given to Ma'nabush by Ma'iitshawai'edok (the Great Mystery), and
we have it from Ma'nabush. Our children will feel its influence, and
they shall receive life. Our brother, lying before us, shall have life
put into his heart. We will now restore him, and instruct him how to
use his strength."
Then, as the chant ended, the drum which had been used by Shu'nien
was removed by the usher, and each of the medicine men stooped to
get his sack. Shu'nien then placed his hand under the candidate's
forehead and raised it slightly from the ground, when a konii'pamik
dropped from the candidate's mouth. After this he slowly recovered
consciousness, arose, and taking the shell in his own hand he placed it
102 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth . axn. u
in the palm of his right hand, and while in a stooping posture, with his
hand extended, he danced around iu various directions toward the
right and toward the left, exhibiting the newly found object. lie
danced very gently, hopping twice on one foot and then on the other;
grunting the sound "Ho, ho, ho, ho," in imitation of the mystery Bear.
While the candidate was thus performing in the western end of the
inclosure, the other officiating medicine men spat on their own palms
containing their individual kona'pamik, while dancing and granting
in a manner similar to the candidate; they, however, went entirely
around the interior, showing to the audience their shells. As they
again congregated in the western end, at the place of the mat, each
quickly put his hand up to his mouth and pretended to swallow the
kona'pamik. The effect seemed instantaneous, as each of the medicine
men appeared to be taken with partial, and in some instances com-
plete, unconsciousness, while the new member fell to the ground again
apparently dead. The medicine men pretended to recover in a lew
moments, whereas it seemed several minutes ere the candidate resumed
consciousness without the assistance of his elders.
As each of the medicine men had now apparently swallowed his
shell, he would only have to breathe on the sack and thrust it toward
anyone to make its power felt. They believe that should a thrust be
made toward one not a mit;i'v the result would, without doubt, be fatal,
as the shell thus shot into a human body might not ba easily removed,
and if removed the person thus making a careless shot would, iu turn,
have to be shot by the chief officiating medicine man present.
The otter skin medicine bag was now presented to the candidate,
and for this purpose he placed himself before the priests, who chanted
to him respecting his new state (see plate ix), and as he was expected
to try his newly acquired power, he began to make the circuit of the
interior of the inclosure, and as he passed along on each side he would
occasionally thrust his medicine bag toward someone, who would moan
aud sink to the ground, but would soon recover. As this was con-
tinued, each person shot at was then compelled to arise, follow the can-
didate, and in like manner shoot one or more persons present. The
consequence was that one-half of the entire number of persons present
were constantly moving in a sort of hypocyclid, though a diagram-
matic scheme would show both inner and outer figures to be oblong, as
in figure 18. The hollow squares in this diagram represent persons
standing with their backs toward the wall, while the black spots
signify the moving ones going forward in the direction of the arrows;
and as each comes to his respective standing place he remains, and
the procession thus progressing constantly leaves the standing ones at
the rear to fall in and continue to march until their turn comes again
to stand while the remaining shamans pass by.
The medicine women were especially interested during this part of
the ceremony, as it afforded them the only opportunity at which they
BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY FOURTFENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. IX
',.!i. inge ';-
CANDIDATE RECEIVING MEDICINE B^

hoftman] SACRED SHELL SHOOTING 103
could appear as active participants. This peculiar movement of walk-
ing around the interior, shooting at one another with the medicine bag,
and pretending in turn to have been wounded by the kona'pamik, con-
tinued for over an hour; suddenly there was an audible wailing sound.
as of some one mortally wounded, which caused all but the chief offici-
ating mita'"', Shu'nien, and a companion to retire quickly to their seats.
It was then discovered that a little girl, who had accompanied her
mother to the ceremony, had been accidentally hit by a stray kona'-
pamik, shot from a medicine bag by a careless member. The difficulty
that now presented itself was to discover the culprit, and as this could
be learned only through an apparently difficult procedure by one whose
"medicine" was stronger than that of anyone else, it was Shu'nien's
duty, as chief medicine man pro tempore, to make the discovery. He
called to his side his three chief assistants, with whom he seemed in
animated, though serious, consultation. Presently one of them left the
structure by the eastern doorway, the others becoming seated. There
was a period of profound silence until the messenger returned with a
finely embroidered medicine sack, which he delivered to Shu'nien, who
F!G. 18—Diagram showing movement of mitii'wok.
now approached the eastern door, followed by his three assistants,
where he began a curious movement, consisting in passing the top, or
head, end of the sack up and down and back and forth along each pole
and mat of the wigwam, at the same time rapidly uttering the syllables,
ho, ho, ho. In this he was joined by his companions, who, together
with Shu'nien, crouched forward and kept up a rapid dancing step of
hopping alternately on each foot; all of them, furthermore, appeared to
watch inteutly the proceedings, as if to discover the hidden kona'pamik
and restore it to its proper place.
This curious, rapid search, accompanied by the grunting sounds, as
the medicine bag was made to pass along every possible portion of the
structure, continued all along the northern side, around the western
entrance, and on the return along the southern side, when suddenly
Shu'nien stopped his movement, gazed at his medicine sack, which
appeared to be attracted toward a woman who was seated a little apart
from the rest, and who was closely enveloped in a shawl. As Shu'nien
approached her she threw back the shawl and exposed to view her little
girl, who had been wounded. In the child's lap lay the kona'pamik,
which the chief seemed eager to secure. Taking it upon the palm of
104 THE MKNOMINI INDIANS [eth. anh.U
his right hand, extended forward and about two feet from the ground,
he danced rapidly forward and around the interior, closely followed by
his companions, all of whom uttered, in rapid succession, the word ho,
calling attention to the discovery. When the party again reached the
place where the shell was found, Shu'nien placed his hand quickly to
his mouth, apparently swallowing the shell, when he fell to the ground.
He recovered in a moment, blew his breath upon the medicine sack so
as to charge it with the mysterious influence and power contained in
the shell now within his body, when he started forward aiming at each
member present to ascertain who it was that had caused so much
trouble and anxiety. The victim was a woman, her presence being
discovered by the medicine sack being forcibly repelled within the
hands of the experimenter. Thereupon he stopped before her, took
deliberate aim and pretended to shoot her when she fell to one side
apparently dead. The four medicine men then returned to their proper
stations, while the usher carried the medicine bag used in the search
to its owner.
The time had now arrived to distribute the presents, and the usher
and an assistant removed the blankets, pieces of calico, mats, kettles,
and other articles from the pole from which they had been suspended,
and carried them before the second group of officiating medicine men.
The leader of these gave one blanket each to the chief officiating mem
bers, and to his own associates the pieces of calico, but instead of retain-
ing them they presented these goods to the medicine women who had
been engaged in the erection of the mita'wiko'mik, the preparation of
the feast, and in attendance on the candidate during the intervals at
which he stood before the chiefs to listen to the chants. The kettles,
mats, and a few other unimportant articles were divided amoug the sec-
ond and third groups of medicine men.
By this time the day was almost spent, when the chief, Shu'nien, and
the candidate—as mourner—started for the eastern door followed by
two mitii'wok carrying the drum and chanting, who in turn were fol-
lowed by all present, taking up a line of march to the grave, where they
formed a circle. After considerable drumming, accompanied by a slight
attempt at dancing, the procession returned and entered the inclosure
at the western door. After all had taken their former positions, the
drumming ceased, the chief announced the ceremonies ended, and all
started for their respective homes.
Notes on the Ceremonies
Many others of the members present attheMitii'wit ceremonies were
credited with the power of performing tricks of various kinds, but only
three, already referred to, could be induced to exhibit their skill. The
Indians invariably claim that such tricks can be performed only through
the intervention of ma'nidos, who must first be invoked by fasting and
the making of gifts. The sweat bath must also be taken by these
hoffman] FEATS OF LEGERDEMAIN 105
prestigiators previous to such attempts at invocation. The ability of a
medicine man to excel another in juggling is believed to be due to the
fact that his "medicine" is the stronger. By the expression "medicine"
is usually meant the power reputed to be possessed by a man's fetish or
charmed object adopted after his first fast to typify his tutelary daimon,
or so-called guardian mystery.
The Menomini Indians relate some curious tales of wonderful feats
performed by medicine men and medicine women in the olden time,
when greater faith was placed in the ma'nidos, and when people had
the power to obtain "stronger medicine." One exploit referred to by
the Menomini was later on also described by an Ottawa chief, as the
incident occurred at a meeting of the Ottawa medicine society in Michi-
gan, at which a number of medicine men from other tribes were present,
because the Honorable Lewis Cass had also intimated his desire to wit-
ness the dance. The ceremonial had progressed with unflagging interest
until toward the close of the day, and as Mr Cass is said to have
observed an old Ojibwa medicine woman, who had come up at each
dance to actively participate in the exercises, he asked someone near
by why this old woman took such an active part, as she appeared rather
uninteresting and had nothing to say, and apparently nothing to do
except to shake her snake-skin medicine bag. The woman heard the
remark and became offended, because she w'as known among her own
people as a very powerful mitii'kwe. In an instant she threw the dry
snake-skin bag toward the offender, when the skin became a live serpent
which rushed at Mr Cass and ran him out of the crowd. The snake
then returned to the medicine woman, who picked it up, when it ap-
peared again as a dry skin bag.
In the chants rendered by the four chief mitii'wok, relating to the
Indian genesis of mankind, the words are intoned in a recitative style,
though rapidly and duplicated, as before mentioned. In addition to
this there are but two tones employed, the initial two or three syllables
being uttered in the first note, while the remainder of the phrase ends
in a tone a third lower. This method is followed by each one through-
out his chant. When the service is changed from the mortuary ob-
servance of the first evening and the following night to the prepara-
tory course on the next morning, the music of the chants is entirely
changed. The scope of the tones employed is limited, embracing as a
rule but five, while the final syllable of each phrase is prolonged into a
vowel sound, usually "ho" or "he," (which is merely interjectioual and
without definite meaning); though, unlike the songs of the Ojibwa,
there is a pronounced quaver resulting from,joining to the note a half-
note lower, thus giving one the impression that the note was chanted
in a tremulous manner.
It has been observed, too, at some of the meetings of the society, that
certain mita'wok, to prolong the ceremony, will invent a phrase to suit
a circumstance that may occur, and as the musical notation is so simple
/
106 THE MENOMIN1 INDIANS [ETH. ANN. 14
he will be joined, after two or three repetitions, by his assistants as
readily as if they had for a long' time been familiar with it. This
y / y s y^s
Fig. 18a—Mnemonlr songB.
would scarcely be possible in the Ojibwa ceremonies as practiced in
northern Minnesota.
The Menomini songs of the Ojibwa shamans have been carefully
presented in my before-mentioned exposition of the cult society of
Hoffman] PICTOGRAPHIC SONGS 107
that tribe. The pictographic system was there explained, and numerous
examples given to show in what manner the shaman is enabled to
chant his medicine songs, the ritualistic language of the order of cere-
monies, or to recount his exploits and deeds of valor. The Menomini
admit that in former years tliey were more familiar with the recording
upon birch bark of mnemonic characters, but that now but few such
scrolls exist among them. After a careful search among the Menomini
tribe, I met with but few examples of birch bark bearing rude outlines
of human and geometric figures, which indicated clearly that they had
no allusion to any portion of the medicine society. The only note-
worthy instance met with is an illustration of a birch-bark record pub-
lished by Mr J. G. Kohl. 1 Tliis record was copied by him in the lodge
of an Indian who bad arrived from northern Wisconsin. Upon inquiry,
the Indian informed him that the record had been received by him
from his brother-in-law, "an Indien delafolle avoine," or a "Menomee-
nee," who had given it to him only on his deathbed. The Indian fur-
thermore told Mr Kohl that his brother-in-law had spent much time to
learn it all, and that, he had studied and practiced it for months.
The record, of which figure 18a is a reproduction, although said to
have been the property of a Menomini, has every indication of Ojibwa
art, and if not made by that tribe, the influence of Ojibwa art as illus-
trated in the Mide' rites was strongly impressed upon the possible
Menomini artist, he apparently having obtained his instruction and
initiation among the Ojibwa at Lac Court Oreille, or Lac Flambeau,
between all of which regions much intercourse between these two tribes
is conducted. Kohl says:
When I asked him [the Menomini informant] if he could teach me some of his
knowledge, and explain the leading features, be replied that " it was very difficult
to learn." I assured him that I should be satisfied if I could only reach so far with
my weak understanding as to see bow difficult it was, and why it was so; and he
then condescended to give me a few explanations. I will repeat them exactly as I
received them from him, and only interrupt them hero and there with a parenthesis
and marks of interrogation :
"The crooked sign at a is the sign that the song commences here.
"The bear (at b) begins the dance: ' II marche la pour signe de la vie.'
"At c stand a boy and his teacher (father, uncle, or grandfather), who instructs
him. You see the heart of the good teacher, and the stream of discourse which
flows in a serpentine line from his heart through his mouth to the bead of the boy,
as well as the boy's answers, which flow back from his mouth to the heart of his
teacher.
" d is the circle of the earth, with the sacred shells in it. (?)
" e, repetition of the couple, the teacher and boy." (The scholar appears to have
made considerable progress for his head is inclosed in the " circle of heaven," as if
in a nimbus of sanctity.)
While pointing to the bear and his traces (at/), my Indian gave me the advice:
" On doit snivre Fours par ses pistes." I can not say whether this was a material
part of the song, or merely the insertion of a good and useful Indian proverb.
" g is a sign to pause. Up to that the song goes slowly. Afterwards a quicker
time begins.
1 Kitchi-Gami, Wanderings round Lake Superior, London, 1860, p. 292.
108 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth. ann. H
"At h a boy stands, watching a flying bird.
" i, two men, who expel shells from their mouths, as they are in the habit of doing
at their ceremonies.
'•
/,, the Mide priest, with his medicine-bag on his arm.
"I is not. as might be supposed, a flying eagle, but the medicine-bag of the
man /,'." . . .
" m, pause, or concluding bar of a division of the song. At this bar dancing and
beating the drum rominence.
••At n a new division commences." (It represents a couple exerting themselves to
expel a shell.)
"At o a man is walking, not, as might be supposed, on a many-branched tree (p),
but on the path of the life and the law.'' . . . (This path, it will be seen, has
many side paths. But over his head a bird (</) hovers, surrounded by a ring of small
birds, like a cluster of stars. The mau (o) appears to be looking up to this cluster
as a reward or crown of victory.)
"Tibekana," the Indian said, "meant, in his language, 'the path of life.'" A
portion of the word simply means, in the Ojibbeway, 'trail' or 'path.' And the
whole means 'the way of the dead,' ' the path leading into paradise,' or 'the path
of life.'
"s, the ring of heaven.
"The bear ((), who, by the way, is no bear, but a mau in the form of a bear, is
marching toward this ring. He is trying to reach the opening to it, ' le centre dn
monde,' or ' le trou de bouheur.'
"h, the priest of the temple, or medicine wigwam (r), who makes an oration at the
end of this division. The speech is depicted by the undulating line, which goes
down from his month to the roof of the temple.
"As a perfect conclusion of this part, there is a turn at eating and smoking, indi-
cated by the pipe (10) and the dish (x).
1. "Great bar—grand pause. The main affair, the great ceremony of the recep-
tion of a new member into the order of the Slide's, really terminates here.
"The man (at 2) is the new member just received. He emerges from the temple
into the open air, with his powerful medicine-bag (3) in his hand. He tries its
strength and consecration, and the animals, both bears and birds, appear to fly
before him." (While blowing on them with his medicine-bag, he also seems to lie
snow-balling them with the sacred shell.)
Thus strengthened by magic arts, and initiated into the Midi? order, he at length
shoots (at 4) an arrow, and, like Max in the Freischiitz, brings down a bird from the
air. It falls at his feet (at 4). The Indian told me it was a kinion (warrior-eagle).
"For this he is obliged to offer a dog, as a sacrifice to the Great Spirit (5).
6. " Pause, or concluding bar of this division." (The pictures that now follow are
so fantastic, and my Indian's explanations were so fragmentary, that I must give up
all attempt at any continuous description.)
At 7, instructions about the constantly recurring vomiting of shells seems to be
again represented.
"At 8," I was told, "a song is represented between the sun (9) and the earth (10).
The song," my Indian said, "must be sung exactly at mid-day, because the sun is
then floating perpendicularly over the earth."
The quadrangle (at 11) is meant for a piece of cloth, such as the priests receive as
a reward and payment after their exertions. I cannot say, though, why this piece
of cloth again hangs between the sun and earth.
The priest (at 12) sings " Le voila ! le sacrifice, qui a etc donue an grand-pretre " '!
There are a number of statements in the preceding remarks that are
not exactly in accordance with the teachings of the society, and the true
' Kohl, Kitchi-Gami, op. cit., pp. 292-296.
hoffman] LEARNING THE SONGS 109
interpretation can be obtained only from tlie priests of the order, after
one is regularly entitled to receive such information by initiation and
tbe payment of fees, presents, and food.
The figures marked care in the attitude of conversation, as above
mentioned and as is indicated by the voice lines extending between the
two persons indicated. Two similar characters at i are, according to
the general system of pictographic interpretation of the Indians, con-
versing about the migis or kona'pamik, both voice lines centering on
the same object.
The figure at o is at the beginning of the path of life, the first step of
which is made in the inita'wiko'mik, and the interpretation of which is
explained with more or less clearness in the mit;i' v recitative chant ren-
dered by Shu'nien (see page 79).
Reference to the pipe («•) and dish (x) indicates the observance of
ceremonial smoking, for upon the ring are noticed four spots at the
cardinal points, the four directions in which smoke is puffed by those
participating.
The new member, at 2, is said to be trying his powers as a mitii' v . The
kona'pamik is shown between his face and his medicine bag, while the
three oblong characters beneath the bear denote the footprints of that
animal as he departs.
It is probable that the slight dissimilarities and inconsistencies which
appear from year to year in the dramatic and ritualistic order of cere-
monies of the Mita'wit are attributable largely to the fact that no
pictographic records or mnemonic songs are now employed. In conse-
quence of this carelessness and disregard of an old custom, the newly
elected member is enabled to familiarize himself with the traditional
order of procedure only by close observation and by regular attendance
at the recurring annual meetings. He has no mnemonic guide by
means of which he can refresh his memory by instant reference to a
bark record; neither are the members of the society in perfect accord
in the general conduct of the ceremonies, since among the tribe under
consideration no cosmogonic charts, such as exist among the northern
Ojibwa, and of which three variants have been presented in connection
with the subject of the cult society of the latter tribe, 1 are now known.
It is quite apparent, therefore, that under such circumstances a gradual
degeneration and abbreviation of the dramatic rendering of the ritual
as well as of the original phraseology pertaining thereto is practically
unavoidable and accounts to a greater or less extent for the changes
observed and above referred to.
As before stated, the Menomini and Winnebago lived side by side
for an indefinite period, and through constant intercourse, which thus
became possible, the mita'v ceremonies, as performed by these tribes,
without doubt became very similar in detail. The analogous mediciue
ceremonial of the Winnebago Indians is described somewhat fully in a
'Seventh Annual Report of tbe Bureau of Ethnology, for 1885-86, 1891, pp. 143-300.
110 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ann.h
report to Henry R. Schoolcraft by J. E. Fletcher, United States Indian
subagent for that tribe in 1848, in tlie following words:
This least is an ancient custom or ceremony; it is accompanied with dancing and
is sometimes called the medicine dance. The members or communicants of this feast
constitute a society having secrets known only to the initiated.
They have no regular or stated times for holding' this least; and all the members
do not attend at the same time, but only such as are invited by the master of the
feast. Persons desirous of joining this society will, in some cases, use the most rigid
economy for years, to enable them to lay up goods to pay the initiating fee. This
fee is not fixed at any stipulated amount; those who join pay according to their
ability. Sometimes goods to the amount of $200 and $300 are given by an indi-
vidual. Goods given for this purpose generally consist of blaukets, broadcloths,
calicoes, wampum, and trinkets, and arc given to the medicine men, who perform
the ceremony of initiating the member. When oue or more persons make applica-
tion to join the society, preparations are made for a feast and dance, which is held
in an arched lodge, or bower, constructed of poles, and covered with tent-cloth and
other materials. The size of the bower is made to conform to the number of persons
to be invited, and this number depends much on the ability of the person who makes
the feast. The width of a bower is about 16 feet, the length varying from 10 to 75
yards. The members of the society sit on each side of the bower, the center being
reserved for dancing. Candidates for admission into this society are required to fast
three days previous to being initiated. At some period during this fast they are
taken by the. old medicine men to some secluded secret spot, and instructed in the
doctrines and mysteries of the society; and it is said that the candidates are, during
this fast, subjected to a severe sweating process, by covering them with blankets
and steaming them with herbs. The truth of this saying is not here vouched for,
but the appearance of the candidate, when brought forward to be initiated in pub-
lic, corroborates it.
The public ceremony of initiation usually takes place about 11 o'clock a. m. The
public exercises of dancing, singing, praying, and exhorting, which precede the
initiations, commence the previous morning. Before the candidates are brought
forward, the ground through the center of the bower is carpeted with blankets
and broadcloth laid over the blankets. The candidates are then led forward and
placed on their knees upon the carpet, near oue end of the bower, aud facing the
opposite end. Some eight or ten medicine men then march ill single lile round the
bower with their medical bags in their hands. Each time they perform the circuit
they halt, and oue. of them makes a short address; this is repeated until all have
spoken. They then form a circle aud lay their medicine bags on the carpet before
them; theu they commence retching and making efforts to vomit, bending over until
their heads come nearly in contact with their medicine bags, ou which they vomit,
or deposit from their mouth a small white sea shell about the size of a bean; this
they call the medicine stone and claim that it is carried in the stomach and vomited
up ou these occasions. These stones they put in the mouth of their medicine bags,
and take their position at the end of the bower opposite to and facing the candidates.
They then advance in line, as many abreast as there are candidates; holding their
medicine bags before them with both hands, they dance forward, slowly at first, aud
uttering low, gutteral sounds as they approach the candidates, their step anil voice
increasing in energy,. until with a violent " Ongh! " they thrust their medicine bags
at their breasts. Instantly, as if struck with an electric shock, the candidates fall
prostrate on their faces, their limbs extended, their muscles rigid, and quivering in
every liber. Blankets are now thrown over them, aud they are suffered to lie thus a
few moments. As soon as they show signs of recovering from the shock, they are
assisted to their feet and led forward. Medicine bags are then put iu their hands
and medicine stones in their mouths; thev are now medicine men or women, as the
—
hoffman] CARVER ON THE CEREMONY 111
case may be, in full communion and fellowship. The new members, in company with
the old, now go round the bower in single file, knocking members down promiscu-
ously by thrusting their medicine bags at them (plate xxxn. After continuing
this exercise for some time, refreshments are brought in, of which they all partake.
Dog's flesh is always a component part of the dish served on these occasions. After
partaking of the feast they generally continue the dance and other exercises for
several hours. The drum and rattle are the musical instruments used at this feast.
The most perfect order and decorum are observed throughout the entire ceremony.
The members of this society are remarkably strict in their attendance at this feast.
Nothing but sickness is admitted as an excuse for not complying with an invitation
to attend. Members sometimes travel 50 miles, aud even farther, to be present at a
feast when invited.
The secret of the society is kept sacred. It is remarkable that neither want nor
a thirst for whisky will tempt the members of this society to part with their medi-
cine bags.
Whether these medicine men possess the secret of mesmerism or magnetic influ-
ence, or whether the whole system is a humbug and imposition, is difficult to deter-
mine. A careful observation of the ceremonies of this order for six years has been
unable to detect the imposition, if there be one; and it is unreasonable to suppose
that an imposition of this character could be practiced for centuries without detec-
tion. There is no doubt that the tribe generally believe that their medicine men
possess great power. 1
This ceremonial, which appears from all available evidence to have
been originally an Algonquian production, seems to have made its
impress upon the cult ceremonies of, or perhaps even to have been
adopted by, other tribes. When Carver 2 met with the Nandowessies
(Sioux), he " found that the nations to the westward of the Mississippi,
and on the borders of Lake Superior" still continued the "use of the
Pawwaw or Black dance," which partook of the character of the jug-
glers' performances, as he speaks of "the devil being raised in this
dance by the Indians." He next refers to the society of the u Wakon-
Kitchewah," or "Friendly Society of the Spirit," which is composed
of persons of both sexes, but such only as are of exceptional character,
and who receive the approbation of the whole body. His description
is sufficiently intelligible to show that the ceremonial was that of the
Algonquian medicine society, though it has been greatly perverted,
as practiced even in former times by the Ojibwa aud Menomini Indians.
The assemblage occurred at about 12 oclock, when the sun was near
the zenith, which they consider a good omen. The chiefs were dressed
in their best apparel, in long robes, aud painted. In the words of this
author
AVhen the assembly was seated aud silence proclaimed, one of the principal chiefs
arose, and in a short but masterly speech informed his audience of the occasion of
their meeting. He acquainted them that one of their young men wished to be
admitted into their society, and taking him by the hand presented him to their
view, asking them at the same time whether they had any objection to his becom-
ing one of their community.
No objection being made, the young candidate was placed in the center aud four
of the chiefs took their stations close to him. After exhorting him by turns not to
1 Schoolcraft, Inform. Ind. Tribes, pt. iii, Philadelphia. 1853, pp. 280-288, pi. xxxi.
! Travels through the Interior Parts of North-America, London, 1778, p. 270 et seq.
112 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [etii. ann. u
faint under the operation lie was about to go through, but to behave like an Indian
and a man, two of theiu took hold of his arms aud caused him to kneel; another
placed himself behind him so as to receive him when he fell, and the last of the
four retired to the distance of about 12 feet from him, exactly in front.
This disposition being completed, the chief that stood before the kneeling candi-
date began to speak to him with an audible voice. He told him that be himself was
now agitated by the same spirit which he should in a few moments communicate to
him; that it would strike him dead, but that he would instantly be restored again
to life; to this he added that the communication, however terrifying, was a neces-
sary introduction to the advantages enjoyed by the community into which he was
on the point of being admitted.
As he spoke this he appeared to be greatly agitated, till at last his emotions
became so violent that his countenance was distorted and his w hole frame con-
vulsed. At this juncture he threw something that appeared both in shape aud
color like a small bean at the young man, which seemed to enter his mouth, and be
instantly fell as motionless as if he had been shot. The chief that was placed
behind him received him in his arms, and by the assistance of the other two laid
him on the ground to all appearance bereft of life.
Having done this, they immediately began to rub his limbs and to strike him on
the back, giving him such blows as seemed more calculated to still the quick than
to raise the dead. During these extraordinary applications the speaker continued
his harangue, desiring the spectators not to be surprised, or to despair of the young
man's recovery, as his present inanimate situation proceeded only from the forcible
opeiation of the spirit on faculties that had hitherto been unused to inspirations of
this kind.
The candidate lay several minutes without sense or motion, but at length, after
receiving many violent blows, he began to discover some symptoms of returning
life. These, however, were attended with strong convulsions and an apparent
obstruction in his throat. But they were soon at an end, for having disiharged
from his mouth the bean, or whatever it was that the chief had thrown at him, but
which on the closest inspection I had not perceived to enter it, he soon after
appeared to bo tolerably recovered. ... He then also charged the newly
elected brother to receive with humility and to follow with punctuality the advice
of his elder brethren.
All those who hail been admitted within the rails now formed a circle around their
new brother, and, the music striking up, the great chief sung a song, celebrating as
usual their martial exploits.
The only music they make use of is a drum, which is composed of a piece of a
hollow tree curiously wrought, and over one end of which is strained a skin. This
they beat with a single stick, and it gives a sound that is far from harmonious, but
it just serves to beat time with. To this they sometimes add the chichicoe, and in
their war dances they likewise use a kind of life, formed of a reed, which makes a
shrill harsh noise.
The whole assembly were by this time united, and the dance began. Several
singers assisted the music with their voices, and the women joining in the chorus at
certain intervals, they produce together a not unpleasing but savage harmony.
This was one of the most agreeable entertainments I saw whilst I was among
them.
I could not help laughing at a singular childish custom I observed they introduced
into this dance, and which was the only one that had the least appearance, of con-
juration. Most of the members carried in their hands an otter or marten's skin,
which, being taken whole from the body and tilled with wind, on being compressed
made a squeaking noise through a small piece of wood organically formed and fixed
in its mouth. When this instrument was "presented to the face of any of the com-
pany, and the sound emitted, the person receiving it instantly fell down to appear-


hoffman] MENOMINI GENESIS MYTH 113
ance dead. Sometimes two nr three, both men aud women, were ou the ground
together; but immediately recovering, they rose up and joined again in the dance.
This seemed to afford even the chiefs themselves infinite diversion. 1
Ceremonies of 1891
During the summer of 1891, when the time arrived for holding a meet-
ing of the Mita'wit, I again visited Keshena. The promoter of the cere-
mony was Akwine'mi Mo'sihat, who desired to present as a candidate
his nephew, son of his lately deceased sister. The usual arrangements
respecting the sending of invitations and the designation of assistant
mita'wok were made; and two or three days before the holding of the
ceremony Mo'sihat, accompanied by his wife and a few friends, went to
the ground selected and prepared to erect the mitli'wiko'mik. The poles
were cut and planted along the outline of the oblong structure pro-
jected, and both the vertical ones, which were arched across and
secured to those on the opposite side, as well as the horizontal rods,
were all tied securely together by means of strips of basswood bark.
The interior bark only is used ; it is made soft and pliable by soaking
in boiling water, after which it is split into strands of a finger's width.
This process of bark stripping is illustrated in plate x.
The mitii'wiko'mik was placed so as to extend north-and-south instead
of east-and-west as directed according to the ritual. The reason given
for this departure was that the place selected for the ceremony was the
most favorable that could be found convenient to the grave; and as
the grave of the deceased (in whose memory the feast as usual was
given) was south of this spot it was necessary to have the traditional
" western end" of the structure directed toward the grave. Thus the
actual south was the ceremonial west, and was so treated and consid-
ered throughout the performance.
The chief mita'wok at this ceremony were, for the first four, as fol-
lows: (1) Akwine'mi Mo'sihat; (2) Nio'pet; (3) Ni'aqtawa'ponri; and
(1) Xaq'pote. The second set consisted of (1) Mai'akine'uT (2) Kowa'-;
pemi'u; (3) Shu'nien; and (4) Kime'an. All of the preceding were
Meuomiui excepting Kowa'pemT'u, who was a Potawatomi. Another
set of four had been designated, but, as they were unavoidably pre-
vented from reporting in time, substitutes were appointed for the first
night's service. The recitations relating to the gifts, the tobacco, and
the food prepared for the visitors, began as before, all in accordance
with the injunctions of Ma'nabiish. The tradition relating to the birth
of Ma'nabiish was somewhat different from that of the preceding year,
as it was given by Shu'nien. Nio'pet chanted the following version of
the genesis:
"There was an o_d woman, named Xoko'nvs, who had an unmarried
daughter. The daughter gave birth to twin boys, one of whom died, as
did also the mother.
U ' Op. oit., pp. 273-278.ETH 8
'
114 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ahn.14
"Noko'mis then wrapped the living child in soft, dry grass, laid it
on the ground at the extreme end of her wigwam, and placed over it a
wooden bowl to protect it. She then took the body of her daughter
and the other grandchild and buried them at some distance from her
habitation. When she returned to the wigwam, she sat down and
mourned for four days; but at the expiration of the fourth day she
heard a slight noise within the wigwam, which she soon found to come
from the wooden bowl. The bowl moved, when she suddenly remem-
bered that her living grandchild had been put under it. Upon removing
the bowl she beheld a little white rabbit, with quivering ears, and on
taking it up said : ' O, my dear little Rabbit, my Ma'nabush ! ' She cher-
ished it, and it grew. One day the Rabbit sat up on its haunches and
hopped slowly across the floor of the wigwam, which caused the earth
to tremble. Then the ana'niaqki'u, or evil underground beings, said to
one another ': What has happened ? A great ma'nido is born somewhere,'
and they immediately began to devise means whereby Ma'nabush might
be destroyed.
•• When Ma'nabush grew to be a young man he thought it time to
prepare himself to assist his uncles (the people) to better their condi-
tion. He then said to Noko'inis, 'Grandmother, make me four sticks,
that I may be able to sing.' She made for him four sticks, the pii'ka-
hfi'kanak', with which he could beat time when singing. When he
received these sticks he went away to an open flat place, where he built
along house or wigwam. He then began to sing: 'Ne'niki'anka, he he;
Eu/toshe'hawok,he, he; mo'natoak', kit, he; Ni'nahapi'o nit esh'kodem
sasaq'kodek. Ne'pon ni'kati'nanan wike'iu na aoake me tshe, sho aiet-
shaqketokek." [Translation: I am born to create animals (for my
uncles). I can create my fire that the sparks may reach the sky. My
arrow I am going to take out, so that while the earth stands there will
be enough to eat.]
" While thus singing and calling together his uncles he told them
that he would give them the Mitii'wit, so that they could cure disease.
He gave them plants for food so that they should no longer want for
anything. He gave them medicine bags, made of the skins of the mink,
the weasel, the black rattlesnake, the massasauga rattlesnake, and the
panther. Into each of these he put samples of all the medicines, and
taught their use. Ma'nabush lived for many years after this, and taught
his uncles how to do many useful things."
When this portion of the recitative chant had been completed by
Nio'pet, there was a lull in the proceedings while the drum was passed
on to the next mitii' v, to be used as an accompaniment to his chant; and
after the others in succession completed their portions of the ritual, the
1 The spoken words are different from those as pronounced in chanting. The chanted words, though
not exactly archaic, are yet different from the modern Meuomini, which may be attributable, perhaps,
to their (supposed) O.jibwa ritualistic origin.
2 The word Ma'nabush is derived from ina-sha', "great." and wabfis', "rabbit." and signifies, "Great
Rabbit," because he was to perform great deeds. The Ojibwa etymology is almost identical—mislia',
and wabus.
hoffman] STORY OF MA'NABUSH 115
(Irani again came to Nio'pet in turn, when lie concluded tue story of
Ma'nabiish., as follows:
"When Mii'iiabush bad accomplished the works for which Kisbii'
Ma'nido sent him down to the earth, he went far away and built his
wigwam on the northeastern shore of a large lake, where he took up
his abode. As he was alone, the good ma'nidos concluded to give him
for a companion his twin brother, whom they brought to life and called
Naq'pote [which signifies an expert marksman]. He was formed like
a human being, but, being a ma'nido, could assume the shape of a wolf,
in which form lie hunted for food. Mii'iiabush was aware of the auger
of the bad ma'nidos who dwelt beneath the earth, the ana'maqki'u,
and warned his brother, the Wolf, never to return home by crossing the
lake, but always to go around along the shore. Once after the Wolf
had been hunting all day long he found himself directly opposite his
wigwam, and being tired, concluded to cross the lake. He had not
gone halfway across when the ice broke, so the Wolf was seized by the
bad ma'nidos, and destroyed.
"Ma'nabiish at once knew what had befallen his brother, and in his
distress mourned for four days. Every time that Ma'nabiish sighed
the earth trembled, which caused the hills and ridges to form over
its surface. Then the shade of Moqwai'o, the Wolf, appeared before
Mii'iiabush, and knowing that his brother could not be restored Ma'na-
biish told him to follow the path of the setting sun and become the
chief of the shades in the Hereafter where all would meet. Mii'iiabush
then secreted himself in a large rock near Mackinaw. Here his uncles,
the people, for many years visited Ma'nabiish, and always built a long
lodge, the mitii'wiko'mik, where they sang; so when Ma'nabiish did not
wish to see them in his human form he appeared to them in the form of
a little white rabbit, with trembling ears, just as he had first appeared
to Noko'mis."
Following is the notation of the song given by the mitii'v . The pro-
longed syllables employed were "he, he," with the lower note on "yo,
ho."
/fry * f< J J * a m a *"# a a a a a ~a—11 J'' ' '"' '"'''
On the completion of the chant, Nio'pet passed the drum to the next
singer on his right. The subsequent portions of the ceremonies did not
vary greatly from those of 1890.
The ceremony of shooting the kona'pamik was completed early in the
afternoon, after which the new member tried his powers on those pres-
116 THE MENOMI.M INDIANS [eth. amn. 14
ent. As the grave of the dead was several miles away, the procession
could not cany out the usual routine of ceremonies usually performed
at the place of interment, but in lieu thereof they marched around the
structure four times, the leading mitii' v carrying the drum and chanting
a very monotonous soug of few words, repeated an indefinite number
of times.
Notes on the Ceremonies
Another version of the deatli of the brother of Mii'iiiibush is given
in the following Meuomini myth, which accounts also for the white
crescent on the breast of the kingfisher, Geryle alcyon ; it is called Oka'-
skima'ni' has Ha'tanuka'sit, the Story of the Kingfisher:
"Que time the Wolves saw that Ma'nabush was alone and without
companions, so they decided to give him a Wolf, Moqwai'o, one of their
own number, as a brother. These two. Ma'nabush and Moqwai'o,
encamped on the eastern shore of a large lake, and while Ma'nabush
remained near camp to attend to his duties Moqwai'o went off each day
in search of food. Ma'nabush told his brother, Moqwai'o, that when he
returned to come back to their wigwam he should never cross the lake,
but always come around by the shore line.
"One day, toward night, when Moqwai'o was returning, he came to
the shore directly opposite the wigwam, and on looking across the ice
he. realized that if he were to go by the shore it would require a long
time to get to the wigwam, whereas if he crossed the ice he could
accomplish the remainder in a short time. Moqwai'o thought, 'Now,
why should I not cross the ice; why should Mii'iiiibush not wish me to
do it; am I not one of the fleetest of all the runners in the world V Then
Moqwai'o decided to risk crossing the ice, and soon he was making
long and rapid leaps over the surface. He had not gone more than
half way before the ice began to break up, the pieces of ice separating
so that each leap was greater than the one before, when suddenly
Moqwai'o found that he had but one more leap to make to reach the
shore, but upon attempting to make it he fell short of the distance, and
was pulled beneath the water by Mi'shikiue'nik, who killed him.
"When Moqwai'o failed to return to the wigwam, Ma'nabush was
much troubled and immediately began to search far and wide for his
brother Moqwai'o. One time during this search Ma'nabush was
walking beneath some large trees, when he beheld, high up among the
branches, Oka'skitna'ni', the Kingfisher. Mii'iiiibush then asked Okii'-
skima'ui', ' What are you doing up there?' Then Okii'skima'nT' said,
'They have killed Moqwai'o, and in a short time they are going to
throw out the carcass, so that as soon as I see it I am going to eat it.'
This angered Mii'iiiibush, and he decided to punish Oka'skima'ni', so
he called to him, 'Come down, and I will give you this collar to haug
about your neck.' Okii'skima'ni' then suspected that the speaker was
Mii'iiiibush, the brother of Moqwai'o, and was afraid to descend, but
Mii'iiiibush again spoke to Okii'skima'ni', 'Come down, and have no


hoffman] THE SWEAT LODGE 117
fear; I merely wish to place about your ueck this necklace which I
wear, and from which is suspended the white shell.' Then Oka'skima'ni'
came down, hut suspecting Ma'nabush he kept a sharp watch over
his movements. Ma'nabush placed the necklace about the neck of
Oka'skima'ni- so that the white shell ornament was suspended over the
breast, and. while pretending to tie the ends of the cord back of the
neck of Oka'skima'ni', Ma'nabush had made one turn and was going
to strangle his victim when he slipped away and escaped. The white
spot may be seen on the breast of Oka'skima'ni' even to this day."
The sweat lodge, already mentioned, is resorted to by the tshi'saqka,
and frequently, also, by the mita/T, before attempting any serious or
dangerous undertaking. The structure is made by placing in the
ground in a circular form, having a diameter of 4 or 5 feet, some sap-
lings li to 2 inches in thickness, then bending the tops over the middle
of the inclosure thus formed and tying them to the opposite poles, so
that each pair forms a perfect hoop (plate xi). This dome-shape struc-
ture is then covered with bark, canvas, or blankets, to make it as close
and tight as possible. When the person desiring the bath enters the
structure, an assistant is engaged near by in heating four large stones,
each weighing from 8 to 15 pounds. While they are being prepared,
the mita'T within continues to chant, and as soon as the stones are suffi-
ciently hot they are rolled in, when the mita'T blows upon them a spray,
which he produces by filling his mouth from a bowl of water. Presently
the small structure becomes filled with hot vapor, which causes his body
to perspire profusely. When the bather emerges he sometimes plunges
into a stream if one be near at hand.
In the account of the customs of the savages of Canada, obtained
from the French archives and now designated as the "Cass manu-
scripts,'' dated 1723, there is a reference to the alleged abiding place of
Ma'nabush, as follows:
Near Mackinaw there is a rock which, from a distance, has the outline of a sitting
rabbit, by them called "Michapaux," which they affirm to have been a Great .Spirit
or XI a niton that once presided over their ancestors, not allowing them to want for
anything. Then they succeeded in every undertaking. But by some misfortune, the
Spirit has withdrawn into Michapaux. When they pass there, they always leave
something to render him more favorable. 1
Alloiiez mentioned the same myth in his letter of 1660, referring to
the Indians of Michilimackinac. He states that " Leurs fables sur cette
Isle sont agreables," and adds:
lis disent que cette Isle est le Pays natal d'un de leurs Dieux nomine Michabous,
<;'est a dire le grand Lieurc, Ovisaketehak, qui est celuy qui a crec la Terre, et que ce
fat dans ces Isles qu'il inventa les rets pour prendre du poissou, apres avoir considere
attentivement l'araiguee dans le temps qu'elle travailloit h sa toile pour y prendre
des mouches. 2
Subsequent to the ceremony, Nio'pet gave an account of the experi-
ence of some men who wanted to see Ma'nabush and to request of him
1 Cull. Hist. Soc. Wisconsin for 1H56, vol. iii., 1857, p. 145.
2 Relations des Jesuites, 1670, p. 93.
: ;
118 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ann.u
particular favors. The following is a translation of the story, without
the repetition of words and phrases
"A long time after Ma'nabush had left his people, a party of ten
men was made up to go in search of him. They set out aud after a
long day's journey went into camp for the night. On the next day
they traveled far, aud at night again slept on the ground. On the
third day they started early, but after a long journey they still failed
to find any trace of the whereabouts of Ma'nabush. As they were
sitting around the camp fire in the evening they heard some one drum-
ming and singing. The sound did not appear to be very far away
still they retired, as they had had a long day's walk.
"On the following morning they still heard the sound of drumming
and singing, so they started in the direction of it, but at night they
appeared to be no nearer than when they started in the morning. In
this way they went along each day until the tenth day after their
departure from their camp, when they suddenly came to a large wig-
wam. The ground around on the outside was bare and smooth, and
the party went forward to the entrance and looked in, where they saw
Ma'nabush seated at his drum, singing. When he saw the party he
said, 'My uncles, come in and sit down. Tell me what it is that
brought you so far to see me, for 1 am sure it must be something very
important.'
"The first one to speak said to Ma'nabush, ' Ma'nabush, I came to
you because I want to become a great warrior.' ' Hau ;' said Ma'nabush,
'you shall be a great warrior, as yon desire, and you shall be engaged
in four great battles, in which you and all of your warriors shall escape
unhurt.'
"Then Mii'nabush turned to the second one of the party and said,
' My uncle, what do you wish of me, that you have come so far to seek V
'" Ma'nabush, ' replied the one spoken to, 'I can not get any girl to
marry me, because there is nothing attractive about me. Beside that,
I am a poor hunter aud can not get any deer; and I also want to become
a great warrior.'
" ' My uncle,' said Ma'nabush, ' your desire is granted you shall have
;
plenty of girls to admire you; you also shall become a great hunter and
a brave and successful warrior.'
" Then Ma'nabush looked toward the third of the visitors and said,
'My uncle, what is it that you desire?'
" The man then looked at Ma'nabush and said, ' Ma'nabush, I want
a pe'qtshiku'na (medicine bag), that I may be able to cure the sick and
to heal wounds.'
"Ma'nabush replied to this request, saying, 'My uncle, you shall
have a pe'qtshiku'na, and it shall be as you desire.'
"The fourth of the visitors, whose turn had now come to announce
his request, sat with his head hanging down, and when Ma'nabush
looked at him he could not help laughing, because he knew what the
hoffman] GIFTS FROM Mi'NABUSH 119
man wanted; but be said, nevertheless, 'My uncle, what is it that you
want?' The man then raised his head, looked at Ma'nabiish and said,
'Ma'uabush. I want to live always; give me everlasting life.' Ma'na-
busb walked over to where the man sat, picked him up and carried him
a short distance, and while placing him firmly upon the ground said,
'You shall have your wish; here you shall always remain for future
generations to look upon/ Then the others, who had come with this
man, saw that he had been transformed into a stone, where he could
remain for all time, as he had desired.
"Ma'uabush then returned to his scat, and, looking toward the next
of his visitors to speak, who, perceiving that he could now make his
request, said, 'Ma'nabiish, I am like my friend; I want to get married,
but no one will have me. Give me some love medicine, so that all the
girls will like me.'
"Mii'nabush replied, 'My uncle, your request is granted, and you
will find plenty of girls who will want to marry you.'
"Then the seventh of the visitors turned toward Ma'nabiish and said,
'Ma'uiibush, I would like to be a great warrior, and to be the first of
each war party to kill an enemy.'
'' Mii'nabush smiled, and replying to the man, said, 'You shall have
your wish, my uncle; you shall be the first to kill an enemy.'
" The eighth of the visitors then turned his face toward Ma'uabush,
and said, 'Ma'nabiish, I want to be a good hunter, so that I may always
be able to kill plenty of game.'
"Ma'nabiish said, 'My uncle, you shall be a good and successful hun-
ter as you wish; you shall always find plenty of game for your use.'
"The next of the visitors now to make known his desire, said,
' Ma'uiibush, I want to get some powerful medicine to cure the sick, and
especially to help those who are child-bearing.'
" Ma'nabiish seemed pleased that such a request should be made, and
replied, 'My uncle, your wish is granted; you shall have the medicine
you desire.'
"The last of the party still remained to ask for favor, so Ma'nabiish
presently turned to him anil said, 'My uncle, what is it that you want
me to grant you'?' 'Ma'nabiish,' said the man addressed, 'I want a
pe'qtshiku'na (medicine bag) like that used by the Ina'maqkwok' ("the
birds of the air") and the Kiueu'Tw<)k ("the eagles"), that will give me
power over my enemies; and I want a misse/wos ("wound medicine")
with which I may cure arrow wounds.'
'"My uncle,' said Ma'nabiish, 'your wish is granted; here is the
pe'qtshiku'na.'
"Ma'nabiish then gave the warrior a medicine bag in which were all
kinds of medicine (charms and amulets); an eagle feather, which was
the eagle medicine; a raven skin to tie about the right arm above the
elbow; a skunk skin to tie about the left arm above the elbow; and
many other medicines with which he could arm his warriors to make
them powerful in battle.
120 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.akn.14
"TLen, when all had received a response to their wishes, they made
preparations to depart, but Ma'nabusli said. 'My uncles, you have come
a long journey to see me, but it will not be so far for you to return to
your village.' Then, taking a piece of buckskin, Ma'nabusli held it up
so that all could see it. It was half an arm's length in size each way.
and Ma'nabusli said, 'This represents the journey you have made;'
then putting the buckskin against the lire it shrunk into a much smaller
piece, when Ma'nabush again took it up ami said. 'My uncles, this
piece of buckskin now represents the journey you have before you you
;
see it is not so long.'
''The warriors were much pleased with this, and took their departure.
They traveled all day, but before going into camp tin- hunter had sup-
plied tin 1 party with plenty of venison for supper. When they en-
camped, they soon made themselves comfortable, and while sitting in
a. circle smoking they saw two strange men approach, when one of
the warriors grasped his warclub and attacked them, striking one of
them a terrific blow on the side of the head. The club rebounded, it
having caused the man's head only to sway a little; the warrior struck
him a second time, with a similar result, when the man began to laugh,
saying, • What are you doing .' you cannot hurt me.* The friends of
the warrior at once perceived that the two strangers were ana'maqkl'u
(underground ma'nidos), and that he could not injure them, so they
called out, 'Let them alone, you can not hurt either of them, for they
are ma'nidos.' The warrior then desisted from his attack on the stran-
gers and returned to the camp, whereupon the ma'nidos vanished.
"On the following morning the warriors continued their journey
toward home, where they arrived on the fourth day after leaviug the
wigwam of Ma'nabush.
"The people of the village were glad to see the return of the party
and to learn of their success in rinding Ma'nabush, and the girls at
once began to follow the warrior who had obtained the love medicine,
even his own sister wishing to marry him.
"One night, four days after returning from his visit to Ma'nabush, the,
warrior who had received the pe'qtshiku'na, dreamed that a war party
of strange Indians was to pass at a certain point. In his dream he saw,
at a distance of four days' journey, a hill beyond which was a stream
of water, and again beyond which was another piece of rising ground,
just over the crest of which he saw the trail where the war party
was to appear. On awakening next morning, the warrior went out
among his friends, and soon had a party of fifty men collected to join
him. They then started in the direction shown to the warrior in his
dream, and before the fourth day was spent they had crossed the first
ridge and had reached the stream.
"Then the leader of the party halted and told his companions, My
friends, we have arrived at the place where we must halt and prepare
ourselves for battle, because just beyond the crest of that ridge ahead
of us is the trail by which the war party will pass.' Then taking out
hokkman] STORY OK Ma'naBUSH 121
his pe'qtshikii'na, he selected the reed whistle to be used in command-
ing the warriors, telling the latter to select their medicine tor the fight.
One who had been with the leader to visit Ma'nabush, anil who desired
always to be the first to strike an enemy, selected the eagle feather;
another took the raven skin and tied it about his right arm just above
the elbow; another took the skunk skin and seemed it about Ins left arm
just above the elbow. So each, in turn, selected his favorite medicine
until all were provided. Then the leader told the two warriors who had
the raven skin and the skunk skin medicines to go along the crest of
the hill to watch Cor the war party; the remainder advanced, passed the
crest and then awaited the return of the scouts. While the warriors
were preparing to advance toward the trail, which was visible to the
leader only, the scouts returned with the report that away to the right
could be seen the approaching war party.
"Notlong after the enemy was sighted the file of the strange Indians
was observed coming on from the right, and so soon as they were oppo-
site the waiting party the leader of the latter blew his reed whistle
and the line advanced on a run. The warrior who had received from
Ma'nabush the medicine that made him a great lighter, and who
desired always to be the first to strike the enemy, ran ahead of the
column, as he was very fleet, struck down one of the enemy, secured
his scalp and hastily returned and placed it in the hands of the leader,
who remained on the crest of the hill to govern and direct the light.
The next to return to his leader with a scalp was the man who wore
upon his right arm the raven skin medicine. The conflict was short
and decisive, only one or two of the enemy escaping- during the right.
The warriors then returned to their village.
"The people lived for some time in peace and contentment, when
they all decided to go on a hunt; so everybody prepared to move to
the hunting ground which had been selected by the chief. Game was
plentiful, and during the evening the hunters and warriors would sit
around the camp fires smoking and talking about the success of the
day.
"One evening a party of young men said to one another, 'Let us go
over to the wigwam of the old man and have him tell us some stories.'
So they all went over to where the old man lived. He was a very old
man, and being regarded as well versed in the tales of bygone times,
the young men were glad to sit around him and listen to his words.
"When the young men arrived at the wigwam the old man welcomed
them, and bade them be seated. One of the young men was the war-
rior who always was the first to strike an enemy, and who had received
the fighting medicine from Ma'nabush. He went up to the right side
of the old man and laid himself on the ground so that he could
look up into his face. After the party had been seated and had passed
the pipe, the spokesman said to the old man, 'Grandfather, tell us
some stories of the olden times.' The old man sat quietly looking
into space before him, his eyes partially closed, when he began to
122 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ann.U
relate things of his younger days and of the times of those who had
gone before him.
"The young warrior lying on tlie ground turned toward the old man
and said, 'Old man. lend me your knife that I may cut some tobacco;
I want to take a smoke.' The old man paid no attention to this inter-
ruption, but continued his narrative. Presently the young warrior
again spoke to the old man, in a more peremptory manner than before,
'Old man, lend me your knife that 1 may cut some tobacco; I want to take
a smoke.' Again the old man appeared to take no notice of the inter-
ruption, but continued his narrative. Presently, the young warrior
grasped the arm of the old man and, shaking it rather forcibly, said
in a louder aud more commanding tone than before, 'Old man, lend me
your knife that I may cut some tobacco; I want to take a smoke.'
"Then the old man turned toward the young warrior and rebuked
him, saying, ' My son, what are you, that you should ask me to lend
you my knife? Is it not the duty of every warrior always to have his
knife ? What would you do if we were now surrounded by the enemy V
The young warrior held his clinched fist toward the old man ami
said, • I have this, and with it could slay any man.' At that instant
considerable commotion was heard outside, and one of the hunters
came hastily into the wigwam saying that the village was surrounded
by the enemy. Instantly every one rushed out to secure his weapons
and to go into the fight, all excepting the old man, who retained his
seat, and the young warrior who had been asking for a knife.
"The young warrior arose and looked about to see what weapons
were at hand, but at that moment he perceived one of the enemy push-
ing aside the door, which consisted of a curtain made of skins, and
entering the wigwam. Quick as a Hash the young warrior threw his
left hand against the intruder's forehead, thus forcing back his head,
and with his fist struck him on the throat, breaking the cartilage
(pomum Adami), when he fell down senseless. The victor then threw
the body toward the old man, saying, ' Here, old man, you dispose of
this one.' The old man then took his knife from its sheath and thrust
it into the enemy's heart. By this time another of the enemy had
entered the wigwam, whom the young warrior treated in a similar man-
ner, and throwing the body toward the old man, told him to dispose also
of him, whereupon the old man likewise stabbed this warrior as he had
the first. Presently another of the enemy put. his head in at the door,
whom the young warrior also grasped with his left hand, planting a
terrific blow upon the throat with the left hand, laying low the victim.
Then, grasping the body and throwing it over to the old man, he said,
'Here, old man, dispose of this one also,' when the old man thrust
his knife into the enemy's heart. A fourth one of the attacking party
now entered the door of the wigwam, and he also was grasped by the
young warrior who struck him upon the throat, knocking him senseless.
This body was likewise thrown over to the old man, who thrust his
knife into the victim's heart.
hoff.mvn] STORY OF THE YOUNG WARRIOR 123
"Those without, not bearing the voices of their companions, hesitated
to enter, and preferred to take possession of the wigwam by stratagem.
The young warrior, finding no others courageous enough to conic in,
decided to go out and assume the aggressive. Taking a pole which he
found in the wigwam, he approached the door, but, instead of putting
out his bead to have it crushed by those lying in wait outside, he took
the pole and pushed out the curtain which covered the entrauce, so as to
make it appear like a human form about to go out, when in an instanl
all of the watchers discharged their arrows into it; then, rushing out
before they could recover from their surprise, be began striking right
and left, so that in the darkness no one could tell which was the
aggressor. In the meantime the others of the encampment had driven
back the attacking war party, so that now it required but a few moments
for the young warrior to put to Might the small party who bad sur-
rounded the old man's wigwam. When it was learned that the enemy
bad withdrawn, everything resumed its usual tranquility.
"A few days later the same party of young warriors who bad pre-
viously called at the wigwam of the old man to listen to the stories
of bygone times, again decided to go there for an evening's entertain-
ment. All of the visitors were asked to be seated, but the young
warrior again lay down near the old man. Then the late attack became
the subject of conversation, and one of the visitors, who sat away
back in the wigwam, spoke, saying, 'Old man, how is it? We hear
that the boaster at your feet killed four of the enemy with bis fist;
we want to hear about that exploit.' 'My son,' responded the old
man, 'it is just as you say. He was with me when my wigwam was
attacked, and struck down four men with bis fist and threw them to
me, for I killed them myself by stabbing them.'
"The young man who had asked this question felt abashed and kept
silent. They all felt that the young warrior had greatly distinguished
himself, and as he had received from Ma'nabush the 'fighting medi-
cine' (for he was one of the ten who had visited Ma'iuibush), they
feared him. Soon they all returned to their wigwams, and a few days
later the camp broke up and the hunters went home to their settlement.
"The young warrior was still living with his aged parents, and pro-
vided well for them; and it was for this reason chiefly that he bad not
yet taken a wife.
"One of the neighbors of this old couple had three daughters, so when
the young warrior one day returned to his wigwam he found seated
there a beautiful girl, who bad been given to the old couple by their
neighbor that she might look to their personal wants. The young war-
rior was pleased with the girl and at her apparent modesty—as she
had not yet spoken a word—so he adopted the advice of his parents,
by taking her to be his wife.
"In due course of time a child was born to them, but he soon found
that his wife received the attentions of other warriors when he was
124 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ann.14
away from home hunting. Now, the fame of the young warrior became
so well known that all who knew him feared him; but one man, the
lover of the young wife, openly said that he was not afraid of the hus-
band, and dared him. So the lover and the young wife, awaiting an
opportunity to run away during the young warrior's absence, left the
wigwam and went to a high cliff, in the face of which was a small
opening. There they secreted themselves.
"When the young warrior returned to his wigwam he found that his
child had cried so much at the loss of its mother that it was supposed
to be dying. The father of the faithless wife then commanded his sec-
ond daughter to go and care for the child, while the young warrior
started away to overtake the runaway couple. He began to make a
circuit about the camp, widening the circle at each turn so that no place
would escape his attention, and that he might find their trail. When
he had traveled long and far, he found himself in a valley opposite a
high cliff, and looking up he saw his wife's red leggings projecting from
a small cavern. He recognized these, because his wife wore red gar-
ments entirely, even down to her leggings. He saw, also, the project-
ing legs and feet of his false friend. Then going in the nearest possible
direction to the summit of the cliff, where he could look down, he could
scarcely understand how the couple had succeeded in gaining access
to so inaccessible a spot, but called out, 'Wife, come up here to the top
of the rock; I want you.' The wife, seeing that they were discovered,
'Husband, that you 1replied, is ? I am coming up;' and with that she
climbed up the narrow ledge to where her husband stood. He took
her by the arm and led her a short distance away from the edge of the
cliff, where he told her to remain and wait for him. Then the young
warrior cut a forked stick, and sharpening the two prongs with his ax,
went to the cliff and called to the lover to come up. As soon as the
man responded by coming out of the cavern, the young warrior thrust
down the forked stick so that one point passed on each side of his
neck, and, giving him a hard thrust, threw the man down over the cliff,
where his body was dashed to pieces on the rocks below.
"Then, returning to where his wife stood, the young warrior brought
her to the edge of the cliff, and while she shrieked with fear he grasped
her by both arms and, raising her above his head, he cast her out over
the cliff, where her body went flying down among the rocks beneath.
The woman fell on her head with such violence that she was forced into
a rounded mass.
"Having accomplished his revenge, he returned to his wigwam and
told the parents of the two dead ones to get the bodies and bury
them. He said that he was determined to punish such faithlessness,
and everybody, even the parents of the woman and her lover, said that
the young warrior had done what was right.
"The second daughter of the neighbor, who had been sent to the
young warrior's wigwam to care for the deserted child, took such good


HOFFMAN MYTH OF THE GREAT FISH 125
care of the little one that it recovered. Then, to make amends for the
past, the neighbor gave to the young warrior the second daughter as a
wife to take the place of her faithless sister."
Ceremonies of ls'.i-
The animal meeting of the Mita'wit in 1892 was held in June, and was
called for the purpose of initiating a little girl named Da'tewiata'nio
("Bumbling Noise"), 8 years of age. She had been selected by her
father, Wa'naqko"she (The Little Apex), usually designated '-John
Smith." The meeting was held in a smaller structure than usual, 2
miles west of the village. The attendance numbered about <!() male
and female shamans. At the northwestern corner of the mita'wiko'-
mik a canvas tent was built against it so as to afford ready entrance to
the interior, where, the ceremonies were held. Plate xn represents
a view of this structure, which differed in some respects from those
already described. During an interval in the ceremonies, some myths
were obtained from the officiating priests, including Shu'uien, Nio'pet,
Shawaq'ka, and Ni'aqtawa'pomi.
The following version of the encounter between Ma'nabush and the
Water Monster, Ma'sheuo'mak (also given as Ma'shekfne'bik), was
related by Nio'pet. It is more complete than that given by Shu'uien,
although that recited by the latter is claimed to be exactly as he had
been taught it when he was prepared for the degree of the Mita'wit.
Ma'sheno'mah, tin' (heat Fish
"The people were much distressed about a water monster, or giant
fish, which frequently caught fishermen, dragging them into the lake
and there devouring them. So Ma'nabush asked his grandmother to
hand to him his singing sticks, and told her he was going to allow
himself to be swallowed that he might be enabled to destroy the inou-
ster. Ma'nabush then built a small raft and floated out on the lake,
singing all the while, 'Ma'sheuo'mak, come and eat me; you will feel
good.' Then the monster, Ma'sheno'inak, saw that it was Ma'nabush,
and told his children to swallow him. When one of the young Ma'she-
uo'mak darted forward to swallow Ma'nabush, the latter said, 'I want
Ma'sheuo'mak to swallow me.' This made the monster so angry that
he swallowed Mii'iiabush, who thereupon became unconscious. When
he recovered, he found himself in company with his brothers; he saw
the Bear, the Deer, the Porcupine, the Baven, the Pine-squirrel, and
many others. He inquired of them how they came to meet with such
misfortune, and was very sad to find that other kinsmen also were
lying dead.
"Then Ma'nabush prepared to sing the war song, during which it is
customary to state the object of making the attack and the manner in
which it is to be attempted. He told his brothers to dance with him,
:
126 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.axn.M
and all joined in singing. The Pine-squirrel alone bad a curious voice
and hopped around rapidly, singing, ' Sek-sek sSk-sek,' which amused
the rest, even in their distress. As the dancers passed around the
interior of the monster it made him reel, and when Ma'nabttsh danced
past his heart he thrust his knife toward it, which caused the monster
to have a convulsion. Then Ma'nabush thrust his knife three times
toward the monster's heart, after whiehhe said, 'Ma/sheno'mak, swim
toward my wigwam,' and immediately afterward he thrust his knife
into the heart, which caused the monster's body to quake and roll so
violently that everyone became unconscious. How long they remained
in this condition they knew not, but on returning to consciousness
Mii'niibush found everything motionless and silent. He knew then
that the monster was dead, and that his body was lying either on the
shore or on the bottom of the lake; to make sure, he crawled over the
bodies of his brothers to a point where he could cut an opening through
the monster's body. When he had cut a small opening, he saw bright
daylight, and immediately closed the hole, took his singing sticks, and
began to sing:
• Kr-'-sik-in-ni'i -ruin, kr'-sik-in-na -iniii.'
' I sec the sky ! I see the sky '!
"As Mii'niibush continued to sing his brothers recovered. The Squir-
rel alone was the one who hopped around singing the words ' .Sek-sek,
sek-sek, sek-sek, sek-sek.' When the dance was concluded, Mii'niibush
cut a large opening in the monster's belly through which they emerged.
As the survivors were about to separate to go to their respective wig-
waiiis, they all complimented the Pine-squirrel on his tine voice, and
Mii'niibush said to him, ' My younger brother, you also will be happy,
as you ha ve a good voice.' Thus Mii'niibush destroyed Ma/sheno'mak."
The following myth is sometimes chanted by the mitii'wok as part of
the ritual, especiallythat portion which relates to the origin and source
of the things needed by mankind. At no meeting of the Mita'wit had
it been rendered; so on my special desire Nio'pet chanted it for my
instruction. This was done, however, during a short recess and when
but a few confidential mitii'wok were present. The myth is called " The
Origin of Fire and the Canoe," of which the following words are a
translation
"Mii'niibush, when he was still a youth, once said to his grandmother
Noko'mis, 'Grandmother, it is cold here and we have no fire; let me go
to get some.' Noko'mis endeavored to dissuade him from such a per-
ilous undertaking, but he insisted; so he made a canoe of bark, and,
once more assuming the form of a rabbit, started eastward across a
large body of water, where dwelt an old man who had fire. As the
Rabbit approached the island it was still night; so he went on shore
and traveled along until he came in sight of the sacred wigwam of the
old man. This old man had two daughters, who, when they emerged
from the sacred wigwam, saw a little Rabbit, wet and cold, and care-
hoffman] THE BALL PLAY 127
fully taking it up they carried it into the sacred wigwam, where they
set it dowu near the tire to warm.
"The Rabbit was permitted to remain near the fire while the girls
went about the sacred wigwam to attend to their duties. The Rabbit
then hopped a little nearer the fire to endeavor to grasp a coal, but as
he moved the earth shook and disturbed the old man, who was slumber-
ing. The old man said, ' My daughters, what causes this disturbance!'
The daughters said it was nothing; that they were only trying to dry
and warm a poor little rabbit which they had found. When the two
girls were again occupied, the Rabbit grasped a stick of burning wood
and ran with all speed toward the place where he had left his canoe,
closely pursued by the girls and the old man. The Rabbit reached his
canoe in safety and pushed oft', hastening with all speed toward his
grandmother's home. The velocity of the canoe caused such a current
of air that the firebrand began to burn fiercely, so by the time he
reached shore Noko'mis, who had been awaiting the Rabbit's return,
saw that sparks of fire had burned his skin in various places. She
immediately took the fire from him and then dressed his wounds, after
which they soon healed. The Thunderers received the lire from Noko'-
mis, and have had the care of it ever since."
Notes ox the Ceremonies
The preceding meeting of the Mitii'wit added little to the ritual
obtained during the preceding years; but some information was gained
relating to the method sometimes followed in preparing for a future
meeting.
When a mita' v feels that he lias been unmindful of the injunctions
and precepts taught through the ritual of the Mitii'wit by Mii'niibiish,
he must show regret and pledge future sincerity by giving a ball game.
A game is also sometimes given as an offering to Ki'shii' Ma'nido
when a member of the family is sick; this offering being equivalent to
giving to the poor. A feast is later on provided for the meeting of the
Mitii'wit, and this every giver of a ball game is obliged to furnish. The
following is a translation of remarks on this subject by Waio'skasit:
"When anyone prepares to have a game of ball, he selects the cap-
tains or leaders of t\\e two sides who are to compete. Each leader then
appoints his own player, and the ball sticks to be used are deposited at
the ball ground on the day before the game is to occur. Then each of
the leaders selects a powerful and influential mitii'v , whose services are
solicited for taking charge of the safety of the ball sticks, and to pre-
vent their being charmed or conjured by the opposing mitii' v . The
mita'v is not expected to be present at the ground during the night,
because he is supposed to have the power to influence the sticks at any
distance.
"Should one mita'v succeed in obtaining such necromantic power over
the sticks as to carry them away from the ground—that is, to carry
128 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth ann u
away the power of the sticks—then it is the duty of the opposing mitii"
to follow him and bring them back. In case the pursuing inita'v does
not succeed iu catching the rival, on account of being outwitted or
because of having insufficient power in overcoming him, then the pur-
suing mita'T is killed by his rival's sorcery. It usually happens that
the pursuer compels the rival to restore the virtue or
power of the sticks before the day approaches."
Four innings are played, and usually the presents,
consisting of pieces of cloth, are divided into four parts,
one part being given to the victor of each inning. Some-
times, however, the presents are renewed until the end
of the game.
The frames from which the presents are suspended are
near the middle of the ground, but off toward the eastern
side, the tobacco-tray and other accessories being placed
on the ground between them and toward the center of
the ball ground. The two horizontal parallel poles
forming the upper part of the framework are used for
the calico and blankets; before them, on the ground,
a cloth is spread, and on this are placed tobacco, pipes,
and matches, to which all the participants are at lib-
erty to help themselves.
The accompanying plate xni represents the players
during a run for the ball. The latter is made of thongs
of buckskin tightly wrapped and covered with buckskin
or leather, and measures about 2i iuches in diameter.
The sticks are made of hickory or ash, about 3 feet
long, the wood being shaved thinner and bent into a
hoop or ring at least ± inches in diameter. Four or five
thongs pass through holes in the hoop and cross in the
center, forming a netted pocket in which the ball may
rest half hidden (figure 19).
When the ball is caught, the runner carries the stick
almost horizontally before him, moving it rapidly from
side to side and at the same time turning the stick so
as to keep the ball always in front and retained by
the pocket. This constant swinging and twisting
is. i9—Bali stick. movemenj; tends to prevent players of the opposing
side from knocking the ball out or dislodging it by hitting the stick.
The manner of preparing for and playing the game is like that of the
Ojibwa of northern Minnesota, which I have already described, and of
which an abstract may be presented:
After selecting a level piece of ground, if a regular ball ground does not already
exist, the goals are erected about one- third of a mile apart. These consist of two
upright poles or saplings about 20 feet high. The best players of either side
gather at the center of the ground. The poorer players arrange themselves around


—
ii'JiiMAN] THE BALL PLAY 129
their respective goals, while the heaviest in weight scatter across the field between
the starting point and the goals.
The ball is tossed into the air in the center of the field. As soon as it descends it
is caught with the hall stick by one of the players, when he immediately sets out at
full speed toward the opposite goal. If too closely pursued, or if intercepted by an
opponent, he throws the ball in the direction of one of his own side, who takes up
the race.
Tlic usual method of depriving a player of the ball is to strike the handle of the
ball stick so as to dislodge the ball; but this is frequently a difficult matter on
account of a peculiar horizontal motion of the ball stick maintained by the runner.
Frequently the ball carrier is disabled by being struck across the arm or leg, thus
compelling his retirement. Severe injuries occur only when playing for high stakes
or when ill-feeling exists between some of the players.
Should the ball carrier of one side reach the opposite goal, it is necessary for him
to throw the ball so that it touches the post. This is always a difficult matter,
because, even if the ball be well directed, one of the numerous players surrounding
.the post as guards may intercept it and throw it back into the field. In this manner
a single inning may be continued for an hour or more. The game may come to a close
at the end of any inning by mutual agreement of the players, that side winning the
greater number of scores being declared the victor.
During the intervals of rest the players approach the place of the
presents and smoke. The giver of the game also awards to the suc-
cessful players a part of the presents, the whole quantity beiug divided
into four portions, so that equal portions are distributed at each of the
intervals.
The players frequently hang to the belt the tail of a deer, an antelope,
or some other fleet animal, or the wiugs of swift-flying birds, with the
idea that through these they are endowed with the swiftness of the
animal. There are, however, no special preparations preceding a game,
as feasting or fasting, dancing, etc.—additional evidence that the game
is not so highly regarded among the Ojibwa tribe. To continue (lie
quotation
The game played by the Dakota Indians of the upper Missouri was probably
learned from the Ojibwa, as these two tribes have been upon amicable terms for
many years; the ball sticks are identical in construction, and the game is played in
the same manner. Sometimes, however, the goals at either end of the ground con-
sist of two heaps of blankets about 20 feet apart, between which the ball is
passed.
When the Dakota play a game the village is equally divided into sides. A player
offers as a wager some article of clothing, a robe, or a blanket, when an opponent
lays down an object of equal value. This parcel is laid aside, and the next two
deposit their stakes, and so on until all have concluded. The game then begins, two
of the three innings deciding the issue.
When the women play against the men, five of the women are matched against one
of the latter. A mixed game of this kind is very amusing. The fact that among
the Dakota women are allowed to participate in the game is considered excellent
evidence that the game is a borrowed one. Among most other tribes women are not
even allowed to touch a ball stick.
The Chactas, Chickasaws, and allied tribes of Indian territory frequently perform
acts of conjuring in the hall field to invoke the assistance of their tutelary daimons.
The games of these Indians are much more brutal than those of the northern tribes.
14 ETH 9
:
130 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [ETH.Aira.14
The game sticks are longer, and made of hickory, and blows are frequently directed
so as to disable a runner. 1
The game of lacrosse originated without doubt among some one of
the eastern Algonquian tribes, possibly in the valley of Saint Lawrence
river, and from there was carried down among the Huron-Iroquois, and
later on into the country of the more southern members of the Iroquoian
linguistic stock, as the Cherokee, etc. Westward the game was takeu
by the various tribes of the Algonquian stock, and afterward adopted
by other tribes, until at this day there is evidence of its influence
among many tribes of diverse stocks. The French name of the game has
been preserved in the geography of Wisconsin, both in the Prairie de la
Crosse and in the city of that name; and in the history of that state
by the ball-play conspiracy, made use of by Pontiac for the purpose
of gaining admission to the fort at Michilimackinac to massacre the
garrison.
When Mackinaw passed into the possession of the British in 1703,
the Menominij who had gone to aid the French, returned to their homes
at Green bay, with the exception, possibly, of a few who, for the purpose
of trading, may have accompanied the French settlers in their journey
to Mackinaw to take the oath of allegiance. Some of the Ottawa and
Ojibwa had espoused the cause of Pontiac, who was endeavoring to
surprise the garrison and thus embroil the Indian tribes in difficulties
with the English. De Langlade, who had located near the garrison,
and who had been informed by his Indian allies of the plan, several
times warned Captain Etherington, the commandant, of the plot, in
which a game of ball was to figure, the throwing of the ball over the
picketing being the signal to strike. Etherington doubted the truthful-
ness of the report, believing it to be nothing but idle rumor, and
persisted in his belief that no precautions were necessary.
Francis Parkman 2 gives the following graphic account of this cele-
brated game and its results
Captain Etherington and Lieutenant Leslie stood near the gate, the former indulg-
ing his inveterate Euglish propensity ; for, as Henry informs us, he had promised the
Ojibwas that he would bet on their side against the Sacs. Indian chiefs and war-
riors were also among the spectators, intent apparently on watching the game, but
with thoughts, in fact, far otherwise employed.
The plain in front was covered by ball players. The game iu which they were
engaged, called baggattaway by the Ojibwas, is still, as it always has been, a favorite
with inauy Indian tribes. At either extremity of the ground a tall post was planted,
marking the stations of the rival parties. The objectof each was to defend its own
post and drive the ball to that of its adversary. Hundreds of lithe and agile figures
were leaping and bounding upon the plain. Each was nearly naked, his loose, black
hair Hying in the wind, and each bore in his hand a bat of a form peculiar to this
game. At one moment the whole were crowded together, a dense throng of combat-
ants, ali struggling for the ball; at the next they were scattered again and running
over the ground like hounds in full cry. Each in his excitement yelled and
1 American Anthropologist, Washington, D. C, April, 1890, vol. iii, pp. 134-135.
2 Conspiracy of Pontiac, Boston, 1868, vol. i, pp. 297-298.
:
hoffman] BALL GAME CONSPIRACY 131
shouted at the height of his voice. Rushing and striking, tripping their adversaries
or hurling them to the ground, they pursued the animating contest amid the laughter
and applause of the spectators. Suddenly, from the midst of the multitude, the
ball soared into the air and, descending in a wide curve, fell near the pickets of the
fort. This was no chance stroke. It was part of a preconcerted stratagem to insure
the surprise and destruction of the garrison. As if in pursuit of the hall, the play-
ers turned and came rushing, a maddened and tumultuous throng, toward the gate.
In a moment they had reached it. The amazed English had no time to think or act.
The shrill cries of the ball players were changed to the ferocious war-whoop. The
warriors snatched from the squaws the hatchets, which the latter, with this design,
had concealed beneath their blankets. Some of the Indians assailed the spectators
without, while others rushed iuto the fort, and all was carnage and confusion. At
the outset several strong hands had fastened their grip upon Etherington and Leslie
and led them away from the scene of massacre towards the woods. Within the area
of the fort the men were slaughtered without mercy.
Henry l escaped and ran to the house of Langlade, secreting himself
in the garret. Quoting Henry, Parkman continues:
This shelter obtained, if shelter I could hope to find it, I was naturally anxious to
know what might still be passing without. Through an aperture, which afforded
me a view of the area of the fort, I beheld, in shapes the foulest and most terrible,
the ferocious triumphs of barbarian conquerors. The dead were scalped and man-
gled; the dying were writhing and shrieking under the unsatiated knife and toma-
hawk; and from the bodies of some, ripped open, their butchers were drinking the
blood, scooped up in the hollow of joined hands, and quaffed amid shouts of rage and
victory. I was shaken not only with horror, but with fear. The sufferings which
I witnessed I seemed on the point of experiencing. No long time elapsed before,
every one being destroyed who could be found, there was a general cry of "All is
finished."
According to Shu'nien and other prominent mitii'wok, the traditional
origin of the ball game is as follows
Ma'niibiish wanted to discover and destroy those of the ana'maqki'u
or underground evil ma'nidos, who were instrumental in the death of
his brother, the Wolf. He therefore instituted the ball game, and asked
the Thunderers to come and play against the ana'maqki'ii as their
opponents, after which the game should be the property of the Thun-
derers. The Kine'uT, Golden-eagle, came in response to this invitation,
and brought with him the ball. He was accompanied by all the other
Thunderers, his brothers and younger brothers. Then the ana'maqki'u
began to come out of the ground, the first two to ajipear beiug the head
chiefs in the guise of bears—one a powerful silvery white bear, the
other having a gray coat. These were followed by their brothers and
younger brothers.
The place selected by Ma'nabtish for a ball ground was near a large
sand bar on a great lake not far from where Mackinaw is now located.
Adjoining the sand bar was a large grove of trees, in the midst of
which was a glade, smooth and covered with grass. At one end of this
clearing was a knoll, which was taken possession of by the bear chiefs,
from which point they could watch the progress of the game. Then the
1 Parkman, op. cit., pp. 300-301.
132 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.aun.14
ana'maqkl'u placed themselves on one side of the ball "round, while
the Thunderers took the other, each of the latter selecting a player
from among their opponents, as the. players always go by pairs.
After the game was started, Ma'nabush approached the grove of
trees, and, while cautiously following a stream which led near to the
knoll, he discovered an Indian painting himself. While watching the
process, Ma'nabush saw the Indian take clay, spread it on his hands,
and then scratching off some with the finger nails, so that the remainder
appeared like parallel stripes, the hands were then slapped upon the
shoulders, the arms, and the sides of the body. Then Ma'nabush said
to the Indian, " Who are you and what are yorr doing!" The Indian
replied in the Ottawa tongue, "I am Ket.'i'kibikot', and I am dressing
myself to play balk Do you not see they are going to have a great
time out there on the ball ground? Come and join the game." "No,"
said Ma'nabush, -1 will not play; I will look on." (Keta'kibihof in
the Meuomini language is Keta'kibihit', and signifies "the striped one."
His modern name is Naku'ti, the Suufish.)
Ma'nabush wratched Naku'ti as he went on the ball field, and saw
that he paired himself with Una'wanink, the Pine squirrel of the
Thunderers. Man'iibush' then continued toward the knoll to see who
were his chief enemies. When he had gone as near as possible without
being seen, he climbed a. large tree, from which he had a good view of
the progress of the game, and on looking at the kuoll he saw the two
Bear chiefs lying there quietly, also watching the ball game. The
game lasted all day without either side gaining any advantage, and
when the sun was setting the players returned to their wigwams.
When night came Ma'nabush descended the tree in which he had been
sitting, approached the knoll, and stood on a spot between the places
which had been occupied by the Bear chiefs. He then said, "I want
to be a pine tree, cut off half way between the ground and the top,
with two strong branches reaching over the places on which the Bear
chiefs lie down." Being a ma'nido, he immediately became a tree. When
the players returned next morning to resume the ball game, the Bear
chiefs and the other ana'maqkl'u said, " This tree was not standing here
yesterday;" but the Thunderers all replied that it had been there. Then
a discussion followed, during which the two sets of players retired to
their respective sides, and the game was postponed for awhile. The
Bear chiefs concluded that the tree must be Ma'nabush, and they at
once decided to destroy him. So they sent for the Grizzly Bear to come
to their assistance, and asked him to climb the tree, tear the bark from
the trunk, and scratch its throat and face. When the Grizzly Bear
had torn the bark from the trunk and bitten the branches, and had
scratched the top of the trunk at a point where the head and neck of
a human being should be, he gave it up and descended. The Bear
chiefs then called up a monster Serpent, which was lying in the brush
close by, and asked it to bite and strangle the tree. The Serpent
hofkman] MYSTIC ORIGIN OF BALL GAME 133
wrapped itself around the trunk and tightened its coils until Ma'nabush
was almost strangled, although he was able to endure the bites which
the Serpent inflicted on his head, neck, and arms. Before Ma'nabush
became entirely unconscious the Serpent uncoiled and glided down.
The Bear chiefs then believed that the tree was not Ma'nabush, so they
lay down near the trunk and caused the game to begin. After a long
and furious struggle the ball was carried so far from the starting point
that the Bear chiefs were left entirely alone, when in an instant Ma'na-
bush drew an arrow from the quiver hanging at his side, shot one into
the body of the silvery-white Bear chief, and another into the body of
the gray Bear chief. Then Ma'nabush resumed his human form and ran
for the sand bar. He had not proceeded far, however,when the defeated
ana'maqki'u returned, saw what had happened, and set out in pursuit
of Ma'nabush. The waters poured out of the ground and followed
with such speed that Mii/niibush was about being overtaken, when he
saw Ma'nakwo, the Badger, whom he begged to help secrete him in the
earth. The Badger took Mii'nabush down into the earth, and as he
burrowed threw the loose dirt behind him, which retarded the waters.
The ana'maqki'u could nowhere find Ma'nabush, so they gave up the
pursuit, and just as the waters were sinking into the depths of the bur-
row, Ma'nabush and the Badger returned to the surface.
When the ana'maqki'u returned to the ball ground, they took up their
wounded chiefs and carried them home, erecting at a short distance
from camp a sick lodge, in which the wounded were attended by a
mita'v or shaman. Fearing that Ma'nabush might return to complete
his work of destroying the two Bear chiefs, the ana'maqki'u began the
erection of a network of strands of basswood, which was to inclose
the entire sick lodge. When Ma'nabush came near the camp of the
ana'maqki'u, he met an old woman carrying a bundle of basswood bark
upon her back and asked her, "Grandmother, what have you on your
back?" The old woman replied, "You are Ma'nabush, and wish to kill
me." " No," he replied, " I am not Ma'nabush, for if I were Ma'nabush
I should have killed you at once, without asking you a question." So,
the old woman's fears being quieted, she began to relate to Mii'niibush
all of the troubles which had befallen the ana'maqki'u, adding, "We
have built a network of strands of basswood bark around the wigwam
in which the Bear chiefs are lying sick, so that if Mii'niibush should
come to kill them he would have to cut his way through it, which would
cause it to shake, when the ana'maqki'u would discover and kill him.
We have only a little more of the network to make, when it will be
complete." The old woman also told Mii'niibush that she herself was
the meta who attended to the two chiefs, and that no other person was
permitted to enter the wigwam.
When Mii'niibush heard all this, he struck the old woman and killed
her, after which he removed her skin and got into it himself, took the
bundle of basswood bark on his back, and in this disguise passed unde-
tected into the sick lodge. Here he found the two Bear chief's with the
134 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [lthann. H
arrowshafts still protruding from their bodies. Ma'nabiish then took
hold of the shaft of the arrow protruding from the body of the silvery-
white Bear chief and, thrusting it deeper into the wound, killed him.
Then he killed the gray Bear chief in the same way, after which he
skinned both bodies, dressed the skins, and rolled them into a bundle.
When Ma'nabush was ready to depart, he went out of the wigwam
through the opening left by the old woman, and when he reached the
extreme outside end of the network he shook it violently to let the
ana'maqki'u know that he had been there and had accomplished the
destruction of his chief enemies. The ana'maqki'u at once pursued
Mainabiish, as did also the waters, which flowed out of the earth at
many places. Ma'nabush, fearing to be overtaken, at once ascended
the highest mountain in view, the waters closely pursuing him. On the
summit he found a gigantic pine tree, to the very top of which he climbed.
But the waters soon reached him, so he called out to the tree to grow
twice its height, which it did; but soon the waters were again at his
feet, when he again caused the tree to grow twice its original height.
Yet in time the waters rose to where Ma'nabush was perched, and he
again caused the tree to grow twice its original height, to which the
waters gradually made their way. A fourth time Ma'nabush caused
the tree to grow, and for the fourth time the water rose until it reached
his armpits. Then Ma'nabush called to KishaV Ma'nido for help, saying
that as he had been sent to the earth he begged for help against the
anger of the anamaqkl'u. The Good Mystery caused the waters to sub-
side, and then Ma'nabush looked around and saw ouly small animals
struggling in the water, seeking a foothold which was nowhere visible.
Presently Ma'nabush observed the Otter, so he called to him saying,
"Otter, come to me and be my brother; dive down into the water
and bring up some earth, that I may make a new world." The Otter
dived down into the water, where he remained for a long time; but
when he returned to the surface Mii'nabush saw him floating with his
belly uppermost and knew that the Otter was dead. Then Mii'nabush
looked around and saw the Beaver swimming upon the surface of the
water, so he said, "Beaver, come to me and be my brother; dive down
into the water and bring up some earth, that I may make a new world."
The Beaver dived down into the water and tried to reach the bottom.
After a long interval Ma'nabush saw him floating upon the surface
belly uppermost, and then knew that he too had failed to reach the bot-
tom. Again Ma'nabush looked about to see who could accomplish the
feat, when he observed the Mink, so he said, "Mink, come to me and be
my brother; dive down into the water and bring up some earth, that I
may make a new world." Then the Mink disappeared beneath the
water, where he remained for a long time, and when he reappeared he
was floating with his belly uppermost, and Ma'uiibiish knew that the
Mink also had perished.
Ma'nabiish looked about once more and saw only the Muskrat, when
he called out and said, "Muskrat, come to me and be my brother; dive
Huffman] BA.LL-GAME FOLKLORE 135
down into the water and bring up some earth, that I may make a new
world." The Muskrat immediately complied with the wish of Ma/na-
bush, and dived down into the water. He remained so long beneath the
surface that Ma'nabiish thought he could not return alive; and when he
did come to the surface it was with the belly uppermost. Then Ma'na-
biish took the Muskrat in his hands and found adhering to the fore-
paws a minute quantity of earth. Then Ma'nabiish held the Muskrat
up, blew on him, and restored him to life; he then rubbed between his
palms the particle of earth and scattered it broadcast, when the new
earth was formed and trees appeared. Then Ma'nabiish thanked the
Muskrat and told him his people should always be numerous and have
enough to eat wherever he should choose to live.
Then Mii'inibush found the Badger, to whom he gave the skin of the
gray Bear chief, which he wears to this day; but he retained the skin
of the silvery-white Bear chief for his own use.
Then it became necessary for Man'iibush to institute the ball game,
so that his uncles could play it. He therefore called them all together,
and when he had announced to them his intention, he named Kine'ir,
the Golden-eagle, the chief of the Oqpe'tawok or Flyers, as leader of one
side, and Owa'sse, the Bear, as leader of the aua'maqki'u hawa'itokok,
the underground beings. Kine'ir is in the west, and when he advances
with the ball the sky darkens and the wind blows. Then Owa'sse tries
to prevent Kine'uv from approaching to win the game, and the wind and
rain may for awhile be held back, but Kine'ir always wins in the end.
That is why the Thunderers always win the game even at this day,
whether it be played for pleasure or to help a sick man.
The Mitii'wok furthermore related various matters concerning the
ball game, of which the following is a translation:
When a young man fasts and dreams of his ma'nido, he always wears
that ma'nido in the shape of a small effigy or as an amulet. His ma'nido
helps him to succeed in his undertakings. But if he forgets his
ma'nido and does not make offerings to him, then he will lose his
power, and his ma'nido will not assist him. Then the man must give a
ball game and offer presents to his ma'nido, and thus again receive his
favor. The man thus giving the feast selects the leaders of the two
sides, which consists respectively of players of the wi'dishi'anun (or
phratry) of which the leaders are members. The leaders are persons
conspicuous for their endurance and skill, and for the possession of
special powers conferred by their ma'nidos.
When one becomes sick through neglecting his ma'nido, and is unable
to prepare a ball game, some relation or friend of his wi'dishi'anun
assumes the responsibility of getting up the game, by which the anger
of the sick man's ma'nido will be appeased and the sufferer again be
taken under his protection.
Should a man dream of the Wa'banunii'qsiwok, the Eastern people,
he will have to prepare a ball game to avert evil or danger. The
Wa'banunii'qsiwok are dressed in red, both the men and the women;
136 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.amn.14
therefore the players constituting the side named to assist the organ-
izer wear something red about the person—a piece of red ribbon, a red
feather, or something else of that color. The ball must be colored red
on the "eastern" half and yellow on the "western" half in order to
conform with these symbolic requirements.
It a woman dreams that she sees the Wa'banuna'qsiwok, she also is
obliged to prepare a game as an offering to appease the evil ma'nidos
that are favorable to those people. The woman must dress in red, and
perhaps all those on her side will do the same; perhaps tliey will wear
only some red ribbons or pieces of cloth to denote their side. But in
any game, those who are members of the wi'dishi'anun of which the
Kine'uv is leader, the ana'maqkl'ii will always win. because the ma'nidos
first won when Ma'nabusb instituted the game.
When the ball game is played for amusement, or as a simple test of
physical endurance and skill, some of the players are sometimes enabled
to procure from the mita/T a medicine called psha'kiwis, which is made
by boiling certain plants and roots. The decoction is then rubbed
all over the legs up to the knees, and sometimes even to the thighs.
The players also rub charcoal or charred wood on their legs to
strengthen them. A player who does this is considered certain to win
in such games, because when an opponent approaches, the medicine
will take away his strength and he may fall down. If a player, not
prepared by having used suitable medicine, gets the ball and runs
toward the goal, then an adversary whose legs have been rubbed with
medicine has only to run after him and step on oue of his footprints
when the ball carrier will become weak and may be overtaken.
The leader of a party of players generally goes to the ball ground
just before the game begins and prays to his ma'nido for aid. Then
he often finds success and assistance; for example, when throwing the
ball straight up in the air, he says to his ma'nido, as it is flying upward,
"Take the ball toward my side; " and as the ball turns to descend it
goes in the direction desired.
Ceremonies of 1893
The last annual meeting of the Mita'wit was held in August, 1893.
It was called at that time in compliance with my request, the shamans
having previously informed me that I had authority to ask for a meet-
ing by virtue of my previous admission. The candidate was a little
girl, 4 years of age. She was admitted to membership for two reasons,
as will hereafter be set forth.
The promoter of the ceremonies was A'kwine'mi Mo'sikat, and the
mitii'wiko'niik was erected 3 miles southwest of Keshena, amidst the
pines and oaks of an open grove, near an Indian farm. The structure
was smaller than usual, measuring only about 65 feet in length, with
the usual width of 20 feet anil an interior height of 7 or 7k feet.
The chief mita'wok of the first or leading quartette, consisted of
Shu'nien, Nio'pet, Mo'sihat, and Ni'aqtawa'pomi, although the last
boffman] CANDIDATES FOR THE MITA'WIT 137
mentioned did not- arrive in time for the beginning, lii.s place being filled
ad interim by another man.
The ceremonies were in nowise different from those of the preceding
years, with the exception that some of the chants heard during the
afternoon of the last day consisted of but a few words, although the
music was repeated again and again, until the monotony of the utter-
ances and drumming became absolutely painful. This was caused by
the desire to prolong the ceremonies so far as possible, in the hope of
impressing some of the visiting Indians who were known to be opposed
to the Mita'wit, being members of the Dreamers' society, hereafter to be
more fully described. One of the attending mita'wok was a girl but -4
years of age, almost loaded down with elaborate beadwork, consisting of
necklaces, medicine bags, and other ornaments. A singular fact con-
nected with this little mitii'kwe, or female mita/T, was that the mother, a
mixed blood, was a staunch church member, and yet sat outside the
lnitii'wiko'inik, eagerly watching her child as the latter went through
her part of the walks and dances.
It has been stated that, apart from admitting into the society a
candidate to fill a vacancy caused by death, some obtain membership
by virtue of having been brought into the mita'wiko'mik for treatment,
after all other means appear to have failed. A sick person may not be
able to undergo any part of the ceremony himself, but for that purpose
a mita'v friend is delegated to act for the patient, the latter receiving
the benefit of new life by proxy, as it were. The candidate or patient,
should he recover, will subsequently be deemed a full-fledged member,
and may, if he so desire, be regularly initiated at some future time.
It has been mentioned in connection with the ball game that when a
mitii/v feels that he has neglected his duties to his ma'iiido, or tutelary
deity, his "heart feels sick;" and for the purpose of treating his heart
as another patient, he brings forward as a candidate for initiation some
one whom he may wish to honor by admission into the society, as well
as to fulfill his obligations to his ma'nido and to Mii'iiabush. In this
wise the candidate enacts, for the giver of the ceremony, the part of a
delegated mitii/T , as in the case of a sick person. In this manner the
little girl candidate produced by Mo'sihat acted for him, as he himself
had a "sick heart," and was unable personally to go through the neces-
sary procedure demanded by the ritual. The little girl was presented
for initiation, first, to enact the part of a mita/v as Mo'sihat believed,
himself to be not in a proper mood or condition to do so, and second, he
thus gave a favored relation the advantage of receiving the coveted
honor of membership in the Mita'wit.
Supplementary Note on the Ceremonies
The Mita'wit of the Menomini appears to receive less attention each
year, the reasons being attributable to a variety of causes, chief among
which are (1) the fact that many of the Indians are adopting the Chris-
tian religion, as they begin to perceive the improved condition of those
138 THE MENOMINI INDIANS 1eth.ann.14
who have done so; (2) because many of the younger men are attending
school, and begin to observe the futility and uselessness of the various
(lances; and (3) the old men and women mita'wok are slowly dying off,
which makes it difficult to find candidates to till their places. It is
evident, therefore, that the life of the society is a question of only a
few years more, and that the ceremonials of the Mita'wit, as well as
the exhibition of alleged powers, and the dances of the several classes
of shamans, will ere long be a matter of tradition only.
TSIU'SACJKA, OR JUGGLERS
The greatest powers were always believed to be possessed by the
tshi'saqka, though, on account of their greater number, the mita'wok
have been treated first.
The tshi'saqka, or juggler, class of shamans is limited, in the Meno-
mini tribe, to very few individuals, probably not more than half a do/en
professing the powers usually attributed to them. The jugglers were
earlj mentioned by the Jesuits as being their greatest opponents in
Christianizing the Indians; and as early as l(>3li the Mpissing Indians
of Canada had been designated as the nation of sorcerers. The Span-
iards met with similar opposition when attempting to Christianize the
.Mexicans; and Father .lose de Acosta's description of one class of
their sorcerers corresponds very closely to the accounts of pretensions
of some of the Algonquian jugglers. He says:
There were an infinite number of these witches, divines, enchanters, and other
false prophets. There reiuaines yet at this day of this infection, althogh they bo
secret, not daring pubiikely to exercise their sacrileges, divelish oeremonies, and
superstitions, but their abuses and wiekednes are discovered more at large and
particularly in the confessions made by the Prelates of Peru.
Then- is a kinde of sorcerers amongst the Indians allowed by the Kings Yncas,
which arc, as it were, sooth-saiers, they take vpon (hem what forme and figure they
please, Hying farre through the aire in a short time, beholding all that was done.
They talke with the Divell, who answoreth them in eertaino stones or other things
which they reverence much. They serve as coniurers, to tell what hath passed in
the farthest partes, before any newes can come. As it. hath chanced since the
Spaniardes arrived there, that in the distance of two or three hundred leagues, they
have Knowne the mutinies, battailes, rebellions, and deaths, both of tyrants, and
those of the King's partie, and of private men, the which have beene knowne the
same da v they chanced, or the day after, a tiling impossible by the course of nature.
To worke this divination, they shut themselves into a house, and became drunk
vntil they lost their sences, a day after they answered to that which was demanded.
Some affirme they van certaine vnctions. The Indians say that the old women do
commonly vse this office of witchcraft, and specially those of one Province, which
they call Coaillo, and of another towne called Manchay, and of the Province of
Ilnarochiri. They likewise shew what is become of things stolne and lost. There
arc of these kindes of Sorcerers in all partes, to whom commonly doe come the
Anaconas, and Chinas, which serve the Spaniardes, and when they have lost any
thing of their masters, or when they desire to know the successe of things past or
to come, as when they goe to the Spaniardes citties for their private affaires, or for
the publike, they demaund if their voyage shall be prosperous, if they shall be
sicke, if they shall die, or return safe, if they shall obtaine that which they pretend:
—
boffman] CHARLEVOIX ON JUGGLERY 139
ami the witches or coninrers answer, yea, or no, having first spoken with the I >i\ ell,
in an obscure place; so as these Anaconas do well heare the sound of tho voyce, hut
they see not to whom these ooniureis speake, neither do they vnderstaud what they
say. 1
Jugglers were common in perhaps all of the Algonquian tribes,
and indeed we have evidence of jugglery also among the Iroquois, for
Charlevoix 2 says of tbe Hurons, whom he visited in 1635, that the jug-
glers had informed the Indians that the religion of the French was not
applicable to them, and that they, furthermore, had a religion of their
own. On account of this antagonism the missionary fathers were fre-
quently compelled to perform their priestly offices in secret.
The Indians of Acadia are said to have had their jugglers, termed
autmoins, and Charlevoix ,J says of them
A sick person often takes it into his head that his disease is owing to witchcraft,
in which case their whole attention is employed in discovering it, which is the jug-
gler's province. This personage begins with causing himself to be sweated, and
after he lias quite fatigued himself with shouting, beating himself, and invoking his
genius, the first out-of-the-way thing that comes into his head, is that to which ho
attributes the cause of the disease. There are some who, before they enter the stove,
take a draft of a composition very proper, they say, for disposing them to receive
the divine impulse, and they pretend that the advent of the spirit is made manifest
by a rushing wind, which suddenly rises ; or by a bellowing heard under the ground ;
or by the agitation and shaking of the stove. Then, full of his pretended divinity.
and more like a person possessed by the devil than one inspired of Heaven, he pro-
nounces in a positive tone of voice on the state of the patient, and sometimes guesses
tolerably just.
The "stove" mentioned in the above quotation is the conical structure
usually designated as the jugglery, a description of which will hereafter
be given. "These autmoins," continues Charlevoix, "had much more
authority than the other jugglers, although they were not possessed of
greater ability, nor were they less impostors."
It appears from this remark that the class of shamans, known among
the western Algonquiau tribes as the inita", or inide', was also repre-
sented among the eastern Indians of that stock, although the several
classes are usually described under the designation of juggler or
sorcerer.
Baron Lahontan, who was lord-lieutenant of the French colony at
Placentia, in Newfoundland, and who visited the Algonquian tribes of
'Acosta, Natural and Moral History of tbe Indies \ in Hakluy t Society publications, vol. 61, pp.367-
368, London, 1880 (from the English translation, edition of Ed. Grimston, 1604).
HiBtoire et description generale de la Nouvelle France, tome i, p. 295 et seq., Paris, 1744. "Ces
Charlatans, qui craignoient de perdre la consideration, oft les mettoit l'exercice de leur art, si les Mis-
Bioxmaires s'accreditoientdansle Pays, entreprirent de los rendre odieux &meprisables, Sc ils n'ourent
pas dans ces commenceniens beaucoup de peine si y reussir; non-seulement parce qu'ils avoient a faire
a une Nation excessivement superstitieuse & orohrageuse, inais encore parce que plusieurs s'etoient
deja mis dans la fcete, que la Religion des Francois ne leur convenoit point, &. qu'elle leur seroit nicme
funeste, si elle s'etahlissoit parmi eux.
"Les Jongleurs vinrent done aisement ;\ bout de rendre suspectes toutes les demarches des Peres,
& surtout leurs Prieres, qu'ils faisoient regarder comiue des malefices; en sorte que ces Peligieux
etoient obliges de se cacher pour reciter lour Oilice, & pour s'aequitter des autres Exercices de devo-
tion."
'Journal of a Voyage lo North America, vol. ii, p. 177, London, 1761.
140 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ann.14
the northwest in the latter part of the seventeenth century, speaks of
the treatment of the sick by the natives, and with reference to the
shaman says:
A Jongleur is a sort of Physician, or rather a Quae],-, wlio being once cur'd of some
dangerous Distemper, haB the Presumption and Folly to fancy that he is immortal,
and possessed of the Power of curing all Diseases, by speaking to the Good and Evil
Spirits. Now though every Body rallies upon these Fellows when they are absent,
and looks upon 'em as Fools that have lost their Senses by some violent Distemper,
yet they allow 'em to visit the Sick; whether it be to divert 'em with their Idle
Stories, or to have an Opportunity of seeing them rave, skip about, cry, houl, and
make Grimaces and Wry Faces, as if they were possess'd. When all the Bustle is
over, they demand a Feast of a Stag and some large 'fronts for the Company, who
are thus regal'd at once with Diversion and Good Cheer.
When the Quack comes to visit the Patient, he examines him very carefully; If
the Evil spirit be here, says he, we shall quickly dislodge him. This said, he withdraws
by himself to a little Tent made on purpose, where he dances and sings houling
like an Owl; (which gives the Jesuits Occasion to say, That the Devil converses with
'em.) After he has made an end of this Quack Jargon, he comes and rubs the Patient
in some part of his Body, and pulling some little Bones out of his Month, acquaints
the Patient, That these rery Bones came out of his Body ; that he ought to pluck up a
good heart, in regard that his Distemper in but a Trifle: and in fine, that in order to accel-
erate the Cure, 'twill he convenient to send his own and his Relations shires to shoot Elks,
Deer, &c, to the end they may all eat of that sort of Meat, upon which his Cure does abso-
lutely depend.
Commonly these Quacks bring 'em some Juices of Plants, which are a sort of
Purges, and are called Maskikik. But the Patients choose to keep them by 'em
rather than to drink them ; for think all Purgatives inflame the Mass of the Blood,
and weaken the Veins and Arteries by their violent Shocks. 1
In his reference to the Indians (Ojibwa?) in the vicinity of Fort Nel-
son, on Hudson bay, M. de Bacqueville de la Potherie 2 remarks:
lis reconnoissent comme ces anciens heretiques im bon A un mauvais esprit. lis
appellent le premier le Quichemanitou. C'est le Dieo de prosperity. C'est celui dont
ils imaginent recevoir tons les secours de la vie, qui preside dans tous les effets
heureux de la nature. Le Matchimanitou au contraire est le Dieu fatal. Ils l'adorent
plus par crainte que par amour. . . .
"Faire turner le Soleil ne se pratique guere que dans des occasions de grande con-
Sequence, & pour ce qui regarde leur culte ordinaire ils s'adressent a leur Manitou,
qui est proprement leur Dieu tutelaire. Ce Manitou est quelquefois un ongle de
castor, le bout de la come d'un pied de Caribou, uue petite peau d'hermine. J'eu vis
une attachee derriere le dos d'un Esquimau lorsque nous cations dans le detroit qu'il
ne voulut.jamais me donne.r, quoiqu'il me traita generalement tous les habits dont il
etnit vetu, un morceau de dents,de vache marine, de nageoite de Ioup mann. & la
phipart reeoivent des Jongleurs ce Manitou qu'ils portent toujours avec eux.
Le demon parolt s'fetro empare de l'esprit de ces infortunez qui voulant seavoir
l'evenement de quelques affaires, s'adressent a leurs Jongleurs, qui sout, si je peux me
servir de ce terme, des Sorciers. La Jonglerie se f.iit differemment. Kile se fait de
cette maniere parmi phipart des Sauvages qui viennent faire le traite. Le Jongleur
fait une cabane en rond, faite de perches extre'mement enforcees duns hi terre, en-
touree de peaux de Cariboo ou d'autrea auimaux, avec une ouverture en liaut assez
large pour passer un homme. Le Jongleur qui s'y renferme tout seul, ehante, pleure,
New Voyages to North-America, vol. ii, pp. 47, 48, London, 1703.
2 Hi.'*toire de l'Aui6rique Septentrionale, vol. i., p. 121 et seq., Paris, 1753.
:
hoffman] EARLY WRITERS ON JUGGLERY 141
s'agite, se tourmente, fait des invocations >V dea imprecations, a peu pics comme la
Sibille dout parle Virgile, qui poussee do 1 'esprit d'Apollon rendoit scs Oracles avec
cette lneme fureur,
At Phoebi nondum patieDS, immanis in antro,
Ba< chaturvates, magnnm si pectore poaeit,
Exeussissr Ileum : tanto mauis illc 1'atigat,
Os rabidum? fera corda donians, fingit quo premeudo.— Yir. 1. 6, v. 77.
11 fait au Matchimanitou les demandes qu'il souhaite. Celui-ci voulant donner
repouse, l'ou entend tout a coup un bruit sourd comme une roche qui tombe, & Unites
ces perches sout agitces avec uue violence si surprenante, qui l'ou croiroit que tout
est renverse. Le Jongleur reco it aiusil'oracle : & cette confiance qu'ils ont aux veritez
qu'il prononce souvent, sont autant d'obstacles a toutce que l'on pent leur reproclier
sur la fausse erreur < » f t ils sont: aussi se donnent ils de garde, qu'aucun Francois
n'entre dans 1'endroit ou se fait la Jonglerie.
Hennepin ' speaks of the religion and sorcerers of the tribes of the
Saint Lawrence and those living about the great lakes, as follows
We have been all too sadly convinced, that almost all the Salvages iu general hare
no notion of a God, and that they are uot able to comprehend the most ordinary
Arguments on that Subject; others will have a Spirit that commands, say they, in the
Air. Some among 'em look upon the Skie as a kind of Divinity; others as an Oikon
or Miinitou, either Good or Evil.
These People admit of some sort of Genius in all things; they all believe there is
a Master of Life, as they call him, but hereof they made various applications; some
of them have a lean Raven, which they carry always along with them, and which
they say is the Master of their Life; others have an Owl, and some again a Bone, a
Sea-Shell, or some such thing.
There is no Nation among 'em which has not a sort of Juglers or Conjuerers, which
some look upon to be Wizards, but in my Opinion there is no Great reason to believe
'em such, or to think that their Practice favours any thing of a Communication with
the Devil.
These Impostors cause themselves to be reverenced as Prophets which fore-tell
Futurity. They will needs belook'd upon to have an unlimited Power. They boast
of being able to make it Wet or Dry; to cause a Calm or a Storm; to render Laud
Fruitful or Barren; and, iu a Word, to make Hunters Fortunate or Unfortunate.
Tiny also pretend to Physick, and to apply Medicines, but which are such, for the
most part as haviug little Virtue at all in 'em, especially to Cure that Distemper
which they pretend to.
It is impossible to imagine, the horrible Howlings and strange Contortions that
those Jugglers make of their Bodies, when they are disposing themselves to Conjure,
or raise their Enchantments.
Carver gives a description of a Killistino, or Cree, juggler's perform-
ance, which will further illustrate the method of procedure as followed
by t his division of the Algonquiau peoples. The narrator had been
expecting the arrival of the traders, as provisions were getting very
low, and, while in a state of anxiety, the "chief priest" of the tribe
said he would endeavor to obtain a conference with the Great Spirit,
and thus ascertain when the traders would come. Carver 2 says:
I paid little attention to this declaration, supposing that it would be productive
of some juggling trick, just sufficiently covered to deceive the ignorant Indians.
A continuation of the New Discovery, etc., p. 59 et seq., London, 1689.
'Travels through the interior of North America in the years 1766, 1767, and 1768, p. 123 et seq.,
London, 1778.
142 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ann. H
But the king of that tribe, telling me that this was chiefly undertaken by the priest
to alleviate my anxiety, and at the same time to convince me how much interest he
had with the Great Spirit, I thought it necessary to restrain my animadversions on
his design.
The following evening was fixed upon for this spiritual conference. When every-
thing had been properly prepared, the king came to me and led me to a capacious
tent, the covering of which was drawn up, so as to render what was transacting
within visible, to those who stood without. We found the tent surrounded by a
great number of the Indians, but we readily gained admission, and seated ourselves
on skins laid on the ground for that purpose.
In the centre I observed that there was a place of an oblong shape, which was
composed of stakes stuck in the ground, with intervals between, so as to form a
kind of chest or coffin, large enough to contain the body of a man. These were of
a middle size, and placed at such a distance from each other that whatever lay
witliin them was readily to be discerned. . . . In a few minutes the priest entered,
when, an amazingly large elk's skin being spread on the ground,just at my feet, ho
laid himself down upon it, after having stripped himself of every garment except that
which he wore close about his middle. Being now prostrate on his back, he first
laid hold of one side of the skin and folded it over him, and then the other, leaving
only his head uncovered. This was no sooner done than two of the young men who
stood by took about 40 yards of strong cord, made also of an elk's hide, and rolled it
tight round his body, so that he was completely swathed within the skin. Being
thus bound up like an Egyptian mummy, one took him by the heels and the other by
the head and lifted him over the pales into the inclosure. I could now also discern
him as plain as I had hitherto done, and I took care not to turn my eyes a moment
from the object before me, that I might the more readily detect the artifice, for
such I doubted not but that it would turn out to be.
The priest had not lain in this situation more than a few seconds when he began
to mutter. This he continued to do for some time, and then by degrees grew louder
and louder till at length he spoke articulately however, what he uttered was in; such
a mixed jargon of the Chippeway, Ottawaw, and Killistinoe languages that I could
understand but very little of it. Having continued in this tone for a considerable
while, he at last exerted his voice to its utmost pitch, sometimes raving and some-
times praying, till he had worked himself into such an agitation that he foamed
at his mouth.
After having remained near three-quarters of an hour in the place, and continued
his vociferation with unabated vigor, he seemed quite exhausted, and remained
speechless. But in an instant he sprung upon his feet, notwithstanding at the time
he was put in, it appeared impossible for him to move either his legs or arms, and
shaking oft' his covering, as quick as if the bands with which it had been bound were
burned asunder, he began to address those who stood around in a firm and audible
voice. "My brothers,"' said he, "the Great Spirit has deigned to hold a talk with
his servant at my earnest request. He has not, indeed, told me when the persons we
expect will be here, but to-morrow, soon after the sun has reached his highest point
in the heavens, a canoe will arrive, and the people in that will inform us when the
traders will come." Having said this, he stepped out of the inclosure, and after he
had put on his robes, dismissed the assembly. I own I was greatly astonished at
what I had seen, but, as 1 observed that every eye in the company was fixed on me
with a view to discover my sentiments, I carefully concealed every emotion.
The next day the sun shone bright, and long before noon all the Indians were
gathered together on the eminence that overlooked the lake. The old king came to
me and asked me whether I had so much confidence in what the priest had foretold
as to join his people on the hill and wait for the completion of it. I told him that
I was at a loss what opinion to form of the prediction, but that I would readily attend
him. On this, we walked together to the place where the others were assembled.
hoffmax] CAKVER ON JUGGLERY 143
Every eye was again fixed by turns on me and on the lake; when, just as the sun
had reached his zenith, agreeable to what the priest had foretold, a canoe came
round a point of land about a league distant. The Indians no sooner beheld it than
they sent up an universal shout, and by their looks seemed to triumph in the interest
their priest thus evidently bad with the Great Spirit.
In less than an hour the canoe reached the shore, when I attended the king and
chiefs to receive those who were on board. . . . The king inquired of them
whether they had seen anything of the traders? The men replied that they had
parted from them a few days before, and that they proposed being here the sec-
ond day from the present. They accordingly arrived at that time, greatly to our
satisfaction. . .
This story I acknowledge appears to carry with it marks of great credulity in
the relator. Hut no one is less tinctured with that weakness than myself. The cir-
cumstances of it I own are of a very extraordinary nature; however, as I can vouch
for their being free from cither exaggeration or misrepresentation, being myself a
cool and dispassionate observer of them all, I thought it necessary to give them to
the public, . . . but leaving them to draw from it what conclusions they please.
Thus it 'will be observed that the juggler, after having been carefully
wrapped and tied, was placed within his tshi'saqkan or jugglery, which
in Carver's description is likened to a chest or a coffin. The juggler, at
this day, enters his jugglery alone and unassisted, although it is
reported that some of the Ojibwa performers will permit themselves to
be securely tied, placed within the jugglery, and a moment later be at
liberty and the cords at some otber locality. Further information in
regard to this subject, as relating to the Ojibwa, has already been pre-
sented in a paper entitled "The Mide'wiwin or Grand Medicine society
of the Ojibwa," published in the seventh annual report of the Bureau
of Ethnology.
The power of prophecy and prevision is claimed by the juggler, and
the citation of an instance of this, from the work of Peter Jones, 1 may
not be without interest. The author mentioned was a Protestant Epis-
copal clergyman and a member of the Misasauga tribe of the Ojibwa
nation, of Canada. He thus remarks:
I have sometimes been inclined to think that, if witchcraft still exists in the world,
it is to be found among the aborigines of America. They seem to possess a power
which, it would appear, may be fairly imputed to the agency of an evil spirit.
The conjurers not only pretend to have the powers already specified, but they pro-
fess also to have the gift of foretelling future events. The following curious account
on this subject I received from a respectable gentleman who had spent most of his
life in the Indian country, and who is therefore well acquainted with their character
and pretensions. He is now one of the Government Indian agents in Upper Canada.
The following account is then given by this author:
In the year 1804, wintering with the Winnebagoes on the Rock river, I had occasion
to send three of my men to another wintering house for some flour which I had left
there in the fall, on my way up the river. The distance being about one and a half
days' journey from where I lived, they were expected to return in about three days.
On the sixth day after their absence, I was about sending in quest of them, when
some Indians, arriving from the spot, said that they had seen nothing of them. I
could now use no means to ascertain where they were. The plains were extensive,
1 Hist, of the Ojebway Indians, p. 147 et seq., London, [1843 >].
144 THE MENOMINI INDIANS fBTH.AMB.14
the paths numerous, and the tracks they had made were the next moment covered
by the drift snow. Patience was my only resource, and at Tength I gave them up
for lost.
On the fourteenth night after their departure, as several Indians were smoking
their pipes, and telling stories of their war parties, hunting, etc, an old fellow, who
was a daily visitor, came in. My interpreter, a Canadian named Felix, pressed me,
as he had frequently done before, to employ this conjurer, as he could inform me
about the men in question. The dread of being laughed at had hitherto prevented
my acceding to his importunities; but now, excited by curiosity, I gave the old man
a quarter-pound of tobacco and two yards of ribbon, telling him that if he gave me
a true account of them, I would, when I ascertained the fact, give him a bottle of
rum. . . . The old fellow withdrew, and the other Indians retired to their lodges.
A few minutes after, I heard Wahwun (an egg) begin a lamentable song, his voice
increasing to such a degree that I really thought he would have injured himself.
The whole forest appeared to be in agitation, as if the trees were knocking against
each other, then all would lie silent for a few seconds; again the old fellow would
scream and yell as if he were in great distress, A chill seized me ami my hair stood
on end; the interpreter and I stared at each other without power to express our
feelings.
The narrative states that finally everything became quiet, and the
next morning the Indian was sent for, for an explanation.
"I went," said he, "to smoke the pipe with your men last night, and found them
cooking some elk meat which they got from an Ottawa Indian. On leaving this place
they took the wrong road on the top of the hill; they traveled hard on and did not
know for two days that they were lost. When they discovered their situation they
were much alarmed, and, having nothing more to eat, were afraid they would starve
to death. They walked on without knowing which way they were going until the
seventh day, when they were met near the Illinois river by the Ottawa before
named, who was out hunting. He took them to his lodge, fed them well, and wanted
to detain them some days until they had recovered their strength; but they would
not stay. He then gave them some elk meat for their journey home, and sent his son
to put them into the right road. They will go to Lagothenes for the flour you sent
them, and will be at home in three days." I then asked him what kind of place they
were encamped in when ho was there. He said "they had made a shelter by the
side of a large oak tree that had been torn up by the roots, and which had fallen
with the head towards the rising sun."
All this I noted down, and from the circumstantial manner in which he related
every particular—though he could not possibly have had any personal communica-
tion with or from them by any other Indians—I began to hope my men were safe and
that I should again see them.
Suffice it to say that on the appointed day the men returned, and,
upon being asked to give an account of their experience, they told
exactly what the Indian had before stated, not omitting the tree or any
other circumstance.
In an account of the life and customs of the Indians of Canada in
1723, found in the archives of France by the Honorable Lewis Cass,1
while minister to that country, the narrator says:
They perform a thousand tricks of magic, pretending they can bring back dead
animals to life, cause an otter to run across the lodge, or a bear to walk in there.
'Cass MS., translated by Charles Whittlesey, in Coll. Hist. Soc. of Wisconsin for 1856, vol. hi, pp.
145, 146, 1857.
hoffman] MAURAULT ON ABNAKI JUGGLERY 145
They do this by means of young girls and. noises that are apparently nnder ground.
With an arrow they pretend to stab the naked body of a man. To show the blood
flowing, they lay upon the supposed wound, very adroitly, the juice of a. red root.
The arrow has its stem so made that when it strikes the body, instead of entering it,
it slides within itself. The pretended wound is rubbed with a salve composed of
roots, and by this means the injured man is cured upon the spot. This is done to
prove the virtue of their medicines. They cure gun-shot wounds in the same way,
before the whole tribe. But, in truth, the ball is made of earth, rubbed over with
lead, which they break in pieces in the barrel of the piece as it is driven down.
The locality referred to appears to be near Mackinaw, and may refer
either to the Ojibwa or to the Ottawa Indians.
The Abbe J. A. Maurault, 1 says regarding- the subject:
La jonglerie eHait en grande veneration chez ces sauvages, et les jongleurs jouis-
saient dune tres-grande influence auprcs d'eux. Ces pauvres gens, extremement
superstitieux, avaient uue telle confiance anx sortileges de ces imposteurs qu'ils se
soumettaient aveuglement a toutes leurs ordonnances, les considerant comme venant
de l'autre monde. Les jongleurs, suivaut eux, eVoquaient les Esprits du Mai, qu'ils
appelaient "Madaodos," avaient le pouvoir de les vaincre, pre'disaient le beau temps
et le mauvais temps, l'heureuse on la mauvaise fortune dans la chasse, les accidents
qui devaient arriver dans nn voyage, le rdsultat d'uue expedition contre l'ennemi, et
mille autres choses. Les sauvages avait line telle confiance aux sentences des jon-
gleurs qu'ils n'entreprenaient jamais nne chose de quelqu'importauce sans les
consulter.
Chaque sauvage recevait d'eux certains objets, qui e'taient appeles "Madaodos."
Ces objets e'taient des petites pierres, on des os, on des morceaux de certains bois, on
autres choses semblables. Les sauvages conservaient ces objets dans des sacs, et les
consideraient comme un grand pre'servatif contre les attaques des Esprits du Mai.
Plusieurs conservaient un grand nombre de ces "MadaAdos."
La jonglerie solennelle etait une chose qui iuspirait de l'horreur. Elle se faisait
dans les circonstances iuiportantes comme a la veille d'une guerre, pour en connaitre
d'avance le resultat. Voici comment se faisait cette jonglerie. Le jongleur s'enfer-
mait seul dans une petite cabane, faite ordinairement d'e"corces de bonleau. Alors,
ile>oquait hautement l'Esprit du Mai. II passait quelque fois plusieurs heure.s dans
cette cabane a se debattre et a crier comme un demon. Les sauvages se tenaieuta
une certaine distance de la loge aux sortileges, attendant avec une grande anxiete
la prophetic favorable on deTavorable. Lorsque le jongleur en etait rendu a un tel
etat d'epuisement qu'il ne pouvait plus crier, il sortait de sa loge, le corps tout ruis-
selant de sueurs, et annoncait le resultat de son sortilege. Sa parole <?tait alors recue
comme venant du ciel.
Les jongleurs soignaient les malades, predisaient leur gue'rison on leur mort, 6vo-
quaieut et chassaient les "Madaodos," qui les tourmentaientet les faisaient souffrir.
Lorsqu'un jongleur eta.it appele auprcs d'un raalade, il declarait ordinairement de
suite qu'un "Madaddo" voulait faire mourir ce malade. II sortait alors du wiguam,
faisantmine d'aller a la recherche de cet Esprit; puis revenait bientot, et annoncait
qu'il etait cache sous terre, a un endroit qu'il indiquait, mais qu'il saurait bien Ten
arracher et le detuire. Voici co qu'il faisait alors. II enfoncait profondement dans
le sol un potean, auquel il attachait une longue corde, par le moyen de laquelle les
sauvages devaient reunir leurs efforts pour l'arracher. Ordinairement les premiers
efforts des sauvages e'taient inutiles. Alors le jongleur, faisantmine d'aller menacer
le "Madaodo" obstinc, remuait la terre an pied du poteau, qui, apri-s plusieurs
essais, etait enfin arrache\ Le jongleur, tout rayonnant de joie, montrait alors aux
sauvages e'toune's des aretes de poisson, des os on autres objets, fixes a l'extremite
Histoire des Abeuakis, Quebec, I860, pp. 29-32.
14 ETH 10
146 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ann.14
du poteau qui sortait de terre, disant que cesob jets £taient lesrestes du "Madaodo"
qu'il venait <le dotruire. Les sauvages, ignorant que le jongleur avait lui-nieme
prealablement fixe ces objets au poteau, admiraient ce grand prodige.
Si la maladie ne diminuait pas a la suite de ce sortilege, lejongleur annoncait que
le malade niourrait dans trois ou quatre jours. Alors, le pauvre malade, effraye
par cette prediction, et convaincu desormais qu'il allait mourir, refusait de prendre
nourriture, et mourait d'inanitiou, a pen pres au terups fixe par lejongleur.
Mr Hiram Calkins 1 mentions the performance of an Ojibwa who lived
on Wisconsin river, near the Menomini country, which apparently
embraced the pretensions of both the tshi'saqka and the wa'beno:
The chief medicine man or conjurer is Mali-ca-da-o-gnng, or The Black Nail, who
performed the feat of descending the Long Falls in his canoe, and is represented by
the other Indians as being a great medicine man. Ho is always called upon, far and
near, in cases of sickness, or in the absence of relatives, to foretell whether the sick-
ness will prove fatal or whether the friends will return in safety, and at what time.
He is also consulted by the Indians when they go out to hunt the bear, to foretell
whether success will crown their efforts. Before performing these services, he is
always paid by the Indians with such articles as they have, which generally consist
of tobacco, steel-traps, kettles, broadcloth, calico, and a variety of other commod-
ities. He usually performs after dark, in a wigwam just large enough to admit of
his standing erect. Thislodge or wigwam is tightly covered with mats, so as entirely
to exclude all light and the prying curiosity of all outsiders. Having no light within
the lodge, the acts and utterances of the medicine man or conjurer are regarded as
mysterious, and credulously received by the wondering crowd surrounding the tent.
He first prepares himself in his family wigwam by stripping oft' all his clothing,
when he emerges singiug, and the Indians outside join him in the song with their
drums, and accompany him to the lodge, which he enters alone. Upon entering, the
lodge commences shaking violently, which is supposed by the Indians outside to be
caused by the spirits. The shaking of the lodge produces a great noise by the rat-
tling of bells and deers' hoofs fastened to the poles of the lodge at the top, and at
the same time three voices are distinctly heard intermingled with this noise. One is
a very heavy hoarse voice, which the Indians are made to believe is that of the Great
Spirit; another is a very fine voice, represented to be that of a Small Spirit, while
the third is that of the medicine man himself. He pretends that the Great Spirit
converses in the heavy voice to the lesser spirit, unintelligibly to the conjurer, and
the lesser spirit interprets it to him, and he communicates the intelligence to his
brethren without. The ceremony lasts about three hours, when he comes out in a
high state of perspiration, supposed by the superstitions Indians to be produced by
mental excitement.
The structure described by the Reverend Peter Jones,2 which he saw
occupied by a juggler while the latter was engaged in consulting the
ma'nidos, was "made by putting seven poles in the ground to the depth
of about a cubit, in a circle of about 3 or 4 feet in diameter, and about
6 feet high, with one or more hoops tied fast to the poles to keep them
in a circle. The sides were covered with birch bark, but the top was
left open. Into this the pow-wow had entered, and was chanting a song
to the spirit with whom he wished to converse. The jeesuhkon began
to shake as if filled with wind.''
The Menomini structure is about the same size as that above named,
but not so large as the jugglery usually erected by the. Ojibwa of north-
i Coll. Hist, Soc. of Wisconsin for 1851, vol. i, pp. 123, 121, 1855. 2 0p. lit., p. 115.
HOFFMAN] JUGGLERY STRUCTURE 147
era Minnesota. The Menomiui tshi'saqkan is composed of four upright
poles from G to 8 feet high, securely planted in the ground at the east,
south, west, and north sides of a circle measuring 3 to 4 feet in diameter.
These poles are from 4 to 6 inches thick. Around them is wrapped
bark, and sometimes even pieces of cloth, to make the interior invisible
from without (figure 20).
The tshi'saqka sometimes enters this place when he wants to consult
the ma'nidos about the future. The latter come here and tell him what
Fig. 20—Taui'saqkan or jugglery.
he wishes to know. To invoke their presence, he first enters the inclos-
ure, then facing the east, addresses the ma'nidos who are supposed to
abide in that direction, that they come to him; then he faces the south,
and invokes the presence of the ma'nidos from that direction; then he
talks to the ma'nidos who live in the west; and finally he turns to the
north, and appeals to the ma'nidos of that region.
The following data are obtained from Menomiui Indians who are mem-
bers of the Mita'wit, as well as from others who have laid aside their
aboriginal beliefs and embraced Christianity. Although the structures
exist at the present day, no prophecies have been made in this manner
—
148 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ann. u
for some years, but the ma'nidos have been consulted for remedies
wherewith to combat violent symptoms of disease supposed to have
been caused by angry or jealous rivals.
Then the tshi'saqka lies on the ground and begins to chant, during
which time the ma'nidos begin to arrive. Their arrival is made known
to those outside by the air swaying the top of the structure, and the
wind also can be felt and heard.
The ma'nidos are next heard dropping upon the ground within, and
their voices can be distinguished. Presently the assistant, or perhaps
the one who desires information, goes to the tshi'saqkau and taps
with a stick or other object—upon the four upright poles in regular
order, beginning at the east, then passing to the south, the west, and
the north, and asks if all the ma'nidos have arrived. The tshi'-
saqka replies that all have arrived save one—his own personal ma'uido.
Then the tshi'saqka sings and drums again, and presently a voice is
heard above the tshi'saqkau, resembling the
voice of the tshi'saqka. Their voices are simi-
lar, and the conversation between them is heard
by all those seated or standing near by.
Tlie rattle employed by the juggler, both in
the jugglery and when "exorcising demons, is
shown in figure 21.
The Miqka'uo—the turtle—is the most power-
ful of all the ma'nidos, and he, as the speaker
for the others, is consulted for information ; but
should the tshi'saqka ask too many, or any inju-
dicious (piestious, the personal ina'nido will be
heard above the tshi'saqkau, in the same tone of
Flo. 21—Juggler 8 rattle. '
voice as the interrogation, advising the latter to
be careful, or not to be incautious in his demands.
When such a service has been performed in the interest of a sick
person, the friends and family of the sick believe that the illness has
been caused by the anger of an enemy through the influence of another
tshi'saqka. The one consulted by the friends of the sick man is
expected to reveal the name of the injuring conjurer, and to bring his
shade into the tshi'saqkau. This is done, and the Miqka'uo is then
the ma'nido who kicks the shade of the conjurer almost to death; if he
is too much hurt and loses consciousness, the other ma'nidos bring his
shade back to life, so that he is able to respond to the questions of the
tshi'saqka, who asks him how and why he caused the illness of the
person. The shade of the conjurer then relates how he did this wrong,
and the reason therefor, aud he is theu told to restore him to health.
If the conjurer promises to do this, all is well, and the patient is
expected to recover in a short time.
It the conjurer refuses to comply with the demands of the tshi'saqka,
the latter asks for a cedar knife, which the assistant throws into the
:
HOFFMAN] MEDICAL JUGGLERY 149
structure, when the Miqka'no takes it and stabs the conjurer's shade
to death. The bloody knife is then thrown out into the crowd, but it
falls on the ground without touching any one, no matter how large the
crowd may be. As the knife falls near one of the friends or relations
of the sick, the person is by this token called on to kill the conjurer.
In a short time, perhaps after a lapse of several weeks, the conjurer is
found in his own wrigwam stabbed to death.
When the tutelary daimou of the conjurer reveals the nature of the
remedies used by him in having caused the illness of any one, he often
reveals the remedy necessary to cure him; then the tshi'saqka may
prepare it and give it himself. People always pay the tshi'saqka in
presents of cloth, robes, furs, or any other objects which they may pos-
sess and which may be regarded by the ishi'saqka as a satisfactory
return for his services.
The method of removing disease by sucking the cause thereof
through bone tubes has been fully described in my paper on the
Ojibwa Mide'wiwin, before mentioned. The juggler, after taking a
vapor bath, returns to his everyday wigwam, seats himself upon a
blanket, and awaits the arrival of the patient, if the latter is in condi-
tion to be brought.
When the patient is laid down near the juggler, the latter has also
before him a basin or bowl containing some, water, and several bone
tubes varying in length from 2 to 5 inches, and from one third to one-
half an inch in diameter. An assistant drums upon the tambourine
drum, as the juggler uses the rattle with one hand, while with the other
he grasps a tube which he places over the part of the patient's body
affected by the presence of a demon, or by some substance put there by
another sorcerer, juggler, or wa'beno. After chanting for a short time,
the operator places his mouth to the tube and sucks violently; tlieu
assuming his former position he strikes the bone, which projects from
his mouth, with the palm of his hand and apparently drives it down
his throat. Then he goes through a similar performance until the dis-
appearance of the second, the third, and every other tube that he
may have. After considerable contortion and retching, he pretends to
vomit into the basin the poison which had been extracted from the
patient, the bones also making their appearance.
Alexander Henry, who was among the Ojibwa Indians at Mackinaw,
and also through the surrounding country, over one hundred years ago,
says
I was once present at a performance of this kind, in which the patient was a
female child of about 12 years of age. Several of the elder chiefs were invited to
the scene, and the same compliment was paid to myself on account of the medical
skill for which it was pleased to give me credit.
The physician (so to call him) seated himself on the ground, and before him, on a
new stroud blanket, was placed a basin of water, in which were three bones, the
larger ones, as it appeared to me, of a swan's wing. In his hand he had his shishi-
quoi, or rattle, with which he beat time to his medicine-song. The sick child lay
150 THE MENOM1NI INDIANS Ieth.aito.14
on a blanket near the physician. She, appeared to have much fever and a severe
oppression of the lungs, breathing with difficulty, and betraying symptoms of the
last stage of consumption.
After singing for some time, the physician took one of the bones out of the basin.
The hone was hollow, and one end being applied to the breast of the patient, he put
the other into his mouth, in order to remove the disorder by suction. Having perse-
vered in this as long as he thought proper, he suddenly seemed to force the bone
into his mouth and swallow it. He now acted the part of one suffering severe
pain, but presently linding relief he made a long speech, and after this returned to
singing and to the accompaniment of his rattle. With the latter, during his song,
he struck his head, breast, sides, and back, at the same time straining as if to vomit
forth the bone.
Relinquishing this attempt, he applied himself to suction a second time, and with
the second of the three bones; and this also he soon seemed to swallow.
Upon its disappearance he begau to distort himself in the most frightful manner,
using every gesture which could convey the idea of pain. At length he succeeded,
or pretended to succeed, in throwing up one of the bones. This was handed about
to the spectators and strictly examined, but nothing remarkable could be discovered.
Upon this, he went back to his song and rattle, and after some time threw up the
second of the two bones. In the groove of this the physician, upon examination,
found and displayed to all present a small white substance resembling a piece of the
quill of a feather, it was passed round the company, from one to the other, and
declared by the physician to be the thing causing the disorder of his patient.
The multitude believe that these physicians, whom the French call jongleurs, or
jugglers, can inflict as well as remove disorders. They believe that by drawing the
figure of any person in sand or ashes, or on clay, or by considering any object as the
figure of a person, and then pricking it with a sharp stick or other substance, or
doing in any other manner that which done to a living body would cause pain or
injury, the individual represented, or supposed to be represented, will suffer accord-
ingly. On the other hand, the mischief being done, ; nother physician, of equal
pretensions, can by suction remove it. Unfortunately, however, tho operations
which I have described were not successful in the instance referred to, for on the day
after they had taken place the girl died.'
The office of "rainmaker" is also held by a conspicuous juggler,
when oue of sufficient ability is supposed to abide with the tribe.
When in times of great drought the chief demands rain for the benefit
of the crops and disappearing streams, the juggler is commanded to
cause the necessary rainfall; or, when too much rain has fallen, his
powers are likewise called into requisition to stay the storm. The
rainmaker is found in various tribes in which but little evidence of the
existence of other pretenders is met with, though reference is made by
Father Juan Bantista, in a work published at Mexico, as early as the
year 1600,2 that—
There are magicians who call themselves teciuhtlazque. and also by the term naua-
hualtin, who conjure the clouds when there is danger of hail, so that the crops may
not be injured. They can also make a stick look like a serpent, a mat like a centi-
pede, a piece of stone like a scorpion, and similar deceptions. Others of these
nanahualtin will transform themselves to all appearances (segun la aparenoia), into
a tiger, a dog, or a weasel. Others again will take the form of an owl. a cock, or a
'Travels and Adventures (1760-1776), pp. 119-121. New Tork, 1809.
'Quoted from Brinton's Nagualism, A Study in Native American Folk-Lore and History, in Troc.
Am. Philosoph. Soc., vol. xxxiii, p. 14, Philadelphia, 1894.
Hoffman] MEXICAN RAIN PRIESTS 151
weasel; and when one is preparing to seize them, they will appear now as a cock,
now as an owl, and again as a weasel. These call themselves nanahualtin.
In this connection it maybe said that the powers of both the juggler
and the wa'beno of the Algonquian tribes appear to be combined. It
it is quite probable, however, that more specific distinctions might have
been observed to exist between the two professions had more thorough
investigation and careful discrimination been made, though this is
always a difficult proceeding with shamans when attempted by eccle-
siastics, the so-called agents of the Kishii' Ma'nido of a common enemy.
THE Wi'BENO
The term wa'beno has been explained by various intelligent Indians
as signifying " men of the dawn," " eastern men," etc. The profession
of the wa'beno has not been thoroughly understood and little mention
of it has been made by authors, but from personal investigation it
has been ascertained that a wa'beno does not affiliate with others of
his class so as to constitute a society, but indulges in his pretensions
individually. A wa'beno is primarily prompted by dreams or visions
which may occur during his youth, for winch purpose he leaves his
village to fast for an indefinite number of days. It is positively
affirmed that evil ma'nidos favor his desires, and apart from his gen-
eral routine of furnishing " hunting medicine," " love powders," etc,
he pretends also to practice medical magic. When a hunter has been
successful through the supposed aid of the wa'beno, he supplies the
latter with part of the game; then, in giving a feast to his tutelary
daimon, the wa'beno will invite a number of friends, but all who
desire to come are welcome. This feast is given at night; singing and
dancing are boisterously indulged in, and the wa'beno, to sustain his
reputation, entertains his visitors with a further exhibition of his skill.
Through the use of plants he is alleged to be enabled to take up and
handle with impunity red-hot stones and burning brands, and without
evincing the slightest discomfort it is said that he will bathe his hands
in boiling water, or even in boiling sirup. Ou account of such per-
formances, the general impression prevails among the Indians that the
wa'beno is a " dealer in Are," or a " fire handler." Such exhibitions
always terminate at the approach of day.
The wa'beno is believed to appear at times in the guise of various
animals, in which form he may inflict injuries on an individual for
whose destruction he has received a fee. At night he may be seen
Eying rapidly along in the shape of a ball of fire, or of a pair of fiery
sparks, like the eyes of some monstrous beast.
The nahual or sorcerer of Mexico of the present day is accredited
by the lower classes with similar powers. Orozco y Berra 1 says:
The nahual is generally an old Indian with red eyes, who knows how to turn him-
self into a dog, woolly, black, and ugly. The female which can convert herself into
'Historia Antigua de Mexico, vol. ii, 25. (Quoted from Brintou's Nagualism, op. cit. p. 18.)
152 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ann.14
a hall of fire; she has the power of flight, and at night will enter the windows and
suck the blood of little children. These sorcerers will make little images of rags or
of clay ; then stick into them the thorn of the maguey and place them in some secret
place. You can he sure that the person against whom the conjuration is practiced
will feel pain in the part where the thorn is inserted.
The number of these pretenders who are not members of the Mide'-
wiwin is very limited. For instance, there are at present but two or
three at White Earth reservation and none at Leech lake. As a general
rule, however, the wa'beno will seek entrance into the Mide'wiwin when
he becomes more of a specialist in the practice of medical magic, incan-
tations, and the exorcism of malevolent ma'nidos.
Concerning the wa'beuo, Reverend Peter Jones' says:
Witches and wizards are persons supposed to possess the agency of familiar spirits,
from whom they receive power to inflict diseases on their enemies, prevent the good
luck of the hunter, and the success of the warrior. They are believed to fly invis-
ibly at pleasure from place to place; to turn themselves into bears, wolves, foxes,
owls, bats, and snakes. Such metamorphoses they pretend to accomplish by putting
on the skius of these animals, at the same time crying and howling in imitation of
the creature they wish to represent. Several of our people have informed me that
they have seen and heard witches in the shape of these animals, especially the bear
and the fox. They say that when a witch in the shape of a bear is being chased, all
at once she will run round a tree or a hill, so as to be lost sight of for a time by her
pursuers; and then, instead of seeing a bear, they behold an old woman walking
quietly along, or digging up roots, and looking as innocent as a lamb. The fox
witches are known by the flame of fire which proceeds out of their mouths every
time they bark.
This belief in the transformation of the wa'beno into some animate
form, under which disguise he may inflict injury on his victim aud
immediately thereafter resume his natural form, is still very prevalent
among the primitive Menominj. and frequently I have had considerable
difficulty in persuading some of the younger men to accompany me
through a forest, after nightfall, either in going to, or returning from,
ceremonies at which 1 was to be in attendance.
The tricks accredited to the wa'beno are numerous, and often exceed,
ingly romantic. The following performance is said to have occurred
at White Earth, Minnesota, in the presence of a large gathering of
Indians aud mixed bloods. Two small wigwams were erected, about
50 paces from each other, aud after the wa'beuo had crawled into one
of them his disparagers built around each of the structures a contin-
uous heap of brush and firewood, which was then kindled. When the
blaze was at its height all became hushed for a moment. Presently
the wa'beno called to the crowd that he had transferred himself to the
other wigwam, and immediately, to their profound astonishment,
crawled forth therefrom unharmed.
Charlevoix alludes to certain magic of the Indians which he refers
to thejuggliug: but as all shamans were, at the time of the descrip-
tion, designated jugglers, aud as no specific name was suggested for
1 History of the Ojebway Indians, p. 145.
hokfman] LOVE POWDERS 153
the wa'beno, 1 am rather inclined to the opinion that, as the practice
mentioned below was with fire, the performers alluded to were the
wa'beno. The above-named writer says:
It is pretended that all the Algonqnius and Abenaquia formerly practiced a kind
of pyromancy, the whole mystery of which is as follows: The}' reduced to a very
fine powder some charcoal, made of cedar; they disposed this powder in their own
manner, and afterwards set tire to it, and by the form which the fire took whilst it
ran along this powder, they pretended to discover what they wanted to know.
The wa'beno'ak were also formerly believed to be familiar with the
properties of plants and other substances, which, if properly combined,
would prove efficacious in causing the most indifferent man or woman
to fall in love with the person wearing it about his person. Such
preparations are termed love powders, and have been frequently
alluded to by various writers, the statement of only one being here
quoted. The Reverend Peter Jones remarks on this preparation:
This is a particular kind of charm which they use when they wish to obtain the
object of their affections. It is made of roots and red ochre. With this they paint
their faces, believing it to possess a power so irresistible as to cause the object of
their desire to love them. But the moment this medicine is taken away, and the
charm withdrawn, the person who before was almost frantic with love, hates with
a perfect hatred. 1
It is doubtful whether the reverend gentleman, although himself an
Indian, had any suspicion of the actual composition of the preparation
of which he speaks as having been employed by the Misasauga
Ojibwa. The Ojibwa of Minnesota are very expert in this line of
preparing so-called charm remedies—so much so, in fact, that the less-
cultured whites are firm believers in the reputed properties of the
substance named, while many of the more intelligent seriously ask if
there is truth in the stories related.
While treating of this class of shamans and their alleged powers in
the exposition of the ritual and ceremonies of the Mide'wiwiu of the
Ojibwa Indians',-' I had occasion to explain, in the following words, the
composition and method of preparation of some remedies which had
been, until that time, unknown:
It consists of the following ingredients: Vermilion; powdered snakeroot (Polygala
senega, L.) ; exiguam particulam sanguinis a puella effusi, quum in primis menstriiis
esset; and a piece of ginseng cut from the bifurcation of the root, and powdered. These
are mixed and put into a small buckskin bag. The preparation is undertaken only
after an offering to Ki'tshi Ma'nido of tobacco and a Mide' eong with rattle accom-
paniment.
This preparation is not employed as that previously mentioned by
Reverend Peter Jones, nor even as that used by the Menomini, as will
now be explained.
During a recent visit to one of the reservations in Minnesota, I had
occasiou to confer with a Catholic missionary regarding some of the
i History of the Ojebway Indians, London [1861], p. 155.
2 Seventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, p. 258.
154 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ann.H
peculiar medical practices of tbe Indians, and the implements and other
accessories employed in connection with their profession. He related
the following incident as having, but a short time previously, come
under his personal observation :
One of the. members of his church, a Norwegian, G2 years of age, and
a widower, had for the last preceding year been considered by most of
the residents as demented. The missionary himself had observed his
erratic and frequently irrational conduct, and was impressed with the
probable truth of the prevailing rumor. One morning, however, as the
missionary was seated in his study, he was surprised at receiving a very
early call, and upon invitation his visitor took a seat and explained the
object of his visit. He said that for a year he had been so disturbed
in his peace of mind that he now came to seek advice. He was fully
aware of the common report respecting his conduct, but was utterly
unable to control himself, and attributed the cause of his unfortunate
condition to an occurrence of the year before. On waking one morn-
ing his thoughts were unwillingly concentrated on an Indian woman
with whom he had no personal acquaintance whatever, and, notwith-
standing the absurdity of the impression, he was unable to cast it aside.
After breakfast lie was, by some inexplicable influence, compelled to
call upon her, and to introduce himself, and although he expected to be
able to avoid repeating the visit, he never had sufficient control over
himself to resist lurking in the vicinity of her habitation.
On his return home, after the first visit, he discovered lying upon
the floor under his bed a mule' sack, which contained some small par-
cels with which he was unfamiliar, but was afterward told that one of
them consisted of "love powder." He stated that he had grown chil-
dren, and the idea of marrying again was out of the question, not only
on their account but because he was now too old. The missionary rea-
soned with him and suggested a course of procedure, the result of
which had not been learned when the incident was related.
The Menomini love powder, termed takosa'wos, "the powder that
causes people to love one another," is composed of vermilion and mica
lamina1 ground very fine and put into a thimble which is carried sus-
,
pended from the neck or from some part of the wearing apparel. It is
necessary, however, to secure from the one whose affection is desired
a hair, a finger paring, or some small scrap of clothing, which must
also be put into the thimble. The thimble has a small orifice at the
top through which passes a cord for attaching it to the neck, while the
bottom is securely closed by means of a block of wood, some pine resin,
or some other substance. Figure 22 represents a charm of this char-
acter. It is also decorated with a few hairs of some animal and a small
hawk feather. In former times, it is affirmed, the composition of the
powder was similar to that made by the Ojibwa of Minnesota, the most
desirable ingredient having always to be obtained through the inter-
mediary of some old medicine woman.
HUNTING MEDICINE 155
The wa'beno'ak sometimes profess the ability to furnish medicine to
aid the hunter in finding and securing game, though such pretensions
are made equally by the tshi'saqka. To be able to furnish the desired
information, for which a fee as well as part of the game secured are
necessary; the wa'beno familiarizes himself with the topography and
characteristics of a wide area, in order to ascertain tlie best feeding
grounds of the various animals and their haunts at various seasons.
He keeps himself informed
also by careful inquiry of
returning hun ters, and thus
becomes possessed ofabody
of valuable information re-
specting the natural his-
tory of the surrounding
country, by which means he
can with a tolerable amount
of certainty direct a hunter
to the best localities for such
varieties of game as may be
particularly desired byhim.
It is claimed that in
former times the wa'beno
was much more highly re-
garded than at present, but
that now the number of
these individuals has been
reduced to two or three
within the entire tribe, in
consequence of which grad-
ual reduction, faith in their
Fig. 22—Thimble charm containing love powder.
pretensions has become
weakened, and with apparent good reason. The tshi'saqka is more
respected, and consequently more feared, than the wa'beno, although
themita'wok greatly outrank in numbers these classes of shamans.
The reason that the wa'beno'ak in former times were admitted to
be more powerful than the mita'wok is explained in the following
myth, related to me by Shu'nieu, and entitled "The contest between the
mitii'T and the wa'beno":
There was a mita' v who considered himself the chief of all the mit-
a'wok, and was therefore the most powerful man on earth. But the
leader of the wa'beno'ak claimed that he himself was the more pow-
erful of the two; so, after an angry altercation, the mita'T challenged
the wa'beno—morning or daylight—to meet him, in order to see which
could destroy the other. So the two agreed to meet in the spring, and
dining the whole winter each was engaged in preparing for the coming
encounter.
156 TIIK MKNOMINI INDIANS [eth.ann. 14
Finally, the day was sel when this contest of strength and power
should be decided, and the niitii' v built a long medicine wigwam, or
liiitii'wiko'inik, extending cast and west. The mita" and his friends
weir the first to arrive, and, entering the wigwam, the chief mita"
marched in the eastern door and seated bis companions at the northern
side.
The wa'beno was the last to arrive, but he was accompanied by his
prophet, followed by the Akui'kikav—"he who draws out arrows"—and
following the latter came the rest of the wa'beno'ak, friends of the
wa'beno contestant. The mita'wok were all painted with red paint
from the chin up to the top of the forehead, whereas the wa'beno'ak
had their faces covered with red paint from the line of the nostrils
downward to the breast.
When the wa'beno entered the eastern door. at the head of the pro-
cession of his friends, he held before him a wa'beno drum, tapping it
and singing, and each time he struck it there issued tiny, magic arrows,
which were directed toward the mita'wok. To ward off these fatal
missiles the mitii'wok held out the palms of their hands. The wa'beno
walked around the interior of the mita'wikdmik several times, going
westward on the northern side and returning on the side opposite.
Finally, the wa'beno'ak seated themselves, when the mita" began to
drum, saying to the wa'beno. " You challenged me to a contest of skill
and power; now go to work and do your best.'' To this the wa'beno
replied, " No, you challenged me; you began the trouble; now begin
your work." The mita" then arose and said to the people on the oiil
side, who were at each end of the wigwam, "My friends, go away
from the opening of the wigwam, and stand at the sides; you might
become the victims of evil ma'nidos by standing in the way." So the
people hurried away from the openings at the eastern and western
ends of the wigwam, and took places on the northern and southern
sides, where they could watch the contest.
The wa'beno, who took his place at the western end of the wigwam,
placed his drum before his breast, and said to the mitii' v : "Now, come
and try your power; I shall not resist your attempts, but will show
you that any power you may possess and direct at me will fail when it
reaches my drum, -for nothing can penetrate it. ' The mita" then went
to the eastern end of the wigwam, and grasping his medicine sack held
it as if holding a gun when charging; then he slowly danced forward
toward (he wa'beno, with the bag directed at his breast, and sang the
words ho', ho', ho', ho', in imitation of the sound made by the Bear
ina'nido. He next advanced to within a short distance of the wa'beno,
when the mita" thrust the bag forward, shooting from it his magic
kona'pamik, consisting of a bear's claw, which crushed through the
drum and into the wn'bcno's breast, striking him senseless.
The wa'beno lay outstretched on the ground. The prophet, the first
of the wa'beuo's companions, came forward, and, placing his linger
hoffmanI wa'beno INCANTATIONS 157
on the wound, located the konii'pamik. Calling to the second friend
of the wa'beno, the first companion said, "Akui'kika v , come, draw out
the magic bullet; it will kill the wa'beno if you do not hasten." Then
the arrow drawer approached the body of the wa'beno, and, stooping
over it, reached toward the wound. With a vigorous gesture he pulled
out the bear's claw, whereupon the wa'beno jumped up well as before.
The wa'beno now said to the mitii'v , "You see, I made no attempt
to destroy you, but allowed you to try to kill me. Now, take care, for
I am going to exercise my powers." The mita' v went to the eastern
end of the wigwam, and the wa'beno began slowly to approach him,
drumming upon the little wa'beno drum until he got very close to the
mita'T. The wa'beno had turned his drum upside down and was
drumming upon the bottom, during which time the spirit arrows could
be seen to fly from the drum at each stroke. Presently the wa'beno
gave the drum a hard stroke, and a magic arrow darted forward strik-
ing aud entering the mitii' v 's forehead, when he fell to the ground
apparently dead.
The mitii'wok were alarmed, but the wa'beno called his chief assist-
ant, the prophet, and said, "Place your finger on the wound that he
may not die; I want merely to show him that T am more powerful than
he/' The prophet came and put his finger on the wound in the fore-
head of the niita' v . The wa'beno then told Akui'kikav to come and
extract the mystery arrow. So soon as the arrow was pulled from the
wound, the mit;i'v arose, when the wa'beno said to him, "You see now
that I am more powerful than you; and had I so desired I could have
left you lying here dead. 1 am more powerful, for I am the chief of
those who receive their power from Wa'benona'sie—Mystery of the
Dawn!"
The mita' T then admitted that he had been in error, saying, "I had
always been led to think that the mitii'wok were the more powerful,
but now I know that the wa'beno'ak are more powerful."
The mita'T then went out to his own wigwam, gathered up all his
goods and killed a little dog which he had prized very much, and,
returning to the wigwam occupied by the mitii'wok aud the wa'beno'ak,
laid upon the ground before the wa'beno the goods and the carcass of
the dog, saying, "Here are gifts for restoring me to life. I wish to
retain your friendship, so accept them." The wa'beno received the
gifts, and soon both the mita' v and the wa'beno left, each going to his
respective wTigwam.
THE DREAMERS
The fourth class of shamans are termed the Ne'moak, literally "the
dance," commonly designated "The Dreamers." This society became
known to the Menomini in the autumn of 1880, through the Potawa-
tomi of the Prairie, or those living in Indian territory and Kansas.
It is asserted by the Menomini that Kisha' Ma'nido became angered
at the Indians because the old customs and ceremonials of the Mita'wit
158 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [bth.ahk.14
became corrupted, and that, desiring to give to the Indians a purer
ritual and religious observance, Kisha' Ma'nido gave to them the
u dance."
There are three localities in the neighborhood of Keshena where meet-
ings are held for the exercises and the promulgation of the doctrines
entertained.
The accompanying illustration (figure 23) represents the form of the
inclosure in which the meetings are held. The structure consists of a
low fence of boards, not more than 2£ feet high, around the interior of
which are arranged other boards placed against the wall to serve as
benches. At the eastern and western sides are spaces for entrance
and exit. The diameter of the circle averages about 50 feet, the size
depending on the number of members any given community may
contain.
Fig. 23 — Dancing place of the Dreamers.
When a meeting is to be held, the chief, or okwe'maii, informs the
four nii'nauwg'qtawok, or braves, of the fact, who then carry the intel-
ligence to all the members.
When entering the inclosure for a meeting, they all march in at the
western door, pass around on the left hand, and continue until their
proper stations are reached, when they become seated (figure 24). The
pipe is lighted and passed four times, after which the chief of the braves
stations himself at one side of the western door, and an appointed
old man at the other side, after which no oue is permitted to leave,
unless by permission of the okwe'mau, or otherwise, as hereafter men-
tioned. The os'kabai'wis, or messenger, seated to the left of the braves,
may leave at any time, as he is obliged to keep the gathering supplied
with food, water, or anything else that may be required. The uq'pu-
okan'ina'niiiv, or "pipe man," the attendant to the musicians, also has
power to leave whenever necessary, but he can not extend this privilege
to any other.
After the four ceremonial smokes have been indulged in, no one can
leave the inclosure, as two members guard the western entrance, unless
boffmax] DREAMERS CEREMONY 159
permission to depart be given by the chiefof the ums. .a as (14). Should
the latter go out first, however, a person previously requesting permis-
sion to leave the inclosure may follow him.
When the first song is finished, the orator is called on by the four
braves to preach. In case he should decline, he must make known his
reason for so doing to one of the four braves, one of whom then delivers
an address. If a particularly forceful address is demanded or required,
the chief (1) himself speaks.
If an objectionable person enters, the chief drummer carries the drum
out at the eastern entrance. This is a signal that the meeting is dis-
solved. After the completion of the service, all depart from the west-
ern door
Pig. 24—Diagram ol tin- Dreamers' dancing place.
1. Okwe'mau, chief of Ne'moak and keeper of the drum. 2. Ke'kitoina'niii, orator or "speaking
man." 3. Boys who are members or candidates for membership. 4. Oski'nauwa'iiokwe'maa, "young-
boy n-chief, leader of boys. 5. Nii'nauwe'qtawok, four "braves." 6. O'skabai'wls, "messenger" to
braves; the brave seated next to the messenger is called Missu'akan, " Wounded leg." 7. The Drum
society owns two sets, one (3 pieces) called okwe'mau tiiwaq'ikanok', "chiefs' drums," and na'nau-
we'qtawok tawiiq'ikanok, " braves' drums" (2 pieces). 8, 9, 10, 11, musicians; (No. 8 is called luiau'-
nika'mo ina'nlfr, "principal singer"). 12. Okwe'mau opi'kishi'ka", one who dried the drum; the
drum cover is wet, and he is supposed to dry it by drumming. 13. Uq'puokan' ina'niu\ "pipe man;"
attendant to singers who keeps the musicians supplied; the assistants sit between the chief musicians,
8-11, and around, behind them, is a circle of women singers (14-17). 14, 15, 16, 17, chiefs of women
musicians; the last (17) is called Missu'akan, "Wounded drum leg; " also termed Mussu'akanoq
katape"la, "Wounded (drum) leg," who sits by it; as the drum is supposed to rest on four legs the
name is only an illusion.
The keeper of the drum resided near the Dreamers' dancing inclo-
sure, and had suspended the inclosed drum in the northeast corner of
the only room in the house, as shown in figure 25.
Beneath the drum was placed a large rush mat, while behind it, near
the corner, was a box containing the drumstick, medicine pouch—as
the owner was also a mita'T—and other mysterious or sacred objects.
Upon the mat was deposited a silk handkerchief, on the rear portion
of which was placed the ceremonial pipe of catliuite with an ash-wood
stem. Before the pipe was a saucer containing tobacco and a box with
a quantity of matches stuck into it. The place of the drum and pipe
was never approached unless for the purpose of making a smoke offer-
:
160 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [KTH. ANN. 14
ing in company with a visiting- member of the society or when the
sacred articles were removed to the dancing- arena.
The Reverend Clay MacCauley, late of Washington, District of Co-
lumbia, delivered a lecture before the Tokyo (Japan) conference on
the 9th of March,
1893, ' in which he
related his experi-
ence of a visit to the
Menomini Indians
at Keshena,Wiscon-
sin, about twelve
years previously, for
the purpose of gath-
ering information
in connection with
the federal censusof
1880. Mr MacCau
ley gives a descrip-
tion of the meeting
place of the Dream-
ers, the same danc-
ing ground as above
described, and a
subsequent conver-
sation with Mat'si-
kiue'uv (Bad Eagle)
as to the doctrine of
the advocates. This
Indian long since
left the society and
is now a convert to
Flu. 25—Place of the drum.
Christianity. The
explanation generally is in accord with what the members now believe,
though some portions bear strong suggestions of the personal feeliug
of the interpreter rather than of the opinion of the rest of the common
members of the society.
After relating superficially what he witnessed during a brief visit to
the ceremonies, Mr MacCauley says
I have told you of the Dreamers j ust as I saw them. The members of the league
were evidently thoroughly, even fanatically, in earnest. That was clear. But what
did they believe; what did they teach; what was their aim? I could not tell, and
many had assured me they meant ill. The day following, I therefore sent for Metchi-
keni to interpret for me what I had seen. . . . Here is the interpretation of the
Dreamers' ceremonies aud statement of their doctrines, as Jletchikeni gave them to
me. . . . "If I thought that our dance was a step backward, I would have noth-
ing to do witli it; ueither would Niopet. . . . We are dressed in the old dress of
our fathers, aud we sing aud dance; but I have been iu the theater in Washington
and have seen the white men do about the same things, with no one to blame them.
Published in the Japan Daily Mail of March 21. 1893.
hoffman] MACCAULEY ON THE DREAMERS 161
These things are not necessary, I know, and by and by we may drop them. We do
not take the young men from their work. We dance the dance only six times in the
year. You ask me who we are. I will tell you the truth. Not many years ago, in
the West, when some Indians were at war, while they were fighting, a woman fled
from them to save her life. As she ran she lost her way and fell into the water of a
river. But she did not die. She lay in the water asleep many days—eight days and
nights. All this time she dreamed and saw wonderful sights of beauty and peace.
At the end of eight days she heard a voice calling to her to rise up; then some power
lifted her out of the water and made her well and strong. She knew that the Great
Spirit had brought her back to the world. And this the Great Spirit told her: 'Go
at once to your people and tell them to stop their war and to become friends with
one another and with the white man. They will hear you and will believe you, and
you and they must spread my words among all Indians. Do you see the sky, how it
is round?' continued the divine voice. 'Go, then, and tell your people to makr a
circle on the ground just like the round sky. Call that holy ground. Go there, and
with a big drum in the center, sing and dance and pray to me, and speak my words.
And when you speak, say always these things ": You are all children of one Father,
and are brothers. You must live in peace with one another. You must not drink
intoxicating drink. You must always speak the truth. If you are struck, you must
count the blow as nothing aud not strike back again." Do these things and all
Indians and white men will soon be prosperous and at peace and happy. You will
all have one heart.' Now, that is what our dance is for. We teach these words of the
Great Spirit. You saw a sick girl carried into our holy place. She was carried there
that there we might pray to the Great Spirit to make her well. We have no medi-
cine dance. We hope with our dance to break up by and by the old medicine dance,
and all such things. So we teach. You saw the flag above us. That is to show that
we are friends of the Great Father. You saw some men dancing and acting as though
they were firing off guns, hunting, and running hard. They show that some of us
helped the Great Father in the big war, and are ready to help him again. . . .
We lifted our hands to the sky ; that was for prayer. We held out our hands, palms
upward; that was to receive the answers to our prayers. We scattered from our
hands to the ground; that was to show that we give what we receive. You saw us
all give presents to one another; that was to show that we are brothers, and that
brothers must help brothers. . . . But that ground is holy while we are there
with the Great Spirit, and the dog is not clean. He may not live if he comes onto
the ground. We have three watchmen to keep all away, but sometimes they will
get in, and then there is no help for them. If our friend could only have understood
our speeches he would know that we are trying to do well. We do not take the
young men from their work. We try to help them to work better. If I had a flag
of my own I should want to have painted on it a picture of a plow and over that
my totem, the eagle. This flag I should like to see always waving over our dance.
I want all my children to go to school to learn just what white men know. . .
We are doing the best we can. I am sorry that there are some here who wish to do
us harm and would make trouble for us if they could.''
. . . My general conclusion, however, is that the Dreamers, if the Menomiui
branch of the league may be accepted as representative, are religious enthusiasts,
somewhat fanatic in their enthusiasm, devoted to a strange admixture of pagan
ritual, monolatory, or degenerate Christian theology aud Christian ethics.
MYTHOLOGY
FORMER CONDITION OF THE MYTHS
The following inyths were obtained from Shu'nien and Nw'pet, two of
the better informed men of the tribe. The subjects pertain to the
exploits and adventures of Ma'nabush, but do not come within the
14 eth 11
1G2 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ann.u
scope of the ritual of the Mitii'wit, although .some of the older mita'wok
believe that at some time in the past they were part of the instruction
given to the candidate. There appears to have been a time, according
to both the Ojibwa and Menomini Indians, when Ma'nabush became
degraded on account of his foolish actions. In the Ottawa dialect
Ma'nabush signifies a "foolish fellow," because of the ridiculous per-
formances of this demigod previous to his final departure from the
Indian country. 1
Some of these myths will be recognized as having, at some time in the
past, formed part of the cosmogonic ritual of the Menomini, but wheu
and how they became separated and so altered as to have lost their
reverential character it is impossible even to surmise.
TIIE TRAVELS OF MA'NABUSH
When Ma'nabush had completed the erection of the mita'wiko'mik,
and had made the presentation to his uncles of the mysteries of the
Mitii'wit, he decided to go on a journey to visit his brothers (some of
the mita'wok who had been so constituted by him), because there were
many evil ma'nidos, the Aua'maqki'u, who were constantly endeavoring
to destroy them.
The following is a translation of the myth given by Shu'nien:
One time after a long journey Ma'nabiish thought he heard some
singing, and thinking there were some people having a dance, he went
forward and soon beheld a multitude of dancers, greatly interested in
t heir ceremony, lie saw the headfeathers moving about in every direc-
tion, but as it was late in the evening he could not distinguish those
about him. Receiving no friendly greeting from anyone, he said, "My
brothers, 1 have come to join you in the dance," but he had scarcely
uttered these words wheu he heard some one derisively laughing at him.
The same voipe then spoke, "We have fooled Ma'nabiish," whereupon
he knew that some of the ana'inaqki'u were the authors of the decep-
tion and that he had mistaken the tall reeds with leathery plumes for
well-clad warriors with eagle-feather headdresses.
When Ma'nabiish looked about and saw how he had been deceived,
he was very angry; so he said to the ana'maqki'ii, "That is all well for
you, but I shall remember this occurrence." He left the place and
continued to walk for a long time, when he again heard the sounds
of music and dancing. Approaching near enough to see that he was
not deceived a second time, he observed a large number of birds, of
many kinds, dancing round in a circle. Ma'nabiish said to them, "My
brothers, I have brought some songs with me, and will sing for you
while you dance, but you must all keep your eyes closed as you dance,
for otherwise it will not be so enjoyable." The birds began to dance,
and as one would come within easy reach of Ma'nabush he would
'According to verbal information received from Mr A. J. Blackbird, an educated Ottawa obief and
interpreter of Micbigau.
hoffman] ma'nabdsh and the duck 163
grasp it by the neck, so as to prevent its crying out, and twist off its
bead. In this way be secured four birds; but one, uot bearing the
voices of his friends, opened his eyes, notwithstanding the advice of
Ma'nabush, and beheld the bodies of four of the dancers lying on the
ground at the feet of Ma'nabush. When the bird saw this, he Mew up
and cried out, "My brothers, Mii'nabush is killing our friends; fly, or
we shall all be destroyed !" This bird was a Duck, and his wings made
a great noise as he rose into the air, which instantly startled the rest,
so that they escaped. Ma'nabush called to the Duck, and said, "For
your disobedience you shall always have red eyes." And to this day
the rings around the eyes of this bird are red.
After the long journey which Ma'nabush had made, and the exertion
which he had undergone while singing for the dancers, he had become
very hungry; so he immediately gathered together enough wood to
make a large tire to cook his birds. He buried the bodies in a sandy
spot on the bank of the stream near by, leaving the legs exposed so
that he could And the birds when baked. Over these he built the fire,
and to rest himself he laid down near the fire, placing his buttocks
toward it. He said to his own buttocks, "You must not go to sleep
while I do so, but must watch that no one comes to rob me of my feast."
Then Ma'nabush fell asleep, confident that, when he had rested, he
would awaken to find the birds ready to eat.
Now, it chanced that two Winnebago, who had been out hunting,
came by the place where Ma'nabush was sleeping, and, seeing smoke,
approached, under cover of the bushes, to see what caused the fire.
They soon beheld some one asleep near by, and, going still closer, saw
that it was Ma'nabush preparing a feast. Then one of the Winne-
bago said to the other, "It is Ma'nabush, and he has prepared a
feast; let us go and eat it while he is asleep." The other agreed, so,
going to the tire and beholding the feet of the birds protruding from the
sand, they pulled them out. The birds were eaten, and when the Win-
nebago were ready to leave, they placed the legs back into the ground,
in order to make it appear that they had not been disturbed.
Alter a long sleep Ma'nabush awoke, and thinking the birds had by
this time become cooked, he pulled up the first pair of legs, but found
nothing attached to them. Not knowing what to make of this, unless
the bird had become overcooked, he dug into the sand, but the body had
gone. Then he pulled out the second pair of legs, but, finding that the
body to which they belonged had also disappeared, he became very
much alarmed. He pulled out the third pair of legs with the same result
as before, so he hurried to the fourth pair, only to discover that all his
birds had been devoured by someone. Then Ma'nabush threw up his
hands in distress and cried, " Ah ! I have been robbed of my feast; who
could have done this?" Looking about in every direction he failed to
learn anything of the thieves who had plundered him during his sleep.
Then Mii'nabush slapped his buttocks and asked, " Who robbed me of
164 THE MENOMINI INDIANS (eth.ann.H
niy feast ? Did I not tell you to watch while I slept .' Some one lias rob-
bed me of my birds and 1 am now unable to appease my hunger,'' Then,
to punish his buttocks for their carelessness, he sat down against the
fire to scorch them; but finding that the heat reached his legs and
back, he went away from the fire, though not before burning himself so
severely that he had to travel by means of two sticks. He limped along
as well as he could from the place where he had slept, and after awhile
saw a Mink crossing the path which he was following. The Mink
had a long tail, to which were attached many small bells of shell which
jingled at every step. Ma'nabiish said to the Mink, " My brother, you
have a long tail with many ornaments on it; would you object to tell-
ing me where you got those beautiful shells, and if I might get some
likewise!" " No, Ma'nabiish," said the Mink, " I do not object to tell-
ing you where I got my bells, and I will show you how you may obtain
some. 1 cut these from my body, from the back of my buttocks."
Ma'nabiish then asked the Mink to take a knife and cut some from
his body that he also might ornament a tail and hang it to his back.
The Mink, in compliance with the request of Ma'nabiish, cut away a
number of slices of flesh from his buttocks and, handing the pieces to
Mii'nabush, the latter tied them to a tail of buckskin and fastened them
to his back; but every time Ma'nabiish attempted to walk it hurt him,
because the exertion caused the cut flesh to move. Ma'nabiish went
along slowly for a short distance, when, happening to look back at his
trailing tail, he saw that the Mink had cut away so much flesh that
his entrails were dragging along the ground. Gathering his entrails
together, he threw them up into the air so that they fell upon a tree;
then he said, "Now, you remain there and become food for the people."
The vines are still found clinging to the trees, and people even now cut
them in pieces and boil them to eat, for they are very good.
The rough skin which had been caused by the scorching of Miin'a-
biish's buttocks gave him much inconvenience. He went forward uutil
he leached a rocky hilltop, where he crawled and slid around among
the rocks in order to slip the roughened cuticle from his body, just as a
snake casts its skin. Then he said to the old skin. "There, you remain
here and become food for the people." Pieces of the skin of Ma'na-
biish are found hanging to the rocks even to this day.
Ma'nabiish, resuming his journey, came to a river, down the bank of
which he went to get a drink. While stooping over he saw fruit in the
water, and being very fond of it, for it was wild cherries, he dived into
the water, but it being shallow he struck the bottom, hurting himself
very much. Disappointed and bruised, he went to the top of the bank,
where he laid down upon his back. While in this position he looked
toward the sky and saw among the branches of the trees the wild cher-
ries which he had before thought were down in the water. So soon as
he had rested from his journey and his body became less painful, he
crawled up into the tree and ate all the cherries he desired.
hoffman
I ma'nabush and the buzzard 165
Mii'niibush continued his journey. Looking about him be perceived
Pa'skose—the Buzzard—flying bigh in the air. Then said Ma'nabush to
himself, "If I could only fly like Pa'skose, how I should enjoy looking
down to behold the earth." While thus meditating he moved his arms
as if flying, and Pii'skose, seeing him, soared down. Ma'nabush then
said to Pa'skose, "I should like to be able to fly as you do; to soar
away through the sky and look down upon the earth to see what every-
body is doing there.''
Pa'skose laughed and replied, "You can not fly, Ma'nabush, even
by moving your arms like that. What would you do if you could fly?"
Ma'nabush responded, saying, "I would then transport myself much
quicker than I do in the way I am obliged to travel. Take me up, my
brother, and let me see how the earth appears from up in the sky."
Pa'skose then told Ma'nabush to get upon his back, which he did,
and, securely holding on to Pa'skose, the latter Hew far into the air.
He flew to the top of a very high mountain peak with precipitous
sides, where Ma'nabush alighted to look about. Then Pii'skose flew
away, leaving Ma'nabush in a very dangerous place. Mii'niibush
looked for some way to descend from the peak, but, finding none, he
decided to leap down; so, taking a jump forward to clear the rock, he
descended toward the earth like an arrow.
It happened that Mii'niihusli reached the earth near a camp of his
people, but fell into a hollow tree, from which he was unable to extri-
cate himself. Here he was held a prisoner for four days, when some
women, coming from the camp in search of wood, found the large
dead tree in which Mii'niibush happened to be a prisoner. One of the
women, on seeing the tree, said, "Here is some dry timber; let us
cut it down." Then Mii'niibush, hearing that help was at hand, and
desiring to avoid alarming the women by speaking to them, imitated a
porcupine by crying, ya he', yii he', yii he', yii lie! The women, think-
ing they had discovered a porcupine, immediately set to work to fell
the tree; but as Mii'niibush, after the tree had fallen, was afraid they
might cut into it again and wound him, he said to the one with the
ax, "Cut a small opening into the trunk, and let me show you how
many beautiful colored quills I shall give you." The woman did so,
being careful not to cut too large an opening; then Mii'niibush again
spoke to the woman and told her to take off her skirt and cover the
opening in the tree uutil he could put out the quills where she could
get them. She took off her skirt and placed it over the opening, wheu
Mii'niibush hastily crawled out and ran away laughing.
Mii'niibush was glad to escape from these women, so he hurried away
toward the north where eight other women lived. The first was called
Mii'tshiwiqkwa'wis ("she who governs"); the second Ki'skapanuq'klu
("early dawn"]; the third Pa'shapanoq'kiu ("the yellow streak of
cloudy vapor of the dawn"); the fourth Kashki'qkapau ("the dark
haze at the horizon"); and the eighth was called Osa'wapano'qkiuT
166 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ann.14
("the green tint seen at early dawn"). They were sisters, but Ma'tshi-
wiqkwa'wis and Pa'shapanoq'kin were women of evil disposition, while
Ki'skpanuq'kiu and Kashki'qkapan were well disposed and friendly
to everybody. Osa'wapano'qkhr" was the wife of Pii'skine'ir.
Ma'niibfish reached a wigwam occiqned by a woman, who was the
sister of Pa'skine'ir, and, as he was very hungry, he asked her to give
him something to eat. She prepared him food, and, being welcomed
by the woman, Ma'nabiish decided to remain there for some time.
I'a'skine'uT also returned to his sister's wigwam, and one morning he
flew away to get some food. He went far to the north and found a
large bare place where some people were running and playing ball.
Pii'skine'ir knew that he was a good runner; so he went to the edge of
a lake, put down a martin which he had caught, and said to the ball
players: "My brothers, you see the sun is shining upon the forehead
of this martin—upon this spot, exactly between the eyes. By the time
I run around this lake the sun will not have had time to travel from
that spot to the corner of the eye."
"Hau," said all the players, because they were anxious to see an _
apparently impossible feat accomplished.
Pii'skine'ir started to run, and by the time he had made the circuit of
the lake and returned to the martin the sun had scarcely moved from
the spot indicated upon the martin's forehead. Ma'tshiwiqkwa'wis
approached to see who the runner really was, and as she came close to
him she suspected some trickery, so she raised the leggins of Pa'skine'ir
and exposed his shin bone.
"O, it is Pii'skine'ir," cried she; "I know who you are now!"
"The ball players wanted him to join them, but he said, "No, I will
come again to play with you," and with that he grasped up his martiu
and flew away to his sister's wigwam.
Now, the sister of Pa'skine'ir was the one who governed all the birds,
and she knew the treacherous character of the people of the camp ruled
by Ma'tshiwiqkwa'wis; so she said, "My brother, do not go to that
camp any more; the people of Ma'tshiwiqkwa'wis eat people who are
not of their kind, and they will surely devour you." Pii'skine'ir, how-
ever, made no reply, but next morning started to fly back to the place
where the ball game was to be played, but this time he did not take the
martin with him. When he arrived at the camp of Ma'tshiwiqkwa'wis it
was nearly night, and no ball players were in sight. Ma'tshiwiqkwa'wis
came forward, and, grasping Pa'skine'ir, held him fast, saying, "Remain
with us tonight, brother, and in the morning I will give you a feast."
Then Ma'tshiwiqkwa'wis went out and caught the Kine'ir (golden
eagle), the Buzzard, and the Pinash'iu (bald eagle). These with Pa's-
kine'ir she took to her wigwam, where they found four old men lying
upon a mat made of rushes.
Early next morning Ma'tshiwiqkwa'wis started out to seek food for
her guests, as she said, but the four men, the birds, suspecting some-
hoffman] pa'skineV and ma't.shiwiqkwa'wis 167
thing wrong in her curious behavior, followed her. She ran so fast that
her pursuers were soou left far in the rear. Then Pa'skiue'uv flew into
the air and saw Mii'tshiwiqkwa'wis far in advance, and still running
rapidly. Pa'skine'uv flew forward, passing the woman, and finding a
log lying across the path by which she was to pass, he laid himself
down behind it and awaited her arrival. When she approached the log
and attempted to leap across it, Pa/skiu6'uT caught her and, with his
bow, struck her across the legs until she cried out frantically for him
not to beat her, as she was only going to get him and his frieuds some-
thing to eat.
Pa'skine'u' looked back for his friends and the other people who
were following (for the sisters of Mii'tshiwiqkwa'wis were also in the
throng), but they were so far behind that he compelled Mii'tshiwiqkwa'-
wis to open a bag which she had with her, take out a piece of buck-
skin, and place four little sticks at the corners. Then Pa'skine'nv took
out of his quiver an arrow, which he cut into short pieces, and which
in turn were transformed into tobacco. He lighted each stick by means
of these, when the buckskin began to shrink from the heat, thus short-
ening the distance between the spot where Mii'tshiwiqkwa'wis and
Pii'skine'uT were and the place where their followers were, still running
along. The latter soon came up, and Mii'tshiwiqkwa'wis gave them a
feast.
•When Pa'skine'uv and his friends awoke next morning they found that
Mii'tshiwiqkwa'wis had again run away from them. They started in
pursuit, but could not overtake her, so Pa/skin6'aT again flew into the
air to see where the woman was. He espied her far ahead of them—so
far that she seemed like a mere speck. Then P;i'skine'uv flew forward
and ahead of her to a hillside, where he lay in wait. When Mii'tshiwiq-
kwa'wis came up to where Pa'skine'uv was awaiting her arrival, he
grasped her by the arm and with his bow beat her severely about the
legs. Again she screamed, and said, "I am only going ahead to get
something for you to eat. You see that mountain stretching away to
the east and west; that is where my father abides; it is his wigwam.
We will now go on and visit him, and his daughter will get some food
ready."
Pa'skine'uv seemed satisfied with this explanation, but awaited the
arrival of his friends and her sisters, all of whom were still far behind,
but were running as rapidly as ever. When they came up to the hill-
side where Pil'skine'u1' was awaiting them, they prepared beds of
boughs and leaves, and lay down to sleep.
Early the next morning the party went forward together, and as
they approached the mountain in which the father of Ma'tshiwiqkwa'-
wis lived, the side opened and they entered. Pii'skine'uv saw the old
man seated opposite the entrance of the wigwam, and observed that
his breechcloth consisted of the skin of a wildcat. The old man doffed
this garment and threw it at Pii'skiue'ir, and as it flew through the
168 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ans. 14
air like a knife it assumed life. Pa'skine'aT struck the flying animal
upon the head, bringing it to the ground; then, picking it up and throw-
ing it back to the old man, he said, "Here, old man, is your breech-
cloth; do you expect that you can harm me with a piece of wildcat
skin?" The old man became infuriated and threw the cloth a second
time, hoping by this means to cleave the skull of Pa'skine'uT, but
Pa'skiue'ir again struck it to the ground, after which he picked it up
and threw it across the room to the old man, this time saying, "Here,
old man, keep your breecheloth you can do me no harm."
;
The old man was one of the ana'maqki'u, who dwell under the ground,
and who are the enemy of mankind. But he found that P;i'skine'uv
was a very powerful being and was afraid to attempt openly to destroy
him.
Finally the old man said, "My daughter has prepared a feast for you;
so take seats and the food will be brought out."
Pa'skine'uT and the Buzzard were requested to eat before the old man,
and, while each of the guests received a bowl of food, Pii'skinc'uv found
that his dish held nothing but a mass of eyeballs taken from the vic-
tims which the old man had destroyed. Pa'skine'uv then pushed the
dish toward the old man, saying, "Here, old man, I do not care for this
dish; I am not accustomed to eating human flesh, especially eyeballs,
so you take them." The old man received the dish, but left it by his
side untasted.
Pa'skine'uT then remarked upon the good looks of the old man's
daughter—the youngest one, who remained at home and who attended
to his wants. To this the old man replied, "Whoever is able to jump
across my wigwam may have her for his wife."
Pa/skineV then said, "I am able to jump across your wigwam, so
we will go outside."
They all went to the outside of the mountain, when Pa'skiue'u v leaped
into the air and jumped across the mountain without any difficulty;
whereupon the old man said to Pa'skine'uT , "You have won the girl;
take her."
The old man did this so that he might gain more power over Pii'ski-
ne'uT in order to destroy him, but his first wife, who was also a daughter
of the old man, remained with Pa'skine'uT, so as to guard him against
danger. '
The new young wife then said to Pa'skine'uT ", Let us visit my
mother; she lives on the top of a steep rock, and will be glad to see
my husband." So they all left the abode of the old man and started off
to visit his wife, the mother of Pa/skine'ir's wives. After a long jour-
ney they saw in the distance a high rock, upon which was perched a
solitary wigwam covered with rush mats. When they arrived at the
ba-^e of the rock, the young wife called out to her mother, " Mother, let
down your ladder, so that we may come up to visit you." The old
woman then let down a ladder and told them to ascend, after which
noFFMAN] ADVENTURES OF PA'SKINE'uv 169
the ladder was again pulled up, so that they might not be taken by
surprise.
The wigwam was well provided with everything that was necessary
for comfort, and food seemed abundant. The visitors had not been
many days at the old woman's wigwam before the latter began to com-
plain of feeling ill. This was feigned, however, for her plan was to
devise some means of bringing about the destruction of Pa'skin6'uT
and his friends, the Buzzard, Kine'nT, and I'inash'iu. The younger wife
of Pii'skiue'uT then said to the old woman, "Mother, what can we do
for you to make you well again?''—to which the old woman replied,
"If I had the paw of a white bear to eat I would recover, but 1 fear
that such can not be procured for me." To this Pa'skinS'u.v responded,
saying, " The paw of a white bear is easily procured, and I will get
one ;" whereupon he left the wigwam and flew away to search for a
white bear.
Now, the old woman had no idea that Pa'skine7uT would be successful
in procuring the paw of a white bear, because such was to be found
only upon some of her kindred, the ana'maqki'u, the evil ma'nidos of
the underworld, and she was also aware that anyone who might attack
a white bear would be killed unless he was more powerful than the
bear ma'nido. For this reason she had demanded something which she
considered impossible to obtain, and if Pa'skine'u1" attempted to comply
with her request she might cause his destruction very easily.
P;i/skine'uv , soaring through the air at great height, perceived the
object of his search. Pulling an arrow out of his quiver, he flxed it to
the string of his bow, and shot it down into the body of the white bear,
killing him. He then descended, cut off the paw of the animal, and
returned with it to the old woman's wigwam. When he entered, she
said to Pa'skine'uv , in a very faint voice, " Did you get me the paw of
the white bear, son-in-law?"—to which he replied, "Yes; I got it," and,
throwing it across to where she was lying upon a mat, said, "Here it is;
I hope you will get well, now."
The younger daughter prepared the paw for the old woman and gave
it to her to eat, but the mother did not appear to derive any benefit
from the food. Then, seeing her mother continue ill as before, she said,
"Mother, is there anything else that you wish to eat to make you well?"
To this the old woman replied, " Yes ; I should get well if I had the paw
of a yellow bear to eat." Pa'skine'uT , hearing the words of the old
woman, now said, "If that be all, I can soon bring you the paw of a
yellow bear;" whereupon he left the wigwam and flew away in search
of that animal.
The old woman thought that this demand would certainly bring about
the destruction of Pa'skine'uT, as the yellow bear also was one of the
ana'maqki'u, and even a more powerful ma'nido than the white bear.
Pa/skine'uT soon descried a yellow bear. Drawing an arrow from
his quiver and placing it to the string of his bow, he shot it down
170 THE MEXOMINI INDIANS [eth.aiik.14
into the body of the yellow bear, killing him instantly. He then
severed one of the paws and carried it back to the old woman's wig-
wam, on entering which he threw the paw toward the old woman,
saying, " Here is the paw of the yellow bear which you desired in
order that you might recover; now use it." The old woman made no
response to this, but bade the younger wife of Pa'sking'iT prepare the
paw for her that she might eat it. She was aware by this time that
P;i'skine'u v was more powerful than she was, and while devising some
plan by which she could yet bring about his destruction, Pa.'skine'uv
complained that he himself was sick. This was only a ruse on his
part which had been suggested by his elder wife, who did not wish
Pii'skine'ii7 harmed.
After the old woman had eaten the paw of the yellow bear, she
asked her daughters where Pii'skine'ir' was, and was told that he was
lying down and complained of being very ill. The old woman was
alarmed lest her victim might escape her plans of destruction, and,
desiring to preserve him for her own vengeance, asked him what he
required to help his recovery.
Pii'skine'if's elder wife whispered to him to make a request of the old
woman for something difficult of fulfillment; so he responded, "I have
at my sister's wigwam some birds, and there are among them some
maqkwa'niue'uk (red birds) which, if I could get to eat, would bring
about my recovery." The old woman had a headband and breechcloth
made of fox skins, which enabled her to travel with great speed, so
when she heard the wish of Pa'skine'uv and realized the great distance
she had to travel to get the birds, she was not dismayed, but said,
"Grandson, I shall go for the birds which you require," and hastened
to prepare for the journey. She called to her daughters and said,
"Put down the ladder that I may descend, and so soon as you see me
touch the earth below, draw it up that no one may molest you during
my absence." They theu put down the ladder and the old woman
descended, and as soon as they could see her running away over the
earth below, they pulled up the ladder, as they had been directed, and
returned to the wigwam.
The old woman had a long journey before her, but her speed was
great, and she traveled along day after day until she approached the
wigwam in which dwelt the sister of Pii'skine'ir. When the old woman
approached near enough to the wigwam to observe the nature of the
surroundings, she saw on one side of the wigwam a tall post upon
which was perched a nest containing the red birds. On the other side
of the wigwam she saw the sister of Pa'skine'ir combing her hair.
Desiring not to be discovered, she quietly approached the pole upon
which the nest was built and began slowly to climb it. The move-
ment of the tree disturbed the birds, when they began to cry out in
alarm. The sister of Pa'skine'uT, hearing something unusual going on,
went around the wigwam where she could see the nest, and discov-
Hoffman] ADVENTURES OF Pa'sKINE'uv 171
ered the old woman about to rob her of her brother's birds. She
thereupon ran into the wigwam, and, grasping a firebrand, went out
to the post, and said, "What are you doing up there, robbing me
of birds which I am charged for to care?" The old woman began to
remonstrate and to render an explanation, but the sister of Pii'skin6'uv
thrust the burning brand against the hips and legs of the old woman,
bun ling her so badly that she was glad- to slip down and escape,
returning homeward as rapidly as possible.
When she reached the base of the cliff upon which her wigwam was
situated, she called out, " My daughters, let down the ladder that I
may get up to the wigwam." The girls, hearing their mother calling.
approached the cliff and, looking down, saw her beneath, when they
immediately lowered the ladder to allow her to ascend.
When she reached the top of the rock she was very tired from the
journey and the difficulty under which she had traveled by reason of
the burns, so she entered the wigwam and immediately sat down with-
out uttering a word. The elder wife of Pa'skin8'uT smiled when she
perceived that her wicked mother had failed in her quest, and Pii'ski-
nB'u* said, •' Have you brought me the red birds which I wanted?"—to
which the old woman replied saying, " No; I did not succeed in getting
them for you." The old woman felt that she had been defeated in her
schemes and no longer attempted to detain her visitors, for she knew
she was powerless to harm Pii'skine'ir, so she did not oppose their
leaving after Pa'skiue'u' recovery, which followed soon after the old
woman had delivered her message.
When P!i'skinc'uv started to return to his own wigwam, where his
sister dwelt, he was accompanied by his elder wife, the younger going
back to her father in the mountain, while the three companions went
each his own way to their home in the air.
The sisters of the wife of P;i'skiue'uv returned to their encampment
where the ball players lived, and Pa'sking'u1 and his wife went their
own way, arriving at the end of the first day's journey at a forest.
Here they gathered branches and leaves, upon which they lay down
and slept.
Early on the following day they arose to resume their jcurney, but
were surprised to find that quite a clearing had been made during the
night, by some unaccountable means, and an abundance of food was
observed. After partaking of the food they set out on their journey.
The next night they encamped amongst the trees, as before, and on
the following morning again found the trees cleared away and food
supplied for their wants. They ate heartily, but, taking none with
them, they resumed their travels for the third day, in the evening of
which they again made beds of branches and leaves, upon which they
lay down and slept.
On the morning of the fourth day they again found that some unknown
one had provided for their wants. After eating sufficiently, they
172 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ann.u
traveled onward until night. Then said Pa'skin8'uT to his wife, "Here
we will remain, for we are near to my sister's wigwam."
Pii'skinc'rT then gathered materials for the erection of a wigwam, in
which work his wife assisted. On the following morning Pa'skin8'uv
went to visit his sister, who, on seeing him, said, "Brother, where have
you been so long? I have been faring very badly during your absence,
for I have had scarcely anything to eat. I am therefore very glad you
have returned."
Pa'sking'u" then told his sister where he had been, and said to her,
"We live over there in the grove where you see the smoke ascending.
Come over to see us."
She accompanied her brother to his wigwam and saw that he had an
abundance of food, some of which he gave her. Thereafter she had
sufficient to enable her to live comfortably, as Pa'skine'ii" remained
living near by.
Ma'nabush left the wigwam occupied by the sister of P;i'skinr'u v ,
as he had thus far aided in the success of one of the ana'inaqkl'u, who
were his friends. He went to the place where his grandmother, Oqko-
ma'si, dwelt. Her wigwam was near a stream which passed by a huge
rock called O'qkone'me ("the place of the liver"), over which the water
fell, forming a dam, beyond which the beavers could neither ascend nor
descend. One day Ma'nabush wanted some beaver meat to eat ; so he
went to the water and dug a deep trench to entrap a beaver. In this
he was successful, and the next day he dug another deep ditch, from
which he secured another beaver. On the third day, while digging out
another beaver, he heard the voices of many animals and birds. These
proved to be ma'nidos, who were discussing how they would stop him
from getting out any more beavers. But Ma'nabush succeeded in
obtaining a third beaver, which, with the others, he ate, thi'owing the
bones on the ground for his grandmother.
The animals, among which were the Wolf, the Fox, the Mink, and
many others, were still excitedly discussing how they would attack
Ma'nabush. Yet he heeded them not, but told his grandmother to put
a kettle over the fire and boil some water, as he wanted to make some
soup for her. While she was doing this, Ma'nabush gathered together
the bones and cracked them so that the marrow would readily come out
into the water. Ma'nabush then said to the old woman, " Grandmother,
now I will sing while you dance around the kettle."
" No," replied the grandmother, " I can not dance, for I am too old."
"Yes, you can, and you must dance, because that is the only way the
soup will become strong and more palatable," returned Ma'nabush.
The old woman still hesitated, but when Ma'nabush began to sing
she could not resist dancing around the kettle. When she had gone
but halfway around, Ma'nabush said, " Grandmother, to make the
dance more effective, and to strengthen the soup, you must remove the
skirts from your body." She gradually removed her clothing while
Hoffman] ADVENTURES OF MA'NABUSH 173
she was dancing, and continued around toward the side where Ma'na-
bush sat singing.
"Now, grandmother," said he, "come close to the kettle so that the
soup will be good."
While Ma'nabush was occupied in singing, and his grandmother in
dancing, the ma'nidos became very much excited and made prepara-
tions to drive both of them away. On the opposite side of the stream,
Ma'niibush saw the Owl and the Wildcat talking to each other.
Suddenly the Owl said, " Hu-hu-hu-hu, hii-hii-hii-hii; see how I shall
strike him; I shall drive him off easily enough." Then Ma'nabush
became alarmed, and said to his grandmother, " Grandmother, they
are going to attack us; let us fly!"
" But I can not run ; I am too old and feeble to run fast," replied she.
" Take me on your back and carry me with you." " Well," said Ma'nii-
bush, " catch hold of my back and I will bear you off, for they are
coming at us now."
So the grandmother of Ma'nabush grasped him by the shoulders, he
helping her to get upon his back, when he ran away just in time to
escape the attack of the ma'nidos, who were ana'maqki'u.
When Ma'nabush had gone far enough for safety, he threw his
grandmother from his back upon the ground and hurt her consider-
ably. She was then told to gather together some birchbark and other
materials to make a wigwam, which they soon erected and made
habitable.
One day Ma'nabush went off into the woods to hunt, and when he
returned he found that his grandmother was awaiting him to prepare
their meal, but he had not succeeded in procuring any game. .
THE ORIGIN OF MAPLE SUGAR AND OF MENSTRUATION
The decrepit condition of Noko'mis is lost sight of in the following
myth, which pretends to account for the origin of maple sugar. When
Ma'nabush returned empty-handed from his hunting trip, as related
above, he and his grandmother, Noko'mis, gathered together all their
effects, moved away from the place where they had dwelt, and built a
new wigwam among the trees in the new locality.
These trees were maples, and the grandmother of Ma'nabush said to
him, "Now, my grandson, you go into the woods and gather for me
some pieces of birchbark; 1 am going to make sugar." So Ma'nabush
went into the woods and gathered some strips of birchbark, which he
took back to the wigwam, where his grandmother had cut some pieces
of bark to make thread for sewing together pieces of birchbark to
make vessels to contain the sugar.
The grandmother of Ma'nabush then went from tree to tree, cutting
a small hole into the bark of each and inserting into each cut a small
piece of wood over which the sap ran into the vessels placed beneath.
Ma'niibush -followed his grandmother from tree to tree, watching her
174 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ann.14
and looking for the sap to drop into the vessels, but none was to be
seen. When she had gone around among the trees, and cut holes for
as many vessels as she had made Ma'nabush went back and looking
into the vessels saw that all of them had suddenly become half full of
thick sirup.
Ma'nabush dipped his finger into the sirup and tasted it. Finding
it sweet, he said, "My grandmother, this is all very good, but it will
not do to have these trees produce sirup in this manner. The people
will not have any work if they make sugar so easily; they must cut
wood to boil the sirup for several nights, and to keep them occupied
that they may not get into bad habits; I will change all this."
So Ma'nabush climbed to the very top of one of the trees, when he
took his hand and scattered water all over the maples, like rain, so that
the sugar should dissolve and flow from the trees in the form of sap.
This is why the uncles of Ma'nabush and their descendants always
have to work hard when they want to make sugar. Wood must be cut,
vessels must be made, and the sap that is collected must be boiled for
a long time, otherwise the people would spend too much time in idleness.
Having brought about this benefit to the Indians, Ma'nabush finally
became jealous of the attentions of the Bear, who always called at his
grandmother's wigwam when he went away. Killing this intruder,
Ma'nabush finally left the land of the Indians and sought a resting
place where the hunters, already referred to in the ritual of the Mita'wit,
went to seek him and to ask for favors.
The myth then continues as follows:
One day Ma'nabush went away into the woods to hunt for something
to eat, but being unsuccessful he returned to his wigwam. When he
entered he saw his grandmother seated upon a mat with her hair nicely
combed, as he had never seen it before. So he said to her:
"Grandmother, I see you have combed your hair very nicely and put
on clean clothes; have you had a visitor, or why have you done so?"
His grandmother made no satisfactory reply, and he asked nothing
further regarding the circumstance; but he suspected that some one
had been there and that she did not want him to know it.
On the following day Ma'nabush again went away into the woods to
hunt, and when he returned he again found his grandmother seated
upon a mat, her hair nicely arranged, and her best skirt and leggings
on. He said nothing, but his suspicions became stronger that someone
had been to the wigwam during his absence.
On the following morning Ma'nabush again went away into the woods
to hunt, and when he returned to the wigwam he found his grand-
mother just as he had found her twice before.
The next morning Ma'nabush pretended to go into the woods to hunt
as before, but he soon came back near to his wigwam to discover who
visited his grandmother. He suspected that it was the Bear, but he
wanted to be certain. He had not long to wait before he heard the Bear
hoffman] ORIGIN OF MENSTRUATION 175
coming along a trail leading to the wigwam, snorting and grunting, so
he kept very quiet. Presently the Bear came into view, waddling from
side to side and making directly for the wigwam, which lie entered.
Then Mii'mibush got a piece of dry birchbark and lit one end of it,
making a fierce blaze ; he then went quietly up to the doorway of the wig-
wam, and, pulling aside the cover, saw the Bear with his grandmother.
He threw the burning bark at the Bear, striking him on the back just
above the loin. The Bear, frantic with pain, rushed out of the opposite
door of the wigwam, and sped away through the woods and down the
hill toward a stream. Before reaching the water, however, the flames
had burnt the hair from the Bear's back, because the bark was still
adhering to his body, and he fell dead.
After Ma'nabush had thrown the blazing bark at the Bear, he ran
away from the wigwam to hide in the brush, but when he saw the Bear
running away through the woods, he followed him, and ere he came up
to where the Bear was, the latter was already dead. Taking up the
carcass, Ma'nabush carried it back to his wigwam, which he entered
and threw the body down on the floor before his grandmother, saying,
"There, grandmother, I have killed a bear; now we shall have some-
thing to eat."
" How did you kill him, my grandson?" said the grandmother.
"I killed him," replied Ma'nabush, not wishing to admit that he had
burnt him to death.
Ma'nabush cut up the Bear and offered a piece to his grandmother;
but she cried out excitedly, "No, my grandson, that was my husband;
I can not eat it."
Ma'nabush then took up a clot of the Bear's blood and threw it at
his grandmother, hitting her upon the abdomen, saying, '-There, take
that!" Then she replied, "For that act your aunts will always have
trouble every moon, and will give birth to just such clots as this."
Ma'nabush then ate all he wanted of the meat and put the rest aside
for another time.
MA'NABUSH AND THE BEAR ANA'MAQKi'U
A few days after the above occurrence Ma'nabush decided to go on a
journey to see how his uncles were faring, and to learn if he could
be of assistance to them. He traveled far, and at the close of one day
he saw a wigwam and approached it, rinding therein a family consist-
ing of six persons—the father, mother, three sons, and a daughter.
( >n entering the wigwam Ma'nabush said, " My friends, I am glad
I have found you, for I want to see how all the people are getting along.
So it will always be; some will live here and others will live else-
where; all will be scattered, but it is better so that each will have
enough game to hunt for food."
Mii'mibush, being asked to enter and partake of the little they had,
did so, and remained there.
—
176 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.auk.14
Food being scarce with this family, the three sons decided to go
hunting the next day, and early in the morning they started away to
the woods. They followed a trail for a great distance until they came
to a point where it branched. Here the brothers separated—one taking
the left-hand trail, the other two the trail to the right. Each of the
brothers had a dog, and as the snow was on the ground they wore their
snowshoes. The eldest brother was one of the two on the right-hand
trail, who had not gone far before the dogs scented a bear, which
started out of the brush and ran. The dogs pursued the animal, and
the brothers followed the dogs. They had not gone far before the elder
succeeded in shooting an arrow through the body of the bear, killing
him.
The two young men then took up the bear and returned to the fork
of the trail, where they were met by their brother, when they all
returned to their father's wigwam. They threw down the bear, saying,
" Father, here is a bear which we killed; now we shall have something
to eat."
To this the father replied, " When I was a young man I used to get
two bears in one day; hunters nowadays don't do so well."
The sous said nothing, but early the next morning they set out on the
trail they had gone the day before. When they got a short distance
beyond the fork of the trail the dogs scented a bear which was hid-
den in the brush, and began to bark. The bear started off in the direc-
tion of the right-hand trail, the dogs chasing him, and two of the boys
following the dogs. After running a great distance the second son in age
drew his arrow and shot the bear through the body, killing him. Then
the two took up the bear and started back to the fork of the trail, where
they met the youngest sou, who also had shot a bear which he found in
the left-hand trail. The boys then returned to the wigwam, and throw-
ing down the two bears, said to their father
"Father, here are two bears which we have brought you; now you
shall have something to eat."
Their father replied by saying, "When I was a young man I used to
get three bears iu one day; but hunters nowadays don't do so well."
The boys felt rather disappointed at this response, but said nothing.
On the next morning they again started away early, taking the same
trail on which they had before found bears. When they came to the
fork of the trail, they saw the same brush which they had previously
observed, and in which the dogs had scented the bears. Presently the
dogs began to bark and a bear started out to run away, but the young-
est of the three ran after him and shot him with an arrow. Another
bear was found by the dogs, which began to bark, and the brothers,
starting out anew, soon overtook and killed him. They had not recov-
ered their breath before a third bear was aroused from its hiding place
and started away, but the brothers pursued this one also, soon over-
taking it and killing it with arrows.
hokfman] THE BEAR ANa'MAQKI'U 177
They now got the bears together and took them home to the wigwam.
Throwing them down before their father, they said, "Father, here are
three bears; now you shall have something to eat."
Their father replied, saying, "When I was a young man I used to
get four bears in one day; but hunters nowadays don't do so well."
The boys did not know what to make of this remark, but kept quiet, as
they intended to see what success they would have on the following day.
The father then dressed the meat and a feast was prepared, of which
they all ate heartily.
Now, these bears which had been killed were the servants of the
Bear chief of the ana'maqki'ii, who dwelt in a lofty, long mountain in
the direction in which the young men hunted, but much farther away;
and every time a bear was killed, although the body remained, the
shade of the bear returned to the home of the Bear chief, where his
wounds were visible to all the others.
The Bear chief became very angry at the destruction of his servants,
so decided to capture and destroy the hunters. He called one of his
servants and said to him, "You go to the brush at the fork of the trail
where the boys killed your brothers, and the moment they come back
and the dogs discover you, you must return with all speed to this
place. The mountain will open to let you in, and the hunters will
follow; then I shall take them and punish them.
The servant of the Bear chief started off to the brush at the fork of
the trail and awaited the coming of the three huntsmen.
Next morning, after the father of the boys had prepared the feast,
the two elder sons started off to hunt, leaving the youngest brother at
home. The snow was soft and slushy, and the air was so damp that
the bowstring of the elder brother became unfastened, while that on
the bow of the younger brother became broken. Just as this mishap
was discovered the dogs began to bark, and to chase a bear, the servant
of the Bear chief, out of the brush where he had secreted himself. The
bear ran rapidly along the right-hand trail, the dogs and the brothers
following. In this way they traveled a great distance, but finally saw
a large mountain before them, stretching to the right and left of the
trail upon which they were. The servant of the Bear chief was
expected at the home of the ana'maqki'u, and the mountain opened
to admit him, the dogs following, and the elder of the brothers follow-
ing the dogs into the very middle of the mountain. The other brother
had become so exhausted that he was still far behind. When the
elder had reached the middle of the Bear chief's wigwam, he realized
where he was; he saw bears on every side of him, sitting around as if
they were holding a council, which indeed they were doing at that
very time. The bear which the elder brother had been chasing was
lying panting on the ground near his feet, but when he saw where he
was he made no attempt to shoot the animal. The chief of the bears
then said to the young man, "Why are you trying to kill all of my
11 eth 12
178 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.aiw.14
people? Don't you see that around you there are a number with
arrows sticking into their bodies'? That is the work done by you
and your brothers. I will put a stop to this by transforming: you into
a bear."
By this time the second brother came up breathlessly to where the
eldest one stood, and cried out, "Don't you see that bear lying there;
why don't you shoot him?''—and grasping his arrow he attempted to
thrust it into the bear; but his brother held back his arm and said,
"Don't you see where you are? "
The one addressed was not aware that he was in the presence of the
chief of the bear ana'maqki'u, but continued to struggle forward to
kill the bear. Again the elder brother remonstrated with him, and
then he looked up and beheld the angry bears about him. On one side
were the servants of the Bear chief, while on the other side, but farther
away, were the servants of the chief's sister, who also was there. The
chief's sister had compassion on the two young men and begged her
brother, the Bear chief, not to kill them. He told them that he would
not take their lives, but that he would transform the brothers in such a
way that they would be half bear and half human—the arms and legs
being like the fore and hind legs of a bear, while the head and body of
each should rauain as they were. There were two springs of water in the
ground near where the brothers were standing. When the Bear chief
advanced to them, he took from the water a bunch of moss and rubbed
it over the boys' legs and arms, when these members immediately became
likened to the corresponding limbs of a bear.
In the meantime, the father of the boys, having awaited in vain their
return, started out to hud them. The Bear chief knew that search
would be made for the young men, so he told one of his servants to go
to the brush at the fork of the trail, and there await the boys' father.
The father, on reaching the fork of the trail, did not know which
direction his sons had taken, but after a few moments' search he dis-
covered fresh tracks of snowshoes leading forward toward the brush from
which the bears had appeared. Iu following this trail the father went
forward so fast that he stumbled, and falling slid headlong into a cavity
in which the bear servant of the Bear chief had secreted himself. The
bear thereupon broke the man's neck, and awaited the coming of any-
one else who might search for the young men or their father.
When the father did not return to the wigwam, his wife knew that
some disaster had befallen him, so she decided to follow his trail and to
learn, if possible, what had become of him and her two sons. She
started upon the course taken by the now missing men until she arrived
at the fork of the trail. Here she discovered the tracks of snowshoes
leading forward on the two branches of the trail, but she was undecided
which she should follow. She espied the brush, a short distance ahead,
where the bears had before secreted themselves, and while contemplat-
ing the situation her eyes fell upon the snowshoe tracks made by her
hokfmax] THE BEAR ANa'mAQKI'u 179
husband. She hastened forward to learn where they led, but ere she
readied the bushes, upon which her eyes were momentarily directed,
she came to the cavity where the bear was hidden aud where her hus-
band lay dead. Slipping into the hole, feet foremost, the bear grasped
her and broke her neck. The bear then returned to the wigwam of the
Bear chief and reported what he had done, in revenge for the attack
made on his brothers by the young hunters.
As their mother and father did not return home the youngest son
and his sister became alarmed, and instantly felt that some great mis-
fortune had befallen them. They felt confident that their parents were
no more, but could not imagine how they had perished, nor through
what manner they had brought upon themselves the anger of someone
unknown to them.
Near the wigwam occupied by the two orphans stood a large tree
with strong, wide-spreading branches, upon which the boy often amused
himself and from which he could see a great distance. He kept watch-
ing for the return of his brothers, then for his father, and now he
strained his eyes in trying to see some sign of life, as, since his mother
also was among the missing, he felt very lonely and sad. The respon-
sibility of providing for his little sister now devolved on him, and as
he was compelled to hunt for something to eat he decided to prepare
himself also for making search for the missing ones.
The little boy told his sister that he would go away to hunt some
game, and also to see if he could ascertain anything regarding the fate
of his brothers and his parents, but the girl cried and begged him to
abandon such a dangerous undertaking. The boy was not to be
influenced, but began to prepare himself for the journey. He made
four arrows, one having a shaft of osii'skimino'na, 1 another of pewo'-
naskiu (reed), another of mo'nipio'nowe (tamarack), and the fourth of
okapuowe (kwapu'owe=hazel). He also made a small bow, and went
out to the large tree near the wigwam and got down his snowshoes,
which had been hanging there. The right snowshoe was called dodo'pa
(small saw- whet owl) and the left snowshoe was called the kuku'kuu
(horned owl).
Early next morning he went to a small bark box, under which he
kept his little dog, called Waisau'wita' (Red-mouth), and let it out
so that he might accompany him. Then the little hunter started out
on the trail on which his brothers and his parents had departed, and
traveled along for a great distance until he came to an immense tree.
Here he rested, but his little dog began barking at the tree, and this
led the boy to think that perhaps his parents might have been killed
there; so he stepped back, and taking one of his arrows out of his
quiver he attached it to the string of his bow, and shot it into the root
of the tree, whereupon the latter took fire, with a noise like the rum-
bling of thunder, and was consumed by the flames.
1 A common weed growing about gardens and in tbo woods.
180 THE MENOMIXI INDIANS [bth. axn. U
When this had been accomplished the boy continued his journey
until he came to the fork of the trail. Here he stopped for a moment
to decide which one of the two branches he should follow. Seeing the
suowshoe tracks on the right, he took the trail in that direction, and
presently espied the bushes where the bears used to secrete themselves.
Now it happened that the Bear chief knew what was transpiring,
and when he found that the boy was going in pursuit of his lost broth-
ers he sent a very small bear servant to the bushes to await the boy's
coming and to endeavor to cause him to traverse the trail to the moun-
tain where the ana'maqki'ii dwelt.
As the boy reached the brush his little dog ran toward it and began
barking, whereupon the little bear ran out and away for his home as
fast as he could.
The dog followed the bear, and the boy followed his dog onward
and onward until the large mountain, the wigwam of the Bear chief,
appeared in sight. The snow was wet and heavy, and the thong of
the boy's right snowshoe became so loose that it finally broke, com-
pelling the boy to stop to repair it. By the time this was doue the
little bear and the dog got so far ahead of him that he could hear the
barking but faintly. While the boy ran he said to his snowshoes, "Now
we will have to hurry or we shall lose both the bear and the dog." The
snowshoes continued to sing like the dodo'pa and the kukii'kuii, one
saying "te-e-e-e-e-e', te-e-e-e-e-e'," and the other "kii-u-ii-u-u-u', hii-fi u-
U.-U-U'."
The sister of the Bear chief, who had had compassion on the elder
brothers of the boy, now smiled at the curious sight when she saw him
coming toward her brother's wigwam with singing snowshoes, for she
could see and hear all this although she dwelt in the mountain.
The little boy continued to run after his dog, but the mountain had
opened to receive the little bear, when the dog also entered in pursuit.
When the little boy reached the base of the mountain he heard the
barking ahead of him, but thought the dog had crossed over to the
other side, so he continued until he reached the opposite base of
the mountain. Then, stopping to listen, he heard the barking behind
him, so he ran back to the other side searching for his dog.
But the sound proceeded again from the direction whence he had just
come ; therefore he started to return, but becoming tired he halted an
instant after he had reached the summit of the mountain, when he heard
the voice of the dog beneath him. He knew then where he was, and
calling out to the Bear chief, said, "Let my dog out; I want him!"
Hearing no response, he again called out to the ana'maqki'ii, "Let my
dog out; I waut him! If you do not, I shall destroy your wigwam!"
As the Bear chief did not respond to this demand, the boy descended
the mountain, and drawing one of his arrows pointed it at the base of
the height and shot through it. This set the mountain afire and
destroyed it, as well as the Bear chief and his servants. But the sister
hoffman] TRANSFORMATION OF THE BROTHERS 181
of tlie Bear chief and her servants were spared, because she had tried
to prevent her brother from punishing the two elder brothers of the boy.
When the young- huntsman entered the wigwam of the bears he saw
the condition of his brothers, and while gazing at them, utterly unable
to devise some means of relieving them of the bear's paws and legs
into which their hands, arms, and legs had been changed, the sister of
the Bear chief came to him and said, " Little boy, take some moss out
of that spring and let your brothers smell of it; then they will be
restored to their former condition." The little boy thanked the sister
of the Bear chief for this information, and going to the spring near the
feet of his elder brother took from it a handful of wet moss and held it
to their nostrils, whereupon the bear skin became detached and dropped
from their arms and legs.
The three brothers then left the wigwam of the ana'maqki'fi and
returned to their sister, who now required their help and protection.
The myth then continues, but Mii'niibush appears to have retired
from the field, remaining at the wigwam of the hunter while the young
men went out.
HOW THE YOUNG HUNTER CAUGHT THE SUN
Because the youngest brother had restored to his sister her elder
brothers, she made for him a fine robe of beaver skins trimmed with
colored porcupine quills. He was very proud of this garment, and wore
it almost constantly.
One day while the two elder brothers were out hunting in the forest,
the youngest went away to hide himself and to mourn because he was
not permitted to join them. He had with him his bow and arrows and
his beaver-skin robe; but when the Sun rose high in the sky he became
tired and laid himself down to weep, covering himself entirely with his
robe to keep out the Sun. When the Sun was directly overhead and
saw the boy, it sent down a ray which burned spots upon the robe and
made it shrink until it exposed the boy. Then the Sun smiled, while
the boy wept more violently than before. He felt that he had been
cruelly treated both by his brothers and now by the Sun. He said to
the Sun, "You have treated me cruelly and burned my robe, when I did
not deserve it. Why do you punish me like this?" The Sun merely
continued to smile, but said nothing.
The boy then gathered up his bow and arrows, and taking his burnt
robe, returned to the wigwam, where he laid down in a dark corner and
again wept. His sister was outside of the wigwam when he returned,
so she was not aware of his presence when she reentered to attend to
her work. Presently she heard someone crying, and going over to the
place whence the sound came she found that it was her youngest
brother who was in distress.
She said to him, " My brother, why are you weeping?"—to which he
replied, "Look at me; I am sad because the Sun burned my beaver-skin
: ;
182 THE MKNOMINI INDIANS ' [eth. Aim. 14
robe; I have been cruelly treated this day." Then he turned his face
away and continued to weep. Even in his sleep he sobbed, because of
his distress.
When he awoke, he said to his sister, " My sister, give me a thread ; I
wish to use it."
She handed him a sinew thread, but he said to her, •' No, that is not
what I want; I want a hail thread.'' Sbe said to him, " Take this; this
is strung." " No," he replied, " that is not the kind of a thread I want
I want a hair thread."
She then understood his meaning, and plucking a single hair from
her person handed it to him, when he said, " That is what I want," and
taking it at both ends he began to pull it gently, smoothing it out as it
continued to lengthen until it reached from the tips of the fingers of
one hand to the ends of the fingers of the other.
Then he started out to where the Sun's path touched the earth.
When he reached the place where the Sun was when it burned his robe,
the little boy made a noose and stretched it across the path, and when
the Sun came to that point the noose caught him around the neck and
began to choke him until he almost lost his breath. It became dark,
and the Sun called out to the ma'nidos, "Help me, my brothers, and
cut this string before it kills me." The ma'nidos came, but the thread
had so cut into the flesh of the Sun's neck that they could not sever it.
When all but one had given up, the Sun called to the Koq'kipikuq'ki
(the mouse) to try to cut the string. The Mouse came up and gnawed
at the string, but it was difficult work, because the string was hot and
deeply embedded in the Sun's neck. After working at the string a
good while, however, the Mouse succeeded in cutting it, when the Sun
breathed again and the darkness disappeared. If the Mouse had not
succeeded, the Sun would have died. Then the boy said to the Sun,
"For your cruelty I have punished you; now you may go."
The boy then returned to his sister, satisfied with what he had done.
THE HUNTER AND THE ELK PEOPLE, AND HOW THE MOOSE WERE
DEFEATED
In this myth the hunter proves to have been Mii'nabush, he having
in some unexplained manner assumed the dress and manner of a hunter,
and in that guise experienced some curious adventures, as follows
The three brothers now lived with and provided for their sister, until
one day the eldest felt inclined to go away hunting in a region which
he had not before visited. While away, at a great distance from his
own kindred, he came upon a wigwam inhabited by a family of three
X^ersons—a man aud his wife and their only child, who was a girl. The
young hunter became fond of the girl and married her, but soon moved
away and built a wigwam of his own. In due course of time the hunt-
er's wife bore a child, and then the hunter was obliged to hunt for
more game and furs to provide for his little family. His wife was not
boffman] THE HUNTER AND THE WOLF 183
of agreeable disposition, so they did not get along so pleasantly as might
have been hoped.
The hunter went into the woods one day, but, although he traveled
until nightfall, he failed to get any game, and returned home disap-
pointed. The next day he again went out to procure some food for his
wife and child, yet, notwithstanding he was a good hunter, he again
failed to obtain any.
The wife then said to the hunter, "Why is it that yon cannot get me
enough food to eat?—you were more successful in former days." The
hunter told her that he could not account for his ill luck, and that he
would try his fortune again on the following day.
On the morning of the morrow it snowed heavily and he went through
the woods looking in every direction for game, but the only thing he
got was a partridge. It stormed so severely and the snow drifted so
much that he became lost; so he endeavored to find some familiar local-
ity that he might return to his wigwam, but without success. Night
approached, and, not knowing his whereabouts, the hunter gathered
together some brush and wood to build a fire and to make a shelter to
camp during the night. Having done this he laid down and went to
sleep. How long he slept he knew not, but when he first awoke it was
still dark. While yet awake he suddenly thought he heard something
approaching. He closed his eyes and pretended to be asleep, but the
sound came so close to him that he opened his eyes slightly and to his
amazement saw a Wolf standing near by, which said to him, "My
brother, you are going to starve; you have not killed anything today;
I came to you because I pity you. Your wigwam is close by and you
will see it when daylight approaches; then you must go home and cook
and eat your partridge."
When the sun rose, the hunter went home to cook the partridge for
his wife and child, but found that the child had starved. After he had
completed his work he returned to the woods again to hunt some game,
and, arriving at the place where he had camped the night before, he
found the Wolf there awaiting him. The Wolf said, "You must now
kill some deer which I will drive close to you, but you must keep the
liver and the fat for me ; the remainder you may carry to your wigwam."
The hunter was pleased to hear this from the Wolf, and agreed to
give the liver and fat of the deer to him. The Wolf started away, and
presently a deer came running by the place where the hunter stood,
closely followed by the Wolf. As the deer came near the hunter he let
fly an arrow, wounding it, which enabled the Wolf to catch it and kill
it by tearing open its throat. The hunter then dressed the deer, giving
the liver and the fat to the Wolf for his assistance, and taking to his
wigwam the remainder of the deer, including the paunch filled with
blood. As the hunter approached, his wife was cutting wood, and
when she looked up and saw her husband coming back with the deer
she appeared very much pleased. She took the deer and was engaged
184 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth. ann.14
in cutting it up to broil, but not finding the liver she said to her hus-
band, "What have you done with the liver; you know I am very fond
of it?"
He replied, saying, "I did not bring the liver with me;" whereat she
seemed satisfied. He did not want to tell her he had given it to the
Wolf, because he did not want her to know that he had killed the deer
only through his assistance, and thought the Wolf was entitled to at
least so small a portion.
The next day the hunter again went into the woods, where he met the
Wolf awaiting him as before. Upon their meeting the Wolf said to
the hunter, "Now I will drive another deer past this place where you
stand, and you must shoot it; all I want in return is the liver and the
fat."
The hunter prepared himself, while the Wolf started away to find
another deer. In this he soon succeeded, and, driving it by the place
where the hunter stood, the latter shot an arrow into its body which
disabled it, when the Wolf soon overtook it and killed it by tearing
open its throat as before. The hunter dressed the body of the deer,
as usual, giving the liver and the fat to the Wolf, after which he started
to return to his wigwam. As he was going away, the Wolf said to the
hunter, "Tomorrow morning you will return again, when we shall get
still another deer."
"All right," replied the hunter, "I will return, as you ask me."
After the hunter had reached his wigwam his wife again prepared
to broil the me.it, but not finding the liver she asked her husband, in an
angry tone, "What have you done with the liver; you know I am fond
of it and wanted you to bring it to me?" The hunter made an evasive
response, not wishing to tell her what he had done with the liver, after
which they both ate their meal in silence.
On the following morning he again went away to hunt, finding the
Wolf where they had parted on the preceding evening. The Wolf
seemed glad to see the hunter and said, " Now, my brother, you get
ready your bow and arrows while I go out to find a deer, and when I
drive it past this place you must shoot it." The hunter made the nec-
essary preparations while the Wolf started off in search of a deer, which
he soon found and drove by the place where the hunter stood. He
shot an arrow into its body which disabled it, when the Wolf soon
overtook the deer and killed it in the same manner in which he had
dispatched the others.
The hunter dressed the deer, throwing the liver and fat to the Wolf,
when the latter said, "Now, my brother, go home with your deer, but
come back again tomorrow." The hunter agreed to do so and started
home. His wife met him at the wigwam as usual. When she cut up
the carcass she looked for the liver, but not finding it she turned
angrily toward her husband and said, "Where is the liver; you know
I am very fond of it and that I asked you for it before ? " He replied,
hoffmanJ THE HUNTER AND THE WOLF 185
"I have left it in the woods, and think you ought to be well satisfied
with the meat."
She was jealous of his apparent carelessness, but nothing further
was said during the meal, soon after which they both went to sleep, for
night had come.
On the following morning he again went away to hunt, and returning
to the spot where he had left the Wolf the preceding evening he found
thatma'nido awaiting him. The Wolf said to the hunter, "Now, my
brother, you get ready your bow and arrows, while I go out to find a
deer, and when it runs by this place you must shoot it with an arrow."
The hunter prepared himself as before, while the Wolf disappeared
among the trees. Soon the hunter heard the crackling of twigs, and a
deer came running past, closely pursued by the Wolf. Then the hunter
let fly an arrow, disabling the deer, when the Wolf soon overtook it
and killed it by tearing open its throat as before. Then the hunter
dressed the carcass, but gave the Wolf only some fat and a piece of
meat, telling the Wolf that he wanted this time to give the liver to his
wife. The Wolf said nothing in response to this, but appeared to be
disappointed. The hunter went home as before, threw down the car-
cass of the deer, when his wife immediately began to look for the liver,
which she found.
She seemed gratified that she had compelled her husbaiid to do as
she had wished. lie said to her, " Eat the liver, but be careful that you
eat all of it, and do not leave any part of it lying about anywhere."
She was only too glad to follow her husband's advice, but little knew
what it would cost her.
On the following day he again went to the place in the woods where
he had parted with the Wolf on the preceding evening, but the Wolf
was not there. The hunter looked in every direction, but there were
no signs of him. During the day there came in sight only one deer, at
which the hunter shot, but missed, and the deer ran away. The hunter
traveled all day in quest of it, but his search was of no avail. Night
coming on he built a fire and prepared a shelter where he could sleep.
He had not long settled himself for the night when the Wolf came up
to the fire and laid down by it, panting and wearied. The hunter said
to the Wolf, "My brother, where have you been that you look so tired?"
To this the Wolf replied, "I have been hunting, but because you gave
your wife the liver, I have not been successful; you should not have
given it to her. She is a wicked woman, and you should leave her and
find a wife among other people."
These words made the hunter think of how he had beeu treated by
his wife, and he finally said to the Wolf, " My brother, your words are
good, and I shall do as you advise me." Then the Wolf took from his
foreleg the "dew claw," and gave it to the hunter, saying, "Take this,
my brother, and wear it about your wrist always; when you have it you
will be strong and nothing can escape you, and you will be successful
186 THE MEXOMINI INDIANS [eth.akn.H
iii everytiling you uudertake; but if you remove it from your wrist you
will be defeated.''
The hunter took the claw which the Wolf gave him, aud attached it
to his left wrist, when the Wolf said, " My brother, your name will
henceforth be Nano'kupa/qkweni'sitaV When you leave this place, go
in any direction but toward your wigwam ; you will find people who are
great gamblers, and he who is the losing one of this people you will
know as the father of the girl whom you will take to be your wife. The
family consists of seven persons, the father, the mother, four sons, and
one daughter. Now I shall leave you." Then the hunter and the Wolf
parted—the Wolf disappearing in the forest while the hunter took his
bow and arrows and set out in the opposite direction.
The hunter now traveled through a country which he had not before
seen nor heard of. There was game in every direction, but he had not
yet come to a place where there were signs of human beings. Late
in the afternoon, when he was tired and cold, and did not know what
course to take to find a settlement, he heard a sound like that made
by cutting wood. He proceeded very cautiously in the direction of
the noise, peering from side to side, and discovered not far away two
camps. But near to where he was he saw a large dead tree which was
smouldering and which he approached to warm himself. While here
seated and contemplating what might be his next adventure he heard
some one approaching in the direction of the nearest camp. On looking
up he saw coming toward him an old woman who seemed preoccupied,
for her eyes were directed toward the ground. She came almost up to
the hunter before she saw him, and becoming alarmed at the sight of a
stranger she hastened back to her wigwam.
The old woman's husband was asleep, so when she entered the wig-
wam she shook him by the shoulder and said, " Wake up; T have just
come from the burning tree and there saw Nano'kupa'qkweui'sitav."
The old man, on hearing these words, immediately raised himself
from the robes, and calling to his youngest sou said, " Come here, my
son." The young man approached his father, who then said, " Tour
mother says she has just returned from the burning tree where she saw
Nano'kupa'qkweni'sitav go to him and bring him to me, for I think he
;
must be your brother-in-law." The young man grasped his warclub
and went out to find the hunter and to bring him to the wigwam.
This old man and his family were the chief of the Omas'kos (Elk
people), who occupied the first village which the hunter saw, while the
second village was inhabited by the Mous (Moose people). The inhabi-
tants of these two settlements were great gamblers and were antago-
nistic to each other, because the Moose people were usually successful
in any games undertaken, whereas the Elk people believed their lack
of success due to some trickery.
1 Tliia signifies a foot shaped like the oblong rawhide traveling hag used by the Indians for atow-
iDg away small articles. Nano'kup'd'qkwe, carrying bag ; ni'sitav \ foot.
hoffman] THE MYSTIC TOBACCO 187
When tbe sou of the old man went out to find the hunter, he
approached him in a very threatening manner and made gestures as if
he were going to club the hunter to death. The hunter, however, only
smiled at the young man's actions, whereupon the latter dropped his
club, and approaching the hunter said to him, " Come to my father,
my brother, as he wishes to see you; he says you must be Nauo'kupii'q-
kweni'sitii v, who is to become my brother-in law." The hunter arose,
pleased at the invitation, and followed the young man to the wigwam,
where he was met by the old man, who bade him enter and be seated.
The old man then said to him, " My son, you must be Nano'kupa'q-
kweni'sitii", of whose coming I have been aware; you are to become
my son-in-law."
The hunter replied, "Yes, I am known by that name, and by what
the Wolf told me, you are no doubt the chief of this village."
"Yes," replied the old man, " I am the chief of this village, which is
occupied by the Elk people ; but the other village, which you see yonder,
belongs to the Moose people, with whom we have not fared very well
of late."
Then, calling forward his daughter, the old man continued, " This,
my son, is my only daughter, who is to become your wife. Take her if
you desire." Then bidding the girl to advance where the hunter could
behold her comeliness, she went toward the stranger a few paces, where
she stood abashed and with downcast eyes. The hunter admired her,
and stepping forward took her by the hand and led her toward the seat
he had occupied, saying to the old man, " I will take her, my father,
and remain with you until we have conquered the Moose people."
To signify that he was well pleased with his choice, and to honor his
father-in-law, the young hunter pulled forth from his pouch a short
piece of tobacco, which he broke in two, retaining one portion for him-
self, and handing the other to his wife, saying, "Give this to your
father that we may have a smoke." She took it and handed it to her
father, who rubbed it between the palms of his hands, whereupon
tobacco kept dropping to the ground in such quantities that there was
a great heap, sufficient to last for many days. Portions of it were sent
to every person in the village, and yet there did not appear to be any
diminution in the quantity of tobacco. The act of sending out tobacco
to all the people was intended to inform them that the old man had
now a son-in-law, by which they also learned that the stranger was
Nauo'luipa'qkweni /sita T , of whom they had heard through the old man.
The Moose people hearing of the events which were transpiring in
the village of the Elk people, came on a visit to the Elk people a few
days later, saying to the new wife of Nano'kupa'qkweni'sita 1 , "Our
women have come to play a game with your husband, to see whether
he is better at playing with plum-stones than we are." The girl
informed her husband what the Moose people said, and told him, " Be
careful, my husband, because they are good players, and if you lose
188 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth. anjj. 14
they will beat all of us with sticks and clubs, as they always do when
we are defeated.''
The hunter came out of the wigwam, and advancing to the Moose
women, said, " I hear you want to play a game of plum-stones with
me; I am willing to play." They all became seated, when the hunter's
wife said to him, " Do not play with these women, for they have human
eyeballs instead of plum-stones, and they will win every throw."
" I am not afraid of them," rejoined the hunter; " wait and see who
wins." Then the chief of the women began to argue and dispute with
the hunter about who should commence, when the woman brought forth
a dish, which she began to shake, but the hunter pushed it aside, say-
ing, "That will not do; those things in the dish are not plum-stones,
but human eyeballs. I will begin with my set." Whereupon he brought
forth his own set, shook the bowl, and when the eight plum-stones had
ceased rolling about he had won every point. This he did a second
time, when the Elk people began to say to one another, "Now get
ready j-our sticks to whip the Moose folk, for we shall surely be the
winners today;" but the Moose people, who had gathered about to
watch the result of the game, also whispered to one another, " Prepare
yourselves to whip the Elks, for they can not succeed."
By this time the hunter had thrown the plum-stones a third time, and
the Elks were beginning to crowd onward toward the Moose. "When
the fourth throw was made, which decided the game in favor of the
Elks, the latter ran at the Moose, thoroughly thrashing them all the
way back to their village.
The Moose were at first dumfounded at their unexpected defeat, and
next day considered what they might devise to defeat the Elk people
in the plum-stone game.
Between the Moose village and the Elk village stood two high posts,
near together, and across the two from top to top was a piece of wood
from which was suspended a metal ball. On the ground lay a very
large, heavy ball, which but few could lift. The Moose folk, thinking
this would be a test for the hunter, sent word to the Elks to meet them
in order to see who of their number could lift and throw the heavy ball
so as to strike the one suspended from the crosspiece.
The Elks responded by going out to the place where the Moose were
awaiting them. Then the best man of the Moose went to the ball, and
with great exertion lifted and threw it up, barely touching the sus-
pended smaller one. The Moose people then began to exult and to
whisper to one another, saying, "Now get ready to return the whip-
ping we got yesterday."
The young brother-in-law of the hunter now approached the large
ball, and pretended that he could not move it. Then the Moose began
to push forward so as to rush upon the Elks, for they supposed the
young man could not succeed. When the hunter heard their remarks
he rushed forward, and grasping the ball sent it far over the poles, as
hoffman] THE DIVING CONTEST 189
the ball had never before been thrown. Then the Elks attacked the
Moose and thrashed them severely, chasing- them all the way back to
their village.
The young- Moose people were mortified and amazed at their ill luck,
but began immediately to devise a plan whereby they could yet humil-
iate their rivals. The womeu again met, and, after deliberating what
to propose to the Elk people, one of them said, "Let us have a contest
at diving in the lake, and see if our young men can not remain under
the water longer than the best of the Elk people. It is cold and the
lake is covered with ice, which is better for us, and we can soon cut a
hole where the trial may take place." To this the Moose people all
agreed, whereupon the party went over to the Elk village and called
out to the chief, " We have come over to have another contest with you,
which we are sure we cau win." The chief spoke to his people to
ascertain if they would agree to the proposal, whereon they all advanced
much pleased at the prospect of again defeating their rivals.
The entire party, comprising the inhabitants of both villages, pro-
ceeded to the lake, where a large hole was made in the ice, and the
champion of the Moose people prepared to get down into the water.
As the hunter came forward from the Elk people his young brother-in-
law said to him, "You must let me compete this time, as our bodies
are covered with hair, while yours, having only a bare skin, will freeze."
"No, my brother," said the hunter, "I am fully able to withstand the
cold, notwithstanding my bare skin; I am going to dive, and we will
see if I can not defeat that Moose."
The hunter tore away from his brother-in-law, and divesting himself
of most of his clothing, got into the water to await the signal for diving.
As the hunter sat at the edge of the ice, Miqkii'no (Mud-turtle) came
up from the bottom of the lake and said to the hunter, "My brother, I
have come to take care of you ; I will cover your body with mine and
you shall not feel the cold water at all. Trust yourself to my care."
The hunter was greatly pleased to know that the Wolf had not forgot-
ten him, by sending to him at this critical time a friend, in the form of
the Mud-turtle, so he said "My brother, I shall do as you tell me, and
am glad that you have come to my assistance."
The signal being given, the divers plunged into the icy water and
disappeared. Then the Moose people began to hope they should suc-
ceed, and said to one another, "Now get your sticks, so as to be ready
to whip the Elks, for the hunter will certainly come up first."
"No, wait," said some of the more prudent; "the contest is not yet
over."
The Elks also began to encourage one another, and prepared to pounce
upon the Moose, as they, too, had great hope of winning.
In the meantime the Moose, who was under the water, spoke to his
antagonist, saying, "Elk, are you cold?" to which the Mud-turtle
replied for the hunter, "No, Moose; are you cold?" This was dis-
tinctly heard by those on shore, and considerable agitation was caused
190 THE MENOMINT INDIANS [eth. ann.14
when the Mud-turtle, who assumed the voice of the hunter, asked,
"Moose, are you cold?" and no response was made. The Moose peo-
ple became somewhat alarmed when their diver did not respond, for
they believed, and very truly, that he was so benumbed with cold that
lie could not speak. Then slowly, and with great effort, the Moose rose
to the surface, thinking that surely by this time his rival had been van-
quished, but was met with the blows of the Elk people, who began
vigorously to ply their sticks and clubs upon every one of their oppo-
nents. The Elks' champion, the hunter, was then brought to the sur-
face by the Mud-turtle, just in time to see the last of the fleeing Moose
people disappearing into their wigwams.
The hunter then returned to his wife, who met him with joy, saying,
"My husband, I am pleased with your success, for before you came
among us the Moose people were always successful and punished us."
Even this defeat of the Moose did not seem to dishearten them, for
they immediately began to devise a scheme for a more difficult task
with which to challenge the Elk people. It was decided to challenge the
latter to a contest on the ice, to see which of the champions could slide
most rapidly. The Moose claimed that they were the most expert on
smooth ice, and all of them having agreed on this game, they went to
the village of the Elks saying they should like another contest.
The Elk people, having gained confidence since they had three times
succeeded in defeating the Moose, were quick in accepting the chal-
lenge, and all started out to the lake.
The lake was very long, and two paths were soon cleared of snow,
exposing a perfectly smooth surface. The Moose people arranged them-
selves along the right shore of the lake, while the Elk folk occupied
the left shore. The hunter was one of those who desired to compete
against the Moose, but his wife's young brother came to him and said,
"Brother-in-law, you can not slide on this smooth surface, as your feet
are not fitted for it. My feet are hard and I can easily defeat them."
The hunter hesitated a moment, but before he could make a reply,
Mikek', the Otter, who was invisible to everybody else, came to him and
said, "My brother, you come out on the ice, and when you prepare to
slide you must place your feet upon me. My fur is thick and smooth
and will skim over the ice without any trouble; but I must tell you
that when we reach the goal at the end of the lake, I shall continue
through the snowbank which you see there, to insure the defeat of
the Moose."
The hunter expressed his gratitude to the Otter, and said to his
brother-in-law, "Brother-in-law, I shall compete in this game, as Otter
is going to place himself fiat upon the ice, and I shall succeed."
The contestants then approached the starting point, and each was
eager to begin. No one could perceive the Otter beneath the feet of
the hunter, because he was a ma'nido, and had been sent by the Wolf.
The Moose believed that because the hunter's feet were not hard he
would be unable to continue far; and already, before the start was
hoffman] THE MYSTIC FOOTRACE 191
made, they began to whisper about the whipping they would at last be
enabled to inflict upon the Elk people.
The Elk people, on the other side, were equally confident of success,
and had their sticks and clubs ready to attack their rivals the moment
the race was decided in their favor. Presently the signal was given,
and away went the Moose and the hunter together; but the latter,
going faster and faster, soon outstripped the Moose, who stopped at
the end of the course, while the hunter weut completely through the
snowbank, so great was his speed.
Then the Elk people exulted and chased the Moose back to their vil-
lage, beating them all the way, iu retaliation for the many whippings
they had themselves once received at their hands.
The Moose people were very much angered at this repeated defeat,
and began to murmur among themselves. They thought that they
could certainly devise some contest by which they would win, and one
of the old Moose women said, "We have a swift runner here in our
camp; why not try a footrace!"
To this all appeared to agree, and immediately they went to the wig-
wam of the hunter to challenge him or one of the Elks to a race. The
hunter heard them coining, but remained lying on his mat. On appear-
ing at the door, one of the Moose said, " We do not yet feel satisfied
with our defeat, and wish to learn if you and your brother-in-law will
run against two of our young men." The hunter replied that he was
perfectly willing to run, and asked his eldest brother-in-law, who was
the swiftest of the Elk people, to join him. The two soou prepared
themselves and joined their friends, when both parties went out to the
lake to prepare a track. This time the course was to extend all around
the lake, near the shore, so that the goal should be at the starting
point. It took both parties all day to clear the snow from the ice, and
next morning the people gathered in crowds to see the sight—the Moose
on the right bank and the Elk on the left.
The Moose felt certain of victory, for they claimed that the hunter
had but two legs, whereas their favorites had four each. While the
hunter was preparing himself, the Wolf suddenly approached him and
said, "My brother, I will assist you iu this race. As nobody but you
can see me, I shall await you half-way on the course, when you will get
astride of me and inoveyour legs as if you were running, while I shall
carry you along at greater speed; then you will meet the Fox, nearer
the goal, who will carry you to the end of the course." The hunter was
much elated at meeting his old frieud, and at receiving such a timely
offer of assistance.
The chief of the Moose people came toward the contestants as they
were preparing to start, and said to them, " You will find a mist settling
over the course about half-way around, but do not let that annoy you."
This was said to discourage the champions of the Elks, and to inform
the Moose runuers that they might take advantage of any opportunities
that might present themselves while they were passing through the mist.
192 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ann.14
The runners were now ready to start—two Moose to represent the
Moose people, and the hunter and his eldest brother-in-law the cboice
of the Elk people. At a given signal they started away over the ice, the
Moose soon widening the distance between themselves and their rivals.
The brother-in-law of the hunter came next after the Moose, and last
of all, and gradually losing, tbe hunter himself, who was last not because
he could not run, but because he wanted the Moose people to think
that he would lose the race, and finally cause them more chagrin at
being deceived. When the runners approached the spreading mist,
the Elk threw some snow back at the hunter to intimate that the Wolf
was there awaiting him. So soon as the latter reached the point where
the Wolf was he jumped astride the Wolf, 'and with his brother-in-law
was soon far in advance of the Moose runners.
With every muscle strained the runners turned the half-point of the
course and were speeding toward the goal. The Moose runners were
again gaining on their competitors, but this did not last long, for the
latter soon reached the Fox, when the hunter felt the Wolf slide from
beneath him and the Fox take his place.
While the Elks1 runners were apparently losing the race, the Moose
people became greatly excited, and urged one another to start forward
to attack the Elk people and whip them. The more thoughtful, how-
ever, hesitated, saying, "Wait; we will have plenty of time to punish
them after the race." The Elk people, also, said to one another, "Now
get your sticks and clubs ready to beat the Moose, for we shall surely
win." So each side was watching the other, ready to make an attack
,so soon as the race was finished.
When the hunter felt the Fox beneath him, both the Elk runners were
far behind the Moose, but now they started ahead, and with a tremen-
dous rush they passed the Moose, reaching the goal first. Now there
was a scamper of the Moose to their village, while the Elk people came
on after them, whipping them all the way back.
The Moose were now thoroughly aroused at the frequent defeats
with which they had met, and called together all of their people to hold
council to decide on what they might next devise to bring destruction
to the hunter and defeat to the Elk people.
One of the old Moose suggested that they all pass the hunter's wig-
wam so as to get him to shoot at them and exhaust himself, when he
might be killed. The speaker said, "We will all pass his house tomor-
row when he is taking his vapor bath, at which time he will have laid
aside the wolf-claw bracelet, upon which his strength depends. After
he has exhausted his arrows he will use his club, and that will soon
tire him so much that our men can easily destroy him."
The Moose, being ma'nidos, knew what the hunter would do, espe-
cially after his success of that day; so all agreed to follow the plan
which had been suggested.
When, after the race, the hunter returned to his wigwam he laid him-
self down to thiuk of what he should do the next time the Moose came
HOFFMAN] THE VICTORY OP THE MOOSE 193
to propose ;i contest. He fell asleep and remained so until the next
morning, when lie removed bis clothing and his wolf-claw bracelet pre-
paratory to taking a vapor bath. He entered the little wigwam forthis
purpose while some of bis family were heating stones to hand to him.
After he had finished taking bis vapor bath be returned to his wigwam,
and while he was standing at the door be saw some moose approach-
ing, which, as they passed the door, be shot with arrows. He did not
know that they were the Moose people from the next village, and kept
killing them as rapidly as he could until his last arrow was gone.
These Moose were not dead, however, for, being ma'nidos, they could
resume their Living form whenever they desired.
When the hunter had exhausted his arrows be went into the wigwam
to get bis club, when be again began to kill Moose as rapidly as they
passed his door. The young .Moose, the children, came by, when he
began to strike them down, but became so exhausted that be felt as if
be bad to give up, but before doing so he spied a very old Moose coming
aloug whom he hit upon the head, breaking bis club. Then he cried,
'•I have lost my wolf-claw bracelet; where is it?" His wife and her
brothers searched for it, but could nowhere find it. They were not
aware that he bad removed it in the vapor bath, a fact that he himself
had forgotten.
At this moment his friend, the Wolf, came to bis rescue, and began
to tear the throats of the Moose; but soon becoming exhausted be cried
to the hunter, "We are defeated; we might as well give up." Then the
remaining Moose said, "Now, brothers, our time has come; let us kill
him," and with that they attacked the hunter and cut him all to pieces.
The Moose then restored their people to life, and returned to their
own village, highly elated that they bad at last become rid of their
rival and defeated their neighbors. Then the chief of the Moose said,
"We have won, my friends; now let us gather together and celebrate
the event;" whereupon they all got as near as possible to hear the song
of the chief Moose, which was as follows:
Na'nakop ak'wasita, he, he. D. C. ail lib.
14 ETH 13
194 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.akn. 14
The signification of the words is, that, "We have defeated him who
always won."
While the Moose people were thus exulting in the destruction of the
hunter, his young wife sat mourning and weeping in her wigwam with
her head and body shrouded in a large robe. While she was thus
weeping for her husband, the various ma'nidos heard her, and said to
one another, " I^et us visit the widow of Nauo'kupa'qkweni'si vt;i , and get
her to take one of us as husband." They agreed, and the Wolf led
them to her wigwam; but while they were deliberating over this plan
she heard their words; so when the Fox came to where the young
widow sat and said to her, "I have returned; I am your husband; take
tiie." she replied, saying, "No, leave me; you are not my husband."
Then the Fox pulled away the robe that covered her and threw some
water in her face.
The woman then wept again at receiving such harsh treatment, but
after a while she became pacified and went to sleep. On the next night
the Eabbit came to her and said, "I have returned; I am your hus-
band; take me." She paid no attention to this, but said, "No, leave;
you are not my husband," whereupon the rabbit suddenly pulled the
robe aside, exposing her face, and threw water on it.
Then she wept anew, lamenting her fate and the treatment she was
receiving at the hands of the ma'nidos.
On the following night the Dog came to the young woman and said,
" I have returned ; I am your husband; take me." She would not look
up to see who spoke, but replied, "No, leave me; you are not my
husband." Then the Dog pulled aside the robe from her face and threw
some water on it. Again she began her lamentations and continued
to dwell upon her distress, until at last she fell asleep.
These three ma'nidos remained in the vicinity of the wigwam to see
who would be so fortunate as to get the woman for his wife.
The hunter's mother-in-law was a very small old woman, who had a
very small dog. The crone visited the spot where the hunter had been
cut to pieces, aud where there was still some blood on the ground; this
the little dog licked up, but it made him eager to find more. While
this was happening the old woman heard laughter in a wigwam a short
distance away, on the side toward the Moose settlement. She ap-
proached very cautiously, and on peeping in the wigwam to see what
was causing such merriment, she observed that the Moose women had
congregated to talk and to eat the little pieces of the hunter's flesh
which had been gathered. One old woman was eating the heel just as
the little dog entered the wigwam, when one of her companions said to
her, "Do you see that little dog? He looks so angry that 1 believe
he will bite you; " and before she could reply the little dog had sprung
upon her and bitten her, and in the excitement the canine snatched up
the heel-bone with his jaws aud escaped to where the hunter had been
cut to pieces. The dog had congregated a great number of the
hoffman] THE RESURRECTION OF THE HUNTER 195
Imi'maqki'iV, the Good Thunder ma'nidos, aud as he brought the heel-
bone of the right foot, Kaka'ke (the crow) took it and said, "I will
throw this upon the ground four times, and at the fourth time the
hunter will rise from the dead." Then the Crow took the bone, and
raising it in the air as high as he could, threw it forcibly down before
him upon the ground, saying. "Nano'kupa'qkweni'sita*, ai i se from the
dead." As the bone struck the ground, the Wolf was heard to howl.
Again the Crow took up the bone and threw it upon the ground, say-
ing, "Nano'kupa'qkweni'sitav , arise from the dead." The Wolf howled
again. The Crow took up the bone the third time and threw it upon
the ground, saying, " Nano/kupa'qkweni'sitav , arise from the dead."
The Wolf howled louder and nearer than before, while the Crow took
up the bone a fourth time, and throwing it upon the ground said, as
before, "Nano'kupa'qkwem'sitaT, arise from the dead!" As the bone
struck the ground, the form of the hunter appeared to them just as he
had been before. Then the ma'nidos flew away, glad that they had
restored their brother to life.
The hunter heard the Moose women who had congregated to eat his
flesh, so he went near to where they were seated, and said, " Now you
may prepare yourselves, for in a very little while I shall destroy every
one of you and your people," after which he went toward his own wigwam
where his wife sat weeping. As he approached her, he said, " I have
come now; I have risen from the dead;" but his wife replied by saying,
"No, you are not my husband; I have been deceived before, and I will
not look at yon." To this the hunter answered, "Yes, it is I; I am
your husband," when, hearing the familiar voice, she looked to see
whether it was true that her husband had really risen from the dead,
and seeiug him before her she was overcome with joy.
After the young wife had told her husband how the Moose folk had
treated her people, he became greatly angered and threatened to
punish them in such a mauner that the Elk people would henceforth
be able to live in peace. He thereupon went into the woods to select
willow twigs with which to make arrowskafts, and wood for a bow,
and another piece to furnish him with a strong warclub. He spent
two days in this work, and when he had finished he had four very pow-
erful arrows which were to render him good service.
One day while the hunter was occupied near his wigwam he heard
some one coming through the brush. Looking in the direction whence
came the sound of cracking twigs, he saw a young Moose who had
come to take his wife. When the Moose saw that the hunter was there
and prepared to protect his wife, he ran away as fast as he could, but
the huuter was enraged aud immediately ran into the wigwam, grasped
his weapons aud followed the Moose to punish him.
The Moose people heard that something unusual was occurring, and
when they saw the young Moose returning at full speed toward their
settlement, followed by the hunter, they realized the danger they were
196 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.asx. u
in. The elder ones thereupon said to one another, "Here comes the
hunter, and he will now surely kill us all; let us leave this place and
take up our abode elsewhere." Then the Moose people started in a
body to escape, but the hunter attacked them, dealing death in every
direction, and following them until but two of them remained alive.
These he captured, the hunter saying to them. •• Now, you find your-
selves in this cedar swamp, where you must hereafter live and feed
upon the mosimiu (willows); this will be your food for all time."
While saying this to the Moose he placed some willow twigs to their
mouths to let them know how they tasted and what they thereafter
would have to subsist on.
Then the hunter returned to his wigwam, and his adopted people
were thenceforth left in peace.
THE YOUNG MAN AND THE BEARS
The youngest of the three brothers at whose home Ma'nabush had
been staying, and who had accomplished the exploits of destroying-
most of the ana'maqki'u and of restoring his two elder brothers to lib-
erty, now decided to go away, because both he and his sister feared
that the surviving bears of the ana'maqki'u would visit them and do
them injury in revenge for what the boy hunter had done to then-
people. The sister urged her brother to go, and gave him her shaki-
pan (a stone ornament which she wore in her hair) and a large handful
of blueberries. These things he was to use as she instructed him, at
a time which would come when every other means of self-preservation
failed.
The boy hunter still had her four arrows—the one with which he had
set afire a large tree, another with which he had broken open the stone
wigwam of the bear ana'maqki'u, and two others which were to become
of great use to him. Then he started away in a direction new to him,
to find a place where he might live in safety.
While he was leisurely going along one day, he heard behind him a
peculiar sound, as of many footsteps. Looking back, he beheld some
bears following him, and he at once realized that the ana'maqki'u had
discovered his trail, and that they were now in pursuit of him. lie
began to run, crying out, "What shall I do"? The ana'maqki'u have
found my tracks, and are after me ! " The country in which he was now
passing was an apparently endless prairie, with nothing growing upon
it but short grass; but as he flew onward he heard a voice, which
said, "So soon as the bears catch you they will kill you; now you must
use your arrows." Immediately the boy hunter remembered that he
had his weapons and the articles which his sister had given him. Tak-
ing an arrow from his quiver, he fixed it to his bowstring, and as he
was about to shoot it into the air before him he said to the arrow,
"When you come down, there shall be about you a copse covering an
area as wide as the range of an arrow. There I shall hide myself."
HOFFMAN THE MAGIC ARROWS 197
Away flew the arrow, and the moment it struck and entered the earth
there was a small hole in the ground, around which sprung up a dense
growth of brush. The little boy ran to the hole, crawled into it, and
then went to the edge of the brush, where he came up and hid by the
side of a tree which also had sprung out of the ground. As the bears
came to the spot where they had seen the boy disappear, they began to
tear up the brush until not a piece remained standing. Not finding
the hunter, the bears began to search for his last footprints, and finding
that they terminated at the hole made by the arrow they at once fol-
lowed him. As the bears were now in close pursuit of the boy, he
again disappeared in the ground and started away irntil he had got
quite a distance from the tree, when he again emerged and started to
run away along the prairie.
By the time the bears reached the tree where the boy had rested for
a moment, they were again delayed in trailing him, but they finally
succeeded in tracking him out to the prairie, where they espied him
running in the distance. They immediately set out in pursuit, but it
was a long time before they neared him. When the bears approached,
the hunter took his second arrow, and shooting it into the air before
him, said to it, "When you come down there shall be about you a copse
as wide as the range of an arrow. There I shall hide myself."
When the arrow descended and entered the earth there appeared a
dense undergrowth which completely hid the boy, who then went to
the hole, crawled into it, and traveled along in the ground until he had
passed beyond the end of the copse, where he emerged and hid by a
tree which also had sprung up.
As before, the bears were infuriated at the escape of the boy, and
tore up the brush in every direction in their search for him. Finally
they discovered the arrow hole, which they entered. Following the foot-
steps of the boy they soon found the place where he had taken refuge,
but before they reached him he found himself pursued, and, again div-
ing under the surface, he started away for some distance, when he
emerged from beneath the ground and started away over the prairie as
before. A second time were the bears baffled, and by the time they
found the footprints of the boy he was far off. They at once started in
pursuit, and as the boy began to tire a little the bears gained rapidly
on him, until he found that the only way to escape was to use his third
arrow. Taking the shaft from his quiver and fitting it to his bow-
string, he aimed upward into the air before him and said, "When you
come down there shall be about you a copse as wide as the range of an
arrow. There I shall hide myself."
The arrow descended, making a hole in the ground as before, and a
copse appeared all around it, hiding it from view. The boy at once
went down into the hole and away to the edge of the copse, where he
ascended to the surface and hid near one of the trees which had sprung
up at his command.
198 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.axn.u
When the bears reached the spot where the boy had disappeared
they were more angry than before, and soon tore np every bit of the
growing brush. They then discovered where his footprints ended, and
at once entered the arrow hole and followed him. When the boy heard
the bears following his tracks, he again disappeared beneath the sur-
face and did not emerge until he had traveled some distance along
under the prairie, when he once more came to the surface and ran with
all his might.
The bears were again delayed when they reached the tree where the
boy had rested, but after finding the course he had taken they started
in pursuit, ascending to the surface of the prairie, where they saw the
boy far in the distance.
The chase was a long one, and in time the boy began to tire and the
bears to gain on him, so that he was compelled to take his last arrow,
which he fixed to the string of his bow and shot into the air, saying,
"When you come down there shall be about you a marsh filled with
pe'onas'kinuk (cat-tails), from the middle of which there shall be a
trail; by that shall I escape."
When the arrow descended the boy found himself in the midst of a
large marsh, and from his feet forward a trail of firm ground, which
enabled him to continue running whilst the bears struggled in the mud
and amongst the cat-tails. After a while the bears also found the trail,
and renewed their pursuit of the boy, giving him no opportunity for a
moment's rest. As they neared him, the bears shouted, "We are now
close upon you, and in a short time we will catch you and kill you!"
Then the boy remembered the stone which his sister had given him, and
taking it out of his pouch he put it in a striyj of buckskin and slung it
round several times above his head, then threw it forward on the prairie,
saying, "As I sling this it will cause a long high rock to appear, upon
which I shall take refuge." The little stone bounded and rolled along
over the ground and suddenly became transformed into a steep, high
cliff with a flat top and with many loose stones lying about the edge.
As the boy reached the cliff he clambered to the summit and looked
over the edge to watch the bears. The bears ran around the base, look-
ing for the boy everywhere, and when they appeared beneath the boy,
he began to roll over the large loose stones upon them, killing a great
many and breaking the bones and otherwise disabling others. While
the unharmed bears, who were even more astonished at what had trans-
pired, went to look at their killed and wounded companions, the boy
hastily descended on the opposite side of the cliff and started out in a
new direction to escape.
After gazing awhile at their dead and wounded companions the
unmaimed bears began to look for the boy, but neither hearing nor
seeing him they suspected that he had escaped, and at once began to
search for footprints leading away from the rock. When these were
found, the bears followed in pursuit until they were almost certain of
capturing their enemy.
:
Hoffman] THE DEPARTURE OF MA'NABUSH 199
Now the bears had not eaten anything for a long time, and they
began to feel very hungry; but there was nothing in sight that they
could devour save the boy, so they tried their utmost to catch him,
and were slowly gaining on him when he remembered the blueberries
which his sister had given him. These he took from his pouch, and
threw them into the air, scattering them far and wide, and said, " When
you fall to the ground there shall be blueberries growing everywh re;
these will deliver me." When the berries fell, surely enough there
instantly appeared blueberry bushes laden with fruit, which caused the
bears to stoj). They were so eager to eat that they entirely forgot
the boy until they could eat no more; they then remembered what
they had contemplated doing when they first set out. One old bear,
observing dissatisfaction among his friends, said, "My brothers, we had
better give up the chase; the boy is merely a mystery. Let us stop
and live here, for here we shall have sufficient food without digging
for it." To this the rest of the bears assented ; so here they made their
home.
Shu'nien subsequently added the following relative to the exploits
of the boy hunter
Thus ended the troubles of the boy hunter. After escaping from the
ana'maqkl'u he continued to travel leisurely toward Wapaka, where he
made a large flat-top black rock, upon which is a large three-leg bowlder,
called, on account of this, Asanashoqkadet. At the base of this large
rock is a river, called Wapa'kase'pe (Wapaka river). Another thing
the boy hunter made near this place. He made a long high ridge,
which he covered with keuushi shikepui (dwarf willows). On this
ridge the boy hunter also placed a large three-leg rock.
At the mouth of the Wapa'kase'pe-—that is, where it empties into
Wolf river—are six tall pines, which were once people. They are called
Wapa'kaini'uv (Wapaka men).
Ma'nabush had remained at the wigwam with the young girl and her
two elder brothers for a long time, and he it was who had aided the
young hunter in successfully defeating the ana'maqkl'u—both at the
mountain when releasing his brothers, and afterward in himself escap-
ing them after he left his sister.
Ma'nabush now departed, and when he reached Ma'kiniik he made
a high narrow rock, which he placed leaning against the cliff. This
rock is as high as an arrow can be shot from a bow. At this place
Ma'nabush was seen by his people for the last time. Before taking
leave of them he said, "My friends, I am going to leave you now; I
have been badly treated—not by you, but by other people who live in
the land about you. I shall go toward the rising sun, across a great
water, where there is a land of rocks. There shall I take up my abode.
Whenever you build a mitii'wiko'mik and are there gathered together
you will think of me. When you mention my name I shall hear you.
200 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.akh.H
Whatever you may attempt in my name shall come to pass; and
whatever you may ask, that will I do.''
When MS'nabush had thus spoken to his friends, he got into a canoe
and disappeared over the great water toward the rising- sun.
THE BABBIT AND THE SAW-WHET
In the following myth the origin of day and night is accounted for,
as well as the selection, by various animals and birds, of the particular
kinds of food which they now eat. The cause of the bare neck and
head of the buzzard is also related, as this bird had an adventure with
Ma'nabfisli which was never forgotten.
One time as Wabus' (the rabbit) was traveling along through the
forest, he came to a clearing on the bank of a river, where he saw,
perched on a twig, Totoba, the Saw-whet owl. The light was obscure,
and the Rabbit could not see very well, so he said to the Saw-whet,
" Why do you want it so dark? 1 do not like it, so I will cause it to be
daylight." Then the Saw-whet said, " If you are powerful enough, do
so. Let us try our powers, and whoever succeeds may decide as he
prefers."
Then the Eabbit and the Owl called together all the birds and the
beasts to witness the contest, and when they had assembled the two
iuformed them what was to occur. Some of the birds and beasts
wanted the Rabbit to succeed, that it might be light; others wished the
Saw-whet to win the contest, that it might remain dark.
Then both the Rabbit and the Saw-whet began, the former repeating
rapidly the words "wa'bon, wa'bon" (light, light), while the Owl kept
repeating " uni'tipa'qkot, uni'tipa'qkot" (night, night). Should one of
them make a mistake and repeat his opponent's word, the erring one
would lose. So the Rabbit kept on saying, " wa'bon, wa'bon," and the
Saw-whet " uni'tipa'qkot, uni'tipa'qkot," each being watched and urged
by his followers; but finally the Owl accidentally repeated after the
Rabbit the word " wabon," when he lost and surrendered the contest.
The Rabbit then decided that it should be light; but he granted that
night should have a chance for the benefit of the vanquished. This
proving satisfactory, they decided that the various birds and beasts
should select the kind of food on which they would thereafter subsist.
The Rabbit saw Owa'sse (the bear), and asked him what food he
would select. The Bear replied, "I will select acorns and fruit as
my food." Then the Rabbit asked the Fish-hawk, "Fish-hawk, what
will you select as your food ?" The Fish-hawk responded, "I will take
that fellow lying in the water, the Sucker." Then the Sucker said,
"You may eat me if you are stronger than I, but that we must
decide." Then the Sucker swam out into the deepest part of the river
and lay on the bottom, where the Fish hawk could not reach him by
diving. The Fish-hawk then rose into the air and took such a position
hoffman] THE FOOD OF THE DEER 201
that his shadow fell on the spot where the Sucker had taken refuge.
While hovering thus the Fish-hawk saw the Sucker becoming restless,
and the latter, seeing the shadow of a large bird on the bed of the
stream, became alarmed at it, for he thought it might be some evil
ma'nido, and slowly rose toward the surface. This was just what the
Fish-hawk desired to accomplish, and so soon as the Sucker had come
within a short distance of the surface the Fish-hawk pounced on him,
caught him in his claws, and took him away to devour him.
The Rabbit then looked around him and espied Moqwai'o (the wolf),
and, calling him to come nearer, asked him, " Moqwai'o, what will you
select as your food?" The Wolf replied, "I will select the Deer." But
the Deer replied, " You can not eat me, because I am too fleet for you."
The Wolf said they would decide that, and both made preparations for
a race. The Deer sped away, followed by the Wolf. The latter still
wore his fur robe, hence the Deer gradually increased the space between
them after they had run for a great distance. The Wolf soon found
that he could not catch the Deer the way in which he was running, so
he threw off his robe, discharged a quantity of excrement, and bolted
ahead, soon capturing the Deer, which he ate.
Then another Deer—one of the same totem—was asked by the Rab-
bit: "Deer, what will you select as food?"
The Deer replied, "I will eat people; there are many Indians in the
country, and I will subsist on them."
"But," exclaimed the other birds \nd animals present, "the Indian
is too powerful; you will never be able to eat people."
" Well," returned the Deer, " I will select them anyhow." and started
away.
It happened that at one time when an Indian was out hunting in tho
forest he discovered the tracks of a deer, which made a large circuit
to the right. lie followed these tracks, and on returning to the place
at which he had first seen them he observed that they took a course
toward the left and made another large circuit. He followed the tracks
in this direction, and when he returned to the place where he had first
seen them he observed that a deer was following him; so he posted
himself at a place where he might get a good view of the animal.
The Deer was fully determined to catch the Indian and eat him, and
to accomplish this he pulled a rib from each of his sides and stuck
them into his lower jaw to represent tusks. The Deer came along
looking for the Indian, and when the latter saw the quadruped coming
toward him he raised his bow, and, pulling a strong arrow let it fly
with such force and precision as to pass entirely through its body.
The hunter then took the Deer and cut off the meat, which he carried
to his wigwam. Then the shade of the Deer went back to the gather-
ing of birds and animals, and told them what had happened. " You
see," said the Rabbit, "you are not strong enough to kill people for
food, so you will have to resort to grass and twigs."
202 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ann. 14
Then the birds and animals asked the Rabbit what he had selected
to eat, and the Rabbit replied, "I will subsist on poplar sprouts."
The Rabbit then asked the Sturgeon. "Sturgeon, what are you going
to select for your sustenance?"
•' I will live on the clay which you see here in the river," responded
the Sturgeon. This may be why the Sturgeon is so yellow.
Next the Rabbit said to the Buzzard, " Buzzard, what will you choose
for food?" The Buzzard replied, " I will live on fish and animals that
have died and become soft; they will be my food."
Thus the birds and beasts selected the various kinds of food on
which they were to live, and when the council was over each went his
own way.
While the Buzzard was soaring away through the air he saw Ma'na-
bush walking along. He flew a little toward the ground, with his
wings outspread, and heard Ma'nabush say to him, " Buzzard, you
must be very happy up there where you can soar through the air and
see what is transpiring in the world beneath. Take me on your back
so that I may ascend with you and see how it appears down here from
where you live." The Buzzard came down, and said, " Ma'nabush, get
on my back and I will take you up into the sky to let you see how the
world appears from my abode." Ma'nabush approached the Buzzard,
but seeing how smooth his back appeared said, "Buzzard, I am afraid
you will let me slide from your back, so you must be careful not to
sweep around too rapidly, that I may retain my place upon your back."
The Buzzard told Ma'nabush that he would be careful, although the
bird was determined to play a trick on him if possible. Ma'nabush
mounted the Buzzard and held on to his feathers as well as he could.
The Buzzard took a short run, leaped from the ground, spread his
wings and rose into the air. Ma'nabush felt rather timid as the Buz-
zard swept through the air, and as he circled around his body leaned
so much that Ma'nabush could scarcely retain his position, and he was
afraid of slipping off. Presently, as Ma'nabush was looking down
upon the broad earth below, the Buzzard made a sharp curve to one
side so that his body leaned more than ever. Ma'nabush, losing his
grasp, slipped off and dropped to earth like an arrow. He struck the
ground with such force as to knock him senseless. The Buzzard
returned to his place in the sky, but hovered around to see what would
become of Ma'nabush.
Ma'nabush lay a long time like one dead. When he recovered he saw
something close to and apparently staring him in the face. He could
not at first recognize it, but when he put his hands against the object
he found that it was his own buttocks, because he had been all doubled
up. He arose and prepared to go on his way, when he espied the
Buzzard above him, laughing at his own trickery.
Ma'nabush then said, "Buzzard, you have played a trick on me by
letting me fall, but as I am more powerful than you I shall revenge
Hoffman] THE STORY OF THE BUZZARD 203
myself."' The Buzzard then replied, "No, Ma'nabush, you will not do
anything of tbe kind, because you can not deceive me. I shall watch
you."
Ma'nabush kept on, and the Buzzard, not noticing anything peculiar
in the movements of Ma'nabush, flew on his way through the air.
Ma'nabush then decided to transform himself into a dead deer, because
he knew the Buzzard had chosen to subsist on dead animals and fish.
Ma'nabush then went to a place visible from a great distance and from
many directions, where he laid himself down and changed himself into
the carcass of a deer. Soon the various birds and beasts and crawl-
ing things that subsist on such food began to congregate about the
dead deer. The Buzzard saw the birds flying toward the place where
the body lay, and joined them. He flew around several times to see if
it was Ma'nabush trying to deceive him, then thought to himself, "No,
that is not Ma'nabush ; it is truly a dead deer." He then approached
the body and began to pick a hole into the fleshy part of the thigh.
Deeper and deeper into the flesh the Buzzard picked until his head and
neck were buried each time he reached in to pluck the fat from the
intestines. Without warning, while the Buzzard had his head com-
pletely hidden in the carcass of the deer, the deer jumped up and
pinched together his flesh, thus firmly grasping the head and neck of
the Buzzard. Then Ma'nabush said, "Aha! Buzzard, I did catch you
after all, as 1 told you I would. Now pull out your head." The Buz-
zard with great difficulty withdrew his head from the cavity in which
it had been inclosed, but the feathers were all pulled off, leaving his
scalp and neck covered with nothing but red skin. Then Ma'nabush
said to the bird, " Thus do I punish you for your deceitfulness; hence-
forth you will go through the world without feathers on your head and
neck, and you shall always stink because of the food you will be obliged
to eat." That is why the buzzard is such a bad-smelling fellow, and
why his head and neck are featherless.
ma'nabush and the birds
The following is a translation of a myth given by Nio'pet, and is a
variant of that furnished above by Shu'nien. The present narrative
also pretends to account for the origin of the word Winnebago.
While Ma'nabush was once walking along a lake shore, tired and
hungry, he observed a long, narrow sandbar, which extended far out
into the water, around which were myriads of waterfowl, so Ma'nabush
decided to have a feast. He had with him only his medicine bag;
so he entered the brush and hung it upon a tree, now called "Ma'nii-
bush tree," and procured a quantity of bark, which he rolled into a
bundle and placing it upon his back, returned to the shore, where he
pretended to pass slowly by in sight of the birds. Some of the Swans
and Ducks, however, recognizing Ma'nabush and becoming frightened,
moved away from the shore.
;
204 THE MENOJIINI INDIANS [eth.ann. u
One of the Swans called out, "Ho! Ma'nabiish, where are yon going?"
To this Ma'nabiish replied, ; 'l am going to have a song. As you may
see, I have all my songs with me." Ma'nabiish then called out to the
birds, "Come to me, my brothers, and let us sing and dance." The
birds assented and returned to the shore, when all retreated a short dis-
tance away from the lake to an open space where they might dance.
Ma'nabiish removed the bundle of bark from his back and placed it on
the ground, got out his singing-sticks, and said to the birds, "Now, all
of you dance around me as I drum ; sing as loudly as you can, and keep
your eyes closed. The first one to open his eyes will forever have them
red and sore." Ma'nabiish began to beat time upon his bundle of bark,
while the birds, with eyes closed, circled around him singing as loudly
as they could. Keeping time with one hand, Ma'nabiish suddenly
grasped the neck of a Swan, which he broke; but before he had kdled
the bird it screamed out, whereupon Ma'nabiish said, "That's right,
brothers, sing as loudly as you can." Soon another Swan fell a victim
then a Goose, and so on until the number of buds was greatly reduced.
Then the "Hell-diver," opening his eyes to see why there was less sing-
ing than at first, and beholding Ma'nabiish and the heap of victims,
cried out, "Ma'nabiish is killing us! Ma'nabiish is killing us!" and
immediately ran to the water, followed by the remainder of the birds.
As the "Hell-diver" was a poor runner, Ma'nabiish soon overtook
him, and said, "I won't kill you, but you shall always have red eyes
and be the laughing-stock of all the birds." With this he gave the
bird a kick, sending him far out into the lake and knocking off his
tail, so that the "Hell-diver" is red-eyed and tailless to this day.
Ma'nabiish then gathered up his birds, and taking them out upon the
sandbar buried them—some with their heads protruding, others with
the feet sticking out of the sand. He then built a fire to cook the
game, but as this would require some time, and as Ma'nabiish was tired
after his exertion, he stretched himself on the ground to sleep. In order
to be informed if anyone approached, he slapped his thigh and said to
it, "You watch the birds, and awaken me if anyone should come near
them." Then, with his back to the fire, he fell asleep.
After awhile a party of Indians came along in their canoes, and see-
ing the feast in store, went to the sandbar and pulled out every bird
which Ma'nabiish had so carefully placed there, but put back the heads
and feet in such a way that there was no indication that the bodies had
been disturbed. When the Indians had finished eating they departed,
taking with them all the food that remained from the feast.
Some time afterward, Ma'nabiish awoke, and, being very hungry,
bethought himself to enjoy the fruits of his stratagem. In attempting
to pull a baked swan from the sand he found nothing but the head and
neck, which he held in his hand. Then he tried another, and found
the body of that bird also gone. So he tried another, and then another,
but each time met with disappointment. Who could have robbed him?
hoffmak] THE ORIGIN OF WINNEBAGO 205
lit' thought. He struck his thigh and asked, ''Who has been here to
rob me of my feast; did I not command you to watch while I slept f"
His thigh responded, "I also fell asleep, as I was very tired ; but I see
some people moving rapidly away in their canoes; perhaps they were
the thieves. I see also they are very dirty and poorly dressed." Then
Ma'nabush ran out to the point of the sandbar, aud beheld the people
in their canoes, just disappearing around a point of land. Then he
called to them aud reviled them, calling them "Winnibe'go! Winni-
be'go!" And by this term the Menomini have ever since designated
their thievish neighbors.
A similar story concerning the exploits of Ma'nabush was related to
me by the Ojibwa of both White Earth and Red Lake, Minnesota. In
this story the short tail of the "hell-diver" (Podiceps) is accounted for.
A similar myth, obtained from the Selish, of Idaho, nominates the
coyote as the one to carry on his back the music, or rather " songs,"
with which he subsequently induces the birds to dance, succeeds in
pulling out the tail of the "hell-diver," and in giving the latter red eyes
in punishment for his curiosity.
KAKU'ENE, THE JUMPER, AND THE ORIGIN OP TOBACCO
The following myth was related by Nio'pet, and explains how the
Indians first obtained tobacco.
One day Ma'nabush was passing by a high mountain, when he detected
a delightful odor which seemed to come from a crevice in the cliffs.
On going closer he found the mountain inhabited by a giant who was
known to be the keeper of the tobacco. Ma'nabush then went to the
month of a cavern, which he entered, aud following the passage which
led down into the very center of the mountain he found a large chamber
occupied by the giant, who asked him in a very stern manner what he
wanted. Ma'nabush replied that he had come for some tobacco, but the
giant replied that he would have to come again in one year from that
time, as the ma'nidos had just been there for their smoke, and that the
ceremony occurred but once a year. Ma'nabush, on looking around
the chamber, observed a great number of bags filled with tobacco. One
of these he snatched aud with it darted out of the mountain, closely
pursued by the giant. Ma'nabush ascended to the mountain tops and
leaped from peak to peak, but the giant followed so rapidly that when
Ma'nabush reached a certain prominent peak, the opposite side of which
was a high vertical cliff, he suddenly laid flat on the rocks while the
giant leaped over him and down into the chasm beyond. The giant
was much bruised, but he managed to climb up the face of the cliff
until he almost reached the summit, where he hung, as all his finger-
nails had been worn off. Then Ma'nabush grasped the giant by the
back, and, drawing him upward, threw him violently to the ground and
: —
206 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eih.ann.14
said, "For your meanness you shall become Kaku'ene ('the jumper'
grasshopper), and you shall be known by your stained mouth. You
shall become the pest of those who raise tobacco."
Then Ma'nabush took the tobacco and divided it amongst his brothers
and younger brothers, giving to each some of the seed, that they might
never be without this plant for their use and enjoyment.
THE SEARCH FOE MA'NABTJSH
The following is the concluding myth relating to Ma'nabush, and it
purports to account for the place of his abode. It is based on the
myth related in connection with the ritual of the Mitii'wit. where the
seven hunters made a visit to Ma'nabush to ask favors. The follow-
ing tale was told by Shu'nien
One time, long after Ma'nabush had gone away from his people, an
Indian dreamed that Ma'nabush spoke to him. Then the Indian awoke,
and when daylight came he sought seven of his mita'T friends, the
chief ones of the Mitii'wit. Then they held a council among them-
selves, at which it was decided that they go in search of Ma'nabush
and make him a visit. The Indian who had dreamed of Ma'nabush
then blackened his face, and they all started away to the shore of the
great water, where they entered canoes and went toward the rocky
land, in the direction of the rising sun. After a long time they reached
the shore of the land where Ma'nabush dwelt. Getting out of their
canoes, which they pulled up on shore, they started to find his wig-
wam. They soon reached it, and, approaching the entrance, they
beheld Ma'nabush, who bade them enter. The door of the wigwam
moved up and down, and each time one of the Indians entered the
wigwam the door came down and closed the entrance, when it again
lifted to allow the next one to enter. When all had thus entered and
seated themselves about Ma'nabush, he said to them, "My friends, why
is it you have come so loug a journey to see me; what is it you wish?"
Then all save one responded, "Ma'nabush, we are very desirous of
procuring some hunting medicine, that we may be enabled to supply
our people with plenty of food."
"That you shall have," replied Ma'nabush; and, turning to the one
who had not joined in the request, said to him, "What is it that you
desire ?"
To this the Indian replied, "I do not desire hunting medicine, but I
wish you to give me everlasting life." Then Ma'nabush went to where
the Indian sat, and taking him up by the shoulders carried him to
where he usually slept, where he put him down, saying, "You shall be
a stone; thus you will be everlasting." The others, seeing what had
occurred, took leave of Ma'nabush and went down to the shore, where
they got into their canoes and returned home.
From the seven who returned we have this story of the abode of
Ma'nabush.
hoffmas] ACCOUNT OF NANABOOJOO 207
The following statement was given to the late Keverend Father
De Sinet 1 , by Potogojecs, a Potawatouii chief of reputed intelligence,
viz:
" Many of us believe that there are two Great Spirits who govern
the universe, but who are constantly at war with each other. Oue is
called the Kchemnito, that is, the Great Spirit; the other Mchemnito,
or the Wicked Spirit. The first is goodness itself, and his beneticeut
influence is felt everywhere; but tbe second is wickedness personified,
and does nothing but evil. Some believe that they are equally power-
ful, and through fear of the Wicked Spirit, offer to him their homage
and adoration. Others, again, are doubtful which of them should he
considered the more powerful, and accordingly endeavor to propitiate
both by offering to each an appropriate worship.
"A great manitou came on earth and chose a wife from among the
children of men. He had four sons at a birth ; the first born was called
Nanaboojoo, the friend of the human race, the mediator between man
and the < Treat Spirit; the second was named Ohipiapoos, the man of the
dead, who presides over the country of the souls; the third, Wabosso,
as soon as he saw the light, tied towards the north, where he was
changed into a white rabbit, and under that name is considered there
as a great manitou; the fourth was Cbakekenapok, the man of flint or
firestone. In coming into the world he caused the death of his mother.
"Nanaboojoo, having arrived at the age of manhood, resolved to
avenge the death of his mother (for among us revenge is considered
honorable) ; he pursued Chakekenapok all over the globe. Whenever
be could come within reach of his brother he fractured some member
of his body, and after several rencounters finally destroyed him by tear-
ing out his entrails. All fragments broken from the body of this man
of stone then grew up into large rocks; his entrails were changed into
vines of every species and took deep root in all the forests; the flint-
stones scattered around the earth indicate where the different combats
took place. Before fire was introduced among us, Nanaboojoo taught
our ancestors how to form hatchets, lances, and the points of arrows, in
order to assist us in killing our enemies in war and animals for our food.
Nanaboojoo and his brother Chipiapoos lived together retired from the
rest of mankind and were distinguished from all other beings by their
superior qualities of body and mind. The mauitous that dwell in the
air, as well as those who inhabit the earth and the waters, envied the
power of these brothers and conspired to destroy them. Nanaboojoo
discovered and eluded their snares and warned Chipiapoos not to sepa-
rate himself from him a single moment. Notwithstanding this admoni-
tion, Ohipiapoos ventured alone one day upon Lake Michigan; the
mauitous broke the ice and he sank to the bottom, where they hid the
body. Nanaboojoo became inconsolable when he missed his brother
from his lodge; he sought him everywhere in vain; he waged war
•
1 Oregon Missions and Travels over the Rock; Mountains, in 1845-46, New York, 1847, pp. 344, 345.
208 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ann.14
against all the manitous and precipitated an infinite number of tbeui
into the deepest abyss. He then wept, disfigured bis person, and cov-
ered his head as a sign of Ins grief during six years, pronouncing from
time to time in sad and mournful tones, the name of the unhappy
Chipiapoos.
" While this truce continued, the manitous consulted upon the means
best calculated to appease the anger of Nanaboojoo, without, however,
coming to any conclusion; when four of the oldest and wisest, who had
had no hand in the death of Chipiapoos, offered to accomplish the dim-
cult task. They built a lodge close to that of Nanaboojoo, prepared an
excellent repast, and tilled a calumet with the most exquisite tobacco.
They journeyed in silence towards their redoubted enemy, each carrying
under his arm a bag. formed of the entire skin of some animal—an otter,
a lynx, or a beaver—well provided with the most precious medicines (to
which, in their superstitious practices, they attach a supernatural
power). With many kind expressions they begged that he would con-
descend to accompany them. He arose immediately, uncovered his
head, washed himself, and followed them. When arrived at their lodge,
they ottered him a cup containing a dose of their medicine, preparatory
to his initiation. Nauaboojoo swallowed the contents at a single draft,
and found himself completely restored. They then commenced their
dances and their songs; they also applied their medicine bags, which,
after gently blowing them at him, they would then cast on the ground.
At each fall of the medicine bag, Nanaboojoo perceived that his melan-
choly, sadness, hatred, and anger disappeared, and affectious of au
opposite nature took possession of his soul. They all joined in the
dance and song—they ate and smoked together. Nauaboojoo thanked
them for having initiated him into the mysteries of their grand medicine.
" The manitous brought back the lost Chipiapoos, but it was forbid-
den him to enter the lodge. He received, through a chink, a burning
coal, and was ordered to go and preside over the region of souls, and
there, for the happiness of his uncles and aunts—that is, for all men and
women who should repair thither—kindle with this coal a fire which
should never be extinguished.
".Nanaboojoo then redescended upon earth, and, by order of the
Great Spirit, initiated all his family in the mysteries of the grand
medicine. He procured for each of them a bag well furnished with
medicines, giving them strict orders to perpetuate these ceremonies
among their descendants, adding at the same time, that these practices,
religiously observed, would cure their maladies, procure them abun-
dance in the chase, and give them complete victory over their enemies.
(All their religion consists in these superstitious practices, dances, and
songs; they have the most implicit faith in these strange reveries.)
"Nanaboojoo is our principal intercessor with the Great Spirit. He
it was that obtained for us the creation of animals for our food and
raiment. He has caused to grow those roots and herbs which are
Hoffman] THE STORY OF NANABOOJOO 209
endowed with the virtue of curing our maladies, and of enabling us in
the time of famine to kill the wild animals. He has left the care of them
to Mesakkuminikokwi, the great-grandmother of the human race; and
in order that we should never invoke her in vain, it has been strictly
enjoined on the old woman never to quit the dwelling. Hence, when
an Indian makes a collection of roots and herbs which are to serve
him as medicines, he deposits at the same time on the earth a small
offering to Mesakkuminikokwi. During his different excursions over
the surface of the earth, Nanaboojoo killed all such animals as were
hurtful to us, as the mastodon, the mammoth, etc. He has placed four
beneficial spirits at the four cardinal points of the earth for the pur-
pose of contributing to the happiness of the human race. That of the
north procures for us ice and snow, in order to aid us in discovering
and following the wild animals. That of the south gives us that which
occasions the growth of our pumpkins, melons, maize, and tobacco.
The spirit placed at the west gives us rain, and that of the east gives
us light and commands the sun to make, his daily walks around the
globe. The thunder we hear is the voice of spirits, having the form
of large birds, which Nanaboojoo has placed in the clouds. When
they cry very loud, we burn some tobacco in our cabins to make them
a smoke-offering and appease them.
"Nanaboojoo yet lives, resting himself after his labors upon an
immense flake of ice in the Great Lake (the North Sea). We fear that
the whites will one day discover his retreat and drive him off'. Then
the end of the world is at hand, for as soon as he puts foot on the
earth the whole universe will take fire, and every living creature will
perish in the flames!"
This narrative, though brief, appears to touch a number of myths
related in the present memoir as pertaining directly to the Menomini,
which will be recognized by the reader.
FOLKTALES
The following myths do not relate to Ma'nabush, but are the folk-
tales recited by the old Indians during the long winter evenings to
account for various phenomena, instances of prowess, and combats with
the evil beings of the underworld or the ana'maqki'u. The accompany-
ing three myths were related by Shu'nien. The first one accounts for
the moon's phases; the second for the cause of the aurora borealis,
and the third relates to meteors.
THE MOON
Once on a time Ke'so, the Sun, and his sister, Tipii'ke'so, the Moon
("last-night sun") lived together in a wigwam in the east. The Sun
dressed himself to go hunting, took his bow and arrows and left. He
was absent such a long time that when his sister came out into the
sky to look for her brother she became alarmed. She traveled twenty
14 eth 14
210 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ann.h
days looking for the Sun; but finally he returned, bringing with him a
bear which he had shot.
The Sun's sister still comes up into the sky and travels for twenty
days; then she dies, aud for four days nothing is seen of her. At the
end of that time, however, she returns to life and travels twenty days
more.
The Sun is a being like ourselves. Whenever an Indian dreams of
him he plucks out his hair and wears an otter skin about his head, over
the forehead. This the Indian does because the Sun wears an otter skin
about his head. 1
THE AURORA BOREAL1S
Iii the direction of the north wind live the manabai'wok (giants), of
whom we have heard our old people tell. The manabai'wok are our
friends, but we do not see them any more. They are great hunters and
fishermen, and whenever they are out with their torches to spear flsh we
know it, because then the sky is bright over the place where they are.
METEORS
When a star falls from the sky, it leaves a fiery trail; it does not die,
but its shade goes back to the place whence it dropped to shine again.
The Indians sometimes find the small stars in the prairie where they
have fallen. They are of stone, and are round, with a spot in the cen-
ter, and four or five small points projecting from the surface. I have
myself found some of these fallen stars.
The following myths are self-explanatory and require no comment
except in instances where comparison with parallel myths of the Ojibwa
or other closely allied tribes may be of special value or interest. They
were obtained chiefly from Shu'nien, Xio'pet, Wai'os'kasit, and other
prominent Menomini, and to the ethnologist present some curious flights
of fancy.
The first is called Kita'mi, the Porcupine, or the punishment for dis-
respect and cruelty.
THE PORCUPINE
There was once a village in which dwelt two sisters who were con-
sidered the swiftest runners in the Menomini tribe. Toward the setting
sun was another village, though so far away that an ordinary walker
would have to travel two days to reach it. Once these two sisters
decided to visit the distant village; so, starting out, they ran at great
speed until nearly noon, when they came to a hollow tree lying across
the trail.
Snow was on the ground, and the sisters saw the track of a Porcu-
pine leading to the hollow of the trunk. Oue of them broke off a
stick and began to poke it into the cavity to make the Porcupine come
•Shu'nien stated that in his youth he had seen eight such dreamers who had plucked the hair from
the scalp and wore otter-skin bands about the head. The custom is now obsolete.
ii'ffman] STORY OF THE PORCUPINE 211
out, saying, "Let us have some fun with him." "No, my sister," said
the other, "he is a rua'nido, and we had better let him alone." The for-
mer, however, continued to drive the Porcupine farther and farther
through the trunk until at last he came out, when she caught him and
pulled all the long quills out of his body, throwing them in the snow.
The other remonstrated against such cruelty, for she thought it was
too cold to deprive the Porcupine of his robe. Then the girls, who had
wasted some time and still had a great distance to travel, continued
their running toward the village for which they were bound.
When they left the hollow log, the Porcupine crawled up a tall pine
tree until he reached the very top, where he faced the north and began
to shake before his breast his small tshi'saqka rattle, singing in time to
its sound. Soon the sky began to darken and the snow to fall, while
the progress of the girls, who were still running along, became more
and more impeded by the constantly increasing depth of snow.
One of the sisters looked back and saw the Porcupine on the treetop,
using his rattle. Then she said to her sister who had plucked out his
quills, "My sister, let us go back to our own village, for I fear some
harm will befall us."
"No; let us go on," replied her companion, "we need not fear the
Porcupine." As the depth of the snow impeded their progress, they
rolled up their blankets and continued the journey.
The day was drawing to a close and the sisters had not yet reached
a point from which they could see the village they were striving to
reach. Traveling on, they came to a stream which they recognized as
being near the village, but night had come on, and the snow was now
so deep that they were compelled by exhaustion to stop. They could
hear the voices of the people in the village, but could not call loud
enough to be heard ; so they perished in the snow which the Porcupine
had caused to fall. One should never harm the Porcupine, because he
is a tshi'saqka and a ma'nido.
THE RACCOON
One time the Raccoon went into the woods to fast and to dream. He
dreamed that some one said to him, " When you awaken, you must
paint your face and body with bands of black and white; that will be
your own."
When the Raccoon awoke, he went and painted liimself as he had
been told to do, and so we see him even at this day.
THE RACCOON AND THE BLIND MEN
The following tale represents the raccoon as the mischief maker, as
the annual of like propensities among other tribes is the coyote.
There was a large settlement on the shore of a lake, and among its
people were two very old blind men. It was decided to remove these
212 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [bth.ann.14
men to the opposite side of the lake, where they might live in safety,
as the settlement was exposed to the attack of enemies, when they
might easily be captured and killed. So the relations of the old men
got a canoe, some food, a kettle, and a bowl and started across the
lake, where they built for them a wigwam in a grove some distance
from the water. A line was stretched from the door of the wigwam to
a post in the water, so that they would have no difficulty in helping
themselves. The food and vessels were put into the wigwam, and
after the relations of the old men promised them that they would call
often and keep them provided with everything that was needful, they
returned to their settlement.
The two old blind men now began to take care of themselves. On
one day one of them would do the cooking wbile the other went for
water, and on the next day they would change about in their work, so
that their labors were evenly divided. As they knew just how much
food they required for each meal, the quantity prepared was equally
divided, but was eaten out of the one bowl which they had.
Here they lived in contentment for several years; but one day a
Raccoon, which was following the water's edge looking for crawfish,
came to the line which had been stretched from the lake to the wigwam.
The Raccoon thought it rather curious to find a cord where he had not
before observed one, and wondered to himself, "What is this? I think
I shall follow this cord to see where it leads." So he followed the
path along which the cord was stretched until he came to the wigwam.
Approaching very cautiously, he went up to the entrance, where he
saw the two old men asleep on the ground, their heads at the door and
their feet directed toward the heap of hot coals witliiu. The Raccoon
sniffed about and soon found there was something good to eat within
the wigwam; but he decided not to enter at once for fear of waking the
old men ; so he retired a short distance to hide himself and to see what
they would do.
Presently the old men awoke, and one said to the other, "My friend,
lam getting hungry; let us prepare some food." "Very well," replied
his companion, "you go down to the lake and letch some water while
I get the fire started."
The Raccoon heard this conversation, and, wishing to deceive the
old man, immediately ran to the water, untied the cord fiom the post,
and carried it to a clump of bushes, where he tied it. When the old
man came along with his kettle to get water, he stumbled around the
brush until he found the end of the cord, when he began to dip his
kettle down upon the ground for water. Not finding any, he slowly
returned and said to his companion, "We shall surely die, because the
lake is dried up and the brush is grown where we used to get water.
What shall we do?"
"That can not be," responded his companion, "for we have not been
asleep long enough for the brush to grow upon the lake bed. Let me
hoffman] RACCOON AND THE BLIND MEN 213
go out to try if I can not get some water." So taking the kettle from
Lis friend he started off.
So soon as the first old man had returned to the wigwam, the Rac-
coon took the cord back and tied it where he had found it, then waited
to see the result.
The second old man now came along, entered the lake, and getting
his kettle full of water returned to the wigwam, saying as he entered,
"My friend, you told me what was not true. There is water enough;
for here, you see, I have our kettle full." The other could not under-
stand this at all, and wondered what had caused the deception.
The Raccoon approached the wigwam and entered to await the cook-
ing of the food. When it was ready, the pieces of meat, for there were
eight of them, were put into the bowl and the old meu sat down on
the ground facing each other, with the bowl between them. Each took
a piece of the meat, and they began to talk of various things and were
enjoying themselves.
The Raccoon now quietly removed four pieces of meat from the bowl
and began to eat them, enjoying the feast even more than the old blind
men. Presently one of them reached into the bowl to get auother piece
of meat, and finding that only two pieces remained, said, "My friend,
you must be very hungry to eat so rapidly; I have had but one piece,
and there are but two pieces left."
The other replied, " I have not taken them, but suspect you have
eaten them yourself;" whereupon the other replied more angrily than
before. Thus they argued, and the Raccoon, desiring to have more
sport, tapped each of them on the face. The old men, each believing
the other had struck him, began to fight, rolling over the floor of the
wigwam, upsetting the bowl and the kettle, and causing the fire to be
scattered. The Raccoon then took the two remaining pieces of meat
and made his exit from the wigwam, laughing ha, ha, ha, ha; whereupon
the old men instantly ceased their strife, for they now knew they had
been deceived. The Raccoon then remarked to them, " I have played a
nice trick on you; you should not find fault with each other so easily."
Then the Raccoon continued his crawfish-hunting along the lake shore.
shika'ko, the skunk
The following is an account of how the skunk is alleged to have made
some hunting medicine, the effect of the vegetal ingredients being as
overpowering as the offensive liquid with which this animal is said
to have killed the oak.
The Skunk was once a larger animal than he now is. He was as
large as a hill, but he gradually became smaller and smaller; and as
his size kept diminishing, he determined to make a strong hunting-
medicine—one that would give him skill in killing great game and
plenty of it. He hunted around to find the plants he required for his
214 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ann.H
medicine, aud succeeded iu obtaining four. These were mosh'kikwas,1
pina'sse-oshet,2 as'kaa'qpuku,3 aud isha'wasket.4
When he had gathered a small bundle of each of these plants—they
altogether being as much as he could grasp in his hand—he pounded
them very flue. Then, when the medicine was prepared, he put it in a
little pouch which he always carried with him wherever he went.
One day, when he found himself near a large oak, he thought he
would test the medicine which he had made. So he took a pinch of
tbe powder out of the pouch, put it in some water, aud drank it. Then,
to make the medicine still more effective, he sang, "Who is going out
hunting, for I go out to hunt !"
Then the Skunk faced the oak, and shot at the roots—not with an
arrow, but with a foul smelling liquid, which, when it struck the tree,
caused it to be consumed to ashes.
The hunting medicine that was made by the Skuuk is the same that
we make to this day.
THE CATFISH
Once when the Catfish were assembled in the water an old chief said
to them, " I have often seen a Moose come to the edge of the water to
eat grass; let us watch for him, and kill aud eat him. He always comes
when the sun is a little way up in the sky."
The Catfish who heard this agreed to go and attack the Moose; so
they went to watch. They were scattered everywhere among the grass
and rushes, when the Moose came slowly along picking grass. He
waded down into the water, where he began to feast. Tbe Catfish all
watched to see what the old chief would do, and presently one of them
worked his way slowly through the grass to where the Moose's leg was,
wheu he thrust his spear into it. Then the Moose said, " What is it
that has thrust a spear into my leg?" and looking down he saw the
Catfish, when he immediately began to trample upon them with his
hoofs, killing a great number of them, while those that escaped swam
down the river as fast as they could. The C'ltfish still carry spears, but
their heads have never recovered from the flattening they received wheu
they were trampled by the Moose into the mud.
THE FIRST MEETING OF THE MENOMINI AND THE WHITES
The first meeting between the Indians and whites is accounted for
in the following story, told by Waios'kasit, and iu this instance, as in
like tales of other tribes, liquor is referred to as having been given to
the Indian to make him temporarily demented.
When the Menomini lived on the shore of the sea,5 they one day were
looking out across the water and observed some large vessels, which
1 An aquatic plant found in cedar swamps.
2 The word signifies eagle-leg, and refers to a prairie plant bearing yellow flowers.
3 An aquatic plant, growing to the height of about 4 feet, the roots of which are used.
4 Also an aquatic plant.
5 Trobably Lake Michigan is here referred to.
hofkman] MEETING WITH THE WHITES 215
were near to them and wonderful to behold. Suddenly there was a
terrific explosion, as of thunder, which startled the people greatly.
When the vessels approached the shore, men with light-colored skin
landed. Most of them had hair on their faces, and they carried on
their shoulders heavy sticks ornamented with shining metal. As the
strangers came toward the Indians the latter believed the leader to be
a great ma'uido, with liis companions.
It is customary, when offering tobacco to a ma'nido, to throw it into
the lire, that the fumes may ascend to him and that he may be inclined
to grant their request; but as this light-skin ma'nido came in person
the chief took some tobacco and rubbed it on his forehead. The
strangers appeared desirous of making friends with the Indians, and
all sat on the ground and smoked. Then some of the strangers brought
from the vessel some parcels which contained a liquid, of which they
drank, finally offering some to the Menomini. The Indians, however,
were afraid to drink such a pungent liquor indiscriminately, fearing it
would kill them; therefore four useless old men were selected to drink
the liquor, and thus to be experimented on, that it might be found
whether the liquid would kill them or not.
The men drank the liquid, and, although they had previously been
very silent and gloomy, they now began to talk and to grow amused.
Their speech flowed more and more freely, while the remainder of the
Indians said, "See, now it is beginning to take effect!" Presently the
four old men arose, and while walking about seemed very dizzy, when the
Indians said, " See, now they are surely dying!" Presently the men
dropped down and became unconscious; then the Indians said to one
another, " Now they are dead; see what we escaped by not drinking
the liquid!" There were sullen looks directed toward the strangers,
and murmurings of destroying them for the supposed treachery were
heard.
Before things came to a dangerous pass, however, the four old men
got up, rubbed their eyes, and approached their kindred, saying, "The
liquor is good, and we have felt very happy; you must try it too."
Notwithstanding the rest of the tribe were afraid to drink it then, they
recalled the straugers, who were about to return to their boats.
The chief of the strangers next gave the Indians some flour, but they
did not know what to do with it. The white chief then showed the
Indians some biscuits, and told them how they were baked. When that
was over, one of the white men presented to an Indian a gun, after fir-
ing it to show how far away anything could be killed. The Indian was
afraid to shoot it, fearing the gun would knock him over, but the stran-
ger showed the Indian how to hold it and to point it at a mark; then
pulling the trigger it made a terrific noise, but did not harm the Indian
at all, as he had expected. Some of the Indians then accepted guns
from the white strangers.
Next the white chief brought out some kettles and showed the Indi-
ans how to boil water in them. But the kettles were too large and too
216 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [ETH.jum.14
heavy to carry about, so the Indians asked that they be given small
ones—cups as large as a clinched list, for they believed they would
grow to be large ones by and by.
The Indians received some small cups, as they desired, when the
strangers took their departure. But the cups never grew to be kettles.
HOW THE HUNTER DESTROYED THE SNOW
There was a family of four persons—a hunter, his wife, and two
children—who dwelt in one wigwam. The hunter each day went out
for game, and he usually returned with all that he could carry. He con-
tinued these successful hunting excursions throughout the autumn aud
until the middle of winter; but one day, while in the woods, far from his
wigwam, Kon (the snow) froze the. hunter's feet so badly that he could
scarcely get along. He felt very sad that he was so injured by the Cold,
and to punish him he made a large wooden bowl, which he filled with
Snow, and buried it in a deep hole where the midday sun could shine
down on it and where the Snow could not run away. He then covered
the hole with sticks and leaves to hold the Snow a prisoner until summer.
When midsummer came, the hunter went out to the place where he
had buried the Snow, and, removing the covering, permitted the sun to
shine down on it and cause it to melt. Thus he punished the Snow;
but when autumn came again and he was one day in the forest, he
heard someone say to him, " You punished me last summer, but when
winter comes I will show you how strong I am."
The hunter well knew that it was Kon who had thus addressed him,
and, taking care to provide himself against cold weather, he at once built
another wigwam, near to the one he occupied, and filled it with fire-
wood. The season changed and the winter came again. One day when
the hunter was out in the woods, he heard some one speaking, and, lis-
tening, heard the words, "Now I am coming to visit you, as I told you
I should do; I shall be at your wigwam in four days."
When the hunter returned to his wigwam, he got more wood ready,
and built a fire at each end of his wigwam. After four days had passed
by, it began to get very cold, and everything became frozen. The hunter
replenished the fires with the wood he had gathered, and got out more
robes to cover his wife and children. On the morning of the fifth day
the cold became more and more intense, in consequence of which the
hunter and his family could scarcely keep from perishing. Toward
night the hunter, on looking out the door of the wigwam, saw approach-
ing a stranger who seemed to look like any ordinary being, save that he
had a very large head and an immense beard. When he came to the
wigwam, the hunter asked him to enter, which he did, but strangely
enough he would not go near either of the fires. This puzzled the hunter,
and he began to watch the stranger. As the cold became even greater
after the stranger entered the wigwam, the hunter went to his fires and
added more wood until they roared. As the hunter was thus engaged,
hoffman] DESTRUCTION OF THE SNOW 217
he kept watching- the stranger, who appeared to be getting rather warm.
The perspiration began to break out upon his forehead and trickle down
through his beard. The stranger appeared to get wanner and warmer,
and in a short time the hunter saw his head and body diminishing in
size, because he was thawing. The hunter was pleased at this, and
kept up his fires until he had entirely melted the Snow, for it was he
who had come to destroy the hunter and his family. But man is
more powerful than Gold, and thus Kon perished.
THE BEAR AMD THE EAGLE
In the following it would appear that the mythic circumstance
alluded to transpired shortly after the creation of the several totems,
but special reference is made to an instance in which Kine'fr', the
Golden-eagle, became angered at the Owa'sse (bear) chief and called
him A'kwine'mi, his former name having been Sheka'tshokwe'inau.
The latter is the "Old Chief" or "Old King," whose name first appears
at the time of the conspiracy of Pontiac, and the tale appears, therefore,
to be of later creation.
One time the Kin6'iiT and his people lived on the southern shore of
the Mi'nika'nise'pe, ' while the Owa'sse and his people lived on the
northern shore of that stream. Although the Kiue'fr and the Owa'sse
lived on opposite shores, they were some distance apart.
Above the camp of the Kine'uT was a waterfall where fish were
caught. The Bear, who lived nearer the mouth of the river, becoming
jealous, built a dam across the river to prevent the fish from farther
ascending the stream. When the fish did not ascend the river at the
proper time, the Kiue'fr begau to suffer from want of food, and many,
indeed, died of starvation. The Kine'uv then asked his son to go down
to the camp of the Owa'sse and ask him to remove the dam, that the
fish might be permitted to ascend the river and his people no longer be
compelled to suffer.
The son of Kine'fr went to the Owa'sse, as he had been requested,
and asked that the dam be removed, that the fish might ascend the
river and relieve his starving people. The Owa'sse appeared to acqui-
esce in this request, and told the son of Kine'iV that all would be done
as he had asked. But next morning Owa'sse heated a piece of metal
in the fire; then, calling to the son of Kine'fr', he said, "You may
return to your camp now; the fish will follow," and as the boy came
toward Owa'sse he was grasped by him, who thrust the hot metal rod
through the skin of the boy's forehead, leaving a great wound there.
The boy went home with his robe over his head and shoulders in order
to hide the wound, and immediately entered his wigwam, where he sat
down, silent and meditating. Kin6'uv soon entered the wigwam, and,
on observing his son, said to him, "My son, were you successful in your
1 Now known as Menomini river.
218 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ann.U
" Yes, my father," responded the boy, " the fish are coming up; but
see what I got from the Owa'sse." The son then threw back his robe,
exposing the wound he had received. The Kine'fr became terribly
angry, and called the chief of the Owa'sse, A'kwiue'mi, his former
name having been Skeka'tskokwe'mau. Henceforth the chief of the
Kine'fr assumed the name of We"skine'uT.
Then We"skine'uv sent word to A'kwine'mi that he would destroy
him and his people for the insult and injury inflicted on his son. The
two parties soon met in battle, when We"skine'uv jumped upon the
back of A'kwine'mi and bound him with cords, the victors assisting.
He was tied in such manner that should he struggle he would choke
himself; therefore A'kwine'mi remained motionless. After the defeat
of the people of We"skine'uv by those of A'kwine'mi, the boy's father
approached the captive chief again and said, " We wanted to eat fish,
but you filled my son with fire; now I shall fill you with fish"—where-
upon he called together the nomii'suk (fish) and filled the body of
A'kwine'mi with them.
The people of A'kwiue'mi, knowing that they could no longer reside
in peace with the Kine'ir, left the place of their abode and traveled
westward, their victors pursuing them for a long distance and killing
many of the people.
At the time that A'kwine'mi and his people reached the Ma'sikse'pe
(the Mississippi), there was warfare between many other nations who
dwelt in that country. The bones of the slain are even at this day
found when the Indians dig for roots and other substances from which
they make medicines.
Some of the Owa'sse people who escaped from the Kine'iiv afterward
went toward the south, and are still living somewhere in that direction. 1
Wc"skinc'uv and his people then took possession of all the country
around the course of the Ma'sikse'pe, and long lived in peace.
One time the chief A'kwine'mi visited the camp of the Kiue'uv to
offer a pipe, that they might smoke and make peace. He camped on the
opposite side of the river, but called across to We'<skine'u v , saying,
"You defeated us, and now the country is yours. Let us return here
sometimes, and let us be friends henceforth."
Then We' l skine'uT replied, " Let it be as you wish, my brother-in-law."
So peace was declared, and both camps remained near together.
From these two camps—the Kine'uv and the Owa'sse—the Menomini
people are descended.
miqka'no, the turtle
There was a large camp in which Miqka'no, the Turtle, took up his
abode. He built a wigwam, but had no one to take care of his property
and to work for him, so he thought he would look around among the
Shu'nien says he has heard Osages say that there are supposed Menomini near the country occu-
pied by them in Indian territory. The people referred to are doubtless some closely allied trihe of
the same stock, possibly Ottawa.
hoffma-] ADVENTURES OF THE TUKTLE 219
youiig woruen and select a wife. Finding a woman whom be thought
he would like, he asked her to be his wife, but she replied, " How are you
goiug to provide for a family ".—you can not keep up with the rest of the
people when they move."
To this the Turtle replied, "I can keep up with the best of your
people."
The woman, to delay the marriage as long as possible, then agreed to
marry the Turtle in the spring. At this he was vexed, so, in order to
get away for some time to meditate, he told her, "I shall go to war and
take some captives, and when I return in the spring, I shall expect you
to marry me."
The Turtle then made preparations to depart. Calling together all
his friends, the Turtles, he left the camp followed by a curious throng.
The woman who had promised to marry the Turtle, but who really had
uo intention of doing so, watched the Turtles as they went away, and
laughed heartily because they moved so slowly. When the Turtle saw
this expression of merriment, he said to his promised spouse, "In four
days from now you will surely mourn for me, because I shall be a great
distance from you."
"Why," responded the girl, "in four days from this time you will
scarcely be out of sight!"
Thereupon the Turtle corrected himself by saying, "I did not mean
four days, but four years; then I shall return."
The Turtles, continuing to travel, came one day to the trunk of a large
tree lying across their path. Then the Turtle said to his companions,
"This we can not pass unless we go around it, and that will take too
long; what shall we do?"
Some of the others then said, "Let us burn a hole through the
trunk;" but in this they did not succeed. They therefore were com-
pelled to turn homeward, but it took them a long time ere they neared
the village wheuce they had set out. To give their return the appear-
ance of a successful excursion, they set up a war song. The villagers
heard them and went out to see what spoils were to be had, but when
they got near, the Turtles each grasped someone by the wrist, saying,
"We take you prisoners; you are our spoils." The people who were
thus captured were angry and determined to avenge the insult. The
chief of the Turtles happened to capture his betrothed, and he said
to her, "Now that I have you I shall keep you."
It was necessary to organize a dance to celebrate the victory over the
villagers, and when the time arrived everybody had donned his best
clothing. While the Turtle sang, the participants kept going around,
dancing, until the Turtle repeated the words, "Whoever comes here to
see me will die; will die; will die."
At this the dancers became alarmed, and gathering up their clothes
and other things returned to the village. They were frightened, for
they did not know what to expect next. The Turtle remained for some
220 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.axn.u
time before returning to the village, arriving there much later, because
he could not travel so fast. Then, when everybody had gone from his
camp, some oue approached him and said, "That Turtle-woman who
was to become your wife is married to another man."
•'Is that true?" said the Turtle; "let me see him."
The Turtle was already on his way to the village, where he arrived
at night, and immediately began to search for his promised wife. He
was gaily dressed, and his fringe and ornaments rattled as he walked
along. The woman for whom he was searching recognized the noise as
being made by the oue she had deceived. As he approached her wig-
wam he saw evidence of the presence of a man, so he called loud enough
for those within to hear, " Now, my friend, I am coming for the woman
who promised to be my wife."
The man whom the woman had married during the. Turtle's absence
then said to his wife, "Here comes the Turtle; now what is to be
done!"
" I shall take care of that," replied his wife.
The Turtle grasped the woman by the side and said, " Come along
with me; you belong to me," but she resisted, saying, " You broke your
promise." The husband also spoke, saying to the Turtle, "You
promised to go to war and bring back some prisoners, which you failed
to do."
" I did go, and returned with a number of them," angrily retorted
the Turtle, who drew his knife from its sheath and then said, "I will
cut her in two; you take one-half of her while I take the other. Both
of us shall then be satisfied." The husband, rather than have his wife
harmed, delivered her, wheu she was forcibly taken away by the
Turtle, followed by a long line of his people.
When the Turtle arrived at his own wigwam, the woman began to
meditate and to devise a plan by which she could get rid of the Turtle.
Eememberiug that one of her friends had a large kettle, she went to
borrow it, and when she had brought it back, she filled it with water to
boil. When the Turtle saw this, he became mistrustful, and asked her,
"What are you doing there?"
She answered, saying, "I am warming some water; do you know how
to swim?"
The Turtle replied that he knew how to swim, whereupon his wife
said:
"I thought you might want to wash; 1 can get at your back and
wash the mud from it."
The Turtle then said, " I have been in the mud and water so much
that I should like to have my back washed."
Then the woman grasped the Turtle by the shell and carrying him to
the kettle of boiling water dropped him in. He died almost instantly
and sank to the bottom, with his belly uppermost. The other Turtles,
his people, seeing their leader go into the kettle, followed him, and
—
hoffman] DESTRUCTION OF THE TURTLE 221
also were killed. This was the last of the Turtle and his curious band
of followers.
Then the woman returned to her husband from whom the Turtle had
stolen her.
THE RABBIT AND THE PANTHER
The Rabbit was a great boaster, and as he wanted to have a mita'-
wiko'mik of his own, and pretend to be a mitii", which he was not, he
accomplished his own destruction.
One day Wabus', the Rabbit, and his wife, in their travels, came to a
low hill covered with poplar sprouts, and, as they were green and
tender, the Rabbit decided to remain and make the place his abode.
So he went to the top of the hill, and making trails diverging in every
direction, that he might see anyone who approached, he built a wig-
wam where all the trails came together. This was a mitii'wiko'mik, and
the Rabbit wanted to have a dance. When the wigwam was finished,
the Rabbit told his wife he was going to dance; but he first ran all
around the hill to see if anyone had been about to watch for him, but
finding no trail he returned and began his song. As the Rabbit
returned to the wigwam, Pishe'u, the Panther, happened to come
along at the base of the hill where the Rabbit had just paused. Find-
ing here the Rabbit's trail, the Panther followed it until he reached the
place where the Rabbit and his wife were dancing by themselves
in their mitii'wiko'mik. Here the Panther remained to watch for the
Rabbit to come out again.
The Rabbit told his wife to sit at one end of the mitii'wiko'mik, while
he himself went to the other. Taking his medicine bag, he approached
his wife four times, chanting ye' ha-a a-a, ye' ha-a-a-a, ye' ha-a-a-a, yC
ha-a-a-a; then he shot at his wife, just as a mita'v does when he shoots
a new member. Then she got up and shot at her husband, and thus
they had a joyous time all by themselves. Theu the Rabbit sang
Pi"sliiuwiv wi<ikwt"''yaqsik' encla'se tshiq'tshlkwoqkwan'dean,
Nema'hanta nakama',
NemsVhauta nakama'.
Which means: "If the Panther comes across my track while I am
biting the bark from the poplars, he will not be able to catch me, for I
am a good runner."
When he had finished his song, the Rabbit told his wife he would go
out hunting. The Panther saw the Rabbit depart, and awaited his
return.
When the Rabbit started on his return, he felt very happy, but as he
reached the place where the Panther lay concealed the latter got out
into the trail, where the Rabbit saw him and started back on the trail
as fast as he could run. The Panther started in pursuit, and overtak-
ing the Rabbit said, "You are the one who said I could not catch you;
222 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [etb.ann.14
who is now the better runner?" Before the Rabbit could reply, the
Panther caught him by the neck, crushing it with his teeth, and kill-
ing him.
Thus ended the career of the boastful Rabbit.
THE BEAVER HUNTER AND HIS SISTER
There were two orphans, brother and sister, who lived alone; but
they got along pretty well, as the young man was a good hunter. He
caught many beaver, on whose meat they subsisted, while the girl
dressed the skins, from which she prepared clothing and robes.
One time the young man went away from the wigwam to hunt, while
his sister sat within combing her hair and making herself appear neat
and pleasing for her brother's return. While thus engaged she heard
footsteps, and looking toward the entrance of the wigwam she observed
a man approaching. When he came near, he asked of her, "Where is
your husband; are you not married?"
As the girl appeared to pay no attention to this, the stranger spoke
agaiu, saying, " Do you hear what I say?—are you married?—where is
your husband? I came across a man's trail near this wigwam, and
thought it might have been made by your husband." But the girl
maintained silence, and after a short time the stranger went away
In the evening her brother returned, bringing home some beaver as
usual, and on the following morning he again went away to hunt. His
sister did not say anything to him about the stranger's visit, thinking
it might have been some one who had come there accidentally.
The young man had not gone very far from home when the stranger
again appeared at the door of the wigwam. His sister was dressing
the beaver skins when he approached, and she continued at her work
as if unaware of his presence. Soon the stranger said, "You are mar-
ried, are you not! Where is your husband! I saw footprints about
this wigwam and thought they might have been made by him."
As the girl paid no attention to these words, the man got angry and
blew out her fire, scattering the coals and ashes over everything. Then
he left her as abruptly as he had appeared, laughing until he was out
of sight of the wigwam. After the man had departed, the girl took her
robe, and putting it over her head, sat in the corner of the wigwam to
ponder over the indignity to which she had been subjected.
Thus was the girl found by her brother when he returned from the
hunt. As he entered the wigwam and saw his sister sitting silently
and everything about her dusty and disarranged, he said to her, "My
sister, what has happened to you?"
To this she replied, "A stranger came to the wigwam yesterday and
asked me if I was married and where my husband was. Today he
came again and asked me the same questions, but I did not answer
him ; so he became angry and blew out my fire, scattering the coals and
ashes over everything, as you see."
hoffman] BEAVER HUNTER AND HIS SISTER 223
The hunter then said to his sister, " Tomorrow morning I shall go
hunting as usual, but will return early in order to protect you."
In accordance with his promise, the hunter started out the next
morning in quest of game. lie had gone but a short while when the
stranger for the third time came to the wigwam and looked in at the
door. The girl was engaged in combing her hair and dressing herself,
as before, and although she heard him she did not appear to notice
him. As on the two previous occasions the stranger asked her, " Where
is your husband! Have you no one to protect you and to provide for
you?" To this she paid no attention, which angered the man, and he
blew out the fire, scattering ashes over everything, as on the preceding
day. At this the girl cried, but the stranger went away laughing.
The young man, returning at midday, found his sister seated at the
end of the wigwam in tears, as before. He approached and said to her,
"When did the stranger come?" to which she answered, "Just after
you left the wigwam." Then the brother got some water and washed
his sister's face and took the ashes out of her eyes.
The young man then went out a short distance and began to gather
firewood and pile it up near the wigwam. He cut one piece as long as
his arm from the finger tip to the elbow, which he shaped like a shovel.
On the next day, early in the morning, the young man built as large
a fire as he could without burning up the wigwam. Then he said to
his sister, "My sister, you attend to the fire now, as I shall hide myself
until the stranger comes, and when you see him approaching, tell me."
This she promised to do, while her brother secreted himself to await
the coming of the stranger.
It was not long ere the girl heard the stranger approaching, as he
had done before; so when he was near enough to hear her, she began
to talk to herself, saying, "O, I wish my brother were here!" This she
repeated several times in order to mislead the stranger and to get him to
come close to her, that her brother might catch him. The stranger came
closer and closer, and finally stopped at the door, when in an instant the
girl's brother appeared. Hastily getting a shovelful of hot coals from
the fire, the young man ran at the stranger and hit him upon the but-
tock, burning him severely. The man ran, but the girl's brother pur-
sued him, hitting him with the hot coals and saying, " Why don't you
blow out the tire now?" and then mockingly laughing as the stranger
had laughed at his sister. The man ran some distance, after the girl's
brother had stopped following him, but finally he dropped dead.
The stranger was found to be not an Iudian after all, but one of the
ana'maqki'u, who try to destroy the people on the earth.
NANNI' NAIOy'TA, THE BALL CARRIER
One time the people of two wigwams were away hunting, and, being
successful in their quest for game, were contented. The occupants of
each wigwam consisted of a hunter, his wife, and his children. In the
224 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ann.14
forest in which these wigwams were lived an old woman who was said
to be a witch, and who had a ball by means of which she was enabled
to steal children. She would throw the ball toward a wigwam, how-
ever far away she might be, and when a child attempted to pick up the
ball, it would slowly roll away from the pursuer toward the hut of the
old woman, and in this way entice them to her home.
One day the old woman threw the ball toward the wigwams of the
hunters. One of the little boys saw it, but in attempting to pick it up
the ball rolled away; so the boy followed it from place to place, until at
length he came to the old woman's hut, into which the ball rolled. The
old woman then said to the boy, "Come in, my grandson, and sit down,
for you must be tired." The boy sat down as the old woman had asked
him, when she fed him. She then asked the boy if he had ever fasted,
when he replied that he had not. The old woman then said, " To obtain
power and assistance from the ma'nidos, you must fast." The boy agreed
to do this, and laid himself down on some robes at the end of the hut.
Here he lay for ten days, fasting and gaining the good will of the dif-
ferent animals and birds, the ana'maqki'u, which came to him from day
to day.
At the expiration of the ten days the old woman said to the boy, " My
grandson, you have fasted ten days; now it is time that you eat some-
' thing." The boy then arose and ate of the food which the old woman
placed before him. Then she said, " My grandson, you have now fasted
ten days, and the ma'nidos must have favored you for this ordeal. Did
you receive their favor?"
" No," replied the boy, " I have not received the favor and influence
of all ; there are still some ma'nidos who have kept at a distance and
would not grant my desire."
"Then," said the old woman, " you must fast ten days more."
The boy again laid himself down and fasted for ten days more, at the
end of which time he turned over, with his face to the wall. He con-
tinued this fast for twenty days, after which the old woman spoke to
him, saying, "My grandson, come and eat something."
The boy arose and partook of the food which the old woman had
prepared for him. Then she said to him, " My grandson, you have now
fasted for many days, and the ma'nidos must have granted you power;
have you received the favor of all of them?"
The boy replied, " No, grandmother, there are still some ma'nidos
who keep away from me, and hesitate to grant the power I want,
because I have not fasted long enough."
"Then, my grandson," said the old woman, " fast again, and you will
receive the favor of all the ma'nidos."
The boy again went to the couch of robes and laid down, where he
fasted for fifty days more. He was so weak that the old woman thought
him dead, but she approached the spot where he lay and gave him
some food. The boy soon began to revive and to gain strength, wheu
hoffman] THE MYSTIC BRIDGE 225
the old woman said to him, "My grandson, you have fasted a long time,
and must have received much power from the ma'nidos; did you receive
the favor of all of them?"
''Yes, my grandmother," responded the boy, "I have now accom-
plished my desire, and possess the favor of all the ma'nidos."
The old woman, much gratified at what had happened, now addressed
the boy in these words:
"My grandson, there is much gold in possession of Ma'tshehawai'-
tuk, the 'Bad One.' He also has a bridge in his possession, and I want
to get both the gold and the bridge. I have taught many boys how to
fast, and how to obtain the favor of the ma'nidos, but none of them ever
returned with the things that I desire. Now I want you to procure for
me a little of the gold as well as the bridge. You will find the Bad One
in his hut, beyond a rapid river. When you reach the stream, tie this
ball to one of your feet and you will be enabled to cross. In no other
way can you accomplish this, because when the Bad One wants to cross
the river, he takes the small bridge, and, by simply waving his hand
forward, it lengthens and touches whatever spot he desires. Therefore,
you can not expect to cross the river by means of the bridge. Trust to
the ball, and it and the ma'nidos will see you safely across."
The boy took the ball from the old woman. He then made for him-
self a warclub, a bow, and some arrows. These were very powerful,
for the ma'nidos endowed them with wonderful strength. The boy also
had the power to change his form, and his sight and hearing became
so acute that nothing could escape his eyes or ears. By the aid of
the ma'nidos he was now enabled to go on his journey in search of the
Evil One, and to procure some of the gold and the wonderful little bridge
which were guarded by him.
Thus equipped the boy set out. After a long time he came to the
rapid river, and beheld upon a hill beyond it the house occupied by the
Bad One. The water was so rapid that it seemed impassable. The boy
broke a branch from a tree and threw it in the stream, but so swift was
the current that he could scarcely see it carried away. He then tied
the ball to his right foot, and, approaching the bank of the river, ven-
tured out upon the water, as one does in testing the strength of ice.
Putting both feet upon the waves, the boy found himself supported;
but, still fearful of being carried away, he rushed back to the shore.
He made a second venture, this time going farther out upon the water,
but again turned back. Gaining courage and confidence in the ball, and
remembering that the ma'nidos had all favored his desire for power, he
started a third time, and gained the opposite shore in safety. He now
removed the ball from his foot and put it in a bag which he carried on
his back, then began to look about. He saw the house of the Bad One,
and observed the bags of gold hanging from the rafters, as well as the
little bridge. He saw too that this Evil Being sat in the room in which
the treasures were, and that in order to guard them constantly he always
14 eth 15
226' THE MENOMINI INDIANS ieth.ank.H
took his meals there. All these things the boy could see because of
his wonderful sight. Then he heard the Bad Being speak to his serv-
ant, Hoqpan'niuq'ki (Lung Woman). After wondering how he could
induce this Evil One to leave the room in which the gold and the
bridge were, he called out to the ma'nidos to make the being hungry.
Instantly the Bad One demanded of his servant, " Go and prepare for
me some food, for I am very hungry." The Lung Woman went to the
room where the food was kept, the Bad One again calling to her, " Hurry
with the food, for I am becoming famished," at the same time starting
for the room in which the servant was, for he could not wait for the
victuals to be brought to him. The servant met him, to lead him out,
for he was very large and now almost helpless from hunger.
The moment the Evil One left the room in which the gold and the
bridge were, the boy went forward and entered the house. He looked
about aud discovered hanging from the rafters a number of pouches
containing gold, one of which he grasped and tucked under his left
arm. Then he took the wonderful little bridge, which he tucked under
his right arm. The boy now endeavored to secrete himself until search
for him should be abandoned ; for he well knew that he could not escape,
because of the footprints which he would leave to guide his pursuers.
Looking about, therefore, for a place in which to hide, he espied the
bedding in the corner of the room, so making a small opening in one of
the folds of a robe he crawled in.
So soon as he had hidden himself, the servant returned to the room,
where she was startled at seeing the remaining pouches of gold fall-
ing to the floor, for this they began to do the moment the boy took
down the first bag. The servant then called to her master, asking him
to come, as some one had taken one of the pouches and the bridge.
The Bad One rushed in as quickly as he was able, and began to search
for the one who had stolen his treasures. He sent the servant out to
look for footprints leading from the hut, but as none were discovered
she returned and began searching the room. She removed everything
from its place, but nobody could be found. The robes and bedding were
thrown aside, piece by piece, but no living being was discovered, until
finally, in returning the robes to the corner of the room, she discovered
the cut in the robe. Calling to her master the Lung Woman said, "See,
here is a fresh cut; here is where the thief has hidden himself." Then
reaching into the opening she pulled out Nau ni' Naioq'tii ("Ball
Carrier"), the boy, but he had made himself very lean aud small.
The Evil One then confronted Ball Carrier and asked him, "Have
you taken my gold and bridge?"
"Yes," said Ball Carrier, "I took them."
The servant then took a knife, and on asking him where he had
secreted the treasures, Ball Carrier lifted his left arm, and in the arm-
pit was the gold. The servant then scraped oft' the gold, which had so
adhered to the skin as to give it a golden color. Theu she asked Ball
hoffman] THE FATE OF LUNG WOMAN 227
Carrier where he had secreted the bridge, when he raised liis right arm,
and in the armpit was the bridge, which she also detached with the
knife. When the treasures had been recovered, the Bad One said to
his servant, "Take the boy out and clean him, after which you must
cook him for our feast. I will go to invite our friends the Me'sibiue'bi-
kuk" (water demons).
The servant then took Ball Carrier out to the room where the food
was kept, when he turned toward her and said, "Why don't you keep
me for two days and feed me? I am now very lean, but shall be very
fat by that time." The servant then turned to her master and offered
him the suggestion which Ball Carrier had made. The Bad One replied,
"Well, let the boy have his way; perhaps in two days he will be fatter,
as he says." Lung Woman then returned to Ball Carrier and led him
out to a pen, where he was securely fastened and food given to him. As
he ate constantly he began immediately to grow and to fatten so that
he could scarcely move his head from one side to the other.
The second day having arrived, the Bad One told his servant to pre-
pare the boy for the feast now to be held, as he was going to invite all
his friends, the Water Demons. Before leaving he told Lung Woman
not to eat any of the broth, for it would then be defiled.
The servant brought out from the hut a large kettle, tilled it with
water, and built a fire beneath it. She then took Ball Carrier by the
arm and led him up to the kettle, so that when the water boiled she
could lift him into it. In the meantime Ball Carrier asked the ma'nidos
to keep the water at its ordinary temperature, although it might appear
to be boiling, and he also asked the ma'nidos to restore his body to its
usual size the moment he was put into the water.
When the water began to boil, the servant put Ball Carrier into the
kettle, and the fat, which the ma'nidos had supplied, soon came float-
ing upon the surface. As the water caused him to move about within
the kettle, Ball Carrier told the servant to taste the broth to see if it
was palatable. The odor was so appetizing that she could not resist
the temptation of tasting the broth, so getting a ladle from the hut she
reached over the kettle and took up some of the broth, which she found
very agreeable. Ball Carrier now induced her to come closer, that she
could the better reach the broth. As Lung Woman went near to the
kettle Ball Carrier grasped her, and upset the boiling water upon her,
scalding her to death. Ball Carrier then gathered together his war-
club, bow, arrows, and ball, as well as the pouch of gold and the won-
derful little bridge, set fire to the hut of the Evil One, and started for
the river, where he took out the bridge, caused it to project across to
the opposite shore, when he passed over and restored it to its hiding
place in his right armpit.
The hut was soon completely consumed, no trace being left where it
had stood. When the Bad One returned with the large crowd of Water
Demons, who had come to partake of the feast, he could not tind his hut
;
228 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ann.14
nor any trace of it even after searching in every direction. Finally be
went down to the river, from the bank of which he saw Ball Carrier
sitting quietly on the opposite side. Then the Bad One knew who had
destroyed his hut, so he went back and told his friends, the Water
Demons, that there would not be a feast, as Ball Carrier had destroyed
his hut and had escaped.
As the Water Demons started to return to their camp, the Bad One
realized that he was undone. He therefore returned to the river and
called across to Ball Carrier, saying, "Ball Carrier, I know who you are,
and, as you have ruined me, I now offer you my services and will be
your servant, if you will have me."
Ball Carrier replied, "I will accept your services, although you tried
to destroy me." Then Ball Carrier took the little bridge from his right
armpit, and caused it to extend itself across the roaring torrent, when
the Evil One started across. He had proceeded but about halfway,
when Ball Carrier caused the bridge to become small again, thus upset-
ting the Bad One, who fell into the water and was carried beneath the
surface and drowned.
When Ball Carrier had accomplished all this, he continued his jour-
ney, but as he was iu a strange country he did not know which way to
go, for he forgot to ask aid of the ma'nidos. At length he laid down
near a cluster of trees and fell asleep, and, as he was very weak from
lack of food, he thus remained a long time.
An old man came to the place where Ball Carrier was lying, and
walked around him so as to inclose a large piece of ground for raising
roots and plants. While thus engaged the old man espied the Ball
Carrier, and, seeing him so helpless, he cut a block of wood from the
trunk of a poplar and fashioned it in semblance of a woman. When
he had finished his task, the woman became alive; then the old man
said to her, ".Go over to that cluster of trees ; there you will find a man
bring him here and feed him; he is nearly starved, and he will become
your husband."
The woman went to the cluster of trees, picked up Ball Carrier, and
carried him to where the old man had been, but who was no longer to be
seen. After Ball Carrier had recovered from his weakness, he built a
wigwam and lived there with his wife.
One day Ball Carrier told his wife that, as he was a traveler, he would
have to leave and continue his journey. On hearing this the woman
fell dead, and nothing remained of her but a piece of old wood. He
then resumed his journey, and, after a loug time reached a mountain,
where, toward sunset, he saw at a short distance before him a hut with
its door ajar. As he approached he saw within a woman, who, without
turning her head, said, "Come in, Ball Carrier, and sit down." He
entered and seated himself as he was asked, when the woman said, "It
is fortunate you came to my wigwam tonight, as my sister is now absent;
she wants to kill you. When she returns tomorrow, she will ask you
hoffman] THE CANNIBAL WOMAN 229
I
to amuse her, and while she is in a good humor she will scratch your
head to look for vermin. You must pay no attention to this, but watch
her motions, that you may not be taken unaware."
The next day the woman's sister entered the wigwam and exclaimed,
"I am glad to see you, my brother-in-law; come and amuse me; we can
have some games to play."
Ball Carrier observed that she wore a skirt reaching only to her knees,
and that her hair was bright red. Not liking her appearance, Ball
Carrier said, " I am still tired from my long journey; and if I am to play
with you, you must wear a longer skirt." It was then agreed that they
were to have some games at noon on the following day; so the woman's
sister, who was a cannibal, left and went back to her own wigwam.
Early on the following morning Ball Carrier went out to see where
the woman's sister lived, and as he approached her wigwam he found
two children eating the flesh from human bones. The children did not
see Ball Carrier, but he now knew that the woman's sister was a can-
nibal. The children ran away, and Ball Carrier saw that there were a
great many birds and beasts all about him. They told him to go
away, as the woman's sister had planned to kill him. Ball Carrier then
told the birds and beasts that if they would not inform the woman's
sister of his presence, he would give them all they wanted to eat, as
she was now coming back to prepare a feast. To this the birds and
beasts assented, but the Chipmunk was not present when this prom-
ise was made by Ball Carrier; so as soon as the woman's sister had
deposited her kettle, and had gone off a short distance to gather fire-
wood, the Chipmunk ran out and called to the woman's sister that Ball
Carrier was near. Then Ball Carrier said to the Chipmunk, "Hush!
If you don't cry out, I will give you plenty—not scraps of acorns and
boneSj but a lot of good food."
As the Chipmunk called out, the woman's sister, without turning her
head, said, "What is the matter with you, Chipmunk; did I not tell
you to call only if that man came near?" The Chipmunk then said, "I
am speaking only to the Bluejay, who stole my acorn."
Ball Carrier next wondered how he could kill the woman's sister, for
she had brought several children to cook for the feast. While thus
pondering, the black head Woodpecker said to him, "If you promise to
give me a piece of her scalp, I will kill her for yon. She does not carry
her heart in her breast, but under her flowing red hair."
Ball Carrier thereupon promised the Woodpecker that he should have
the scalp if he killed her—whereupon the bird prepared to dart forward
to the spot where the woman's heart was hidden. Lowering his head
and pointing his sharp beak straight forward, the Woodpecker suddenly
shot away like an arrow, striking the heart in the very middle. When
the woman's sister felt this death wound, she lowered her body and
began to run very rapidly around in a circle, and endeavored to kill
Ball Carrier with a knife, but he took his warclub, and, after repeated
230 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [ktii.ann.14
strokes, succeeded in beating out lier brains. J tall Carrier then cut off
her scalji, and taking- a piece from the top of the head gave it to the
Woodpecker, who put it on his own head, where he has worn it ever
siuce. This is why the black woodpecker has a black body and a red
spot on his head. After Ball Carrier had divided the food among the
birds and animals, as he had promised, he departed for his victim's
wigwam, that he might destroy her children, for they were bad as the
mother had been.
In the meantime, however, the children had tied and hid themselves
in a place where their mother had been wont to secrete herself; but
Ball Carrier, by reason of the penetrating eyesight given him by the
ma'nidos, saw that the children had secreted themselves in a cavern iu
the mountain. Ball Carrier went to the mountain and began to strike
the ground with his warclub. The earth trembled, then opened, expos-
ing the. nest of children, whom he beat to death.
Ball Carrier, being a traveler, now resumed his journey in search of
other evil beings from whom the human race had much to fear, and
whom he might destroy by reason of his great powers.
He came to a wood that crossed his path at right angles, when sud-
denly he heard a woman's voice crying aloud for assistance. Knowing
that something terrible must be happening, he started along the road
to the left, soon reaching a high, rocky cliff', at the base of which was a
stone door, and at the top an opening like a window.
This seemed more like the abode of a giant, but as Ball Carrier still
heard the woman's voice in the direction whence he had come, he rap-
idly retraced his steps and soon met a young woman flying toward him,
in great distress. When she came nearer, she asked him to aid and
preserve her from the giant, who was in pursuit.
Said the young woman to Ball Carrier, "The giant has come to my
father's village and has already eaten up half of the people, and now he
is after me."
Ball Carrier saw that she was the daughter of a chief, and a very
beautiful woman, so he determined to save her. He therefore replied,
"You must now go back along the path by which you have come, and
meet the giant; tell him Ball Carrier is here waiting for him, and that
he must come with you. Then when I engage him in conversation you
must return to your father and tell him and his warriors to arm them-
selves with their clubs, spears, and bows and arrows, and return here
with you that they may destroy the giant."
The chief's daughter complied with this injunction by hastening back
to meet the giant. So soon as she met him she told him that she had
come to guide him to Ball Carrier. The giant, thinking he had another
victim in view, started along very willingly with the chief's daughter to
the place where Ball ('airier had parted with the girl.
In the meantime, Ball Carrier went back to the house in the rock,
entered, securely closed the. door, and then went above to look out of
hoffman] THE FIGHT WITH THE GIANT 231
the square opening at the top, where lie might see all that was transpir-
ing', and defend himself against the giant.
Presently he saw the chief's daughter returning, closely behind her
following the giant, from whose belt were suspended several children
whom he had captured to devour. As the giant approached the rock
and saw Ball Carrier's head protruding from the window, he called out,
"Ball Carrier, come down and let me enter my house, that we may
have a feast." Ball Carrier replied, "I can not open the door for you,
as I am so far above it; but if you will reach upward where I can grasp
your hand, I will pull you through the window."
When the chief's daughter saw the giant engage in conversation with
Ball Carrier, she escaped, and running back to her father told him
what Ball Carrier had instructed her to say. The chief immediately
called together his warriors, bidding them get their warclubs, spears,
and bows and arrows, that they might proceed to the giant's house, where
Ball Carrier would need their assistance. The warriors were soon
armed, and, led by the chief and his daughter, they hastened to the
giant's abode.
In the meantime, the giant had come to the base of the cliff and
reached up to grasp Ball Carrier's hand, that he might enter at the
window. Ball Carrier saw that the giant's abode contained many
weapons. Grasping the sharpest knife, he went to the window, seized
the giant's hand, and drew him upward. When the giant had climbed
into the opening far enough for Ball Carrier to take hold of his head
he struck him on the back of the neck, severing the head, which fell
upon the floor and bounded about like a ball, biting and snapping at
Ball Carrier. Throwing aside the knife, Ball Carrier took his warclub
and struck the head until he had crushed the life out of it.
Just as the head was thus severed the body of the giant fell down to
the base of the cliff; but instead of lying where it fell the body arose,
and rushing blindly about, wildly beat and struck out in every direc-
tion with its immense club. At this moment the chief and his warriors
arrived, and seeing that Ball Carrier had beheaded the giant, but that
the body was still active, they rushed up, shot into the body numerous
arrows, pierced it with spears, and beat it with their warclubs, until the
great form was motionless. Ball Carrier now came down to where the
chief, his daughter, and the warriors were assembled, and bade some of
them gather wood, that he might burn and utterly destroy the giant.
Round about, everywhere, were heaps of human bones, the remains
of those whom the giant had killed and eaten. Some of these were the
bones of recently killed people, others were of those who had been
killed and devoured a longer time, and still others were almost crumbled
into dust by age. When the wood-gatherers returned, a large heap of
the fuel was made, and upon it the body of the giant was placed ; then
the wood was set afire and the body burned to ashes. When this had
been done, Ball Carrier approached and blew on the ashes, making
232 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ann.H
them rise like a cloud. The little particles that arose became birds.
Ball Carrier took one of his arrows, shot it up into the sky, and as it
was returning cried out to the human remains, "People, people, arise;
the sky is falling down upon you!" Instantly the skeletons of those
last killed became living beings, who sat up and looked about in aston-
ishment. Ball Carrier again shot an arrow toward the sky and called
out a second time, "People, people, arise; the sky is falling down upon
you !"—whereupon more bodies returned to life, as the others had done.
)Six times did Ball Carrier thus shoot into the sky, and it was only after
this last shot that all had been restored to life—even those who had
been killed many years before.
These strange things having been accomplished, the whole party
returned to the village of the chief. When they arrived, the chief
turned to Ball Carrier and said, "Ball Carrier, you are a powerful man,
for you have saved my daughter and my people from being destroyed
by the giant. 1 know of no one better fitted to become the husband
of my daughter, as well as my successor, than you; therefore, take her
and become chief of my people." Ball Carrier believed the chief's
daughter to be the most beautiful woman he had ever seen, and was
very glad to accept her. Then they became husband and wife.
Living in peace and quiet among these people of his adoption was
not suitable to Ball Carrier, the traveler; so he decided to resume his
journey of adventure and to free other people of their enemies. He
therefore took leave of his wife and departed.
After going a long distance, Ball Carrier saw a wigwam, and within
it a woman, who, on seeing him, said, " Ball Carrier, you are wel-
come ; but it is fortunate for you that you came this morning, for during
the day my sister, who wishes to kill you, remains here."
Ball Carrier entered the wigwam and remained, the woman becoming
his wife.
On the following morning he observed approaching the wigwam two
children, each of them eating the shreds of meat from human bones.
When the children finally came near enough to the wigwam to see
that a stranger was within, they ran away in great fright. Then Ball
Carrier said to his wife, "Whose children are those who are running
away?"—to which she replied, "They are the children of my sister;
she who desires to kill you."
Presently the woman's sister, his newly made sister-in-law, was seen
approaching the wigwam, and so soon as she espied Ball Carrier, she
said to him, "I am glad to see you, my brother in-law; I have long
expected you. I hear you are very powerful, but I am desirous of try-
ing my power against yours."
Ball Carrier knew that his sister-in-law desired to destroy him, and
he was very careful not to allow her to gain any advantage, but he was
compelled to appear pleased to see her; so he answered, " My sister in-
law, I am desirous of trying my power with you, but will first run
with you to learn which of us is the fleetest."
hoffman] THE RACE WITH THE WITCH 233
Now, this woman was a witch, and as Ball Carrier proposed to run,
she felt so sure of success that she immediately agreed to race, and
said, " "Whoever wins will have the privilege of killing the other."
Ball Carrier was now obliged to run, and went out to find a place for
the contest. Seeing that the prairie extended far away without a visi-
ble obstruction, Ball Carrier said, " My sister-in law, we will run to the
end of the prairie—to a point as far as you can see from here—and then
return; the first one to reach tbis goal will turn and kill the loser."
The witch agreeing, both prepared to start. Ball Carrier invoked the
ma'nidos to assist him, and when the witch started to run, Ball Carrier
transformed himself into Moqwai'o (the wolf) and ran ahead of the witch.
He continued in advance for a long distance. The witch slowly gained
in speed and finally passed him. When Ball Carrier found that he
could no longer hope to succeed, he changed himself into Omiuic (the
pigeon) and once more shot ahead of the witch; but, after a long dis-
tance, the witch again gained on him, and gradually passed him, so that
he felt he could not win in his present form. Ball Carrier next changed
himself into Kaka'kg (the crow) and again shot ahead of the witch,
remaining in advance for a long time. He finally began to tire, however,
and, seeing the witch once more pass him, he found that he could not
succeed in winning the race unless he assumed another form, so he
changed himself into Meshinikake (the Cooper's hawk !), and again
passed the witch. As a hawk he flew along for a great while, but he
eventually began to tire, and the witch again gradually lessened the
distance between them and finally passed him. JSTow Ball Carrier
assumed the form of Pakiish'tsheke'u, the Hitter (duck hawk), and again
flew ahead, as this hawk is the swiftest of all save Meshinikake. But
even again the witch gained on and at last overtook her opponent, when
Ball Carrier found that he would have to assume still other form if he
wished to win the race; so, changing himself into Liponane (the sharp-
shin hawk), he once more gained on and passed the witch. But as a
sharp-shin hawk he began to tire after awhile, and felt that he must
assume auother form, so he became transformed into Ke'shewa'toshe
(sparrow-hawk), when he once more passed the witch.
The contestants were now on their homeward flight, and Ball Carrier
realized that he must maintain the lead if he wished to escape death.
Soon, however, he saw the witch pass him and remain ahead, apparently
sure of reaching the goal first. Ball Carrier felt that he must make a final
and desperate effort to pass the witch, for they had now almost reached
the goal. He therefore assumed the form of Xa-na-tska (the humming-
bird) and shot ahead like au arrow, reaching the goal far in advance of
the witch. He now threw off his disguise and grasped his warclub to
await the arrival of his opponent. She soon came up, furiously angry at
losing the race, which she had been certain of winning, when Ball Car-
rier struck her on the head and killed her.
Ball Carrier's wife now came to him and said, "If you want to exter-
minate that wicked family, you must go and destroy the dead witch's
234 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [etii.ann.14
litter of children, who live in a cavern in the mountain." Turning around,
Ball Carrier saw a mountain, and, because he was possessed of won-
derful power of sight, he could observe the offspring of the witch hud-
dled together. He then went toward the mountain, and when he had
reached it, he. struck the ground with his warclub, causing great fissures
to appear; and when the cavern was exposed, he slew the whole litter
of the witch's children.
Ball Carrier did not live long at this place ere he felt the need of con-
tinuing his journey; so he said to his wife, "Wife, you know I am a
traveler, and I must proceed on my journey to berid the people of their
enemies."
The wife knew that remonstrance would be futile, so she allowed Ball
Carrier to use his own judgment. Gathering together his weapons, he
left, and after wandering through the forests for a long time, he reached
a piece of elevated ground upon which he saw a wigwam. Seeing no
one about, he approached it, and on peeping in at the doorway, he
espied a woman sitting within, making preparations for her evening
meal. The woman looked up, and seeing Ball Carrier at the door appear-
ing hungry and tired, said, "Come in, Ball Carrier, I am preparing food
for you; I have long been expecting you."
Ball Carrier entered and seated himself on the robes on the ground.
He partook of the food the woman prepared, and seeing that she was
comely he asked her to be liis wife. The woman accepted the proposal,
and Ball Carrier felt satisfied to remain there and travel no farther.
As Ball Carrier was out hunting one day, he came to a deep valley,
in the bottom of which was a lake. In the middle of this lake was an
island, partly covered by trees, but on the open grassy portion he saw
a large White Bear, the chief of the ana'maqki'ti, the bad underworld
ma'nidos. Now, Ball Carrier was desirous of destroying this greatest
of all enemies; but not being able to approach within arrowshot, he
blew his breath upon the water, which immediately began to freeze.
He continued thus to blow until the ice was so thick that the White
Bear could not break it, although he repeatedly ran down and butted
his head against the ice. Baffled by this failure, the White Bear called
on an immense rock at the hill top, asking it to roll down and break
the ice, that he might get into the water. The l-ock rolled dowu the
hillside and struck the ice with terrific force; but, instead of crushing
it, rolled off like a ball. At this the White Bear became very much
alarmed, and called upon the Suba'isiukkuk (wood ducks) to oome to
his aid. Instantly the Wood Ducks came from the south and flew
around in one spot over the ice, when it instantly began to thaw.
They circled this spot four times, when the ice became s<> thin that the
White Bear ran down, thrust his head upon the weakened spot, broke
it, and disappeared beneath the surface.
Then the Wood Ducks also disappeared, and Ball Carrier turned to
go toward his wigwam. He had not gone far when he saw a large water
hoffmasJ THE RED-BIRD MA'nIDO 235
monster on the hillside. He ran and grasped it by the tail to prevent
its escape, in order that he might club it to death, but the being dis-
charged a poisonous liquid from its body, some of which struck Ball
Carrier on the teeth, and a portion passed down his throat. Instantly
Ball Carrier released the water monster and hastened to return to his
wigwam, for lie well knew that he would die from the effects of this
poison.
When he arrived at the wigwam, he told his wife what had happened,
and said to her, "When I am dead, do not bury me, but lay me over
there in the grove of trees."
The wife of Ball Carrier had borne to him, since their marriage, two
sons and a daughter, so she called to her children to help her take care
of their father; but when they found him dead, they carried him to the
grove and laid the body on a scaffold.
When Ball Carrier died, the ball which he had received from the old
woman immediately started to roll back to its original owner. The
warclub, spear, and bow and arrows were placed together and pre-
served in the wigwam.
Not long after this occurrence a party of strange Indians chanced to
come along, and finding a family without a protector they became
rather free with what they saw and found. The widow of Ball Carrier
protested to the chief, but he replied that unless he was permitted to
marry her daughter he would have her house torn down and destroyed.
Bather than have such a calamity befall her children, she agreed to let
the chief marry her daughter. So the chief remained and provided for
Ball Carrier's family, while the remainder of the party continued on
their way.
Before the chief came along and married Ball Carrier's daughter, the
family had become so poor that they were almost starved. One morn-
ing the daughter was hunting for berries; she saw for the first time a
large wigwam near their own. Approaching the structure, she saw
within it large quantities of food which the shade of her father had put
there, and also, perched high in the dome of the wigwam, on a thin
cross-piece of wood, a Red-bird. As Ball Carrier's daughter saw this
quantity of food she was amazed. After she had gained sufficient
courage to enter and look about her, she perceived the Bed-bird, who
made friendly gestures, making her feel at once that it was the spirit of
her father. Going up to him she greeted the bird by reaching out her
hand and lightly grasping his foot.
When she returned to her mother and brothers, she told them of what
she had discovered. Thereafter every time they wanted food they would
all enter the wigwam, and alter greeting the Bed-bird would partake of
the food which was so abundantly supplied by him.
These mysterious departures from the wigwam and the small quantity
of food consumed by Ball Carrier's family led the daughter's husband
to wonder where they all spent so much of their time. Determined to
236 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.aks.14
learn the cause, the chief followed the party very cautiously one morning
to observe their movements, and seeing them all enter the large wig-
wam, he followed. Seeing them advance to the Bed-bird, and, one by
one, shake it by the foot, he approached and did the same. They then
all partook of the food and returned to their own wigwam, where the
chief began to exhibit symptoms of sickness.
But this illness of the chief was in reality merely affected, as he
wanted an excuse for obtaining the bird to eat. Ball Carrier's family
was very much distressed at the chief's illness and asked him what they
could do to aid his recovery. He told his wife that he would not recover
unless she killed the Bed-bird and cooked it for him to eat. This dis-
tressed the family very much, and Ball Carrier's two boys became very
angry at such a request. The women were in doubt, not knowing what
was best to be done; meanwhile the chief pretended to be getting worse,
which alarmed them very much, but the boys remained firm, not wanting
to see the Bed-bird sacrificed to gratify the chief.
One morning after the boys went to hunt, the wife of Ball Carrier
went to the large wigwam, caught the Bed-bird, and killed him. She
then brought the body back to be cooked, when the boys appeared.
One of them cut off the bird's head and ate it, while the other cut out
and ate the. heart. The boys, in anger, then left the wigwam and went
away never to return.
The first night out they reached a hut, which they approached very
cautiously, and seeing no one about but an old woman, they entered.
She asked them to remain over night, and showed them where they
might sleep. Being tired from their long day's journey, they soon fell
asleep. In the morning, before the old woman was awake, they arose
quietly and left, so that she did not learn who they were or whither
they were going. On going to the place where the elder of the two
young men had slept, she observed that the ground was covered by a
thin coating of dust resembling gold, then turning to where the younger
one had slept, she there saw the ground similarly covered with stains
of gold; but when the old woman attempted to gather the yellow sub-
stance it vanished. This gold came from the two sous of Ball Carrier,
because they had eaten the head and heart of the Bed-bird, which was
the shade of him who bad secured the treasures of the Bad One and
who still carried them in his armpits when he was killed by the Water
Monster.
Meanwhile the wife of Ball Carrier took the reinaiuder of the bird,
from which her two sons had cut and eaten the head and heart, and
put it into the kettle to prepare for the chief. When it was cooked
and given to him, he seemed to recover from his illness, because he had
gained his wish; but, perceiving that the head was gone, he angrily
said to his wife, " Who has cut off the head of the bird?" To this she
replied that her elder son had eaten it. Then picking up the body he
said, "I see that the heart also is gone—who has taken that?" The
boffman] RESURRECTION OF BALL CARRIER 2.37
wife then told him that her younger son had eaten it. The chief saw
that he had been thwarted in his desire, and violently threw the body
of the bird away. He then arose from his bed and seemed as well as
when he first came to the wigwam.
When the body of Ball Carrier was deposited on the scaffold in the
grove of trees, the ball which the old woman, his grandmother, had
given him returned to her. When it bounded into her hut, she knew
that her grandson had met with some misfortune, and she immediately
prepared to go to his rescue. She took a fox-skin and tied it about her
head and around her forehead, and another which she fastened to her-
self as a breechcloth. Then bidding the ball to return to where the
body of her grandson was lying, it started to roll and bound back upon
its journey, the old woman following. At last the ball reached the
grove of trees, where it stopped; then the old woman placed her hand
on the body of Ball Carrier, crying out aloud, " My grandson, arise,
arise, and come home with me!" Ball Carrier's life returned, and he
sat up as if he had been only asleep. Then the old woman said to him,
"Come, my grandson, it is time to return home." So Ball Carrier went
to the wigwam, gathered up his weapons, and followed the old woman
back whence she had come.
When they had reached her wigwam, the old woman said to Ball
Carrier, "My grandson, did you get the gold which you went to procure
from the Bad One?"
Ball Carrier replied, " Yes, grandmother, I got it."
" Where is it?" she asked.
" Here, in my left armpit," responded Ball Carrier, raising his arm.
Then the old woman took a knife and carefully scraped away from
the skin every particle of gold which Ball Carrier had procured. Then
she said, " My grandson, did you get the bridge which the Bad One
also possessed?"
"Yes, grandmother, I got that too," replied Ball Carrier.
"Where is it?" asked the old woman. Then Ball Carrier lifted up
his right arm, and pointing to his armpit,'said, " Here is the bridge,
grandmother."
The old woman took the gold, and placing it in the palm of her
hand, said, " My grandson, this gold must now be hidden iu the earth,
because if it remains where everybody can get it, the people will
become too indolent; but if it is buried people nrast work for it, and
they will get only what they require." Then pulling up one of the
poles that supported the wigwam, she put the gold into the hole and
rammed it down into the earth, where it has become scattered, and
where those who seek it must dig and work hard to get it.
Then she took the bridge, and turning toward Ball Carrier, said,
" This bridge also must be buried, because if everybody can get
hold of it they can transport themselves across any river or chasm,
and people will become too lazy to work or to learn how to build such
238 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ann.14
things for their use." So the old woman caused the bridge to assume
a very small shape, when she buried it in the earth, where it remains
hidden from mankind.
Then the old woman told Ball Carrier to follow her to the door of
the wigwam. When they had reached the opening, she pointed out
toward two distant wigwams and said, "There are the wigwams of
your people, from whom you have been separated for a long time. Your
father is now an old man and needs your care and protection; go,
therefore, to your people and provide for them while they live." Ball
Carrier then remembered his people, and returned to them.
ORIGIN OF THE WORD CHICAGO
The Menomini have a tradition to the effect that some Potawatomi
Indians used to live at the marshes where the city of Chicago is now
situated. These Indians reported good hunting, so that when some
Menomini went there for game, their dogs would bark during the night;
but every time the hunters arrived at the »\wt they found that only
skunks had caused the alarm.
The Ojibwa relate a story of an Ottawa hunter and his wife who lived
with that tribe farther north, on the shore of Lake Michigan. Taking
his wife with him this hunter went southward to hunt on a lake some-
where between the present cities of Chicago and Milwaukee. When
he reached the lake, where he had the previous year caught beaver, it
was still covered with ice, but on sounding it with a piece of wood
he soon discovered the thinner places where the animals hail congre-
gated. He therefore broke holes at these weak points in the ice for
the beaver to emerge and then went to his wigwam to get his traps in
readiness. The hunter's wife chanced to pass one of these holes, and
discovering a beaver on the ice, quickly caught it by the tail before it
could escape into the water, and called to her husband to come and kill
it. The husband replied that he would not come, saying that if he
killed that beaver the others might become frightened and escape from
the lake by some other openings in the ice. At this the woman became
angry and a quarrel resulted.
Later in the day the hunter went out to examine the holes which he
had made and to make others where necessary. This task completed,
he returned to the wigwam, but found his wife gone. Thinking that
she might have gone only to visit a friend and that she would return
before the night was over, he went to sleep. On the following morning
his wife was still absent, so the hunter searched for her footprints and
found from them that she had gone toward the south. Kuowing that no
Ottawa lived in that direction, he started in pursuit and traveled all
day. As he progressed, he observed that her footprints gradually
changed in outline, becoming more and more like those of a skunk.
He followed the trail until it ended in a marsh, where Chicago now
hoffman] ORIGIN OF CHICAGO 239
stands. Here lie found the heads of skunks protruding froui the grass
in every direction, but be refrained from killing any of tbem lest be
might take the life of his own wife. On the following day be continued
the search, making it his object to find a large skunk, thinking that
probably his wife might have been transformed into a skunk of much
greater size than the ordinary animal.
Failing to find any trace of bis wife, the hunter returned to his peo-
ple, and for the reason that this woman was changed into a skunk for
her undutiful conduct the locality was called "Place of the Skunk."
MORTUARY CUSTOMS
The Menomini formerly disposed of their dead by inclosing the bodies
in long pieces of birchbark or in slats of wood, and burying them in a
shallow hole. When not in the neighborhood of birch or other trees,
from which broad pieces of bark could be obtained, some of the men
would search for the nearest dugout, from which they would cut a piece
long enough to contain the body. In some instances sections of hollow
Fig. 26—Ancient form of protecting graves.
trees were used as coffins. In order to afford protection against wild
beasts, there were placed over the grave three logs—two directly on the
ground and the third on the others. They wei e prevented from rolling
away by stakes driven into the earth. Figure 26 represents the old
method of protecting graves.
More modern customs now prevail with the greater body of the tribe,
and those who have been Christianized adopt the following course : A
wooden coffin is made and the body laid out in the ordinary manner.
The burial takes place usually the day on which death occurs. The
graves are about 4 feet deep. Over the mound is erected a small board
structure resembling a house, as shown in figure 27. This structure
measures about 5 feet in length and 3 feet high. In the front and near
the top is an opening through which the relations and friends of the
deceased put cakes of maple sugar, rice, and other food—the first
fruits of the season. In some grave-boxes, immediately beneath the
240 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [ETH. ANN. 14
opening, there is placed a small drawer, which is used for the same pur-
pose as the opening. Sometimes even on the grave-boxes of Christian-
ized Indians, the totem of the clan to which the deceased belonged is
1
..,//
M liV
Fig. 27—Modern grave-bos.
drawn in color or carved from a piece of wood and securely nailed.
These totemic characters are generally drawn or attached in an inverted
Fig. 28—Graves of Osh'kosh and his wife.
position, which isdenotive ofdeath among the Menomini as among other
tribes. Around the grave boxes clapboard fences are usually erected
to keep stray animals from coming near, and to prevent wayfarers and


hoffman] TREE BURIAL MOURNING 241
sacrilegious persons from desecrating the graves. An ordinary " worm"
fence is also sometimes built for tbe same purpose.
Among the non-Christianized Menomini the grave covering is of a
slightly different character. These grave-boxes are more like an
inverted trough, as shown in figure 27, which illustrates the graves of
the late chief Osh'kosh and his wife. The openings in the head end of
the box are used for the introduction of ordinary food, as well as maple
sugar and other tributes of the first fruits of the year, on which the
shade of the departed may feast before it finally sets out for the laud
of the dead.
Formerly, also, bodies were scaffolded, or placed in trees, according
to the wish of the deceased. In some instances it was customary to
dress and paint the body as during life, seat it on the ground facing
the west—in the direction of the path of the dead toward the land of
Naq'pote—when a log inclosure, resembling a small pen, was built
around it. Iu this manner the corpse was left.
When a mita/T is about to be buried, his nearest mit;i' v relation
approaches the grave before earth is thrown into it and address s the
shade of the body, as mentioned at length iu connection with the pre-
liminaries of the introduction of a candidate into the medicine society.
Mourners blacken their faces with charcoal or ashes. Formerly it
was sometimes customary to add pine resin to the ashes, that the
materials might remain longer on the skiii, and a widow was n t pre-
sumed to marry agaiu until this substance had entirely worn off. In
some instances of great grief, the hair above the forehead was cropped
short.
GAMES AND DANCES
Till) AKA'nSnvnK GAME
The game of aka'qsiwok was frequently played in former times, but
of late it is rarely seen. It corresponds to the Ojibwa game of •'plum-
stones," or "bowl," and is played for purposes of gambling, either by
two individuals or by two sets of
players, as below described.
A hemispheric bowl, made of the
large round nodules of a inaple root,
is cut and hollowed out. Figure 29
represents a vessel of this character,
which was fashioned so* ly with the
aid of an ax and a knife of the char-
acter represented in figure 37, called
wagaq'koman. The bowl is symmet- Fm 29_modenbowl for gambling.
ric, and is very nicely finished. It
measures 13 inches in diameter at the rim and is G inches in depth. The
bowd is five-eighths of an inch in thickness at the rim, but gradually
increases in thickness toward the bottom, which is about an inch thick.
14 eth 16
:
242 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [f.th.ann.14
The knife-blade was made by an Indian blacksmith, and is of the
type used for almost all kinds of wood-finishing, and especially in basket-
making, as will later be described. The handle is of basswood; the
rear end of the blade, which is hammered to a point, is inserted into a
socket in the handle and secured by thongs wrapped about both. There
are forty counters, called ma'atik, made of twigs or trimmed sticks of
pine or other wood, each about 12 inches long and from one-fourth
to one-third of an inch thick. Half of these are colored red, the other
half black, or perhaps are left their natural whitish color.
The dice, or aka'sianok, consist of eight pieces of deer-horn, about
three fourths of an inch in diameter and one-third of an inch thick, but
thinner toward the edges. Sometimes plum-stones or even piece* of
wood are taken, one side of them being colored red, the other side
remaining white or uncolored.
When the players sit down to play, the bowl containing the dice is
placed on the ground between them. The counters are placed on the
ground between the opponents; bets are made; the first player begins a
song, in which the other players as well as the spectators always join.
At a certain propitious moment the one to play first strikes the bowl a
smart tap, which causes the dice to fly upward from the bottom of the
bowl, and as they fall and settle, the result is watched with very keen
interest. The value indicated by the position of the dice represents
the number "of counters which the player is permitted to take from the
ground. The value of the throws is as follows, viz
First throw, 4 red dice and 4 white—a draw.
Second throw, 5 red dice and 3 white, counts 1.
Third throw, 6 red dice and 2 white, counts 4.
Fourth throw, 7 red dice and 1 white, counts 20.
Fifth throw, 8 red dice and white, counts 40.
The players strike the bowl alternately until one person wins all the
counters—both those on the ground and those which the opponent may
have won. See plate xiv.
MOCCASIN OB BULLET GAME
Another game that was formerly much played by the Menomini was
the moccasin, or bullet, game, which was probably learned from their
Ojibwa neighbors. Five persons participate, in this game, four being
active players, while the fifth acts as musician, by using the tambouriue-
drum and singing, the players usually joining in the latter. The
tambourine-drum is shown in figure 30.
The articles necessary to play this game consist of four bullets, or
balls of any hard substance, one of which is colored, or indented, to
readily distinguish it from its fellows; four moccasins also are required,
as well as thirty or forty stick counters, similar to those used in the j (re-
ceding game, though uncolored. A blanket also is used, and in addition
a stick, about 3 feet long, with which to strike the moccasin under which


MOCCASIN GAME 243
the bullet is believed to be bidden. When the game is commenced, the
players are paired oft' by two's, who take their places on each of the four
sides of the outspread blanket (plate xv). The winner of the toss
takes the moccasins before him and lays them upside down and about
C inches apart with the toes pointing' forward. The object now is for the
player to lift, with his left hand, each moccasin, in succession, and put a
bullet under it, making many pretenses of hiding and removing the
bullets, in order to confuse the opponents, who are eagerly watching for
some slip of the performer whereby they may obtain a clue of the moc-
casin under which the marked bullet may be placed. While this is going
on, the drummer is doing his duty by singing and drumming, to which
the others are noisily keeping time. When the bullets are all hidden,
Fig. 30—Tambourine drum.
the player will suddenly call out, " Ho ! " in a high-note, when the sing-
ing drops to a mere murmur, and the striker of the opposing side raises
the stick threateningly over the several moccasins, as if to strike them,
but each time withdraws as if in doubt. Finally, he will place the
end of a long stick under a moccasin and turn it over. Should the
marked bullet be disclosed, he is regarded as successful; if he fails the
first time he has another trial, but if the bullet is found only at the
second trial, the counters to which he is entitled will be fewer than if
he finds the bullet the first time.
In event of the opponent making a successful guess of the moccasin
under which the marked bullet has been placed, the former player
244 THE MENOMIXI INDIANS [bth.ann.14
relinquishes the moccasins and bullets and takes his turn at guessing.
The game is decided when all the sticks on the blanket are Avon, those
winning the majority taking the bets previously made. The scoring
depends on the agreement previously formed.
LACROSSE
The game of lacrosse has already been described in connection with
the cult society of the Mita'wit, as oue of the preliminaries thereto,
under certain circumstances. The game appears, at the present time,
to be played merely for amusement, personal wagers being made on
the result.
BALL GAME
The. women formerly played a game of ball in which two sides, com-
posed of unlimited numbers, would oppose each other. At each end of
the ball ground, which was several hundred yards in length, a pole was
erected, to serve as a goal. Many of the players would surround their
respective goals, while the strongest and most active women, playing
about the middle of the ground, would endeavor to obtain the ball and
throw it toward their opponents' goal. The ball was made of deer hair
tightly wrapped with thongs of buckskin, and covered with the same
material. It measured about 3 inches in diameter. The women used
sticks with a slight curve at the striking end instead of a hoop, as on
the sticks used by the men.
The game was more like the well-known game of "shinny" than any-
thing else, with the addition of having to cause the ball to strike the
goal instead of being merely knocked across a certain score line. The
guardians of the goals were expected to prevent the ball from touching
the post, and a good strike might send it away over the active players'
heads, far toward their opponents' goal.
THE SNOW-SNAKE
Another game, for both amusement and gambling, was termed the
"snow-snake," and was undoubtedly derived from the Ojibwa. It was
played during the winter, either in the snow or on the ice, and The only
article necessary consisted of a piece of hardwood, from 5 to feet long
and from one half to three fourths of an inch thick. The head was
bulb-like and shaped like a snake, with eyes, and a crosscut to denote
the mouth. This rounded end permitted it to pass over slight irreg-
ularities in its forward movements. The player would grasp the end,
or tail, of the snake by putting the index linger against the end and
the thumb on one side, opposite to which would be the remaining three
ringers; then stooping toward the ground the snake was held horizon-
tally from right to left and forced forward in the direction of the head,
skimming along rapidly for a considerable distance. (See figure 31.)
The Ojibwa play the game in a similar manner, but they sometimes
place a ridge of snow slightly inclined away from the player in order
HOFFMAN THE SNOW-SNAKE 245
to give tlie snake an upward curve as it leaves the hands, thus pro-
pelling it a considerable distance before touching- the snow or ice.
A short time since a similar game was observed among the Crow
boys at Crow agency, Montana. By them, however, it was played
during the summer, and instead of a wooden snake they employed an
arrow with a blunt wooden head. Each player had a bundle of from
ten to twenty arrows, and would propel all of them before giving place
Fig. 31—Holding snow-snake preparatory to throwing.
to his opponent. Furthermore, to aid in giving the arrow an upward
curve and to make it fly farther, a short board was placed on the ground,
the farther end of which was raised about 4 inches. The arrow was
grasped in the same way as the Menomiui held the wooden snake.
RACES
A mutually satisfactory manner of starting a footrace is often adopted
by two participants, as follows: After the course in which the race is
246 THE MEXOMINI INDIANS [eth.asn.14
to be run lias been decided on, the starting point is indicated by mak-
ing a transverse scratch in the ground over the line of the course, or
by laying down at either side some leaves, a blanket, or some other
conspicuous mark. The runners then recede from this mark in order
to get a good and fair start. Iiotli being ready, a twig or stick from
lli to 15 inches in length is held between them, each grasping an end
so as to readily indicate when one or the other is gaining undue advan-
tage in speed from the standing point to the scratch where the race is
actually to begin.
In starting, both racers step off briskly, at once beginning a gentle
trot which increases in speed as they approach the scratch, though
both endeavor to keep abreast and glance at the stick held by the
two. When the true starting point is reached, the stick is dropped
and both start forward, each endeavoring to impede the progress of
the other by every conceivable trick.
Ordinary footraces cover only a few hundred yards, though long-
distance races have sometimes occurred. When runners are sent out
to carry invitations to the Mita'wit ceremonials, or when the agent
desires information transmitted, the courier assumes an easy running
gait, which may be kept up for hours at a time. This dog-trot is the
least fatiguing, and instances of the endurance of Indians have been
well shown in recent years by the Apache renegades in their endeavor
to escape the troops in the mountainous country of eastern and south-
eastern Arizona, who would frequently desert their ponies and take to
the trails on foot.
A Mohave courier, well known to the writer, has been known to make
the journey between Camp Mohave and a temporary camp 90 miles
southward between sunrise and sunset. He would eat but little during
the day preceding the journey, and on the morning of his departure,
shortly before the summer's early sunrise, would tuck the dispatches
or letters in his huge, coil of hair, and being clad only in breechcloth
and moccasins was unimpeded in his progress. The trail lay along the
hard, sandy banks of the river terrace, and as the temperature rose
during the day he would go down into the water to wet his body and
then resume his steady, easy, jogging gait, with both arms brought up
beside the chest, the fists being clenched and held almost in front of the
breastbone.
With reference to the speed obtained by the Menomini Indians,
nothing remarkable has been accomplished, so far as is known. An
instance of excellent time made by an Ojibwa mixed blood, at White
Earth, Minnesota, has been placed on record. 1 The Indian referred to
was sent for to enter a race against professional runners. He left the
plow at noon, and after dinner walked about 23 miles to the place where
the race was to be run, and next morning made 100 yards in ten and
three-quarters seconds.
'American Anthropologist, Washington, vol. Hi, 1890, p. 133.
hofpman] ZUNI AND TARAHUMARA RACES M7
Mr P. W. Hodge,' who has conducted researches among the several
Pueblo tribes of New Mexico and Arizona, lias given an account of a
Znni footrace. ''The great races of the Zuni," says the author, "and
those in which the chief interest is centered, occur after the planting, the
time when uearly all the men are at leisure. In selecting the partici-
pants in these races, the swiftest-footed of the young men of the north-
ern half of the pueblo are matched against those of the southern, or
the western half against the eastern. The number of racers on a side
varies from three to six, and the degree of interest taken in the contest
depends on the reputation of those engaged in it, and particularly on
the extent to which betting has been indulged in."
In this Zuni race many little preliminaries are arranged, and cer-
tain precautions taken so as to insure a satisfactory condition of the
participants, both hygienically and also from a religious point of view.
The chief feature of the race is the kicking of sticks, which the
leader of each side places across his foot at the base of the toes.
These sticks are rounded and of the size of the middle finger; they
ai'e picked up with the toes and kicked forward, when one of the set,
or partners, of the one kicking, reuews the feat, keeping up rapid
speed. Mr Hodge says the distance covered by one race was 25 miles,
and the time consumed only two hours.
It is well known that the Tarahuinara Indians of Mexico are so
named from their custom of racing while driving before them a wooden
ball by means of the feet alone. It is said that frequently 70 or 80
miles are thus covered in a single race.
Canoe races frequently occurred among the Menomini; but of late, it
must be said, little interest is manifested in athletic sports of any kind.
TOISACCO AND SHAWANO DANCES
Apart from the dances indulged in by certain individuals in con-
nection with cult ceremonials, there are two dances which are much
esteemed as affording great pleasure and excitement. One of these
is termed the Tobacco dance, the other the Shawano dance, for the
latter is believed to have been introduced by the Shawnee, with which
tribal designation the word is synonymous, signifying "southern" or
" southerner," that tribe having lived to the south of the Menomini.
PIPES AND TOBACCO
Nearly every Indian is a smoker, and smoking is engaged in when-
ever he has nothing better to do. Pipes used at this day consist of
various kinds procured from trading establishments; but, if obtainable,
the native pipes, made of stone, are greatly preferred, because they
were the pipes of their ancestors and because the bore is deeper and
narrower than is found in the modern briar and clay pipe bowls. The
native pipe bowl is usually double the height of the modern article,
'American Anthropologist, July, 1890, pp. 227-231.
248 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [Bra. Ann. 14
being from 1* to 4 inches from top to bottom ; the main stem, from near
the middle of which the bowl rises, is from 4 to 8 inches in length,
becoming narrower, laterally, toward the front. The stem is bored
from the rear to the center of the bowl, through which a similar hole
is drilled from the top, to intersect or unite with the former. This per-
foration averages one-third of an inch in diameter, while the bowl ori-
fice becomes slightly larger toward the top.
Oatlinite or red pipestone pipes were formerly obtained by the Me
nomini through barter from their western neighbors, this substance
being found only near the town of Pipestone, Minnesota. A small
bowl of this material is represented in figure 32. The specimen illus-
trated was formerly the property of Teeumtha, by whom it was pre-
sented to a member of the family of Mr Gauthier, interpreter at
Keshena, Wisconsin. It is now in the National Museum. Another va-
riety of pipe found especially among the southern bands of Menom-
ini—those living nearer the Ojibwa at Lac Court Oreille and Lac Flam-
beau—are made of a dark, greenish black mineral
obtained in northeastern Minnesota. An example is
illustrated in figure 33.
Frequently the upper portion of the pipe is carved,
the depressions afterward being filled with block
tin or lead. Quite a degree of taste and skill is
shown in some of these pipes, the
stems, which are made of ash or
other wood, being frequently orna-
mented by carvings, decorations
in color, and beads. Some of the
32-Tecumtha's stems are broad measuring fromfig. pipe. >
1£ to 13J inches across, and are
only half an inch thick. At each of the ends is a cylindrical projection,
half an inch in diameter, the lower to be inserted into the pipe bowl,
while the other forms the mouthpiece.
The pith is removed from these stems by passing through them a
piece of wire, usually made red hot so as to burn and harden the aper-
ture. Some Indians, more expert than others, occasionally produce
curious effects and cause astonishment by cutting away certain por-
tions of the stem along the middle broad part, the openings extending
almost across from side to side, and thus naturally renewing the conti-
nuity of the orifice. As no marks upon the exterior are visible to the
casual observer, it seems quite a puzzle to understand how the smoke
passes from the bowl to the smoker's mouth, for between these two
poiuts circles, squares, or perhaps other figures, are cut out, as above
described. On careful examination it may be observed, and perhaps it
may also require the assistance of the carver to learn, that holes are
drilled or burned from the side or edge of the stem to intersect the
main orifice, all superfluous openings being carefully plugged with wood
of the same species.
hoffman] NATIVE TOBACCO 249
Tbe orifice along the edge of the stem, from end to end, is made l>y
splitting oft' a piece half an inch or so in width, then cutting a crease
or groove along the main part to connect the two short transverse
burned holes which run into the main or original orifice, when the
detached piece is again carefully secured to the stem by gluing. After
tlie stem is completed and polished, or decorated by discoloration or by
burning, the union of the two pieces is extremely difficult to detect, if
it can be detected at all. Thus the smoke passes around the interior
through an orifice having four angles or turns.
This is an example of only an ordinarily decorated stem. Sometimes
the manufacture of the stem is even more complicated by a greater
number of designs in carving, or the removal of certain portions, thus
increasing the turns and angles of the orifice through which the smoke
passes.
Fig. 33—Inlaid atone pipe.
Having had occasion to speak of pipes and the importance of cere-
monial smoking, it may not be inappropriate to treat more fully of the
subject of tobacco, as well as of the substitutes for tobacco and the
peculiar manner of using them.
Since the introduction of manufactured tobacco, most Indians pur-
chase inferior grades of granular mixtures, they being the more readily
obtained. Plug tobacco is preferred when it can be procured, but this
is generally mixed by them with the native product. In former times
the leaves of the sumach (Rhus glabra Wood, and E. aromatica Ait)
were gathered and dried, being subsequently ground between the left
palin and the ball of the right thumb, the latter projecting beyond the
clinched list. Frequently, when the leaves were very dry, both palms
were employed to give a handful of leaves the primary crushing, the
hands being used as in the act of washing. This mixture contains a
large quantity of tannic acid, and its use generally produces brouchial
irritation.
The substance generally employed by the Menomini for smoking, and
one found abundantly in many parts of the northern temperate por-
250 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ann.11
tionsof North America, is the red osier Vonutx| stolonifera Miehx. |, com-
monly designated by frontiersmen as kil'likinik', or kin'nikinik'. The
word is from the language of the Dakota, by which nation it is more
properly designated tsha"'shasha, '-red- wood." The name adopted by
the Menomini is the former one, the word perhaps having been obtained
by them directly from whites and Canadian Indians who frequented the
territory west of the Mississippi, where it was used very extensively,
especially in mixture with plug tobacco. The shoots of a year's growth,
and the older branches if still retaining the red epidermis, were pre-
ferred. This thin, semitransparent epidermis was scraped off by
passing the edge of a sharp knife-blade longitudinally over the stem;
then the back of the blade was employed in scraping from the ligneous
portion of the branch the cellular integument—the rather soft, brittle
green portion of the bark. This was dried generally for future use, for,
although smoked at nearly all times, it was deemed better for use in
winter, as the Indians believed it to be ''heating," meaning by the
phrase that it sometimes was more liable to cause slight dizziness or
fullness of the head—an effect attributable more to the adulteration of
the tobacco furnished them than to the astringency of the bark.
The third variety of native tobacco consisted of the leaves of Arcto-
staphylos uva-ursi Spreng., commonly known in medicine as uva-ursi,
and as an excellent diuretic; but bjT the Dakota Indians, from whom
it was formerly obtained, it is designated as waqpe' tsha"shasha—liter-
ally' " leaf red-wood." This is a low-growing evergreen shrub, which
bears oblong leaves not over an inch in length. Its habitat is chiefly
along Yellowstone river in Montana, and southeastward in the bad-
lands along the boundary between Montana and South Dakota. Dur-
ing the writer's residence among the Dakota Indians in 1872-73, a small
cigarboxful of the leaves was regarded as worth an Indian pony, prac-
tically equal to $20, and, for obvious reasons, but few Indians could
indulge in this luxury.
This substance was prepared for smoking during the summer mouths,
as it was then less liable to produce a sense of fullness in the head. The
Menomini sometimes obtain these leaves at apothecary shops, but as
the cost is greater than for an equal amount of tobacco, the latter is
more generally used.
Red-osier bark is prepared for smoking by laying a small handful of
it on a piece of board, and whilst holding the curly shavings down with
the left hand, the ends projecting toward the right are cut off with a
large knife by passing the handle up and down without lifting the point
of the blade from the board. The motion of cutting is thus similar to
that in using a small fodder-cutter; each time the blade is raised from
the board the mass of bark is pushed under it as it descends, the bark
being therefore really minced. Two parts of the bark are carefully
mixed with one part of granular or similarly hashed plug tobacco,
when it is ready for the tobacco pouch. Enough for only one day's
use is prepared at a time.
hoffmax] CEREMONIAL SMOKING 251
When an Indian desires to smoke, a pipeful of the tobacco mixture is
placed on the left palm, and worked with the ball of the thumb, or per-
haps with the tips of the united fingers and thumb, after which it is
put in the bowl and gently packed down by means of a pipe-stick. This
implement is made of ash, cedar, or some other choice wood, and is ft'om 8
to 10 inches in length, one-third of an inch thick at the top, gracefully
narrowing to within an inch from the lower end, where it curves to a
blunt tip. The leaves of the uva-ursi also are broken <>r cut, and
mixed with either of the above-named varieties of tobacco in the pro-
portion of one of the former to three or four of the latter.
When several Menomini are sitting together for social purposes,
smoking is individual, and no offer of a pipe by one to another is made,
unless the latter desires a whiff, or may perhaps be without his own
pipe. When sitting in council and having in hand the consideration of
tribal affairs or deliberations relative to important social secrets, or
when participating in ritualistic ceremonials, the smoker who fills the
pipe hands it to his right-hand neighbor to light. The latter individual
takes a few whiffs at intervals, inhaling each mouthful, after which the
pipe is passed back to the owner at the left, who then takes several
whiffs, when he passes it to the next person to his left. In this manner
the pipe continues on its way around the circle, always to the left, until
the bowl of tobacco is exhausted. He who concludes the smoking
knocks out the ashes and hands the pipe to its owner.
During the passage of the pipe silence is maintained, and if any con-
versation becomes necessary, it is conducted only in a whisper.
At various intervals of ceremonial smokes, especially during the
smoking preliminary to prayers or chants, puffs of smoke are directed
toward the four cardinal points as well as toward the abode of the wind
gods, or the zenith—the abode of Kisha' Ma'nido—and toward the earth,
the abode of the material parts of their deceased friends and relations.
The true Indian pipestem usually terminates in a cylindrical mouth-
piece an inch or more in length and from one-fourth to one-third of an
inch in diameter. When smoking, an Indian does not put this part into
his mouth, as we are accustomed to doing, thus moistening it with
saliva, but he will press it between the lips, and as the stem enters the
mouth the outer and dry portion of the lips follow, so that the stem does
not become moist. In sucking the stem and gaining a mouthful of
smoke, the lips are slightly parted—at either side or toward the corner
of the mouth—and air inhaled so as to mix with and pass down the
throat into and filling the lungs. The slight sound of rushing air which
is heard forms an essential part of Indian etiquette, for it is indicative
of satisfaction and enjoyment. After a moment's suspense the contents
of the lungs and air passages are exhaled, the smoke issuing from the
mouth as well as in two distinct volumes from the nostrils.
The question may be asked as to the reason of the inhalation. This
may be answered, because, first, the supply of tobacco is usually very
252 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.amn.14
limited, and, desiring it to go as far as possible, the enjoyment is thus
prolonged; and second, the effect of tobacco smoke, when one is once
accustomed in inhalation and is not susceptible to the irritating effect,
is very agreeable, as the writer can testify from a personal experience
of a quarter of a century—a habit since discontinued. It may be
remarked, too, that the Indians, at a time when native plants of nar-
cotic properties were used, inhaled the smoke for the purpose of induc-
ing narcotism, and under certain conditions, an ecstatic state. Several
plants of the genus Wicotiana were employed by various Indians, the
southern and southwestern tribes especially, since they inhabited a
region in which several species are indigenous.
The tribes inhabiting the high plateau of Arizona, when first met
with by the writer in 1871, were in the habit of rolling all of their
tobacco into cigarettes as they were required, using therefor corn-husk
or brown paper, if the latter could be obtained. An instance of the
manner and the degree of enjoyment experienced by a Shivwits Indian
may be cited. This native had come into camp with his wife and three
young children, the youngest being perhaps three or four years of age.
The first inquiry was for tobacco, and a piece of plug being handed to
him, he looked about for some heavy yellow straw-paper which had
been wrapped about some groceries in the mess-chest. The resem-
blance of the latter to corn-husk made it very acceptable to him, and
he immediately cut up the tobacco into small particles and rolled it
into a cigarette, lighting it at the camp fire and noisily inhaling the
smoke by great mouthfuls. After a few whiffs, he turned the moistened
end of the cigarette to his wife, who also drew a few pull's, then passed it
to his eldest child, a girl, then to the nextinage, and finally to the infant,
all of them seeming to relish the flavor and each casting wistful looks
after the stump as the old chief finished it. I was informed by him that
his children had never before had an opportunity of smoking. As iu
this instance there was but the merest taste and not sufficient to induce
dislike, and possibly nausea, so it may have been in many others that
the gradual acquirement may ultimately end in professional smoking
without once having experienced the distressing effects of overindul-
gence at a sitting. Most whites are supposed to pass through certain
stages of tobacco sickness, induced by nausea, but this is believed to
be exceedingly rare amongst Indians, doubtless for the reason above
suggested.
Tobacco is frequently used by the Menomini as an offering. It is
placed before grave-boxes, sprinkled on stones or rocks of abnormal
shape, their form being attributed to the Great Deity, or to Ma'nabush.
It is also sent as peace offerings to other persons or tribes; it is given to
one from whom a favor is expected, or when an answer is looked for to
questions to be submitted or propounded; and likewise it is sent out,
together with an invitatiou, to members of the Medicine society when
a meeting is contemplated. Nothing of a serious character is under-

i
K
* «Aw
•*;
hoffman] CEREMONIAL SMOKING 253
taken, or even attempted, before indulging in smoking and contempla-
tion, and perhaps by preliminary fasting, accompanied by prayers and
chants.
The origin of tobacco is regarded by the Menomini as mystic. An
account of its function in this regard lias previously been given in this
memoir.
ARCHITECTURE
DWELLINGS AND LODGES
The greater number of the Menomini now live in comfortable log
houses built by themselves and tolerably well furnished with modern
conveniences. The only floor covering, if any is used at all, consists of
rush mats, frequently of neat design, placed directly on the board floor-
ing. Illustrations of these mats are given elsewhere in this paper, while
the appearance of a typical modern Menomini log house is shown in
plate xvi.
The roof of such a dwelling consists of boards, though in a number
of the older buildings homemade shingles may be seen. These are
fastened with wooden pegs instead of with iron nails; they measure
from .'5 to 4 feet in length and from 8 to 10 inches in width, and are
pegged to the crosspieces resting on the rafters in the usual manner.
The houses are rather poorly lighted, usually two windows and some-
times only one window being regarded as sufficient for lighting and
ventilating a house of moderate size. In nearly all instances the build-
ing logs are squared to fit closely, and consequently require less chinking
than when left naturally round. Whenever necessary to the comfort of
the occupants of the dwelling, chinking is done with clay and sod, but
ou some occasions mortar is employed.
Some houses are supplied with a ceiling, independent of the roof, and
a hatchway is also furnished for ingress by means of a ladder. The
attic thus formed is used for the storage of various household articles,
including utensils not in immediate use, and of harness and traps;
sometimes it is used even for sleeping quarters for the children or for
visitors. The walls are sometimes decorated with mats of rush or
bark, the. latter variety frequently being of elaborate design.
As a rule no chimneys are built, the outlet for smoke being an ordinary
stovepipe, which passes through an opening in the -i oof and projects
several feet above.
Near the modern houses is frequently observed a summer residence
made of saplings and covered with mats-or bark to protect the occu-
pants from the sun and raiu. This primitive form of Menomini wigwam
is made in the following manner:
Saplings of oak or other tough wood, not more than 2 inches thick
at the base, are cut and planted about 3 feet apart so as to form an-
elliptical outline, with two openings for ingress and egress opposite each
other, in the line of the greater diameter. Plate xvn represents the
254 THE MKXOMIXI INDIANS [ i:th. ANN. 14
framework of a wigwam of this character. The top and sides of this
skeleton structure are covered with large sheets of birchbark and mats;
sometimes pieces of canvas or an old blanket are added. The materials
used for covering will be described later. Alter the poles have been
planted or driven into the ground until they stand like the vertical
sticks of a basket-maker's frame, they are drawn inward across the
interior and securely tied with strips of basswood bark. The width of
the wigwam is usually about 10 feet, and the length 14 or 10 feet. Hori-
zontal poles are next lashed to the arched ribs, each from a foot and a
half to 2 feet apart, excepting at the open or doorway ends of the struc-
ture, where the vertical poles are about 3 feet apart. Mats are then fas-
tened to the framework on the outside, first in a continuous row at the
bottom, the next row overlapping the first row, and so on until the top
is reached. Over the dome are thrown pieces of bark—excepting at
the center of the roof, where a smoke-hole is left.
Jwd£"2
-Bark domicile for summer us
To complete the covering of the wigwam, mats are used as door flaps,
the top of a mat being fastened to the top of each opening, while the
other end is permitted to fall to the ground. To enter the structure,
a person has merely to lift one side of the mat, allowing it to fall in
place after entering.
The sides of the wigwam are covered with pieces of pine bark cut in
sections long enough to extend from the ground to the roof. These
pieces are fastened in place usually by strips of bark, but sometimes
they are nailed.
Another variety of temporary structure of the Menomini, used gen-
erally during the summer when the natives go from home to pick ber-
ries, gather wild rice, or to dig snakeroot, is quickly made by planting
five or six saplings on each side of a parallelogram; the ends are


hoffman] TEMPORARY STRUCTURES 255
left open, and the top of each sapling on a given side is tben bound
down over its opposite fellow to form a roof somewhat resembling a
wagon-top, as in figure 34. Horizontal saplings are then bound around
the framework to make the structure secure, and over all are laid, longi-
tudinally, a series of long strips of pine bark, the upper pieces over-
lapping those below, while a large piece is placed over the highest part
of the roof, which thus sheds the rain or melting snow. This part com-
pleted, the end of the wigwam is protected by other pieces of bark
placed slantingly against the side. To keep out mosquitoes, smudges
are built at one or both ends of these lodges, that the smoke may be car-
ried through the structure. The bedding is spread on the ground, and
usually covers the entire floor.
Sometimes a so-called lean-to is built for short occupancy, or even for
a single night's shelter from rain or clew. This variety of structure is
made generally by laying short poles against a fallen tree trunk, the
extreme pieces being about 6 or 7 feet apart; other poles or branches
are then placed transversely upon these, and this rude framework is
finally covered with brush and leaves.
Occasionally winter habitations of bark are constructed like those
shown in plate xvni.
Another form of Menomini shelter which may again be referred to is
the sweat-lodge, resorted to by those who may feel indisposed, or by
the shamans previously to undertaking any serious or difficult task.
This variety of structure resembles a huge beehive, but -may be a
little less conical in shape. An illustration (plate xi) of the sweat-
lodge has already been given in connection with the ceremonies of the
Mita'wit.
The tshi'saqkan or jugglery also has been described and illustrated
(figure 20) in connection with the subject of that class of shamans. It
is simply a large funnel-shape lodge, constructed of vertical poles with
horizontal branches lashed on to serve as hoops, so to say. Over this
frame birchbark, matting, or cloth is wrapped to hide the actions of the
operator within. A ceremonial wigwam closely related to this is the
previously mentioned mita'wiko'mik or medicine-lodge, represented in
several forms in plates vi and xn and figures 5 and 9, which illustrate
the different structures used during the annual performances.
OTHER STRUCTURES
Some of the more thrifty Indians erect, for use as stables, small log
buildings with flat roofs of saplings covered with branches, straw, and
earth. To the stable a small corral, consisting of vertical saplings, is
attached to prevent the escape of the animals.
Poultry houses measuring from (i to 8 feet square, built of logs with
board roofs, are also common among the Menomini.
In recent years fences have been erected. These are usually either
of posts or of clapboards, though many of the fields are inclosed by
256 THE MENOMINI INDIANS tBTH.ASK.14
"worm" fences. Sometimes vertical stakes are planted, saplings and
branches being then entwined until the fence forms a veritable hedge.
FURNITURE AND IMPLEMENTS
BEDS
The recesses on each side of the longitudinal passageway of the
Menomini wigwam are utilized for beds and bedding. Sometimes the
ground is covered with pine boughs, over which the blankets and other
bedding are thrown; but when the structure is to be occupied for a
longer period than that covered by the sugar-making, or if the wig-
wam is intended to remain for more than one season, then a permanent
platform, resembling a trundle bed, is erected, as shown in figure 35.
Whenever possible, boards are laid across the head and foot poles of
this primitive bedstead, thus making
a comfortable platform on which to
deposit and arrange the bedding and
robes.
These beds consist of four short
crotched poles, which form the legs,
and on these are laid other poles to
Fig. 35—Bedstead of saplings. . .... .. ... .,
give it the ordinary size in length and,
breadth, though this frame is only from a foot to a foot and a half from
the door. Over the bed frame are placed boards or slats, upon which
straw bags and a mattress are laid.
In some houses may be found an abundance of mosquito netting, for
mosquitoes in the Menomini country are very annoying, especially in wet
seasons. The material is placed over the bedstead as well as over the
floor bedding, where children or the men sleep, and the windows and
doors also are sometimes covered with it.
STOVES
Modern stoves are now used by nearly all the Menomini ; but if these
get out of order or beyond their control, the women resort to the cus-
tom in vogue before the whites came, of building a fire outdoors and
suspending over it the kettle.
UTENSILS
Most of the dishes which they now use are made by the whites, though
a few wooden spoons and ladles of native make are occasionally used
by them. Musselshells also were formerly used as spoons, and their
knives and axes were of stone. The Indians agree in the statement
that the making of stone weapons' was discontinued by them four
generations ago. Shu'nieu remembers hearing the old people speak
During; a tour of Nevada and Arizona in 1871, the writer saw stone arrowpoints and knives still in
use by t he Chemehuevi and Walapai and by the Apache at Camp Apache. The arrowpoints used by
the Apache :ii that ti were made by themselves, and a number of specimens then obtained consisted
i'i le it. obsidian, and bottle-glass, and a single speei n was •! r:_ "l<l quartz. Arrowpoints fashioned
freiu hoop-h were also in use at that time. See pages 281-284.


HOFFMAN] SHELL IMPLEMENTS EARTHENWARE 257
about the manner of using these stone objects. The knives were
made of flint (hornstone), and were about 8 inches long, an inch and
a half broad, and sharply pointed; some indeed were sharp enough to
cut moose skin with ease. These implements were used for cutting
meat, for scraping arrowshafts, and in making bows.
Some of the Menomiui say that musselshells are used even today,
when necessity demands, both for spoons and for cutting. They are
also sometimes used for scraping deerskin in tanning. The survival
of the practice of thus using shells is not at all astonishing, for they
serve the purpose as well as almost anything else, and thick strong
shells of several species are abundant in the rivers of Wisconsin.
Earthenware is no longer made by the Menomiui. though some of the
oldest women remember when pottery making was engaged in.
MORTARS AND PESTLES
In one corner of the living room, or perhaps outside the door, will
occasionally be found troughs fashioned from solid trunks for containing
water for fowls and other domestic animals, and sometimes a wooden
mortar (figure 3G) for crushing medicinal roots and plants is observed.
Fig. 36—Wooden mortar and pestle.
These mortars are fashioned from a section of the trunk of an oak;
they measure 11 inches in height, 10 inches in width, and 16 inches in
length over the handles. The cavity, which is made by means of an ax,
measures 9 inches in length and 7 inches in width at the top; it is 10
inches deep and terminates in a wedge-shape bottom, rounded so as to
receive the end of a double-head pestle. The latter is about 37 inches
in length, the ends being from 2 to 2+. inches iu diameter, while the
middle third, which serves as a handle, is somewhat thinner. The
specimen above figured, which was used for "medicine pouuding" only,
shows evidence of considerable age and much use.
TROUGHS
The troughs above mentioned are made in a manner similar to that in
which the mortars are fashioned, and they are from 3 to 4 feet in length.
14 eth 17
258 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ajto.14
They appear to have been formerly used in sugar-making', but now are
employed only for watering fowl, etc.
CRADLES AND HAMMOCKS
Cradleboards are used for the protection and convenient transpor-
tation of infants. These boards are made of any light wood, and meas-
ure about 30 inches in length and 16 inches in width. Across the top
and front, and projecting forward therefrom, is a wooden band, which
serves to hold the face cover, or mosquito bar, iu summer time. The
board is padded with a piece of quilt or blanket, over the upper end of
which is sometimes placed a piece of buckskin on which the child's
head may rest. To the lower portion of the board—that is, from the
point where the arms emerge, downward—pieces of cloth or skin are
tied across to fasten the child to the board. A space is always left
about the middle of the body, in order that the child may receive
attention when necessary.
Plate xix represents an infant on a cradleboard, placed against the
inner wall of a medicine lodge during the ceremonies at which the
mother was an attendant.
Infants who have become too large for the cradleboard are put to
sleep in hammocks. The Menomini hammock consists of a woolen
shawl held together at each end by a cord ; one of these cords is attached
to a tree trunk, the other to a sapling placed slantingly against the tree.
Near the head end of the shawl a piece of wood is inserted to keep
the sides from pressing the child's face. The tendency of the ham-
mock is to close tightly, and thus to hold the occupant quite securely.
The simplicity of this form of hammock makes it very convenient for
mothers, especially while domiciled in a temporary camp, since it may
be suspended in a few moments.
PRODUCTS OF MANUFACTURE
MATS
Several varieties of mats are made by Menomini women from leaves
of rushes, from the flag or cat-o'-nine-tails, and from cedar bark. The
leaf-made mats are used chiefly for roofing temporary structures, such
as the covered medicine lodge shown iu plate xn. These mats are from
G to 12 feet in length and are usually a yard in width. They consist
of two layers of leaves, each layer being secured by cords made of
basswood fiber passed through transversely from one end of the mat
to the other, to keep the edges of the leaves together. To each layer
cords extend from end to end, at intervals of about 10 inches, thus
leaving three or four cords to each layer, the ends of the leaves at the
lateral edges of the mat being woven together to make a secure and
durable seam. Each layer or sheet of leaves is therefore free from its
fellow, so that when the rain falls on the mat, the water usually follows


hoffman] BARK AND RUSH MATS 259
the leaves on the inside of the mat. The extreme ends are secured
by tying to two strips of wood, one above and one below, and
wrapped with basswood cords. The rush-leaf mats are compactly
woven, and are used upon the floors and in the medicine structure for
seats.
Leaves for mat-making are prepared by first cutting them when
green, then steeping them in boiling water, and laying them in the sun
to bleach. Some leaves are then dyed, to produce in the final work
various designs in colored stripes. These colors are chiefly dull green,
red, and brown. The frame employed in making mats consists of two
upright poles about 10 feet high and (» to 8 feet apart (plate xx).
Another pole is then tied transversely as high as the face of the worker.
Along the crosspiece is then stretched a stout cord of basswood fiber,
to which the leaves are attached by plaiting, thus making the latter
pendent, one against the other, for as great a length as it is desired to
make the mat. A long thread, also of basswood fiber, with a diameter
of nearly three-sixteenths of an inch, is then attached to the left side of
the row of leaves and run across toward the right by passing it in and
out alternately over and beneath the leaves in succession. At intervals
of every 4 or inches a loop is made, to prevent the woof from slipping
down, the loop being pulled out when another space of 4 or 6 inches is
woven and stretched taut. The worker is occasionally obliged to spray
water on the leaves, to make them pliable and to prevent breaking.
When the right side is reached, the woof is secured to a heavier warp
cord, which had been previously attached to the vertical pole. The col-
ored leaves have already been placed at proper points, in the first
instance, to give the desired stripes when finally woven. The lower
edge is finished by cutting the leaves of equal length and plaiting them
from left to right, when the last leaves are turned under and tied.
A typical specimen of rush mat is illustrated in plate xxi.
Bark mats are now rare among the Menomini; plate xxn represents
an entire specimen, while in plate xxiii a section only is shown. They
are made of the inner bark of the cedar, cut in strips averaging half
an inch in width. Some of the mats are nearly white, others are
colored dark red and sometimes black with native vegetal dyes. The
decoration is effectively produced in diamond and lozenge patterns,
as well as in zigzag lines, both by color and by the weaving of the
weft strips, the latter being accomplished by taking up and dropping
certain numbers of the warp strips.
BASKETS
Baskets are made much on the same principle of plaiting as
is employed for bark mats. The strips or osiers are made from
black elm, the necessary limbs being from 3 to 4 inches in diameter
(figure 37) ; these are thoroughly hammered with a wooden mallet (figure
38) until the individual layers of the branch are detached from the
260 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [ETH. ANN. 14
layers immediately beneath. These layers are then cut into thin nar-
row strips by means of the knife universally used (figure 39). The
Fig. 'il—Elm log for making splints.
strips are kept in coils (figure 40) until ready for use, when they are
soaked in water. Figure 41 illustrates a finished basket.
Cutting is always done away from the hand holding the material to
be cut, and toward the body. ^_
The club or mallet employed in hammer-
ing the elm wood is about 20 inches long
and has one end thinner, so as to form a Wm
handle.
(ill TWINE AND ROPE
Thread, cord, twine, and rope are made
of vegetal fiber, the chief material being
derived from the inner bark of the young
sprouts of basswood. The bark is re-
moved in sheets and boiled in water to
which a large quantity of lye from wood
ashes has been added. This softens the
fiber and permits the worker to manipu-
late it without breaking. The shoulder- &r
blade of a deer or other large animal is
then nailed or otherwise fastened to an
"!# upright post, and through it a hole about
an inch in diameter is drilled; through
this hole bunches of the boiled bark are
pulled backward and forward, from right
to left, to remove from it all splinters or
other hard fragments. After the fiber has
Fig. 38—Mallet.
become soft and pliable, bunches of it are
hung up in hanks, to be twisted as desired.
The manner of making cord or twine, such as is used
in weaving mats and for almost all other household
purposes, is by holding in the left hand the fiber as it is
pulled from a hank, and separating it into two parts,
which are laid across the thigh. The palm of the right
Fig. 39—Knife of
hand is then rolled forward over both, so as to tightly native workman-
twist the pair of strands, when they are permitted to unite ship.
and twist into a cord. The twisted end being pushed a little to the right,


TANNING—MEDICINE BAGS 261
the next continuous portion of the united strands also are twisted to
form a single cord. The same process is followed in all fiber twist-
ing, even to the finest nettle
thread.
TANNING
Deerskins are tanned by
the Menomini, as among the
other tribes of the region of
the great lakes. The inner
surface of the skin is first
cleaned of all shreds of fiber
and meat, after which it is
soaked in water, rubbed and
kneaded, and then passed
around an upright pole or
sapling, and twisted to ex-
pel the water. .Rubbing and
kneading are now again
necessary, to soften the skin
and to prevent stiffening. Fig. 40—Coil of basket strips.
Sometimes the brains of a
deer are rubbed into the skin, which is then stretched and pulled and
rubbed until dry. This is supposed to prevent the subsequent stiffen-
ing of buckskin garments when subjected
to water or rain. The hair is removed
by laying the skin on a large smooth
piece of wood, or by stretching it on a
frame or on the ground. This process is
represented in plate xxiv, in connection
with which another stage of tanning also
is illustrated. This is almost the final pro-
cess—that of hanging the skin like an in-
verted bag or funnel over a small fire,
in order that the smoke may penetrate
the skin and cure it.
MEDICINE BAGS
The members of the Mitii'wit employ
for medicine bags the skins of small ani-
mals, birds, and snakes, also panther and
bear paws, and similar objects of animal
origin ; but at no time have bags been seen
or even heard of, made of anyJ pl art of aFig. 41-Finisbed basket. „ ', „,, „ , .
nsh. The reason for this could not be
ascertained from the Indians themselves, but an explanation of the
tabu will perhaps be found in the mythology relating to the totems.
262 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ann.14
When an animal is to be skinned for the purpose of making a medi-
cine bag, an incision is made in the breast, and through this the car-
cass is removed, leaving the skin of the head, feet, and tail entire. The
skin is then turned inside out and tanned, after which the fur side is
turned out and the eye-holes ornamented with beadwork. The bags are
wrapped with colored cords or with strings of beads, and the under side
of the tail is sometimes lined with a strip of red flannel, on which is
worked a design in beads (plates vm and ix, and figure 13). Sometimes
the flannel is decorated with small brass bells, with claws, or with tbe
rattle of a rattlesnake. One bag of this character, made of an otter
skin, was provided with a clever contrivance: By pressing on a small
rubber ball within the body, the air was forced through the tube into the
mouth, where a small whistle had been attached. The sound resembled
closely the voice of the otter, and the credulous firmly believed that the
sound was the voice of the shade of that animal.
The writer's own medicine bag, given to him by his shamauistic pre-
ceptor, is made of a mink skin, neatly ornamented about the eyes with
beads, and with two small round steel bells attached to the nose.
These bags are used for holding various parcels of mystic remedies and
charmed objects employed by the shamans in the profession of incanta-
tion or exorcism. The bags are reputed as very dangerous to the
uninitiated, and, for the purpose of preventing trouble or danger, medi-
cine men frequently keep their sacks hidden outside of their domiciles,
so that no one not entitled to do so should have an opportunity of
touching them.
The kind of medicine bag used by the rnita'T depends on the dream
which the individual may have had in his youth. Fasting is practiced
by the young man, or boy, to find favor with the ma'nidos. During the
fast he retires from the camp and abstains from all food until he
become so debilitated as to attain a delirious or ecstatic condition, in
which appear visions of various ma'nidos, either in human or in other
animate form. Dreams of birds or animals lead the faster to believe
that he will be invested with the same power of self-defense as is pos-
sessed by the animal of which he has dreamed. If it is possible, there-
fore, for the faster to procure a bag made of the skin or other part of
the animal which appeared to him in the vision, he will do his utmost
to possess it, even at the risk of great danger or the parting with any
of his possessions.
An instance of the belief in the power of the peq'tshiku'na, or medi-
cine bag, is related as occurring among the neighboring Ojibwa. 1 It is
as follows:
A canoe manned with warriors was once pursued by a number of others, all filled
with their enemies. They endeavoured to escape, paddling with all their might,
but the enemy still gained upon them; then the old warriors began to call for the
' .Joins. History of the Qjebway Indians. London (1861). pp. 89-90.
BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY FOURTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXI
'Snymmmsm^^^f^^^^.
S5g^a^8*®5SSfc^>«
liffiMBilglllllli W fpllliliilpi
'£3ll^lillte@g£sJ
RUSH MAT

—
hoffman] POWER OF THE MEDICINE BAG 2G3
assistance of those things they had dreamt of during their fast-days. One man's
munedoo was a sturgeon, which being invoked, their speed was soon equal to that
of this fish, leaving the enemy far behind; but the sturgeon being short-winded,
was soon tired, and the enemy again advanced rapidly upon them. The rest of the
warriors, with the exception of one young man who, from his mean and ragged
appearance, was considered a fool, called the assistance of their gods, which for a
time enabled them to keep in advance. At length, having exhausted the strength
of all their munedoos, they were beginning to give themselves up for lost, the other
canoes being now so near as to turn to head them, when just at this critical moment
the foolish young man thought of his medicine bag, which in their flight he had
taken off from bis side and laid in the canoe. He called out, "Where is my medicine
bag?" The warriors told him to be quiet; what did he want with his medicine bag
at this perilous time? He still shouted, " Where is my medicine bag?" They again
told him to paddle and not trouble them about his medicine bag. As he persisted
in his cry, "Where is my medicine bag?" one of the warriors seeing it by his side
took it up and threw it to him. He, putting his hand into it, pulled out an old
pouch made of the skin of a Saw-bill, a species of duck. This he held by the neck
to the water. Immediately the canoe began to glide swiftly at the usual speed of a
Saw-bill; and after being propelled for a short time by this wonderful power, they
looked back and found they were far beyond the reach of the enemy, who had now
given up the chase. Surely this Indian deserved a patent for his wonderful propell-
ing power, which would have superseded the use of the jarring and thumping steam-
boats, now the wonder and admiration of the American Indian. The young man
then took up his pouch, wrung the water out of it, and replaced it in his bag; telling
the Indian that he had not worn his medicine bag about his person for nothing,
that in his fast he had dreamt of this fowl, and was told that in all dangers it would
deliver him, and that he should possess the speed and untiring nature of the Saw-
bill duck. The old warriors were astonished at the power of the young man whom
they had looked upon as almost an idiot, and were taught by him a lesson, never to
form a mean opinion of any persons from their outward appearance.
A similar exhibition of the alleged power of the medicine bag has been
referred to in connection with mita/T ceremonies, in which an Ojibwa
woman is said to have caused her snake-skin bag to become a living
reptile, and to have chased for a considerable distance one of the doubt-
ing Indian commissioners present.
SNOWSHOES
The Menomini snowshoe varies in form and size according to the indi-
vidual as well as to the sex of the person who is to use it. Figure 42
represents a type, which it will be observed differs from that of the
neighboring Ojibwa shown in figure 44.
The toe of the Menomini snowshoe is transverse, and has a thinning of
the frame to admit of a short turn without breaking. The frame is made
of ash; it is 38 inches in length and is somewhat of boat shape, with a
thick heel. The inside or upper part is divided, as usual, into three
sections by two crossbars, and the intervening spaces of the anterior
and posterior are fdled in by a fine network of thin fibers made either of
sinew or of buckskin. The middle space is lliinches broad, and is filled
in with closely plaited thongs of rawhide or buckskin—usually the
former—at the anterior portion of which is an opening for the move-
264 Till-: MF.NOMINI .INDIANS [ETH. ANN*. H
ment of the toes after the loot lias been secured by the loose loop of
cords which passes over the heel.
The specimen illustrated (figure 42) is the type usually worn by men,
the style used by women being longer and narrower, while that for
children is shorter and proportionally broader, as shown in figure 43.
,^^\ DRESS, OKNAMENTS, READWOKK, AND
D151LI.ING
f- _ In referring to the. practices of Ojibwa sha-
--" 1
L~f- ~ - mans, I had occasion to remark that while
P"\u/TmA ]t NV:1S oustomary among many tribes to use
k
|£3k as little clothing ;is possible when engaged
in dancing, either of a social or ceremonial
nature, the Menomini, on the contrary, vie
willi one another in appearing in the most
costly and gaudy costume obtainable. Like
the Ojibwa, the Menomini niita'wok take
particular pride in their appearance when
at t ending the ceremonies of the MitS'wit, and
seldom fail to impress this fact on visitors;
as some of the Siouan tribes, who have
adopted similar medicine ceremonies after
«H| the custom of their Algonquian neighbors,
are frequently without any clothing other
than breeckcloth, moccasins, and armlets
and other attractive ornaments. This dis-
regard of dress is regarded by the Menomini
as a sacrilegious digression from the ancient
usages, and it frequently excites severe com-
ment.
Apart from facial ornamentation of such
design as may take the actor's fancy, or in
accordance with the degree in the society to
which the subject may have attained, a mitii"
priest wears shirt, trousers, and moccasins,
the first two of which may consist of flannel
or cloth and be either plain or ornamented
with beads, while the moccasins are always
of buckskin, or, what is more highly prized,
Fio. 42—Snowahoe for men- moose skin, beaded or worked with colored
iitniiiiii tjype.
porcupine quills.
Immediately below each knee is tied a garter—a necessary accom-
paniment of a Menomini's dress. This garter consists of a baud of
beads varying in different specimens from 2 to 4 inches in width and
1 Seventh animal report of the Borean <>(' Ethnology, p. 298.
BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY
FOURTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXII
BARK MAT

HOFFMAN] BEADWORK 265
from 18 to 20 inches in length, to each end of which strands of colored
yarn, 2 feet long, are attached, so as to admit of being passed around
the leg and tied in a bowknot in front (plates xxv, xxvi, xxvn).
Bands of flannel or buckskin, handsomely beaded, are sometimes
attached to the sides of the pantaloons,
in imitation of an officer's stripes, as well
as around the bottom. Colors also are
used, iu addition to necklaces of claws,
shells, or other objects.
Armlets and bracelets also are some-
times worn; these are made of bands of
beadwork, though brass wire or other
pieces of metal are preferred. Three
of such necklaces are
shown in plate xxvin.
Bags made of cloth,
and entirely covered
with beads or other-
wise ornamented, are
worn at the side, being
supported by means of
a broad band or baldric
passing over the oppo-
posite shoulder (plate
xxix). The head is
decorated with disks
of metal and tufts of
dyed horse hair, or
moose hair, and with
eagle feathers, to des-
FlO. 4:i—(l.jiliwa and ignate the particular
Menomini children's exploits performed by
showshoe.
the wearer.
Previous to the advent of white traders,
or before they were able to procure by
purchase or barter beads of European
manufacture, the Meuomini claim to have
made large beads from shells found in
the rivers of Wisconsin and on the shores
of Green bay. Quite a variety oflarge and
exceedingly beautiful freshwater shells
occur in the rivers of Wisconsin, and it Fig. 44—Snowshoe for women—Ojibwa
type.
would be strange indeed if the natives did
not utdize the iridescent pearl for ornamentation when at the same time
they used them as knives. Among some of the old mit&" women large
beads, together with the elongated shell beads purchased at traders'
266 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ann.u
stores, are worn—beads of sufficiently primitive appearance to induce
one to believe the assertion that their people had made them.
These beads were evidently made from the thick portions, or perhaps
joints, of freshwater mussels ; they are of the size of buckshot, with
a perforation drilled from each side toward the middle. The perfora-
tions being somewhat of funnel shape, and showing marked stria?, would
indicate that the drilling had been made with other than a metal instru-
ment. On subsequent investigation respecting the manufacture of
articles requiring perforation, I was informed that the Menomini used
sharp-pointed pieces of quartz and jasper, rotating these rude drills
with the hand and fingers. As regards the use of the bow-drill, either
for making fire or for drilling stone or shells, no definite information
could be ascertained, as none of the more intelligent or aged natives
remembered having seen them in use.
Although lire-sticks were used for making fire and for drilling harder
substances, like bone and shell, the aperture drilled was probably not
of greater depth than could conveniently be accomplished by rotating
by hand the drill point of silicious material used.
As a matter of interest and comparison, it may be appropriate to
state in this connection that the Chumash, an extinct tribe who for-
merly inhabited Santa Cruz island, opposite Santa Barbara, California,
formerly made globular shell beads similar to those found in Wiscon-
sin. The tribe referred to were also the manufacturers of the beautiful
stone and shell weapons found on the Pacific coast, where the subject
of shell and bone drilling may be studied in every variety of ornament.
The most interesting shell beads found in this locality are made from the
tivola, abelone, etc. The cylindrical shell beads, the smallest of which
are three-sixteenths of an inch in diameter and an inch and a quarter
in length, have "perforations but little more than a millimeter (or less
than oue-sixteeuth of an inch) in diameter, and the difficulty in making
them must have been very great."1 Large quantities of these beads
have been discovered, and some specimens procured by the writer are
4 or 5 inches in length, with a bore just large enough to permit the
passage of a broom straw. Even smaller perforations are noted in the
work just cited.
In the recent excavation of graves, bundles of thin triangular pieces
or spicules of hornstone have been found. Each of these bundles con-
tains several hundred specimens, the individual drills being carefully
flaked from a core so as to be almost perfectly triangular longitudinally,
gradually tapering to a sharp point. These specimens have an average
length of an inch and three-fourths, and a diameter at the thicker end
not exceeding one-eighth of an inch.
These delicate drills had no doubt been employed in making the inden-
tations at the ends of the cylindrical beads, which subsequently served
'Wheeler's report U. S. Geog. Survey West of the 100th Meridian. Washington, vol. vii. p. 266,
pi. xiii.
—
BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY — — FOURTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT— PL. XXIII3 n r nf I r 7
:C7 r L:
»*>dfirT^ wpt\ ^I
^u-^, **_* m-* * - ^^ • rJHpfMjffl ft, j e
SECTION OF BARK MAT

;
hoffman] BEAD-DRILLING 267
as a starting point for the bristle drill used in perforating the entire
length of the bead.
In several graves opened during the summer of 1884, there were
found, among other articles, bundles of the whiskers or bristles of the
sea lion (Zalophus californicus), which animal, together with one or two
species of seals, formerly abounded along the southern coast of Cali-
fornia and the islands of Santa Cruz, Santa Rosa, and others. The
bristles of this auimal are now highly i>rized by the Chinese of the
Pacific coast, who tip them with gold and use them as toothpicks on
account of their elasticity and strength.
In investigating a large collection of long beads from the Pacific
coast, curved as cut from the shells themselves, the author found that
several of the specimens had been split longitudinally, exposing to view
an interesting interior, and suggesting a solution of the method em-
ployed in making the delicate perforations. The bead havingreceived
a preliminary drilling at each end, as before mentioned, by using the
triangular fragment of hornstone—the ends of nearly all perforations
being rather flaring or of funnel shape—the bristle was next applied,
and twirled or rotated between the thumb and fingers, while, at the
point of contact with the shell, silicious silt or fine sand was applied to
aid in cutting away the calcareous matter of the shell. The soft stratum
between two layers of the harder enamel was naturally followed by the
drill, thus without the slightest difficulty causing the perforation to be
curved, from end to end, to conform to the convexity of the shell from
which the bead was made.
In some of the shorter beads which have split longitudinally, exposing
the bore, it is shown that the drilling was accomplished from both ends,
the axis of the perforation from each end being in a perfectly straight
line, the two perforations meeting at or near the middle of the specimen.
In some examples the two perforations were shown to pass each other
in these instances the bead was thrown aside, and subsequent splitting
exposed to view the condition described.
In shells of abnormal convexity and having a length of more than 3
or 4 inches, perforations in a straight line from either end would not
always reach the middle along the line of least resistance, as offered
by the softer calcareous stratum, but would sometimes emerge from
the sides, leaving a portion of the middle part of the bead solid. That
the bore followed the course of the curve of the bead, the bristle drill
continuing between the superior and inferior strata of harder enamel,
is shown in many examples. 1
Substances having the texture of bristles, human skin, etc, are less
liable to destruction by erosion from the application of silt, or fine sand,
than harder mineralogic materials. This is demonstrated by tlie use
of the sand blast, and also by practical experiments in drilling with
bone, wood, and porcupine quills, and the whiskers or bristles of mam-
1 Wheeler's report, etc, op. oit.
2G8 THE MENOMINI INDIANS fETH.ANN.H
mals. The tough, bony, or semisilieious surface of such materials offers
just sufficient softness to grip the particles of sand and to direct more
force on the mineral substance or shell.
A common method of drilling by using the palms of the hands to
rotate the drill necessitates the placing of the object to be drilled on
the ground in the hands of another, or between the feet of the oper
ator. When so slender and delicate au object as a cylindrical shell
bead was to be worked, it was held in one hand whilst the bristle was
twirled with the other. The silt could readily be applied as required
by simply dipping the bristle into it, as it may have been kept wet in
a steatite bowl or a shell vessel.
The condition of the transverse strise present in the perforations, as
exposed in split beads, lends additional testimony to the process of
drilling by the use of silicious matter, as above suggested. The rapidity
of the rotary motion of the bristle, or pressure upon it while in rotation,
is also indicated in long beads by the gradual expansion at regular
points in the bore as would result from the lateral vibration of the
bristle, one side of such a bore following an undulating line, as a
musical cord in vibration, or in the graphic illustration of a sound
wave.
When drilling was done in hard shells, in which no soft stratum
existed, the drill holes would frequently not meet at the middle, and in
such beads a semicylindrical cut was made in the side of the bead at
the middle, so as to pass half-way through the lateral diameter of the
head, exposing the drill holes and allowing the euds of the cord to
emerge at that point to admit of tying. Such beads were evidently
used in necklaces, whereas the long, thin, curved beads were used for
earrings and hair ornaments, this use being suggested by the relative
position to the skeleton as they were found in graves.
Emblems of personal valor or of exploits are seldom seen. No war-
fare between the Menomini and neighboring tribes has occurred for
many years, and the custom of wearing specially marked feathers, to
indicate some particular action or achievement, has long since fallen into
desuetude. Head ornaments, such as the tail of a buck, are sometimes
worn, to denote that the wearer is a fleet-footed runner, especially in the
ball game; or he may wear hawk feathers as indicating the phratry of
•which his clan is a member.
Menomini moccasius are made of buckskin, with soles of par-fleche or
rawhide. The front is sometimes ornamented with beads, the tongue
having a rectangular pattern in beads stitched on it. The sole of the
moccasin is cut from the rawhide, and is outlined from the bare foot.
The upper is made of a single piece of buckskin, with the seam at the
heed. The flap remaining after the cuts are made to admit the foot is
thrown forward so as to lie down toward the front over the instep, and
then has the bead ornamentation on what was previously the inside.


HOFFMAN] BEADWOKK 269
The nioccasiu is fastened to the ankle by a buckskin thong passed
around the top through a number of holes, which permit it to slide
easily while being fastened.
The garters above referred to are made by the women in such pat-
terns as they may be able to design or elaborate. There is a general
type of diamond and lozenge shape outlines, sometimes of solid colors,
though more frequently filled in by sharply contrasting tints. Frets,
vines, and meanders also are common. The accompanying illustrations
(plates xxv-xxix) will better convey an idea of the variety of patterns
in use by Menomini beadworkers.
Many if not all of these designs used in beadworking have been intro-
duced among the Menomini by intercourse with the Ojibwa, with whom
they have been friendly neigh-
bors from the earliest historic
times. This is shown not only
by the identical patterns exist-
ing among both tribes, but is
evident also from the frecpient
intertribal traffic, existing even
at this day. So late as 1891 a
specially appointed delegation
left lied Lake, Minnesota, to visit
all the Ojibwa and Menomini set-
tlements in southern Minnesota
and in Wisconsin, to gather
every available large specimen
of beadwork for traffic with the
Arikara and Hidatsa of North
Dakota, from whom the northern
Ojibwa obtain horses. Annual
visits were made by the Ojibwa
to these tribes, and the latter
would, in time, procure more
horses, in exchange for the bead-
work from the CrOWS Montana. FI0.45-FranOf ie holding unfimshed beadwork.
In this manner the Ojibwa and Menomini beadwork gradually found
its way as far west as the SeUsh Indians, in northwestern Idaho, from
whom examples have been recovered.
Recently some enterprising individuals have introduced machine-
made beadwork and disposed of it through the traders. The original
methods of making it, as pursued by the Indian women, is slow and
difficult, and in no instance do they appear to receive a fair compen-
sation for their labor. The work is usually done without the aid of
patterns or diagrams. There are three processes of embroidering
with beads, and as all the work, excepting that in which the beads
are sewed directly on cloth or buckskin, is made by a definite system, a
—
270 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [ETH. ANN. 14
description of the process may be of interest, especially as this subject
has hitherto been untouched.
After deciding on the article to be worked—a garter, for example
a frame of wood is made sufficiently large to extend from 4 to 6 inches
beyond the finished piece. Figure 45 represents a frame of this char-
acter. The pieces of wood are usually of pine, 2 inches broad and from
a half to three-fourths of an inch thick, made rigid by screws or thongs,
where the pieces intersect. Threads of linen are then wrapped verti-
cally over the top and bottom, each thread being a bead's width from
the next. In some instances, as will be referred to later, the threads
are wrapped so as to run by pairs. These form the warp. The number
of threads depends on the width of the proposed design.
The pattern is begun at the lower end, several inches from the frame.
A fine needle is threaded, the other end of the fiber being secured to
one of the lateral threads of the warp; then the needle is passed
through a bead of the desired tint of the ground color of the garter,
and the thread passed under one vertical or warp cord ; another bead is
then taken up, after which the needle is pushed along over the next
cord; and then another bead being
threaded, the needle is again passed
along under the next following cord,
and so on alternately above and
beneath the warp cords until the
other side is reached, when the outer
cord is merely inclosed by one turn.
The same process is followed in the
return to the side from which the
beginning was made, except that the
threads alternate, the woof being
now above instead of below the warp
Fig. 46—Design of first variety of working in cords. Figure 46' represents the pro-
beads.
cess described.
The chief difficulty which one encounters is in remembering the
exact point at which a new pattern should appear, as the color of the
bead required for this must be inserted at the proper time and the
number of spaces carefully counted and reserved for use as the pattern
is developed. Eeference to the illustrations will aid further in the elu-
cidation of this difficulty. When the design is completed, the warp-
cords are gathered by bunches of two's or three's and tied in knots, so
as to prevent the dislodgment of the woof fibers and the consequent
destruction of the entire fabric. To these ends sire afterward attached
strands of woolen yarn to lengthen the garter, so as to reach around
the leg and admit of tying in a bowknot (plate xxv).
The above illustrates the simplest method of working beads. The
type of beadworking shown in figure 47 is a little more complicated.
In this there are two vertical warp cords or threads between each two
BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY
REPORT PL. XXV
BEADED GARTERS SHOWING ART FIGURES

HOFFMANj BEADWORK 271
beads, there being an alternate movement of the pair of warp cords
backward and forward, thus making it similar in appearance to the
preceding pattern, excluding the beads, when the latter are placed
sidewise.
The woof thread is run to the side of the garter, and a bead is then
passed through and returned in the next upper sj)ace, where another row
of beads is taken up to continue the design. When the opposite border
of the garter is reached, a single bead is again threaded and permitted
to extend as a projection to guard the external warp threads against
injury.
A third variety of beadwork is effected by using the vertical warp
cords as before, but instead of passing the threaded needle through
one bead at a time, whenever a vertical thread is passed, the necessary
number of beads required to reach across the pattern, as well as the
proper arrangement of colors to carry out the design, are threaded and
laid down on the warp so that each bead falls within its proper space;
then, as the lateral thread is inclosed by the weft thread, the needle is
passed back through the same row of beads, but this time beneath the
warp instead of above, thus entirely inclosing the weft. This requires
a delicate needle and a tine though strong thread. This variety of
beadwork is usually found only in gar-
ters, whereas the other two forms oc-
cur in almost all other kinds of bead
objects, such as the sheets used in
making medicine bags, in collars,
baldrics, belts, and narrow strips, the
two ends being fastened together by
tying or otherwise. The cord itself
is then decorated with beads by sim- Fig. 47—Design of second variety of working
in beads.
ply threading on a single fiber and
wrapping this about the primary piece from one end to the other. By
a little care in the proper selection and arrangement of colors, very
pretty effects are produced.
Beads are stitched on clothing, moccasins, etc, by simply threading
one or more beads on the needle and sewing them down along the out-
lines marked on the outside and afterward the inside of the article
which it is designed to ornament.
As a rule, the ends of the pieces of beadwork are at right angles to
the direction of the warp, but in many small examples, such as collars
or necklaces, the ends terminate diagonally, an effect produced by the
successive rows containing one or two beads less than the preceding
row, the diagonal side being on one side of the article only, and not
divided so as to turn toward a central apex by simultaneously leaving
off one or more beads on both sides.
In the third variety of bead-weaving there are only single vertical
threads between each,two beads as in the first named, but the cross-
272 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ann.14
threads forming the woof are double instead of single, and as the
threads pass through the bead they diverge so as to inclose the warp,
after which they again unite to pass through the next bead. An exam-
ple of this is shown in figure 48. The lateral edges of the garter may
be smooth or beaded—that is, the threads may either simply inclose
the outside vertical thread and return to take up the next upper row of
beads, or they may pass through one bead and then return on the next
line. The object of the lateral beads, which project edgewise, is for the
same purpose as that mentioned in connection with the second class of
weaving.
Dance bags—so called because they are ornamental and worn chiefly
by well-to-do Indians at dances—are made of a piece of cloth or buck-
skin about 15 inches square, from the two upper corners of which a
continuous band or baldric, 4 or 5 incbes broad, extends upward so
as to pass over the shoulder opposite the side on which the bag is
worn. The entire piece of material is covered by a
sheet of beadwork, bearing designs similar to those
on the garters, though frequently more elaborately
combined or grouped. The flat part of the bag contains
a very narrow slit for a pouch, the latter being often
no larger than a vest pocket (plate xxix).
Fl° ' 48~ rL rd f° rm
! . A medicine-man considers himself fortunate if
ofworking hein beads.
owns one of these bags. The ordinary number worn
by the mitii'wok is three or four, part of them being worn at the left
side, the others at the right. Sometimes a dozen such bags are worn
by a single individual, beside other bead ornaments consisting of
necklaces, breast -pieces, garters, armlets, etc, until the weight of the
decorations causes him considerable inconvenience in these prolonged
ceremonies.
Beaded belts also are worn, but originally all belts were made of fiber.
Woolen yarn is now employed in weaving strips, about 6 inches wide
and 3 feet long, from each end of which a fringe extends a foot and a
half or more beyond. The texture is close, and the warp consists of
strands of almost every obtainable color, twisted together in an appar-
ent tangle, though on close inspection the color designs appear to con-
sist of lozenge-shape stripes, and sometimes diagonal lines returning to
the side from which the first deviation was made, thus often resembling
an elongated zigzag pattern.
HUNTING AND FISHING
GAME OF THE MENOMINI REGION
Hunting is still engaged in by the Menomini, though not to such an
extent as formerly. The mammals most abundant in their country are
the black bear, deer, hare, porcupine, wildcat, and lynx. Occasionally
BUREAU Of ETHNOLOGY FOURTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. X*VI
BEADED GARTERS SHOWING ART FIGURES

:
Hoffman] FISHING AND TRAPPING 273
a panther, wolf, beaver, or an otter is reported as having been seen,
but grouse and ptarmigan are somewhat scarce.
FISH AND FISHERIES
Sturgeon and trout were caught in great quantities in the early days,
the former chiefly by means of the spear. Previous to the erection of
dams in Wolf river, great numbers of sturgeon migrated upward each
spring to spawn, and Indians were then stationed along the river at
favorable places ready to cast the spear when the fish appeared. Many
of these fish are from 4 to 5 feet in length. The excitement during their
capture was intense, and even now frequently forms the topic of ani-
mated conversation relating to bygone days.
While the tribe still occupied the shores of Green bay, great numbers
of lake fish were caught, chiefly among which, on account of the excel-
lence of its food, was the white fish. At that time, as well as subse-
quently, gill-nets were used for placing along favorable places near the
shore. These nets were made of cords of native fibers, the process of
twisting which is elsewhere described. From the wild hemp and the
nettle fine strings were twisted for use as fishing Hues, the hooks being
made of two pieces of bone joined together at the lower extremity so
as to resemble a V in shape. One arm of the hook was longer than the
other, and to this longer arm the line was attached.
TRAPS
Two forms of game traps are used by the Menomini ; the larger is the
dead fall, made of logs and used in catching bear. The other is made
somewhat on a similar principle, though much smaller, and is used only
for small mammals. This trap, represented in plate xxx, is made as
follows
Four stakes, each about 2 inches in diameter and from 18 to 20 inches
high, are driven into the ground, so that they form the corners of a
parallelogram, as shown by 1, 2, 3, and 4 of figure 49. The two pairs
of stakes are about 20 inches apart, with just
sufficient space between those of each pair to •*
permit a sapling to slide between them. A •*
short piece of sapling, 4 inches in diameter,
is then placed on the ground, the ends being •*
made to project beyond each pair of upright o* °
posts. The sapling, 4 inclies in diameter and ° °
10 to 12 feet long, is taken as the movable
or falling piece, which rests on the short stick F«5-»-Gro™dpian of trap for
i A i' ii -1 small game.just mentioned. -ishort distance to the side
(at 5, figure 49) is a short, stout peg, with a notch on one side, to which is
attached a cord, while on the opposite side (at 6) is another short peg, to
which is attached a salted string. In plate xxx the trap is represented
14 eth 18
274 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ann.H
as set. On the post marked in tlie above diagram is a short stick, to
the inner end of which is attached a cord strong enough to hold up the
fallen log, while at the other or outer end is another cord extending to
the peg marked 5. This cord has previously been soaked in brine, as has
also the string extending from the middle of the vertical cord across the
inside of the trap to the opposite peg (at 6). The latter string, being
salted, is a sufficient bait to tempt a hare or other rodent to gnaw the
string along its course to the upright cord, which latter, if gnawed in
twain, permits the fallen log to drop on the animal's back and thus
secure it without injury to the pelt. To prevent the animal from approach-
ing the trap from the side (at 5), stakes are driven into the ground,
as indicated by the small circles in the figure.
Bear traps are composed of a sort of pen or corral, of upright posts,
leaving but oue entrance, through which the bear is compelled to pass
in order to reach the tempting morsel of meat with which the trap is
baited. The meat is attached to a cord, which is so arranged that the
slightest disarrangement of the meat will cause the dead-fall to drop.
This dead-fall consists of the trunk of a tree, weighted with stones
or timber sufficient to crush the animal.
Women seldom participate in hunting, although both Ojibwa and
Menomini women devote special attention to ensnaring the lynx and
the wildcat. These animals are regarded by the Indians as very stupid,
because they are so easily taken.
When a trail is discovered in the snow, indicating the course taken
by a lynx or a wildcat in leaving and returning to its lair, the woman
finding it will search for a spot where the trail passes near by a tree or
through a copse. She will then take a strong cord or a string of sinew
and, after tying an end to one side of the trail, will make a simple loop
8 or 10 inches in diameter, and tie the other end to a tree or post on the
other side of the trail. The loop is then set up by means of thin sticks
placed transversely across the trail, so as to be brought just high
enough for the head of the animal to pass through it. When the ani-
mal thus finds itself entangled in the noose, instead of backing away it
will push forward, causing the noose to tighten more and more until
death by strangulation results.
Beaver traps are sometimes baited with certain vegetal substances
of which these animals are very fond, but to make the bait, or "medi-
cine," effectual, the substance is colored with vermilion, or other sacred
paint. This is then placed between two sticks, each about 2 inches
in length, laid crosswise, and then attached to a steel trap.
BOWS AND ARROWS
The weapons employed in former times consisted of axes, arrows, and
knives of stone, though knives of shell also were used. The manu-
facture of stone relics, says Shu'nieu, was discontinued about four gen-
erations ago. In those times hickory and ash were generally selected
BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY FOURTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXVII
TT1-
BEADED GARTERS SHOWING ART FIGURES

hoffman] BOWS AND BOWSTRINGS 275
for the manufacture of bows. The limb was cut to the required length
by pounding and cutting with a stone ax; then the wood was heated
on both sides, near the fire, thus softening it sufficiently to admit of
being scraped down to the desired breadth and thickness. Bow-mak-
ing was tedious work. The sinew was generally made from the liga-
ments obtained from each side of the vertebrte of the moose. The
ligament was split, scraped, and twisted into a cord by rolling the
fibers between the palm of the right hand and the thigh, and with the
left hand drawing it away as completed.
Bows and arrows are now used only by the younger members of the
tribe, who employ them in killing birds and in target shooting, when a
trilling wager is sometimes staked by the participants. Bows are some-
times made of ash, and cedar and ash combined, but hickory is gener-
ally used for this purpose, as the bows are not so elaborately and
carefully made as formerly. A typical bow, made by an old expert,
measures 40 inches in length, three-fourths of an inch in thickness at
the center, and an inch and a quarter in width, narrowing down toward
each end to five-eighths of an inch. The ends of the bow are some-
what thinner than the middle. The notches for the bowstring are cut
about an inch from the end. Frequently one edge of the bow is orna-
mented by allowing projections of the original surface of the wood to
remain to the height of nearly half an inch, these projections being as
broad lengthwise as they are high, and serrated at the top. These ser-
rations are subsequently colored red, blue, or some other tint, accord-
ing to the fancy of the owner. The projections noted are scattered
along the left edge at intervals of 4 inches, the intervening surface of
that edge of the bow being of a different color to that selected for the
tops of the projections, a pleasing contrast thus being presented.
The bowstring was made of sinew, as among all the tribes of the
great lakes. One end of the string was secured by knotting; the other
end was looped, in order that the bow might be quickly strung.
ARROW-MAKING
Having studied the process of arrow-making among quite a number
of tribes, including the Chemehuevi and Coyotero Apache, at a time
when jasper, obsidian, and bottle-glass arrowheads were still manu-
factured, I shall describe somewhat in detail the process employed
by the Menomini. Among these people the stone weapon, as before
remarked, is now almost a thing of tradition, and there are at this day
but two classes of arrows found, and one of these only at rare intervals.
The first class is the game arrow with the iron point; the second is that
designated as monoxylic, 1 i. e., made of a single piece of wood and used
chiefly by boys in shooting birds and for practice or play.
The wood intended for shafts is gathered late in the autumn, cut in
lengths exceeding 2 feet, tied in bundles of several dozen shafts each
1 Prof. O. T. Mason iu Smithsonian Report for 189:i, Washington, 1894, p. 654.
276 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ann.U
and suspended from the rafters of the house, where they become thor-
oughly dry during the winter. The sticks are of light wood, as free as
possible from knots or irregularities in growth, and vary from a third
to a half of an inch in thickness.
These being disposed of for the time being, iron arrowheads are
procured from the trader, as these points are now manufactured in the
East and packed in boxes of a thousand or more and offered for sale
at agency stores. In many instances the Indians made their own
points, securing for the purpose pieces of hoop-iron from various pack-
ing cases sent to the reservations. Such arrowpoints are usually
made somewhat shorter than those manufactured for the trade, owing
to a desire to economize in material. The arrowpoints made for the
trade measure from 3 to 4£ inches in length, scarcely ever more than
seven-eighths of an inch across at the widest part, and about one-
sixteenth of an inch thick. The edges are sharpened. The tang of
the arrow—the basal projection which fits into the shaft—is usually
from one-half to three-fourths of an inch long and about one-fourth of
an inch wide. In hunting-arrows the tang was formerly serrated, so
that sinew seizing would firmly secure it, aud the shaft, on withdrawal
from the animal, would bring with it the arrowhead. In war arrows,
however, the sides of the tang being smooth, the arrowhead would
readily become loosened after the sinew wrappings became moistened
in the wound, so that, on attempting to withdraw the arrow, the head
would remain and do its deadly work.
The next step in arrow manufacture was to procure feathers for the
shaftment, and for this purpose the flight and tail feathers of accipi-
trine birds are prepared. The webs are split from the midrib, the soft
medullary cells scraped from the strips of horny substance bearing the
web and cut into lengths of from to 7 inches. About an inch of the
web is removed at each end to permit secure wrapping to the shaft-
ment. The width of the projecting web is only about a quarter of an
inch, aud three feathers are attached to each shaftment. The sinew
fibers are obtained from the deer, the ligaments extending along each
side of the spinal process, from the head backward, generally being
preferred to those of the legs. These sinews are dried, and when
required for use, may readily be shredded by wetting and sometimes
by gentle hammering.
Glue is obtained by boiling the hoofs of the deer. Glue-sticks are
found in possession of almost all warriors; they are made by cutting a
stick inches in length and as thick as the little finger, then dipping
one end into the melted glue and allowing to harden, the process being
repeated until there is a considerable bulb at the end. When it is
desired for use, the stick is dipped in hot water and then rubbed on the
part which it is desired to fasten.
When arrowshafts were to be made, only thoroughly seasoned sticks
were taken, and for immediate use the straight ones only were selected.


—
HOFFMAN] ARROW-MAKING 277
By means of a knife the bark was scraped off, and sometimes sufficient
of tlie wood to reduce tbe diameter to the required size—ordinarily
three-eighths of an inch. If no pieces of glass were at hand, a piece
of sandstone was sometimes taken to further reduce the roughness of
the shaft, and then tine sand was placed in a piece of blanket or buck-
skin and employed as sandpaper is used.
In some instances flat pieces of bone with rounded notches on the
edge, or even holes of the diameter required for the shaftment, were
used for further smoothing and rounding. The stick was then cut to
the required length, varying from 22 to 23 inches.
A cut was then made with a small saw, or a knife blade filed into a
saw, at one end of the shaft to receive the tang of the arrowhead, the
Fig. 50—Apache iron point.
incision being from one-half to three-fourths of an inch in depth. Then
the other end of the shaftment was gradually tapered for about 3 inches,
to within one-fourth of an inch of the end, which bulb or nock was left
expanding, with a square parallel sided, or probably sometimes an
angular notch at the end.
The arrow tang was inserted and carefully wrapped with a thin, flat
baud of sinew (figure 50), which was then smoothed down with glue to
insure adhesion. When dry, the creases, of which there were three, were
made to extend from the sinew straight down the shaftment for 10 or 11
inches (plate xxxi, b). These creases were made with a sharp-pointed
piece of iron—the end of a broken blade—or a piece of glass, and is
believed to permit the discharge of blood from the wound. The feathers
Fig. 51—Arrowabaft showing mode of feathering.
having been prepared are next attached lengthwise, beginning where
the creases cease and extending back to the nock. Only the top and
bottom of the feathers are touched with glue, the intervening portion
of the length of each being free and detached. Sinew fibers are then
wrapped around the shaftment to hold down the ends of the feathers
each end being about an inch long, from which the web has been
removed—and the glue-stick applied to fasten them. The feathers
are equidistant around the shaftment (figure 51).
There is another step in arrow-making, which is seldom taken in the
manufacture of arrows in North America. To prevent the detached
portions of the feathers from being forcibly or accidentally torn from
278 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ann.U
the shaftment, a sinew thread, not thicker than a strand of silk, is tied
horizontally around the feathers and shaftment midway between the
glued ends.
As a finishing touch, the creases are tinted with color bought of the
trader, while additional marks are placed on that portion of the shaft-
ment exposed between the feathers. The specimens of arrows before
me, made by the Meuomini, have each five spots of dark blue placed
at intervals of an inch or so along each of the three sides. A blue baud
also is painted around the shaftment at the forward end of the
feathered tips, while sometimes an additional band is found around
the end which touches the nock.
The various northwestern tribes of the Algonquian stock were care-
ful in specifically decorating with colors their own individual arrows,
by which means they were recognizable by others of the band of
which the owner was a member. Duplications were commou, but it is
claimed that even then each person could readily recognize his own
property. These property marks, being generally known, were some-
times the cause of serious trouble; for instance, when one Indian
would steal the arrows of another for the purpose of destroying an
enemy, the frieuds of the latter ultimately ascertained the identity of
the owner of the arrows and avenged the death, the true criminal
remaining unknown.
Intertribal warfare is known to have occurred through such means
between the Arapaho and Sioux, and between the Sioux and the con-
federated tribes at Fort Berthold, North Dakota; and the Apache and
other tribes of the far southwest are reported to have obtained the
arrows of neighboring Indians to use in attacks ou outlying settle-
ments of the whites, thus causing the raid to be attributed to another
aud possibly peaceable tribe.
In his report ou "North American bows, arrows, and quivers," Pro-
fessor Otis T. Mason refers to the statement frequently made by fron-
tiersmen that the plains Indians had two ways of mouuting an arrowhead
with relation to the notch at the nock. " If the plane of the arrowhead
be horizontal when the arrow is in position for shooting—that is, at
right angles to the notch—the missile is a war arrow, to go between the
ribs of men. But if the plane of the head be vertical when the bow is
drawn, the missile is a hunting-arrow for passiug between the ribs of
bulfalo and other mammals. 1
Colonel Richard I. Dodge,2 in speaking of the Comanche, has fallen
into the same error. Captain John G. Bourke, of the United States
Army, whose active experience in the southwest, especially among the
Apache tribes of Arizona, eutitles his opinion to high consideration,
believes this to be a mistake, and remarks that he has seen all kinds
of arrows in the same quiver. 3
1 Smithsonian Report for 1893, Washington, 1894. p. 601.
'' Wild Indians, Hartford, 1890. p. 419.
3 Quoted by Professor Mason, op. cit., p. 661.
BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY FOURTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL, XXIX
DANCER'S BEADED MEDICINE BAG

boffman] VARIETIES OF ARROWS 279
But this statement would not be true of the remainder of the numer-
ous tribes of Indians located between Mississippi river and Pacific
ocean, as an almost uninterrupted experience of twenty-four years has
taught the present writer. I have before me a collection of arrows made
by the Goyotero Apache at Camp Apache, Arizona, tipped with arrow-
heads of iron, jasper, and bottle-glass, in which 65 per cent have the
notch for the arrowhead in the same plane as the notch for the string;
4 per cent in which the two notches are at right angles, while in the
remaining 31 per cent the plane of the notch for the arrowhead appears
alike in no two instances, and presents various degrees between the
vertical and horizontal planes, as mentioned in the preceding class. In
other examples which I have before me, and which embrace a number
of iron-tip arrows made by the Grow Indians, no attempt at any sys-
tem is perceptible, the planes of the arrow notches occurring at almost
every angle from the plane of the string notch.
With reference to the hunting-arrows of the Menomini, 15 per cent
present the plane of the arrowhead at right angles to the plane of the
string notch, while the remaining 85 per cent are made without regard
to any care whatever in so far as the plane of the arrowhead notch cor-
responds with that of the string notch.
The second class of arrows already referred to embraces such as have
the head or point formed from the same piece from which the shaft
itself is fashioned—a thick piece of pine, cedar, or ash—having been
shaved down from the thickness desired for the head to that required for
the shaft. The head of a common form of bird-arrow is shown in plate
xxxi, a. Specimens of this type usually measure from seven-eighths
of an inch to an inch and an eighth in diameter, the head being from 2$
to 3 inches long. The arrows are 28 inches in length, though the
feathers—of wbich there are three, as usual—are only 2J in length.
The latter are glued to the shaft without the usual sinew wrapping at
either end. The anterior part of the web of the feathers is nearly an
inch wide, but it slopes abruptly to the level of the shaft at the nock.
The nock expands slightly, while tbe notch is shallow and circular.
The shafts are painted red or blue from the nock to the anterior part of
the feathers, at which point four bauds of color—alternately blue and
red—encircle the shaft. The posterior portion of the head is longitud-
inally painted with alternate stripes of red and blue, terminating in a
transverse band of red at the base. The anterior part of the head is
uncolored.
Another variety of arrowhead is fashioned of the same piece of wood
which forms the shaft, and is represented in plate xxxi, <J. The projec-
tions on the sides of the head are merely the stubs of branches or roots.
A third variety of bird-arrow is simply a continuation of the ordinary
thickness of the shaft, rounded at the apex, or perhaps even slightly
sharpened to a point, as shown by plate xxxi, c.
Still another interesting variety is shown in plate xxxi, e, in which
thorns of large size have been attached to the head of the shaft by
280 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.anx.h
means of sinew thongs. The points of the thorns have been broken
off, but still serve admirably for bird shooting.
Release
It may be appropriate to remark that in arrow release the thumb
and forefinger are used in grasping the arrow, the forefinger being bent
so that the second joint is pressed toward and opposite to the ball of
the thumb, a method affording a maximum of strength. The bow is
firmly grasped, the arrow lying across the top of the hand and on the
left side of the bow. In rapid shooting, the arrows are taken one by
one from the quiver as wanted, thrown quickly across the left hand
and the notch fitted to the string as the right hand is pulled back for
release. The quiver at such times is thrown upward toward the
shoulder that the arrows may easily be taken therefrom.
Penetration
With reference to the penetration of the arrow, much depends on
the bow. I have examined a bow belonging to Long Soldier, a Sioux
hunter of magnificent physique, who formerly dwelt at the now aban-
doned agency of Grand River, North Dakota. The string of this bow
I could scarcely pull at full arrow length, even when standing on the
bow and pulling the string with main strength. This was perhaps the
strongest bow used in the Sioux camp, and the report was current, and
doubted by none, that Long Soldier had often shot arrows entirely
through the body of the buffalo. In this case it is of course to be under-
stood that the arrow encountered no large bones. Bows and arrows
were used long after the introduction of firearms, as the former could
successfully be used in hunting game and shooting down sentinels with-
out revealing the presence of an enemy.
It is well known to those familiar with the subject, that as late as ten
or fifteen years ago, when hostile Indians were still thoroughly in prac-
tice with the bow and arrow, that it were safer to stand before an
Indian's rifle at 80 yards than at the same distance when he was armed
with bow and arrow. Since these more primitive weapons have been
discarded, however, the Indians have become much more expert with
the rifle, as has many times been shown.
Bows and Bowstrings
The bows of the Menomini are made of a single piece of wood, gener-
ally without sinew backing. Ash is commonly selected, unless hickory
can readily be obtained. To prevent the wood from becoming brittle,
the bow is frequently sized with deer brains.
It may be of more than ordinary interest in this connection to note
that some of the older men of the Menomini claim to have seen bows,
made by members of their tribe, consisting of two pieces of wood, glued
together lengthwise, and wrapped at intervals with buckskin or sinew.


hoffmanj QUIVERS—MODERN ARROWS 281
Professor Mason's remarks 1 pertaining to compound bows do not
refer to a certain form which, so far as I am aware, is now found only
in Arizona and Nevada, among the Chemehuevi, and in the Orient
among, I believe, the Japanese. This bow consists of two distinct
pieces of wood, of almost equal size, glued together longitudinally.
The most beautiful specimens of workmanship noticed anywhere
amongst the Paiute and Chemehuevi were observed at the mouth of
several small tributaries to Colorado river, in southeastern Nevada.
These bows were graceful in form, being curved in the shape of the
traditional "Cupid's bow.'' They are less than 3 feet in length, and are
about three-fourths of an inch thick at the grip, but thinner and broader
at the curve of the limbs, gradually narrowing down toward the nocks.
Two species of wood of equal size were used iu their manufacture, the
flat surfaces being glued together lengthwise from end to end, then
scraped down to the required dimensions and polished. Ash formed
the front, or, more properly, the back, of the bow, while the inner side
of the curve was of cedar. Having been glued, the entire back was
covered with sinew, the edges of which extended around the lateral
edges toward the cedar portion. This backing added to the strength
and elasticity of the bow, which was furthermore increased by seizings
of sinew strands tied about the bow at the grip, at the nock ends, and
at one and sometimes two equidistant points between these places, each
wrapping being perhaps as broad as the palm of the hand.
These bows, like those of the Menomini, were occasionally anointed
with deer brains to prevent brittleness and consequent fracture, the
extremely high temperature and dry atmosphere during the greater
portion of the year being very severe on the elastic properties of the
few kinds of wood available for bow-making in the arid southwest.
The bowstrings used by the Menomini are of sinew, obtained in the
way previously described.
Quivers
The quivers of these Indians were formerly made of skins with the
fur remaining thereon, as well as of dressed buckskin, but they are now
fashioned from coarse cloth or flannel, decorated with brightly colored
patches, small bells, and other pendants.
Modern Stoxe Arrowpoints
As before stated, the Menomini Indians admit having manufactured
stone weapons until "several generations ago." But they actually used
stone arrows within a comparatively recent period, and these, on account
of their rarity and the superstition connected therewith, have been
retained to this day and used as amulets by the mita'wok.
The discontinuance of the manufacture of stone weapons is attribu-
table to the introduction of improved firearms, axes, and knives, and to
1 Smithsonian Report for 1893, pp. 631-679, plates xxxvi-xciv.
—
282 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [ETH.ANN.14
tbe procuring, from packing cases, of bauds and strips of sheet-iron,
from which convenient and effective arrowpoints were made for use
both in hunting and in warfare. Among the tribes of the great lakes,
as elsewhere, arrows were sometimes preferred to firearms, since they
could be fired noiselessly in their hunting as well as in attacks on
the sentinels or scouts of an enemy. During my investigations in
the southwest in 1S71, stone arrowheads were found in use among
quite a number of small bauds of Indians scattered over the untrav-
eled portions of southern Nevada,
southeastern California, and north-
cm and middle Arizona. Although
a few old guns were found in posses-
sion of most of these bands, the bow
and arrow had preference for the rea-
sons above stated, and because of the
scarcity or difficulty in procuring
ammunition and of their familiarity
with aboriginal weapons.
Although stone arrowheads and
knives were found in use—to a very
limited extent in some instances
only a few tribes still manufactured
them, while others may have pro-
cured them by barter with neighbor-
ing Indians, or utilized such as they
found abundantly in certain localities,
such as at old camp sites or on the
ruins of ancient pueblos. In some
instances arrowpoints were made of
bottle-glass, of several varieties of
silicious mineral, and especially of
obsidian, large quantities of pebbles,
bowlders, and finely fractured pieces
of which occur in various localities
in northern Nevada and southeast-
ern California, as well as in other sec-
tions. The Indians amongst whom
stone-point arrows were observed
were the Tiva'tika Shoshoni, at Bel-
Fio. 52—Ute stone knife.
mont, at Hot Springs canyon, south
of Mount MacCruder, and at Green mountain in Nevada; the Paiute,
at Benton, at McBride ranch, at Big Pine, and at Camp Independ-
ence in Owen valley; and the I'anamint Indians, on the eastern
slope of Inyo mountains, and 10 miles southeast of Owen lake, all in
southeastern California; the several Paiute bands at the headquarters.
Armagosa river, in the Armagosa desert, west of Spring mountain;
at Paiute Charlie's camp, 30 miles south of the latter point, on the

fcettfi!mm
« u.
—
HOFFMAN! MODERN ARROWPOINTS 283
so-called old Spanish trail; at Cottonwood creek, the headwaters of
Corn creek, and at Las Vegas—both streams draining into Colorado
river—in sontliern Nevada. Also, the Chemehnevi Indians on Cotton-
wood island, in Colorado river, about 30 miles north of the Mohave,
and on the north bank of Colorado river near the month of Rio Virgen,
where were also some Painte from Moapa reservation, in southern
Nevada. Among both of these tribes knives of stone, with short
wooden handles, were observed. Similar specimens were collected by
Major J. W. Powell, at Kaibab, southern Utah, illustrations of which
are presented in figures 52 and 53. On the great
plateau in Arizona we noted the same to occur to a
limited extent among the Shivwits, a Shoshonean
tribe, and also among the Walapai, of Tuman stock.
But more abundantly were stone arrows found in
use among the Apache, at Camp Apache on the
upper waters of Salt river.
The manufacture of arrowpoints was observed
only near the mouth of the Rio Virgen, among the
Chemehuevi, by whom stone knives also were made.
In the latter implement a triangular piece of stone
resembling a large arrowhead without notches—con-
stituted the blade, being secured to the end of a
wooden handle by means of a vegetal gum and care-
ful MTapping with pieces of sinew.
;
A ),large part of southern Nevada is exceedingly
arid, the flat range deserts being devoid of vegeta-
tion and literally strewn with a great variety of sili-
cious minerals fractured in flakes, conchoidal pieces,
and spliuters of every conceivable form. These
afford an inexhaustible and convenient supply of
material for the primitive arrow-maker, requiring ft
little labor for final shaping. The shaping of the
points and the chipping of the cutting edges were
effected by first taking a piece of buckskin with
which to grasp the flake, the latter being securely
Fig. 53—Ute stoue knife.
held between the tips of the fingers and the edge or
base of the thumb, the narrow edge of the flake protruding, then flaking
by pressure with a piece of bone or a bear's claw mounted on a short
wooden handle. The flaking instrument, while being held against the
edge of the flake so as to get a grip and prevent slipping, was steadily,
but forcibly, directed upward at right angles to the axis of the edge, and
slightly backward and toward the left:—that is, in the direction of the
base of the arrowhead when working along the one side, and toward
the intended point when flaking along the other. The triangular pieces
of chert, chalcedony, and jasper used were somewhat larger than the
average arrowpoiut and were set into a notch cut in the anterior
284 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ann.14
portion of a piece of wood about an inch in diameter and from 5 to 6
inches in length.
The gum or resin of the Larrea mexicana was utilized to set the stone
blade, which required no additional strengthening because of the adhe-
sive power of the gum ; but when glue was made of beaver-tail or deer-
hoof, sinew was sometimes wrapped over the glued base or tangs of the
stone point to lend additional strength.
The processes employed in the manufacture of stone arrowheads have
been repeatedly referred to and illustrated in recent years, so that fur-
ther description is now unnecessary.
Notwithstanding that from 25 to 30 per cent of the arrows found
among the Apache at Camp Apache, Arizona, were made from stone
and glass, the manufacture of glass points only was observed by the
present writer. In addition to specimens made of bottle glass, chalced-
ony, gray jasper, and obsidian, one specimen made of gold quartz was
obtained, but the locality from which the mineral was procured could
not be learned, the owner of the arrows refusing to disclose the place.
All of these points were rather small, the average size corresponding
to that given in the accompanying illustration (figure 54), though in
Fig. 54—Apache stone point.
some instances they were long and narrow. Furthermore, the notches
for the reception of the sinew strands were at each side, a short dis-
tance from the base. The sinew, being thus in a depression, was pro-
tected from injury by violent friction with the edges of the arrow. Iron
arrowpoints, on the contrary, were fastened to the shaft by inserting
the tang into the fore end of the shaft, and then tying it with sinew
(plate xxi, b). In both instances, mesquite gum or other resinous sub-
stance was generally used to secure the arrowpoints. Immediately
behind the point, and along the foreshaft for a distance of perhaps 5 or
G inches, a dark reddish substance resembling dried blood mixed with
clay had been applied. The arrows were said to have been poisoned,
and were carefully handled by their owners. As some of the Apache
poisoned their arrows by dipping them into decomposed liver, to which
had been added crushed tarantulas, scorpions, and frequently the venom
of the rattlesnake, it is only reasonable to suppose that their assertions
may have been correct.
Poisoxkd Arrows
The Menomini admit that their aucestors poisoned arrows by besmear-
ing the points with rattlesnake venom and it may be asserted that
many of the tribes whose territory bordered on the Menomini country


:
hoffmas] POISONED ARROWS 285
practiced various ceremonies and methods of preparation of supposed
or actually poisonous compounds, which were believed to aid in the
destruction of the life of the animal or person struck or wounded by
an arrow, or toward whom the missile was directed, regardless of the
distance between the intended victim and the person using' the weapon.
In many instances the venom or decomposed organic matter employed
no doubt caused septicaemia and Anally death; but the motive prompt-
ing the preparation of such arrows, and the power possessed by them,
is to be found in their niythologic beliefs.
According to Mr J. N. B. Hewitt, both the Tuskarora and the Cayuga
Indians of the Iroquoian stock used poison similar to that above men-
tioned for anointing their arrows, and the Dakota, Blackfeet, and other
tribes to the westward of the Menomini practiced a like custom, so that
it is only reasonable to assume that in former times this tribe was
acquainted with a method of poisoning arrows, even if the practice
was not generally followed. 1
An instance in illustration of this was the use by the Ojibwa and
Dakota—neighboring tribes of the Menomini—of the delicate spines
of the leaves of the common cactus (Opuntia missouriense), found in
the valleys of the Mississippi and Missouri. Although exceedingly
minute, these spines cause much pain if they puncture the skin.
They were formerly gathered and mixed with grease in the form of an
ointment, which was applied to arrowshafts, as well as to small depres-
sions bored in leaden bullets. The extreme pain caused by the pres-
ence in the flesh of these delicate spines has suggested the belief that
when a missile so anointed is shot into a human being or a beast, the
spines travel forward in pursuit of the life, or more literally the shade,
of the creature and compel its abandonment of the body in which it
had its abode. The mit;i' v , however, if he be very powerful, may suc-
ceed in calling back the life of such a victim, provided the gifts are
sufficiently valuable to appease the ma'nidos, whose aid must be
invoked.
In the expulsion of demons from a person possessed by them—the
effects being known by bodily suffering, etc—the shaman may have
recourse to more than the simple performance of exorcism. Bemedies
believed to be obnoxious to the life of the demon, or mystery, possess-
'I have already had occasion to present in detail the several methods of poisoning arrows, as prac-
ticed by Beveral well-known tribes of Indians, and present herewith the bibliographic references, viz
Poisoned Arrows. Pacific Rural Press. San Francisco, California, vol. xv, 1878, p. 82. (Read before
the Philosophical Society of Washington, District of Columbia, January 5, 1878.)
The Use of Poisoned Arrows. Mining and Scientific Press, San Francisco, California, vol. xxxvi,
1878, p. 163.
Ueberdie Zubereitung des Pfeilgiftes durch die Pai-T7ta Indianer von Nevada. Verhandl. Berliner
Gesellschaft fiir Anthropologic und Urgeschichte (April 17), 1880, pp. 91, 92.
Note sur les tleches empoisonnees des Indiens de l'Anieriqae du Nord. Bull. Soc. d' Anthropologic
de Paris, tome sixieme, iiiB serie, ie fascicule, 1883, pp. 205-208.
Das Pfeilvergiften der Indianer aus Puget Sund. Das Ausland, No. 13 (March 20), 1888, p. 260.
Poisoned Arrows. The American Anthropologist, vol. iv. No. 1, Washington, 1891, pp. 67-71.
Klallam arrows were tipped with heads of native copper and caused to corrode by wetting with sea-
"water; Lipans employed the yucca juice, and the Sissetons the spines of asmali cactus, O. missouriense.
286 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ans.14
ing the jtatient are administered. Such "remedies'' may also be forced
into the victim whom it is desirable to remove from one's presence, and
are then erroneously termed poisoned. On this theory many decoc-
tions have been reputed to be poisonous.
The hair of the tail of the blacktail deer has been used in a manner
similar to that in which cactus spines are used, for producing abortion.
The hair is chopped fine, then mixed with the fat of a bear's paw. and
administered. Gastric irritation follows, leading, possibly, to uterine
contraction, and the ultimate expulsiou of the foetus. The Indian's
explanation is, however, that the flue spicules of hair act like magic
arrows, dart forward in the body in pursuit of the life of that which it
is desirable to overcome, with the result iudicated.
It also has been stated that the blowgun was used in former times
by Indians of North America, but its darts were not poisoned, as by the
tribes of northern South America. The weapon was evidently of little
value save for target shooting, on the results of which wagers were
made.
FOOD
FOOD IN GENERAL
The food of the Menomini Indians consists of such scant supplies of
vegetables as they may raise, pork obtained from the Government and
by purchase at the stores, meats and tish obtained by hunting, berries
and wild fruits in season, and such dishes as the women have been
taught or have learned to make by contact with civilization. At the
burial feast of 1890, 1 was astonished to see served to the attendants,
and of which I also partook to a limited extent, roast beef, poundcake,
raspberry pie, and cofl'ee with cream and sugar, apparently as clean
and almost as good as that usually served at a second-rate hotel. At
the same time it was also observed that several of the visiting medicine
men and women came provided with large bagfuls of green cucumbers,
which their favored guests or friends ate raw with keen relish after
merely paring off the rind.
Salt is not used by the Menomini during meals, neither does it
appear to have a place in the kitchen for cooking or baking. Maple
sirup is used instead, and it is singular how soou one may acquire the
taste for this substitute for salt, even on meats. At the ceremonies of
1893 lard and soda biscuits alone formed the meal of the attending
medicine men and others aiding in the ceremonies, each half biscuit
being dipped into the bucket to scoop up a quantity of lard equal iu
size to a small English walnut. One of the mitii'wok, a Potawatomi,
who had eaten nothing during the day until about 2 oclock in the
afternoon, began to eat this nauseating mess with the first set of four
medicine men, continued with the second set after the first had fin-
ished, and leaned back to all appearances gratified only when the third
set of assistant medicine men had eaten to repletion. Notwithstanding


Hoffman] GLUTTONY—MAPLE SUGAR 287
this unusual gastronomic feat no evil results were noticeable two days
later.
GORMANDISM
The quantity and variety of food which some Indians are capable of
consuming is beyond the comprehension of a white man. This is so well
known that it is unnecessary to enter into lengthy discussion of the
subject, but for illustration two instances which came under my obser-
vation may be alluded to:
The first occurrence was in 1871, while the author was ascending Col-
orado river. The expedition of which he was a member had secured the
services of sixteen Mohave Indians to assist in getting the small boats
over the numerous rapids and to do possible duty in event of an attack
from hostile tribes. On the first day out, sixteen rations were issued to
the chief, to serve his men for one day. A ration, at that time, was suf-
ficient to serve one man for two days; but when eleven of the Indians
reached camp that day, they demanded that food be served, being
unwilling to wait for the arrival of the other five, who were farther down
the river and who could not reach camp in time for the regular supper.
The consequence was that the sixteen rations were eaten at that meal
by eleven Indians, who even then threatened to desert unless the quan-
tity of food was increased.
The second instance is that of an Apache woman at one of the mil-
itary posts in eastern Arizona, who, on receiving her rations for the
week, consumed all of the food at a sitting, trusting to her ability to
find sufficient tunas to sustain her until the next issue day.
OFFENSIVE FOOD
The Menomini Indians are not addicted to eating all kinds of reptiles,
insects, and other loathsome food, as was common to mauy of the tribes
of the Great Basin and of California. This form of diet may result from
having always lived in a country where game, fish, and small fruits
were found in greater or lesser abundance, and the evident relish with
which the so called Diggers, the Walapai, and others, devour grass-
hoppers, dried lizards, beef entrails, and bread made of grass-seed meal
mixed with crushed larva; of flies, would appear as disgusting to the
Menomini as to a Caucasian.
MAPLE SUGAR
Formerly large quantities of maple sugar were made annually, but
the ease with which cane sugar came to be obtained by barter from
traders' stores has gradually caused this industry to become almost
obsolete. Dr Jedidiah Morse, iu speaking of the French settlers at
Green Bay, Wisconsin, says:
These people and the Meuominees, with whom, by the ties of relationship, they
are connected, make from the maple tree about one hundred thousand pounds of
sugar annually, and from three to four hundred gallons of molasses. These, with
288 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ann.14
their skins, etc., are nearly all sold for whisky, at an immense sacrifice. It is a
common practice with these Canadians to sow their garden seeds late in the fall,
which, from experience, has heen found preferable to the usual method elsewhere of
sowing them in the spring.'
According to the report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for
1859, there were made in that year over 200,(100 pounds of maple
sugar, and in 1S63 40 tons were made by these people. While at Leech
lake, Minnesota, in July, 1892, 1 was informed that the Ojibwa of that
locality, who number less than 1,500, had during the preceding spring
made almost 90 tons of sugar. When it is taken in consideration that
nearly all of this sugar was consumed by the Iudiaus themselves, it
shows an almost abnormal fondness for sweets. It virtually forms a
substitute for salt; much of it is used with coffee and tea, while the
greater portion is eaten either in the granular form, in cakes, or as
"sugar wax," which is merely a plastic form of sugar, made by throw-
ing the boiling sirup on the snow to cool. Maple sirup also is made to
some extent, but the Indians prefer to dissolve the sugar in water when
sirup is desired, instead of retaining it in vessels, which, among tliem,
are always scarce, or else perhaps not to be had at all.
The season for sugar-making came when the first crow appeared.
This happened about the beginning or middle of March, while there
was yet snow on the ground. This period of the season was looked
forward to with great interest, and, as among the Minnesota Ojibwa
today, became a holiday for everybody. Each female head of a house-
hold had her own sugar hut, built in a locality abounding in maple
trees—the Acer saccharinum—which might or might not have been con-
venient to her camp, but which was the place always resorted to by her,
and claimed by right of descent through her mother's family and totem.
During the early spring, when the birchbark is in prime condition
for peeling, pieces were cut and folded into sap dishes or pans, each
measuring from 7 to 10 inches in width, about 20 inches in length
and 8 inches in depth. The ends were carefully folded and stitched
along the edge with thin fibers of basswood bark or spruce root, in order
that it might retain the shape as represented in figure 55. A woman
in good circumstances would jjossess as many as from 1,200 to 1,500
birchbark vessels, all of which would be in constant use during the
season of sugar-making.
The next articles to be made were sap buckets, which also were
fashioned from birchbark, cut and folded at the corners so as to avoid
breaking and consequent leakage. The folds were also seamed with
pine resin. The buckets were of various sizes, though usually they
held from 1 to 2 gallons.
The example of sirup bucket represented in plate xxxn, b, c, measures
6 inches across the top, which is round, and 7 by 8 inches across the
bottom, which is rectangular; the depth is 8 inches.
1 Report to tin- Secretary of War, Now Haven, 1822, p. 50.


MAPLE-SUGAR MAKING 289
The folds at the top of the vim are held in place by means of a thin
strip of wood neatly stitched with strands of basswood bark, and
an additional cord is made to extend across the top to serve as a
handle. Two buckets are attached to the wooden hooks suspended
from a shoulder-yoke, an illustration of the latter being presented in
plate xxxn a.
The yoke is made of light though durable wood. The specimen ob-
tained from the Menomini, and now in the National Museum, measures
34 inches in length by CA inches across the indent part, the depth of
this thick concavity being 2 inches, while the piece itself is but half
an inch. The cords are apparently of buckskin, while the hooks are
evidently of oak. The Indians claim to have invented this form of
yoke, though this is a difficult question to decide, since they have been
in contact with the whites more than two centuries.
As maple-sugar making appears to have originated with the Indi-
ans, it is reasonable to
presume that their re-
quirements would in
time have suggested
th e construction of
such a contrivance as
a yoke to facilitate
the transportation of
buckets of sap, partic-
ularly as by this means
the weight would be
transferred to the
shoulders, making Fig. 55—Birchbark vessel for maple sap.the
burden less fatiguing to the arms. Wooden sap-troughs also were made
during the summer season, when opportunity or inclination offered.
The season of sugar-making, as before mentioned, began in March,
when the crows migrated from the south. At this time everyone was
on the lookout, and so soon as the necessary camp equipage and sugar-
making utensils could be brought together each family removed to its
customary sugar grove. On arriving at the grounds, tents or temporary
wigwams were erected for sleeping quarters, and a frame structure,
with a roof of bark or mats, before described, was constructed for
sheltering the sugar-makers. A sugar-making camp is illustrated in
plate xxxiii.
When these preparations had been completed, and the kettles sus-
pended from the ridgepole, the trees were selected; then, with an ax, a
transverse cut, anywhere from a foot to iij feet above the ground, was
made in the trunk. Into this cut a chip of wood was wedged, to direct
the flow of sap away from the tree and into the bark vessel placed
on the ground beneath. All available pans were thus placed at trees
conveniently situated, and the sap was collected and brought to the
14 eth 19
:
290 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ann.u
boilers, who poured it iiito the kettles. So soon as one kettleful was
converted into sugar, a new lot of sap was bung over the tire. Care
was taken by the women detailed to superintend the boiling to note
the period at which the sirup began to granulate. It was then poured
into wooden troughs, where it was worked and the granulating process
completed.
When maple sirup is thrown on the snow to cool rapidly, it becomes
waxy in consistence and is then termed sugar wax, and is highly
esteemed as confectionery. Small dishes, from 2 to i inches in diame-
ter, also are filled with sirup, which is allowed to cool and harden,
forming sugar cakes. These are given to friends and visitors, and
pieces are always put into the grave-boxes of deceased relations, as an
offering to the shade of the dead.
As the sugar is cooled and ready to be removed from the trough, it
is put in makaks, or boxes, for transportation and future use. These
makaks, which are made of birchbark, resemble sap-buckets in shape,
though they are larger at the base than at the rim, and each has a lid
with a slightly conical center. These boxes vary in capacity from 2
to 50 pounds, those of average size holding about 25 pounds of sugar.
The cover projects slightly over the rim of the bottom vessel, and is
finally fastened by stitching with strands of basswood bark.
Another, though more modern, form of sugar receptacle is made of
saplings arranged on the same principle as the timber of a log house,
but inclosing a space of only about 10 by 15 feet. The front and back
poles are erected to the height of 6 or 7 feet, then turned off toward the
central ridgepole, as in a modern roof. The vertical poles are from 2i
to 3 inches thick, and are placed about 2 feet apart. The horizontal
saplings also are about 2 feet apart, and are secured to the former by
lashing with basswood bark. The roofs are afterward further strength-
ened by fastening with withes and brush, over which are placed the
long, crude rush mats made solely for this purpose. Sometimes the
bark or rush mats are fastened to the roof without the underlying
rushes.
WILD RICE
Apart from the vegetables which the Menomiui now cultivate, wild
rice is still gathered in large quantities for use as food. As before stated
with reference to the tribal designation, the term Menomiui is derived
from two words signifying "rice men," or "rice people," the French, at
the time of first meeting them, having designated them Folles-avoiues
or False Oats, as wild rice was called by them.
Dr Morse, 1 who visited this tribe at Green Bay, in 1820, says of their
food
In the spring they suhsist on sugar and fish ; in the summer, on fish and game ; iu
the fall, on -wild rice and com, and in the winter on fish and game. Those who are
1 Keport to the Secretary of War, New Haven, 1822, p. 48.


boffman] WILD-RICK GATHERING 291
provident have some rice during the winter. The fish, consisting principally of
sturgeon and salmon-trout, are in the greatest abundance in the hay.
The Menoinini method of gathering and cleaning wild rice is as fol-
lows: At the proper season the women, and frequently the men as
well, paddle through the dense growth of wild rice along the shores
of the lakes and rivers, and while one attends to the canoe, the others
grasp with one hand a bunch of rice stalks, bend it over the gunwale
into the boat, and there beat out the ears of rice. After collecting a
load in this manner, the next process is to dig a hole about 6 inches
deep and 2 feet across; this hole is then lined with a dressed buck-
skin and filled witli the rice, which is beaten with a stick, heavier and
somewhat curved at one end. In this manner the husk is separated
from the grain, and by winnowing on a windy day by means of a birch-
bark tray, the rice is cleaned. Sometimes the rice and hulls are sep-
arated by spreading on a mat and fanning with a bark tray. It is then
ready to dry in a metallic vessel, after which it is stored for use when
required.
Some of the Menomini women make a special form of bag in which
to beat out the rice. This bag is 2 feet wide by from 18 to 20 inches
deep, and is woven of bark strands. It resembles very much an old-
fashioned carpet bag. After the rice is put into this, the bag is laid
into a depression in the ground and beaten to separate the hulls.
Sometimes a hole is dug in the ground, a large mat placed into it,
and the rice laid on the mat. To prevent the scattering of the seed
while beating it, other mats are suspended from racks on three sides of
the depression, so as to keep the rice from flying out too far. The
fourth side is left open for the thresher.
The rice is subsequently kept in bags. To prepare it for use, it is
boiled and eaten plain with maple sugar; or it may be boiled with meat
or vegetables, or with both, and served as soup. 1
BERRIES AND SNAKEROOT
During springtime it was customary among the more, northern bands
of the Menomini to gather large quantities of raspberries, some of
which were eaten fresh, but the larger portion was dried and used dur-
ing autumn and winter, when other food became somewhat scarce. In
summer, when blueberries ripened, many of the Indians encamped in
localities which afforded abundant quantities. These also were dried,
though their freshness could be preserved by putting them into barrels
of water, which was changed every day or two. By this means the
Indians were enabled to carry the berries from time to time to sell.
During the berry season the woods frequently reechoed with shouts ol
hilarity and merry-making of the younger folk, after the completion of
the day's labor. Plate xxxiv illustrates a camp of berry hunters in
>See Indian Use of Wild Rice, by G. P. Stickney ; Am. Anthropologist, Washington, April, 1896.
—
292 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ann.M
middle Wisconsin. Formerly, temporary shelter-tents of bark were
erected, but now the simpler and less troublesome canvas tent is used.
Large quantities of snakeroot {Senega polygala) also were collected
aud afterward pressed, for transportation to the larger towns. Now,
however, this plant has become rather scarce, aud search therefor has
been practically abandoned. Most of the snakeroot now comes from
northern Wisconsin and Minnesota, both localities being within the
territory of the Ojibwa.
CANOES
The Menomini have almost entirely discontinued the making of both
the simple dugout and the birchbark canoe, and even among the old
men but few are now recognized as having, in their day, been experts
in this industrial art.
The simpler form of boat was the dugout, made of the single trunk
preferably that of a butternut tree. This wood is much heavier than
most others available, but the Indians believe it to resist better than
any other variety the effects of long contact with water, as well as the
erosion to which the bottom is subjected by frequent rowing in shallow
streams with beds of gravel or bowlders.
The specimen represented in plate xxxv is of pine. It was made by
Ma'tshi-kine'uT—Bad-eagle—shortly after the removal of the Menomini
to their present reservation. The canoe is therefore about fifty years old,
but it is a typical example. The total length is 20 feet, the diameter
across the gunwale at the point of the first inside rib is 21^ inches, and
at the second rib 20£ inches. The total height is 11 inches. It will be
observed that on the inside of the bottom of the canoe, near each end,
stands a ridge of wood resembling a rude rib—for which it is really
intended to serve—to give strength to the sides aud to preserve the
form of the vessel.
As the dugout is only from an inch to an inch and a half in thickness,
it becomes apparent that such a permanent support is necessary co
prevent the breaking of the bottom, such damage easily resulting from
exposure to the air after having been in the water for a long time. In
the example above illustrated, a longitudinal crack, at some points over
half an inch wide and extending nearly the entire length of the boat,
resulted from drying.
The paddles employed are the same as for the birchbark canoe, the
blade and handle each being about 2 feet in length.
When a single oarsman uses a canoe, he always kneels at the stern
or narrower end of the canoe, the difference in the width of this part
corresponding to the smallest diameter of the trunk from which it was
made. When the tree does not have any perceptible variation in diam-
eter, the outside is chipped down with an ax aud a draw-knife, in order
to make the stern narrower, and thus to give the canoe almost the shape
of a cigar. The oarsman places a small bunch of grass in the bottom.
On this he kneels and paddles only at one side, readily keeping the canoe

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hoffman] CANOE MAKING 293
in a straight course by following each stroke with a slight outward turn,
thus compensating for the divergence of the bow from a true course.
When a second oarsman is present, he occupies the bow and uses his
paddle at the opposite side to that of the oarsman at the stern. Fre-
quently these canoes are laden with people from stern to bow until the
gunwale touches the water's edge; yet the occupants appear entirely
unconscious of any danger, on account of the skill with which the oars-
men manipulate their paddles and control every movement of the canoe.
The birchbark canoe is by far the most graceful piece of mechanism
produced by the Menomini. But few are now either made or owned by
these people, since their more advanced mode of life does not demand
extensive travel by such means.
It is believed that the birchbark canoe is the invention of the Indian.
The earliest reports concerning the discoveries of the French mention
this vessel, and Indians arrived by canoe at French settlements from
parts which no explorers had then penetrated.
The general form of the canoe differs to some extent among the
various northern tribes. The type of canoe made by the Menomini
resembles that of the Ojibwa of Wisconsin, who are their nearest
northern neighbors, and with whom they have for many years main-
tained friendly relations, and to some extent intermarried. For their
manufacture large birch trees that appear to furnish the best bark are
selected, and the pieces are cut as large as possible. These sections
are sewed together with threads made of the long, thin roots of a
species of spruce, a material both durable and well adapted, notwith-
standing constant wetting.
The framework of the bark canoe is made of white cedar, which is
durable, light, and elastic. The ribs are thinned with a drawing knife
(plate xxxvi), and when the required number have been made, they are
curved according to the part of the canoe which they are intended to
brace—the middle, of course, being much more distended laterally,
while the ends gradually narrow to a point.
The tops of the ribs are held in place by being tied to a crosspiece,
the rib and crosspiece thus resembling a bow and its string. Then
the entire series of ribs is fastened by tying to the longitudinal strips
corresponding to the gunwale, thus setting up the skeleton, as it were.
These strips also are cut to the required thickness by means of a
dvuw-knife.
When the framework has reached this stage, the bark, which in the
meantime has been stitched together, is laid on the ground, the frame-
work placed upon it, and then the bark is turned up over the sides,
when short posts are driven into the ground, all around the canoe, to
hold the outside strips, to reinforce the edge or gunwale, and to prevent
the breaking of the bark at that edge. The appearance of the work at
this stage is presented in plate xxxvn. All the necessary stitching is
then done to hold in place the tightly secured bark. The bow and the
294 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.anh.14
stern, though apparently similar, are still sufficiently unlike for the
Indian to note which is the bow, for that end of the canoe, as in the dug-
out, is usually a little broader across the shoulders. The bottom of
the canoe is lined with thin slats or shingles to protect the delicate
bark from being broken. The seams, small punctures, and knot holes
are then sealed with pine resin.
Although the women have many duties to perform iu connection
with the building of a canoe—such as cord-spinning, the stitching
together of the pieces of bark, and the final lashing of the long pieces
forming the gunwale—the men are generally the ones to use the paddle
when traveling.
The paddle is made of cedar or some other light wood. It measures
about 4 feet in length, of which nearly one-half is devoted to the blade,
which varies from 4 to 6 inches in width. Generally the top of the
handle has two projecting pieces resembling the letter T, giving the
oarsman an easy and effective means of holding and using the paddle.
When not in use the cauoe is always pulled ashore and turned over
iu order to allow the bottom to dry.
VOCABULARY
INTRODUCTORY
In reviewing the subject of Menomini linguistics, it may be stated
that two printed works, a vocabulary of about four hundred words
(which has supplied the material for nearly all comparative purposes to
which reference is made in bibliographies) and the Lord's prayer (which
has been reprinted in a number of works), comprise all the published
material in the Menomini language.
The two works mentioned are a Catholic prayer-book and a catechism,
both by Father Zephyrin, O. S. F., formerly missionary at Keshena,
Wisconsin, the editions of which are exhausted. A few hymns also
were printed by Father Zephyrin, on a small hand-press, the entire num-
ber covering only twelve unpaged, unstitched leaves, some of them
being printed on the backs of picture cards.
Pere Flavien J. Bonduel 1 published the Lord's prayer in Menomini,
which has been reprinted by Bergholtz, Shea, Trumbull, and other
students of Indian linguistics.
The Menomini vocabulary referred to is that compiled byW. H. Bruce
and published by Henry B. Schoolcraft.2 The copy in the library of
the Bureau of Ethnology bears many corrections by some unknown
person, indicating, apparently, that numerous errors in phonetics
existed. This vocabulary has been used by many writers from which
to select numerals and other words for comparison with various Indian
languages.
1 Souvenir religieux d'uiie mission Indienne, Tournai, imprimerie de Malo et Levasseur, 1855.
'Indian Tribes, vol. ii, Philadelphia, 1852, pp. 470-481.


:
HOFFMAN] LINGUISTICS 295
Fathers Blase and Oderic, of the order of Saint Francis, at Keshena,
Wisconsin, have prepared jointly a manuscript grammar and dictionary
of the Menomini language for their own use, the arrangement of Bara-
ga's Ojibwa Grammar—one of the most complete and satisfactory at
hand—being followed. This manuscript was kindly given to the
present writer, who is now editing the work for publication. In its
preparation the German alphabet was employed, but the entire work
is being rewritten so as to accord with the phonetic system now almost
universally adopted.
In the accompanying Menomini vocabulary, which includes also a
number of geographic terms and comparisons with Ottawa and Ojibwa
synonyms, I have endeavored to avoid unnecessary diacritical marks
and letters having sounds not their own, so as to aid in the ready com-
prehension by the general reader of the phonetics used. On the whole,
the alphabet of the Bureau of Ethnology has been employed, the vowels
having the so-called continental sounds ; but instead of using the letters
tc for tsh, I have adopted the latter to represent the sound of ch, as in
chat. The following list of phonetics will serve to elucidate the system
employed
Phonetics
a, as iu far q, as the ch (German) in nicht
;i, as in hat r, as in roil
a, as in law s, as in saw
b, as in bed; interchangeable with p ss, as the Shoshoni sso'ssoni, the hissing
d, as in date; interchangeable with t sound of s merging into that of sh
6, as e in bet t, as in tap ; also interchangeable with d
e, as a in late tsh, as ch in chat
g, as in gimlet; interchangeable with k ft, as in pull
h, tis in hot n, as in rule
I, as in it v , is found at the end of many words as
i, as e in eat a faintly sounded letter, and occurs
k, as iu kin ; generally used instead of g in words iu which the plural becomes
1, as in lip wok, partaking apparently of the
m, as in met sound of w
n, as in not ", nasalizes the preceding vowel
6, as u in but z, as in zone
o, as o in boat ai, as in aisle
p, as in jiin ai, as oy in boy
MENOMINI-ENGLISH
a"asSn, stone, aba'shush sho'kum, abiig'so
aba q' so, deer. so'kum, deerskin, buckskin (sko'-
abiiq'so so'kum, aba'shush sho'- kum,so'kuin,=skin).
kum, buckskin; from abiiq'so, abi'slk, black; the general term,
deer, and so'kum, skin. however, is ape'sen.
aba'shush, the deer; a gens of aia'ni, to laugh.
the Menomini. a i a ' n i n , laugh.
,
296 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [ETH. ANN. 14
aiii'niwdk, they are laughing. stantly antagonize the ina'maq-
aia'nu T the opossum, "laugher." ki'wok—thunderers—and the hu-
,
So called because when one is man race. These beings de-
touched or teased, he grins as if stroyed Na'qpote, the brother of
laughing. Ma'nabftsh; and they also gave
ai'awis, ai'awisk, first. the latter much annoyance at
Aionesh'i, "good-looking spotted the time of his growing to man-
animal;" personal name of a hood, and at the establishment
woman. of the Mitii'wit, or Grand Medi-
aka'mia, across, or on the other cine society.
side of, the river. a n a ' m q k vii i ft , ina'maqki'ft, 1.
akaq'siwok, a game played with the thunder; the thuuderbird;
a wooden bowl and eight pieces deities of the air, who cause the
of deer horn, resembling the Ojib- spring rains to come to produce
wa game of plum stones. vegetation. 2. One of the phra-
ak a s ' s i a n o k pieces of deer horn tries of the Menomiui Indians,,
(some of which are colored), used embracing the kine'uT , shawa'-
in a game similar to the Ojibwa nani', pina'shiu, opash'koski, pa-
plum-stone game. The pieces kash'tsheke'u', pekike'kune, ke'-
are put into a wooden bowl and shewa'toshe, maq'kwoka'ni, ka-
violently shaken; after settling, ka'ke, imiq'tek, piwat'inot',
the counting depends on how the omas'kos, and una'wanink'.
pieces lie, the red and white sides anaq', star; pi., anaq'kfik.
uppermost. Used in the game of anaq'kian, a n qa ' k i o n , mat.
akaq'siwok. a ' n a q k w 6 1 , cloud ; pi., a'naqkwo
a'kemaq'tik, black elm; from tan.
a'kamok, snowshoe, and aq'tik, Ane'mau, a German; pi., Ane'-
tree or wood, i. e., the wood used mauwok'.
for making showshoes. The wood a'nemau paqki'sikan, rye; i.e.,
splints are used also in basket German bread, from Ane'mau,
making. German, and paqki'sikan, bread,
aki'ko, those. flour.
akim'.tkein; they. ane'pakaku'aqtik, black oak;
akui'kika v , "he who draws out the bark is crushed and boiled,
arrows ; " a shaman who professes and the decoction employed for
ability to withdraw arrows shot sore eyes.
into people by other bad sha- ani'no, those.
mans. anipi'oqkan, leaf; j>/., anipi'oq-
akuni', these (animate pronoun). kanan.
iimak', a bee; pi., iimo'ak. ano'peqkan, notch in the end
amo'peme, wax. of an arrow for the bowstring.
a'moso'poma, honey. a'pata, half.
ana', some. A'patake'zkik, "half-the-sky,"
a'na'maqki hawai'tokok, un- a personal name; from a'pata,
derground beings or gods, of half, and ke'zhlk or ke'sik, sky.
whom the silvery white bear was ape'sen, black. Also iipi'sik.
chief. Ape'sen wii'miiqtiko'sifr, negro;
ana'maqki'oq, beneath the i. e., black Frenchman, from
earth. ape'sen, black, and Wa'inaqti
Ana'maqki'sa v, "little-thun- ko'sift , Frenchman.
der," a personal name. aq'gots', third.
ana'maqkiu v cellar; anything aqkii
, ',
kettle.
underground. Aqki'nakoshe', " terrible-look-
a 1 1 a ' m a q k I ' ft underground. ing," a personal name.
Also denotes the evil beings who aq ku 'a paq ta ' m ;'i , the hori-
dwell in the earth, and who con- zon.
. ;
HOFFMAN] MENOMINI-ENGLISH VOCABULARY 297
aqpu'akan, a pipe bowl made of awisi'an, when are you going?
stone. Baboq'keweii, woodcock ; the
a p u ' ak a n naq'tlk, wooden pipe- old man who
i carved< an old
stem; from aqpu'akan, stone woman out of a poplar tree
pipe bowl, and naq'tlk stem, i. e., mythologic.
wood. Baia'weqshi', " that-which-rat-
iiq'tik, stick; piece of wood. tles;" a personal name.
;i s placed before thecardinal num-
, baku'oqta', belt of skin.
bers it forms ordinals, as as nish', bakwa'tene'kan, cake sugar;
the second ; iis mita'ta, tlie tenth. maple sugar made in the form of
a'sabeina'ti situ'a, to live. small cakes, which is served to
a'sani'u, angel. visitors and children, and placed
a'sawiq'kana, on the other side before the grave-boxes of the
of the road. dead as an offering of "first
a'seiita'a, to do a thing; to act; fruits."
to work. bama'desitu'a, life; living peo-
a ' s e J) a n , raccoon ple; bama'desitua pasa' noqki-
ase'piiq, rock, stone. wok, living people must work.
ases'ki, mud. b am a ' t e s h i t u o g , the people ; all
asha'kan, mortar for crashing people.
herbs and nuts. baqki', ashes.
asha'kanaq 'tik, pestle; lit., & bcbo'na, a year; pi., bcbo'nan.
mortar stick, from asha'kan, a e D yes.
,
mortar, and iiq'tik, a stick or ehaiyom', this, referring to ani-
piece of wood. mate things.
asha'wik, there; at that place. ena'baqtam, his dream.
ashke'paki Y/ green. cna'baqtan, a dream.,
askii', pine. ene'qpe, then.
a'skaa'qpuku, an aquatic plant, ene.'. enoq, that.
growing to the height of 4 feet; e n o', this suffix to the cardinal num-
roots used for medicine. bers forms the multiplying num-
a'skikeshkipoto', to saw. bers, as, su'asik, eight; suasik'-
a'skikesh'kisama', to cut. eno', eight times.
aski'paqtl', to strike. es, shell; e'sak', shells.
a s imi q ' k ah a , east. e'shika'nashi'kan, one side of
as'nik, west. his or her hips.
A s s ' k a s s , the Menomini word for esh'ko'da, fire; pi., esh'koden'.
Oshkosh, a city in eastern Wis- e'sikan'iknV, half moon.
consin. The word signifies bear's esko'tii, fire; also esh'kotii', the
claw. See Oshkosh. same as the Ojibwa form.
a'tano'qeu, a story; a narra- e n ' t o s h e a w o k , to create ; to cause
tive. to be born.
atshi'ke'siu T, north. ganik'ni'pe'se, long lake, a long
atshi'ke'slwii'enan, the north narrow body of water.
wind. geo"netshi v , to be surprised.
Aw ai'etokwa'beno', ''big-shade- ge'so, sun; usually pronounced
coming-day;" a name applied to ke'so.
one of the mystic personages. haia'paqtau tipiiq'ka, mid-
awai'tok, little. night.
awai'tok pa'niq, dwarf; from hanaq'kin, amat, made of rushes
awai'tok, lit.fle, and pa'niq, boy. or bark; general term for mats
Awa'noqnio T " the-air-we- of any description.
,
breathe;" personal name of a hanaq'papeq tsi, meteor, lit.,
woman. falling star.
awa'nuqni u/ a, fog; also a per- ha 'lie, some.
sonal name. ha u ni', a ball for playing games;
,
298 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [ETH. ANN. 14
usually made of buckskin stuffed i nii n'sho'poma, maple sugar;
with hair; also, bullet. from inan', natural, and sho'-
kani'tiyon, fish spears. poma, sugar.
ha'noke'sian, where are you inaq'tck, raven; also a gens of
going? the Big Thunder phratry.
h a n u " ' e , rattlesnake ; larger aud ina'weto', rattlesnake skin, for
longer than the common Grotalus medicine bag.
horridus, possibly the prairie rat- ine", in, at, then.
tlesnake of the prairie-dog towns I n o ' o t i n, it is his ?—used as an af-
of North Dakota. firmation, and not as an answer
ha"q', star; j)L, hanaq'kok. to a question.
hau'ka, affirmation; yes; that is iom, this.
right; it is well. The word is io's, here; at this place.
employed in the Medicine society ishpe'kan, it is high.
by members when one salutes Ka'dabaqshifr, "one-who-
another by his proper title of re- broils;" a personal name.
lationship or as a friend; then kaiii'nomek ko'sa, "fishes," in
the one so addressed responds by general; proper names.
the above term. kaie'sani ue'awiiq'kik, after-
hawii'ne, who! noon; from kaie'sani, after, later,
Hawa'tok, God. and ne'awaq'klk, noon.
hawe v/ it is; that is. kaiis'nebak, corpse—of man.,
he n/ yes. kaiyes', as soon; or, as soon
,
hini', and. as.
hiqka'te, low, as low water. kaka'ke, crow; also a gens of the
h i s h e ' e k e v' ft Big Thunder phratry., like ; similar.
Hoko'peshe', "little-whoops," Ka'kikatshiwan, "everlasting
a personal name, from hobo', a falls;" a personal name.
call or whoop (onomatopoetic), kaku'fine, grasshopper; literally
and peshe', little. the jumper, the one who first
Hoqpan'iuq'ki, "lung-woman;" possessed tobacco.
a mythical female. kaku'enefr, kaku'ene, the grass-
hos'kle T, to do; to be able toper- hopper, lit., the "jumper," the one
form an act. whom Ma'nabush commanded to
ik , signifies color, aud forms an in- always remain a jumper, and an
separable suffix in all words per- annoyance to tobacco growers.
taining to color. kan, no.
in vii' m ii q k I'ii , ana'inaqki'ft, thun- kau. See kon.
der; also refers to the thunder kan a ' m a q t s I ft s n a w a q ' k I k
god j)l., ina'inaqki'wSk. mid forenoon.
;
in an', natural. kanau'meqtshiii', before, as,
inana'ba, an ax. before some other event occurs;
ina'netshi'pai, "dressing the previous to.
dead;" mita'T ceremony for the kana'wehe'a, take care of us;
dead when a new candidate is protect us.
brought forward to till vacancy. k a n ' n i w I q ' t i q t o n a n , I can
inii'ni, ina'niu v , man—specific not.
and generic designation; miq'- kaq'kop, string.
kinii'ni, medicine man; shaman. kaq'pape'shi, thread ; made of
in ii n ' o qpan plant growing wild, the nettle mashan', or sha'nap,',
having a tuberous root resem- wild hemp. Also applied to com-
bling potato, and boiled and eaten mon thread of foreign manufac-
as such ; the word signifies " nat- ture.
ural potato," from iuiin', natural, kaq'tse'idau, run, rapid move-
and oqpan', potato. ment.
"; —;
HOFFMAN] MENOMINI-ENGLISH VOCABULARY 299
Ka' sh ekoqkaii , "one-who-car- k e s hm a ' t s h i w 6 k , they are gone.
ries-light"; also applied to the keshni'po, he is dead.
moon. A personal name. Kesi"ene, Keshena, "swift-fly-
Kashklq'kapan," thedark haze ing ; " the name of a former chief
at the horizon." The name of a of the tribe, and also the name
mythic female who dwells in the of the village on the reservation.
north, and who was visited by See keshi"ne.
Ma/nabush while the latter was ke'sik, the sky.
still among the Indians. ke'sik hasi'nakuo, "blue col-
Ka'tshemlqta 'ft, " one -who - or," from ke'sik, sky, and hasi'-
dances;" a personal name. nakuo, color.
kawa'tokan, shades; mysteries. ke' sikinamin, I see the blue sky.
(See footnote, p. 39.) ke'sikot, day; ke'sikotun, days;
Ka'wi'k It, "rough-face;" a per- nis ke'sikot, two days, from nis
sonal name. two, and ke'sikot.
ke'au, thy body. ke'skanan, cut with an ax.
ke'baina'tisim, you live, or are k e s m a ' t s h i a d o ', after they have
alive. gone.
kebit, your tooth. ke'so, ke"so, the sun.
kek, thy house. ke'spapa'kaman', clubbed
ke'nach, thine; yours. with a stick, or pommeled with
kene'puwe'imV, you are stand- the fist.
ing (pi). kespi'iito, after they have come.
Kgne'sha, "eaglet;" a personal ke'sposhi'pahau, he, or she,
name. was stabbed.
Ke'niaqki'san, " ;1 ittle-eagl e kes we'qtamowau, he has told.
a personal name; from kine'uv Keta'kibikot, the striped one;
,
eagle, and ki'sa, little. the sunfish; also a mythic per-
keuo'kan, your hip. sonage who participated in the
k e ' n u u a ' h a , to ascend ; to go up- game of ball between the peo-
stream. ple of Ma'nabush and the aua'-
kenu' shi shlke'pii'I, dwarf wil- maqki'u. The modern name is
lows. nak'uti.
keo"netski T , to be surprised. k6"tshin;'i 'ni iV, old man, from
keqpa'kan, it is thick. ke"tshi or ketshi, old, aged
kes, after, employed to indicate inii'niiY man.
something that has occurred; keu', thy wife.
forms a past tense prefixed to a Ke'waiatshi' wan, "the-eddy;"
verbal phrase; thy head. a personal name.
k e ' s e k o q , heaven. Kewiish'kum, "to- cause -some-
kesh, past; after; keshni'po, he is thing-to-turn ; " a personal name.
dead ; kesh ma'tshr, "he is gone ;" kewe'nimon, thy heads.
kesh ma'tshiwok, they havegone. ki, it, he.
ke'shawa'toshe, k'eshewa'tshe, kikiise'nan, veins.
sparrow-hawk, Falco sparverins kikis', thy son.
also a gens of the Big Thunder kikiso'wawok', your sons.
phratry. ki'kituan', council of Indians.
ke'shik, blue. ki'kitu'\vik6'mik,councilhome;
keshi"ne, swift flying, as birds of from ki'kituan', council, gather-
the genus Falcon idee dart ing of braves and chiefs; and
through the air. Menoinini form wiko'mlk, a habitation. The lat-
of Keshena, a village in Wiscon- ter word is a variant of wig'iwam,
sin. Sec Keshena. and is rarely heard; also, as
K e ' s h I u q k ii u ", moon-woman ; wi'kiop.
a personal name. ki 'kit won, to talk, to speak.
;
300 THE MENOMINI INDIANS (ETII. ANN. 14
kime'wan, kime'an, rain; also K i ' s h a n o ' w I fi ", one-who-sheds-
a personal name. tears *'; a personal name.
kin a', you; omitted from verbal Kishe'wado'shii, "swift -little-
forms. hawk;" a personal name.
ki'naq, yours. Ki'shiwa'tshiwan, "roaring-
kina"tskishin, tickle kini or rapids;" a personal name.
hei ; imper. Ki'skapamiq'kiu,"early-dawn;"
kina"tshiso', he or she is tick- the name of a mythic female who
lish. dwelt in the north. She was
kina"ueq'katayoin', "that you visited by Ma'nabush, while the
may feel good-." latter was still among the In-
kinc' you. dians.
,
ki'ne, giant. kis'kash, toenail.
kine'kitin, it is yours. kis'pin, if.
kine'puam, thou art standing. kita'bakus, lynx. (L. canaden-
Kine'ske, "young-eagle;" per- sis L.)
sonal name. kita'mijkita'mu, theporcupine;
kinc' uT golden eagle ; a gens of the also a gens of the Bear phratry.,
Big Thunder or Eagle phratry. kititan, your sinews.
kine'u v wai'denat, "coming-to- k'itosha'shishine', we slipped.
the-eagle;" the Menomini name kitshki'ii T, old.
applied to the beaver when he ki'fr, they.
came to the Eagle phratry as the Kiwaqkwo"amuqk', " flying-
head of a gens. He is now sec- clouds;" a personal name.
ond chief of the phratry. He kiyu'j that place; that spot.
came with an Ojibwaname, which ko'atan, afraid.
meant "white hands," Wa'pina/- koke'an, to dive.
kiit, on account of the lighter kokosh', hog; pork.
color of the soles of his paws. kon, snow.
Ki'niaqki'sa, " little-she-eagle ;" konii/pamik, "sacred thing," the
a personal name. shell, Cyprwa moneta, employed
Kl'niaqki'ii, "eagle-woman;" a by the medicine men in their
personal name. ceremonies of initiation. The
kinis', a long while. shell is apparently swallowed,
kini'shipi'ininaq'kiya', we the breath blown on the medi-
two twist. cine bag, and then the bag thrust
kinok', skin. toward the candidate, by which
klno'ka, "the-long-one;" a per- action the shell is supposed to be
sonal name. shot intotkelatter'sbreast. The
kino'pik, snake. Ojibwa and Ottawa term for this
ki'nua, you; we. shell is mi'gis; Potawatomi,
k i n u " a ye, yourselves. wap'miknok.
,
kinu"akiti'nua, it is yours. konwo'iak, nobody; lit., not
ki'o T mother; ni'kiov my somebody., ,
mother; o'kiun, his mother. koqke'waba', koqke'waboq',
k i p i ' m i n a q ' k i , we twist. day after tomorrow.
kiqkaq'k w u n , shin. k(H|ke'wana'ko v , day before yes-
kiqse'se, girl. terday.
kis, sou. koq'kipikuq'ki, the mouse; a
kiseteq'se, little toe; pi., kise- mythic animal that cut the sinew
teq'san. cord with which the sun had been
k i s c ' w a t o ' s s e , sharp-shin hawk. tied.
k i s h a good, great ; all powerful koqnii'sok, thy fathers.
' ,
Kisha' Ma'nido, great mystery, koq'ne, thy father.
the chief ma'nido of the many k u k u'k u u , owl ; the horned owl.'
recognized by the Menomini. {Bubo virginianus.)
MENOMINI-ENGLISH VOCABULARY 301
kuniq'katan', frost. bear, one of the defeated under-
Kushe'aqki'u, "French-woman ;" ground beings.
a personal name. ma'niit, plenty; sufficient.
kwapn'owe, o'kapu'owe, the ma'niito'wok, much game; name
hazel. of Manitowoc, a Wisconsin town.
kwi'tshiwa'no, " current-from- ma'nawats, few.
above;" a personal name. Mana'w 5 1, Menomini for theword
kwopu', juice ; sap, as of a tree. Milwaukee; Mana'waqkiik, the
ma/'ase, many. Potawatomi form.
mii'iitlk, stick counters, used in in a q ' k a k ' , sugar box ; made to
gaming. hold granulated maple sugar.
ma'atikonagan, wooden bowl; Made of birchbark, oblong, and
employed usually in playing the a little narrower at the top than
game of aka'qsiwok. at the bottom. It has a conical
m a ' ii t i k w o p , bow, made ofwood. cover, which is stitched down
niaiitsk'awai'edok, great mys- until the sugar is needed.
tery; from maiitsh'—great, and maq'kasin, moccasin; pi., inaq'-
wai'edok, unknown being. The kasinan.
latter word is seldom employed maqki', blood.
except to indicate the God of maq'kik, maq'kik, maq'kiu T
,
civilized peoples, the ordinary red.
designation of a mystery or shade miiqku'om, maqku'um, ice.
being ina'nido. maqku'um babe'qtsin, hail;
maioq'kaqa, sunrise. from maqku'um, ice, and babeq'-
ina'kese'sapakwa'ta, bead tsin, falling.
belt, used by shamans during maqkwa'nineuk', mythical red
ceremonials of the cult societies. birds, who were iu reality Indi-
mama'kav, slave. ans so transformed, through the
mama'tselta', Indian; some- aid of magic powers. These birds
times abbreviated in conversa- were found by Ma/nabush, in his
tion to mama'tshini. travels while yet among the first
niama'tshe'tau, Indian; liter- Indians who existed.
ally, " moving he is." m a q ' kw a ' n o p , wool belt, used by
uia'matshe"tawok, the Indi- men as a sash.
ans. maq'kwoka'ni,ma'quana'ni;
mama'tshoqki, to gag, as when red-tail hawk, Buteo borealis.
nauseated. Also a gens of the Big Thunder
ma'nabai, giant; mii'nabaiwok, phratry.
giants. miiq'sewan, wood.
M a ' 1 1 a b a i w 6 k giant people who miiq'tikpaqaq'tshikan, wood-
,
dwell in the extreme pole, who en mallet used by women to beat
fish by the light of torches ; the elm logs for the purpose ofloosen-
light is seen against the sky as ing tbesplints for makingbaskets.
the aurora. ma'se, mase", many.
M ;i ' n ii b u s h , the Menomini hero- mase'naqnatek, printed.
god ; the grandson of Noko'mis, mashii', me'sha, great, all-pow-
and intermediary in the found- erful.
ing of the JVIitii'wit or Medicine mashan', nettle; a plant of the
society, between the Great Un- genus Urtica, the fiber of which
known and the Indians; from is made into thread for sewing.
miisha', great, and wabus', rab- ma'shena'qekan, book, paper.
bit great rabbit, because of his Ma'shenomak, great fish;
; a
ability to perform great deeds. mythic water monster which de-
ma "nakua, badger. In Menom- voured many of the first people,
ini myth he received from Ma'na- but who was iu turn destroyed
bush the skin of the silvery white by Mti'nabush.
;
302 THE MEXOMINI INDIANS [ETH. ANN. 14
in a s b k i q ' k vi u , medicine. mep, an arrow.
m a s k o ' t i a prairie. m e ii q k i
, p ' q k w a n a ' g a n , ankle.
masko'tia pisiiq'kifr, buffalo; m e q k u ' 6 m , the ice.
from masko'tia, prairie, and pis- in es, head; mesun, heads; wes, his
aq'kiii v, cattle. head; ina'niuv wes, man's head.
m a s s e ' n ii , turkey. nie'sha, niashii', great, all pow-
ma'tekosh', wooden canoe, or erful.
dugout. m e ' s h i n i k a ' k e , chicken-hawk
nia'teko'min, acorn; pi., niii'te- (believed to be the swiftest).
ko'miuan. ine'sibine'bik, water demons;
ma 'tik, tree; pi., mii'tikok. pi., me'sibine'bikok.
mii ' ti k w o p, wooden bowl ; ma'tik, me"simin, apple; pi., me"simi-
tree, wood, and wop, bowl. nSk.
mats, great. me'sokua'san, to sew.
Miitsewai'edok, the devil; bad me'tik, a stick, twig, or piece of
being. Literally signifies bad wood.
god, as the word Wai'edok is em- me'tiko'ne, canoe.
ployed to designate the God of me 't sues ho', he or she is eating.
the whites, ma'nido being the metshe'showok', they are eat-
proper word to signify mystery ing.
or shade. metshim', food.
Ma'tshe hawai'tok, "bad be- Mia'kiueu v, "true-eagle;" a per-
ing or mystery; " the devil. sonal name.
m a t s h e q ' k e. w i s , eldest brother. mian', straight.
ma 't ski, great, celebrated, large. Mia'nise, "little-owl," the nick-
nia'tshi, ina'tsi, bad. name of a tshi'saqka, named
M ii t s li i k i u e" ' u v M v, ii t 's i k i n e" u Na'waqkwiis'kum, " he-whose-
,
''bad-eagle;" a personal name. feet-do-not touch-the-ground."
Mii 'tsh iwiqkwa' wis, "ske-who- mi dan', month.
governs;" the name of a mythic m i g ii q ' si kwo n, knuckle.
woman who dwelt in the north, mi'hikan, a road.
and who was visited by Mii'na- mi'hikii'sa, a trail.
biish during his wanderings. m ikii' at shine, thumb.
matskiset', big toe. mika'san, vulva.
Mii t wash 'kat,"inaking-a-soimd lnikii 'tik, knee.
as-he-goes ; " a personal name. mikek', otter.
mawau', all. mikoq'tiigau, mikoq'takan,
nieiibit, me'bit, me'pit, tooth; throat.
ke'bit, your tooth; ni'bit, my m i m ii " a n o t , stomach.
tooth ; we'bit, his or her tooth miniii'nita, brain.
pi., me'pitan, ine'bitan. mini ii 'tik wok, bowstring; the
me'iiV, body. word is sometimes pronounced
lne'kein, to give. mimii'iitikwok.
me'minem, to vomit; ni me'mi- mi m of, belly; omo'te, his belly.
nem, I vomit. minii', right hand.
m e ' m o t, a friend ; ne"at, my friend. mi 'n aba 'kan, right arm below
men, berry; pi., meu'niiu. elbow.
me'na, me'ne', hair; me'ne'niin, mina'inaqtshian', left arm.
hairs. m i n a p i u m , husband.
'
menan', to give to someone else. minaq'ki, armjiit.
me'nok, glaus penis. mi'ne'nenii 'tshin, finger.
meno' mii, rice; the seed of the ml 'ni kan', village; city, i. e.,
wild rice, Zizania aqaatica, used large village.
to great extent by the Indians. miuo'gan, hip.
TheMenomini Indiansarenamed mi'nonagan, breast, of a woman.
after this seed. (See p. 12.) mi'uoq kwu'on, scalp.
";
HOFFMAN] MENOMINI-ENGLISH VOCABULARY 303
ini'nudi'sen , bag, used to hold misik', again.
or carry rice, mi'sikaia' wit, second.
mip, morning, miskas', fingernail; toenail.
mi'qegan. a path, misse'wos, "wound medicine;"
mi'qikan, a road, a remedy employed in tlie curing
mi'qikii 'sii, a trail, of arrow or bullet wounds.
in i q ' k ii , forehead. mitii', heart; medicine.
miqka'an, heel, in it a", navel; otii', his navel.
iniqkii'no, the turtle; also a gens mit;i' v , a member of the Grand
of the Bear phratry. Medicine society of the Menom-
m i q k a t , leg. ini Indians; pi., mita'wok. Qjib-'
miqke'sik, eye; iniqke'sikuu, wa, mide'; ^J., mide'wok; Otta-
eyes, wa, mite'wini'ni, i. e., medicine
miq ki'kan, neck. man. Delaware, meteu, doctor,
m iqki'uiui) , shell necklace, used derived from meteohet, to drum
by women and men at ceremo- on a hollow body; a turkey cock
nial dances. is sometimes called meteu, from
m q 'kin n ,i ii i "medicine man." A the drumming sound of his wings.
member of the Mitii'wit or Grand (Brinton and Anthony, Lena-
Medicine society. pe-English dictionary.)
Miqkinii 'nlfr , lucky man; aper- mita'gos, a warclub.
sonal name, m i t a ' m u , woman.
m i q ' k i n e ' n T , a partisan, a leader mi tan', daughter; ota'nan, her
also a personal name, daughter.
miq'kiqkwu'on, eyebrow, m i ' t ii n i ' n i e n , right arm.
miqkon', gall, mita'nikum, nostril.
m i q p a 'nun, lung, m i t a ' n i q 1 1 , war-spear.
miq'pepa'kun, rib. m i 1 a ' n m a q 'k an, shoulder.
iniqtaq'pegan, chin, m i ' t a n o q ' i k a u , first finger.
miq'tawok, miq'tawok, ear; vin i t ii ' n u n i , ton gue.
miq 'tawokun,iniqta'wokan, ears, mitii'onaqan, medicine dish: a
miq'tigan, neck, vessel employed by medicine men
m i q t s h e ' w ii w 6 k , right arm in mixing plants and roots for
above elbow, medicinal decoction or infusion.
miqtshi'ikwon, thigh, Ojibwa, niide'onaqan.
misa'ba, lead, mitaq'piqkan, chin; jawbone.
mi'siigini'wi, bladder, mitii skuo'tsine, little finger.
in i sii q 'pa, footprint, mita'ta, ten.
mise'kaqnau, hail, mita'ta hai'awik, tenth.
m ise'kaqnan, fine hail with first mita'ta na"nihine', thirteen;
snow of the season, i. e., ten and three.
miset', foot, mita'ta 'nano, ten times.
miset'esan, toes; literally, little mita'ta ni'ananhine', fifteen;
feet, i. e., ten and five.
m ise'waiaq'tik, body or trunk mita'ta ni'hine', fourteen; i.e.,
of tree, ten and four.
m i s h a q ' k i m i n a g ' o s h e v' ii mita'ta niko'tiue', eleven, i. e.,
,
wheat; the grains of the cereal, ten and one.
mi'shikine'bik, the mystic water mita'ta nikutwa'satiihine',
monster that destroyed Na"q- sixteen; i. e., ten and six.
pote, the brother of Miiu'abiish. mita'ta ni'shine', twelve; i. e.,
mishke'sik, eye; face, ten and two.
mishke'sik, eye; mishke'sikan, mita'ta no'qwikauhine', sev-
eyes. enteen; i. e., ten and seven.
M s h k w o p a n ;i o q, " red-dawn mita'ta saka'hine', nineteen;'
a personal name. i. e., ten and nine.
"
304 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [ETH. ANN. 14
mita'ta ssu'asikhine', eighteen; plant found in cedar swamps,
i. e., ten and eight. used as a remedy.
mitii'towaq'ka, medicine drum; mo'1 ' s, moose; also a gens of the
employed by mitii'wok daring Moose phratry.
Medicine society ceremonies and mosk I k', swamp.
initiation. m o s k u ' 1 1 ft prairie.
,
mita'tsiok', the shade or shadow Mo w ii q ' k i ft , eater—giant canni-
which the Indian believes to bals; referred to in mythologic
hover about the place of death tales.
for four days. muqke'sik, face.
niitau'gos, warclub. mu s a p v' ii ' ft , old bachelor.
mitau'niqti, war spear. mu'sapi'aqkift, old maid.
mita'waqtlk, medicine post,erect- Mu s h a q ' k w ii t u q ' k I u , " sky-
ed within the medicine building; woman;" a personal name.
from lnitii', medicine; aq'tik, nii'ena', elder brother—said by
stick, post, or tree. younger brother.
mi t a ' w i k 6' m i k, the medicine wig- na'etii, smoke.
wam ; the structure in which the Nai'aqtii wapami, " chief-of-.a-
ceremonials of the shaman soci- multitude; " "can-not-but-be ob-
ety is held. Ojibwa, mide'wigi- served." A personal name, of
wam. Ottawa, mite'wiko'mik. the present second chief of the
(See footnote, p. 70.) Menomini.
Mitii'wit, the cult society of the Naiiiq'to, "certain-one;'' a per-
Menomini; known commonly as sonal name.
the (hand Medicine society. naiik', sunset.
Ojibwa, Mide'wiwiu'. Ottawa, nai'oma'gau, neck-yoke for car-
Mite'owin. rying buckets.
mitiq'san, skin leggings. n a i o q ' t a, a carrier, a trans-
mitiq'suon, eat; ni mitiq'sim, I porter.
eat; ki mitiq'sim, thou eatest; n a " i s h ', we two ; employed in dual
me'tshesuoq, he eats; kimi'- form.
tshiqsi, we eat; mitshiq'sikun, na u 'ish ni'kipa n nioqua'tt', we
you eat; inetshe'sowok, they eat. two are walking.
mi'tisini, nii'tiskim, to eat, eat- na'kawa'hekatav granular su-
,
ing. gar.
mi'tshikiqkwe'wis, eldest sis- na ki 'sit, observed, seen, visible.
ter. n a k u ' t i, the sunfish ; was formerly
mi'tshinue" ke'bama' tisim, called keta'kibihot', the striped
you are still alive. one, and as a mythic personage
mitshi'os, nose. is referred to only under this lat-
m i t s h vi s ' k i ft , enemy ; nitshi'khr, ter designation in the ritualistic
my enemy. ceremonies. A gens of the Bear
mi ton', mouth. phratry.
mito'niue'se, kidney. nania'i 1 noma'eu, sturgeon. A
,
m o u a ' t o a k , animals. gens of the Bear phratry.
m o ' n i p i o n o ' w e, tamarack tree. Na'inaku'kiu, beaver woman; a
mo'qkaha, sunrise, lit., digging mythic being adopted by the Big
something out of the ground. Thunder phratry as one of its
moq'kuman, white man, Cau- gentes.
casian. n a m aq ' tokanaq ' t a m, he struck
moqwai'o, maqwe'o, 1. The it with the left hand, or left-
wolf. 2. A phratry, consisting handed.
of the Moqwai'o, Anaui', and nami'oqka, to kill sturgeon.
Aba 'shush gentes. Na'motam', " tells-the-truth ;
mosh'kui'kwas, an aquatic a personal name.
MENOMINI-ENGLISH VOCABULARY 305
n'iinii, niiena', elder brother. n a ' s h i p u ' t s h i ' k a n , fibers made
na'nat'ska, huminiiig bird, Tro- of bark,
chilus colubris. na'taho'toa, to look for; to
nii'natua, to kill, to destroy. search for.
nii'nauwe'qta, a brave or war- na'tawe', a large, thick snake,
rior. like the viper; "has a face like
na"ni, three. a raccoon."
iiii"uiinau, tobacco. n a ' t a w e , the missasauga rattle-
'
ua"nino, thrice. snake.
ua''ninn mita'ta, thh-ty; i. e., Natom'pfimo u neu v , "the first
thrice ten. one to walk;" personal name of a
ua"nino mita'ta niko'tine, woman.
thirty-one; i. e., thrice ten, and N a t s h i ' w I q k 6 ' , " he-who-bul-
one. lies;" a personal name,
11 a n i q ' s a mouse M us musculus n ii w a i ' w a n , sturgeon pi ural, of( ;
L). niimai', or niiwai'.
naui'se, rat. Na'waqkwas'kum,"one-whose-
uaui'takina'kua, dusk. feet do-not-touch the-ground;" a
na"ni wok, three hundred. personal name of a tshi'saqka,
na"uiwok misik'ta uiko'- whose nickname is Mia'nise,
tine', three hundred and one. " little-owl."
na'nokupaq'kwe, a carrying N aw a q ' k w e s h k u m , " half-a-'
bag. lnonth;" a personal name.
Nano'qke, an old name for the Na' w a ta ' w i n e ' ft , " she - who-
bear; the word survives in the picks-berries;" a personal name.
ritual of the Grand Medicine nawii'ft v ' "one-who-sees; " the
society. The usual modern des- name for the sand viper, hetero-
ignation is owa'sse. The old don sp?
term refers to one of the deities 'nda', uncle—father's brother,
who was changed by the Great neat', friend,
Mystery into an Indian. ne'au, my body,
nanoweq'tau, war chief. n (' ' a w ii (] ' k i k , noon, midday,
napa'kiken, it isflat. neb an', sleep, to slumber; nibiin',
Na'pote, also pronounced na'q'- dead; ni'bua, he is dead,
pote; an "expert marksman;" nek, my house.
the name of the brother of Mii'- ne'kan, the ground, soil, sand,
nabftsh. ne'kon, my houses,
naqka, evening. nekot'eno, once,
N a q k a h a " am u '•' , plucks - blos- uemak', now.
som - from - the - tree ; " a personal ne'matok, elder or younger
name. brothers,
Naqkwesk'kum, "until noon;" ngme'nekem, give to me.
a personal name. ne' in oak, a dance,
Na"qpote, "expert marksman;" ne'naq, mine.
the brother of Ma'nabush, who ne n "nau', killed; referring to
dwells in the "land of the set- many that may be killed, as fish
ting sun," to await the arrival of or any other objects,
the shades. ne'ninau, our head,
naq'se, younger brother. ne'paqaqkwaq'tik, black ash.
n'ase, younger sister, or brother. nepau', death,
nii'se', younger sister—said by n e " p e u o ' ii , summer,
elder brother. nepua', dead,
Naseqkai'Ik, "travels -alone;" a n e ' p u am , staudin g.
personal name. ne'pue 1 , he or she is standing,
Na'shika'pawe', "stands-in- ne'puwe'makot, it is standing,
the-dark ;" a personal name. n e ' p u w e ' m o k , they are standing.
14 ETH 20
306 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [ETH. AKX. 14
Ne'qkoshi'ane'ir, "hasty;" ni'kotke'so, month; from ni'kot,
"high temper;" personal name one, and ke'so, sun, and omitting,
of a woman. the word tabaq', night—which
nes, my head. is used to designate moon as
ue"tau, brother-in-law; either "night sun."
sister's husband, or wife's niko'tono', once.
brother. ui'kots, one.
ne'u v . wife. n i k u ' t i q n 6 k , one thousand ; also
11 e w e' n e w a n , my heads. sometimes abbreviated in rapid
II i, my, our; before words begin- conversation 'nkut'wOk.
ning with a consonant. niku'tuwak', oue hundred.
ni v , four. niku'tuwiik' niisikt'a niko'-
ni' a nii n, Ave. tine', one hundred and one.
ni'aua'nano, five times. niku'tuwak' misik'ta n i -'
ni'ana'niwok, five hundred. shine', one hundred and two.
ni'anauiwok' misik'ta niko'- nikutwa'satii, six.
tine', five hundred and one. ni'kutwa'satahai'awik, sixth.
ni'anau, mita'ta, fifty; i. e., ni'kutwa'satii' mita'ta, sixty;
five times ten. six times ten.
ni'anau niita'ta niko'tine', ni'kutwa'satii mita'ta ni ko'-
lifty-one; i. e., five times ten and tine', sixty-one; i.e., six times
oue. ten and one.
niban', dead, deceased. ni'kutwa'satii nano, six times.
ni'bit, my tooth. ni'kutwa'satii uiwok', six hun-
ni'bfta, he is dead. dred.
ni'daiii'nini, I laugh. n i ' k u t w a ' s ii t a ' n i w o k m i s i k' t a
nidishi'e u nok, all brothers and niko'tine', six hundred and one.
sisters. niniii'nim, I am drinking.
n vi 'i n o , four times. nimiiq'sa, nimaq'so, my grand-
ni v'ino niita'ta, forty; i. e., four father.
times ten. nima'tseitam', I am roving.
ni"ino niita'ta niko'tine', forty- ni'me', elder sister—said by
one; i. e., four times ten, and one. younger brother.
nik, sunset. ni'me'minem, I vomit.
n i k a'd a m a't s c h i am , I am going. ii i ni i ' k i m , I give.
nikan'; j;/.,nika'ni, acolleague, niiui'tishim, I am eating.
or companion mita" or medicine n i' mot, my brother.
man ; a salutation employed by u ina", we; us; ourselves.
a member of the Mitii'wit when ni"'na, I; myself.
he enters and takes a seat. nina'bema'tesim, I live; I am
N i ' k a n i q ' s a k w a ' ft , " she-who- alive.*
leads;" a personal name. nina'minam', I shall driuk.
Xi'k finish', "foremost-man;" a n n an ai al ' ' w i k , fifth.
personal name. ni"'nanik, my house.
nikaq'tshikam, I run. ni "na'nitin, it is mine; lit., I,
nika'taminam, I want to drink. mine.
nika'tima'tshiam, 1 am going. ni'na'niti'nina, it is ours.
ni'ka'tima'tshiam waba', I ni'na"nomi, cough.
am going tomorrow. n i u e 'p n a m, I stand ; I am standing.
ni'ke'anka, I am born. ni ne'puam'inau, we are stand-
nike'sminiim, I did drink. ing.
ni'keth matshiam, I have gone. nino'kan, my hip.
ni"kio y, my mother. Nio'pet,"four-in-a-den;"personal
nikis', my son. name; name of the present chief
niko'shimaq', elder or younger of the Menomini, who is the son
sisters. aud successor of Osh'kosh.
;
HOFFMAN] MENOMINI-ENGLISH VOCABULARY 307
mpan/ moq ne'minau, we are ni'sino mita'ta sa'kiihiue',
walking. twenty-uiue; i. e., twice ten, and
nipe'she, lake; Shawa'no nipe'- nine.
sbev, Soutbern lake; a body of ni'sino mita'ta ssu'asik-
water in Wisconsin, hine', twenty-eight; i. e., twice
nipe v' ft , water, ten, and eight.
n vi p e ft * p a ' k o t e v' ft , spray ; from ni'sita a foot.,
niptnV, water, and pa'kote'uv ni'suwok, two hundred.
,
flying, ni'suwok misik'ta niko'tine',
nipi'bikem, 1 paddle, two hundred and one.
nipi'kike'inen'afr, we paddle. nit, my, our; before words begin-
nipi'minaq'kim, I twist. ning with a vowel and the aspi-
d ipi'o slikun, bullrusbes, used in rate h.
making mats. nita'nabaq'tan, my dream.
ni'pishkino'pik, water snake; nita'nuni'iV, my tongue.
from ni'pish, water, and kiuo'pik, nita'pinau', I caught him.
snake, ni'tshian, infant, male or female.
ni'pon, my arrow, nitshish 'kin v , enemy.
nipui'nama', brotber's sou, or ni'ft 1 , four; also pronounced ni T.
daughter. niwi'no, fourth.
n i q e , mother's brother—uncle niwiq'tiqtan, lean; lam able.'
also applied to male cousin—sis- ni'wok, four hundred.
ter's son. ni'wok misik'ta niko'tine',
nis, nish, two. four hundred and one.
Niset', corruption of Elizabeth; a Ni'yiitawa'pomi, "a conspicu-
proper name. ous or large person ; " a personal
nishi'menau'pihe'ke v we, two name.
paddle, 'nku'twok, one thousand; arare
n i s h i t ft a ' p i m i n a q ' k i t ft a ' ,they contraction of niku'tiqnok.
two twist, uo'kan, the hip.
ni'shiwok pikike'wok, they Noko'mis. the grandmother of
two paddle (dual form), mankind and of Ma'nabush and
ni'sino, twice. his brother Na'q'pote. The
ni'sino mita'ta, twenty; i. e., earth.
twice ten. noma'eu, sturgeon; Nonia'wiq-
ni'sino mita'ta na'nihine', kito, Sturgeon bay.
twenty-three ; i.e., twice ten, and nomiii', beaver.
three, nomiish', fish; also a personal
ni'sino mita'ta ni'ananhine', name.
twenty-five; i. e., twice ten, and Noqko'ina, grandmother; the
five, usual form is Noko'mis. This sig-
ni'sino mita'ta ni v 'hine', nifies also the earth, being per-
twenty-four; i. e., twice ten, and sonified as the mother of Ma'-
four, nabush, the mythic deity who
ni'sino mita'ta niko'tine', acted as intermediary between
twenty-one ; i. e., twice ten, and the Good Mystery and the In-
one. dians ; the founder of the Mita '-
ni'sino mita'ta ni'ku twa- wit, or Grand Medicine society.
satiihine', twenty-six; i. e., n o q n a ' s 5 k , my fathers.
twice ten, and six. noq'ue, my father.
ni'sino mita'ta ni'shine', noq'ne, father.
twenty-two ; i. e., twice ten, and noq'nenau, our fathers.
two. noq'sesP', grandson grand-
;
ni'sino mita'ta no'qwikan- daughter.
bine', twenty- seven ; i. e., twice noq'wikan, seven.
ten, and seven. noq'wikan hai'awik, seventh.
.
308 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [eth.ann. h
no'qwikati m ai t ' t a , seventy skin; from oiuas'kus,; antelope,
i. e., ten times seven. and so'kum. skin.
no'qwikan ta"niwok, seven omi' n ni'1 . wild pigeon.
hundred. on mot', belly—abdomen.
no'qwikan ta"niwok misi'- ona'ko, o n ii'ko', yesterday.
kta niko'tine, seven hundred o n ;i m'. a dog.
and one. o ua'miqk in. thunder.
no'q wikata'na'no, seven times. on ii'nekuot, sport; fun; amuse-
no'ten, wind pi., uotenau. ment.
;
nowii ', late. onii 'niu, to swim.
nowe'na, after a while; shortly. o p a i [ ' k w o n i ', his or her back.
nowe"uan, wind. o'paqni'se, a boy; youth.
o, his; their; before words begin- opaq'sus, a deer.
ning with a consonant. o p a ' s h e so'kum, buckskin
ok a' k op en a' k a n . basket, made opash'koshi, turkey buzzard;
of thin splints of wood. also a gens of the Big Thunder
Ok an 'to, "boat paddle;" a town phratry.
in Wisconsin—Oconto. opi'kishikav
, one who dries the
o'kapu'owe, the hazel; con- drum head by holding it toward
tracted to kwapu'owe. the fire.
ok a 'san an', her vulva. opi'shiu v black.,
oka 'skiman 1', kingfisher. opi'wlkan, a bone with a hole
oka'wa, pike, a fish; Ogaq'kane, through which fibers are drawn
the "place of pike;" the name for smoothing.
for a town in Wisconsin, named oqkat', his or her leg.
Kaukau'na. oqko'man, oq ko'inon, iron.
o'kawa'siku, coot; alsoa gens of oq'nan, his father; oq'nanan,
the Crane phratry. his fathers.
O'kemawa'peshi u v " chief-of- oqpan', potato; pi., oqpii'niok.,
the-swaus;" a personal name. oqpe'ta wok, oqpe"tawok, the
o'kian, his mother. fliers; a term applied to the va-
O'kimash, "younger-chief;" rious birds composinga the so-
personal name.
called thunderers, or the Big
Thunder
oki"san, phratry, i.e., the eagles,his or her sou. hawks, etc.
o'kitshiwa'no, "ou-t he-sum- oqpu'akan, pipe; nit oqpu'akan,
mit;" a personal name. my pipe.
o ki'tt v , can ; able ; to be able. o q t ' aq kwa n , a limb of a tree.
oko'qtaka'ni, by the throat. oqta'tisie'fr, to be born.
oko'qtaka'ni nita'pi u uau', I os, the radical of the designation
caught him by the throat. father, though usually combined
o'k'sbnsli. o"sass muskrat ; the in conversation with the pro-
younger brother to the beaver, noun, as no'sa—my father, etc.
and a sub-pbratry of the Bear osain', "it to be;" it is; state of
phratry. being.
okwe'mau, chief; council chief; o'sass, o'k'shosh, muskrat; the
leader; a personal name; old name also of a subphratry of the
chief, Sheka'tshokwe'mau. Bear phratry.
oiiiii ''uomi'ue'u' , Menomini; O s a ' w ap an o q ' k i u ", " the-green-
]>!.. omii'iiominewok', from mii- ish-tint-seen-at-early-daybreak.''
no'me, rice, and inii'niir, man. The name of a mythical female
omiis'kos, the elk; one of the who dwelt in the north, and who
younger brothers of the Big- was visited by Ma'nabiish while
Thunder gens and phratry, and he was yet aruoug the Indians.
also the water carrier. This woman was the wife of
onias'kus so'kum, antelope Pas'kine'iY.
:; .
HOFFMAN] MENOMINI-ENGLISH VOCABULARY 309
osa'wa shu'nien, gold; from 1 1 a ' k a h e ' k a u a k , sticks used by
waisa'wik, yellow, and shu'nien singers to keep time to the ren-
or ssu'nien, metal, money, dering of chants or songs: liter-
ose'kan, grass. ally, singing sticks.
ose'kan kino'pik, small green paka'nawe', butternut tree; the
grass snake, common in temper wood preferred for dugout cai i or s
ate climate, pakaq' tshikii 'sii , hammer.
osc'peo'me, his creek, or small pakash'tshekeii v swift-flying
,
stream ; from reference to the hawk; also a gens of the Big
original birthplace of the wolf, Thunder phratry.
i. e., moqwai'o, wolf, and osc'pe- pa'kote'fr, flying; nipe'iYpa'-
o'me, his creek. kote'fr, lit., water flying; spray.
osha'shishin', he or she slipped. Pame"uet, "flying-by;"' a per-
osha'shishi'nok, they slipped. sonal name.
osha'win, yellow. P a ' m i k i ' s h I k o k , ' • scattering-
oshi'kan, hips; pelvis. clouds;'' a personal name.
oshke'ina'niiV, young man; pa'niq, boy.
youth; from oske' or oshke', p ap eq ' t s in an, fall, drop, tumble.
young, and inii'nifr, man. paq'kewo'po, lye obtained from
<>''sh'ko"sh, "claws;" Osh'kosh, wood ashes and used in making
late chief of the Menomini In- solution in which to boil fibers,
dians. such as basswood bark, etc,
0'shona'muni'qkiii v " vermi 1- for making, cord or thread.
ion-woman;" a personal name. paq'ki, ashes.
oske', young; new. piiq ki'iiishe'cke'iV, flour; lit.,
oske' ge'so, young sun, new sun: pulverized like ashes; from
after daybreak. paq'ki, ashes, and neshe'ekeir,
oske'inaniu v youngman youth like, similar to.
, ;
from oske', young, and inii'nifr, paqki'shitan. bread.
man. paqki'sikan, wheat; flour.
o s ' k i in a ' m o s h i w e ', to copulate paqte'tshugan, "fighting medi-
original form of word found cine;" a substance given by
throughout northwestern and Ma'nabush to one of the ten who
prairie tribes, mosh'ewe. came for gifts.
o s a' k i in i t ' m u young woman "; a P ii s a ' n a q k w a t u q ' k I u , the-
,
maiden; from os'ki, young, and touching-clouds;" a personal
mita'mu, woman. name.
os'kinii 'ni, to kill. pasa'noqkiwok, they must
os'kina'niir , young man; from work.
oske', young, and ina'nifr, man. P a ' s h a a n o ' q k I u , " the-yellow-
o' ski 'nip a, to die. streak-of-vapor-seen-a t - e a r 1 y-
o s ' s e , a species of duck called the dawn." The name of a mythic
" old squaw ; " also a gens of the female who dwelt in the north,
Crane phratry. and who was visited by Ma'na-
ot, his; their; before words begin- bush, while the latter was still
ning with a vowel and aspirate h. among the Indians.
otii'tshia, the crane; a gens of Pashana'niuqkirr, "the bird's-
the Crane phratry. tail-touching;" a personal name.
oti'nopi'ane, stern, of boat. pa'siku'gasi men o 'ma, oats;
otoq'kanimau, amulet: cliarm. lit., horse rice, from pa'siku'giisi,
otshi'tan, sinews. horse, and meno'nia, rice.
otshi'anino'ko, bow, of canoe. pa' si wok, to dry, by hanging up
otsi'pe, stump of tree; also ap- to dry.
plied to a root. paskwo'hekan , wooden scraper
owa'otin, whose is it? used in dressing the soaked aud
owa'qse, owa'sse, a bear. stretched deerskin.
310 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [ETH. ANN. 14
paskwo'liiki', to scrape with a p i ' li i k e ' n u n you (thou paddle., )
short scraper on a board, as when pi'hikewok, they paddle.
dressing deerskin. pi'kuaha, to tan.
p a w a ' h i k a ' n a . "the place where p i ' k ft ih ip a' sh a, tanned buck-
rice is knocked out" (of the ear). skin.
pawa'qikan, stick for beating p i ' k w o h e ' k o, to scrape, in an up-
rice from the stalk; ph. pawa'- right manner, as when dressing
qikanan. deerskin.
p a w a ' q i k a n a q ' 1 1 k , threshing pi'minaq'kinun, thou twist-
stick, used in beating rice from eth.
the hull. pi'mina q 'k 6, he twists.
pe', the time; the period. pi'minaq'kowok, you or they
pe'ctcii 1 froth. twist.
,
pe'ita, foam. pi'minaq'kwan, twine, either of
p e k a ' k a n 8 k , ribs of canoe. the stores or of domestic manu-
p e ' k i k e ' k u ' n e , a species of hawk facture. The Indians employ the
that remains in Wisconsin dur- bark of the basswood for twine
ing the winter; also a gens of used in making mats, and also
the Big Thunder phratry. the wild hemp, sha'nap, and the
pe'kftskok, to break up—as ice nettle, inashan'.
on a river. piinoq'ne, he or she is walk-
pe'kwahe'kau, woodeu scraper ing.
used in dressing the soaked and p i'napis hk o ' shina, come and
stretched skin of deer. eat me ; the words used by Ma'nii-
pe'mika'mik, sweat-lodge; sud- busli to the water monster when
atory. hecalled the latter to destroy him.
pe'min, sweat-bath; Ojibwa. pinaq'kftan, comb.
mido'dowi'win. pina'shi', pina'shiu, bald eagle;
pemo'"non, walk; locomotion. also a gens of the Big Thunder
pemo'tsiken, shoot, (generic). phratry.
pe'niki'konau, fish-hawk; also pina'ssi, o'shet, "eagle-leg," a
a gens of the Eagle phratry. prairie plant having yellow flow-
pepa'kan, it is thin. ers, used as a medicine.
pe'pon, year; winter. p i ' o t , to come or arrive at a place.
pgqkiu'", they do. pipo'nii'ne' ', sparrow-hawk,
peqtshcnama'wan, mitii' v bag, Falco sparverius ; also a personal
or sack used by a medicine man name.
in which to carry sacred objects. piq'kiman a'ruoqtaq'tlk, pur-
peq'tshi kfin'a, medicine bag; ple color; from piq'kiman, pre-
a pouch made of the skin of an serve, and a'moqtaq'tik, dye.^
animal, a bird, or even a bear's piq'tanwan, quiver, for arrows.
paw or a snake skin, in which pisaq 'kiu v , cattle.
are carried the sacred objects of pise'u", pishe'u, panther (Felts
a medicine man. concolor).
peske', pise'uv pishe'u, panther; P vi ' s h ii q k ii ' u q k I ft ", cattle-,
Fells concolor. woman;" a personal name.
peswa'ba, dawn. Pi'ta'nowe, " approaching day-
P e " t a ft ' mi t ii 'mo, " bird-wom- light;" a personal name.
an;" a personal name. Pi'taqka'mikuq'kift, " that-
pe'tshikoma'kan, snuff. which-grows ; " a personal name.
pe'wona'skin, reeds; aquatic Pit waia'qkum, "coming sound;"
plants. a personal name.
pi', to paddle. P i 't w ii ' k e s h i d - ", coming-noisi-
pi'etiit, arrive at or reach a place. ly;" a personal name.
pi'hikekft'ua, ye (pi.) paddle. P i t w ii s h ' k u m , " coming- with-a-
pi'hikem, he paddles. sound;" a personal name.
' ;
MENOMIXI-ENGLISH VOCABULARY 311
piwat' inot, beaver; also a gens wrapped in pieces of birchbark
of the Big Thunder phratry. and served to friends and visitors.
Former or archaic name, nomiii'. shake'buqtam', to bite (general
poka'qtshi'ki, the duck hawk, term).
literally "the hitter," because of s h a k ' s h ak ' e u great blue heron
,
his rapid flight in descent when also a gens of the Crane phratry.
after quarry. sh ii ' n a p , wild hemp. This plant
poniq'kotan, frost. grows at times to the height of
pono'e, winter. five feet, and is used by the In-
posi'pahatu'a, to thrust with a dians for making thread, the liber
weapon or pole. being long and durable.
p o ' s i t u ' a ', to get in or gain access shawai'niqtu'um, bless us;
to. have mercy on us.
psha'kiwas, plants of which a Sha'wana ke'zhik, "southern-
decoction is rubbed on the legs sky;" a personal name.
by players in athletic games. sha' wa'nani, fork-tail hawk;
sagi'si v surprise; to be startled. also a gens of the Big Thunder
,
sa"Ie, now. phratry.
saiyi'kwakin', in the spring (of shawa'ne me'aq, have mercy
the year). on us.
sa'kii, nine. shawa' no'nan, south wind; from
sa'kahai'awik, ninth. sha'wano, south, and nowe"nan,
sa'kii mita'ta, ninety; i. e., nine wind.
times ten. Shawaq'ka, "yellow-wings;" a
sa'kii mita'ta ni k o't in e', ninety- personal name.
one; i. e., nine times ten, and shawii'shiqtshi kan', mercy.
one. shawas'ket, an aquatic plant,
sa'kii mita'ta sa'kakine', used for medicine.
ninety-nine; i. e., nine times ten, sheko', weasel.
and nine. sheshi'kima,', hard maple; Acer
sa'kata"nano, nine times. .saccharin urn, the sap of which is
sa'kii ta'ni wok, nine hundred. boiled for making sugar.
sa'kii ta'ui wok' misik'ta niko'- s h e ' w a k a m v1 1 ii , sirup.
tine', nine hundred and one. she'wan, sweet.
saq'ke, mink. she'weqnen, sour.
sii <| kom', saliva. she'weqtii'ken, salt; "sour and
sa'wana'nan, south wind. sweet."
sawii'newe'aq, have mercy onus. she'weta'kan, salt.
sawa'no, south; also ssa'wa'no, she'weta'kan kaq'kop, salted
and sha'wano. string; used in baiting rabbit
sg'ko, weasel. traps.
se'pe, river; Mi'nika'ni se'pe,Me- she'weta'kan ni'ap, string of
nomini river. salt; a continuous cluster of salt
seqkum', saliva. crystals.
se'wan, sweet. S h i a w ii q k I ii "' , bend - i n - the'
se'weqnan, sour. river;" a personal name.
Sha'batis', corruption of Bap- shikak', skunk; Shika'kang, the
tiste (French); a personal name. place of the skunk, the original
S h ii b o i ' 1 6 k , "penetrating- form of the word Chicago. See
sound;" a personal name. shika'ko.
S h a k a ' n a q k w o d ' ", peeping- Shika'kang, "the place of
cloud;" a personal name. skunks," from shika'k skunk,
shaka'shita\wax sugar; maple and ang, the locative suttix.
sugar in a waxy form, made by Shikak', by Potawatomi, Fox
throwing the boiling sirup upon and Kikapu; also, Skikagung,
the snow. When cool, it is by Ojibwa.
. ; .
312 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [ETH. ANN. 14
shika'ko, shika'go, skunk, Me- ssu'asik, eight.
pit if is nieph iiica. The original of ssu'asik hai'anik, eighth.
the name Chicago; sometimes ssu'asik mita'ta, eighty; i. e.,
pronounced also shi'giigo, the g eight times ten.
being rather unusual, though it ssu'asik mita'ta niko'tine',
occurs in the Ojibwa form shiga'- eighty-one; i. e., eight times ten,
giing, the place of skunks, gung and one.
being a locative suffix. In Otta- ssu'asik ta''nano, eight times.
wa the word is shikag'unk, urik ssu'asik ta'niwok', eight hun-
being the locative. dred.
skike'me. Hell-diver, a wading ssu'asik ta'niwok' misik'ta
bird of the genus Fulica. niko'tine', eight hundred and
shikin', urine. one.
shi'pi, a river. su'baisiok, wood-duck; pi., su'-
s k i p i ' a s h o ' p o m ii q ' 1 1 k, soft baisiokok.
maple ; from shi'pi, a river til, that.
sho'poma, sugar, and iiq'tik, a ta"ape, when.
tree. ta"ape misik' api'ian, when
sho'kum, hide or skin, as of an are you coming again?
animal; as abii 'shush sho'kum, Ta'kizhikoqk', "day-woman;" a
deerskin. personal name.
Sho'mln, "raisin;" a personal tako'sawoss, "the powder that
name. causes people to love one an-
sho'poma, sugar, of any variety. other," love powder. Prepared
sbo'pomakwopo'. sugar juice from vermilion, scales of mica,
or sap. and menstrual blood of a virgin,
sho'poqta, sucking, or tasting. ground together, and secreted
Shu'ni'en, Ssu'nien, money; a about the person whose affection
personal name. is desired. It is put in a thimble,
sik'si'kwan, a fiat drum, or tam- with some article like a hair or
bourine, used by the jugglers, or piece of clothing belonging to
tshi'saqka, during the period of the one whose love is desired,
in vocation and chanting. It con- and carried by the person oper-
sists of a wooden band, covered ating. Cf. wiq'kiqpi'nakan.
with buckskin, or parjieche, and t ii ' k w ;'i k w o ' a , autumn
is beaten with a light drumstick, tamo 1", a gray squirrel; also the
consisting of a stick, from 15 to proper name of a woman.
20 inches long, with a ball of ta"naga, where.
buckskin secured at the farther taui'nakua'na, certainly; re-
end. sponse to a question.
sina'wiita, "rattling tail," i, e., ti'i n i ne'ii", every.
rattlesnake, Grotalus horridus. ta'no"ka, where.
skita', to be born. ta'nokkaiis' oqta'tisi'au,
s o k 'a n a n u v' ' i , soon where were you born f
so'kum, skin, of an animal. ta"nuna'gau, a trap; me'tik
xsa'sowi kino'pik, garter ta"nunagan, "stick trap," for
snake; from ssa'sowi, olive col- catching small game generally;
ored, and kino'pik, snake. wabfis' ta"nuna'gan, " rabbit
ssik A k '. iS'ee sbfkak'. trail."
ssisi'kwan, rattle, of gourd or t ii > ii ' n i m e n a q , our master.i
tin, used in ceremonial dances as taq nii 'no we'iak, everybody.
anaccompaniment to singingand tn ' t sh i k;i q u n', tattoo marks.
drumming. The contents usual- tawa'hiqkan, a tambourine
ly consist of grains of corn, or drum used in social dancing.
gravel. tawaq'ikan, a drum, of any de-
sso'poma , sugar. scription: particularly a drum of
MENOMINI-ENGLISH VOCABULARY 313
three pieces employed by drum- tshiq'kwan, meteor.
mers of the Dreamer society. tshi'saqka, a juggler; one who
ta'waq'ka, drum used in cere- foretells, and gives remedies for
monies of the Grand Medicine various diseases caused by invis-
society. It consists of a piece ible beings or evil ma'nidos.
of wood hollowed out of a piece tshi'saqkan, a juggler's operat-
of tree trunk, about 15 or 18 ing wigwam, made by erecting
inches high and from 8 to 10 four poles at equal distances,
inchesin diameter, having a head north, south, east, and west.
of buckskin and a bottom of wood. They are then wrapped about
Water is put into it to the depth with bark, blankets, or skins.
of 2 or 3 inches, giving the drum The juggler enters and invokes
greater intensity of sound, which the turtle ma'nido to bring him
maybe heard several miles away other ma'nidos to consult regard-
on a quiet night. ing prophecies or to answer ques-
t a ' w a q ' k a ' k w a n ii ' 1 1 k , drum- tions put by visiting Indians.
stick; from tawii'qkwa, drum, uke'souno'me, crown of the
and aq'tlk, stick or wood. head.
te', at that place, that, there. u'kiqk aq'tlk, the jack pine, the
temi'u, it is deep—speaking of a roots of which are sometimes
river or a well. split into threads for sewing
tepa'ke'so, moon; lit., last-night together pieces of birch or other
sun. bark, when making canoes or
te p a' qkanokawin judgment. building bark huts.,
tipiiq', night. uma'nui, cheek.
titaq'biiV, bitter. umu'ne", toothache worm; when
tobaq', night. pain Occurs in thejoints, or teeth,
tobaq'ke'so, the moon; from it is believed to be caused by a
tobaq', night, and ke'so. sun. small worm.
toto'ba, the saw-whet owl. u n a ' w a nink ', pine squirrel ; also
towaq'ka. <SVe ta'waq'ka. a gens of the Big Thunder
tshe'kaba'wa'san, the name of phratry.
a bowlder of pink granite, on u n nii', his or her arm.
Wolf river, where the Meuom- u n n;iq', hand.
ini deposit tobacco as an offering u " n ii q ' k e q ' s a n , finger — little
to the Great Mystery; formerly hand, from u"naq', hand, and
an Indian, but was transformed keq'san, little.
by Ma'niibush, because he u n niiq'keq'si, his or her lingers.
wanted everlasting life, which, u"n;iq'ki, his or her hand.
as a rock, he is supposed to una'tawa'pi n , lightning.
possess. unawa'nik, squirrel.
"tshi'anisikan, a yellow flower uni'tipaqkot, night.
resembling the aster, dried and uqpa'niu v his or her chest.
,
powdered. It is then used as a uq 'puokan, pipe.
snuff for colds, etc. uq'puokan ina'niiV , the "pipe
tshi k ' t shit6m , "water side," i.e., man," the attendant to the musi-
shore. cians of the Dreamer society.
Tshikwa'set, " the-sound-of-the- wii, what!
thiinder;'' a personal name. w a b a , tomorrow.
'
tshi'pate'ir, it is protruding, as wa'bakine'u", "white-eagle;" a
from the ground like a- twig; it personal name.
is standing, like a post. waban', dawn; daylight.
tshipe'kaino 1 ghost feast; a Wa'bashiiiu", " white dressed-
,
ceremony of the Grand Medicine skin;" a personal name.
society observed before the rit- waba'shiu, marten; also,agens
ual of initiation begins. of the Moose phratry.
. ;
314 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [ET1I. ANN. 14
Wa'batshi'kl, "white-fisher;" W a sail w ta ••red-mouth ;"«i i ' i ' ,
personal name. the name of a mythic dog belong-
wa'beno, a terrain class of mys- ing to Mii'nabiish, the hero god of
tery men who profess prophecy, the Menomini.
prescribe medicinal prepara- waisawik, yellow.
tions, and, more particularly, W ai ' s h i k w o n t ";'i ', t ail of-the-
make and dispose of love pow- great-fish;" a personal name.
ders and hunting medicines. wa i we'pisiiV, he is in a hurry.
Wabenona'sle, "Mystery of the W a a e qi y ' w ' s a ' k a , " he-who-is-
dawn ;" a deity. powerful;" a personal name,
wa'benoqki", wa'beno woman. waka'mlu, clear, transparent, as
wa ' be notow a,q ' k a , wa'beno water.
drum, shaped 1like a tambourine Wa'ketshan, ''hunchback; ' a
and used during incantations. personal name.
The stick is thin and elastic, wii'ki, what?
about 20 inches long, and lias a waki v/ , crooked.
small ball of buckskin attached wakiT 'nin, crooked river.
to the beating end. wa'ko, red fox.
w a ' b e n un a ' q s i w 8 k , eastern W ' v';i m ii q t i k o s i u , French
people, people of the dawn; Frenchman.
mythologic. wana'ga, outer bark, of tree.
w a b v vi s h ' k i ti w a b i s ' k I fi Ww an a ' k e , bark of a tree., ,white, or natural color of a ' n a q k o " s h e , " little-apes ; " a
bleached rush leaves for making personal name.
mats. wani'tipiiq'ka, night.
wa'bitetshi'o, whitecrane; was w a p ii q ' s e , marten
in myth originally a bear. wa'pemin, grain of corn; pi.,
wabo'ian, blanket. wa'pemi'nok.
waboq', tomorrow. wa'sa, far, distant, The Menom-
waboqpiin', swamp potato; a tu- ini name for Wausau, a town in
berousrootfound in moist places, Wisconsin.
and eaten by the Indians. The waseq'se, catfish.
word comes from wabish'kiu v , wasi'huan, paint.
white, and oqpiin', potato. watab', running or extending
wabu'j broth; tea; juice; usually under the surface of the ground,
applied to infusions and decoc- as roots of trees, when used for
tious,with specific determinative making thread for sewing.
prefixed, as mashkiq'knT wabu' w ata'boqp ii n ', a tape-1 i ke tuber-—medicine broth or tea, i. e., a ous root, of yellowish color, used
liquid remedy. for food. It is boiled like pota-
wabu s', jack-rabbit or hare of the toes.
northwestern states. wa'tane'ken, it is round.
wagaq'koman, a draw-knife, wa'tap, alder: /*/., wa'tapen
used in smoothing split wood in wato', ball.
basket-making, and for other watuq'siu, live coals.
purposes in woodworking. wawiaq'pitan, an eddy, in a
wa i a'biskik, white. water course.
waia'biskik ssu'nien, silver; we'bit, his or her tooth.
from waia'biskik, white, and we"eton, bud, of tree.
ssu'nien (or shu'nieu), money, we'iak, somebody.
metal. we' iwi ' k ek o q's em i q ' e g an,
waies'kisi'nit, the good, refer- "old women's path"—the rain-
ring to persons of superior moral bow.
traits. wek, his house.
Waima"tekit', "with bow-and- we'ki wain, house.
arrow, '" a personal name. we'kop, basswood bark; obtained
.
HOFFMAN] MENOMINI-ENGLISH VOCABULARY 315
from the young sprouts and used logs, bark, or other material; a
in mat making. variant of wig'iwam.
we'kowan, their house. w i ' n a q , w i n e ' , his.
we'iuwjh, his; theirs. wine 'o tin, it is his; response to
we'nauan, man's hair. question, but if simple affirma-
we' n ok, his penis. tion the word is inO'otin.
we'owi'kii, old woman. wi'nua, they; them.
w ep en a ' a t ii , soot \vinu"ati'nuwau', it is theirs.
we'pots, early. wi'oqku'an, hat, head-covering.
weq'ke, sweet flag; calamus; a Wios'kasit, "the-good-one;"' a
plant of the genus Acorus; the personal name.
root is chewed for a cold, cough, wiq'kiqpinakan, small bundle
or sore throat. of medicine carried in a thimble,
wes, his head. which is suspended from a rib-
We "skint"' 'iV, the chief of the bon and worn under the clothing
kine'fr or eagles; a mythic per- or about the neck. The "love-
sonage who had combat with the medicine'' takos'woss is worn in
chief of the owii'sse, bears, over this manner, together with a
possession of fishing grounds. hair, fingernail paring, or a frag-
we'sokan, pungent; peppery. ment of clothing, from the person
we' sup, gall; bile. The owii'sse whose affection is denied.
we'sup, or bear's gall, is used to wiq'tiqtau, to be able.
transfer to an enemy a worm w i s a ' w a s k I k green.
' ,
that is supposed ultimately to W i s h a ' n o q k w o t. "dense-cloud ;''
kill him or her. a personal name.
we' wan, his wife. W ishi' wiiii'% " going-for-some-
we' win, bow of horn. body ; " a personal name.
w i -' d i s h i ' a n ii n , w i ' d.i s li i " a wi'ski v good.
,
nun, a phratry or brotherhood, wop j bowl.
consisting of a certain number w o t a p , fi r tree, the roots of which
'
of gentes or clans. are split into threads for sewing
wi'gi, birchbark. together the pieces of birchbark
wi'ki, bark. See we'kop. in making canoes.
wi'ki hosh', bark boat; from wu'tshik, wtitsik', the fisher;
wi'ki, bark. also a gens of the Moose phratry.
wik'iop, a habitation of bark, yom, this, applied to inanimate
brush, or wood. It is a corrup- things.
tion of wiko'mik, which in turn yoq'p-e, now.
comes from wigi'wam (wigwam). y o q ' p e o s k e ' s i k o q y u in k e ' s i -,
wiko'mik, a habitation made of ko t, today.
ENGL1SH-1IENOMINI
abdomen, onmot' ; omo'te; his greeting, and signifies "that is
abdomen, mi mot', correct;" "that is it;" "it is
able, to be, oki'iV; wiq'tiqtau; I well."
am able, niwiq'tiqtan. fraid, ko'atan.
access, to gain, po'sitii'a'. fter, kes; kesh.
acorn, nia'tekouiin pi., lnii'teko'- fternoon, kaie'sani
; ne'aw'aq'-
mman. kik» from kaie'sani, later than,
across, aka'mia; on the other side and ne'awiiq'kik, noon,
of the road, a'sawiq'kana. gain, inisik'.
act, to, a'seata'a. ged, kitshki'fr; sheka'tshau;
affirmation, hau'ka; e"'; the oka'tshau.
former being employed as a Ider, wa'tap; pi., wa'tapen.
response to a salutation or like, hishe'ekefr.
316 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [ETH. ANN". H
alive, I am alive : nina'bema'te- also, owfiq'se. The Ojibwa word
sim. is noq'ke.
all, mawau'. beaver, nomiii'; piwat'inot.
am ulo t , otoq'kanimau. bee, iimak'; })l., amo'ak. .
amusement, onii'nekuot. before, kenau'meqtshi'u.
and, him'. being, state of, osam'; it to be;
angle, asji'niman; a'sa'ni'wan. it is.
animals, inona'toak. belly, o"mot' omo'te; his belly,
ankle, mepiiq' kiq kwana'gan. mimof.
antelope, omaskus. belt (ofwool),maq'kwA/nSp; used
anterior, kanau'meqtshiiY. as a sash by men.
apple, me"simin;2»Z.,me"siminSk. belt (of skin), baku'oqta'.
arm, right, mi'tiini'nien; his or berry, men'; pi., me"'n;iu.
her arm, unna'. bile, we'sup; miqkon'.
arm, right (above elbow), miqt- birchbark, wi'gi; wi'ki.
she'wiiwok. bite, to, shake'buqtam'.
armpit, minaq'ki. bitter, titaq'bi'u v .
arrive, to, pi'ot; i. e., to arrive at black, ape'sen; abi'sik; iipi'sik;
a specified place. opishhV.
arrive at, to, pi'etat. black oak, aTie'pakaku'aqtlk.
arrow, mep; my arrow, ni'pon. The bark is crushed and a decoc-
arrow drawer, akui'kikav , a man tion of it used for sore eyes,
who is possessed of the power bladder, mis'iigini'wi.
of withdrawing magic and in- blanket, wabo'ian.
visible arrows shot by rival bless us, shawai'niqtu'um.
shamans. blood, maqki'.
ascend, a stream, ke'nuna'ha. blue, ke'shik; ke'sik; blue color,
ash, black, ne'paqaqkwag'tik. ke'slkhasi'uakuo.
ashes, biiqki'; paq'ki, boat. See canoe,
at, ine". body, me'hv.
autumn, ta'kwakwo'a. bone, perforated, opi'wikan; a
ax, mana'ba. bone with a hole through which
bachelor, old, mu'sapa'fr. fibers are passed in making cord
back, his or her, opiiq'kwoni'. and thread,
badger, mii"nakua. book, ma'shena'qekan'.
bag, na'nokupaq'kwe, for carrying born, to be, oqta'tisie'fr; skita';
small household articles; also a I am born, nike'anka.
traveling bag. bow, wop; wooden bow, ma'atik-
bag, medicine, peqtshenaina'- wop.
wan; Ottawa, pin'dziqusan'. bow (of boat), otshi'aniiK'i'ko.
bag, rice, mi'niuli'sen. bow (of horn), we' win.
ball, wato'; ha"ni', usually made bowl, wo]>; onagan; wooden
of buckskin and stuffed with bowl, ma'iitlk onagan, nsed in
deer's hair. playing the game of aka'qsi-
bark (of tree), wana'ke; wana'qa ; wok.
bark (for mats) we'kop. bowl, woo d e n , ma'ti kwop ; from
bark boat, wi'kihosh'. ma'tik, wood, and wop, bowl.
basket, oka'kopena'kan; basket bowstring, mima'ttkwok; mi-
made of elm splints. ma'atikwok.
baton, pa'kahe'kanak; sticky used box, sugar, maq'kak'.
by singers in keeping time as if boy, pa'niq; o'paqni'se.
striking an imaginary drum. brain, mima'nita.
bead belt, ma'kese'sapakwa'tii. brave, a, nii'nauwe'qta.
bear, owa'sse; the word employed bread, paqki'shitan.
for bear in mythic tales and break up, to, pe'kuskok, to break
the Grand Medicine ritual is na- up, as the ice on a river,
noq'ke. Sometimes pronounced. breast, female, mi'nonagan.
. —
HOFFMAN] ENGLISH-MENOMINI VOCABULARY (17
broth, wabu'. "the place of the skunk," or, as
brotber, ni'mot (my bro—ther); it is usually designated, "skuukelder brotber, na'enii said village." By the Potawatomi,
by younger brotber. Younger Sac and Fox, and Kikapu it is
brother, naq'se; elder or younger termed Shikak'. A Potawatomi
brothers, ne'miitok ; eldest broth- woman, Kizhko'kwe (Day Wo-
er, matsheq'kewis; brothers, ni man), says that her uncle 3uk-
dish'e"n6k. nak (Blackbird) used to trade at
brotherhood, wi'dishi'anun the post where the city of Chi-
brother-in-law, ne"tau; maybe cago now stands, and that one
either sister's husband or wife's day he and others saw a skunk
brothei'. trying to cross the river by swim-
b u c kskin, abaq'soso'kum. ming, but as the animal reached
bu ck skin (tan n ed pi'kuihipa'- the middle it sank and drowned.
) ,
sha. From this circumstance, says
bud, we"eton. Kizhko'kwe, the Indians always
buffalo, masko'tiapisaq'kiuv ; i.e., spoke of this locality as Shikak',
prairie cattle. it being a point where many
bullet, hanni'. gathered at stated intervals
bullrusb.es, nipi'oshkun. to trade and to receive goods.
bull snake, na'tuwc'. Cadillac says Chicagou was a
butternut, tree, paka'nawe'; post in 1683-1695, and remarks:
wood preferred in making dug- "Le mot signitte la Riviere de
out canoes. Vail, a cause qu'elle en prodnit
cake sugar, bakwa'tene'kan; naturellement sans aucun soiu
maple sugar molded in the shape une ties- grande q uantite. II y a
of small cakes; served to visitors la le village des Miamis, qui sont
and friends, and also deposited des gens fort bieu faits; ils sont
in grave boxes of friends and re- bons guerriers et extremement
lations as au offering. alertes. Ce sont de vrais et vexi-
calamus, weq'ke. tables levriers."
call, a, hobo'. chief, okwe'mau;old chief, sheka'-
canoe, me'tiko'ne ; bark canoe, tsho kwe'mau; war chief, na.'no-
wi'kibosh; dugout canoe, nia'- weq'tau.
tehosb. chin, mitaq'piqkan ; miqtaq'pe-
cap for head, wi'oqku'an. gan.
carrier, naioq'ta. city, mi'nikan'; in the city, mi'ni-
catfish, wiiseq'se. ka'ni.
cattle, pisaq'kiu". claws, u o"sh'ko"sh';" the inter-
cellar, ana'maqkl'u* ; ana'- pretation of the word Osh'kosh.
maqki'u 1 . clear, waka'miu.
certainly, tani'nakua'na. cloud, a'naqkwot; pi., a'naqkwo'-
charm, otoq'kaniman. tan.
cheek, uma/nul. club, war, mita'gos.
chest (breast), his or her chest, clubbed, ke'papa'kamau', i. e.,
uqpa'niu'. clubbed with a stick, or with the
Chicago. From a Menomini fists.
word, shika'ko or shika'go coals, (live) watu'qsiu.
skunk. In the Ottawa language, colleague, nikan'; pi., nika'ni;
Shika'gunk has the suffix unkm term applied by medicine men to
a locative, and signifies the all others present within the cere-
place of the skunk, or skunks. monial structure.
In Ojibwa the word is Shiga'- color, the terminal inseparable,
gung, the g commonly replacing ik, is employed when speaking
the k of the Menomini, to which of and designating colors; hasi'-
is added the suffix ung as a loca- nakuS.
tive, thus making it, as before, comb, piua'q'kuan.
;
318 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [ETH. ANN. 14
come, pi'ot; after they have come, die, to, o'ski'nipa.
kespi'ato. dish, ona'qan; wop.
coot, skike'me; o'kawa'siku. dish, medicine, mitaona'qan.
copulate, os'kiina'moshiwe'. distant, wa'sa.
corn (grain), wa'pemin; pi., wa'pe- dive, to, koke'an.
minSk. do, to, a'seata'a; they do,peqkin'T.
corpse, kaiis'nebiik. dog, onam'.
cough, ]ii'na''uomi. dream, ena'baqtan; his dream,
con n c i 1 , ki'kituau' ; councillion.sc. ena'baqtam; my dream, nita'-
ki'kitii'wiko'mik— wiko'mik, a nabaq'tan.
house, from wig'iwam. drink, I am drinking, or, I drink,
counters, stick; ma/atiq; used ninaq'sa; I shall drink, ninanii-
in gaming. nam'.
crane, otii'tshia. drum, tawaq'ikan.
create, to; e'"toshea\vok. drum, medicine, mitii'to-
crooked, wakiv '; crooked river, waq'ka. Ottawa, aba'aua'kik,
wakiv'nin. both medicine and war drum;
crow, kaka'ke. from aba'an, a sacrifice or roast,
crown (of head), uke'souno'me'. and a'kik, a kettle,
cut, to ; kes'kanau, askikesh'ki- drum, tambourine, sik'si'-
saina'. kwan, used by wabe'no and by
dance, ne'moak. This word is gamblers. Ottawa, tewe"igan.
also applied to the Dreamer drumstick, tawaqka'kwana 'tik
society, usually called " the from ta'waqikan or to'waqkwa,
dance." It is claimed by some and niittk' or iiq'tik, i. e., drum,
backsliding medicine men that stick. Ottawa, tewe'egan'atik.
it is a new degree of the Mitii'- dry, to, pa'siwok.
wit given by the Great Being duck (old-squaw duck), os'se
to replace the preceding four wood-duck, su'baisiok; pi., su'-
degrees. baislokok.
daughter, mitan'; her daughter, duck-hawk, poka'qtshiki, "the
ota'nan. hitter."
dawn, waban'; peswa'ba. dugout (canoe), ma'tehosh.
day, ke'sikot; pi., ke'sikotun; two dusk, nani'takina'kua.
days, uiske'sikot. dwarf, awai'tokpa'niq, from awai-
daylight, pi'ta'nowe ; approach- tok, small, and pa'niq, boy.
ing daylight, waban'. dye, aniOq'taqtik.
dead, nepua'; niban'; he is dead, eagle, bald, piiia'shiu; pinii'ssi.
ni'bua or keshni'po; dressing eagle, golden, kiue'iV. Coming
the dead, inii'uetshi'pai. a mitii'" to the eagle, kiue'iV wai'deniit.
ceremouy pertaining to the Little-she-eagle, Ki'niki'sa.
Ghost society, or preliminary Eagle woman, Ki'niaqki'u.
to the Mita'wit ritualistic observ- eagle- leg (plant), pinii'ssi o'shet,
ances. a prairie plant, bearing yellow
death, nepan'. flowers, used as medicine,
deceased, niban'. eaglet, kene'shii; also ke'niaqk'i-
decoction, wabu'. san, from kine'ii', eagle, and ki'se,
deep, teini'u; deep, as a stream little,
or pond. ear, miqta'wok; miq'tawok; pi.,
deer, aba'shush; opashe'; opiiq'- miq'kawo'kun.
sus; buckskin, apiiq'so so'kum. early, we'jiots.
destroy, to, na'natua, by depriv- east, asmuq'kaha.
ing of life. eat, mi'tisim; mi'tishim; mitiq'-
devil, ma'tshe hawai'tok, from suon. I eat, or am eating, nimit-
ma'tshe, bad, and hawai'tok, iq'sim; minito'shin; thoueatest,
god. kimitiq'slm ; heeats,metshe'suoq,
; —;
HOFFMAN] ENGUSH-MENOMINI VOCABULARY 319
me'tshe'sho ; we eat, kiini'tskiqsi first, ai'awis; ai'awish.
you eat, mitshiq'sikun ; they eat, fish, nomiish'; fishes generically
metshe'sowok. and generally, kaiii'iioniek ko'sa.
eddy, wawiaq'pitan. fi s h - h a w k, pe'niki'konau.
eight, ssu'asik; eight times, ssu'- fisher, wu'tsbik; wutsik'.
asik ta"nano; eight hundred, five, ni'anan ; five times, ni'ana'-
ssu'asik ta'niwok ; eight hundred 11:1110 ; five hundred, ni'ana'ni-
aud one, ssu'asik ta'niwok mi- wok ; five hundred and one,
sik'ta niko'tine'. ui'ananiwok misikta niko'tine'.
eighteen, mita'ta ssu'asikhine'; flat, it is, napa'kiken.
i. e., ten and eight. fl o u r paqki'nisheT'keTr, literally,,
eighth, ssu'asik haia'nik. pulverized like ashes; frompiiq'-
eighty, ssu'asik mita'ta; eighty- ki, ashes, and nishe'Oke'ir, like,
one, ssu'asik mita'ta niko'tine'. similar to; also paqki'sikan
eleven, mita'ta niko'tine'; i. e., wheat, bread.
ten and one. flyer, oqpe"tav , one who is a mem-
elk, omas'kos. ber of the thunderers, i. e.,
elm, black, a'kemaq'tik. hawks, eagles, etc. pi., oqpe'ta-
;
enemy, lnitslies'kiir ; nitshi'kiir. wok.
enough, man at'. flying, p:1'kote'uv , e. g., spray
evening, niiq'ka. nipe'iT pa'kotei'r, "water fly-
every, tanine'fr. ing." Flying -by, Pame"net, a
everybody, taqnii'no we'iak. personal name.
eye, miqke'sik; mishke'sik; p>L, foam, pi"ita.
miqke'sikan; mishke'sikan. food, liietshim'.
eyebrow, miq 'kiqk wii'on. foot, miset'; my foot, ni'sitav .
face, muqke'sik; mishke'sik. footprint, misiiq'pa.
fall (down), papeq'tsiuan. forearm, left, mi'iiii'maqtshian'.
falling, babeq'tsiu. forearm, right, mi'naba'kan.
far, wa'sa. forehead, niiq'ka.
father, noq'ng. forenoon, mid, kana'maqtsiu;
feast, kainov/ ; as applied to cere- snawaq'kik.
monial of the Ghost society or forty, ni' v ino mita'ta; forty-one,
observances of preliminary cere- ni"ino mita'ta niko'tine'.
mony of the Mita'wit. fou r,ni'u v ;ui v/ four times,ui'wino;
;
fetish, otoq'kaniman. four hundred, ni'wok; four hun-
few, ma'nawats. dred and one, ui'wdk misik'ta
fiber, (made of bark), na'shipu't- niko'tine'.
shikan. fo u r t e e u , mita'ta ni'hine', ten aud
fifteen, mita'ta ni'auauhi'ne, i. e., four.
ten and five. fourth, niwi'no.
fifth, nl'nanaiawik. fox, red, wa'ko.
fifty, ni'anan mita'ta; fifty-one, French, Frenchman, Wa'niaq-
ni'anan mita'ta niko'tine'. tiko'sifr, Wa'miiq'tikosi'u'.
finger, mi'ne'nenii'tshiu; pi., fr i e 11 d , me'inot ; my friend, ne"at
mi'ne'nenii'tshinan. neat'.
finger, first, mi'tanoq'ikan. frost, kuniq'katan' ; poniq'kotan.
linger, little, niitaskuo'tsine. froth, pe'Steu*.
linger nail, iniskas'. fun, onii'nekuot.
fingers, unaq'keq'san, i. e., little gag (retch), mamii'tshoqki (to be
hand; his or her fingers, unaq'- sick).
keqsi'. gall, miqkon'; we'sup.
fir, wotap'. game, iikaq'siwok, played with
fire, esko'tii : pi., esko'tiin ; also eight pieces of deer-horn, four
e'shkota, as in Ojibwa. of which are colored. They are
. . ;
320 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [ETH. ANN. 14
shaken iu a wooden bowl, and the hasty, ne'qkoski'ane'fr.
result decided according to the hat. wi'oqkii'an.
number of white and colored sides hawk, chicken, me'shinika T 'ke.
uppermost. Also called akas'- hawk, duck, pokaq'tsbiki. "the
siamik. hitter."
garter-snake, ssa'sowi kino'pik; h a w k , fo r k - 1 a i 1 . Sec kite.
from ssa'sowi, olive colored, and hawk, red-tail, maq'kwokani:
kino'pik, snake. ma'qkuana'ni ; Buteo boreal is.
German, Ane'mau; pi., Ane'mau- hawk, sharp- shin, kise'wato'-
wok sse.
ghost, tskipai'; tshipe'; ghost hawk, sparrow, pipo'na'uc 1 .
feast, tshipe' kaino". h azel, kwaY>u'owe; o'kapu'owe.
giant, ke'ne; ma'nabai; pi., he, ki.
lna'nabaiwok. head, mes; pi., uie'sun; bis head,
girl, kiqse'se. wes; man's head, imi'iiiiYwes.
give, to, me'keui ; to give to some- heart, mita'.
one else, meniiii ; I give, nimi'kiin heaven, ke'sekoq.
give to me, nime'iiekem. heel, miqka'an.
go, I am going, nika'tima'tshiam. hemp, wild, shii'nap; used for
god , wai'edok ; Hawa'tok ; Hawai'- making thread and cord.
et6k, the God of the whites, here, io's.
gold, osawa ssu'nien from waisa'- heron, great, shak'shak'cu.
wik, yellow, and ssu'nien or sku'- hide (of an animal), sho'kum; so'-
nien, metal, money, kum.
gone, tbey are gone (not alive), hip, no'kan; my hip, ni'nokan;
keibma'tshi'wok ; after they have your hip, keno'kau.
gone, kesma'tshiado'. his, we'nach; wi'naq; wine'; ot
good, kiskit'; ki'tshi (rarely used); before words beginning with a
wiskiv good looking, ai'ongsh'i. vowel or aspirate h ; o before a
;
gran d d a u gh t er , noq'sgse. word beginning with a conso-
grandmother, noko'mis; noqko'- nant. It is his, wlne'otin.
mis; also a term for the personi- hog, kokosh'.
fication of the earth, honey, a'moso'poma.
grandson, noq'sesc. horizon, aqku'apeqta'ma.
grass, ose'kau. horn -bow, we'win.
grasshopper, kaku'ene, kaku'e- horse, pa'siku'gasi.
ne'fr, "the jumper." house (wigwam;) wi'kiop; wikfi'-
great, ki'sha; mats; mii'ts; ma"'- mik, my house, ni"'nanik: ni
tshi ; Great Mystery, Kisha' Ma'- wig'iwam ; ni wiko'mik.
nido. hummingbird, na'natska, Tro
green, ashke'paki 1 ; wisa'waskik. chilus colubrix.
ground, ne'kau. hundred, niku'tuwak; hundred
hail, mise'kaqnan; tine hail with and one, niku'tuwak misik'ta
snow, first of the season. Maq'- niko'tine' ; one hundred and two,
kuumbabe'qtsin, i. e., falling ice. niku'tuwak misik'ta ni'sshine'.
hair, ine'ne'; pi., ine'ne'nuu. husband, minii'pium.
half, a'pata. I, niu'na.
half moon, e'sikan'ikiu 1 . I am drinking, nima'nim.
halloo, hiho'; hoho'. I am going, nika'dama'tshiam : I
hammer, pakag'tshika'sa am going tomorrow, nika'doina-
hand, uunaq'; his or her hand, tsliiam wfiba'.
u-nna(j'ki; right-band, minii'. I caught him, nita'piuau'.
handed, lie struck it left, na- I caught him by the throat,
ma'qtok auaq'tam. okoq'toka'ni nita'pinau'.
hare, wabus'. I did drink, nikes'minam.
hasten, kaq'tse'idau. I have gone, uikeshmatshiam.
;
HOFFMAN] ENGLISH-MENOMINI VOCABULARY 321
I shall drink, nina'nrinam'. knee, mikii'tlk.
I want to drink, nika'tamiuam. knife, drawing, wagaq'koman.
ice, maqkii'om; maqku'um. knuckle, migiiq'sikwon.
if, kis'pin. lake, nipe'se; nipe'she.
in, ine". large, mii'tshi; ma'tshi.
Indian, mama'tseita' ; sometimes late, nowii'.
abbreviated to mama'tshim later, ne'awiiq'kik.
mama'tshe'tau, literally "he is laugh, aiii'niu; to laugh, aiii'ni;
moving," or the "moving one;" I laugh, ni'aia'nim; they are
pi., mamatshe"tawok. laughing, aia'niwok ; the laugher,
infant, ni'tshian. aiii'nuv , i. e., the opossum.
infusion, wabu'. lead (metal), misa'ba.
iron, oqko'mon. leader, miq'kinc'ni.
it, ki. leaf, anipi'Sqkan; pi., anipi'oq-
v
it is, hawe '. kanan.
it is high, ishpe'kan. leg, miqkat' ; his or her leg ; oqkat'.
it is his, ino'otin. leggings, skin, mitiq'san.
it is mine, ui"na'nitin. life, bama'desiwin; living people;
it is ours, nina 'nitinina. bama'desitii'a.
jack pine, u'kiqkaq'tik. lightning, una'tawa'pin.
jawbone, mitaq'piqkan. like, hishe'eke'uv, i.e., similar.
judgment, tepaq'kauo ksiwin. limb (of tree), oq'tiiqkwan.
juggler, tshi'saqka; jugglery, little, awai'tok, keqsan'; peshe'.
tshi'saqkan. live, to, a'sabema'tisitu'a; you
juice, kwopo. live, ke'bama'tislm; you are
juniper, kaku'enefr, one who vstill alive, mi'tshine'u ke/bama'-
jumps; the grasshopper. tisimj
K a u k a u ' n a, a town in Wisconsin long (time), kinis'.
from theMenomini "ogaq'kanfi," look for, to, na'taho'toa.
signifying "the place of pike." love-powder, tako'sawoss.
The Indians formerly fished there low, hi([ka'te, when referring to
for pike—oka'wa. anything being low, as low
Keshe—na, from Menomini Kesh- water.i"ne "swift-flying." The name lung, miqpa'nun.
refers to the village located on lye, piiq'kewo'po. Made from
the Menomini reservation, and wood ashes and used for soften-
is also the name of one of Shu'- ing ligneous fibers in making
nien's brothers. Their father, thread and cords.
Josette, was one time fasting, lynx, kita'bakus.
and during his period of visions maid, old, mu'sapi'aqkiu.
he thought he saw the air filled mallet (of wood), miiq'tikpaqaq'-
with many eagles and hawks, tshikan.
representatives of the Thunder man, iua'ni; ina'nifr; pi., inii'ni-
phratry, flying rapidlyby. This w5k; medicineman, mita'T ; also
circumstance caused him to give lniq'kiuaniir.
the uame Keshi"ue to the next man, old, ke'tshina'niu", from ke'-
male infant born to him, which tshi, old, and ina/niuv, man.
occurred very shortly thereafter. Ma'niibush, a mythic personage,
kettle, aqka'. who received from Kisha' Ma'ni-
kidney, niito'niue'se. do the ritual of the Mitii'wit or
kill, to, oskina"ui; na/natua; Medicine society, and who in
killed, nau"nau', referring to turn instructed mankind there-
many that may be killed, as fish, in; the grandson of Noko'mis,
birds, etc. the earth ; a hero god, who, later
kin gfi she r, oka'skima ml'. on, became involved in many
kite, fork-tail, sha'wana'ni. amusing affairs with the evil
14 eih 21
—
322 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [Elll. ANN. U
beings and the animals, but who mercy, shawa'shiqtshikan'.
ultimately removed to a distant mercy, on us, sawii'newe'aq.
plaee from which he watches the meteor, tshiq'kwan; hanaq'pa-
welfare of the human (Indian) peqtsi, lit., a falling star.
race. The word is from ma'tshi, midday, ne'awiiqkik.
great, all powerful, and wabus', midnight, haia'paqtaii tipaq'ka.
hare ; i. e., the Great Hare, not Mi Iwaukee. Pronounced by the
so in size, but in power. O.jibwa, Indians Me-ne-aw'-kee; a rich
Me'nabo'zho. Ottawa, Na'ua- or beautiful land.—Grignou
bozho, from nanau', foolish or Seventy-two Years' Recol. of Wis.
insignificant; as he became in in Rep. and Col. State Hist. Soc.
\olved in many silly affairs and of Wisconsin, in, 1S57, 337. The
lost caste, though ultimately be- Menomini designation is Miina'-
ing transported to another and wot. Shu'nien was told by a
better camping ground. Potawatomi Indian that the
Manitowoc, nia'nato'wok, 'Munch country in the vicinity was very
game;'' a town in eastern Wis- beautiful, with a river running
consin. through it, where the Indians
Manitou-wauk, "The home or went to Ash. The Potawatomi
place of the spirits."—Griguon, furthermore stated that although
Seventy-two Years' Recol. of he himself had frequently gone
Wis. in Rep. and Col. State there to fish, and although the
Hist. Soc. of Wisconsin, in, water seemed favorable as a good
1857, L'90, 387. place, he could never catch any-
many, inii'se; mas6". thing. For this reason the Meno-
maj)le, hard, sheshi'kimii Acer mini employ the word above
saccharinicm ; the species used given to express the idea that
for sugar-making. "there was nothing where there
maple, soft, shipi'asho'pomaq'ti- ought to have been something."
ki, from shi'pia, river; sho'poma, mine, ne'naq.
sugar; and aq'tik, tree. mink, saq'ke.
marten, wab'ashiu; wa'paq'se. moccasin, maq'kiisiii; pi., maq'-
master, our, tiipa'uimenaq. kasinan. Ojibwa, mak'keziu.
mat. of bark, ana'qkian. money, shu'nien; su"nien: ssu'-
mat, of rush, hanaq'kin. nien.
medicine, maski'ki; mashkiq- month, ni'kot ke'so; i.e., one sun:
kiuv ; medicineman, mita" ; mem- tabaq' ke'so; i. e., night sun.
ber of Medicine society, miq'ki- moon, kas'hekoqkaii, i. e., "one-
niini. who-carries light;" tepake'se,
medicine bag, peqtshenama'- lit., last night-sun; half-moon,
wan; peq'tthikfina. e'sikan'iklfr.
medicine lodge, mita'wikomik; moose, mo"'s.
mita'wikiop; mita'wigiwam. The morning, mip.
inclosure or structure within mortar, asha'kan.
which the Medicine society meets mother, ki'ov ; my mother, ni'-
for the observance of the rites of klo' ; his mother, o'kiuu.
initiation. mouse, naniq'se. Koq'kipikiiki,
medicineman, miq'kiuani; mi- a mythic animal that cut the
ta' 1 ; tshi'saqka (juggler). sinew by which the sun had been
medicine post, mitii'waqtik; made a prisoner.
erected in medicine inclosure mouth, midan'; miton'.
during ceremonies of initiation. mud, ases'ki'.
medicine society, the, Mitii'wit. muskrat, o'sass'; o'k'shosh.
Menomini', oma"nomine'u v pl„ my, nit, before words beginuiug
;
omii'nominewok'. From ma'no- with a vowel, and aspirate h; m
me, rice, and inannf, man. before a consonant.
—
HOFFMAN] ENGLISH-MENOMINI V( )CAHULARY 323
myself, ni"'iiii. suffix euo' is employed to make
myth, ayten'qen. multiplying numbers from the
narrative, a'tano'qen. cardinals; as ssu'asik, eight;
natural, iniin'. ssuasik'euo, eight times.
navel, mitii"; his navel, ota'. one, ni'kots; one hundred, niku'-
neck, miqki'kan ; miq'tigan. tuwok; one thousand, niku'tiq-
necklace (shell), miqki'nnin. nok ; also abbreviated into'nkut'-
Negro, Apa'sen Wii'meqtikosirr. wok.
i. e., black Frenchman. opossum, aiii'nu v ; lit., the
nephew, nipui'niiinii', i. e., broth- laugher.
er's son. Osh'kosh, a city in eastern Wis-
nettle, mashan'; a plant of the consin. The name is that of the
genus Urtica, the fiber of which late chief of t—he Menomini Indi-is made into thread. ans, ass'kass "bear's claw"
new, oske', oshke'. whose second son, Niopet, is at
niece, nipui'niiinii', i. e., sister's present the head of that tribe as
daughter. well as judge of the Indian court.
night, tipiiq'; tobaq': uni'tipaq- See p. 46.
kot; wani'tipaqka. ott er, mikek'.
nine, sa'kii ; nine times, sa'kiita'" our, nit; before words beginning
nano; nine hundred, sa'kiita'ni- with a vowel, or aspirate h; ni
wok; nine hundred and one, before a consonant.
sa'kata'niwSk misik'ta niko'- ours, ne'nach.
tine'. ourselves, n'fna".
nineteen, mita'ta saka'hine', i. e., owl, great horned (Bubo vir-
ten and nine. gima/nus), kuku'kuu' ; saw-whet,
ninety, sa'kii mita'ta, i. e., nine toto'ba, dodo'ba.
times ten; ninety-one, sa'kii mi- paddle, pi; I paddle, nipi'hikem;
ta'ta niko'tine'; ninety-nine, you (thou) paddle, pi'hike'min;
sa'kii mita'ta sa'kiihine'. he paddles, pi'liikem ; we paddle,
ninth, sa'kiihai'awik. nipi'hike'minair; ye paddle,
no, kan. pi'hikekii'na; they paddle, pi'hi-
nobody, kan we'iak: lit., not kewok; we two paddle (dual),
somebody. nishiinenau'pihekev ; they two
none, kan. paddle (dual), nishiwok-pihike'-
noon, ne'awiiq'kik. wok.
uorth, atshike'siiT ; the north paint, wiisi'huan.
wind, atshi'kesiwa'enan, one of panther, pise'u v peshe'; jtishe'u 1 .
;
the deities. paper, ma'shena'qekan.
nose, mitshi'os. partisan, miq'kine'ni; mash'-
nostril, mita'nikum. kineniuv .
u otch (in arrowshaft), and'peqkan. past, kesh; is a prefix to a phrase
nothing, kan. relating to a thing or act thus
now, sa"ie; yoq'pe; nemak'. acted or occurred; he is dead,
oak, black, aue'pakaku'aqtik; keshni'po; they have gone, kesh-
the bark is crushed and boiled in matshiwok.
water; the solution is employed path, mi'qegan; mi'hikan.
to bathe sore eyes. Pee-wau-kee, pronounced, and
oats, pa'siku'giisi meno'iua; liter- should be spelled, Pee-wau-naw-
ally horse rice. kee: the flinty place—Grignon,
observed, naki'sit. Seventy-two Years' Recol. of
Oconto, '-boat paddle;" a town Wis. in Rep. and Col. Hist. Soc.
in eastern Wisconsin. of Wisconsin, in, 1857, 337.
old, kitshki'iY. pelvis, oshi'kan.
olive (color), ssa'sowi. penis, me'nok.
once, nekot'eno; in Menomini the people, bama'teshituog.
; .
324 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [ETH. ANN. 14
pestle, iiska'kanaq'tlk, i. e., mor- sauga rattlesnake, na'tawe' ; rat-
tar stick, from iiska'kan and tlesnake skin medicine bag, iua'-
iiq'tik, stick. wet<V.
pk r a t r y , wi'dishi'aniin. raven, inaq'tfik. In Cree, " kaka-
pigeon, wild, oini"'ni v . kiw " is tbe crow,
pike, oka'wa, a species of fish reach, to, pi'etiit; i. e., to reach or
ogaq'kane, "tbe place of fish"; arrive at a certain place,
the name of a town in Wiscon- red, inaq'kik; miiq'kik; maq'kiuv.
sin, Kaukau'na. Of. blood.
pine, aska/. reeds, pe'wona'skin—aquatic
pine squirrel, naku'ti; tbe ar- plants,
chaic name is una'wanink, and resemble, to, hesh'eke'ir.
occurs in mythology. rib, miq'pepa'kun.
pipe, uq'puokan, oqpu'akan; my ribs (of canoe), pekii'kanok.
pipe, nit oqpu'akan. rice, meno'mii; the wild rice Ziza-
pipe (of stone), aqpu'akau. nia aquatica, after which the tribe
pipe stem, aqpu'akan naq'tlk, is named,
i. e., pipe stick. rice-beater, pawa'qikan pi., pa-
;
place, that, kiyu'; at that place, waq'ikanan ; a stick for beating
te'. rice from the stalk,
plenty, ina'nat. right arm, mi'tiini'nien.
porcupine, kita'mi; kita'mu. right hand, mina'.
pork, kokosh'. river, se'pc; si'pe; she'pfi; shi'-
l>ost, medicine, mitii'waqtik; a pe. Meuomiui river, Mi'nika'ni
post in the medicine lodge or se'pe.
inclosure, during ceremonies of road, mi'qikan; on the other side
initiation. of the road, a'sawiq'kana.
potato, oqpan'; pi., oqpan'iok. rock, ase'paq.
potato, swamp, waboqp;in'; a root (of tree), otsi'pr.
tuber found in wet places, used round, it is, wa'tane'ken.
for food. run, to, kaq'tse'idau; I run, ni-
powder (love), tako'sawoss. kaq'tsliikam.
prairie, masko'tia. rye, a'nemaupaq ki'sikan, i. e.,
preserve (of fruit), piq'kiman. "German bread."
previous to, kaiiau'meqtskiii'. saliva, saqkom'.
printer', mase'naqnatek. salt, she'weqta'ken; i. e., "sour
prophet. /See juggler. and sweet"; she'weta'kau, string
pungent, we'sokan. of salt crystals, she'weta'kau-
purple, piq'kimana'inoqta'qtik ni'ap; salted string for baiting
i. e., preserve dye, or the tint of traps, she'weta'kan kaq'kop.
preserved plums or cherries. sand,ne'kan; ases'ki.
quiver, piq'tanwan. sap, kwopo; sap of maple, sho'-
rabbit, wabfis'. pomakwo'i>o', i. e., sugar sap.
raccoon, ii'sepau. saw, to, a'ski'keshhipoto'.
rain , kime'wan. saw-whet owl, toto'ba; dodo'ba.
rainbow, we'iwi'ke koq'se miq'- scalp, nii'uoq kwu'on.
egan; i. e., "old women's path." scared, sagi'si".
raisin, sho'inin. scrape, to, paskwo'hiki.
rat, nani'se. scraper, paskwo'liekan; made of
rattle, ssisi'kwan. Ottawa, shi- wood, and used in dressing deer
shi'ogwan (of gourd) ; same name skin; pe'kwalie'kan.
if used for the same purpose. search, to, na'taho'toa.
rattlesnake, hanuQ'e; the vari second, misi'kaia'wit.
ety found in the prairie dog seen, nakislt.
towns; sina'wata, i. e., rattling- seer. See j uggler
tail, Grotalvs horri&us; Missa- seven, noq'wikan ; seven times,
] — ;
HOFFMAN ENGLISH-MENOMINI VOCABULARY 325
noq'wikata'na'no ; seven hun- skin, kinok'; so'kuin; antelope
dred, noq'wikan ta"niwok; seven skin, oma'skus so'kum.
huudred and one, noq'wikan skunk, shikak; shika'ko; shika'-
ta"nowok inisi'kta niko'tine'. go; place of the skunk, shika'-
seventeen, inita'ta noq'wikan- gunk. Ottawa, shi'kago; Cree,
hine'; i. e., ten and seven, shikak, sikak; locative, sikakok.
seventh, noq'wikan liai'awik. sky, ke'slk; ke'shik. I see the
seventy, noq'wikan inita'ta. sky, ke'slk ina'men.
sew, to, me'sokua'san. slave, mauia'kav .
Shawano. Name of a town and sleep, neban'.
lake in eastern Wisconsin. An slip, to, he or she slipped, osha'-
old Indian named Sha'wano
— shishin'; they slipped, osha'shi-" Southerner'' formerly dwelt shi'nok.
on the shore of the lake, which slipped, we, ki'tosha'shishine'.
was subsequently named after small, peshe'; awai'tok.
him. smoke, na'eta.
Sheboygan, a hollow bone. snake, kino'pik; kine'bik.
Grignou, Seventy-two Years' snake, grass, ose'kan kino'pik,
Recol. of Wis. in Rep. and Col. small green snakefouud in grassy
Hist. Soc. of Wisconsin, in, 1857, places.
337. snake, water, ne'pish kino'pik.
shell, es'; pi., e'sak; kona'pamik, snow, kon.
the Gyprwa moneta, used in the snowshoe, a'kamok; snowshoe
ceremonies of the "Grand Medi- tree, a'keina'qtik, name for black
cine society." Mi'gis of the elm.
Ojibwa and Ottawa, s n u ff, pe'tskikoma'kan.
shin, kiqkaq'kwun. society, medicine, Mitii'wit.
shoot, to, penio'tsiken. soil, ne'kan.
shore, tshik'tshitem. some, ana'; ka'ne.
shortly, nowe'ua. somebody, we'iak.
shoulder, mita'inimaq'kan. son, kls; my son, nikis; thy son,
silver, wai'abis'kikssu'nien; ki kis', your sons, kikiso'wawok'i.e.,
white metal or money, his or her son, oki"san.
v
similar, heshe'ckeiV; soon, so'kana"niuhishe'o- ; as soon, or
keuv as soon as, kaiyes'.'.
sinews, soot, wepena'atii.otshi'tau; titan'; your sour, she'weqnni.
sinews, kiti'tan. south, sawa'no;
sirup, ssa'wano; sha'-sne'wakamYta*. wano. See Shawano.
sister, elder, ni'me', said by south wind, sa'wana'nan.
younger brother; sisters, nidi- sparrow-hawk,
n pipo'nii'ne
v ke'-
she 'nok; elder or younger ;sis- shawa'toshe.
ters, niko'shimaq'; younger sis- speak, ki'kitwon.
ter, na'se'; my elder sister,
my spear (war), mita'niqti,nema; mitau'-eldest sister, mi'tshi- niqti.
kiqkwe'wis. spears (fish), hani'tiyou.
six, nikutwa'satii; six times, ni'- spirit (of dead), mita'tsISk'; the
kutwa'sa'ta na'no; six hundred, " shade, or shadow," of the dead,
ni'kutw'asiita niwok; six hun- which is supposed to hover about
dred and one, ni'kutwasatii ni- his home for four days.
wok' misik'ta niko'tine'. spirits, kawa'tokan, i. e., super-
sixteen, inita'ta nikutwa'sata- natural beings.
hine'; i. e.,ten and six. spittle, siiqkom'.
sixth, niku'twas'ata liai'awik. sport, ouii'nekuot.
sixty, ni'kutw'asiita mi'tata; spot, that, kiyu'.
sixty-one, ui'kutwa'siita mi'tata spray, nipett' pakote'fr, i. e., "fly-
niko'tine'. ing water."
326 THE MENOJIINI INDIANS [ETH. ANN. 14
spring' (season), sayi'kwakin. swamp, moskik'.
squirrel, una'wanink. sweat-bath, pe'min ; Ojibwa,
squirrel, gray, tamo'". mido'dowiwiu.
squirrel, pine, una'wanink'. sweat-lodge, pe'mikamlk; Otta-
stabbed. He or she was stabbed, wa, mado'osan.
kes'poshi'pahau. sweet, se'wan; she'wan.
stand, ne'puam; I stand, nine' sweet-flag, weq'ke.
puam; thou art standing, kine'- swim, to onii'iiin.
puam; he or she is standing, talisman, otoq'kaniman.
uepuev ; it is standing, ne'puwe'- talk, ki'kitwon.
inakot; we are standing, nine'- tamarack, mo'nipiono'we.
puam'inau; ye are standing, tambourine-drum, tawa'qi-
kine'puwe'rnu ; they are stand- kan, used for social dancing.
ing, nepuwe'mok. tan, to, pi'kuaha.
star, auaq', ha"naq'; pi., auaq'- tasting, sho'poqta.
kok, hana'qkOk. tattoo marks, ta'tshikaqun'.
startled, to be, sagi'si*. tea, infusion, wabu'.
stern, of boat, oti'nopi'ane. ten, mita'ta, ten times, mita'ta'-
stick, nie'tTk, iiq'tik. nano.
stick, singing, pa'kahe'kanak. ten th mita'ta hai'awik.
stomach, mima"an6t. terrible-looking, Aqki'nako-
stone, a"asen, ase'piiq. she'; a personal name.
story, a'tano'qeu. that, ta; te'; ene'.
straight, mian'. that is, hawev '.
strike, to, askipaqti'; struck it theirs, we'nach; ot, before words
left handed, namaq'tokanaq'- beginning with a vowel or aspi-
tam. rate h; o before a word begin-
string, kaq'kop. ning with a consonant; winu"ii
sti-i n g, salted, she'weta'kan kaq'- ati'nuwau, it is theirs.
kop; used for bating rabbit and them, akim'; wi'nua.
other traps. then, ene'; ine".
stump, otsi'pe. there, te'; asha'wik.
sturgeon, naina'iv ; noina'eu; to these, akum'—animate pronoun.
v
kill sturgeon, nami'oqka. they, akim'; ki'n ; wi'nua.
Sturgeon bay, Noma'wiqkito. thick, it is, keqpa'kan.
suck, sucking, sho'poqta. thigh, miqtshi'ikwon.
sudatory, pe'mikamlk. thin, it is, pepa'kan.
sufficient, ma'niit. thine, ke'nach.
sugar, sho'poma; maple sugar, third, aqgots'.
ina'nsho'poina, i. e., natural thirteen, mita'ta ua"nihine' ; i.e.,
sugar. ten and one.
sugar, granular, na'kawa'he thirty, na"nino mita'ta; i. e.,
katav. thrice ten; thirty-one, na"nino
summer, ne"peno'ii. mita'ta niko'tiue'.
sun, ke'so; ge'so; ke"so. this, iom; yom; applied to inani-
sun fish, naku'ti; keta'kibihot, mate tnings, ehaiyoni'.
i.e., "the striped one;" the ar- those, anino'; aki'ko.
chaic name. Ottawa, keta'kibi- thousand, niku'tiqnok; some-
hit. times abbreviated, in conversa-
sunrise, maioq'kaqa; moq'kaha, tion, to 'nku'twok.
i.e., "digging something out of thread, kaq'pape'shi; madeeither
the ground." of hemp, nettle, or cotton.
sunset, naiik'; nik. three, ua"ni.
surprise, sagi'si v . three hundred, na"uiwok; three
surprised, geo"netshi v ; to be hundred and one, na"niwok
surprised, kes"uetshi'v . inisik'ta niko'tiue'.
HUFFMAN] ENGLISH-MENOMINI VOCABULARY 327
threshing- stick, pawa'qikana- twice, ni'sino.
q'tlk, for threshing rice from the twig, me'tik; iiq'tik.
hull or husk, twine, pi'minaq kwan; made of
thrice, na"ninS. nettle, basswood bark, or such
throat, mikoqtagan; mikoq'ta- as is purchased.
kau. twist, pi'minaq'kim; I twist, ni-
throat, by the, oko'qtoka'ni. pi'minaqkiin; thou twisteth, pi'-
thrust, to (with a pole or spear), niinaq'kinun; he twists, pi'mi-
posi'pahatu'a. naq"ko; we twist, ki'piminaq'-
thumb, nikii'atshine. ki; ye or you twist, pi'minaq'ko-
thunder, ina'miiqki'iT />/., inii'- wok; they twist, pi'minaq'ko-
;
maqki'wdk, i. e., the flying gods; wok; we two twist (dual), ki'ni-
Little Thunder (personal name), shipi'mi'na(|'kiya; they two twist
Inii'maqki'sa. (dual), ni'shitiia'piminaq'kitua.
ticklish ; na"tshiso', ticklish: h<- two, nis; nish; two hundred, ni'-
or she is ticklish, kina"tsliito; suwok; two hundred and one,
tickle him, (imper.) kina"tshi- ni'siiwok niisi'kta niko'tine'.
shin. uucle, 'nd;V.
time, pc. underground spirits, ana'-
tobacco, na"nimau. maqkl'u. The opponents of the
today, yoq'peos ke'sikoq; yuni- Thunderers, anil of all that is
ke'sikot. good.
toe,kiset; bigtoe, inats'ki'set; pi., up, to go, ke'nuna'ha, referring
mise'tesan; little toe, kiseteq'se; to up stream.
pi., kiseteqsan. urine, shikin'.
toenail, uriskas'; kis'kash. us, nina".
told, he has told, keswe'qtaino'- veins, kikiise'nan.
wau. village, mi'nikan'; in the village,
tomorrow, waba'; waboq'. mi'nika'ni.
tomorrow, day after, koqke'- vomit, me'minem; I vomit, ni-
waba'. me'minem.
tongue, mita'nnni7 ; my tongue, vul va, mika'san; her vulva, oka'-
nita'nuni'a'. sanan'.
tooth, me'iibit; me'pit; pi., mepi- w a 1 k to, pemo' unon ; we are walk-
tan; me'bit; your tooth, ke'bit; ing, nipa"'inoq ue'menan; he or
my tooth, ui'bit; his or her tooth, she is walking, pimoq'ne.
ne'bit. war club, mitagos; mitau'gds.
tortoise, maqka'no'; miqka'no. warrior, nii'iiauwe'qta.
town, mini'kan. wars pear,mita'niqti; mi tau'niqti.
trail, nii'qika'sa. water, nipe'u v ; ne'pish.
transparent, waka'miu. Wau- ke- sha—pronounced by
trap, ta"nuna'gan; stick trap, or theOjibwa,Waw-goosh sha: the
one for small animals, me'tik little fox.—Griguon, Seventy-
ta"nu'nagan'; rabbit trap, wa- two Years' Kecol. of Wis. in
bus' ta"iiu'nagau'. Rep. and Col. Hist. Soc. of Wis-
tree, iiq'tik, ma'tik; pi., ma'tikdk. consin, in, 1857, 337.
triink, of tree, mise'waiqtlk. Wau pe-te-see-pe—the Indian
tumble, to, papeq'tsinan. word is Wee-be-te-see-pee: Tooth
turkey, masse'nii. river.—Grignon, Seventy-two
turkey buzzard, opasli'koshi. Tears' Kecol. of Wis. in Rep.
turtle, maqka'no, miqka'no. and Col. Hist. Soc. of Wisconsin,
twelve, mita'ta ni'shine; i.e., ten in, 1857, 337.
and two. Wausau. An Ojibwa word per-
twenty, ni'sinomita'ta; i. e., twice taining to a town. The story
teu; twenty-one, ni'sino mita'ta told by the Menomini is that
niko'tine'. an Ojibwa was one time walking
328 THE MENOMINI INDIANS [ETH. ANN. 14
by a hunter's cabin, in the direc- widower, se'kai.
tion of the place where this town wife, ne'u v .
has since been built, and as the willow, dwarf, kenu'shi shike'-
hunter asked the Indian where pul.
he was going, he replied, " w.i'sa, wind, no'teu pi. no'teuau ; no
;
wa'sa,—far, far," meaning to a we'nan; south wind, sha'wa'na'-
great distance. nan; north wind, Atshi'kesiwii'e-
wax, amo'peine. nan, one of the deities.
w e , ki'nua ( sometimes used) ; nina". winter, pono'e; pe'pon.
we two, (dual form), nauish'; we wolf, maq'wa'io; moqwai'o. Wolf
two are walking, na'ish ni'kipa"- river, Maqwai'o oshi'piome,
moqna'u'. " wolf, his river."
weasel, se'ko; sheko'. woman, mita'mu ; mitii'mu.
west, as'nik. woman, old, ne'owikii.
whale, ma'shenomiik; a mythic wood, maq'sewan; aq'tik, ma'tik.
water monster, erroneously woodcock, baboq'keweu ; a myth-
termed a whale. ic personage.
what, wa; wa'ki. work, to, a'seata'a.
wheat, paqki'sikan; mishaq'ki- ye, kinu"a.
minag'oshe'fr. year, bPbo'na; pi. bebo'nan, pe'-
when, ta"ape. pon.
when are you coming again! yellow, waioa'wik; osha'win.
ta"ape misik' api'ian. n
when are you going? yes, e .awisi'an.
where, yesterday, ona'ko.tano"ka; ta"naga.
where are you going'? ha'noke'- yesterday, day before, koq ke'
wanako".
sian.
where were you bom! ta'nok- yoke, neck, nai'omagan ; used in
oqta'tisi'an. carrying buckets of water, mapleaiis'
white, wabi'skiiV w.ibish'kiff; sap—when sugar making—and
"natural color," waia'biskik ge- other articles.
;
neric, indicated by inseparable you, ki'nua; kina'; kine'.
particle ik. young, oske', oshke'.
white man, moq'kuman. yours, ki'naq; ke'nach; it is
who, howii'ne. yours, kine'kitin.
whoop, hoho'. yourselves, kinu"a.
whose is it?, owa'otin. youth, o'piiquise.