Journal of Coastal Research 14 196-217 Royal Palm Beach, Florida Winter 1998 Clay Mineral Distributions to Interpret Nile Cell Provenance and Dispersal: III. Offshore Margin between Nile Delta and Northern Israel Daniel Jean Stanley,t Yaacov Nir,? Ehud Galilitt ?i-Deltas-Globai Change Program E-206 NMNH, Paleobiology Smithsonian Institution Washington, D.C. 20560 U.S.A. +Cxeological Survey of Israel 30 Malkhe Israel Street Jerusalem 95501, Israel ttMarine Archaeologj' Branch Israel Antiquities Authority P.O. Box 180 Atlit 30350, Israel fttiinu ABSTRACTI STANLEY, D..J.; NIR, Y. and GALILI, E., 1998. Clay Mineral Distribution.s to Interpret Nile Cell Provenance and Dispersal: III. Offshore Margin between Nile Delta and Northern Israel. Journal ofCoantal Research. 14(1), 196-217. Royal Palm Beach (Florida), ISSN 0749-0208. Clay assemblages in Holocene sediment on southeast Mediterranean margins are generally smectite-rich and, in the past, were derived primarily from direct River Nile input to the sea. Depositional patterns in the Nile littoral cell are now'undergoing extensive change, largely as a response to closure of the High Dam at Aswan (1964), mcreased sediment entrapment by canal systems in the Nile delta, and construction of large coastal structures between the Nile delta and Israeli margins. Although information on land-to-sea dispersal by the River Nile and other fluvial and offshore sediment sources to the east remains limited, there appears to be evidence for increased sediment input from erosion of Sinai and Levant shelves and coasts east of the Nile delta. This, the third in a 3-part study that focuses on regional clay mineral distributions, was initiated to provide baselines to measure evolving changes of sediment, provenance and dispersal patterns on the shelves and upper Nile Cone between the Nile delta and northern Israel. The investigation shows that clay assemblages are not uniformly distributed in the SE Mediterranean, likely a result of several important sediment sources in addition to the Nile. Smectite-ricb clay assemblages east of the Nile delta are presently derived from storm wave and coastal current erosion of the Nile delta, reworking of Quaternary deposits along the coast and on the seafloor east of the delta, and from some Israeli rivers between Tel Aviv and Atlit. Kaolinite and illite at offshore sites are supplied in part from erosion of coastal cliff sections, river input between Wadi El Arish in Sinai and the Lebanon-Israel border, and from wind-borne dust from African and Middle East deserts released seaward of the coast. The diverse source terrains that back coastal plains provide laterally variable clay assemblages along the southeastern Mediterranean coast. Presently evolving changes in the volume and mineralogy of sediment transported from the distal Nile region m Egypt, versus those from more proximal coastal sources on Sinai and Levant margins, are likely to be subtle. Post- Aswan High Dam changes of fine-sediment load, composition and dispersal in the eastern Mediterranean should now be determined from water samples and sediment traps set above the seafloor between the coast and upper Nile Cone. Improved quality of information can be derived from clay mineral assemblages in suspended sediment samples m conjunction with geochemical tracers. Moreover, detailed morphologic surveys will provide essential information on altered sediment transport patterns as related to sectors undergoing accelerated coastal erosion. ADDITIONAL INDEX WORDS: Aswan High Dam, Bardawil lagoon, clay minerals, coastal erosion, Egyptian sJielf, Gaza, Israeli rivers, Israeli shelf, Levant margin, Mediterranean, Nile delta, Nile littoral cell, sediment dispersal, Sinai margin, suspended load, Wadi El Arish. INTRODUCTION It has been clearly demonstrated that the River Nile was the primary source of sediment carried directly to the south- east Mediterranean until this century (HURST, 1952), when two dams were constructed at Aswan in upper Egypt. The first (Lower Dam) was emplaced in 1902, and the second (High Dam) in 1964. At present, only a small volume of silt and clay (to 15% of the original pre-1902 load) bypasses the Nile delta to the shelf via Nile distributaries, lagoon outlets and canals. Decreased sediment input in the lower Nile valley and at the Nile delta coast is largely the result of entrapment 97089 received and accepted in revision 10 June 1997. in the increasingly complex system of irrigation channel and canal drain pathways constructed throughout the delta and in wetlands in the northern delta (SESTINI, 1989; STAINLEY, 1996). Most workers surmise that sediment cut-off has al- tered sedimentation patterns not only in the Nile valley and delta, but also on the continental shelf and slope north and east of the delta coast (SHARAF EL DIN, 1977; SUMMERHAYES et al, 1978; UNDP/UNESCO, 1978). A systematic, region- wide survey of sediment and mineral distributions on Nile delta and Levant shelves, however, was not made prior to, or just after, closure of the Aswan High Dam, and therefore in- formation about evolving sedimentation patterns in this re- gion is seriously limited. Nile Cell Provenance 197 Figure I. Map of the SE Mediterranean study area showing g?ographie localities discussed in text and positions of offshore sediment samples used in this study. Clay mineral studies provide a means to measure changes in the Study area that result from altered natural and an- thropogenic processes in post-Dam time. It is fortunate that some sample sets were collected on SE Mediterranean mar- gins just before and after closure of the High Dam, and these materials can now be used to establish general petrologic baselines for the Holocene until the latter part of this cen- tury. This study, third of a 3-part series, focuses on texture and clay mineral distributions in surficial sediment samples recovered on continental shelves off northern Egypt, Sinai, Gaza and Israel and the Nile Cone (Figure 1). A collage of various sediment sample sets, recovered on these continental margins between 1963 and 1995, are used here to compile a petrologic database for use in future studies. The present investigation takes into account and builds upon textural and clay mineral data obtained in two previous and directly related studies. The first analyzed sediment along the Nile valley, from southern Egypt to the coast (STANLEY and WINGEP?ATH, 1996) and the second focused on sediment in rivers and coastal plain exposures between the Nile delta and Israel-Lebanon border (STANLEY et al, 1997). For consistency in data compilation, analyses in the three studies were performed by the same operator who applied the same petrologic procedures to all samples. These also provide comprehensive listings of texture and clay mineral data in the study area, bibliographies pertinent to the lower River Nile and Nile delta in Egypt and coastal plains of Sinai, Gaza and Israel, and discussions of potential terrestrial sources of fine-gi'ained sediment supplied to the offshore study area. As such, the three studies together can provide a base from which to measure post-High Dam and future regional clay mineral changes. PROVENANCE-AND-DISPERSAL CONSIDERATIONS Selective Dispersal of Clays Nile sediment off the Egj'ptian coast is dispersed in a large counter-clockwise gyre (Figure 2A) by geostrophic and wave driven currents that prevail in the easternmost Mediterra- nean (EMERY and BENTOR, 1960; LACOMBE and TCHERNIA, 1972; INMAN and JENKINS, 1984; SMITH and ABDEL-KADER, 1988; FRIHY et al., 1991; BERGA?IASCO et al., 1992; POEM GROUP, 1992). Dispersal is primarily directed eastward from the Nile delta (Figure 3), toward Sinai and Gaza shelves and Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 14, No. 1, 1998 198 Stanley, Nir and GaJili -10" Figure 2. General watemiass paUerns in ihe eastern Mediterranean. (A) Circulation of the surface layer (upper 50 m) for the winter season (modified after BiiRGAMASCO et ai, 1992); (B) Wave refraction of longshore transport along the Nile delta coast for a 1 m high, 8 sec wave coming from N6()?W (after iNMAN and JKNKINS, 1984); wind rose for the shelf north of the Nile delta showing prevailing path to SE (after Si;sTiN], 1992); (C) Sand transport path (dotted pattern) as a response to easterly-driven currents (arrows) between the coast and mid-Nile delta shelf (after INMAN el al.. 1992). Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 14, No. 1, 1998 NUe Cell Provenance 199 32? ?^ LONGSHORE TRANSPORT CONVERGING NODAL POINTS 'El Arish ,, 5,, Figure 3. Geoslrophic and coastal current-driven transport patterns in the SE Mediterranean. (A) estimates of the net annual longshore sand transport rate in the Nile littoral cell. pre-Aswan High Dam (after CARMF.L el ai, 1984); (B) longshore sediment transport model along the Levant margin showing the change in location of converging longshore transport nodal points with change in wind direction and period (after GOLDSMITH and GOLIK, 1980). slope (cf. SHA?AF EL DIN, 1977), and then to the north on the Israeli margin (EMERY and NEEV, 1960; GOLDSMITH and GO- LIK, 1980) and beyond (MILLER, 1972). It is presumed that, prior to closure of the High Dam, when Nile sediment was delivered to the coast, sand was released first along the Nile delta coast and inner shelf (Figure 2B, C; MUKRAY et al., 1981; CARMEL et al., 1984; INMAN et al., 1992; SHOSHANY et al, 1996), and that a large proportion of silt and especially Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 14, No, 1, 1998 200 Stanley, Nir and Galili 28" 29? 30* 31* 53' 34" 35* 29- 29" aO" 31' 32* 33? 34? ?5' ^ i,iiii|i:i'[jjiuiiiiiiiUiiyvx>J^'\;;^:=^7^a^^^ Figure 4. Smectile-rich clay mineral dis(ribmion in surticial sediment of the eastein MediteiTanean. showing a regionally homogeneous assemblage. Isopleths indicate relative percentages of the four dominant clay minerals in this region; low values are indicated by stippled pattern, and high values by hachure (after MALDONADO and STANLHY, 1981). clay-size material was transported farther by surface and bot- tom currents. Clays on the Nile Cone, the broad gentle slope below the shelfbreak (>200 m), are derived not only by bot- tom current and suspension transport but also by down-slope gravity-driven mechanisms (ALMAGOR and MICHAELI, 1985). Surprisingly little is known about the present (post-High Dam) importance of offshore sediment distribution patterns and clay mineral input from the River Nile and from sources north and east of the Nile delta. We postulate here that clays supplied in various amounts and added to the more distally- derived, fine-grained Nile components, would derive from: (1) adjacent modern rivers and ephemeral tributaries, or wadis, east of the Nile delta; (2) coastal current erosion of sediment from coastal cliffs and carbonate-cemented quartz sandstone of Quaternary age (known as kurkar; PICARD and AVNIME- LECH, 1937; PICARD, 1938; cf. NEEV et ai, 1987) that are intercalated with silty and clayey layers; (3) erosion of un- consolidated seafloor deposits; and (4) wind-blown desert dust. It is surmised that these proximal Levant coastal en- vironments, together, are now providing an increasingly sig- nificant proportion of the offshore sediments. This investi- gation attempts to better identify some of the more important dispersal paths that have deposited clay-bearing sediment to the north and east of the Nile delta during the second half of this century. Review of Clay Input in Nile Littoral Cell Previous studies of recent offshore clay mineral distribu- tions in the southeastern Mediterranean (VENKATARATHNAM and RYA>I, 1971; NiR and NATHAN, 1972; MALDONADO and STANLEY, 1981; NIR, 1984; ALMAGOR and MICHAELI, 1985) indicate that at present: (1) the Nile remains the primary source of sediments, including clays, in this region; and (2) these smectite-rich Nile-derived assemblages are supple- mented by wind-blown kaolinite-rich dust from North African and Middle East deserts (YAALON and GANOR, 1973, 1979) and by illite and chlorite transported by currents from more distal northern Mediterranean sources, such as the Hellenic region. All earlier studies have emphasized that smectite of Nile derivation is the most abundant clay mineral in homo- geneous clay assemblages on Levant margins (Figure 4). Most previous work has not focused on provenance from more proximal coastal and seafloor sectors east of the Nile. Sedimentation models depict the eastward displacement of sand and fine sediment from the River Nile to the south- eastern Levant and the depositional budget between the Nile delta and southern Levant (GOLDSMITH and GOLIK, 1980; CARMEL et al., 1984; INMAN and JENKINS, 1984). In what they term the Nile littoral cell, Inman and Jenkins quantify the sediment volumes and dispersal system that prevailed prior to the mid-1960's rather than at present, one which has Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 14, No. 1, 1998 Nile CeU Provenance 201 experienced River Nile cut-ofl' since closure of the Aswan High Dam. Less than 2% of the River Nile's sediment load now by-passes the High Dam (UNDP/UNESCO, 1978; ELAS- SIOUTI, 1983), and the much reduced sediment volume (to ? 15% of the former Nile load, much of it eroded by the river below the Dam (STANLEY, 1996) is discharged to the sea pri- marily by: (1) outlets of Manzala, Burullus and Idku lagoons; (2) several large delta waterway drains that empty directly at the coast; (3) pumping, at Alexandria, of Lake Maryut wa- ter to the sea; and (4) some ship-induced water exchange at the northern entrance of the Suez Canal (STANLEY et al., 1982). Waste products and pollutants are also increasingly released to the Nile delta coast along with fine-grained sed- iment (ELSOKARY, 1992). The width of the delta between Cairo and the Nile delta coast is 160 km. The shelf is -70 km wide off the Nile delta, and narrows to <10 km near Lebanon. The width of the Gaza and Israeli coastal plain also narrows gradually, from ?40 km at the latitude of Gaza (backed by broad strandplain; Fig- ure 5A, C) to less than 5 km in northernmost Israel (backed by the Upper Galilee Mountains). As a result of marked reduction of Nile sediment input at both Nile distributaries (Rosetta, Damietta), coastal erosion has substantially cut back the two distributary promontories and modified extensive sectors of the delta coast (UNDP/ UNESCO, 1978; FRIHY, 1988; SMITH and ABDEL-KADER, 1988; FRIHY et ai, 1991; SHARAF EL DIN and MAHAR, 1997). Geostrophic and strong wave currents drive the prevailing easterly flow (to >0.5 knots) along the eastern North Africa margin (Figure 2B), displacing sediment as coarse as sand along the inner delta shelf (Figure 2C) and Sinai and Gaza coasts to as far as the northern Israeli margin (EMERY and BENTOR, 1960; EMERY and NEEV, 1960; GOLDSMITH and Go- LiK, 1980; CARMEL et al, 1984; NIR, 1984; GOLIK, 1993; SHOSHANY e< a/., 1996). Fine-grained sediment, derived from the Nile region and from North African eolian dust, is carried in suspension to as far north as the Syrian margin (cf. MIL- LER, 1972) by the large, counter-clockwise eastern Mediter- ranean gyre (Figure 2A). The Gaza and Israeli coastal plain is crossed by at least 20 short (10-50 km), west-flowing rivers and wadis, of which only several positioned north of Tel Aviv (such as Taninim river) flow during most or all of the year. Others have become artificially water-filled streams (fed by electrical power sta- tions, sewerage, etc.) only along the last few kilometers of their course. The overall average annual amount of sedi- ments reaching the Mediterranean from these rivers is on the order of 1 million tons, mostly fines originating in mountains and coastal plains that back the coast (NIR, 1984). Offshore, the dispersal of clays is also affected somewhat by an irreg- ular, coast-parallel, ridge-and-trough topogi-aphy (EMERY and BENTOR, 1960; NIR, 1984; NEEV et al., 1987), Sources of sediment along the Levantine coast include short seasonally-flowing streams, and eroded steep shore cliffs (Figure 5D), including some of eolianite, hamra soils and sand dunes. Bottom currents also remove minor amounts of unconsolidated sediment from partially silt-covered ex- posed ridges on the seafloor and small islands (Figure 5E, F) positioned near the coast; the ridges and islands are, for the most part, formed of carbonate-cemented quartz sandstone, mostly of eolian origin (kurkar). Wind also provides sediment eroded from some of the gently inclined broad strandlines, especially those covered by sand dunes (Figure 5B, C). Sedi- ment is introduced seasonally (primarily in winter) to Levant shelves by several high-discharge streams, intensified storm- wave erosion of coastal cliffs and kurkars, and strong winds. Haifa Bay (Figure 5B) is the major natural sand and silt sink in this Nile littoral cell (INMAN and JENKINS, 1984). The in- creasing number of artificial structures placed along the Sin- ai and Israeli (Figure 6B-D) coasts (NIR, 1982; NIR and ELI- MELECH, 1990) are modifying natural transport paths of sed- iment, especially that moved on innermost shelves. Higher flow of some rivers in the northern sector of the study area results, in part, from increased rainfall (from <100 to >700 mm/year) between eastern Sinai and northern Israel. Of note in this respect is the variable but locally im- portant discharge of industrial, domestic and agricultural waste via some Gaza and Israeli rivers (Figure 6A) and dis- persal pipelines. Dissolved and suspended anthropogenic ma- terial is recovered with fine-grained sediment along offshore Levant transport paths (KRESS et ai, 1990). METHODOLOGY Textural and clay mineral analyses in the two previous studies were made on 59 samples collected during 1990 and 1992 in the River Nile and Nile delta (STANLEY and WIN- GERATH, 1996), and on 67 samples collected during 1994 in rivers and coastal plain exposures between the eastern Nile delta and northern Israel (STANLEY et al., 1997). Offshore samples analyzed in the present investigation were collected by several organizations in 1963, 1965, 1977, 1983-1985 and 1995 between Alexandria, off the western Nile delta, and the Israel-Lebanon border (Figure 7). These 85 samples are sub- divided into 8 gi-oups (coded A-H) on the basis of location and date of recovery. The positions, depths and dates of sample collection are provided in the references cited below: (A) westernmost Nile delta shelf, comprises 3 RV Chain (1977 cruise 119) grab samples collected in the Alexandria-Abu Qir region (nos, 1-3 in Table 1; WOODS HOLE OCEANO- GRAPHIC INSTITUTION, 1975; SUMMERHAYES et al., 1978) (B) Nile shelf, 8 RV Pillsbury (1965 cruises 6508 and 6510) core-top samples (Table 2; University of Miami RSMAS 1965 cruise data, unpublished records, Miami, FL); (C) Nile shelf, 27 RV Chain (1977 cruise 119) grab samples (nos. 4-27 in Table 1; WOODS HOLE OCEANOGRAPHIC INSTITU- TION, 1975; SUMMERHAYES et al., 1978); (D) Nile Cone prop- er, 6 RV Pillsbuiy (1965 cruises 6508 and 6510) core-top sam- ples on the slope seaward of the Nile shelf (Table 3; Univer- sity of Miami RSMAS 1965 cruise data, unpubhshed records, Miami, Florida); (E) Gaza-Israeli shelf, 13 core-top samples (Table 4; Geological Survey of Israel 1963 data collection, published records, Jerusalem, Israel; NIR, 1984); (F) Israel shallow nearshore, 10 grab samples recovered in 1983-1985 (Table 5; collected by E. Galili, Marine Branch, Israel An- tiquities Authority, Atlit, Israel, unpublished records and WEINSTEIN-EVRON, 1994); (G) Israel shelf off the portof Ash- dod, 5 grab samples collected in late May 1995 (Table 6; col- Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 14, No. 1, 1998 202 Stanley, Nir and Galili Figure 5. Low altitude aerial photographs of Gaza and Israeli coasts, taken on 2 June 1995. (A) over Gaza, showing broad sandy strandplain and suspended sediment along coast and view toward NE Sinai in distance. (B) view of Ald2000 jxm) were determined by sieving a representative cut of each bulk sam- ple. From a separate cut, the <1 mm fraction was analyzed for grain size parameters, including percentage of clay (by Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 14, No. 1, 1998 Nile CeU Provenance 203 Figure 6. Low altitude aerial photographs of Israeli coast, taken on 2 June 1995. (A) coast at Hadera showing completely modified river outlet and shoreline {NE to left). (B) coastal sedimentation modified by artificial structures off Tel Aviv (NE to left). (C) coast-modified sediment dispersal at marina, Tel Aviv (NE to left). (D) long, arcuate jetty at Ashdod port (NE to right). volume) and grain size statistics (mean, mode, median) using a Coulter LS-lOO? particle size analyzer. In some earlier studies, clay mineral composition from this region was determined by settling of fine-grained particles and concentrating clay minerals (<2fjLm) from slurry onto a glass slide. This method tends to artificially alter the proportion of certain clay minerals as a function of settling rate and size; proportions of finer-grained smectite, for example, increased rel- ative to other clay minerals. To minimize this artifact, the now more-commonly used smear-slide method (MOORE and REYN- OLDS, 1989) has been used in our 3-part investigation. The clay- sized fraction (<2 p.m) was separated by d?cantation, concen- trated by centrifugation, and prepared as smear slide for X-ray diffraction analysis. Diffraction methodology used in the clay analyses for this 3-part study is outlined in STANLEY and WIN- GERATH (1996). Our primary focus here is on the four dominant mineral groups that form assemblages in this region: smectite, kaolinite, illite and chlorite. Chlorite, for the most part absent in the two previous coastal plain studies, was detected in small but variable proportions at most offshore sites. The proportion of chlorite was determined using a modification from MOORE and REYNOLDS (1989). The area of the 14.9 ? peak (heated scan) is subtracted from the smectite peak 17 A (glycolated scan), and the proportion of smectite was made equal to the 17 A (glycolated) peak minus the area of the 14.9 A peak (heated). Mixed-layered iUite/smectite, recognized in some samples, was not separately quantified here. As in the two previous studies of this investigation, we rec- ognize five clay mineral assemblages (coded I to V) on the basis of relative percentages of the three prevailing minerals (smec- tite, kaolinite, illite) in this region; I = high smectite (>70%), moderate kaolinite (20-29%), low iUite (<10%); n = high smectite (>70%), low kaohnite (<20%), low to moderate ilhte (< 10-19%); in = moderate smectite (40-69%), high kaohnite (>30%), variable amount of illite (<10%->20%); IV = low smectite (<40%), high kaolinite (>30%), moderate to high il- Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 14, No. 1, 1998 204 Stanley, Nir and GaliU Figure 7. SE Mediterranean study arca showing positions of offshore surficiai sample sites (grabs, core-lops); the 85 samples collected from 1963 to 1995 are assembled into 8 groups (A-H; Tables 1-7). lite (10->20%); and V = moderate smectite (40-69%), moder- ate kaolinite (20-29%), low to moderate illite (< 10-19%). Each of the 85 offshore samples examined herein is as- signed one of the above five clay mineral assemblage types (Tables 1-7). Moreover, chlorite content (ranges from 1 to 9%) is also considered, and two very general groups are identified: samples with relative percentages <4% and those with >4%. Diffractograms of several representative clay assemblages are shown in Figure 8. Mineral content is recorded as relative percentage and, ac- cordingly, clay mineral values are inversely related, i.e. high proportions of smectite are usually accompanied by lower ka- olinite plus illite, and vice versa. There are limitations in cal- culating mineral proportions, and we consider the clay min- eral values presented herein only as semi-quantitative. To help further distinguish regional trends, we have compiled 3 additional average percentage values, i.e., smectite -I- kaolin- ite, kaolinite + illite and illite -t- chlorite. Percentages for each of the 8 sample groups (A-H) in Tables 1 to 7 are aver- aged and listed in Table 8. The complete sets of grain size analyses and diffractograms obtained for the 211 samples in this investigation are archi- ved in the Sedimentologj' Laboratory Data Bank, at the Na- tional Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. OBSERVATIONS Texture Seven textural parameters were measured for each of the 85 samples in the 8 sample groups (Tables 1 to 7). There is large grain-size variability within and among groups A-H, and textural parameters show no strong or consistent rela- tionships among various grain-size components (granules, sand, silt-l-clay,% clay), nor among proportions of different grain sizes and mean, mode and median. The range of total percent clay and mean grain size in sam- ples of each group is as follows: A, 16-19%; 30-215 jjim, D, 31^0%; 7-34 |xm, G, 2^%; 130- 144 fjim, B, 12-39%; 6-216 ixm, E, 11-32%; 9-136 (xm, H, 22- 38%; 6-18 |jLm, C, 8-39%; 7-398 |xm, F, 16-39%; 7-116 |xm. These data show that only in groups D and H, collected on the Nile Cone, are moderate to high total percentages of clay Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 14, No. 1, 1998 Nile Cell Provenance 205 Table 1. Clay mineral and (Plural data for sampks (n ^ 3) in group A (?veatern Nile delta shelf) and 27 samples in group C (Nile delta proper) collected on RV Chain cruise 179 in 1975 CWoods Hole Oc?anographie Institution, 1975). Groups A ..??pi- ?? ' and C"' ""'"" ?'"': Nile Delta Shelf (RV Chain cruise 179) Size Statistics From Fraction -1 mm Clay Major Clay M ineraj s(%) ilues) Grain Size (based on volume, using laser analyzer) Code Smpl Mineral (basea on weignt Vc.) Vt Clay (vol.) Mean (p.m) Mode ((xm) Median ((J.m) # # Assem. Smectite Kaolinite Illite Chlorite Granules Sand Silt + Clay 1 189 rv 33 40 20 7 6.84 66.28 26.88 16.4 214.6 262.3 161.9 2 08 III 43 37 16 4 0.58 43.38 56.04 17.2 86.23 99.9 37.4 3 05 rv 35 39 22 4 0.0 3.2 96.8 18.8 29.6 52.5 20.0 4 33 in 55 31 11 3 0.0 27..54 72.46 28.9 23.2 4.5 6.2 5 31 HI 54 32 12 2 0.32 0.97 98.71 22.8 12.8 22.3 7.8 6 30 m 45 37 16 2 2.30 14.87 82.83 26.4 44.9 5.0 5.8 7 55 V 65 25 7 3 0.10 0.10 99.80 24.2 10.9 16.2 6.6 8 60 HI 53 34 11 2 0.0 0.59 99.41 25.7 15.7 5.0 6.2 9 39 III 54 30 14 2 0.0 0.22 99.78 24.2 12.1 16.2 6.5 10 41 III 56 30 12 2 0.27 25.28 74.45 17.9 73.4 291.9 15.9 11 91 V 58 27 12 3 0.0 30.60 69.40 15.1 69.1 235.6 17.8 12 45 III 50 32 13 5 35.02 46.46 18.52 12.5 398.3 766.3 468.3 13 47 III 44 37 16 3 3.74 36.93 59.33 23.3 122.6 766.3 8.6 14 48 III 54 33 10 3 4.37 53.70 41.93 18.8 187.8 688.4 17.3 15 89 11 70 18 8 4 0.22 72.62 27.16 3.8 216.2 99.9 119.8 16 106 V 61 27 9 3 0.20 79.50 20.30 7.6 97.3 111.2 91.9 17 108 III 46 36 14 4 2.42 58.3 39.27 13.2 65.7 123.8 48.3 18 87 III 54 30 14 2 0.43 22.97 76.60 22.8 24.5 13.0 9.1 19 111 III 44 34 15 7 9.95 69.69 20.36 18.5 286.2 766.3 173.9 20 112 III 46 35 13 6 8.51 77.95 13.54 9.2 383.0 766.3 383.6 21 172 V 55 26 11 8 0,0 69.34 30.66 7.7 76.0 99.9 82.5 22 169 III 50 34 13 3 0.0 2.69 97.31 23.0 14.6 20.0 8.2 23 166 III 43 33 17 7 27.41 55.27 17.32 19.9 299.3 766.3 26.9 24 164 IV 39 36 20 5 14.51 79.92 5.57 9.3 394.5 688.4 406.5 25 162 III 44 39 13 4 7.93 65.23 26.84 11.0 343.5 688.4 318.0 26 154 in 45 38 14 3 0.0 0.19 99.81 29.3 11.9 5.0 4.8 27 148 III 46 33 16 5 0.0 2.74 97.26 32.03 11.2 4.7 4.1 28 153 III 48 36 13 3 1.23 14.50 84.27 28.4 70.5 1.1 6.2 29 152 III 46 37 11 6 11.08 69.82 19.10 38.6 7.2 1.1 3.2 30 150 rv 39 39 18 4 0.05 22.51 77.44 28.6 44.9 1.1 6.3 (range=22-40%) associated with smaller mean grain size (range=6-34 (jtm). Textural analysis of samples in the other 6 groups record no close or consistent relationship between total amount of clay and mean grain size. To determine if proportions of clay minerals are in some way related to grain size, 56 scatter plots were generated. These diagrams depict proportions of each of the four indi- vidual minerals (smectite, kaolinite, illite, chlorite) against (1) total percent clay and (2) mean grain size for each of sam- ples in the 8 groups. Most of the scatter plots (36 of the 56) show highly iri'egular patterns with no statistically signifi- cant correlation among grain size, total percentage of clay and the four specific clay minerals considered for the 8 groups. Two examples of such random plots are shown in Fig- Table 2. C'/ay mineral and textural data for samples (n = 8) in group B (Nile delta shelf) collected on RV Pillsbury cruises 6508 and 6510 in 1965 (University of Miami RSMA?, 1965 cruise data, unpublished records). Group B: Nile Delta Shelf (RV Pillsbury cruises 6508 and 6510) Code Smpl Clay Mineral Assem. Major Clay Minerals ('/) (semi-quantitative values) Grain Size (based on weight %) Size Stiiti.sticy From (based on volume, usi Fraction -^1 mm ng laser analyzer) Smectite Kaohnite Illite Chlorite Granules Sand Silt Clay % Clay (vol.) Mean ((j.m) Mode Median (ji,m) (n.m) 1 P6508-39 V 57 30 12 2 37.90 45.35 16.75 11,8 173,0 770,7 224,3 2 P6508-38 45 38 14 3 0.00 3.02 96.98 21,0 55,4 190,1 8,1 3 P6508-41 50 37 11 2 4.08 66.46 29.46 11,9 215,5 153,4 130,1 4 P6510-?8 51 32 14 3 4.6 61.64 33.76 36,5 6,1 16,2 3,6 5 P6510-10 54 32 11 3 11.96 44.31 43.73 18,4 170,7 766,3 24,6 6 P6508-42 54 34 11 1 9,66 28.86 61.48 30,6 13,7 5,0 4,7 7 P6508-44 55 36 8 1 1.14 2.66 96.2 36,5 9,4 1,2 3,3 1 8 P6508-48B 50 38 9 3 0.00 2.36 97.64 38,5 7,2 2,6 2,6 1. Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 14, No. 1, 1998 1 11 i 206 Stanley, Nir and Galili Table 3. Clay mineral and textural data for samples (n = 6) in group D (Nik Cone proper) collected on RV Pillsbury cruise 6508 n 1965 (Um versity of Miami RSMAS, 1965 cruise data, unpublished records). Group D: Nile Con s Propel (RV Pills bury cruise 6508) Size Statistics From Fraction <1 mm Smpl Clay Major Clay Minerals (%) (semi-quantitative values) Grain Size (based on weight %) (based on volume, using laser analyzer) Code % Clay Mean Mode Median Assem. Smectite Kaolinite niite Chlorite Granules Sand sut + Clay (vol.) (M-m) (ixm) (lim) 1 P6508-37 Ill 45 37 16 2 0.88 1.23 97.89 35.8 8.6 2.9 3.2 2 P6508-36 IV 35 46 14 5 0.00 7.23 92.77 35.8 9.9 2.6 3.1 3 P6508-46 III 42 35 20 3 0.00 2.29 97.71 39.5 7.7 2.3 2.7 4 P6508-45 III 45 39 14 2 0.08 6.01 93.91 33.5 9.5 2.7 2.9 5 P6508-47 III 53 36 9 2 0.00 2.11 97.89 40.1 6.5 2.3 2.7 6 P6508-48 III 45 39 15 1 0.00 3.05 96.95 31.4 34.2 2.6 3.2 ure 9C and D. This indicates that for most samples, there is no evidence of size-sorting, i.e. direct relation between clay mineralogy and grain size. Several exceptions are noted: (1) iUite proportions in groups B and F tend to increase with increased mean grain size (Figure 9A); (2) illite in groups B and F also tends to decrease with increased proportion of clay (Figure 9B); (3) in some sample groups (D, F, H), percentage of chlorite increas- es somewhat with increased proportions of clay; and (4) ka- olinite tends to increase with increased grain size in groups A, C and F. Of the 8 groups, only clay minerals in F, collected nearshore at shallow depths (Pleistocene, early Holocene) in proximity to the Israeli coast, record some general trends be- tween clay mineral content and texture. This latter obser- vation suggests that clay mineral assemblages in some group F samples have been influenced by size-sorting phenomena. This observation in group F records the importance of original deposition in a proximal terrestrial environment; an example is the small delta at the mouth of the Oren river now sub- merged offshore in the Atlit region. Clay Mineral Distributions Westernmost Nile Delta Shelf Sample group A, the westernmost Nile shelf samples col- lected off Alexandria and Abu Qir in 1977 (Table 1), are dis- tinct from all samples taken to the east, i.e. on the Nile shelf, and on the Nile Cone to the north (Table 8). Average mineral proportions in this sector are characterized by relatively low proportions of smectite (37%) and somewhat higher values of illite (19%) and chlorite (5%) than on the Nile delta shelf proper; kaolinite percentages (37-40%), however, are com- parable to those recorded on the Nile Cone and inner Israeli shelf Clay assemblages in this sector are primarily of type IV, and similar only to those of group F recovered in the 1980's in sectors of the central to northern Israeli shelf; as noted above, samples of this gi-oup originally were of shallow, nearshore terrestrial origin (Figure lOB). NUe Shelf Group B, samples recovered on Nile and Sinai shelves in 1965, record the following average mineral proportions: 52% Table 4. Clay mineral and textural data for samples (n data collection; NIR, 1984). 13) in group E (Gaza-Israel shelf) collected in 1963 by Y. Nir (Geological Survey of Israel, 1963 Group ? : Gaza-Israeli Shelf (Collected by Y. Nir Geological Survey of Israe , 1963) Size Statistics From Fraction <1 mm Smpl It Ctey Mineral Assem. Majo (semi- Clay Minerals quantitative va (%) lues Grain Size (based on weigl (based on volume using laser t nalyzer) Code ft t %) % Clay Mean Mode Median Smectite Kaolinite Illite Chlorite Granules Sand Silt + Clay (vol.) (|J.m) (|xm) (M-m) 1 YN1501 V 57 28 11 4 0.04 1.77 98.19 21.9 21.6 42.4 10.1 2 YN1502 44 34 17 5 0.00 0.43 99.57 26.4 12.7 27.6 6.4 3 YN1507 54 31 11 4 0.00 0.05 99.95 31.9 8.8 4.5 4,1 4 YN1504 39 40 16 5 0.05 0.00 99.95 31.7 9.1 5.5 4,4 5 YN1523 46 36 14 4 1.66 60.45 37.89 11.0 136.2 111.2 88,2 6 YN1525 49 31 15 5 0.04 17.75 82.21 23.7 21.4 65.1 7.9 7 YN1526 49 30 16 5 0.00 1.92 98.08 24.8 16.6 38.1 7.2 8 YN1543 50 32 13 5 1.02 14.13 84.85 28.6 21.5 72.5 6.3 9 YN1546 46 34 14 6 0.00 0.60 99.40 30.4 10.6 1.2 4.8 10 YN1545 53 31 13 3 0.00 0.97 99.03 31.7 10.4 1.4 4.3 11 YN1569 51 30 14 5 0.15 28.86 70.99 16.2 40.7 72.5 38.8 12 YN1570 48 36 13 3 1.20 23.78 75.02 21.7 36.8 89.9 13.6 13 YN1580 46 35 15 4 1.86 24.90 73.24 23.9 28.5 72.5 10,0 Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 14, No. 1, 1998 Nile Cell Provenance 207 Table 5. Clay mineral and textural data for samples (n Antiquities Authority, Atlit, Israel, unpublished records). 10) in group F (Israel nearshore) collected in the 1980's by E. Galili (Marine Brarwh, Israel Group F: Israel Nearsh ore (collected by E. GaUli in 1983-1985) Size Statistics From Fraction <1 mm Smpl Clay Mineral Major Clay Minerals (%) (semi-quantitative values) Grain Size (based on weight %) (based on volume, using laser analyzer) Code % Clay Mean Mode Median If H Assem. Smectite Kaolinite lllite Chlorite Granules Sand Silt + Clay (vol.) (p-m) ((J.m) ((im) 1 G17 V 38 27 13 2 0.43 33.88 65.69 30.7 14.1 47.2 5.6 2 G20 rv 15 51 33 1 0.18 45.78 54.04 15.9 115.9 190.1 128.6 3 G18 rv 33 41 23 3 0.00 33.19 66.81 20.5 75.9 170.8 32.4 4 G22 111 53 33 12 2 0.00 29.37 70.63 35.3 21.6 1.4 3.5 5 G19 rv 33 37 28 2 0.14 16.12 83.74 21.2 114.9 235.6 13.6 6 G16 IV 31 39 25 5 0.16 7.33 92.5 23.8 16.5 42.4 8.2 7 G13 111 42 34 19 5 1.08 18.16 80.76 26.4 41.3 52.5 8.1 8 G15 III 44 38 13 5 0.16 7.33 92.5 23.8 16.5 42.4 8.2 9 G14 rv 20 46 25 9 0.71 4.84 94.45 32.4 38.8 0.9 5.1 10 G21 TV 25 48 21 6 0.91 9.17 89.92 39.3 6.7 1.5 2.8 smectite, 35% kaolinite, 11% illite and 2% chlorite (Table 8). Average clay proportions of group C (Table 1) taken on the Nile shelf in 1977 are: 50% smectite, 33% kaolinite, 13% illite and 4% chlorite. Similarity of both textural and mineral at- tributes of Nile shelf groups B and C, collected twelve years apart, is of note (Table 8, Figure lOA): both are smectite-rich and record very large range of grain size (Tables 1, 2). More- over, clay assemblages in both B and C are primarily of type III, and proportions of clay minerals are similar to those in Nile Cone and Israeli margin samples (groups D, E, G, H) collected in 1963 and 1965 (Figure lOA). Samples of gi-oup C that were collected on the inner Nile shelf are characterized by somewhat higher proportions of smectite (to 60-70%) and some are of assemblage type II; values here are intermediate between those in the Nile delta proper (>70%; type I) and those farther seaward on the mid- to outer-Nile shelf (most <55%; type III). NUe Cone off NUe Shelf Average clay mineral proportions of group D on the Nile Cone, north of the Nile shelf, collected in 1965 are: 44% smec- tite, 39% kaolinite, 15% illite and 2% chlorite (Table 8). Most Cone clay samples are defined by assemblage type III (Table 3), and while generally similar to those on the Nile shelf (groups B, C), typically comprise slightly higher proportions of kaolinite and illite. As recorded in Figure lOA, proportions of clay minerals in group D are also comparable to those on the Israel shelf (groups E, G) and eastern Nile Cone off Israel (group H). Gaza and Israeli Shelves Group E samples collected in 1963 on Levant shelves record the following average clay percentages: 49% smectite, 33% kaolinite, 14% ilhte and 4% chlorite (Table 8). These values (defining assemblage III; Table 4) are similar to those on the Nile delta shelf (groups B, C), Nile Cone (group D) and east- ern Nile Cone (group H) seaward of the Israeli shelf (Figure lOA). Samples of group F collected between 1983 and 1986 along the shallow Israeli nearshore were taken from muds of allu- vial origin that accumulated primarily at the end of the Pleis- tocene and early Holocene (WEINSTEIN-EVRON, 1994). These pre-modern relict muds are now exposed locally as surficial patches of small to moderate size suri-ounded by modern sed- iment, usually sand (GALILI et al., 1993). Average values are: 36% smectite, 39% kaolinite, 21% illite and 4% chlorite (Table 8). It is of note that group F clay mineral values (assemblages III, IV and V; Table 5; Figure lOB) are almost identical to those recorded for the shelf samples west of the Nile delta proper (group A). In contrast, group F clay mineral values differ markedly from those of the Nile shelf and Nile Cone Table 6. Clay mineral and textural data for samples (n = 5) in group G (off the Port ofAshdod, Israel) collected in 1995 by A. Golik (Israel Oc?anographie & Limnological Research, Ltd., Haifa, Israel, unpublished records). Group G: Off Port ofAshdod, Israe 1 (collected by A. Golik in 1995) Size Statistics Fi om Fraction <1 mm Smpl It Clay Mineral Assem. Major Clay Minerals (%) (semi-quantitative values) Smectite Kaolinite Illite Chlorite Grain Size (based on weight %) Granules Sand Silt + Clay (based on volume. using laser analyzer) Code II % Clay (vol.) Mean (|J.m) Mode ((xm) Median (p.m) 1 k-kS, Ill 50 32 14 4 0.09 88.59 11.32 3.6 134.5 153.4 139.0 2 A-B7 III 47 33 16 4 0.0 93.32 6,68 2.4 143.6 153.4 145.7 3 4 A-D8 A-E7 III V 52 32 54 29 13 14 3 3 0.6 0.04 86.15 93.61 13.25 6.35 4.2 2.6 132.1 139.5 153.4 153.4 137.5 140.6 5 A-E8 III 47 34 16 3 0.09 87.0 12.91 3.8 129.6 153.4 134.3 Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 14, No. 1, 1998 208 Stanley, Nir and Galili Table 7. Clay mineral and textural data for samples (n data collection; NIR, 1984). ? 13) in group H (eastern Nile Cone) collected in 1963 by Y. Nir (Geological Survey of Israel, 1963 Group H: Eastern Nile Cone (Collected by Y. Ni -, Geological Sui-vey of Israel, 1963) Size Statistics From Fraction 8 groups (A-H) in the Levant margin. - Dominant 8 Sample Groups clay mineral (by re^on and date) n = assemblage Sm K I Chi Sm + K K + I I + Chi A: West of Nile delta shelf (RV Chain, 1977) B: Nile delta shelf (RV Pillshuiy, 1965) C: Nile delta shelf (RV Chain, 1977) D: Nile Cone (RV Pillsbury, 1965) E: Gaza and Israeli shelf (Geoi. Survey of Israel, 1963) F: Inner Israeli shelf (Galili, 1980s) G: Ashdod, Israel shelf (Golik, 1995) H: East Nile Cone (Geol. Survey of Israel, 1963) 3 rv 37 39 19 5 76 58 24 8 in 52 S5 11 2 87 46 14 27 m 50 33 13 4 83 45 17 ? ni 44 39 15 2 83 53 17 13 III 49 33 14 4 82 47 18 10 IV 36 39 21 4 75 61 25 5 III 50 32 15 3 82 45 18 13 III 51 31 14 4 82 45 18 (groups B, C, D), and from samples recovered between the Nile delta and the Israel-Lebanon border (groups E, G, H). Average clay mineral values in group G taken off the Port of Ashdod in 1995 are: 50% smectite, 32% kaolinite, 15% illite and 3% chlorite (Table 8). Although samples of this group comprise only about 4% of sediment examined in this study, the values we obtained (assemblage III; Table 6) are similar to those of groups B-E and G, collected between 1963 and 35 30 - 20 10 A 1 1 - y^ O o o / o - 0 '^^o - 00 o 1 r = 0.747 " n = 10 , (group F) 50 100 Mean grain size (^m) 150 o 1 B 1 I r = -0.553 n = 10 30 0 (group F) - 25 - o 0 0 20 - 0 o 15 m o 0 o 25 30 % Clay 35 40 c 1 1 n = 30 (groups A,C) 70 o o - .|60 # O o o - 5S 50 -o o e ?8 o o 0 o o ?o ? 40 O 0 s 30 1 1 1 O 100 200 300 IVIean grain size (um) E 60 E 40 30 D 400 n = 30 (groups A,C) _i_ 10 20 30 % Clay Figure 9. Scalier plots showing selecled clay minerai percentages versus mean grain size (p,m) and percentage of clay in samples of groups A, C and F. A, percent illite versus mean grain size for samples in group F indicating a positive trend; B, percent illite versus percent clay for samples in group F records a general negative trend (lines in plot A and B are regression lines). In contrast, C, D, scatter plots for percent smectite versus mean grain size and percent clay show no significant trends for samples in groups A and C. Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 14, No. 1, 1998 210 Stanley, Nir and Galili Sample Groups Sample Groups Figure 10. Ternary diagrams to distinguish (A) smectite-enriched samples in groups B-E, G and H from (B) kaoliiiite-, illjte- and chlorite-enriched samples in groups A and F. Plots are generated using data in Tables 1-7. 1977 on Nile, Gaza and Israeli shelves and on the Nile Cone (Figure lOA). Eastern Nile Cone Off Israel Average clay mineral percentages for gi'oup H, collected on the eastern Nile Cone off Israel in 1963, are: 51% smectite, 31% kaolinite, 14% illite and 4% chlorite (Table 8). These values (assemblage III; Table 7) closely resemble those of samples in groups B-E and G collected between 1963 and 1977 on the Nile Cone north of the Nile delta shelf and on Nile, Gaza and Israeli shelves as well (Figure lOA). Synthesis of Observations There is considerable textural diversity from sample to sample on the shelves in the study area. The only general trend is one recorded by sediment on the Nile Cone proper (D) and easternmost Nile Cone (H): samples in these deeper sectors are characterized by finer mean grain size and larger total proportions of clay fractions than those taken on the Nile, Gaza and Israeli shelves (A-C, E-G). For the most part, textural analyses do not record a direct relation between tex- ture and clay mineral assemblages, nor of size-sorting effects. We suggest that this results, at least in part, from the sam- pling procedures used; collection of surficial sediments by grabs and core tops recovers material of different Holocene age between the water-sediment interface and 10 cm depth, providing a record of mixed modern and older Holocene sed- iment. Biogenic activity as well as currents are responsible for this reworking and mixing. We can only infer that the data for samples collected between 1963 and 1995 and con- sidered in the present study provides textural information primarily for surficial seafloor materials that date from the Holocene to about this mid-century, that is, until about the time of closure of the High-Dam. With regards to mineralogy, 6 of the 8 sample groups in- dicate an offshore distribution over the study area of gener- ally similar, but not identical, clay mineral assemblages. Two clay mineral suites are recognized (Figure 10). The first suite (groups B-E, G, H) comprises mostly assemblage III charac- terized by moderate proportions of smectite and high kaolin- ite and high smectite + kaolinite values (Table 8). The second suite (groups A and F) includes mostly assemblage IV with generally lower proportions of smectite and higher kaolinite, and high kaolinite+illite and illite+chlorite values. In sec- tions that follow, clay distributions in each of the 8 offshore sample groups are compared with distributions of clay min- eral assemblages previously mapped on the adjacent coastal plain. COMPARISON BETWEEN OFFSHORE AND COASTAL ASSEMBLAGES Nile Delta Shelf and Cone Sector The northern Nile delta plain is characterized by clay min- eral assemblages I and II, i.e. those with consistently high proportions (60-80%) of smectite (STANLEY and WINGERATH, 1996). Proportions of kaolinite in the Nile delta range to 25% near the coast. Illite values are usually much lower (generally ?10% or less) on the delta plain near the coast, and chlorite is either absent or present only in trace amounts. In contrast, eolian dust over NE Egypt, comprises higher proportions of kaolinite (to -40%) and illite (to >20%) (cf. CHESTER et al., 1977). This wind-blown material is derived from North Afri- can and Middle East deserts (MURR?\Y, 1951; YAALON and GANOR, 1973, 1979; CHAMLEY, 1988), Pliocene-Pleistocene River Nile valley sections in Upper and Middle Egypt, and some earlier geological exposures. Composition of samples just seaward of the Nile delta is similar to that of sediment mapped on adjacent land regions. For example, the coastal plain to the north and west of Abu Qir and southwest of Alexandria is carbonate-rich and smec- tite-poor. In parallel, offshore clay assemblages at this west- ernmost boundary of the Nile delta shelf are characterized by much lower proportions of smectite and higher values of kaolinite, illite and chlorite (assemblage IV) and are mark- edly distinct from those in the Nile delta proper. Smectite content increases abruptly (assemblage III) on the shelf north and east of Abu Qir bay, recording the marked input of Nile-derived sediment. Moreover, proportions of smectite are highest, and kaolinite lowest (assemblage II, III), in a delta coast-parallel belt on the inner Nile shelf (Fig- ure 12). Examples include RV Chain cruise 119 samples 7 and 15, taken off Rosetta promentory and Burullus lagoon outlet (Figure 7), which are characterized by clay mineral proportions that approximate those on the adjacent Nile delta (assemblage II; Table 2). Seaward assemblages (III), includ- ing those on the Nile Cone (also III), are generally compa- rable with those on the NUe shelf (almost identical smecti- te-I-kaolinite values). On the Cone proper (gi-oup D), however, amounts of kaolinite are somewhat increased relative to smectite (Table 8). 7 Suez Canal to Gaza Sector Clay minerals along the western Sinai coastal plain be- tween the northern Suez Canal and Bardawil lagoon (assem- blages II and III) are similar to those in Holocene deposits on the Nile delta proper (assemblages I and 11). In contrast. Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 14, No. 1, 1998 Nile Cell Provenance 211 Netanya Nahariyya AkKo 30' S Nile Lit lora I Cell <=2) Eolianile Ridge 33? 30' 400 m 32? 30' 5- 10- 35? 15, ~ ^ <=^ 1^ f ^?^ yC^ \l :^ psJ i--=?^- 1 f 1 f 0 U..I Foolhills ?? Study Areo 0 100 200 300 400 m 10 15 m Figui? 11. (A) elongate kurkar (caibonate-cemented sand) ridges on the coastal plain and shelf off the Levant margin, between Gaza and northern Israel. (6) east-to-west seismic iieflection profile across ridge-and-trough seafloor topography just west of Caesarca, Israel. (Q inteipretat?on of profile in B, showing exposed Quaternary carbonate- cemented sand ridges and sediment-filled depressions between ridges (A-C ai? modified after MART and PEI^ECMAN, 1996). (D) current eroded sandy inner shelf sector off AtUt, northern Israel, on which a prehistoric stone basin, probably used for crushing olives, is expo.sed. (E) inner shelf sands eroded by storm currents at Atlit; sand (light) has been partially removed, reveaUng extensive exposures of late Pleistocene to early Holocene mud (dark) and Pre-Pottery Neolithic artifacts (see D), fomieriy buried by sand. Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 14, No. 1, 1998 212 Stanley, Nir and Galili Figure 12. Synthesis of clay mincnij provenance and dispersal from tiie 3-pai-t study in the SE Mediterranean. Depicted dominant clay a.s.semblages include those in the lower Nile system [Roman numerals in circles; simplified from STAM,I-:Y and WINCI??ATII (1996)1. and in rivers (Roman numerals in circles) and coastal exposures (Roman numerals in boxes) east of the Nile delta [simplified from SIANI.I:Y et al. (1997)]. Soine offshore clay mineral assemblages (larger open Roman numerals, thjs study) are derived from these coastal sources, from dust released from wind and also some submarine erosion of shell floors. Most acuve dispersal (arrows) occurs along shore-parallel belts, especially between coasts and mid-shelves. Of note ?ire clays transported from and along the Nile delta (horizontal wavy pattern). Assemblages distinct from that of the Nile occur immediately west of the delta, and off the Carmel coast of Israel (near-vertical wavy pattern). the eastern Sinai margin east of Bardawil lagoon and along the Gaza coast is characterized by diminution of smectite and markedly increased proportions of both kaolinite and illite (assemblage IV). Clays in Bardawil lagoon and locally in the late Pleistocene-Holocene stiff muds on some coastal barriers (below Mt. Casius, for example) that separate this shallow wetland from the sea (assemblages III, IV) comprise mark- edly increased proportions of kaolinite (to 45%) and illite (to 30%), and smaller amounts of smectite (<45%.). Larger pro- portions of kaolinite and illite in the eastern part of this coastal sector record an important input of dust released from seasonally variable winds that blow across the wide desert expanse south of Bardawil lagoon. Also in sharp contrast with the Nile is the clay assemblage at Wadi El Arish, farther to the east, which comprises to 53% kaolinite, 19% illite and only 28% smectite (assemblage IV). Enhaitced proportions of kaolinite in the Wadi El Arish drainage area are derived pri- marily from the varied source terrains exposed in the Sinai, mainly Upper Cretaceous clays, marls and Holocene loess layers. Clays in shelf and Nile Cone samples off Sinai (assemblage III) are generally similar to those of the Nile shelf to the west (III). However, they can be readily distinguished from clays on land to the south, i.e. the western Sinai coastal plain (smectite-rich assemblage II), and the Wadi El Arish margin (kaolinite-rich assemblage IV) on the eastern Sinai plain. Gaza to Northern Israel Sector Clay mineral assemblages between Gaza and Israel's northern coastal plain are much more variable than along the longer stretch extending from the western Nile delta to the eastern Sinai plain (BENTOK, 1966). This is in part related to sediment input from the diverse fluvial netv,'ork along this margin (STANLEY et al., 1997). Small channels on the coastal plain in Gaza and southernmost Israel and, farther to the Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 14, No. 1, 1998 Nile Cell Provenance 213 north, on the Carmel plain to the Israel-Lebanon border, com- prise relatively high proportions of kaolinite, and only mod- erate to low amounts of smectite (assemblage IV). Compa- rably high proportions of kaolinite (assemblage IV) also char- acterize most coastal cliff exposures and some inland kurkar ridges, from Gaza to north of Haifa Bay in northern Israel (Figure llA). The relatively high percentages of kaolinite and iljite and smaller proportions of smectite in many Gaza to northern Israel coastal exposures are comparable to clay min- eral assemblages in some eolian dust transported in the SE Levant region (YAALON and GANOR, 1973, 1979; CHESTER e? al., 1977). Clay mineral values in Israeli coastal cliff and kur- kar ridge deposits and a few rivers sampled east of the Nile delta more closely resemble eolian dust assemblages than Nile sources (STANLEY et al., 1997). In contrast with the above-cited kaolinite-rich coastal sources are fluvial sites on the Israeli margin characterized by >50% smectite. Several small river and wadi channels flowing across the central Israeli plain, mostly from south of Tel Aviv to the Carmel coast, transport higher amounts of smectite and lower proportions of kaolinite and illite (assem- blages II, III) than coastal exposures in the same area (III, IV). In particular, the 50 km-long stretch of Sharon plain north of Tel Aviv is characterized by large smectite values (assemblage I), comparable to those recorded along the Nile delta coast. About one quarter of the fluvial samples in Gaza and Israel comprise roughly equivalent values (?40% or less) of smec- tite, kaolinite and illite (assemblage IV), Moreover, a partic- ularly high proportion (to~40%) of illite was recorded south of Haifa (near Atlit) in both nearshore (group F) and coastal exposures on the northern Israeli coast; it is recalled that these include some late Pleistocene to Holocene fine-grain materials. Clay mineral assemblage III defines most offshore surficial samples east of the Nile delta, as well as those on the mid- to outer-Levant shelf and on the eastern Nile Cone (Tables 1-7). Many samples taken on the innermost Israeli shelf (group F) differ from the above in that they are characterized by assemblage IV. It is noted that clays in these nearshore Israeli samples are more similar to samples collected in ad- jacent Israel coastal plain exposures and fluvial systems (I-V) than to offshore Levant assemblages (III). We also find that group F samples resemble those of group A (also assemblage rV) on the shelf immediately west of the Nile delta, a sector not directly influenced by provenance from Nile source ma- terial. DISCUSSION Several sediment provenance-dispersal scenarios are pro- posed for the study area on the basis of observations made on clay mineral distributions. These pertain to the shelves and contiguous deeper Nile Cone for the late Holocene until about the time of High-Dam closure. It is most likely that, on shelves, fine sediment fractions are likely to be transport- ed farther than silt and sand. Moreover, cla}' assemblages should be sufficiently varied mineralogically to help distin- guish proximal input (adjacent Sinai, Gaza and Israel coastal and offshore sectors) from more distal provenance. Distal clay input comprises two types: minerals displaced by coast-par- allel current transport for more than 700 km, from the River Nile and delta to the Israel-Lebanon border, and eolian dust from African and Middle East deserts. It is not surprising that some variability in proportions of clay minerals are recorded along Nile to northern Israeli mar- gins, a zone where current velocities in excess of 0.5 knots are measured (SHARAF EL DIN, 1977; MURRAY et al, 1981; GALILI and WEINSTEIN-EVRON, 1989). Size-sorting effects in such transport systems are expected as a response to (1) long- distance displacement of clays by fluvial, coastal current and wind processes in the Nile littoral cell, and (2) inherent dif- ferences in size of the prevailing clay minerals. We find that illite proportions in certain settings, such as the shallow nearshore, diminish somewhat with decreased grain size (Figure 9A, B). However, size-sorting is not recorded by the bulk of textural and clay mineral data generated for the 8 groups of offshore sediment. This is surprising since smectite particles tend to be smaller than kaolinite in Nile sediment (MALDONADO and STANLEY, 1981; ABU-ZEID and STANLEY, 1990), and proportions of smectite would likely increase from west to east in parallel with decreased mean grain size. Finer grain-sizes on the Nile Cone do not record increased propor- tions of smectite. Moreover, proportions of smectite and ka- olinite values appear to be independent of mean grain-size and total amount of clay in samples on Nile, Gaza and Israeli shelves. Perhaps size-sorting effects are muted because: (1) sample procedures used (i.e. grab and core-top I'ecovery) which, as discussed earlier, recover material deposited during an extended, but undefined, pei-iod during the Holocene, and not just over a few decades; and (2) post-depositional mixing by currents and organisms have altered the original petrology of the deposits. The data clearly indicate a widespread offshore distribu- tion of assemblage III (moderate smectite, high kaolinite, variable amount of illite), fi'om east of Abu Qir to the north- ern Israel margin. A priori, this would suggest predominant longitudinal coast-parallel input from the Nile system to at least as far as the Israel-Lebanon border {cf. NiR and NA- THAN, 1972; NIR, 1984; MALDONADO and STANLEY, 1981). INMAN and JENKINS (1984) have proposed that local deriva- tion of sediment in the Nile cell is insignificant. The present investigation, however, reveals mineralogical variations between the Nile delta and northern Israel with some relation between adjacent coastal plain and offshore as- semblages (Figure 12). Our clay mineral databases do not indicate a truly homogeneous region-wide distribution pat- tern, nor do they support the single Nile source postulated by most previous research as an explanation for fine sedi- ment distributions on Levant margins. Rather, lateral clay mineralogical changes east of the Nile delta call attention to the influence of some proximal sediment input introduced along transport paths. In the western part of the study area, fines of Nile derivation are supplied by erosion of Holocene deposits along the 225 km-long Nile delta coast, and by flow of suspension-rich water from delta wetlands to the sea via lagoon and canal outlets. These processes provide a contin- uous supply of smectite-rich clays that tend to be deposited Journal of Coastal Re.search, Vol. 14, No. 1, 1998 214 Stanley, Nir and Galili Figure 13. Sediment dispersal scheme showing dominant coast-parallel path for the SE Meditenanean, during the late Holocene until about the time of Aswan High Dam construction. Some shelf-to-slope sediment transport is denoted by arrows. Patterns are based on regional, near-parallel distributions of clay mineral and heavy mineral assemblages. Nile material (2) floods area east of the dominant carbonate terrains at and west of Alexandria (1). Smectite-rich sediment is concentrated on inner- and mid-shelves between the Nile delta and eastern Bardawil lagoon (2), and also on mid- to outer-shelves at least as far as northern Israel (3). The coast east of Bardawil lagoon (4) is a boundary between zones of Nile and of Levant provenance. The mineralogical province in the nearshore sector from Bardawil lagoon-Wadi El Arish to northern Israel records some influence of proximal sources (5), i.e. from the northern and eastern Sinai. Gaza and Israeli margins as well as distal Nile and eolian desert sediment. primarily landward of the sandy strand plains and seaward of the silty and sandy inner Nile delta shelf; this is recorded by the shore-parallel belt of assemblages II and III in Figure 12. These are displaced eastward to at least as far as Bar- dawil lagoon (Figure 13[2]), where a major change in propor- tion of smectite relative to kaolinite occurs (Figure 13[4]). In parallel with clay studies, sand mineral analyses have shown that during mid- to late-Holocene, continental margins of the eastern study area (Sinai, Gaza and Israel) contributed at least small amounts of sediment to this region (STANLEY, 1989) relative to the much larger supply from the River Nile system (RIM, 1951; SHUKKI and PHILIP, 1960; POMERANC- BLUM, 1966; NIR, 1984). An investigation of sand-sized heavy mineral distributions, using some of the same samples that were analyzed for clays in the present study (STANLEY, 1989), has indicated that wave and current-eroded coastal cUffs, and to a lesser extent kurkars and surficial seafloor sediment, are important contributors of sediment to the margin east of the Nile delta. These interpretations of sediment dispersal pat- terns are independently supported by physical oc?anographie studies of GOLDSMITH and GOLIK (1980) and by petrologic study of samples off Israel by NIR (1984). Thus, independent study of the clays (some modern, others pre-Holocene; cf, WEINSTEIN-EVRON, 1994) and of the heavy minerals indicate that at least some sediment was supplied along the coast east of Bardawil lagoon to northern Israel even before closure of the High Dam (Figure 13[5]). Quantitative data of the type needed to measure ongoing changes of sediment input into the Nile littoral cell are sorely lacking. The type of information needed to interpret modern transport patterns, however, cannot be obtained only from mineralogical analyses of grab and core-top samples. For measurement of the amount of distal Nile and eolian versus more proximal Levant clay input to the study area we rec- ommend the following: (1) systematic collection of sediment at specific locales and at set intervals on shelves and upper Nile Cone; (2) recovery of suspended sediment from water samples and from sediment traps set above the seafloor; and (3) analyses of samples made in a consistent manner for re- liable comparisons. Additionally, (4) detailed mineralogical and chemical identification should be made of smectite par- ticles in Nile sources to determine if these are different from those on the mid-Israeli coastal plain; this, although difficult to access, may provide an additional way to distinguish distal Nile from proximal Levant clay tracers. Finally, distribution of anthropogenically-derived geochemical tracers and pollut- ants (Table 9) can help define the position of proximal input along a coast and, thus, (5) geochemical mapping of trace el- ements and pollutants should be made in conjunction with clay analyses. Together, these woidd provide additional tools to detect what may be subtle changes of ongoing (post-Aswan High Dam) provenance-dispersal patterns. Interaction of increased anthropogenic activity and natural processes, such as current erosion and possible rising sea lev- el (STANLEY and WARNE, 1993; FRENCH et al., 1995) are al- most certainly continuing to alter former patterns of sedi- Joumal of Coastal Research, Vol. 14, No. 1, 1998 Nile Cell Provenance 215 Table 9. Artificial material dispersed along and near the coast, between the Nile delta and Leuant margins. Material Source Mode of Transport Chemicals Fill material for land reclamation and coastal construction Dust Raw sewage Industrial and domestic sludge Charcoal dust Ship waste Fish waste and organic matter Contaminated cooling water diverse industries and factories natural rock (limestone, etc.) sediment from land, and artificial material from abandoned structures (old concrete, etc.) emission from factories, quarries, etc. industrial, agricultural and domestic waste purifying stations, factories power stations, ports ships at sea and in port (solid and liquid) nutrients accumulating in fish ponds power stations river, piped dispersal dumping by truck and barge wind waste outlet, piped dispersal, river dumping, piped dispersal dumping, wind dumping waste outlet, piped disposal system piped disposal ment transport and offshore deposition in this region. We postulate that the diminished total volume of Nile sediment displaced eastward from the delta is associated with rela- tively increased amounts of more proximally supplied Levant sediment on the inner shelves of Sinai, Gaza and Israel. In fact, the present study indicates that, even by the time of High Dam construction, margins east of Bardawil lagoon were receiving important proportions of clays from rivers flowing east of the Nile (Wadi El Ai'ish, numerous small Is- raeli fluvial systems), eroded coastal exposures and eolian transport. Moreover, direct evidence of escalating seafloor erosion is the appearance off the Israeli coast of an increasing number of large, sand-free patches of pre- to early-Holocene dark alluvial mud, on which some archaeological sites (Figure IID, E) are now exposed (GALILI et al., 1993). Combined sed- imentological and archaeological surveys, in conjunction with detailed morphological surveys of the coast and inner shelf, offer an effective approach to measure ongoing changes along the Nile littoral cell. These data will also be used for imple- menting protection measures for coastal sectors undergoing active erosion and for detecting the increasingly important offshore dispersal of pollutants. CONCLUSIONS Until the closure of the Aswan High Dam in the mid- 1960's, large volumes of smectite-rich clay distributions from the lower Nile and NUe delta were transported seaward and then eastward to Levant margins. The present investigation indicates that clay assemblages are not uniformly distributed in the SE Mediterranean. Reduction of the sediment input by the Nile resulting from closure of the High Dam has in- creased the relative contributions of several other sources of clay supplied to the Nile httoral cell between the Nile delta and northej-n Israeli margin. In the Levant well to the east of the Nile delta, several sources of smectite-rich assemblages are identified, and these may account for some smectite-rich assemblages mapped seaward of the Israeli coastal plain (STANLEY et al., 1997). In addition to smectite-rich Nile-de- rived materials, wind releases large amounts of kaolinite and illite-rich dust originating in the African and Middle East deserts over broad areas of the SE Mediterranean. Clay as- semblages along some Levant sectors also suggest that coast- al shoreface cliff exposures, and to some extent the Quater- nary seafloor, are eroded by coastal and longshore currents throughout the region. Cliff erosion during the past 6000 years is estimated to have been on the order of 2-6 cm/yr (NiR, 1984); at present, erosion of the same cliffs has in- creased substantially to 20^0 cm/yr (NiR, in press). We pro- pose that these more proximal sources supply an additional, but as yet undefined, amount of kaolinite and illite, as well as smectite, to the Nile cell. It is of special note that a provenance-dispersal pattern comparable to that interpreted from clays is recorded by heavy minerals (STANLEY, 1989). It is postulated here that cut-off of the Nile sediment supply and evolving transport processes, perhaps related to rising sea level, account for in- creased proportions of kaolinite, illite and chlorite introduced in the Nile littoral cell. Whether proportions of Nile-derived smectite carried offshore toward Sinai, Gaza, and Israel (SHARAF EL DIN, 1977) have in fact decreased since closure of the High Dam will require additional study. Continued human modification of the coast east of the Nile delta has increasingly disrupted original sediment dispersal and depositional patterns on Levant margins. Construction of industrial and artificial structures and increased introduc- tion of wastes and pollutants along the shore in this region are inducing substantial coastal and inner shelf changes. There is much to be learned about the complex interplay be- tween anthropogenic effects and natural factors such as cur- rents and sea-level rise. The use of more sophisticated sam- pling and mineralogical approaches is advocated to determine current patterns of sediment supply and dispersal in the Le- vant. This should include examination of suspended sediment and distinguishing Nile-derived smectite from that supplied from Levant margins. Probably the most precise information on post-High Dam changes affecting clay mineral distribu- tions and sediment loads will be gained by measuring clay minerals in conjunction with geochemical tracer analyses. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We thank J.G. Wingerath and Wm. 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