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SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTIONUNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMBulletin 141
COLLECTION OFHEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILSIN THE UNITED STATESNATIONAL MUSEUM
BYWALTER HOUGHHead Curator ofAnthropology, Unh*d Stattt National Muttum
UNITED STATESGOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICEWASHINGTON1928ISSUED FEB 1 7 1828
ADVEKTISEMENTThe scientific publications of the National Museum include twoseries, known, resnectively, as Proceedings and Bulletin.The Proceedings^ begun in 1878, is intended primarily as a mediumfor the publication of original papers, based on the collections ofthe National Museum, that set forth newly acquired facts in biology,anthropology, and geology, with descriptions of new forms andrevisions of limited groups. Copies of each paper, in pamphletform, are distributed as published to libraries and scientific organi-zations and to specialists and others interested in the different sub-jects. The dates at which these separate papers are published arerecorded in the table of contents of each of the volumes.The Bulletins^ the first of which was issued in 1875, consist ofa series of separate publications comprising monographs of largezoological groups and other general systematic treatises (occasion-ally in several volumes), faunal works, reports of expeditions, cata-logues of type-specimens, special collections, and other material ofsimilar nature. The majority of the volumes are octavo in size,but a quarto size has been adopted in a few instances in which largeplates were regarded as indispensable. In the Bulletin series appearvolumes under the heading Contributions from the United StatesNational Herharimn, in octavo form, published by the NationalMuseum since 1902, which contain papers relating to the botanicalcollections of the Museum.The present work forms No. 141 of the Bulletin series.Alexander Wetmore,Assistant Secretary, Smithsonian Institution.Washington, D. C, November 30, 1927.n
TABLE OF CONTENTS PagoIntroduction ?*?Torch and candle ^Torch
.
3Torch holders ^Candle '^^Taper holders -^^Candle making ^^Pricket candlesticks 20Wooden candlesticks 21Candlesticks of earthenware and stone 21Glazed pottery and glass candlesticks 22Silver and plate candlesticks 22Candlesticks of pewter 23Candlesticks of brass 24Candlesticks of hammered iron 25Candlesticks of cast iron 26Candle dishes of metal 26Candlesticks with wind glasses 27Candle arms 27Candelabra 28Sconces 29Chandeliers 29Lanterns 30Church candlesticks 39Night light candles and holders 40Time candles 40Snuffers, snuffer trays, and extinguishers 41Modern improvements on the candlestick ! 42Primitive lamps 43Ancient lamps 47Float lamps 51Simple lamps 53Wick channel lamps 54Spout lamps 61Wick-tube lamps 63Time-indicating lamps 67Camphine lamps 68Lamps of the inventive period 70Gas lamps 75Heating devices 76Genesis of cooking devices 77Methods of cooking 78Brazier 78Heated irons and hot-water vessels 79Hot-water appliances 80Slow-burning fuel devices 80Hand and foot warmers 81in
IV TABLE OF CONTENTSHeating devices?Continued. Pag?Andirons 84Simple stoves 84Stoves witii rudimentary draft 85Stoves with air box and grate 87Stoves of the inventive period 89Stoves in combination : cookers, water heaters, etc 92Vessels for conserving heat 95Fire fans and bellows 95Tongs and fire tools 98Gridirons 99Meat roasters and toasters 100Trivets 101Pot hooks, pot hangers 102Curfew 102Laundry irons 103Iron rests 103Branding iron 104Aboriginal cooking devices 104Griddles 104Ovens 105Boiling 107Steaming 108Waffle irons 108Teakettle 109Fuel 109Index 111
4.
VI LIST OP PLATES
28. Perforated lanterns, Europe ; United States ; small lanterns for special uses
;
arm lanterns, Moorish lantern, and ship's globular lantern,29. Dark lanterns: 1, Philippines; 2, Korea; 3, entry lantern, United States.Japanese standing house and hand lanterns. New England lanternsconnected with fisheries.30. Rigging lantern, Gloucester, Mass. Pierced copper lantern, Germany.31. Cinnabar lacquer table lantern, China. Carved wood Chinese lantern, andglobular silk covered lantern, China.32. Japanese bronze lantern; Japanese porcelain garden lantern.33. Japanese, Egyptian, and Persian paper and cloth collapsing lanterns.34. Collapsing lanterns with mica windows.35. Church candlesticks, Europe and Near East.36. Night light candles and holders.37. Snuffer trays, snuffers, and extinguishers.38. Spring candlesticks and other devices.
39. Firefly lighting devices: 1, 2, Firefly dark lantern and insect case, Java;3, tree gourd perforated lantern, St. Vincent, West Indies.40. Simple lamps and firefly lantern: 1, Shell lamp, Brittany; 2, shell lamp,Orkney Islands; 3, shell lamp, Ainos, Japan; 4, Chinese saucer lampand stand ; 5, Aleut beach stone lamp ; 6, Eskimo pottery saucer lamp,Alaska ; 7, firefly lantern. West Indies.41. Simple and makeshift lamps from various localities; development of theRoman lamp from the saucer type, and a multiple wick terra cottalamp.42. Quasi-development of features of ancient classical lamp and the gutterlamp.43. Ancient hanging lamps and stands.44. Hanging float lamps and cup float lamp; 1, 2, Near East; 3, Philippines.Hanging float lamp and altar lamp; 1, Spain; 2, Damascus, Syria.45. Moorish float lamps (7, 8) and wick channel lamps of other localities.46. Turkish float installation, Persian float lamp, mica lantern.47. Boxes of float wicks from Spain, France, and Germany.48. Simple saucer lamps in various installations, Japan and China.49. Tibetan butter lamp and Chinese pocket lamp candlestick; Tibetan templelamps with simple saucer.50. Hawaiian stone lamps.51. Wick channel lamps : Near East, Europe, and North Africa.62. Wick channel lamps : India and North Africa.53. Wick channel lamps : India, Java, Europe, North Africa, and America.54. Wick channel lamps, simple and two shell crusies.55. Crusies of various types, Europe and United States.56. Spout lamps: Italian lucerna. European and Philippine forms.57. Spout lamps : Europe and Ceylon.68. Wick tube lamps, European.59. Single and double wick tube lamps, Europe and America.60. Two wick tube installations, Europe and America.61. Glass two tube lamps for burning whale oil ; time indicating lamps, Europeand America.62. Camphine-burning lamps.63. Camphine-burning devices.64. Inventive period lamps with flat wicks ; candle lamps and American torchburner.
LIST OF PLATES VII
65. Astral, Argand, and Sinumbra lamps ; oil pressure lamp, Carcel lamp andmechanism, and gas lamp,66. One of Argand mantel set and pair of lamp candlesticks, spring pressureDiacon lamp, Oleostatic lamp, and adapted Astral lamp.67. Table lamp, 1876, with tubular wick.68. Modified Astral and lighthouse lamps.STOVEa AND COOKING DEVICES69. a. Braziers : 1, pottery brazier, Durango, Mexico ; 2, Philippines ; 3, Spain(model) ; 4, table hand warmer, Germany; 5, Flemish hot iron warmer.&. Hot-water appliances : 1, glazed pottery foot warmer, United States
;
2, pottery foot form bottle for drying shoes, England; 3, pottery vesselfor warming the abdomen, England ; 4, foot-warming stool, England.70. a. Slow-burning personal warming devices: 1, Japanese pocket stove; 2,cartridge for stove ; 3, Japanese cast-iron closed stove.6. Bed warmer and colonial foot warmers: 1, bed warmer. New England;2-4, foot warmers, America and England.71. Hand and foot warmers: 1, 2, 3, 5, China; 4, Kashmir; 6, 7, 8, 12, Italy;9, 10, Holland; 11, 13, France.72. a. Japanese hibachis. 6. Chinese bronze fire bowl and Japanese warminghibachi : 1, Chinese student's fire bowl ; 2, 3, Japanese pottery hibachi.73. Homemade and elaborate andirons : 1, Colonial, Virginia ; 2, England.74. o. Simple draftless stoves: 1, 2, Philippines; 3, French Indo-China;4, Haussa, Niger River, Africa.6. Simple stoves with i)ot rests from the Philippines.c. Stoves with rudimentary draft : 1, pottery stove and cooking pot, Philip-pines ; 2, underdraft stove, Philippines ; 3, three-hole stove with rudeunderdraft, Philippines; 4, model of Siamese stove; 5, 6, simple draftstoves, Philippines ; 7, pottery stove with bosses, Sumatra.75. a. Stoves with rudimentary draft : 1, Morocco ; 2-4, San Bias Indians,Panama ; 5, 6, Colima, Mexico.&. Simple stoves in form of range: 1, Philippines; 2, stove with well-developed draft, Tibet; 3, Jogo Kebu, Africa; 4, Japanese range withutensils.c. Ancient Etruscan simple stoves, Sovana, Italy.76. a. Stove with rudimentary draft and cooking pots : 1, cooking pot, AndamanIslands; 2, pottery stove, Durango, Mexico; 3, cooking pot, ZuniIndians, New Mexico.6. Simple stove range, Philippines.77. Stoves with designed draft ; 1, model two-hole stove, Mexico ; 2, Tufa stove,Morocco; 3, 5, 8, models, Mexico; 4, Java; 6, Spain; 7, Porto Rico;9, Venezuela.78. a. Stoves with air box and grate: 1, 3, Tetuau, Morocco; 2, Santa Lucia,West Indies ; 4, Portugal.B. Stoves of the inventive period : 1, cast-iron pot stove ; 2, cast-iron fire-place; 3, whaler's pot stove; 4, whaler's range and oven. All fromUnited States.c. Advanced heating in the inventive period: 1, 5, 6, alcohol heaters; 2,heating attachment for lamp; 3, electric heaters; 4, gas heater.79. Stoves of the inventive period : 1, 3, mess kit and stove combined, Spanish
;
2, model of Norwegian tile stove.80. Self-contained heater devices : 1, pewter teapot, China ; 2, teapot with centerfurnace, China; 3, cooking vessel, China; 4, Korean frying vessel;5, Korean cooking vessel ; 6, Korean soapstone pot ; 7, Chinese hot-watercooker ; 8, hot iron water biggin, England.
Vni LIST OF PLATES
81. a. Stoves in combination with vessels: 1, liot-water biggin, United States;2, coffee biggin, United States ; 3, hot-water biggin, England.6. Various hot water devices: 1, shaving-water heater, United States;2, wine heater by steam, China; 3, copper colonial teakettle; 4, hot-water vessel for warming food, Holland.82. Preserving warmth and cooling devices : 1, 2, Calcutta water cooler, India
;
3, Canton tea " cosey," China,83. a. Fire fans : 1, Panama ; 2, 4, Trinidad, West Indies ; 3, Mexico ; 5, 6, Brit-ish Guiana; 12, Paraguay; 10, 11, Yucatan; 9, Morocco; 8, Spain;7, Ecuador.6. Fire blowers and bellows: 1, 2, Japan and China; 3, India; 4, Spain;5, England ; 6, France ; 7, United States.84. Navaho double valve bellows, Arizona.85. Primitive tongs : 1, California ; 2, Apache, Arizona ; 3, Havasupai, Arizona
;
4, 5, Kiowa, Oklahoma ; 6, Alaska.86. Tongs of metal: 1, 2, Pivot tongs of iron, Spain; 3, antique fire-bearingtongs, Denmark ; 4, 5, rod tongs, Japan ; 6, spring tongs, United States7, hinged iron tongs, Pennsylvania.87. Spits and grid, Virginia Indians (model).88. Gridiron and adjustable trivet roaster : 1, tall roaster, Yorkshire, England2, wrought-iron gridiron, Virginia.89. Gridirons, toasters, and roasters: 1, wrought gridiron, Belgium; 2, toaster,Virginia ; 3, trivet roaster, England ; 4, revolving gridiron, Belgium
;
5, bent-rod gridiron, Virginia; 6, groove-bar gridiron, Virginia; 7,George Washington's field gridiron, Virginia.90. Trivets : 1, perforated trivet, Pennsylvania ; 2, trivet, Morocco ; 3, trivet forheated iron, Flemish ; 4, folding trivet, European.91. Pothooks and hangers: 1, Adjustable pothook; 2 ,5, suspending chains;3, 4, 6, pothooks. All from Virginia. Ratchet pot hangers: 7, Fin-land; 8, Belgium.92. Branding iron, iron rests, and curfew : 1, Branding iron, Virginia ; 2-4,cast brass rests for iron, England and United States; 5, curfew, Hol-land. Waffle irons : 6, short iron, Charmian, Pa. ; 7, long iron, Morgan-town, W. Va.93. Sadirons : 1, Pennsylvania ; 2, Pennsylvania ; 3, England.94. Tripod paunch vessel for cooking, Teton Sioux, Dakota.95. Cooking stones, griddles, and collapsible oven: 1, Baking stone, HupaIndians, California ; 2, ancient cooking slab, California ; 3, cookingstones, Mexico ; 4, pottery griddle, Mexico ; 5, circular stone griddle,Morocco ; 6, camp baker. United States ; 9 camp oven, closed ; 7, 8, irontortilla griddles, Mexico.96. Pueblo Indians cooking bread, Arizona.97. Simple ovens: 1, Heap oven, Plains and other Indians; 2, slab cookingoven, Zuni Indians, New Mexico ; 3, field oven, Hopi, Arizona ; 4, mush-cooking oven, Hopi, Arizona ; 5, dome-shaped mud oven, Mexicans andPueblos ; 6, earth stove of the Tibetans.98. Spiders, Dutch oven, pottery oven, and steamers: 1, Spider of brass, Eng-land; 2, cast-iron spider, Alabama; 3, Dutch oven, Pennsylvania; 4,pottery griddle oven, Mexico ; 5, rice steamer, Sumatra ; 6, rice steamer,Simalur Island, East Indies.99. Fuel : 1, Hay twists. South Dakota ; 2, compressed peat ; 3, 5, tubular com-pressed peat ; 4, lightly pressed peat ; 6, Buffalo chip, South Dakota ; 7,prepared slab of Buffalo dung. South Dakota.
COLLECTION OF HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILSIN THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
By Walter HoughHead Curator of Anthropology, United States National Museum
INTRODUCTIONThe collection of heating and illuminating appliances in the UnitedStates National Museum was begun about 40 years ago by bringingtogether specimens from the ethnological series and from other mate-rial acquired by the Museum. The collection grew slowly, but about1890 an effort was made to increase its scope. At present the collec-tion numbers about 1,000 specimens. It is far from the requiredstandard, yet it contains all the types needed to elucidate the historyand ethnography of heating and illumination. Of the collection aseries suggesting the development of lighting inventions was placedon permanent display in the museum. The specimens illustratingthe earlier history of the development of these subjects were allocatedto ethnology, while the series beginning with the age of progress wereassigned to mechanical technology, which exhibits electric lamps andmodern heating inventions. For illustration, however, some of thelater forms are included. The collection is regarded as technologicaland no attempt was made to gather objects of art. The specimens areclassified and described according to the way by which lighting andheating were effected.As a logical starting point we may conceive that at some periodof the past man took up the use of fire in response evidently to ahuman need. What need fire served in that early stage is surmise,but from observations of the use of fire among less advanced peoplesit is deduced that what fire supplied was light, warmth, companion-ship, and perhaps protection from wild beasts. It will be seen thatthe quality of light giving is one of the most valuable adjuncts offire. Doubtless in the earlier periods light was chiefly serviceablefor the needs of what is conceived to have been quite a low state ofculture. Adaptations of fire heat to the warming of the body or forcooking comes much later than light usages. For this reason the1
2 BULLETIN 141_, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
subject of illumination and the development of light inventionsbeginning with the early camp fire is taken up first.There is presented a synoptic series showing the steps in thedevelopment of illumination, which forms the basis of the classifica-tion so far as it concerns the evolution of lighting devices. Theseries mentioned is shown in plates 1 and 2 of this work : ^TOECH AND CANDLENo. 1. Folded palm leaf used as a torch. East Indies.No. 2. Stormy petrel, burned in the Orkney Islands for light 178160No. 3. Candle fish in a split stick, burned for light. Alaska 178161No. 4. Torch made of birch bark. Iroquois Indians 178162No. 6. Torch made of split fat-pine knots. Virginia 129997No. 6. Torch made of a bundle of slivers of fat pine. Southern Indians- 178163No. 7. Torch made of dammar gum wrapped in palm leaves. Malays? 76727No. 8. Torch or " link " made by soaking rope in resin. Europe in theMiddle Ages 178164No. 9. Torch composed of cords soaked in fat or wax. Europe, six-teenth century 178165Nos. 10 and 11. Cord soaked in fat or wax, coiled, for lighting. England- 178166No. 12. Rush soaked in grease, forming a primitive candle. England? 178167No. 13. Stick smeared with grease for lighting. Mongolia 178168No. 14. Mass of fat formed upon a stick, around which is wound a wickof fiber. Kashmir, India 175141No. 15. Tallow dip with rush wick, later cotton. Northern Europe.No. 16. Candles formed of wax ; wick of fiber. Japan and NorthAfrica 128246,178169No. 17. Molded candles. Patent candles of stearine, parafflne, and wax,and decorated candles. Nineteenth century 178171LAMPNo. 1. Firefly lamp. Perforated tree gourd in which fireflies are con-fined for light. West Indies.No. 2. Lamp made from the skull of a sheep 178186No. 3. Lamp. Pecten shell with oil and wick of rush pith mounted ona forked branch. Aiuos, Japan 178187No. 4. Lamp. Unworked beach stone, with concavity, supplied with fiberwick and oil. Aleuts, Alaska 13017No. 5. Lamp. Hollowed beach stone with moss wick arranged alongone edge. Eskimos, Alaska 16900No. 6. Lamp. Fusus shell suspended. Orkney Islands 178188No. 7. Saucer lamp with shallow grooves for wick. India.No. 8. Lamp. Terra cotta saucer. India 164920No. 9. Saucer lamp with pinched-up spout for wick. India.No. 10. Stone lump with pointed spout. Kashmir, India.No. 11. Lamp of terra cotta. Reservoir almost closed over; spout forwick. Roman 74561No. 12. Lamp of terra cotta. Reservoir closed over ; spout for wick.Roman 175583No. 13 (1). Lamp. Designed to furnish oil to the wick under pressure.Cape Cod, Mass. Colonial period 151483
? Extracted from Synoptic Series of Objects in the United States National Museumlliustrating tiie History of Inventions, by Walter Hough. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mas., vol. 60,No. 2404, 1922, pp. 5, 6.
HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 3No. 14 (2). Lamp of brass. Reservoir mounted on rod and stand;several spouts. Italian 129400No. 15 (3). Lamp of glass having two tubes, for burning lard or whaleoil. United States. Eighteenth and early nineteenthcenturies 130610No. 16 (4). Lamp, with chimney, draft around the wick, and oil underpressure. Argand's invention. United States 130667No. 17 (5). Lamp. " Fluid" or camphene, burned by means of wick andtubes and without chimney. United States 178189No. 18 (6). Lamp, with chimney and Argand burner, oil under forcedpressure of a spring. France 130669No. 19 (7). Lamp, with chimney; burner ventilated; tubular wick, rais-ing refined petroleum by capillarity. United States, 1876_ 73829No. 20 (8). Gas burner. United States 178190No. 21. Electric arc lamp. (No cut.) The familiar arc lamp wouldappear here.No. 22 (9). Incandescent hood for gas burner. Welsbach's invention 178192No. 23 (10). Incandescent electric lamp 178191TORCH AND CANDLEThis series epitomizes the development of the candle, beginningwith the use of fireflies and the burning of the fat bodies of fishes orbirds, and of faggots of resinous wood. Continuing, the series showstorches, consisting of rudely aggregated slivers of wood or sheets ofbark, torches of more careful manufacture, torches made of waxor resin inclosed in palm leaf forming an exterior wick, torches ofrope or cords soaked in wax or resin, the crude beginning of thecandle, and follows through formed candles, dipped candles, andmolded candles, terminating with the elegant art candles of thepresent day.While the line of development has proceeded from the rude torchto the candle, the steps marked by the specimens in the series are sug-gestive, embracing devices employed by many different peoples andat divers times. Following the torch in the line of development comesthe lamp, which separates from the stem of the torch at a periodwhen oils and fats came to be used. This may have occurred afterthe domestication of animals whose fat was available ; at the time ofthe discovery of mineral oils, or of the utilization of vegetable oils,such as that of the olive and coconut.TORCHThe torches in the Museum collection come from peoples who havemade little progress in the arts of civilization or have survived inuse among civilized peoples not in contact with progress. Naturallythe smoky torch was suitable only for out-of-door illumination, butsmaller splints of resinous wood could be used without discomfortindoors.The torch may be considered as the most primitive device forartificial illumination. It can be as simple as a brand taken from the
4 BULLETIN 141^ UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMcamp fire or as elaborate as those prepared for a Roman funeral orthe artistic flambeaux of the Middle Ages. For a long period thetorch was the onl}'^ form of illuminant known to humanity. It isalso the most ancient beginning in illumination.It will be seen that the series has at the beginning several usagesof materials for light, which are included as steps in development.These are the use of fireflies, and the burning of the fat bodiesof fish and birds or of fat faggots of wood or bunched palm leaf.Strictly speaking, these may stand at the beginning of either thetorch or lamp. Before the making of torches for a definite use forlight there is little to more than suggest the earliest stages.It is necessary to exercise caution in explaining the devices whichmight be classed on account of their simplicity as belonging to thestage when the first steps were made in the use of artificial light. Adevice may be a temporary expedient assuming a primitive characterthough not representing a period or tribal usage ; it may represent abeginning acculturation, or a decayed survival. In the earlier stageshabitual use is not likely to be well established and we have usesas events and not in a regular sequence.As the development of the arts of life gradually went on at dif-ferent rates in especially favored and unfavored regions the torchtook part in this growth or remained simple, according to circum-stances. As the demand increased for lighting within the houseother devices were necessary, and these led toward the candle. Incivilized countries torch makers found that rope imbued with wax,resin, or tar formed a rigid though crude torch, which the Englishcalled link. These links entered into the picturesque night life ofEuropean cities, and with the links came " link boys," extinguishers,and link rests, the two latter perhaps remaining on the walls nearthe entrances of great old buildings. As an example of a somewhatremarkable survival, one of these links was found in use on a rail-road in Spain in 1892. It is a section of coarse fiber rope dipped inresin. (Plate 3, fig. 10, Cat. No. 178164; Walter Hough. 27.6 inches(70 cm.) long.)Torches made by the aggregation of rodlike materials, as cane,seem to have preceded the flambeaux formed of a bundle of cordsdipped in inflammable materials. It appears that such cords pre-ceded the candle and it is probable that their use dates rather farback into classical times. Individual cords of greater or lesser lengthbecame the taper. The taper was coiled in plain or fanciful ways, orlaid in vessels, some of them resembling the reservoir of a lamp on astand. The taper required constant attention in drawing up sec-tions for free burning. In Virginia the taper light was called " pullup," an apt descriptive term. An excellent specimen is shown in
HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM Oplate 3, figure 9 (Cat. No. 204264), Fauquier County, Va.; Dr.Thomas L. Settle; 15 inches (38 cm.) high. While the use of thetaper was general in Europe, the only introduction to America wasin the English colonies and particularly in Virginia.In plate 3 are grouped specimens showing some of the importantsteps in the development from the torch to the candle which may bedescribed in detail. At the lower right (fig. 14) is a piece of barkof the Mexican candle tree, Jacqulnia fungens^ which is naturallyso waxy that a small piece will give a good temporary light. Thistorch material has been much prized in Mexico, probably from an-cient times. The most valued torchwood in the earlier stages ofculture and persisting to modern times is derived from coniferoustrees. There are many references to pine torches in classical litera-ture and these often ascribe a sacred character to the wood andmention its use in rites. A similar observation is true for Mexico.In general the nations within the distribution of the pine knewthe value of its fat wood for light. The specimen pictured (fig. 13)was collected near Richmond, Va., about 1890. Known in Virginiaas "lightwood," fat or heart pine was formerly burned in a panstuck into the side of the fireplace in the kitchen of the better classof families and is even now used for light in the cabins of the poorwhite people and, negroes. (Cat. No. 129907; gift of Rev. R. Ry-land.) In olden times in Louisiana a familiar sight was negroescarrying on the head bundles of lightwood for sale in New Orleans.Plate 3 also contains in figure 11 a mass of resin attached to a rodused by the natives of Africa (Cat. No. 169176) ; J. H. Camp; 16inches (40.5 cm.) long. In comparison note the candle. Figure 12,the Chinese form of which is called lobstock. This candle is madeby winding a cord wick around the end of a piece of the stalk ofsome plant and forming over it a mass of tallow. It was collectedin Kashmir by Dr. W. L. Abbott. (Cat. No. 175141; 10 inches (25cm.) long.)The practice of using natural sources, either animal or vegetal,as light producers has doubtless many examples which have escapedobservation. Fortunately, a few of these have come within thehorizon of modern scientific observers. Especially interesting isthe use within the memory of man of the fat body of the stormypetrel as a complete torch or lamp by the Shetland and BlanketIslanders. This bird is small but excessively fat. It is recordedthat when caught the petrel ejects oil from its digestive tract. Thecustom in the Shetlands was to thrust a wick down the deadbird's throat, apply a light, and thus produce a feeble illuminationin the somewhat cheerless huts of the islanders. (PI. 4a;, fig. 1,Cat. No. 153887, Shetland Island; Edward Lovett.) The bodies of
6 BULLETIN 141, UITITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMthe great auk, Pinguinis impennis, an extinct bird of the NorthAtlantic, were sometimes used for fuel and incidentally for light.So far as may be ascertained the petrel and auk are the only birdswhich were employed within recent times for illumination. Joly inhis work, Man before Metals, states that the Danes of the Mitchen-middens employed a wick of moss, one end of which was buried inthe stomach of a great penguin {Pinguinis irnpennis) which is ladenwith fat (p. 197). Fish have been so used, the most striking in-stance being the candle fish, Thaleicthys paciflcus^ called eulachon, asalmonoid surf fish of the northwest coast of America. Quite gen-erally the Indians along this coast used the candle fish for light.The candle fish is excessively fat. The custom was to place a driedeulachon in the cleft of a split stick and apply a light. It isdoubtful whether a wick was necessary. One observer mentionsthe use of a bark wick, thus bringing the device nearer to a primi-tive candle. (PL 4a, fig. 2; Cat. No. 178161; Walter Hough.) Dr.C. A. Q. Norton informed the writer that the Penobscot Indiansof Maine pursued the same method with suckers taken from theriver. The use of fish as fuel is more common and was no doubta customary source of light. The tail of the dogfish was cut intostrips and burned for light off the banks of Newfoundland byfishermen. The mutton fish, which was captured off the coast ofNew Zealand, was used as a torch. The informant, I. B. Millner,has observed this use. Dr. Franz Boas informs me that the Kwa-kiutl Indians of Fort Rupert, British Columbia, threw fish oil froma kelp-weed bag onto the fire to produce a temporary bright light.One of these bags of the tubular sea weed, in flattened condition,from the Makah Indians, Neah Bay, Wash., is in the museum.(Cat. No. 73753; James G. Swan.)The torch proper is taken up at the stage when materials wereaggregated into a definite form for the particular use?in otherwords, a manufactured product. This may result quite simply as apalm leaf crushed into a bundle and dried. (PI. 1, fig. 1, Cat. No.209351, Philippines; Gen. J. M. Bell.) This device has, however,a suggested primitive phase of industrial beginnings. In the areaof distribution of the large grasses it is quite natural that bundles ofcanes should be tied together and used as a torch in many places.The Peabody Museum, at Cambridge, Mass., has such a contrivancefrom a prehistoric cave deposit in Kentucky. (Cat. No. 150845.)In the Truk Group, Caroline Islands, a bundle of natural canestied with strips of vegetal material served as a torch. (PI. 45, fig. 1,Cat. No. 206274; F. H. Moore; 24.8 inches (63 cm.) long.) In theEast Indies split bamboo torches were used by fishermen and others.One of these, from Mindanao, southern Philippines, is shown in
HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 7Plate 45, Figure 1. (Cat. No. 325617, Philippine Commission, 39.4inches (1 m.) long.) In this class is a torch of strips of apparentlypalm spathe tied in a cylindrical bundle used by the Javanese andcalled dbor Tnantjoung in native dialect. (Cat. No. 128017, Java;Bureau of Arts, Paris, 29 inches (73.6 cm.) long.) Another specimenis made of long splints of fat pine bundled together to form anespecially effective torch for outdoor use in the wind. This torch wascollected from the Choctaw Indians of Louisiana. (Cat. No. 178163;Walter Hough.)In the birch tree area bundles of dry bark are rolled up to forma torch for the woods or for fishing. (Cat. No. 178162, IroquoisIndians; Walter Hough.) On the information of W. W. Rockhill,the Chinese make torches by crushing bamboo and twisting it intoa rope, the crushing of the fiber rendering it more inflammable.No resin or other aids to combustion are added as in the Europeanlink.Another class of torches has a wide distribution in southeasternAsia and in western and central Africa. They consist of cylindricalmasses of resin bound up usually in palm leaf, pandanus leaf, andpalm spathe. Apparently the first notice of them was given by SirAlfred Russell Wallace, who records seeing them for sale at Ternate.This torch is common in Malaysia. It would appear that this typeis coincident with the distribution of the dammar tree, which pro-duces the resin used in the torch. Specimens were received fromSingapore about 50 years ago by the United States National Museum.They are encased in pandanus leaves and tied with rattan. Thehandle is a continuation of the leaf below the resin bound into smallcompass. (PI. 4&, fig. 2, Cat. No. 76727, Singapore; U. S. Depart-ment of State, 16.5 inches (24 cm.) long.) Plate 3 depicts a groupof resin torches, except Figure 1, described later. Figure 2 is asimple packet of dammar wrapped in palm leaf, from the Karens ofBurma. (Cat. No. 175194; Mrs. U. B. White; 18.9 inches (48 cm.)long.) (See pi. 7 for Siamese form.) The third specimen is spindle-form, wrapped in palm leaf and tightly bound with many turns ofsplit rattan. It is evidently the work of a professional Siamese torchmaker and reflects the meticulousness of Siamese art. (Cat. No.175979, Trong, Lower Siam; Dr. W. L. Abbott; 34.5 inches (84.5cm.) long.) Figure 4 is a large resin torch from the Philippines.It is encased in palm leaf and spirally wound with rattan. It islighted at the lower end shown in the plate, the twisted loops nt theupper end being for temporary suspension. (Cat. No. 232826, Morosof Saranaya, Rio Grande, Mindanao; Maj. E. A. Mearns, L'. S.Army; 40 inches (102 cm.) long.)In one locality in the New World the resin torch is found. Thetype was collected at Arima, Porto Rico. It consists of a roll of resin54261?28 2
8 BULLETIN 141, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMabout the size of a candle and is incased in palm spathe. It appearsto be the successor of torches made by the Caribs from the ''gumof a sandal," .described by De Rochfort before 16G5. (Fig. 5, Cat.No. 219403; Dr. J. Walter Fewkes; 11.8 inches (30 cm.) long).Figure 6 is a resin torch from the Gaboon River, Africa-. It isTvrapped in palm leaf and tied with a pliable strip of some plant.(Cat. No. 164872; A. C. Good; 37 inches (94 cm.) long). For alarge .resin torch from the Congo see Plate 4c. Figure 7 is a resintorch of palm spathe inclosing a mass of fiber saturated with resin.The spathe casing is fastened at intervals with wooden pins. Inseveral parts of Siam resin-soaked fiber is used as torch filling. InBurma rattan wood soaked in rock oil was used as a filler. (Cat.No. 175977, Trong, Lower Siam; Dr. W. L. Abbott; 22.4 inches (57cm.) long). Figure 8 is a dammar torch wrapped in pandanus leaf.(See pi. 4&.) (Cat. No. 76727, Singapore; 16.5 inches (42 cm.)long.) The largest resin torch which has come to notice is fromLoango, French Congo. It is a cylinder of compact resin wrappedfirst in palm leaf and incased in basketry consisting of strips of caneinterwoven with a continuous spiral of rattan. This torch was usedin fishing, traveling, and in fetish rites. (PI. 4c, fig. 1, Cat. No.152631; Carl Steckelmann; 52 inches (132 cm.) long.) A cylindricalmass of resin folded in pandanus leaf and resembling the Burmesespecimen, shown on Plate 3, Figure 2, is from Siam. The resin is ofreddish color, not homogeneous, and burns with a bright yellow lightquite smoky and with a pleasant odor. (PI. 4c, fig. 5, Cat. No.178243, Siam, C. E. Eckels; 13% inches (35 cm.) long). AnotherSiamese torch, short and thick, is shown in Figure 4. It is coveredwith thick rugose leaf and filled with resin-coated fiber. It is heldin shape by loops of rattan. (Cat. No. 235901, Siam; Government"of Siam, 1907; 161^ inches (41 cm.) long.) Figure 2 is a smallerresin torch from the Philippines. It is filled with granules of resin.The wrapping is pandanus leaf in several thicknesses to facilitatecombustion. The binding is a spiral of rattan simply fastened offat the ends. (Cat. No. 232826, Moros of Mindanao, P. I. ; Maj. E. A.Mearns, U. S. Army; 28 inches (71 cm.) long.) Plate 4c, Figure 3,is a resin fetish torch from the Gaboon River, Africa, collected alsoby A. C. Good.A widespread form of illumination which is classed as a torchis the candlenut device. Meats of the candlenut are strung on astrip of bamboo and the top meat being lighted burns down to thenext below, and, so on. On account of its universality among thePolynesians the torch has been assigned as a characteristic cultureappanage of this race. It has, however, a wider distribution than theAleurites triloba^ the tree furnishing the nut. This is seen in a
HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 9
similar use of palm nuts among the Tule Indians of San Bias,Panama.^ The presence of this device in the New World seemsanomalous and could be explained by acculturation, the orientalcontact with Panama having been long continued. So far as knownno other torch of this type has been observed in America. (PI. 4&,fig. 3, Cat. No. 327508; Richard O. Marsh; 18.9 inches (48 cm.)long.) TOBCH HOLDERSTorch-holding devices have an interesting history, not so familiaras the multitudinous candleholders, nevertheless covering a periodabout which much is yet to be learned. A torch is usually conceivedof as an object to be held in the hand and requiring the attentionof one man. Traveling or hunting parties must delegate some mem-ber or servant as bearer and caretaker of the torch. About the campor living place the temporary torch offers no difficulty when ingenu-ity was sufficient to provide for it. Where torches are used to supplylight in ceremonies held on moonless nights and without the greatfire which illuminated primitive rites, some need would be apparentto make the torch stationary. This would imply a marked advanceover early culture. Such devices are observed among uncivilizedpeoples and as survivals. These devices are crude and appear asextemporaneous as the various makeshifts to mount the candle, men-tioned later. The problem of setting up the torch is in line withthe problem of installing the candle in a later stage of progress. Itis noteworthy that the installation of the resin torch in the SimalurIslands, East Indies, shows a considerable advance, paralleling thatof the candle and simple lamp in an advanced social stage. Thefirst form consists of a rattan bent into a bow, the ends fastened toparallel strips of wood. The strips are sprung out and a resin torchinserted. The frame resembles a bamboo lamp of Chinese deriva-tion seen in the Philippines. The other specimen is carved fromlight wood. It consists of an upright set up at one end of a flatlong-oval base. The upright has a mortise cut through it aboutthe middle, and through the hole are slipped two thin strips of wood,acting as a clamp for the resin torch. It will be seen that the prin-ciple of the clamp is applied in both specimens. A more primitiveclamp is found in the split stick for the insertion of a torch used inthe Philippines. (PL 5a, fig. 1, Cat. No. 216338, Sigoeli, SimalurIsland; Dr. W. L. Abbott; 22 inches wide, 23 inches high (56 cm.,58.5 cm.). PI. 5a, fig. 2, Cat. No. 216339, Sibabo Bay, SimalurIsland; Dr. W. L. Abbott; 28% inches high, 10 inches by 18 inchesbase (72.5 cm., 25.5 cm. by 45.75 cm.).)
* H. W. Krieger. Material Culture of the Tribes of Southeastern Panama. Buli. 134,D. S. Nat. Mus., Washington, 1926.
10 BULLETIN" 141, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMThere is now encountered a great and unnoticed change in thematerials used in lighting. Splints of resinous v/ood supplementtorches and the holders of these splints form a subject of particularinterest. Splint torches or candles, as they have been indiscrimi-nately termed, indicate that social progress demanded the prolifera-tion of lights for special places and uses, and that the camp fire, housefire, and torch had grown inadequate for social needs. In effect,special lighting is being taken into the house. The date when thisgradual development became noticeable is not certain. Traces ofthe usage are found in the later bronze age, and bronze torch holderswith two clasping arms were found in the tomb of Tut-Ankh-Amen..In the collection of the late Henry J. Heinz, of Pittsburgh, is atrifid bronze stand allocated to Egypt, which appears to be a torchor splint holder. (PI. 5&, fig. 1, No. 992, Heinz collection.) TheMuseum possesses a specimen of Etruscan origin found in Italy anddating from the middle of the first millennium B. C. It consists ofa tripod and shaft, on the apex of which is a four branch portion^each arm terminating a cleft leaf in which splints were put forburning. It has been suggested that the central spine held the shal-low dish used in the wine throwing game of Cottobus, but there is nO'trace of a junction. (PI. Qa, fig. 1, Cat. No. 147695, Italy; Dr.Thomas Wilson; 28 inches (71 cm.) high.)It is surmised that the large series of splint holders about to bedescribed represent survivals from the iron age. As would be antici-pated from the metallurgy of northern Europe, most of the speci-mens are from that region. They are in the simplest form, strips ofiron bent into flat loops and provided with spike ends for attachingto the wall or other support. In the clefts were placed splints of pine.(PI. 5a, figs. 6, 7, Cat. No. 167866-867, Finland; Hon J. M. Craw-ford; 8.3 inches (21 cm.) wide.) These simple forms of iron bent intoclefts have their prototypes in the iron age. There has been foundin a site of the Hallstadt period, early iron age, in Court St. Etienne,Belgium,'' a much bent bar of strap iron which is identified by itsdiscoverer as a sort of grate. This specimen may be related to thesplint holders described. With this in mind, the status of the familyof rude iron splint holders appears clear, and their variety to be-the result of simple folk invention. A rod of iron with a doublecleft at one end and a spike at the other shows a device for fixingto an overhead beam, forming a primitive splint chandelier. (PI.5a, fig. 3, Cat. No. 167865, Finland; Hon. John M. Crawford; 15-inches (38 cm.) long.) Another is for socketing on the end of astaff. It has two divergent horizontal clefts and a basket made byfour upright spikes, probably to hold a billet of split wood or
? Records of the Past, vol. 11, 1912, p. 123.
HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM Hpossibly a candle, as seen in later forms. (PL Sa, fi<2:. 4, Cat. No.237687, Salaberg, Lower Austria; P. J. Schock; 6.3 inches (16 cm.)high.) A wooden stand splint holder gives a suggestion of deviceswhich may be effected in the absence of iron. It consists of twostrips of wood mortised together at the top of a cylindrical staff withsquare cross shape joined base. The clefts are charred from ignitionof the burned down splints, showing that the wooden holder requiredfrequent attention. (PI. 5a, fig. 5, Finland; Hon. John M. Craw-ford; 15.8 inches (36 cm.) high.) An iron splint holder set inthe top of a cylindrical wood upright arising from a square, heavywooden base provides a light to be set on a table or other raisedfiat place. (PI. 6h, fig. 2, Cat. No. 167861, Eaisala, Finland; Hon.John M. Crawford; 12.2 inches (31 cm.) high.) Another formfor standing on the floor is ingenious and shows a considerableadvance in wood working. It consists of a block base with twouprights having grooves cut on the opposing faces. The tops of theuprights are held by a mortised piece through which slides theupright bearing the iron holder. The upright is notched and thelower end is mortised in a crutch which slides in the grooves. Alatch fastened to one of the bars forming the frame engages thenotches on the sliding upright and thus the light may be raised orlowered. (PI. Qa, fig. 2, Cat. No. 167859, Finland; Hon. John M.Orawford; 39.4 inches (1 m.) high.) The entry of the candle isshown by an iron having a splint cleft in combination with a candlesocket. This is an interesting example of history written in things.The candle, made of valuable food fat, is subsidiary at first to thecheap splint, and was probably burnt on special occasions. (PI. 6&,fig. 5, Cat. No. 167865, Finland ; Hon. John M. Crawford ; 4.6 inches(12 cm.) wide.) There appears to have been in Finland a fortu-nately undisturbed conservatism which preserved precious relics andcustoms of past times. Much of the folk material in the Crawfordcollection might serve as illustrations of early Aryan arts andindustries.Splint holders of pincer form with one arm weighted to producepressure on the splint constitute another type. This type shows anadvance on the simple bent iron cleft which gives uncertain adjust-ment of the splint. The pincer type gives a grip on the splint similarto the grasp of the fingers. So far as may be ascertained, the join-ing of two pieces of metal in apposition on the pivot hinge principlewas not practiced in the Bronze Age or in the prehistoric Iron Age.The hinged splint holder must then be assigned to the historicperiod. This device is seen in a floor splint light which has a cross-shape base and an upright of wood perforated at intervals for thereception of an iron spike, part of the iron splint pincers, by means
12 BULLETIN 141, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
of which the light could be raised or lowered. (PI. 65, fig. 1, Cat. No.150884, Surrey, England; Edward Lovett; 35 in. (89 cm.) high.)Another specimen dating in the seventeenth century consists of anoak pole rising from a block of the same material. The splintholder has a rather large ball counterpoise at the end of one arm.(PI. 6&, fig. 3, Cat. No. 150410, Surrey, England; Edward Lovett;33.7 inches (86 cm.) high.) An example from Scotland, W'here itis called "Peer man," is of cast iron. It has a heavy counterpoise.The specimen, being of cast iron, is not as old as the other examples.(PI. 65, fig. 6. Edward Lovett.) As candles in the British Isleswere preceded by fir splints and fatted rushes, some of the lighterholders were used with the latter illuminant. When tallow candleswith rush wicks came into use the " clip," as the holder is called,was fitted with a candle socket at the end of the counterpoise.History here repeats itself as in the Finnish splint holders described,but at a later period apparently. Specimens are shown on Plate 65,Figure 4 (Cat. No. 150382, from Surrey, England, collected byEdward Lovett, and Figure 8 (Cat. No. 1T8799 from Antrim, Ire-land), by the same collector (8 inches (20.3 cm.) high and 9.7 inches(24.5 cm.) high). An excellent specimen of splint and candle clipwith adjustable rack comes from North Germany. It is of wroughtiron. The lower end of the notched iron bears the socket andclip. The support is a rod of iron with a loop at the upper endand a stirrup for engaging the ratchet at the lower end. (PI.65, fig. 2, Cat. No. 289195, Germany; Mrs. Kose Gouvernor Hoes;24.2 inches (61.5 cm.) long.)A specimen which might be regarded as a curiosity of the PatentOffice was a pine knot burner, devised and patented by J. Price,December 18, 1839. The time honored candle dish is seen as a basisof this invention, the columnar burner represents the candle and theslide was a device of long ago. The holder for pine knot wood isperforated with heart design. The specimen is of normal size andmade of brass and tin. (PI. 64, fig. 1, Cat. No. 251738, UnitedStates; U. S. Patent Office; 12.2 inches (31 cm.) high.)Loosety called torch, a number of open-air lighting devices are inthe Museum collection. Among these are basket torches which haveancient use and which survived in the whaling industry as late as1880. These baskets were of strap iron strongly riveted. One oldspecimen is square and shows signs of much use. It was probablysuspended overboard by a bail from the rigging and fed with thecracklings left after rendering the whale oil. It thus gave light tothe Homeric slaughterings of the mighty whales. (PI. 7a, fig. 1,Cat. No. 75358.) Other basket torches had long handles and couldbe placed to advantage for illuminating the work on an old-time
HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 13
whaler. In the fisheries collection is an iron basket at the end of along iron rod socketed in the extremity of a wooden pole. Thisappliance was called "Torch Dragon" and was used in mackerelfishing to attract the fish to the seine. (PI. 7a, fig. 3, Cat. No. 57,829,Gloucester, Mass.; U. S. Fish Commission.) Fishing torches forplacing in the bow of a canoe are of various materials and variouslyinstalled. Broadly, they are torches used by peoples unacquaintedwith metals and those having metals. In the first case the torchesare bundles of bark, canes, or slivered wood. In the second case abasket of iron, or lantern, or a so-called torch with wick may be used.In the first class the birch bark torch of the northern Indians may becited as an example (pi. 75). The model canoe was made by north-ern Algonquians and the group composed in the Museum laboratory.The other, almost as primitive, but made of iron, is a fishing torchholder from Finland. This apparatus consists of a block of woodfitting in a thole in the bow of the boat and bearing a bent piece ofiron having three U-shaped loops riveted to it. In these loops waslaid the torch or lightwood. (PI. 7a, fig. 2, Cat. No. 167864, Antrea,Finland; Hon. John M. Crawford; 23.2 inches long, 6 inches wide (59cm., 15 cm.) A torch displaying considerable ingenuity was used onthe whalers about half a century ago. It consists of a can withhandle and match case combined, the lid of the can having a longhandle, a shield, and an iron rod with a burner of perforated andplain iron plates attached to the end. In use, the can was chargedwith the illuminant, apparently rape-seed oil, the burner alwaysbathed in the oil, withdrawn, lighted with a match, and replaced inthe can, and smothered out when the exigency was over. To obviateany gas pressure, an air vent was led in a tube from the bottom ofthe can. The specimen was presented in 1882 by C. A. Williamsand Co. (PI. 8a, fig. 4, Cat. No. 75370, New London, Conn., col-lected by J. Templeton Brown; 14.2 inches (36 cm.) high.)On account of a survival of usage in the open air the name torchis applied to vessels having a large wick burning oil. In realitythese belong in the single-wick type of lamps and mostly are mod-ern. Of these, torches carried in political processions are familiarexamples. One of these, rudely made of tin and fitted with a gas-pipe wick tube, is said to have been carried in a torchlight proces-sion during the Lincoln campaign. (PL 8a, fig. 5, Cat. No. 289457;Anton HeitmuUer; 4.6 inches (12 cm.) dia., 7.8 inches (20 cm.)high.) Another, more elaborate, is a flare torch of tin painted redwith long tubular handle. Air is blown through the flame by meansof a tube, the mouth of which projects from the handle. (PI. 8^5,fig. 2, Cat. No. 251476; U. S. Patent Office; 24.4 inches (62 cm.)long. Patented August 1, 1876, by I. W. Shaler.) A hand torch
14 BULLETIN 141^ UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
of sheet iron with brazed joints and cast handle riveted on is fromBritish Columbia, where it is said to have been used by miners andother frontiersmen and sold by the Hudson Bay Company. (PL 8?,fig. 3, Cat. No. 326755, British Columbia ; Walter Hough ; 9.8 inches(25 cm.) high.) An interesting torch of tin with brass wick tubewas used on mackerel fishing boats at Gloucester, Mass., in 1882.It has a tube below for fitting on a staff. (PI. 8a, fig. 1, Cat. No.54384; U. S. Fish Commission; 6.3 inches (16 cm.) diameter,8.6 inches (22 cm.) high.) A heavy cast-iron torch used formerlyby engineers and others on railroads Avas recently received. It hascast on one side "P. R. R. Bayton MaUeable Iron Co. X1028."(Cat. No. 325618; Walter Hough; 9.3 inches (23.5 cm.) high.)CANDLEThe crude torch and the flambeau passed out among civilizedpeoples in the course of progress, but one of the elements of theflambeau survived as the taper. This waxed or fatted cord wasburned in vessels like lamps or wound in a coil or on a supportpresenting many forms due to expediency or taste. The taper wasvery useful, and indeed still may be found on sale where fashionand conservatism demand the use of sealing wax. In Europeancountries the taper still has a cult use.The role of the taper in the development of the candle may havebeen important. There is probability that the southern Europeancandle had the taper as ancestor. The conditions were complete forsuch a development. In northern Europe, however, the candle isclearly a development from the fatted rush. The far eastern Asiaticcandle has still another origin, also using pith of the rush as a wick.There are thus seen three avenues of approach to the invention of thecandle traceable at the present. It is not to be concluded that theseare all. The candle is a device which depends on conditions, prin-cipally on the stage of human advance in culture, and, therefore,given flocks and herds for the production of abundant suitable fats,the candle may have arisen, but it must arise out of earlier uses ofsubstances for light. This combination of circumstances could haveassembled in the early Bronze Age among peoples favorably situated.Some of the commercial tapers purchased about 35 years ago areshown in Plate 8b. Figure 8 is a slender white taper wound in aningenious way to uncoil through an aperture in the holder. (Cat.No. 167065, Seville, Spain; Walter Hough; 2.4 inches (6 cm.)diameter.) Figure 7 is a bundle of thicker taper of unbleached bees-wax from north Spain, purchased at an almacen, or store, sellingecclesiastical objects. (Cat. No. 167062, Burgos, Spain; WalterHough; 1.6 inches (4 cm.) diameter, 3.1 inches (8 cm.) high.) Fig-
HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 15
ure 5 is a bleached wax taper coiled on a wooden support soldby stationers and known as " Pomeroy's coiled taper." (Cat. No.150431, Washington, D. C; Walter Hough; 2.7 inches (7 cm.) high.)Figure 6 is a wax taper coiled to fit" a holder, through the openingof which it can be easily drawn up as needed. (Cat. No. 167062,Burgos, Spain; Walter Hough; 1.5 inches (4 cm.) diameter.) Thetaper is found still in use in the float lights or night lights, in waxmatches, and in the long cords used in the almost obsolete gas lighter.Small candles called tapers will be discussed under candles.TAPER HOLDERSSuch appliances as have survived depend on the use of the taperfor special purposes such as sealing letters or for a temporary smalllight. In one specimen the familiar clip with spring is seen. (PI.85, fig. 2, Cat. No. 289449; France; Anton HeitmuUer; 5.1 inches(13 cm.) high.) In this specimen to install the taper coil the screwtop and clip were taken off, the taper slid over the upright, and theclip replaced. The extinguisher attached to the clip by a chain ismissing. A very old Italian taper holder of fine ironwork has aclip with spring. The clip is mounted on an upright rod arisingfrom a square table with ornately cut edge and four curved legswith ball feet. Around the rod the taper is wound and brought upto the clip. This taper holder appears to date late seventeenth cen-tury. (PI. 8b, fig. 1, Cat. No. 168311, Italy; G. Brown Goode; 5.5inches (14 cm.) high.) Another form has a receptacle for the taper^which is drawn up through a bell-shaped orifice. The extinguisherhas an arm fitting into a small tube somewhat as the candle extin-guisher to be described. (PI. 86, fig. 3, Cat. No. 324719, Washington,D. C; E. D. Tabler; 3.1 inches (8 cm.) diameter, 2.7 inches (7 cm.)high.) Another is of openwork brass of elaborate decoration. Ithas an extinguisher on a chain. (PI. 86, fig. 4, Cat. No. 167662, Italy ^G. Brown Goode; 2.3 inches (6 cm.) diameter, 3.5 inches (9 cm.)high.) CANDLE MAKINGIn the remarks on the development of illumination the growthof the candle was considered from the standpoint of invention.There follow notes on the materials and processes of the industry.The materials for candles are not many. In nature vegetal sub-stances preponderate over those available from animal sources, yetonly in a fevr places have vegetal fats and waxes been used forcandles, and most of these sporadic attempts belong to the modernperiod. In China and Japan, however, is seen a replica of thewestern candle industry based mainly on valuable illuminating sub-stances derived from the tallow tree, StiUingia sehifera, of easternChina, and the Rhus succedanea, of Japan. In both cases the wax.
16 BULLETIN" 141_, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
or " tallow " occurs on the seeds as in the MyHca cerifera, from whichmyrtle wax candles are made occasionally in eastern North America.The process of extraction is similar, freeing the wax from the seedsby means of heat and pressure. ' The Chinese tree tallow has a ratherlow melting point, below summer temperature, and it is foimd neces-sary to put on such candles a substantial coating of beeswax orinsect wax. In southern China candles of animal fats are so covered.The Cocus pela, or Chinese wax insect is found on the Ligustrumjaponicum, L. ohtusifolium, L. tihola, and Rhus succedaneum. Theeggs are gathered from nests on the above trees in the fall and keptwrapped in reed leaves. At the beginning of May the eggs are placedupon the proper trees, usually Fraxinus chinensis, where they hatchabout the 1st of June and begin wax making. In September thewax is scraped from the twigs where it has been deposited, meltedwith boiling water, and cast into cakes. It is a white crystallinesubstance resembling the best spermaceti. It melts at 152? F. andis thus suitable for summer candles. The Cocus pela is a relativeof the lac insect, which produces a valuable product known as shellac.This is an interesting example of man's skill in adapting the habitsof insects to his needs. So far as the candle is concerned, the in-dustry is aided by the products from two insects, the Cocus andthe bee.It appears that the beeswax candle has a fairly ancient historyin the West among the historic nations. While there is evidencethat the ancient Aryans practiced apiculture, using dome-shapehives of coiled straw, there is no basis for the belief that candleswere used. Candle making in China applies notable skill in theindustry. The first requirement are slender rods finished frombamboo and tapered from base to point. (PI. 9a, fig. 1, Cat. No.325619; Chinese Centennial Commission, Philadelphia, 1876.) Thenext in order is a spill or tube of paper wound spirally, with rushpith forming the wick (fig. 5). This is slipped on the bamboo rod.The Chinese thus solved the problem of the high-capillarity wick.(PI. 9a, fig. 2, Cat. No. 325619; Chinese Centennial Commission,Philadelphia, 1876.) The combination is then dipped in the meltedwax or fat and cooled alternately until a candle of the caliber re-quired is secured, forming the finished candle shown in Plate 9(Z,Figure 3 (15.7 inches (40 cm.) long). The pink candles of gradedsize (figs. 6-10) are made by the same method as are the largecandles. In the latter a vegetable stem is used instead of a bamboorod upon which the rush pith wick is wound. (PI. 9?, fig. 4, Cat.No. 93478, Ningpo, China; Royal Gardens, Kew, England; 8 inches(20.5 cm.) long.) This specimen is wax incased, green, and orna-mented with characters, as is the other specimen. (PI. 9(2, fig. 11,
HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 17Cat. No. 93479, Tung Cheng, China; same donor; 11 inches (28 cm.)long.) The latter is softer and apparently is of tree tallow.Japanese candles follow generally the methods of Chinese manu-facture. It is more than probable that the art of making candleswas introduced from the older country. The candles made by theJapanese are more accurately and neatly finished than the Chinese.They are frequently beautifully decorated. The industry also wasmost carefully organized in every detail. An ingenious method ofmolding candles in paper tubes was worked out by the Japanese.In the Western Hemisphere a number of local or domestic indus-tries connected with wax yielding trees and plants may be noted.The bayberry, Myrica cerifera, of the eastern coast of the UnitedStates produces a waxy substance which in the earlier days of thecountry was made into candles by economical housewives of NewEngland. It is said to have been discovered by a New Englandsurgeon who made it into candles and introduced it into medicine.The Indians made no use of the wax, as stated by Pere Lafiteau inhis work of 1724. In Middlesex, west side of the Connecticut Kiver,near Haddam, is Candleberry Hill. There is tradition of the use ofthe wax from berries here to make candles during the Revolution.The method of extracting the wax was to fill a kettle half full ofwater, put in bayberries and boil them. The heated mass was thenput in a bag over a kettle of water and strained. As the water cooleda film of wax consolidated on the surface. This was the desiredwax. The wax was not only used in making candles but wax mixedwith tallow to harden the candles made for summer use. The waxwas also sold in drug stores. The cylinders employed in the earlygraphophones were made of this wax.Candles were made in Brazil from wax from the Ceroxylon, or waxpalm. In northern Brazil the Klopstockia cerifera (cornauba) , pro-duced a useful wax, as does a Myrica in Peru. The Virola sebifera(dari), a large tree growing in Demarara, bears seeds from whichcandles equal to wax was made. Specimens of bayberry candlesfrom New England are Cat. No. 229926; Alice Morse Earle. Rudecandles of myrtle wax, made by natives of Puerto Plata, SantoDomingo, are Cat. No. 29923. (Charles A. Frazer; 12.2-15 inches(31-38 cm.) long.) An account of bayberry wax is found inScientific American Supplement.*Rush candles in the British Isles preceded the candle with textilefiber wick, and followed the fatted rush which was used in the clipsdescribed. Rushes were gathered, the cortex peeled off, exposingthe pith except a small strip of the outer covering which was allowedto remain to sustain the fragile pith. These were dipped in hot fat
* Sept. 1. 1883, p. 6385.
18 BULLETIN 141^ UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMand put away to season. (Cat. No. 150410, Surrey, England; EdwardLovett; 14 inches (35.5 cm.) long.) They were later "dipped" bythe usual domestic process for tallow candles. Rush wicks, evenwith part of the cortex left on, were not strong enough to pull inmolds, hence such candles were dipped, a method preceding the useof molds.Tinned iron candle molds are comparatively common, and manyare seen in collections where they point out that formerly candlemaking was an important domestic industry. In reality the moldsrepresent a method of economy among our ancestors in that smallamounts of fat could be worked up into candles with the molds whenrequired. Generally on the plantations, where a great many candleswere necessary, sufficient were made for the whole year by dipping,which was far more expeditious than by molds. Candle dipping wasusually coincident with the butchering of the winter stores of meat,at which time much fat was accumulated.The molds shown range from 3 tubes to 24 tubes. The 3-tubespecimen has lost the stand. (PI. 10, fig. 1, Cat. No. 127281, Lynch-burg, Va.; Mrs. Ed. Hunter; 9.7 inches (24.5 cm.) high. Fig. 2 has6 tubes. Cat. No. 298359, Virginia, Dr. P. B. Johnson; 10.8 inches(27.5 cm.) high.) The 8-tube specimen retains the stand. The tubesare less tapered than in the examples described. (Fig. 3, Cat. No.126825, Virginia; Mrs. G. Brown Goode; 11 inches (28 cm.) high.)The 24-tube mold has handles on two sides and the tubes are onlyslightly tapered. (Fig. 4, Cat. No. 175464; Morgantown, W. Va.;Walter Hough; 11 inches (28 cm.) high.)Slender candles called tapers have still a general currency forreligious use. As suggested, these are survivals of the flambeauxtapers cut into lengths for a definite use. They are intended to becarried in the hand and rarely or never are sticks designed forthem. Plate 9& figures a number of these tapers. Figure 1 is abundle of mocoluteori used in the Roman carnival. They are veryslender and of white wax. (Cat. No. 154308, Italy; G. Brown Goode;9 inches (23 cm.) long.) Figures 2, 3, and 4 are bundles of taperssold in the churches and used by the devout in processions and otherceremonials. The tapers in Figure 2 are rather large and of naturalyellow wax. Those of Figure 3 are long and slender natural wax.Figure 4 are red tapers. (Cat. No. 238067, 238070, 238068, Manila,P. I.; Philippine Commission; 12.6 inches (32 cm.) long, 13.4 inches(34 cm.) long, 10.2 inches (26 cm.) long.) Figure 5 is of a bundle ofwhite, red, orange, yellow, pink, and green tapers bought at Madrid,Spain, and used in Christmas festivities in 1892. (Cat. No. 166996;Walter Hough; 7.5 inches (19 cm.) long.) Figure 6 are small candlesof red, white, and green wax and called tapers. They were " bought
HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 19(and freely burned) in the Great Golden Pagoda at Rangoon, Burma,December 30, 1885," writes the donor. (Cat. No. 129532, Rangoon,Burma; Rev. C. H. A. Dall; 3.8 inches (9.5 cm.) long.)There are a number of candleholders connected with special occu-pations and of much human interest. These show invention off thebeaten track and are examples of the adaptiveness of the plainpeople. About the domestic textile industry there are needs forspecial lighting and a number have been used. The weaver, forinstance, plying her loom in the twilight hours or on dark dayshad a thin S-shape iron candlestick with a hook to hang it con-veniently before the work. (PI. 6&, fig. 7, Cat. No. 178798, Antrim,Ireland; Edward Lovett; 18 inches (46 cm.) long.) The brewerhad a candleholder cut from a block of wood with hand grasp,socket in the middle and an awl point at the other end for thrustinginto casks. (PI. 11a, fig. 4, Cat. No. 178361, Washington, D. C;Oeorge Woltz; 7.9 inches (20 cm.) long.) Another form of ironwith a vertical and horizontal spike leg was useful in many placesfrom the holds of New England shijDs to the barns of New Jersey.(PI. 11a, fig. 3, Cat. No. 25937, Gloucester, Mass.; A. McCurdyCrittenden; 4.5 inches (11.5 cm.) long.) Western hard rock minersused a candlestick having a spring socket, a hook, a loop handle, and& long spike which on emergency could be or was reported to beuseful as a dagger. (PL 11a, fig. 2, Cat. No. 129836, Colorado;Edward Wyman; 9.8 inches (25 cm.) long.) The miner's candle-stick seems to have attracted American inventive spirit, for severalimprovements on the older form are in the collection. One specimenof excellently finished ironwork has a hinged spike with pivoted stop,which when folded down allows the candle to be hung to the hatby means of the hooks. The patent was granted September 4, 1877.(PI. 11a, fig. 5, Cat. No. 251460; U. S. Patent Office; 7.7 inches(18.5 cm.) long.) Another is a miner's folding candlestick with aknife blade incorporated. (PL 11a, fig. 1, Cat. No. 251466; U. S.Patent Office; dated April 3, 1883. 8.2 inches (21 cm.) long.) Dur-ing the Civil War in the United States the bayonet sometimes had amore peaceful employment than its designed purpose as a candle-stick. Fortunately, the caliber of the bayonet and that of thecandles used at the period agreed, but any adjustment necessarycould be made with a bit of paper. (PL lib, fig. 2, Cat. No. 325620;Walter Hough; 20.5 inches (52 cm.) long.) The Northern lumber-jacks had a device suggesting the bayonet candlestick. The candlewas held in the cleft of a sharpened stick by a strip of birch bark.Model from a drawing by David I. Bushnell, jr. (PL 11&, fig. 1, Cat.No. 325621, 23.4 inches (59.5 cm.) long.) The famed Gloucesterfisherman in the eighties used a tin candle dish furnished with a
20 BULLETIN 141^ UNITED STATES NATIONAL, MUSEUMlong, sharp iron spike for sticking in a convenient wooden wall. Apair of these is in the fisheries collection of the National Museum.(PL 11a, fig. 6, 7, Cat. No. 54416, Gloucester, Mass.; J. W. Collins;10.2 inches (26 cm.) long.) They were used in the hold in storingfish. PRICKET CANDLESTICKSIt has seemed necessary to use the name pricket candlestick forthe candlestick having a spine on which the candle is stuck andsocket candlestick for the common type used to-day. In practiceit suffices to understand that candlestick means the socket type. Thepricket type is found in eastern Asia and Europe. The survivingEuropean examples are almost entirely ecclesiastical and large, forplacing on altars. The pricket would suffice for holding the candleon stationary candlesticks, but for ambulant candlesticks the socketwould seem better. The Museum has an excellent specimen in theform of a seven-branch wrought-iron processional candelabrum withprickets. The stem is expanded into a disk, and below is a socketfor a staff by which the lights were carried. The specimen is of thefourteenth century. (PI. 12, fig. 3, Cat. No. 176329, France; S. B.Dean; 32.5 inches (57 cm.) high, 13.3 inches (34 cm.) wide.) Twopricket church candlesticks of European provenance are figured inPlate 12. Figure 1 is of heavy bronze with large base and a dripcatcher above, in the center of which is the spike. (Cat. No. 289421,Hildesheim, Germany; Anton Heitmuller; 20 inches (51 cm.) high.)This specimen may be taken as type of the massive roundel churchcandlesticks of the north. Figure 2 is a Spanish example of carvedwood skillfully plated over with sheet iron, painted and gilt. Altarcandlesticks of this sort are sometimes very large and are frequentlyobserved in Spain. (Cat. No. 289421, Spain; Anton Heitmuller;19.3 inches (49 cm.) high.) A spike stick two-arm iron wall lightof the fourteenth or fifteenth century is represented as driven be-tween the stones of a wall. This rare specimen is of handworkin soft iron, is very strong, and of graceful outline. (PI. 13, fig. 3,Cat. No. 169094, England; S. B. Dean; 11 inches (28 cm.) wide.)Asiatic pricket candlesticks are practically confined to China andJapan, and are usually representations of mythological beings. Thecandlesticks accompanying the ceremonial set used in ancestor wor-ship at present may be excepted. The bronze figure holding a v?*^with flower candlestick appears to be one of a pair employed a lon^ftime ago in such worship. It is from the Henry J. Heinz collection,Pittsburgh, Pa. (PL 12, fig. 4, Cat. No. (1748 Heinz), China.) Thepricket is observed on a finely made folding candlestick from Japanand a stork standing on the back of a turtle and bearing a branch
HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 21in its bill. (PL 13, fig. 1, Cat. No. 248625, Japan; Eleanor Wallace;15.3 inches (39 cm.) high, and fig. 2, Cat. No. 315086, Japan; Mrs.John Van Kensselaer HofT; 11.5 inches (29 cm.) high.)WOODEN CANDLESTICKSSpecimens of wood are not common, perhaps on account of thethought of risk of burning. Most of those in the Museum collectionare from parts of Finland, secured at a time when a most interestingprimitiveness was observed in the life of the folk. Plate 14, figure 7,is a joined candlestick of wood with an iron socket. This candle-stick was whittled from wood in a way to suggest turning. (Cat. No.167862; Hon. John M. Crawford; 10.1 inches (26 cm.) high.) Fig-ure 9 is made from a multiforked branch, with the socket cut outof the stem. (Cat. No. 167863, Finland; Hon. John M. Crawford;5.8 inches (15 cm.) high.) Figure 10 appears to be a very old speci-men cut from wood. (Cat. No. 167941, Finland; Hon. John M.Crawford; 5.8 inches (15 cm.) high.) Figure 8 is a candlestickturned from walnut and used in the church of the Seventh DayAdventists at Ephrata, Lancaster County, Pa., many years ago.(Cat. No. 4,812; Miss Concordia W. Myers; 7.8 inches (20 cm.) high.)
I CANDLBSTICKS OF EABTHENWARE AND STONERuder forms of unglazed pottery and examples cut from soft stoneare presented here. They are folk craft not depending in most caseson a customary form such as appear at the time of the trades. Aninteresting specimen is a cylindrical block of chalk with centralcandle socket. This was used by the Brandon, England, gun-flintmakers for measuring time while at work. Chips of flint werestuck in the candle at one-hour spaces previously determined. (PI.14, fig. 1, Cat. No. 211911, Brandon, England ; Edward Lovett ; 2.7inches (7 cm.) diameter.) Figure 3 is cut from sandstone andrudely ornamented with parallel scores representing rain. Rudestone candlesticks have been collected from several of the easternPueblos. They are of course post-Conquest and appear to have beenused in the Mission churches. (PL 14, fig. 3, Cat. No. 234749,Jemez, Pueblo, New Mexico; Mrs. Matilda C. Stevenson; 5 inches(12.7 cm.) diameter.) Figure 2 is an earthenware candlestickslightly glazed, with drip catcher and hole for ejecting the stubend. (Cat. No. 115797, Indian potters of San Pedro, Mexico; Ed-ward Palmer; 3.2 inches (8 cm.) diameter.) Figure 5 is an earthen-ware dish candlestick which is quite effective for its lowly use.(Cat. No. 73893, Merida, Yucatan, Mexico; Louis H. Ayme; 4.4inches (11 cm.) diameter.) Figure 6 is a candlestick pinched out ofclay and baked. It was used by the Indians of Santa Cruz, Mexico.(Cat. No. 175565; Edward Palmer; 3.3 inches (8.5 cm.) diameter.)
22 BULLETIN 141, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMFigure 4 is an earthenware figure of a reclining Bacchus supportinga floriated candle socket. This is a modern conception. (Cat. No.129408, Italy; Mrs. E. S. Brinton, 4.1 inches (10.5 cm.) long.)GLAZED POTTKEI AND GLASS CANDLESTICKSThe candlestick on its material side reflects to some extent periodsof culture and phases of art. A North African candlestick ofearthenware glazed and decorated with ornamentation in deep blueis a worthy exhibit of native handiwork and art. (PL 15, fig. 1,collected at Tetuan, Morocco, by Dr. and Mrs. Talcott Williams;16.3 inches (41 cm.) high.) As a rule, earthenware candlesticksoffer great difficulties in manufacture and are, therefore, not socommon as those made of finer materials by modern processes ofmanufacture. Among the almost infinite kinds and conditions ofmodern candlesticks it is possible to touch but few and those of theaverage within the means of the average people. One example of ahighly glazed stoneware is shown in Plate 14, Figure 14. It datesabout 1870 and was made in Hungary. (Cat. No. 325622, CentennialExposition, Philadelphia, 6.7 inches (17 cm.) high.) Porcelain wasa favorite medium for candlesticks. The pair shown in Plate 14,Figures 11 and 12, are of Liverpool china and date about 1820.(Cat. No. 317638, England; Mrs. N. L. White; 8.3 inches (21 cm.)high.) The pair marked Figure 15 on the plate are German, prob-ably (Royal Saxon) Meissen, and date near 1800. (Cat. No. 289428,Germany, Anton Heitmuller; 8.3 inches (21 cm.) high.) Figure13 is of dark green cut glass of Bohemian manufacture, about 1840.(Cat. No. 300321, Czechoslovakia; Mrs. C. E. Danforth; 10.6 incheg(27 cm.) high.) SILVBE AND PLATE CANDLBS'nCKSThe technic of the brass worker is radically different from thatof the silversmith. The brass worker descends in the line of thebronze and cast-iron workers of antiquity, while the silver worker!emerges with the pattern maker (perhaps of lamps) of old Rome.The difference is between casting and beating or pressure. It isunderstood, of course, that brass was often beaten in the method ofsilver and copper, but neither of the latter was cast as a practicalmethod of working. The candlestick figured on Plate 16, Figure 3,is a case in point. It is an old Sheffield Baroque candlestick madeof sheet copper silvered by rolling that metal with copper by thewell-known Sheffield process. The socket roundels, swell of the stem,are formed by spinning, beating, or other processes and joined toform the candlestick. (Cat. No. 311537, England, Elizabeth S.Stevens; 11.7 inches (30 cm.) high.) The base of this candlestickis loaded and covered with coarse green baize. Two pairs of deskcandlesticks of silver are good examples of the silversmith's art and
HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 23
skill in design. The pair to the left had the Victorian hallmarkof 1886 and the initials of the maker, J. K. B. These are no doubta copy of earlier Georgian silversmith's work. The base is loadedwith cutler's cement of resin covered with an iron plate. (PI. 17,fig. 2, Cat. No. 311534, England; Elizabeth S. Stevens; 5.2 inches(13 cm.) high.) The second pair are the antithesis in design of thefirst pair, showing a circular base and a stem of soft curves. Thebase is loaded with a cast-iron plate. (PI. 17, fig. 2, Cat. No. 311535,(no mark) ; 5.5 inches (14 cm.) high-) More ornate candlesticks areSheffield with mark, probably 1800, and appear to follow the Frenchstyle of Louis the Fourteenth. (PI. 17, fig. 4, Cat. No. 311531,England; Elizabeth S. Stevens; 10.2 inches (26 cm.) high.) Themiddle pair are plate. Rococo in style, and follow the art of LouisSixteenth, the stem showing the return to classical art. (PI. 17,fig. 5, Cat. No. 311532, England; Elizabeth S. Stevens; 12.6 inches(32 cm.) high.) The third pair of Sheffield plate are called Chip-pendale; that is, following the conception of that master designer.The sockets are oblong rectangular. The bases are weighted andthe bottoms covered with green baize. The date of these candle-sticks is believed to be near 1770. (PI. 17, fig. 6, Cat. No. 311530,England; Elizabeth S. Stevens; 10.4 inches (27 cm.) high.) At oneperiod many candlesticks were made in France from designs fur-nished by sculptors, sometimes by eminent artists who may havebeen in need. The period perhaps coincided with that of potteryfigures and groups, which must always be regarded as an unwar-ranted departure from the true field of ceramics. To some extentthe same may be said of the candlestick miniature groups in silverand brass which served mainly to increase the supply of scarcelyuseful bric-a-brac. A pair of these is shown in Plate 17, Figure 1,representing a camel bearing a fanciful candle socket. This pair ismarked Reed and Barton and simulates silver. (Cat. No. 311651,United States; Elizabeth S. Stevens; 4 inches (10 cm.) high.)CANDLESTICKS OF PEWTERNot so many pewter candlesticks have come down from the periodof their use. Pewter, on account of its liability to distortion and thecare required to keep it presentable, and also the economic demandfor old pewter for other uses, had a tendency to become scarce. Oneof the best specimens of pewter candlestick is that which belongedto Col. Joseph Warner, of the Massachusetts Colony, exhibited in thecollection of the Society of Colonial Dames in the historical collec-tion of the U. S. National Museum. (Cat. No. 486, Massachusetts;Mrs. Marcus Benjamin; 8.5 inches (21 cm.) high. PI. 16, fig. 1).Two old German pewter candlesticks from Hildesheim are in thecollection. They are enameled, except on the rings in red and54261?28 3
24 BULLETIN" 141, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMyellow, respectively. No marks are observed on these specimens.(PI. 19, fig. 19, Cat. No. 289427; Anton HeitmuUer; 7.7 inches(19.5 cm.) high.) The Chinese used pewter candlesticks on the altarof ancestor worship, some elaborate and some plain. These arepricket candlesticks. (See p. 20.) (PL 18, fig. 1, Cat. No. 75344;Chinese Centennial Commission, Philadelphia, 1876; 13.3 inches(33.5 cm.) high.) A pair of handsome candlesticks in metal resem-bling pewter, shown on Plate 18, Figure 2, are of English manufac-ture and appear to be Georgian, or after a Georgian model whichwas probably in silver. (Cat. No. 311678, Elizabeth S. Stevens;7.8 inches (22.5 cm.) high.)CANDLESTICKS OF BRASSIt is really a short time comparatively since the socket candlesticktook its place as an important feature of house furnishings. TheRomans left candlesticks in the debris of the ancient Roman stationof Saalberg, Germany, but it was many centuries before they becameusual in Europe. Brass, the useful alloy which was known in Indiain the third century B. C, became widely disseminated. More lamps,candlesticks, and religious objects were made of brass than of anyother metal. It would seem not beside the mark to term the periodfollowing the Bronze Age and before the wide distribution of ironthe Age of Brass. There is no doubt that brass candlesticks are theoldest form of this lighting device in metal. It is difficult, however,to date the common brass candlestick except special patterns whichhave arisen generally at a late period in various cultured countries.The roundel sticks seem to go back verj?^ far and are molded fromwood turned patterns, which accounts for their resemblance to prod-ucts of the lathe worker's art. Candlesticks of the roundel type,which may be assigned to the American colonial period and subse-quently, have an oblong rectangular or square base with truncatedor rounded corners, cut separately and joined to the stem. Plate 19,Figure 16, is a colonial mantel or table candlestick of brass. (Cat.No. 216269, Pennsylvania; Anton HeitmuUer; 8 inches (20.5 cm.)high.) There appears to be no data as to when the manufacture ofcandlesticks of this type Avas discontinued. It may be hazardedthat it was about 1860, near the period when coal oil struck a dis-astrous blow to the candlestick industry. Replicas, however, havebeen occasionally made to supply a certain demand. The specimen(pi. 16, fig. 2) appears to be in this class. (Cat. No. 311538, UnitedStates; Elizabeth S. Stevens; 11.8 inches (30 cm.) high.) Figure 4is a solid brass cast of the turned wood model more slender and grace-ful than those described and tastefully ornamented. (Cat. No. 311,-539, England; Elizabeth S. Stevens; 10.7 inches (27 cm.) high.)
HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 25This specimen is not old, but is probably a replica of an older candle-stick. Another ornate pair shows how far variation may be carriedon the old turned wood model. (PI. 19, fig. 17, Cat. No. 325911,England; M. L. Turner; 10.8 inches (27.5 cm.) high.) There aremany solid cast brass candlesticks with slender roundel stem andoblong rectangular base with claw or ball feet, of which the dateis not ascertained. Some of the specimens in the collection are muchworn and damaged, more so than the English baluster type, andappear old. (PI. 19, fig. 18, Cat. No. 290442, France; Mrs. C. E.Bates; 10 inches (25.5 cm.) high.) Brass candlesticks in general areprovided with a simple device for pushing up the candle ends in thesocket for economical burning. This is a rod passing upward throughthe stem and terminating in the socket with a disk. When this devicebegan to be utilized is not ascertained; also there is no informationas to whether it was patented. If not, it was applied to candlesticksbefore the establishment of patent offices.CANDLESTICKS OF HAMMERED IRONA familiar iron candlestick of early times in America was awidely accepted type because it was indestructible and serviceableto the limit of early ideas of economy. It had a cupped base, astraight tube with a slide, and a rim around the top provided witha hook for hanging up or for carrying. On occasion this candle-stick in virtue of the cupped base was used to scrape hogs at thebutchering and also could be used to cut out cookies. (PI. 19, fig. 15,Cat. No. 75359, Bainbridge, Pa.; George Bean; 6.1 inches (15.5 cm.)high.) A candlestick prized by collectors is variously assigned toSwitzerland, Germany, and the Tyrol. It is really a remarkablepiece of seventeenth century ironwork, showing the art of thepainstaking craftsman unmindful of time. The specimen is dated1709. It shows ancient survivals from the splint clip in its spring armand the hook for hanging. (PI. 20, fig. 2, Cat. No. 130655, Switzer-land; Goldsborough and Co.; 11.4 inches (29 cm.) high.) Anothertype familiar in collections and frequently copied is of hammerediron. It consists of a lobed base, a short column from which risesa spiral surmounted by a ring with a hook. In the spiral worksa candle socket with a guiding hook allowing the candle to bemoved up and down, a feature in advance of candle slides and notbettered before the advent of the spring candlestick. (PI. 20, fig.1, Cat. No. 168313, Germany; S. B. Dean; 10.2 inches (26 cm^high.) The specimen dates about 1700 and shows some relationshipto Figure 2. This type of candlestick was called "Martin Luther."Rude wrought-iron candlesticks are somewhat common. These, likethe betty lamps, were exhibits of the skill of the local smith, who not
26 BULLETIN 141, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMinfrequently wished to show what he could do. One of these hasa ring base to which three prongs at the lower end of the stem arewelded. The drip catcher is large and has a hook extending downfrom one side, answering as a handle and hanger. (PI. 20, fig. 3,Cat. No. 289432, United States; Anton Heitmuller; 5.6 inches(14.5 cm.) diameter, 9.1 inches (23 cm.) high.)CANDLESTICKS OP CAST IRONAbout 1870 cast iron was the medium for many art works. Ithad, however, only a temporary vogue, although the material, espe-cially in the hands of the Russian artist-artizans, was capable ofproducing fine results. Among the works in cast iron were candle-sticks generally showing the worst phases of Rococo art. Theseare regarded with disfavor by collectors and not many find a wayinto their hands. The specimens shown are German and consistof two candlesticks and two candle dishes, one of cast iron andanother of cast brass showing the same class of work and of thesame period. (PI. 19, fig. 13, is a candlestick. Cat. No. 300383,Germany; Mrs. C. E. Danforth; 7.1 inches (18 cm.) high.) Fig-ure 12 is a similar specimen without dripcatcher. (Cat. No. 300384,same locality and donor; 6.4 inches (16 cm.) high.) Candle dish(fig. 14), also from the same donor, is a good example of the artoverloading of the period. (Cat. No. 300385, 8.1 inches (20.5 cm.)long.) Figure 11 is of heavy cast brass, trefoil design. (Cat. No301540, Germany; Library of Congress; 6.8 inches (17.5 cm.) long.)CANDLB DISHES OF METALThe candle dish expresses the need of a less formal furnishing thanthe candlestick. It not only insures the means of carrying the candleabout but provides a catch-all for drip as a concession to cleanliness.Candle dishes were made of sheet iron tinned or otherwise, copper,brass, and silver, or silver plate. Plate 19, Figure 4 is a specimenboldly hammered from copper. The handle is pierced for hangingthe dish as a sconce. (Cat. No. 317216, Mexico; Harry S. Bryan;4.6 inches (11.5 cm.) diameter.) In contrast is a dainty Frenchcandle dish of repoussee silver. (PI. 19, fig. 5, Cat. No. 317637;Mrs. N. L. White; 4.3 inches (11 cm.) diameter.) Figure 6 is ofhammered and chiseled brass with saucepan handle riveted on. Itis dated 1785. (PI. 19, fig. 6, Cat. No. 168318, England; S. B. Dean;5.5 inches (14 cm.) diameter.) A neatly made specimen of sheetiron crimped on the border is from Nantucket, Mass. It has a ringfor the finger. (PI. 19, fig. 7, Cat. No. 129904; F. B. Smith; 6.5inches (16.5 cm.) diameter.) The next figure is an ornate dish ofSheffield plate with an aperture in the stem for snuffers (PI. 37) and
HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 27
a socket in the ring for the extinguisher. (PI. 19, fig. 8, Cat. No.130666, Baltimore; J. S. Russell; 6.3 inches (16 cm.) diameter.)Figure 9 is a sheet-iron candle dish tinned, from Hanover, York Co.,Pa. (PI. 19, Cat. No. 151462; T. W. Sweeney; 6.9 inches (17.5 cm.)diameter.) The last figure is a typical brass candle dish widelyfamiliar to the older generation of Americans. (PI. 19, fig. 10, Cat.No. 289447.) United States; Anton Heitmuller; 6.1 inches (15.5cm.) diameter.) An unusual candle dish is boat shape of sheet brass,the handle having been applied at one side. (PI. 19, fig. 1, Cat. No.311867, Holland; Elizabeth S. Stevens; 8.8 inches by 5.5 inches diame-ter (22.5 cm. by 14 cm. )
.
) Another excellent specimen is of sheet brass,oval, and well ornamented with punched work. The handle terminatesin a hook. (PI. 19, fig. 2, Cat. No. 311866, England; Elizabeth S.Stevens; 7.8 inches by 5.4 inches diameter (19.7 cm. by 13.5 cm.)Figure 3 (pi. 19) is a candleholder which slides into a slot in thecandle dish. CANDLESTICKS WITH WIND GLASSESGlass protectors for candlesticks were in use for a long periodin America. They resemble in shape the lamp chimney formerlyused, but much larger. They were, it is presumed, the largest piecemade by the glass blower. Well-to-do families in the States whichwere the Colonies would possess and carefully treasure these " hurri-cane glasses," as they were called. These glasses were importedfrom England, where they were made, and decorated in floral de-signs with the wheel. It was customary to set these hurricaneglobes in a drafty hall or on the portico to protect the candle fromthe breeze. (PI. 21, fig. 5, Cat. No. 315102 (candlestick, No.251722); Mrs. John Van Rensselaer Hoff; 9.8 inches (25 cm.)diameter, 22 inches (57 cm.) high.)Candlesticks were often fitted with graceful flaring glass pro-tectors, the bases of which had a brass collar fitting around thecandle socket. (PI. 21, fig. 6, Cat. No. 309022, United States; Mrs.Abby Knight McLane; 18.8 inches (48 cm.) high.) Such candle-sticks are again coming into use for decorative effects. Anotherobsolete form, but of the modern period, is seen in a candle standwith glass globes. It consists of a pair of spring candleholders ofPalmer's invention about 1845 running on an upright support andadjusted with a screw. It is of white brass. (PI. 21, fig. 4, Cat.No. 315103, England; Mrs. John Van Rensselaer Hoff; 22 inches(56 cm.) high.) CANDLE ARMSCandle arms are in the form of rigid brackets or brackets hingedon pins or extensible. The form of candle installation reaches backto an uncertain date, certainly before the fifteenth century. Its use
28 BULLETIN 141, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMhas survived for special purposes to this day. An interesting speci-men of Spanish iron candle arm of the fifteenth or sixteenth centurywas collected in Seville, Spain, in 1893. It is said to have hungover the entrance to the convent of the Santa Trinidad at Seville,the square cross painted partly red and blue being, it is alleged, thesign of that convent. The monogram is also worked in the scroll.The arm shows traces of paint and gilding. (PL 20, fig. 4, Cat. No.325623; Walter Hough; 13.8 inches by 13 inches (35 cm. by 33 cm.).)An extension arm of wrought iron of Belgian manufacture is shownin Plate 20, Figure 5. The specimen has five pivoted sections. Thecandle socket with drip catcher is set at the end of the arm. (Cat.No. 168320, Belgium; S. B. Dean; 18.5 inches (47 cm.) long.) Amore elaborate specimen of old ironwork consisting of five pivotedsections is from Nuremburg, Germany, and is probably early eight-eenth century. (PI. 20, fig. 6, Cat. No. 168321; S. B. Dean; 18.5inches (47 cm.) long.) The third specimen is an extensible brasscandle arm cut out and joined by modern methods. Such arms wereused on desks and pianos. (PI. 20, fig. 7, United States; CharlesD. Walcott; 18.9 inches (48 cm.) long.)CANDELABRAAscending in the scale from the stemmed utilitarian candlestickis the candelabrum or arm candlestick, connoting luxury and tastewith the basal idea of more light. An interesting brass two-armcandelabrum in the collection dates from the early eighteenth cen-tury. It is Dutch, has an openwork stem of conventional vine andleaves, and has a punched tracing on the base. (PI. 22, fig. 1, Cat.No. 311528, Holland; Elizabeth S. Stevens; 10.6 inches (27 cm.)high.) A specimen in brass of unusual design has three candlesockets on floriated brackets moving on a rod stem arising from abasin. This fine specimen is evidently a floor candelabrum. (PI.22, fig. 3, Cat. No. 289420, English; Anton Heitmuller; 26.3 inches(67 cm.) high.) One of a pair of French Empire candelabra regardedas rare is shown in Plate 22. The base is square, the columnof ormolu brass topped with a half globe on which stands an exqui-sitely modeled bronze Cupid holding up a combination of bow,quiver, arrows, and two candle sockets. The work is executedwith the gi-eatest regard for detail. (PI. 22, fig. 2, Cat. No. 311533,France; Elizabeth S. Stevens; 14.6 inches (37 cm.) high.) Anotherinteresting example of candelabrum of Kococo style is in the col-lection. It is of ormolu brass, with four arms set in the sides ofa mirror erected on a marble base. Arising from the apex of themirror is an openwork cup holding a flower receiver of fine blueglass delicately shaped. (PI. 22, fig. 4, Cat. No. 311541, France;Elizabeth S. Stevens; 24 inches (61 cm.) high.)
HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 29
These candleholders have never reached any considerable impor-tance in the field of illuminating devices, but as aids in decorationhave ijlayed a great part. They are the origin of the side lightsused for the double purpose of lighting and beautifying diningrooms of modern houses. One of the early and simple forms of thesconce is shown in Plate 21, Figure 2. It is of sheet iron and hasthe dignified aspect of good work and design. (Cat. No. 129905,Nantucket, Mass.; F. B. Smith; 9.5 inches (24 cm.) high.) A goodexample of folk art is shown in the Dutch brass sconce w^ith threecandle sockets. The decoration is in repousse. (PI. 21, fig. 3, Cat.No. 233136, Holland; Walter Hough; 8.5 inches (21.5 cm.) wide,10.2 inches (26 cm.) high.) A Rococo sconce in silvered copper withmirror has a detachable candle socket on a curved arm. The pairis of German workmanship. (PI. 21, fig. 1, Cat. No. 311543, Ger-many; Elizabeth S. Stevens; 17.9 inches (45.5 cm.) high, 14 inches(35.5 cm.) wide.) CHANDELIERSChandeliers have followed the development of illumination andtherefore represent every type from the rush light to the electriclight. They are described together here for convenience of treat-ment. The earliest chandelier in the collection is a noteworthyexample of high-class English ironwork. It is described as a rushchandelier of the thirteenth-fourteenth century. Although thisdate may not be insisted upon, the specimen is apparently very oldand a remarkably pure and consistent design. It is conjecturedthat bundles of fatted rushes were set in the perforated drip catchersat the end of the arms. (PL 23, fig. 1, Cat. No. 169098, England; S.B. Dean; 31 inches (79 cm.) diameter.) The chandelier with lustersshown in Plate 24a is English, early nineteenth century. It is ofbronze gilt and consists of a stem with four crowns graded in size,tlie great crown with arms being supported by ornamental brackets.Three chain festoons with unusual links hang from the head intowhich the stem is screwed. The chandelier had eight candle armsfitted with cut-glass drip catchers. (Cat. No. 328624, Morgantown,W. Va. (Va.) ; Walter Hough; 45 inches (114 cm.) long.) A smallchandelier of brass, Rococo in art, comes from Germany and datesabout the middle of the eighteenth century. (PI. 25, fig. 1, Cat. No.289430; Anton Heitmuller; 18.1 inches (46 cm.) long.) SeveralTurkish chandeliers were secured at the Chicago World's Fair in1893, and hung in the Arts and Industries Building of the NationalMuseum. They are interesting specimens of ironwork, but es-pecially so in the character of the lighting apparatus. This consistsof glass cups with knob base set in arms riveted to the crowns, as
30 BULLETIN 141, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMthe circular elements are termed. A tripod of wire bearing the wickis placed in the cup and water poured in to the required depth andon the water oil sufficient to allow the wick to emerge. This describesthe customary Mohammedan oil-water lamp. (PI. 26, Cat. No.325625 ; Turkish Commission, "World Columbian Exposition, Chicago,1893; about 4 feet in diameter, 8 feet high.) From the CentennialExhibition at Philadelphia in 1876 there was received through thecourtesy of the Chinese Imperial Commission a magnificent chan-delier in general effect blue owing to the mosaic of kingfisher featherswith which it is incrusted. The chandelier has arms and large andsmall rings for installing the lights. These were porcelain simplesaucer lamps with rush wicks. (PI. 245 Cat. No. 169334, 72 inches(183 cm.) long.) About 1830 camphine or "burning fluid" was in-troduced. This predecessor of gasoline was prepared by distillingturpentine over lime (see p. 68). The camphine chandelier shownon Plate 25, Figure 2, is of gilt brass and has a reservoir from whichthe fluid was delivered to the burners by gravity. (Cat. No. 127167,Lynchburg, Va. ; William F. Page; 36 inches (92 cm.).) Wliat maybe called a sconce-candelabra is shown in Plate 23, Figure 2. Itis of heavy cast brass and of German manufacture, about the seven-teenth century. Gift of Mrs. E. S. Brinton, 12.8 inches (32.5 cm.)long and wide. LANTERNSUnder this head will be classed lanterns as devices for protectingand transporting light, and exhibiting types of illumination inven-tions grading from the candle to advanced oil-burning lamps. It isapparent that those who newly possessed the candle must meet theproblem of protecting this clear but fragile light from boisterousairs when carrying it about in the open. This was met by inclosingthe candle in an apparatus capable of diffusing the light yet afford-ing the flame sufficient protection. When these prime conditionswere met yet other conditions, demanded by the uses to which thelantern was to be put, the place it was to be used or installed, aswell as the requirements of taste, arose and were fulfilled. As tothe origin or origins of the lantern nothing is known. The zone inwhich paper and sometimes textiles are used to cover the lanternmay be centered in China ; the zone of this cloth rendered transparentand employed usually on collapsing lanterns is Persia; horn, glass,and punched metal lanterns may be assigned to Europe. This maymean three origins of the lantern. Plates of horn as lantern win-dows were practically more serviceable than glass and transmittedsufficient light for ordinary needs. An English horn " lanthorn,"a name which shows the connection of horn with this lightingapparatus, is figured on Plate 27?, Figure 1. In common parlance
HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 31
such a lantern is called " Guy Fawkes," from some legendary asso-ciation with that detested character. It is well and strongly madefrom sheet iron, has a ring for carrying, three dormer ventilators,and a door with catch. A rush candle is shown in the socket. Thisquaint specimen is about 150 years old. (Cat. No. 130435, Wiltshire,England; Edward Lovett; 17.3 inches (44 cm.) high.) An old horncandle lantern which had belonged to United States Governmentship stores was found at Alexandria, Va. This specimen is some-what vaguely given the date of 1812, but may well be older. It isventilated through the apex of the conical top and the carrying ringband has a shield against the heat. (PI. 27^5, fig. 2, Cat. No. 325626;Walter Hough; 18.9 inches (48 cm.) high.) At a later date sheetsof mica came into use and had advantages over horn. The specimenis a two-wick tube lamp lantern of sheet iron, square in form withpyramidal top perforated for ventilation. It has a large band han-dle which distinguishes the arm lantern. Date about 1830. (PI. 46,fig. 3, Cat. No. 178444, Alexandria, Va.; Walter Hough; 17 inches(43 cm.) high.) A folding lantern used in the World War hasmica plates (PL 34, fig. 1 ) . Concerning ventilation of lanterns it maybe stated that there are draft orifices below and above the light ofall except perforated lanterns. Perforated lanterns have been usedin America since colonial times and in Europe date much earlier.A typical example of sheet-iron hand-punched in patterns is shownin Plate 28ff, Figure 3. The top is conical, like an extinguisher, andhas a circular handle and shield. The lantern has an ordinary candlesocket and also a " burn-all " consisting of five pieces of wire set ina circle in a little pan for catching the drip and beneath a woodenplug for fitting in the candle socket. This ingenious device was a con-trivance of the original owner of the lantern. Dr. Charles McLane.The lantern dates somewhat before 1795. (Cat. No. 175597, Morgan-town, W. Va. (Va.) ; Fred C. Hough; 15 inches (38 cm.) high.) Avery old punched copper hand lantern comes from central Italy.The top is conical, the handle missing. The decoration is inperforated designs and repoussee. Around the base of the candlesocket were eight small holes for ventilation. The handle is ofwrought iron riveted to the side of the lantern. The specimen isprobably sixteenth century. (PI. 28?, fig. 4, Cat. No. 324438, Italy;John W. Butler; 12.4 inches (34 cm.) high, 7.6 inches (19 cm.)diameter.) A rush light shade protector with perforations wasused in England about the beginning of the nineteenth century.This protector had a door but no top. A cup containing the tubesocket was set in a receptacle on the bottom. (PI. 28a!, fig. 1, Cat.No. 150412, Croydon, England; Edward Lovett; 13 inches (33 cm.)high, 8.6 inches (22 cm.) diameter.) A Moorish candle lantern
32 BULLETIN 141^ UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMwith glass panes shows artistic perforations in the top and base.The top is bell-shape and has a circular band handle. The materialof this artistic lantern is tinned iron. (PL 28c, fig. 3, Cat. No.(149), Tetuan, Morocco; Talcott Williams; 17.3 inches (44 cm.)high.) Lanterns with glass globes came into use about 1820, so faras known. They were installed with either candle sockets or wicktube lamps for burning fish oil. The circular handle was for slip-ping over the arm or for the hand. Most of the specimens arejapanned. Some of this type are protected with a wire frame orthe globe is held between the top and bottom by a locking device orsometimes cemented at the top. Of these (pi. 28c, fig. 5) is a smallglobe lantern with wire handle and a hook for hanging on thedashboard of a vehicle. The globe is blown glass. The lamp istwo-tube, with screw cap, and is removed by pressing two springs.The specimen was placed about 1812 by the donor. (Cat. No. 175581,Poland, Me.; W. P. Damon; 10.3 inches (26 cm.) high.) An armlantern in the collection has an octagonal cast glass globe and isprotected with wires. The bottom with candle socket is slid onover two pegs and slightly rotated to catch the pegs in a horizontalslot. The date is about 1820. (PI. 28<?, fig. 1, Cat. No. 130322,Morgantown, W. Va.; Ashbel Fairchild; 15.3 inches (39 cm.) high.)Another of about the same period has the octagonal glass globecemented to the top and bottom. The glass two-tube lamp is re-moved by rotating it until two spurs coincide with two slots in thecircular frame. (PI. 28c, fig. 4, Cat. No. 175582, Poland, Me.;W. P. Damon; 12.6 inches (32 cm.) high.) A more ornamentalform has four beveled plate-glass sides, a square base and top, and anarm ring. It is fitted with a flat wick kerosene lamp with a spurwheel wick ratchet. The bottom is hinged and may be turned downfor attending to the lamp. The older lanterns were without thisdevice. (PI. 28c, fig. 2, Cat. No. 292696, United States ; Isobel Rives ;12.5 inches (32 cm.) high.)The transition from lanterns described to what became of the ac-cepted form of lantern for many years is evident in different types.The old types persisted until the use of kerosene, when all lightingdevices were profoundly modified. Invention perfected the tubularlantern in the eighties and it was the current form for many yearsand still has an immense sale. It is light, strong, reasonably windproof, and is the last Avord in effectiveness. A predecessor of thetubular lantern was used by the United States Fish Commissionin 1870. The lantern was patented December 1, 1868, has a glasstube held in a bow frame, suggesting the modern tubular farmlantern, and a two-wick tube burner set in a lamp which is insertedin the base of the lantern and held with spring clamps. The use of
HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 33the wick tube at this late date is unusual. Another, about the samedate, has a two-tube wick burner and the globe is protected by asturdy wire frame to withstand the strong buffets of sea work. Thelamp is removed by slightly turning the base, disengaging a spur pinfrom a slide. The lantern was patented March 15, 1890, by Howardand Morse, New York. Another lantern in the collection, not figured,has a glass globe protected in a wire frame. Within the glass globeis another of green glass. A flat-wick kerosene lamp supplied thelight. Patented May, 1877, by Cash and Baron. Cat. No. 325629,East Coast; U. S. Fish Commission; 17.2 inches (44 cm.) high.)There is some question whether this is the first signal lantern withcolored glass. Small lanterns for various employments are in num-ber and many kinds, no doubt, have disappeared. An attractivelittle lantern secured in Spain in 1892 is said to have been used asa light in hunting for snails. It is an oil-burning lantern withsingle tube, the top and sides glazed, the top resembling the louvre,or chimney opening turret of old Spanish architecture. (PI. 28^,fig. 1, Cat. No. 166990, Madrid, Spain; Walter Hough; 8.2 inches(19 cm.) high. A tumbler converted into a small candle lanternwas made and sold in New England many years ago. These odditiesare seen in most illumination collections. (PL 286, fig. 3, Cat. No.75384, New Bedford, Mass.; J. F. Brown; 8.2 inches (21 cm.) high.)Lamps for vehicles are and were in endless variety. As a subjectfor study lights connected with transportation offer a wide field.The specimen shown is a japanned carriage lantern of 1850. Thelamp has one tube for heavy oil. There is a quadrille reflector atthe back and an anular reflector around the light. (PI. 28 &, fig. 4,Cat. No. 325630, United States; Walter Hough; 8.2 inches (21 cm.)high.) The small lantern,. Figure 2, is of the punched variety ofsheet iron and is for a single-tube lamp. It appears to be quite old.(PI. 28a, Cat. No. 167069, Madrid, Spain; Walter Hough; 7.5 inches(19 cm.) high.) So-called "Dark Jacks" or detectives' lanternsmay be introduced with a Korean dark lantern which consists ofa globular shell of basketry covered with paper decorated withcircular characters and with a circular opening. The handle is ofwood, turning on a wire leading to the interior, and from the endof the wire hangs a candleholder mounted in a gimbel frame bywhich the candle is erect, no matter in what position the lantern isheld. This is regarded as the height of ingenuity and is alleged tohave been invented long ago in Korea. (PI. 29fl^, fig. 2, Cat. No.273018, Seoul, Korea; H. C. Whiting; 14 inches (35.5 cm.) diameter,16.9 inches (43 cm.) high.) Filipino fishermen use a somewhatsimilar lantern of calabash with a curved wood handle and rim
34 BULLETIN 141^ UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMsewed on at the mouth, but merely a suspended pottery lamp of an-tique shape is suspended within. (PL 29a., fig. 1, Cat. No. 283062,Tarlac, Luzon; Philippine Commission; 9.5 inches (24 cm.) diameter,15.8 inches (40 cm.) high.) The dark lantern which antedates theelectric flash light by perhaps several centuries was a device affectedby guardians of the peace and it is said also by robbers. The speci-men shown on Plate 276, Figure 6, the oldest in the collection, is ofFrench make, early eighteenth century. It is of good craftsmanship,the fluted turret being a difficult piece of work. The glass is bowedand is probably a later substitute for the horn pane. A candle wasthe means of illumination. In these lanterns of the earliest type theglass is mounted in a cylinder turning within the outer case andmoved into position for light by rotating the turret. In this casethe handle is rigid; in modern forms the handles fold back. (Cat.No. 311656, France; Elizabeth S. Stevens; 10 inches (25 cm.) high.)In point of age Figure 3, Plate 48, is next. The mechanism is asin the French specimen and it is also for candle. The handle is intwo parts ingeniously fitted to slide together into flat position. Thelantern is made of brass. (Cat. No. 168125, Italy; G. Brown Goode;6.7 inches (17 cm.) high.) Another of modern type with bull's-eyeof glass has also a collapsing handle and a two-wick tube lamp. Theslide moved by the turret shuts off or admits the light through thelens. The back of the interior is tinned as a reflector. This featureis found in most of the dark lanterns. This specimen was used mthe Armory Square Hospital during the Civil War. (PI. 276, fig.4, Cat. No. 247659, Washington, D. C; A. Haas; 6.3 inches (16cm.) high.) Figure 2, Plate 276, has a double turret with flutes,two wire handles, and a strip on the back for hanging the lanterninside the coat. This device brings the lantern nearer to compara-tively modern police methods. This lantern dates 1845-1858. Theslide is moved by a peg and slat and not by the turret. (Cat. No.204894, Boston, Mass.; C. A. Q. Norton; 7 inches (18 cm.) high.)A two-tube wick lamp was used. Another similar specimen withcandle socket is of black japanned tin. It was made by J. G. andW. Lord, Birmingham. (PI. 276, fig. 5, Cat. No. 316255, England;Walter Hough; 6. 9 inches (17.5 cm.) high.) A fine lantern of thickcopper and embodying the principle of the dark lantern is in thecollection. The light aperture is furnished Avith two plates of horn.The slide is moved as usual by turning the top and held by a buttonwhich slides in a slot when the lantern is open and shut. Thelantern has a candle socket and two short tubular ventilators oneither side of it. (PL 276, fig. 1, Cat. No. 290447, probably English;Mrs. C. E. Bates; 14.4 inches (30.5 cm.) high, 6 inches (15 cm.)diameter.)
HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 35Ships' lanterns in the collection are a small part of the numberwhich have been used in sail-bound commerce and other occupationson the sea. They serve, however, to convey an idea of the characterof such lanterns employed on ships before the age of invention.Especially prized is a large rigging lantern whose lines of strengthand dignity are due to the skill of a master designer of manyyears ago. Some ship in the New Bedford whaling fleet possessedthis lantern. The body is hexagonal and the panes of glass protectedby a grid of iron bars. The turret is in two parts, covered with ahood, above which is the suspending ring secured around the end ofan iron rod passing down through the lantern and secured in thebottom. There are three candle sockets on the floor. The gracefullycurved handles on either side of the turret were not only useful butadd greatly to the completeness of the design of the lantern. (PL30, fig. 1, Cat. No. 75376, New Bedford, Mass., J. T. Brown; 21.3inches (54 cm.) high.) A small and comparatively new rigginglantern with glass panes, handle of wire, and one candle socket, comesfrom New Bedford, Mass. It is built of sheet iron and paintedgreen. This square lantern was used on fishing schooners in 1882and before. (PI. 286, fig. 2, Cat. No. 75375 ; J. T. Brown ; 13.4 inches(34 cm.) high.) A Danish ship lantern with octagonal base glazed,a circular superstructure with ventilators, and a hood of fluted metalis shown in Plate 27a, Figure 3. The lamp burns heavy oil and hasa circular wick installed around a tube as in the Argand and raisedby a rod lift having a spur. The lamp is inserted in the base of thelantern by the pin and slot method. Within the lantern, resting onpegs, is a chimney with wide flange and polished to serve as an aidto ventilation and as a reflector. The lantern is excellently con-structed of tinned sheet iron. The lantern was made by Lehmann,Kjobenhavn ; no date. (PI. 27a, fig. 3, Cat. No. 178199 ; L. M. Turner
;
19.3 inches (49 cm.) high.) A ship's lantern of exceptional quality isshown as Figure 6, Plate 28c. The lantern lamp has a flat wick,but heavy oil was the fuel used. The globe is large and held betweenthe top and base by the wire frame. The lamp is removed frombelow by the peg and slot method. The material from which thelantern is made is brass. The hood and base perforations are high-class work. The date is about 1840. (Cat. No. 325631, Alexandria,Va. ; Walter Hough ; 14.6 inches (37 cm. ) high. ) A curious lantern forhanging in an entry was collected in New Bedford, Mass., in 1882.The two-tube burner places this specimen earlier and in the heavy-oilperiod. The door is at one end. There are two reservoirs with twoburners on each. The lantern is glazed and strongly protected by wireguards. The lantern is made of tin and painted green. The ventilat-ing chamber has a trough-like shield open at the ends. (PI. 29a, fig.
36 BULLETIN 141, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM3, Cat. No. 75371, made by J. A. Tripp, collected for the U. S. FishCommission by J. T. Brown; 16.5 inches (42 cm.) wide, 15 inches(38 cm.) high.) A lantern used in catching eels and employed bythe fishermen of Noank, Conn., in 1876, is triangular in shape and hasa triangular lamp of copper fitted with brass, ventilated keroseneburners. The lantern is made of wood and tin and has an invertedpamiikin over the ventilator. (PL 29&, fig. 4, Cat. No. 29365 ; JamesH. Latham; 21.6 inches (52.5 cm.) wide, 23.2 inches (59 cm.) high.)A lantern for placing on a shelf for illumination of halls, stores, etc.,has two reflectors, two tin lamps fitted with brass ventilated burnersof the 1865 patent, and flask chimneys of lead glass. It is made of tinpainted red and is glazed on three sides. Four ball feet, a woodenhandle, and a wire slide to fasten the door are fitted to the specimen.(PI. 29&, fig. 5, Cat. No. 325632, New England; U. S. Fish Commis-sion; 17.3 inches (44 cm.) wide, 21.6 inches (55 cm.) high.) Afine specimen of European artistic lantern of the seventeenth centuryis in the Andrews collections. The lantern was a studio property ofthe late Eliphalet F. Andrews, the artist, who lived in Washingtonmany years and who studied in Germany. The lantern is of piercedbrass with copper facings to hold the glazing of horn or glass. It hasthree ball feet, a dome turret terminating in a ball, and a circularband handle. The bottom is chased with double eagle design. Thereis a single candle socket set in the middle of a pan, which is set on adowell in the middle of the bottom. (PI. 30, fig. 2, Germany ; E. F.Andrews Collection, National Gallery of Art; 21 inches (53 cm.)high, 8.3 inches (24 cm.) diameter.) Lanterns of the Chinese andJapanese enter intimately into the life of the people and reflect theart and taste inlierent in their culture. More forms of the lanternare found in these countries than in any other. A lantern of carvedteak shown on Plate 31, Figure 2, was received from the ChineseConmiission at the Centennial Exhibition at Philadelphia in 1876.The carving is painstakingly done and the joining is excellent. Thedesign is evidently from a metal vase. A valence of brocade withheavy fringe hangs from a cornice-like projection. Other tassels,embroidered ornaments, and fringes of silk and beads decorate thelantern. The glasses are decorated with characters and color. Thelamp is missing, but evidently was placed in the bottom by the pegand slot method. (Cat. No. 325633, China; Chinese Centennial Com-mission; 43.8 inches (111 cm.) long.) A more familiar Chinese hang-ing lantern has a hexagonal carved wood frame set with various sizepanes of painted frosted glass. From the six carved arms project-ing from the upper part of the lantern hang streamers of silk withenamel placques bearing silk fringes. The lamp is European. Theratchet head is marked " P " above " Harvard " and below "A." It
HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 37is of brass and has a ventilated burner which takes a flat wick ofproper width and pulls it into a circular wick. Apparently the lampdates 1876, but no patent stamp is visible. The lamp is raised andlowered by counterpoise chains. (Cat. No. 127832, China; T. B.Ferguson, 1887; 19.7 inches (50 cm.) diameter, 21.7 inches (55 cm.)high.) A table lantern in cinnabar lacquer, finely finished, and anoteworthy specimen of this characteristic work, is in the collection.The light chamber of the lantern is hexagonal and surmounted by anopenwork section, and is supported on an elaborately worked stand.(PI. 31, fig. 1, Cat. No. 309062, China; E. W. Keyser; 19.8 inches(50.5 cm.) high, 7.5 inches (19 cm.) diameter.) Japanese monu-mental lanterns of stone and bronze are widely known and form apleasing note in garden and parks in many places far from theirpoint of origin. In them is installed a tiny light which is more aguide than illumination.A Japanese bronze lantern in the Museum, perhaps not an impor-tant specimen, illustrates this feature of art in Japan. The specimenis a Japanese toro, made in Tokio, 1850-1875, and is a copy of alarger lamp made since or about 1600. The base is circular, deco-rated with four panels bearing the seven gods of good fortune, inbas-relief. The shaft is of hourglass shape, decorated at top andbottom with bands of fretwork, about its middle is a collar bearinga bas-relief of the Japanese water dragon, above and below this arelotus leaves in low relief. The capital is circular, its lower partdecorated with lotus leaves, its center with a band bearing bas-reliefsof the ape, cock, rabbit, and dragon (four of the twelve zodiacalsigns). The lantern is ribbed or melon-shaped with five reticulatedpanels bearing the Shogun's crest (three mallow leaves) and bas-reliefs of four sages. One of these panels is hinged to open as a door,and is fastened with a latch in the form of the mythical bird, thehoho. The Shogun's crest is repeated in gilt on the bands at topand bottom of the lantern. The top is hexagonal, pagoda-shaped;the terminals of the ribs are projecting, up-curving dragon heads,with double tongues; beneath each is hung a wind bell similar tothose hung at the eaves of the Buddhist temples. Between the ribsare bas-reliefs of sages. The underside of the top is ornamentedwith incised lines in their conventional forms of clouds. The apexis a representation of the jewel or sacred pearl enveloped in flames(the conventional form of representing it). The form of the torois an evolution of their ancient symbols of nature. " C'Aa," orearth, is represented by the sacred pearl ; " ^a," or wind, by thecloud-decorated top with its wind-clappered bells ; " Ka^'' or fire, bythe lantern ; " TT^," or water, by the shaft decorated with the waterdragon and lotus leaves; "^," or earth, by the base, with its bas-reliefs of earthly gods. (PI. 32?, Cat. No. 94556; Edward Greey;
38 BULLETIN 141;, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM46 inches (117 cm.) high, 18.5 inches (47 cm.) diameter.) Anotheris a garden lantern of pottery with a light green glaze. This speci-men^is in four sections, and, hke all lanterns of this type, is notprovided with glass, but when necessary translucent paper is usedto cover the open spaces. (PI. 32Z), Cat. No. 94312, Japan; JapaneseDepartment of Education.) The andon or night light used hiJapanese houses is an attractive piece of furniture. It consists insome instances of a circular light Avooden base with four uprightsbearing a paper-covered frame in two parts, wliich can be rotated oneupon the other to open or close the lantern. The saucer lamp ofbrass with rush pith wick is set on a crossbar within the lantern.In a draAver in the base are kept the rush wicks. (PL 29&, fig. 1,Cat. No. 325635, Japan; Romyn Hitchcock; 12.6 inches (32 cm.)diameter, 32 inches (81 cm.) high.) Another specimen is square,and a sliding sash admits of opening the lantern. (PI. 295, fig. 2,Cat. No. 128236, Tokio, Japan; Japanese Department of Education:10.3 inches (26 cm.) square, 31 inches (76 cm.) high.) A similarlyconstructed lantern is called honlon. It has a handle projectingfrom the base. (PI. 295, fig. 3, Cat. No. 128245, Japan; JapaneseDepartment of Education; 6 inches (14.5 cm.) diameter, 9.8 inches(24.5 cm.) high.) Among the lanterns for special uses in Japanare the lajo with extension of whalebone in the handle carried onhorseback; the gifu, a most attractive lantern, from which is swunga wind bell; and the uriuhaii^ held v>'hen opened out in a curiousextension frame and carried when walking at night. (PL 33, figs.1, 2, 3, Cat. Nos. 128241, 128242, 128239; Japanese Department ofEducation: 20 inches (51 cm.) high?central figure.) The Chineselanterns having a bamboo frame covered with silk is very attractive.The strips are pivoted at the ends in wooden rings and the cage somade is slipped over two iron rods arising from the turned woodbase. By pressure on the top ring, somewhat as in an umbrella,the cage, which has been covered with filmy painted silk, is bowedout to the extent desired. (PL 31, fig. 3, Cat. No. 262641, China;Dr. Hugh M. Smith; 38 inches (96.5 cm.) high.) Collapsible lan-terns have been widely used in the East and are apparently originallyPersian. A fine specimen is of oiled linen, the folds held by wiresecured by stitching. The top and bottom sections which hold thelantern when collapsed are of brass. The top is beaten up into 12large and 14 small bosses and the surface is chased in fine dotted lines.The bottom is also elaborately covered with a chased design andsmall perforations. The handle and hook are ornamented. Thecandle socket is in the middle of a small cup riveted to the bottom.The specimen was received in 1869. (PL 33, fig. 6, Cat. No. 7552,Shuster, Persia; donor unknown; 15 inches (38 cm.) diameter,30.5 inches (77 cm.) long.) A Japanese collapsible lantern, the
HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 39folds held by slender bamboo rings, is shown in Figure 6. Thecovering is tough oiled paper. The pricket candleholder has a dripcatcher. The case is yerce a jour chased. The top aperture is cov-ered with a lid having a trifid floral crest as a central design. Thebottom is chased with cloud designs. (Cat. No. 317682, Japan; Mrs.N. L. White; 4.7 inches (12 cm.) diameter.) Figure 4 is a Turkishcollapsible lantern of folded white linen with no crease support.The case is of tinned sheet iron punched in linear pattern, the workbeing crude. (Cat. No. 74597, Egypt; Dr. George W. Sampson;5.5 inches (14 cm.) diameter.) A collapsible pocket lantern almostof vest-pocket size was patented by Mr. Minor January 24, 1865.This lantern is most ingeniously hinged and the parts stowed in smallcompass so that it is a puzzle to open it up. The windows, which areonly two on account of the exigencies of folding, are glazed withmica sheets. The lantern includes a small pocket for reserve candlesand a sanded surface for scratching matches. (PI. 34, fig. 2, Cat.No. 325636, United States; gift of the Misses Long; 2.9 inches by3.1 inches, 5.1 inches high (7.5 cm. by 8 cm., 13 cm.) During theWorld War a folding lantern w'as issued to the United States forces.This was the Stoneridge lantern patented in 1908, folding into acompact bundle, and easily set up. The Avindows are glazed withsheets of mica. The candleholder is a wire-rack device which is thelast word in burning candle ends. (PL 34, fig. 1, Cat. No. 325637,Washington, D. C; Walter Hough; 14.2 inches (36 cm.) high.)CHURCH CANDLESTICKSIn this great field the collection has only a few scattering ex-amples. Some of these are shown under other headings (pi. 12).Of hand specimens there is a bishop's candle dish held for him bya deacon for the service after mass in the Roman Catholic Church.(PI. 35, fig. 3, Cat. No. 325638; donor unknown; 10.6 inches (27 cm.)long.) A five-branch terra-cotta candlestick is included in theHistory of Religions collection. It is yellow brown in color and isexcellent work. The candle cups screw into the arms. (PI. 35, fig. 4,Cat. No. 152245, Italy; G. Brown Goode; 7.5 inches (19 cm.)diameter, 9 inches (23 cm.) high.) Like the baluster brass candle-sticks described are those shown in Plate 35. This pair was used ina Jewish synagogue in Palestine. (PI. 35, figs. 1, la. Cat. No. 315251
;
E. Deinard; 8.7 inches (22 cm.) diameter at base, 24.8 inches (63cm.) high.) An excellent specimen of metal art affected by Persianinfluence is shown in a mosque candlestick of Moorish origin. (PI.35, fig. 2.) The material is brass treated to produce the shade ofbronze, except the collar on the stem and margin of the socket.The surface is beautifully ornamented wuth chisel w^ork in various
. 54261?28 4
40 BULLETIN 141^ UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMpatterns incorporating Arabic characters. While unique in design,the candlestick may be classed with the turned or baluster type.(Cat. No. 154459, North Africa; F. Keller; 13.4 inches (34 cm.)diameter at base, 23.6 inches (60 cm.) high.) Church candles whichdepart from the baluster type are most common in German art.This remark excludes candlesticks as individual expressions of artistsand refers to candlesticks of usual pattern. An exceptionally finespecimen of German art is shown in Plate 35, Figure 6, from an oldchurch at Hildeslieim. The metal is bronze, the stem voluted, thebase decorated with a pleasing design in relief produced by re-poussee and outlined by graving. (Cat. No. 289422; Anton Heit-muller; 7.9 inches (20 cm.) diameter, 10.2 inches (26 cm.) high.)Another, probably older, is of worked brass, the voluted stem restingon an octagonal drip catcher, and the base formed into lobes. (PI.35, fig. 5, Cat. No. 311525, Germany; Elizabeth S. Stevens; 6.3 inches(16 cm.) diameter, 7.5 inches (19 cm.) high.) Figure 7 is of sheetbrass with no drip catcher, a flat similar base, and an octagonalfoot. The specimen is ornamented with repoussee work. (PI. 35,fig. 7, Cat. No. 311524, Germany; Elizabeth S. Stevens; 6.3 inches(16 cm.) diameter, 7.5 inches (19 cm.) high.) Figures 5 and 7 ap-pear to be complete and Figure 6 seems to lack the ornamental ledgeat the top of the stem, unless this candlestick dates before it Avascustomary. NIGHT LIGHT CANDLES AND HOLDEUSFor a considerable number of years squat candles of greater diam-eter than ordinary were made by candle manufacturers for use asa night light. In these the wick was held in a clip at the base of thecandle to prevent it falling over when the candle burned low. Recep-tacles for burning these candles varied from a simple glass cup toelaborate night lights. Plate 36, Figure 2, is a candle as described.(Cat. No. 178181, Syracuse, N. Y.; Walter Hough; 1.9 inches (4.7cm.) diameter.) Figure 1 is a brass holder like a dish candlestick.(Cat. No. 289425, England; Anton HeitmuUer; 5.2 inches (13 cm.)diameter.) Figure 4 is a wine glass adapted as a holder and piercedfor ventilation on one side (Cat. No. 315498, England; Mrs. JulianJames; 9 inches (23 cm.) high), and Figure 3 shows a high-classinstallation for the night light in art glass brought from England butprobably Venetian (Cat. No. 326725; the Misses Long; 7.2 inches(18 cm.) diameter, 10.2 inches (26 cm.) high). The ordinary nightlight used floating oil on water, as a lamp is described under itsclass, page 51. TIMB CANDLESTime candles, called " King Alfreds," have been made in Englandas a reminder of the legend that the " Good King " first made these
HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 41
recorders of the fleeting hours. It is told that Alfred, feeling thegreat need for a more accurate division of the day into the threeperiods which he had allotted for his regimen, namely, eight hoursfor prayer, eight hours for sleep, and eight hours for work, devised atime candle. It is necessary to read into the legend at this pointthat Alfred by experiment found the amount of wax or tallow which,when made into a candle, would burn a certain time. It is told alsothat in order to preserve his candles from draft Alfred surroundedthem with transparent horn, and it is gathered from this that he wasthe inventor of the lantern. The time candle figured in Plate 15, Fig-ure 2, was made in London about 1890. They were sold as curiosities.(Cat. No. 152594, England; Edward Lovett; 11.4 inches (29 cm.)long.) The custom of auction by candle is recorded in numerousinstances in England. In deference to the language of ancient con-veyances some tracts of land are periodically sold in this manner tothis day. SNOFFEKS, SNUFFEB THAYS, AND EXTINGUISHERS
It may well be surmised that the first snuffer was the index fingerand thumb dextrously manipulated. It also seems true that snufferswere, for the above reason, not in considerable demand during theearly periods of the candle. Old English snuffers were crude, con-sisting of two short rods of hand-forged iron expanded a bit at oneend to form opposing faces, coming to a sharp point at the distalend, and pivoted like the rush clip. The elaborate and artisticspecimens coming at the height of the candle as an illuminant forma vivid contrast to these. At this period luxury required a separatetray for the snuffers, or a candlestick with tray and a divided stemthrough which the snuffers could be thrust. The candlestick mightalso have a hole in the handle in which the arm of the extinguisherwas to be stuck. Separate trays varied from inexpensive to costly. Afamiliar variety to former generations was of sheet iron lacqueredand painted with floral designs. (PI. 37, figs, 1, 3, Cat. No. 311870,Pennsylvania and the Colonies; Elizabeth S. Stevens; 10.3 inches(26 cm.) long.) Toward the other extreme is a Sheffield plate traywith ornamental border of silver. (PI. 37, fig. 7, Cat. No. 303804,England ; Isobel Lenman ; 9.4 inches (24 cm.) by 4.3 inches (11 cm.) .)A spoon-shape cast-brass tray with three ball feet and handle with aring expresses the ideas of a Dutch artist designer. (PI. 37, fig. 8,Cat. No. 168319; S. B. Dean; 10 inches (25.5 cm.) long.) Another,of cast brass, is bilobed and has four ball feet and a handle loop likethat of the candle dish. (PI. 37, fig. 12, Cat. No. 311504, England;Elizabeth S. Stevens; 7.7 inches (19.5 cm.) long.) An attractivebrass candlestick with divided stem and tray for the snuffers is shown
42 BULLETIN 141^ UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMon Plate 37, figure 9. (Cat. No. 311540, European; Elizabeth S.Stevens; 3.3 inches (8.8 cm.) by 6.1 inches (15.5 cm.); 6.8 inches(16 cm.) high.) Another of Sheffield plate shows the divided stemand the placing of the extinguisher. Rarely have the candlestick,snuffers, and extinguisher been kept together. (PI. 37, fig. 11, Cat.No. 311536, England; Elizabeth S. Stevens; 6.5 inches (16.5 cm.) by4.9 inches (12.5 cm.), 3.9 inches (10 cm.) high.) Generally thesnuffers which have survived are too large for the receptacle in thecandlestick, which points to their use on trays and perhaps the laterdate of trays. Snuffers are with or without legs, and all have a sharppoint for regulating the wick except Flemish specimens. The earlierforms simply pressed the fungus or charred portion of the wick be-tween the two flat faces. Later forms pressed the fungus into a boxinclosure, obviating the disagreeable odor. Still later, near thedecline of the candle, a spring at the pivot was introduced and thefinal effort produced a spring partition which closed off the fungusinto a separate chamber. Plate 37, figure 4, is a springless snuffer ofbrass. (Cat. No. 311869, England; Elizabeth S. Stevens; 6.3 inches(16 cm.) long.) Figure 5 is an artistic pair of brass with spring.(Cat. No. 311868, England; same donor; 7.3 inches (18.5 cm.) long.)Figure 2 is an artistic pair in silver and steel with spring partitionas described. (Cat. No. 300846, England; Groce's Hardware Store,Washington, D. C. ; 7.3 inches (19 cm.) long.) Figure 6 is a quaint,highly artistic Flemish snuffers of cast brass which appear clumsy incomparison with the English specimens. (Cat. No. 326314, Belgium;Kendrick Scofield; 7.7 inches (19.5 cm.) long.) Extinguishers alsoexhibit divergent grades of art, and, like snuffers, might be considereda refinement when a puff would extinguish a candle as effectively.The collection is Avithout a pole extinguisher such as were used forcandles placed in high situations, as in chandeliers. The specimen(pi. 37, fig. 10) is an elaborately ornamented example in brass. (Cat.No. 311874, France; Elizabeth S. Stevens; 2.4 inches (6 cm.) high.)The specimen attached to candlestick Figure 11 is of Sheffield plateand has an ornamented tip.MODERN IMPROVEMENTS ON THE CANDLESTICKAbout 1845 an Englishman named Palmer made improvementson candles and candlesticks. Palmer's device on the candlestickconsisted of a spring placed in the tubular stem. The candle wasthrust down, the tube compressing the spring, and was held by alocking cap which held the upper end of the candle. The cup,corresponding to the old candle socket, was choked. The candlewas forced up by the spring as it burned, so that there was no excessto form a drip. A good example of excellent English brass work
HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 43
is shown in Plate 38, Figure 5, embodying Palmer's patent. (Cat.No. 168322; S. B. Dean; 13.3 inches (34 cm.) high.) A candlestickto which this device has been applied is Figure 6. It is of fineyellow brass and of superior design. The ring indicates that a glassbell formerly belonged with this specimen. The lower end' of thetube has been closed with a threaded cap, as in Palmer's candlestick.(Cat. No. 168314, Scotland; S. B. Dean; 8.7 inches (22 cm.) high.)Figure 7 is of Sheffield plate. In this example a tube bearing thesocket slips into the stem and can be raised to candle height. Thisis evidently a gravity device which acts like Palmer's spring pres-sure. It is not know^n whether this antedates Palmer's patent. Thefittings show that a bell of glass was installed on this candlestick.(Cat. No. 325639, England; Walter Hough; 8.7 inches (22 cm.)high.) "Green's Arctic lamp patent," so called, used Palmer'sdevice and had attached to the shade holder a cap on an arm whichcould be tripped, falling down and extinguishing the light. (PI. 38,fig. 1, Cat. No. 178371, England; Paul Brockett; 10 inches (26.5 cm.)long.) As a side light on the small economies of the candle periodare shown various simple devices for saving candle ends. Plate 38,Figure 2, shows a nickeled-iron extra socket for holding a candle endin the candle socket. (Cat. No. 325641, Paris, France, 1892; WalterHough; 1.7 inches (4 cm.) long.) Another, Figure 3, clutches thecandle with numerous arms adjusted by an encircling ring withscalloped edge. (Cat. No. 292508, Austria; 1.2 inches (3 cm.) long.)A handmade brass candle-end burner is from Scotland. (PI. 38,fig. 4, Cat. No. 169096; S. B. Dean; 3.6 inches (9 cm.) long.) In1892 there could be bought in Paris several forms of these hruUtout. One of these, of turned alabaster, has a slender spike uponwhich the candle end could be impaled for burning.PRIMITIVE LAMPSThere has been shown in a previous section (pi. 2) the sug-gested line of development of the lamp. The line begins at a periodwhen it is conceived that light apart from the camp fire and set upin a vessel of its own had not come to be a human need. For a longtime the human societies which had fire were satisfied with the torch,and as they advanced, almost imperceptibly on the whole, the torchgradually became improved and put to new uses.No art of man is ever in the same state of advancement through-out the world at any one time; thus an areal survey of the cultureof the tribes in the torch period would reveal in use every grade oftorch, depending on many things which may be brought togetherunder the term " environment." For instance, a tribe may live in anisolated environment and another on a natural migration line of
44 BULLETIN 141, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
culture. It will be seen that progress in the arts will differ in therespective tribes.The lamj), on account of the fuel, the wick, the need, and theknowledge used in its invention, is extremely complex. Althoughthe rude lamp may seem simple, all these requisites are present inits make-up. It follows that the lamp is a newcomer compared withthe torch. It also appears that the lamp, on account of its deceptivesimplicit}^, and in reality its complexity of invention, as mentioned,would arise only when advance had been made to a certain grade ofculture. This would imply that the lamp originated in a few favoredplaces, while the torch might originate at any camp fire in the world.As to the antiquity of the lamp, the evidence so far furnished pointsto the Mediterranean culture area, the eastern portion, where theoldest examples have been found. The lamps discovered by HowardCarter and his efficient coworkers in the tomb of Tut-Ankh-Amenare float lamps and sometimes are combined with a torch stand. Astold by Doctor Breasted, the find dates 3,250 years ago. In theAssyro-Babylonian region a lamp shaped like a boot, having a chan-nel cut from the instep to the toe, can be traced 3,400 years. Theseare the oldest lamps which can be dated. The actual origin of eachof these lamps is much farther in the past.As to the inventions, or rather light usages, standing about theorigin of the lamp, there are the making of a quasi lamp of the fatbody of the petrel and of the candlefish, and, nearer to nature, thefirefly lamps. The bird and fish have been placed at the beginningof the torch, not as a scientific contribution to origin but as sugges-tions (p. 2). The firefly lighting may be placed nearer in sug-gestiveness to the lamp because something must be devised to con-tain the insects, but the container is rather a lantern. This interest-ing episode in illumination having no bearing on the development ofillumination is the only example of the use of a natural light byman. In the tropical parts of the new world a large beetle, Pyro-phm^us noctiluciis, 1 to 1% inches long, furnishes a remarkablybrilliant light. A constant light is emitted by two circular areason the thorax and a poAverful intermittent flash from the abdomen.In the range of this insect the inhabitants make many recordeduses of the light of the pyrophore, "light bearer." One of theoldest specimens in the Museum collection is a firefly lantern fromthe West Indies. It is in three circular diminishing stories madeby setting small rods in square pieces of wood with truncated cor-ners and leaving a door in each story. The lantern is suspended bya hook. (Cat. No. 5631, West Indies; John Varden; 15.1 inches(38.5 cm.) high; pi. 40, fig. 7.) Another specimen is a jicara ortree gourd perforated and furnished with a cord for suspension anda rude door. This is such a specimen mentioned by Humboldt, wlio
HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 45
saAv it in use on a ship sailing from Cumana on the north coast ofVenezuela. (PI. 39, %. 3, Cat. No. 153182, St. Vincent, West Indies;F. A. Ober; 7 inches (17.7 cm.) high.) From Java comes a curiousfirefly lamp said to have been used by a burglar. It consists of asmall shallow wooden dish having wax on the bottom, to which fire-flies taken from a cane tube were stuck. A lid pivoted at one endcloses over the dark lantern. (PI. 39, figs. 1 and 2, Cat. No. 175615,Djok-ja Karta, Java; Miss Eliza Ruhamah Scidmore; 2 inches (5cm.) long.It has been suggested somewhat fancifully that the skull of ananimal may have been used as a vessel for the lamp in the earlystages of the invention. A skull would furnish a suitable reservoir,but there is no evidence of the use of entire skulls for lamps evenas a makeshift. There is, however, abundant data on the use ofshells for the purpose. It would be safer to originate the lampfrom shells of suitable form than from any other natural products.Shells which have been converted into lamps would have suggestedto the early inventors the spout lamp, the smooth-lipped clam, thesimple dish lamp, and the scallop the grooves in which the wickmight be rested. In the Orkney and Shetland Islands a fusus shellwas hung horizontally with cords and the wick drawn along thenatural channel. This primitive lamp was in common use by theislanders. (PL 40, fig. 2, Cat. No. 151147; Henry Balfour; 6.5inches (16.5 cm.) long.) Another method of hanging the shell lampis by a single cord. A saucer lamp formed of one valve of a pectenshell is in common use by the Aino of Yezo, Japan. It is an insep-arable companion of the box fireplace of that people set up inspread prongs of a split stick stuck in the earth or in a forkedbranch. In it was burnt fish oil by means of a fiber wick, as in theequally simple Japanese saucer lamps. (PI. 40, fig. 3, Cat. No.(4838), collected by Romyn Hitchcock; 5.7 inches (14.5 cm.) diam-eter.) There is a great transition of culture between the Aino shelllamp and the artistic lamp of decorated porcelain from China, butno improvement. (PI. 40, fig. 4, Cat. No. 175863, China; W. W.Rockhill; 6.9 inches (17.5 cm.) high.) A shell lamp from the southcoast of Brittany is probably a reminiscence of the early use ofshells as light vessels. It has, however, been assembled with ironwire and follows the idea of the familiar crusie with drip catcher.(PI. 40, fig. 1, Cat. No. 151646; collected by Henry Balfour; 4 inches(10 cm.) diameter.) Some examples of simple lamps of potteryshow the probable migration of Chinese forms and are figured onPlate 41(2. Figure 9 is a pottery lamp of glazed ware from theShan States, Burma. (Cat. No. 164922; collected by Henry Bal-four; 2.3 inches (6 cm.) diameter.) Figure 11 is a pottery dishfrom Singapore. (Cat. No. 167556; A. H. Webb; 4.1 inches (10.5
46 BULLETIX 141, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMcm.) diameter.) Figure 15 is a pottery saucer lamp with stem anddish foot. (Cat. No. 167556; Singapore; A. H. Webb; 3.1 inches(8 cm.) high, 4.7 inches (12 cm.) diameter.)Eskimo lamps furnish examples of great simplicity and of extremeinterest as they are the only aboriginal lamps in the WesternHemisphere. They have been monograplied by the writer.^ It isseen that there are two distinct types of lamps in the Eskimo area
:
The simple saucer lamp of Asiatic origin, and the wick lip or ridgelamp, apparently indigenous to America. Plate 40, Figure 6, is apottery lamp with ridges around the interior, from the Yukon delta,Alaska. (E. W. Nelson, 5.1 inches (13 cm.) diameter.) Plate 41a,Figure 4, is a small example of the long wick edge lamp of soapstone.The wick is powdered moss laid along the edge and in contact with theoil. (Cat. No. 64223, Hotham Inlet, Alaska, E. W. Nelson, 6.7inches (17 cm.) long, 5.1 inches (13 cm.) Avide.) The pottery lampof St. Lawrence Island has a ridge in the bottom on which the mosswick is laid. The lamp rest and drip catcher also admits of tip-pmg the lamp. (PI. 4:1a, fig. 5, Cat. No. 316720, collected bySheldon Jackson, 5.7 inches (14.5 cm.) long, 4.7 inches (12 cm.)wide, 3.8 inches (9.5 cm.) high.) In southern Alaska the lampsare of hard stone, sometimes sadiron shape and sometimes circular.These appear to be modifications of the Asiatic dish lamp. Plate4:1a, Figm-e 6, is the sadiron shape. These lamps are often verylarge and remarkable examples of stone working. (Cat. No. 316719,Unalaska, Alaska, Sheldon Jackson, 5.4 inches (14 cm.) long, 4inches (10 cm.) wide.) Plate 41a, Figure 8, is the oval form.(Cat. No. 316716, Aleuts, southern Alaska, Sheldon Jackson, 5.5inches (14 cm.) by 4.3 inches (11 cm.) diameter.) Plate 41a, Fig-ure 7, is a concave beach stone which has been used as a lamp.It is from an ancient Aleutian house ruin. Dr. W. H. Dall foundsimilar stones showing use as a lamp. This is an extemporaneouslamp suggesting great primitiveness, as shown in examples describedlater. (Cat. No. 14892, Uklatka Spit, Alaska, Capt. J. A. Sladen,8 inches (20.6 cm.) long.)Many extemporaneous or makeshift lamps have been observed.Sometimes these lamps seem worthy of standing at the beginningof the developmental series, as observed in the beach stone lampsof the Aleuts. Often these lamps are associated with occupations,as Plate 41a, Figure 1, which is a brick with a hole dug in thesurface for the reservoir and used some years ago by bakers. (Cat.No. 152532, Oxford, England, Henry Balfour, 8.8 inches (22.5 cm.)by 4.1 inches (10.5 cm.) by 3 inches (7.5 cm.).) Another, used by
6 The Lamp of tbe Eskimo. Report of U. S. National Museum, 1896, pp. 1025-1056.
HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 47printers, consists of a block of wood with a mass of fat inclosinga rag wick set upon it. (PI. 41a,, fig. 2, Cat. No. 325642, New YorkCity, Paul Brockett.) A pottery bowl containing fat and a clothwick comes from the Zimi Indians of Ncav Mexico. It is an ex-ample of adoption from the wdiite man, since none of the aboriginessouth of the Eskimo had a lamp. (PI. 41a, fig. 14, Cat. No. 20345,collected by the Bureau of American Ethnology, 5 inches (13 cm.)diameter.) Figure 13 is a lamp consisting of a saucer filled Avithfat, in which is embedded a sycamore ball as a very effective wick.Such lamps were used on the old frontier of the Middle West. Thespecimen is a model of those used in Iowa. (Cat. No. 325643,collected by Walter Hough, 6 inches (15 cm.) diameter.) Plate4:1a, Figure 12, is a lamp cut out of chalk and used by the flintknappers of England. Chalk lamps apparently date far back inEngland. (Cat. No. 211910, Brandon, England, Edward Lovett,3.5 inches (9 cm.) by 2.4 inches (6 cm.) by 3 inches (5 cm.).) Inthis connection mention may be made of improvised lamps of ahollowed billet of wood or a turnip used in the United States inemergencies. ANCIENT LAMPSAs a rule ancient lamps refer to those of the historic period, theclassical lamps of pottery and bronze which are among the mostinteresting relics of Greek and Roman times. Their use covers aperiod of about a thousand years, during which neither the Romans,to whom this type of lamp is accredited, nor the nations among whichit spread, gave any heed to its improvement in the matter of ef-fectiveness. Throughout this period the lamp underwent manychanges in art and thus can be assigned to period and locality withtheir various shadings of culture. For this reason there may beselected from the multiplicity of culture forms series showing aquasi-development of the minor appendages of the classical lamp.In the first series both modern and ancient are arranged to showthe theoretical progress in the development of the covered reservoirlamps of the Romans. Plate 41&, Figure 13, is a triangular openlamp of soapstone from Skardu, Baltistan. (Cat. No. 164964, Dr.W. L. Abbott.) Following are three baked clay lamps (figs. 10-12),from Mirzapur, India. (Cat. Nos. 164920, 164929, Henry Balfour.)An ancient lamp which shows what must be considered as the firstmodification of the primitive saucer lamp to form a groove to holdthe wick steady is seen in Plate 41&, Figure 9. (Cat. No. 146073,Cyprus, Henry Balfour.) Figure 8 is a pottery lamp from Kashmirin which the reservoir is partly closed over. (Cat. No. 161972, Kash-mir, India, Dr. W. L. Abbott.) A lamp from Leros, Greece (fig. 7),shows further progress (Cat. No. 73168, M. A. Carindouas), and
48 BULLETIN 141, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMFigure 6 is the typical Koman lamp closed over and having a slightbeak (Cat. No. 175584, Asia Minor, A. A. Azeez).The development of the beak also gives an interesting series lead-ing almost to tlie spout forms which were in use up to the age ofinvention. In Plate 42a, Figure 7, is a specimen said to have beenfound at Thebes, Egypt, and having a rudimentary beak. (Cat.No. 150436, Minor Kellogg.) The next specimen, Figure 6, fromTyre, shows further development (Cat. No. 130910, M. F. Savage).The spout is more marked in Figure 5 (Cat. No. 175558, Asia Minor,A. A. Azeez), and in Figure 4 (Cat. No. 167625, Italy, G. BrownGoode. Figure 3 is an Italian form. (Cat. No. 167629, samedonor.) Figure 2 is from Halicarnassus, Greece (Cat. No. 73162,M. A. Carindouas), while Figure 1 is Roman and shows the extremeof spout development (Cat. No. 167632, G. Brown Goode.)The handle series in Plate 42(Z has Figures 8 and 9, withouthandles, from Egypt and Italy, the former from Dr. George W.Sampson and the latter from M. A. Carindouas. A pinched-uphandle, perforated (fig. 10), is from Italy, collected by G. BrownGoode (Cat. No. 167642). The fourth specimen (fig. 11) has astub handle pierced laterally and is from Italy by the same col-lector. The fifth specimen (fig. 12), from Coos, Greece, has abetter developed handle. Figure 13 has a small ring handle inwhich the finger can hardly be inserted (Cat. No. 167618, Italy,G. Brown Goode). A lamp from Pergamos, Greece (fig. 14),displays an effective handle (Cat. No. 73161, M. A. Carindouas).No. 15 is also furnished with the extreme tj'^pe of ring handle (Cat.No. 167650, Italy, G. Brown Goode). The series below, Plate 42aexhibits another variety of handle generally crescentic and sometimesfloriated. The first lamp (fig. 16) is from Carpathos, Greece, Mr.Carindouas; the second (fig. 17) in bronze, from Italy, G. BrownGoode; the third (fig. 18) in pottery, also from Italy, by the samecollector; and the fourth (fig. 19), also of bronze, from Italy, byM. F. Savage (Cat. Nos. 73165, 167656, 167628, 175263).Sometimes Roman lamps were given a foot, never much elevated.The series here (pi. 426, first row) displays a crude lamp fromEgypt, Minor Kellogg ; a well-made lamp with low foot from Baiae,Italy, Captain Chauncey; a smaller specimen from Italy, M. F.Savage; a neat globular lamp from Greece, William Green; and alamp with bell-shape foot raising it 2.3 inches, Italy, G. BrownGoode (Cat. Nos. 130436, 1355, 17268, 128364, 167646). The ancientsmade lamps with more than one burner. These are favorite subjectsof falsifiers, whose forgeries are common in the more elaborate typesof lamps. Beginning to the right of Plate 427;, third row, a one-burner Roman lamp decorated in relief is shown. The next specimenis a fine example of a two-burner lamp in the best style of art. Two-
HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 49burner lamps are the more frequent of the multiple-burner lamps.The third figure is a three-burner lamp of somewhat doubtful authen-ticity, yet illustrating this variety. The fourth is a seven-burnerlamp of red terra cotta. It is suggested that Roman lamps of mul-tiple burners were used for ceremonial purposes. (Cat. Nos. 16T635,129399, 167653, 167647.) The Henry J. Heinz collection in Pitts-burgh contains a nine-burner lamp with a bas-relief of the triumphscene from the Arch of Titus, in which the seven-branch candlestick,or, rather, lamp stand, is borne as spoil. (PI. 41&, fig. 1.) This andthe seven-burner described are Roman of the later period.In Plate 41& are shown various antique lamps, some doubtfullyold and some recent. In the upper row. Figure 2 is a tortoise-shapelamp from Italy. The second is a Silenus head in bronze anddoubtful. The third is a Roman lamp with palm-leaf design. Thefourth is a well-modeled head of a satyr in terra cotta, and perhapsrecent. In the lower row of Plate 42a, Figure 20, is a rude lampfrom Chios, Greece; Figure 21 has beautiful relief modeling in theconcave; Figure 22 is from Baiae, Italy, with floriated decoration;Figure 23, also from Baiae, is also decorated, and has the potter'smark beneath ; Figure 24 is a modern glazed terra cotta from Naples,called a "toe lamp," following an obscure scriptural allusion; andFigure 25 is a modern green and yellow glazed majolica lamp indolphin shape. (Cat. Nos. (upper row, pi. 426), 167621, 29407,167630, 167637; (lower row, pi. 43a) 73168, 175267, 1356, 1355, 129409,167654.)Lamp stands of bronze are among the more successful works inthat material produced by the ancients. They appear to descendfrom the Etruscan sliver candle stands (p. 10) and the footing showsdecided Egyptian tendencies, seen in the specimen shown on Plate 43,Figure 5. This stand, perhaps an original, is a fine example of theRoman bronze worker's art. (Cat. No. 169073, Italy; Magrudercollection; 34.2 inches (84.5 cm.) high.) A lamp stand of iron se-cured in Italy by Dr. G. Brown Goode is suggestive of the ancientlamp stands. No data is available to determine the age of thisspecimen. The stand has every appearance of great age. It hasthree rudely bent feet and the head has three arms from which hanga rather incongruous set of lamp-tending utensils attached to chainsof brass and iron wire evidently of several periods. From one ofthe chains hangs a boat-shape two-burner lamp of terra cotta witha loop for suspension in the middle. This form of lamp may be lateRoman. Three specimens of this lamp are in the Museum collec-tion. They can not be related to any Roman types known here. Theymay be adaptations produced in the Middle Ages. (PI. 43, fig. 6,Cat. No. 168134, Italy; G. Brown Goode; 32.75 inches (83.2 cm.)high.)
50 BULLETIN 141, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMThe lamp beam shown in Plate 43, Figure 7, is of curious interest.The beam is of cast iron, a triform loop in the center and at the ends,crozier heads from which hang chains to which the lamps are at-tached. At the attachment of the chains are small iron crosses. Thedesign on the bar of the beam is a scallop shell with volutes on eitherside. The lamps are iron beaten into boat shape, and show traces ofwick tongues, as seen in Italian lamps of an early period. Thetweezers are of brass. The snuffers are of iron and of old form, butmay not be contemporaneous with the rest, as the tweezers would besufficient for tending the wick. The lamp beam is evidently eccle-siastical and perhaps early seventeenth century. (Cat. No. 168127;G. Brown Goode; 22.2 inches (56.5 cm.) high.) On Plate 43, Figures1-3, are shown two two-spout hanging lamps and a single burner,all of terra cotta and similar to the specimen attached to an ironlamp stand described on page 49. (Cat. Nos. 167648, 167636, 168154;Italy; G. Brown Goode.) Figure 4 is a curious three-spout terra-cotta lamp, light brown in color, washed with darker brown. Thislamp appears to be authentic and shows marked traces of use. Theopening to the reservoir is annular, surrounding a tube arising fromthe bottom and projecting above the top of the lamp. Through thistube is passed at present a chain with flat brass links having a diskstop at the lower end by which the lamp could be hung. The simi-larity of this specimen to the lucerna reservoir and burners is com-plete (see p. 61). The date of the specimen would seem to throwlight on the ancestry of the lucerna. (Cat. No. 167651, Italy; G.Brown Goode, reservoir 3.5 inches (9 cm.) diameter.)The series of lamps, three ancient and one modern, plate 42b,middle row, indicate in a striking manner the persistence in time ofa particular form of lamp. Figure 6 is a crude pottery lamp havingan open trough for the wick prolonged from the body of the lampand a neck through which oil is poured. It was collected a fewj'-ears ago at Yarkand, Eastern Turkestan (Cat. No. 175140), byW. L. Abbott (5.9 inches (15 cm.) long). This recent lamp maybe compared with the adjoining specimens. Figure 7 is a glazedlamp, also from Turkestan, dating about the twelfth century A. D.(Cat. No. 259384, Turkestan; Museum of Peter the Great, Leningrad,S. R.) Figure 8 is a lamp having a beautiful glaze of turquoise bluehaving a more refined form but of the same type as the otherspecimens. The lamp is of the tenth century. (Cat. No. 9586,Turkey in Asia; Tiffany and Co.; 4.4 inches (11 cm.) long.) Figure9 is a lamp glazed in colors, having a trough for the wick, butdiffering in the treatment of the reservoir opening. (Cat. No. 259388,Eastern Turkestan, 12th-13th century; Museum of Peter the Great,Leningrad, S. R.) A lamp of this type is one of the Babylonianstar emblems and is found cut on a stone kuduru dating about 1800B. C. (See p. 44.)
i
HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 51FLOAT LAMPSThe ]ami, consisting of a saucer-like reservoir, in which the wickis floated on oil resting on water, follows nearest the primitive saucerlamps described in the next section. This ancient lighting methodappears to be indigenous to the Near East and North Africa, andto have spread from these centers into Europe, and thence in theform of altar lamps and domestic night lights to all quarters ofthe civilized world. It is probable, or at least worthy of considera-tion, that the contacts of the Crusades were responsible for the Euro-pean distribution. It is evident also that the Moorish conquest ofSpain brought the float lamp to Europe. This curious installationof oil on water in a lamp originated in Egypt, and, so far as knownfrom archeologic data, is the oldest lamp. Since any convenientdish would serve for the night light, there is practically little sur-vival of an apparatus as with the lamp. The floats, however, areeasily obtained. Hanging float lamps which require more or lesscomplicated means of suspension are frequently observed. TheMoros of Mindanao, P. I., make a brass cup for the night light, andthis is one of the few vessels devoted to this special purpose. (PI. 44,fig. 3, Cat. No. 329866, E. W. Keyser ; 3.3 inches (8.5 cm.) in diameter,3 inches (7.5 cm.) high.) A hanging float lamp from Tetuan,Morocco, consists of a green glaze saucer with foot, slung in chainsfastened to a disk, which in turn is suspended from a flat plateof perforated brass in the form of a bird; also resembling a handand may be a charm against the evil eye. (PI. 45, fig. 7, Cat. No.(Williams 96) ; bowl, 5,1 inches (13 cm.) in diameter, 14.1 inches(36 cm.) high.) Dr. Talcott Williams also collected a float-lampchandelier for the mosque having 13 green glaze pottery cups hungin chains from the points and angles of a frame made by super-imposing two equilateral triangles of strap brass. Each lamp ishung immediately from a disk supported by flat cast-brass two-headbirds. One lamp is in the middle and a little higher than the others.(PI. 45, fig. 8, Cat. No. 192, Talcott Williams; Morocco; 20.5 inches(52 cm.) in diameter.) The Turkish float-lamp glass for hanginginstallations is calyx shape with knob at the bottom. The wick isclamped in the junction of three twisted brass-wire tentacles whichhook over the edge of the glass. (PI. 46, fig. 1, Turkey; TurkishCommission, World's Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893; 3.7inches (9.5 cm.) in diameter, 5 inches (12.5 cm.) long.) Theseglasses are seen in the Turkish chandelier shown on Plate 26. Avariation of the float lamp is found in the Near East. They arehanging lamps, often of finely worked brass, in which art this partof the world excels. The metal specimens are domed in the upperpart, and fitting under the dome is a cluster of generally three collars,in which are placed the glass tubes which are flanged at the upper
52 BULLETIN 141, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMborder. These tubes are punched up in the bottom, and at the apexof the cone so formed is affixed a slender glass tube, around whichthe wick is wound. Water and oil are poured in to the properheight. Plate 44a, Figure 2, shows the lamp open; Figure 1 showsthe lamp closed and the function of the chains for suspension. (Cat.No. 325644, Syria; Walter Hough; 7.7 inches (19.5 cm.) in diameter.)Another fine specimen from Damascus is of fretted wood inlaid withpearl shell and bone. From the upper collar hang six lamp tubesand from the bottom seven tubes. One of the sections opens as adoor, through which the tubes are inserted. (PI. 446, fig. 2, Cat. No.175471; Syria; A. R. Souhami; 13.4 inches (34 cm.) in diameter, 22.9inches (58 cm.) high.) A beautiful specimen in pierced brass over-laid with silver medallions is in the shape of a flattened vase and issuspended by three chains, the hook for hanging projecting from thecenter of a Turkish silver coin. The float installation is a glass bowlfitting in the opening of the vase, much of the light thus passingthrough the transparent glass and out through the perforations.(PI. 46, fig. 2, Cat. No. 175590; Persia; Miss A. A. Azeez; 6 inches(15 cm.) in diameter, 3.7 inches (9.5 cm.) high.) From Burgos,Spain, the writer in 1892 procured an altar lamp of brass which issimple and well designed and may stand as the type of ecclesiasticalfloat lamps. The church use of the float lamp is quite ancient. TheNer tairdd^ or perpetual light, Dr. I. M. Casanowicz informs me,was a lamp of this kind used in the Temple at Jerusalem. (PI. 446,fig. 1, Cat. No. 167080; Burgos, Spain; Walter Hough; 29.1 inches(74 cm.) long.) The secular use of the float lamp was widespreadand still is very common in some countries. The immediate basisfor this use was the need for a dim, non-irritating light in a sickroom or as a guide light at night. " Night lights," as they are com-monly called, consist of a disk of light wood, cork, or paper, in thecenter of which a short bit of taper is fixed. This is allowed tofloat alone on the oil or buoyed on a triangular or cross-shape pieceof metal, the points of which are tipped with cork. Nuremburg,Germany, was a center Avhere enormous quantities of night lightswere manufactured and were distributed over the world from thatcity. At present Paris is the citj^ where night lights with modernimproA^ements are made and sold. Several specimens of night lightsare shown on Plate 47. In Spain in 1892 several varieties of nightlights were on sale. One of Parisian manufacture is called veilleusesplongeantes. The float is of cork, with circular hole cut out in themiddle overlaid with tin having a cross-shape depression in which
" holy crosses " are placed. (Fig. 1.) Another kind, called veilleusesunalterahles^ has a hollow-glass float in which a short length of taperis thrust. (Fig. 5.) These specimens (Cat. Nos. 167056 and 167057)were bought in Madrid. In Spain these lights are called " mari-
HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 53posas." A box from Burgos, Spain, bears the inscription : " Maripo-sas para tres meses," Mariposas for three months, and has a corkand tin float. (Fig. 4.) (Cat. No. 167058.) Night lights madelocally were sold at Burgos. The taper is set in a cork float coveredwith a disk of paper and are self-floating. (Fig. 3.) A box ofNuremberg night lights having a float of tin cut with three armstipped with cork is in the collection. (Fig. 6.) The lights are disksof wood with the taper set up in the middle, and are packed in anoval veneer wood box containing tin tweezers for picking up andplacing the lights. A Nuremberg box with label bearing the nameof the device in four languages and a cut of Christ rising from thedead was bought by Dr. Leonhard Stejneger in Kussia in 1898.(Cat. No. 324738.) A box without identification, probably fromNuremberg, came also from Russia. The float is a square cross withcork at the tips. The lights are disks of paper with tapers. A boxof Nuremberg night lights was received from Philadelphia, wherethey were said to have been used in 1820. (Cat. No. 130310; GeorgeG. Fryer, fig. 2.) SIMPLE LAMPSThe simplest lamps, not makeshifts, and definitely used over greatculture areas of the world are mere saucers with no footing for thewick, which is brought up to the rim at any place, where it hangsinsecurely. This was the universal lamp of China and Japan. Itis of very ancient origin, perhaps the most ancient lighting vesseldesigned by man, at a period of culture when his needs required ahouse light. Perhaps the original model was a shell of smooth out-line. There were endless hints that the wick should have a groove atleast in which to rest, and this step was taken by most of the lamp-using world, as described in the next section.Plate 48, Figure 4, is a saucer lamp mounted on a bamboo standand used formerly in street lighting. Generally the saucer is ofpottery, but iron, brass, pewter, and porcelain serve. (Cat. No.175867, China, W. W. Rockhill; 8.3 inches (21 cm.) high.) Figure3 is an example of fine porcelain with blue decoration. The stemarises from a saucer and has a cup support for the shallow saucerlamp. The latter has a small stub handle. (Cat. No. 175863, China,same collector; 7.1 inches (18 cm.) high.) Figure 5 is of brass. Thesaucer has a handle and rests on a cup at the top of a column arisingfrom a bowl. (Cat. No. 175864, China, same collector; 15.7 inches(40 cm.) high.) An ingenious folding pocket candlestick lamp isshown (pi. 49(7, figs. 2, 3) , joined and ready for use. (Cat. No. 175866,China, same collector; 8 inches (20.5 cm.) high.) An elaborate castbrass hanging lamp from Japan in the collection had for its effectivepart a simple saucer, and in other Japanese lights the saucer was
54 BULLETIX Ul, UNITED STATES NATIOXAL MUSEUM
used. (PI. 48, fig. 1, Cat. No. 274922, Mrs. Julian James; 35.1 inches(89 cm.) long.) The Tibetan is a deeper saucer mounted on a bell-shape base. (PI. 49(7, fig, 1.) These lamps vary greatly in size, someof them holding 50 pounds of butter. They are often elaboratelydecorated. (Cat. No. 167286, Eastern Tibet, W. W. Rockhill; 3.5inches (9 cm.) high.) A pair of magnificent bronze temple lampsfrom Tibet illustrate the gorgeous setting of a primitive lamp, whichis a shallow bowl at the top of the column. The form of these lampswould seem to indicate that the artist followed a Persian candlestickin his design. (PI. 496, figs. 1, 2, Cat. No. 216041, Tibet, Rowlandcollection; 45 inches (114.5 cm.) high.) The Korean lamp is a pot-tery bowl containing sesame oil and a rush pith wick. In shape it islike the Tibetan butter lamp. It is often mounted on a woodenstand having an arm to hold the lamp and another to hold the dripcatcher. A ratchet at the back admits of raising and lowering thelamp. The specimen is a model from plans by the late Pom K. Soh.(PL- 48, fig. 2, Cat. No. 203214, Korea; 36 inches (91.5 cm.) high.)Here and there in Asia the saucer lamp has been observed and in thePolynesian Islands of the Hawaiian group stone lamps of this typeand of ancient appearance have been found. They, however, appearto be accultural, and are most prevalent in Hawaii, being nonexistentor sporadic in other islands of Polynesia. Of the four specimens inthe Museum collection one is a beach stone having a natural circularconcavity at one end. (PI. 50, fig. 2, Cat. No. 257876, Hawaii, N. B.Emerson; 6.5 inches (16.5 cm.) long, 4.2 inches (10.5 cm.) wide.)Figure 3 is worked from vesicular volcanic rock. (Cat. No. 5891,Hawaii, S. R. Dowdle; 3.4 inches (8.5 cm.) diameter.) Figure 4 iswell worked from dense red porphyry and shows no traces of oil oreffects of fire. (Cat. No. 5892^ Hawaii, S. R. Dowdle; 3.4 inches(8.5 cm.) diameter.) Figure 1 is of basaltic rock, somewhat erodedand roughened around the edge of the excavation. (Cat. No. 255723,Hawaii, E. H. Estep; 5.6 inches (14 cm.) diameter.) The Eskimopottery saucer lamp (pi. 41(2, fig, 3) is of the class described above.It is the Southern Eslrimo form and is not found north of NortonSound. This lamp is of Asiatic origin and appears to have spreadfrom eastern Asia across the Arctic to America.WICK CHANNEL LAMPSIt is evident that the installation of the wick in the saucer lampwhere it could only be drawn up to the edge at any point was theessence of simplicity. Except in lamps remaining stationary thewick would be displaced and the light put out. Yet millions in theFar East used such a lamp. The need for a groove or channel tostabilize the wick appears to have been earliest felt in the Near East
HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 55
where a saucer lamp in all probability preceded the Roman lamp.This is in accord with the theory of the prehistoric migration ofeastern Asiatics from Mesopotamia, supported by numerous simi-larities brought forward by Terrien Delacouperie and other students.In various older horizons in Cyprus, Asia Minor, and Carthage, inNorth Africa, are found lamps in which a wick channel has beenformed by pinching up the side of a small clay saucer. (PL 42.)This is the type of pottery lamp current in North Africa at present.Plate 51, Figure 5 shows a green glazed Moroccan pottery lamp withpinched-up reservoir mounted on a column rising from a saucer baseand having a curved handle reaching from the reservoir to the base.This lamp was collected in Morocco by Dr. Talcott Williams, (12,2inches (31 cm.) high). On the same plate, Figure 6 is an ancientearthenware pinched up saucer lamp from Syria. (Cat. No, 95874;Tiffany ?S; Co.; 3 inches (8 cm.) diameter.) A lamp of faiencewith two wick grooves show^s North African influence. (PI, 51,fig, 7, Cat. No. 150435, Naples, Italy; Mrs. E, S. Brinton; 9.8 inches(25 cm.) high.) A glazed pottery lamp in form of a two-facedwoman bearing the two spout closed-in reservoir on the head is fromHolland. (PI. 51, fig, 4, Cat, No, 175711; M. F. Savage; 12,2 inches(31 cm.) high.) A splendid specimen of Moorish green glaze pot-tery lamp has the characteristic reservoir with column and handlerising from the center of a basin having small lamps, candle sockets,and modeled ornaments around the border, the whole mounted on asturdy stem with base. (PL 51, fig, 3, Cat, No, 168308, Morocco;W. H, Chandlee; 29 inches (73.5 cm.) high,) An iron lamp, fourpointed and with spike for sticking in a base, also from Morocco,shows the open wick groove or fold as in the pottery lamps, (PL52, fig. 4, Cat, No, (57, Williams); Talcott Williams; 17,4 inches(44 cm,) long,) A cast brass standing lamp with three wick channelscomes from the Philippines, The circle of the bowd is continued asa slender bridge across the wick channel, (PL 54, fig. 7 Cat. No.232816, Moro, Cotas, Mindanao; Maj, E, A. Mearns; 11.8 inches (30cm.) high.) This lamp is evidently an inheritance of the Moham-medan culture of the Moro. A well designed but crudely workedmosque lamp of brass shows the simple installation of the wick. Thereservoir at the apex of the column has cut in it six incisions, themetal being bent out to serve as a channel for the wick. (PL 51,fig. 1, Cat, No, 176519, Near East ; Van Gasbeek and Arkell ; 35,4inches (90 cm.) high,) A hanging lamp of brass has the reservoirbeaten up to form seven angles, in which the wick is laid. This is anadvance on the simpler wick channel lamps which will be seen fromthe specimens figured having only one wick. (PL 51, fig, 2, Cat. No,205549, Tangier, Morocco; donor unknown; 35.4 inches (89 cm.)54261?28 5
56 BULLETIN 141, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMlong.) The lamps of India and Ceylon are all of the type under con- isideration. No simple saucer lamps such as are used in the Far Eastare found. Minor household lamps are seen among tribes and:peoples along the border of Chinese influence, but invariably have'wick grooves. Plate 54 shows simple Ceylonese lamps of circularor oval outline brought up to a beak for the wick. Figures 9 and 11are of a stony composition and Figure 10 is of soft earthenware.(Cat. Nos. 168300, 168301, 168304, Ceylon Commission, World's Co-lumbian Exposition, Chicago, 111.; fig. 9, 5 inches (13 cm.) diameter;fig. 11, 3.7 inches (9.5 cm.) diameter; fig. 10, 5.5 inches (14 cm.) wide,11.3 inches (28.5 cm.) long.) Ceylonese metal lamps sometimes inthe commoner forms have a square reservoir with wick channels atthe four corners. Such a lamp of tin with column and pan base isshown on Plate 45, Figure 6. The more important lamps, like thoseof India, have multiple light. One of these, of heavy cast brass, hasnine small wick channels. The reservoir is placed midway of aroundel stem centered in a dish. A trefoil handle is placed at theapex of the column. (PI. 52, fig. 3, Cat. No. 234132, Ceylon; St.Louis Exposition; Ceylon Commission; 13.4 inches (34 cm.) high.)Another fine specimen is similar and has seven wick channels in theopen reservoir. This lamp is reminiscent of the Italian lucerna, asthe reservoir can be raised or lowered on the central support. (PI.52, fig. 5, Cat. No. 168205, Ceylon; Ceylon Commission, St. LouisExposition; 24.8 inches (63 cm.) high.) As mentioned, the lampsof India generally have multiple lights. Plate 52, Figure 1, is ofcast brass, the reservoir with four lights mounted on a column andbase suggesting European influence. (Cat. No. 92753, Calcutta,India; H. R. H. The Rajah of Tagore; 12 inches (30.5 cm.) high.)On the same plate (fig. 2), is an excellent specimen of quite old, pureIndian work in brass. The simple lamps are stepped on the ends ofconventional branches, five in number, supported on a resting birdon a high peak. (PI. 52, fig. 2, Cat. No. 216067, India; Bennoo-Hodges; 13.8 inches (35 cm.) high.) Another old specimen shows afabulous animal holding the stem of a one-wick lamp. (PI. 53, fig.1, Cat. No. 216068, India; Bennoo-Hodges ; 5.5 inches (14 cm.) long,5.2 inches (13 cm.) high.)A hand lamp of brass having 12 wick orifices leading into acircular reservoir filled from above is a departure from the usualIndian method. (PI. 53, fig. 2, Cat. No. 216060, India; Bennoo-Hodges; 3.2 inches (8 cm.) diameter, 8.3 inches (21 cm.) long.)Figure 3 is a lotos pod, the wick being drawn up at four angles.The curved handle and base of the lamp are joined by a straightbar. (PI. 53, India; Bennoo-Hodges; 4.8 inches (12 cm.) long,4 inches (10 cm.) high.) Perhaps belonging here is a wooden lamp
HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 57
of the group of Malays inhabiting Simalur Island, East Indies.This crude affair consists of an oblong wooden reservoir attachedby mortising to a hook branch. Excluding the idea of independentinvention is probably an infiltration from India following the spoon-shape lamp of the West rather than the saucer-shape lamp of theEast. (PI. 54, fig. 6, Cat. No. 237351, Sigoeli, Simalur, Island;Dr. W. L. Abbott; 19 inches (48 cm.) long.) For comparison withthe Indian multiple lamps the Jewish hanuka is interesting. TheImnuka is an oriental lamp transported to every clime at the behestof religion. It consists of a row of eight small spoon-shape lampsplaced at the base of an ornamental panel like a sconce, reflectingthe style of art of the period and country in which it was produced.The hanuka may be hung up or set on a surface. The lamps usuallyhave placed under them a drip catcher. Two specimens from thecollection illustrate the form of the hanuka. Plate 53, Figure 4, isfrom Morocco and is unusual in being in triptych form, the two sidewings hinged and closed in at the sides of the lamp row. A largerlamp is set in the upper middle of the frame. The specimen is ofcast brass and a good example of modern Moorish art. The otherspecimen (pi. 53, fig. 5) is an old Italian hanuka of brass, the backtwo columns with arch and dating in the seventeenth century.(Morocco; Talcott Williams; 8 inches (20.5 cm.) wide, 9.5 inches(24 cm.) high; Cat. No. 168312, Florence, Italy; S. B. Dean; 8.3inches (21 cm.) wide.) Another old Italian multiple lamp, notceremonial so far as known, is Figure 10, Plate 63. The back is afloriated shield having a row of three spoon-shape lamps at the baseand one near the top. (Cat. No. 153903, Italy; G. Brown Goode;5.9 inches (15 cm.) wide, 5.9 inches (15 cm.) high.) On Plate 53are shown several examples of the lamps under consideration. Fig-ure 6 is a crude pottery lamp used on the frontier in Virginia manyyears ago and of English ancestry. (Cat. No. 130498, Morgantown,W. Va. ; Walter Hough; 5.2 inches (13 cm.) diameter, 5.2 inches(13 cm.) high.) Figures 8 and 9 are Javanese brass lamps, onedetached and the other mounted on a column and base with feet, adrip catcher placed on the colunm below the lamp. (Cat. Nos.811385, 311386, Java; Victor J. Evans; 4.2 inches (10.5 cm.) diam-eter, 5.5 inches (14 cm.) long.) Figure 7 is a small Algerian pot-tery lamp which shows the Mohammedan style of reservoir open atthe top for filling. (Cat. No. 157435, Algiers; Edward Lovett;5.2 inches (13 cm.) high.) Examples of what must have been re-garded as improvements on the simple lamp shown on Plate 45consist of bringing the wicks up at more points around the reser-voir. Figures 1 and 3 show the parts of a three-wick lamp of brass,the drip catcher having a bowed support with ornamented head.On the support is hung the reservoir. (Cat. No. 169100, Flemish;
58 BULLETIN 141^ UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMS. B, Dean; 9.3 inches (21 cm.) high.) Figure 2 is from Tetuan,Morocco, of brass having four wicks and a hook for hanging.Attention is called to the similarity of this lamp to the Flemishexample. (Cat. No. 76484, Morocco; U. S. Department of State;8.3 inches (21 cm.) high.) An old Italian two-light lamp of copperis a good example of an early device. In the Italian lamps of thistype the wick is supi^orted on a small metal channel soldered at thelower end to the bottom. This gives a more secure setting for thewick. (PI. 45, fig. 4, Cat. No. 153891, Kome, Italy; G. BrownGoode; 3.5 inches (9 cm.) wide, 5.6 inches (14 cm.) long.) Figure 5is a similar lamp of copper with four wick points. (Cat. No. 153894,same locality and collector; 4.9 inches (12.5 cm.) square.) Figure 6is the Ceylonese lamp described on page 56. An antique Frenchiron three-wick lamp is of the simple character of its class. It hasa long hooked support with swivel for hanging. (PI. 54, fig. 6,Cat. No. 289436, France; Anton Heitmuller; 15.4 inches (39 cm.)long.) The simple metal lamps of Europe show many variationsdue to adaptations for local, industrial, and even personal uses.These minor inventions have the essential parts of the lamp, namely,the reservoir and wick installation, in its age-old condition. Forpurposes of classification we have lamps with and lamps withoutdrip catchers. Some of these in the collection are figured onPlate 55. Figure 10 is of copper and iron, of antique French work,and the ratchet for tilting the lamp is found nowhere else. Therewas some discussion among French antiquarians as to whether areservoir was set in the hollow portion of the lamp, but it wasdecided in the negative. Old French and Italian iron cruisies sub-stantiate this. (Cat. No. 130590, France; John Durand: 3.5 inches(9 cm.) diameter.) Figure 12 is an old Italian cniisie of ham-mered iron with bowed handle at the back and spike hook of twistediron for hanging. (Cat. No. 153896, Siena, Italy; G. Brown Goode;14.2 inches (36 cm.) long when hung.) Another from Siena (fig.15) has the handle extended and a hook at the end for some specialpurpose, as a weaver's light. The walls of the reservoir are orna-mented with chisel work. (Cat. No. 153895, same locality and col-lector; 14.2 inches (36 cm.) long.) Figure 16 is a French beaten-iron hand lamp of the fourteenth century with a narrower wickchannel than usual in crusies. This lamp has a handle beaten outthin and convenient for moving the vessel. (Cat. No. 216072,France; S. B. Dean; 7.5 inches (19 cm.) long, 2 inches (5 cm.) high.)A wrought-iron crusie from the old manor at Dedham, Mass., hasa cruciform handle with hole at the top for fastening the hook.The lamp is much like the French specimen described above. (Fig.14, Cat. No. 151481, Dedham, Mass., 4.4 inches (11 cm.) long, 3.8inches (10 cm.) high.) A cast-brass lamp which was in common
HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 59
use in northern France is Figure 11, The body of this is pear shape,connected to a bell-shape apex by four narrow bands, probably rep-resenting the chains of a hanging lamp. The spout is straight.The drip catcher is a small simple crusie hung on a hook below.The reservoir is filled by a projection and opening in the side. Thehook is of cast brass. (Cat. No. 205377, northern France; S. B,Dean; 12.2 inches (31 cm.) long.)In Figure 13 is shown a brass standing circular lamp with wickchannel bent on the border. A tongue soldered to the bottom of thelamp inclines above the wick channel and is for holding the wicksteady. This feature is found in Italian crusies and obviates theuse of a separate drip catcher. The date of this improvement isnot known. (Cat. No. 207818, Leyden, Holland; H. D. Paxson;5.9 inches (15 cm.) high.) The crusies next to be taken up havethe familiar drip catcher duplicating the reservoir. The specimenshown as Figure 17 is of excellently worked brass. The reservoiris set on a hook projecting from the bowed handle. The shield-shape top of the handle is perforated. Tweezers are attached bya chain; the hook for hanging is missing. (Cat. No. 168317, Bel-gium; S. B. Dean; 7.5 inches (19 cm.) high, 5.9 inches (15 cm.)long.) Scotch crusies are a characteristic type well and stronglymade of iron. It is said that formerly crusie and drip catch reser-voirs were hammered out in a stone mold, but probably not manyreal blacksmiths would care to do it that way. Plate 54, Figure 2,shows one of the ruder Scotch crusies with narrow long reservoir.The reservoir is slipped on a hook on the handle and the latter isbent over in the upper portion at right angles and at the extremityis fastened the hook. (Cat. No. 130411, Scotland; Edward Lovett;13.8 inches (35 cm.) long.) A very old crusie in the best style isFigure 4. The projection at the back for hanging the reservoir isstepped as in 130411 so that by pulling up the reservoir notch bynotch it may be tilted to allow the flow of oil to the wick, a simplerdevice than in the French lamp described (p. 58). The Spanishcrusie (fig. 3) is smaller than the Scotch specimens and is very wellmade. It also has a notch device for tilting the reservoir as in theScotch crusie. (Cat. No. 167061, Madrid, Spain; Walter Hough;11.8 inches (30 cm.) long.) Figure 1 is a pottery lamp suggestingthe crusie from Algiers. (Cat. No. 175266; M. F. Savage; 7.1 inches(18 cm.) long.) A typical Spanish crusie property of Mr. GerritS. Miller and purchased at Burgos by him shows superior iron work(pi. 54, fig. 8). The development of the crusie shows in an interest-ing way the course of that of the Roman lamp. The crusie is reallythe Roman lamp translated into the Iron Age. First the dripcatcher was abolished and the wick held on a grooved lip of metal,
60 BULLETIN 141, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMlong ago adapted to Italian open lamps of metal. Next the crusiewas covered over, the lid hinged for placing the wick and filling.The handle and hook-and-prick remained. Figure 1 on Plate 55is a modern Spanish crusie of pressed tin with handle riveted andsoldered on. This has the look of factory manufacture and prob-ably was made in France for Spanish trade; this lamp no doubtbeing still used in out of the way places on the Peninsula. (Cat.No. 167069, Madrid, Spain; Walter Hough; 12.7 inches (32 cm.)long.) The crusie shown in Figure 2 was made in Washingtonabout 1820 and especial care was taken in its construction and finish.The cover of the slot and reservoir moves to the right on a pivot.The end of the handle is ornamented with a shield as in the Flemishspecimens. (Cat. No. 305620, S. C. Brown; 10 inches (25.5 cm.)long.) The tin specimen (fig. 3) is a later form made among thePennsylvania " Dutch " at a time when the tinner was beginning tosupplant the blacksmith. The specimen is large for a crusie. Thelid is hinged and the hook of bent wire. (Cat. No. 72586, Muncey,Pa.; N. J. Le Van; 10.6 inches (27 cm.) high.) Almost the lastword in the iron crusie is shown in Figure 4 from the same placeand collector. The handle and the cover of the reservoir are brazedon, the little door slides on a pivot and the hook-spike is a fine pieceof quaint hammer work. The wick tender is also hand made. Thecrusie is file finished. The specimen was probably not made inAmerica, but may be English or German. (Cat. No. 72588; 8.7inches (22 cm.) long.) Among the Pennsylvania "Dutch" of pastgenerations habits of neatness and propriety required stands forcrusies. Formerly the crusie was hung up or stuck up at any con-venient vantage point, perhaps usually near or in the chimney. Thestands represent the crusie entering into the intimate life of thefamily. Also there were developed fillers for the lamp which couldbe put near the fire to keep the grease fluid to pour into the schmutzelamp, " fat lamp." A tin stand with pan and handle is shown inFigure 5. This comes from Bucks County, Pa. (Cat. No. 207815;Henry D. Paxson; 12.6 inches (32 cm.) high.) Stands of turnedwood painted were also used. (PI. 55, fig. 7, Cat. No. 207816, BucksCounty, Pa. ; Henry D. Paxson ; 9.1 inches (23 cm.) high.) The lampon this stand is from Worms on the Khine, Germany, presented byT. Rothrock (Cat. No. 201426). Figure 9 is a crusie sliding ona rod fastened in a weighted stand. (Cat. No. 207814, Bucks Coun-ty, Pa.; Henry D. Paxson; 18.8 inches (48 cm.) high.) Figure 6is a crusie filler of tin from Madrid, Spain. (Cat. No. 167034; Wal-ter Hough; 7.5 inches (19 cm.) high.) Another is shown in Figure8, also of tin. (Cat. No. 72352, Bainbridge, Pa.; George Bean; 6.1inches (15.5 cm.) high.)
HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 61SPOUT LAMPSThe farthest development of the lamp whose wick was drawn upat the side is seen in the spout lamp. The development of the spoutwhich may be followed in the classes of lamps previously shownmust have taken many centuries, yet was not destined to bring forththe modern central wick lamp. The most attractive of the spoutlamps and the ones standing highest in art design are the Italianiucerna. The origin of the lucerna appears to be more immediatelyin the three-spout pottery lamps (pi. 43) and more distantly inthe Roman hanging lamps with two wick orifices on the same plate.The ancient lamp stand may be taken as the support of the lucerna.Lucernas are usually of brass, excellently finished. The survivalof this old type of lamp into the modern period in Italy is dueto their customary use as lights for the dead. Otherwise they aretreasured for their art and curio interest.The usual lucerna has three spouts, as shown in Plate 56, Figure3, a rather plain specimen, of brass and having the support on whichthe reservoir and cover slides rising from a roundel section abovethe base. (Cat. No. 205548, Italy; donor unknown; 22.4 inches (57cm.) high.) The four-spout lucerna is also common, but noneapparently occur with more than four. Figure 1 is a well-made speci-men of the 4 spout lucerna having a longer roundel stem than usual.(Cat. No. 167025, Madrid, Spain; Walter Hough; 15.7 inches (40cm.) high). A complete four-spout lucerna is shown in Figure 4.From above the reservoir cover depend by chains the objects whichshould accompany every lucerna, namely, the extinguisher, thepricker for adjusting the wick, and pincers or snuffers. The specimenis of brass, well executed and designed. Cat. No. 168129, Italy;O. Brown Goode; 24.4 inches (62 cm.) high). Another four-spoutlucerna is especially interesting on account of its design. On thegracefully bowed handle are perched three Roman eagles, miceclamber over the reservoir as they were accustomed to do in lifesearching for spilled olive oil, and in the corners of the base swimthree geese. The specimen appears to be old, and this is sub-stantiated by the quaint pricker, pincers, and extinguisher. (PI. 56,fig. 5, Cat. No. 130656, Italy; Goldsborough & Co.; 18.9 inches (48cm.) high). Included among the lucernas is a fine specimen ofbaroque style having two spouts and lobed reservoir, half of theupper section turning back for filling. A figure in classic posesurmounts the lucerna. (Fig. 2, Cat. No. 168133, Italy; G. BrownGoode; 16.4 inches (41.5 cm.) high). A pewter-spout lamp of grace-ful form has a hinged lid over the reservoir, a curved squared spoutwith a drip catcher encircling the end. The stem is slender vaseshape with slender curved handle. (PI. 57, fig. 3, Cat. No. 311710,England; Elizabeth S. Stevens; 9.8 inches (25 cm.) high).
62 BULLETIN 141, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMSpout lamps of practical purpose were once common in Europeand America, but gave way to less smoky lighting apparatus. Oneof these from New England was called kyal lamp by the Cape Codfolks. It is of sheet iron, has a cylindrical reservoir with conicallid and upcurving copper spout. The reservoir sets in a bucket-shapebase with projecting drip catcher and an iron bail fastened to the side.The specimen dates about 1820. Kyal was identified by Dr. E.B. Tylor ? as an old Scandinavian name. The kyal is of Europeanderivation, probably Flemish. (PI. 56, fig. 6, Cat. No. 169103, Middle-town, Conn.; A. K. Crittenden; 9.5 inches (24 cm.) high.) A two-spout lamp in the style of the kyal is seen in Plate 56, Figure 8,made of sheet iron. Such spout lamps were used on the whalers ofan older period. It was also called "mill lamp." (Cat. No. 75378,New London, Conn.; C. A. Williams & Co.; 8.6 inches (22 cm.) wide,7.9 inches (20 cm.) high.) A hanging-spout lamp of brass followingin form the crusie and having the iron hanging spike of the crusieis Flemish and is shown in Figure 9. The lid with button lift ismissing. (Cat. No. 130438, Antwerp, Belgium; Edward Lovett; 7.5inches (19 cm.) long, 6 inches (15 cm.) high.) A similar lamp withstand is found in the Loav Countries. It is of brass of fine yellow.At the back of the reservoir is a loop by which the lamp may be hung,also a wick tender hanging by a chain. The base is weighted withsand. (PI. 56, fig. 10, Cat. No. 168316, Belgium; S. B. Dean; 10.3inches (26 cm.) high.) A bucket two-spout lamp of heavy brass isshown in Figure 7. The bucket has a pivoted strap bail to which itattached the hanging hook. Drip catchers project from the sides.The reservoir fits into the bucket and the spouts come in line withthe drip catchers. The specimen is well and strongly made. Thelamp is classified Flemish seventeenth century. (Cat. No. 22187,Belgium, C. G. Sloan & Co.; 13 inches (33 cm.) wide, 9.8 inches(25 cm.) high.) A lamp with square reservoir of chased brass and up-curving spout having a drip catcher at the wick end is believed tobe Fren h (compare fig. 4). (PI. 56, fig. 13, Cat. No. 175592, France;M. F. Savage; 7.4 inches. (18.5 cm.) long, 4.4 inches (11 cm.) high.)From the Philippines comes a pottery spout lamp used by fishermenin their gourd lanterns. The form of the lamp gives an indicationof Mohammedan influence. (PI. 56, fig. 12, Cat. No. 238386, Pasig,Rizal; C. L. Hall; 7.4 inches (19 cm.) long.) A modern form ofthe spout lamp is observed in the open-flame miner's lamp (fig. 11),in which the wick tube is nearly vertical and so designed that whenthe lamp is hooked on the cap it will incline to about the rightslant to give oil pressure on the wick. (Cat. No. 325646, UnitedStates; Walter Hough; 2.6 inches (6.2 cm.) high.) A rare and at-
?Journ. Roy. Antbr. Inst., vol. 13, 1883-4, p. 853.
HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 63tractive two-spout lamp with reserA^oir, made to fit into a candlestick,comes from the Stevens collection. The reservoir and cover form aglobe from which project the two sharply upcurving spouts. Thislamp of silver plate delicately modeled and ornamented, was procuredin England, but is of German workmanship. (PI. 57, fig. 1, Cat. No.311505, Elizabeth S. Stevens; 11.5 inches (29 cm.) high.) A three-spout lamp of massive construction in cast brass is a product ofCeylonese metal work. The roundel reservoir is screwed to thebase. In filling, the reservoir is unscrewed, inverted, oil poured in,and the base screwed on. The lamp is then turned upright and theoil is supplied to the wick by gravity pressure. Evidently this showsthe adoption of a western device, notably in the astral lamp. (PI. 57,fig. 5, Cat. No. 234123, Ceylon; Ceylon Commission, St. Louis Ex-position, 1907; 11.8 inches (30 cm.) high.) A rather rudely con-structed brass three-spout lamp comes from China. The spouts areenlarged toward the opening and indicate a thick wick, as in theCeylon specimen. No data is furnished as to the use to which thislamp is put. (PI. 57, fig. 4, Cat. No. 175873, China ; A. E. Hippisley
;
9.8 inches (25 cm.) high.) An elaborate three-spout brass lamp withdrip catcher and reflectors was procured in Ceylon. Like thelucernae, the lamp with its accompanying parts is adjusted in heighton a stem which was originally tipped with the figure of a cock. Thelamp shows much wear and appears old. It is undoubtedly of Eu-ropean suggestion and of European construction. Such a lamp mighthave come irom France in the seventeenth century. (PI. 57, fig. 2,Cat. No. 234124, Ceylon ; Ceylon Commission, St. Louis Exposition27.9 inches (71 cm.) high.) WICK-TUBE LAMPSMention has been made of a half tube fastened at the lower endin the reservoir of crusielike lamps for holding the wick more steadilyin place. The next step would be to inclose the wick in a tube.This is borne out by the fact that the earliest wick tubes were slantedlike the wick in the crusie and the reservoir became tightly closed.This was an important step in the development of the modern lamp.Before proceeding, attention is called to Plate 58, Figure 7, an opentin sconce lamp having a wick carrier bent into a tube at the upperportion, leaving a gutter the rest of the way. (Cat. No. 167026,Madrid, Spain; Walter Hough; 4 inches (10 cm.) high.) AlsoFigure 8, a pewter lamp having a saucer reservoir with the sameinstallation. (Cat. No. 222188, England; C. G. Sloan & Co.; 9.8inches (25 cm.) high.) An Italian brass lamp of 1589 vnth closedreservoir and wick holes at the four corners is an example of anapproach to >-)onditions which did not reach fruition till severalcenturies later (PI. 59, fig. 10, Cat. No. 153960, Italy; G. Brown
64 BULLETIN 141, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMGoode; 7.1 inches (18 cm.) high.) Figure 9 is a frankly modernapplication of the wick tube to the clumsy crusie, the remainingunchanged features being the bowed handle with its hook spike.(Cat. No. 167039, Madrid, Spain; Walter Hough; 11.5 inches (29cm.) high.) Figure 5 is an old brass lamp with two spouts, a lid,and a shank for insertion in a plate on a carriage. The wicks arecarried in tubes. (Cat. No. 168126, Italy; G. Brown Goode; 3.2inches (8 cm.) wide, 4 inches (10 cm.) long.) Figure 6 has fourwick tubes slanted and having a slot as described in the remarks oncrusies. The slot device for raising the wick was continued for manyyears into the nineteenth century. (Cat. No. 178445, Alexandria,Va. ; Walter Hough; 5 inches (12.75 cm.) diameter, 4.2 inches (10.5cm.) high.) Next appears the upright central wick tube, a mostimportant, almost epochal event in the history of illumination. Thelamps which were for ages unsynmietrical because the ancients haddrawn the wick to one side of their rude reservoirs gave way to thebalanced, erect lamps with light ascendant, which would be perfectedby modern progress. One-tube lamps initiate this advance and aselection of them is on Plate 59. The oldest of these appear to be thePennsylvania " Dutch " grease lamps (figs. 3 and 10) , which do notfulfill the conditions. of a closed reservoir, but have an upright cen-tral tube for the wick. (Cat. No. 75353, Bainbridge, Pa.; GeorgeBean; 7 inches (18 cm.) high, 5.9 inches (15 cm.) diameter.) Figure2 is a lamp of heavy brass of plain yet pleasing design. (Cat. No.168315, England ; S. B. Dean; 8.75 inches (22 cm.) high.) Figure 11is a quite old glass one-tube lamp. The tube is set in a cork andinserted in the lamp as a cork in a bottle. This was the first methodwith glass reservoir lamps. Metal lamps admitted of the use ofthreads for screwing on the burner. (Cat. No. 177743, Massachu-setts; Dr. Marcus Benjamin; 4.7 inches (12 cm.) high.) The pewterlamps (figs. 7, 8) are also old. They were used as lights to go tobed by. The former has a ventilating tube and differs in this respectfrom other one-tube lamps. (Cat. No. 207817, Bucks County, Pa.;Henry D. Paxson; 3.2 inches (8 cm.) high.) The other is a gracefullittle lamp dating before 1800. (Cat. No. 151484, Providence, R. I.;M. F. Savage; 4 inches (10 cm.) high.) Figure 13 is a Chineseopium smoker's lamp with one tube and a glass globe. The base ofthe lamp can be screwed over the upper portion. "(Cat. No. 77132,New York City; Gen. Fitz John Porter; 2.9 inches (7.25 cm.) diam-eter, 2.8 inches (7 cm.) high.) Nos. 1, 6, and 9 are lamps current inMadrid in 1892. No. 1 is mounted for hanging when required andthe others have a hinged extinguisher cap. (Cat. Nos. 167422,167032, 167023; collected by Walter Hough.) Figure 4 is a tin tableand sconce lamp, excellently made from this material. (Cat. No.204681, Guanajuato, Mexico; Walter Hough; 6.7 inches (17 cm.)
HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 65high.) No. 14 is a small glass hand lamp with long tube havinga sleeve for extinguishing. (Cat. No. 204889, United States; C. A. Q.Norton; 4.8 inches (12 cm.) high.) Figure 5 shows the upright tubeapplied to the crusie in recent times. (Cat. No. 167053, Madrid,Spain; Walter Hough; 9.8 inches (25 cm.) high.) Lamp No. 12 isa very old French specimen concerning which little is known. It isbupposed to have been used by priests on night visitations and to dateabout the middle of the fifteenth century. The wick tube has athreaded cap which when not in use is secured on a threaded collar,as shown. In the back is a shutter which, raised, discloses a drawercontaining flint and steel for striking a light. (Cat. No. 326315,France; Kendrick Scofield; 6.3 inches (16 cm.) long.)About 1845 the miners of Cerro del Pasco, Peru, wore a crusie inthe cap for a work light. The later spout lamp of the gas-freemines of the United States was a short remove from the crusie.Explosive gases in mines and the accidents caused by naked lightsbrought out Sir Humphry Davy's miner's gauze protected lamp seenin Plate 58, Figure 2. French miners have a characteristic lampwith a napiform cast-iron reservoir hinged to the arms of a yokeand hung by an iron hook. The lamp has one wick tube. (PI. 58,fig. 3, Cat. No. 168135, France; G. Brown Goode; 23.4 inches (57cm.) long.) A lamp on the same lines was patented in the UnitedStates. This lamp has two wick tubes, a locking cover, and a benthook spike support. (PI. 58, fig. 1, Cat. No. 251794, St. Louis, Mo.;U. S. Patent Office; 13 inches (33 cm.) long.)Two-tube lamps were in vogue in the United States up to theclose of the Civil War. The origin of the two-tube burner is betterknown than the origin of most of the inventions before the PatentOffice began. That great natural philosopher, Benjamin Franklin,discovered through experiment that two wick tubes, ranged up sideby side and at a certain distance apart, gave a greater amount oflight than would be furnished by two single-tube lamps. This was adiscovery of great practical value, was taken up at once, and con-tinued in vogiie for 100 years, more or less. In practical effect, thisposition of the tubes gave greater heat to the flame, more draft, andincreased oxidation of the carbon particles, bringing them to higherincandescence, therefore more light, which is the first principle ofillumination. The next question, "Why not three tubes?" wasanswered in the negative by the failure of the scheme to work. A
" petticoat lamp " with three tubes is shown in Plate 59, Figure 22.The specimen is unused and probably stood on the shelves unsoldlong before the 45 years since its collection. (Cat. No. 75364, NewBedford, Mass.; J. T. Brown; 5.5 inches (14 cm.) high.) Anotherlamp of this kind (fig. 20), which has the normal two tubes and
66 BULLETIN 141, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMshows much use, comes from the same locality and collector (4.7inches (12 cm.) high). Figure 15 is a heavy cast-brass lamp for thetable. (Cat. No. 290443, United States; Mrs. C. E. Bates; 8.3 inches(21 cm.) high.) A similar heavy cast-brass old specimen of handand table two-tube lamp (fig. 18) is from the same locality and col-lector. (Cat, No. 290444, 5.9 inches (15 cm.) high.) A hand andtable two-tube lamp of pewter is shown in Figure 17. (Cat. No.30572, United States; Miss H. A. Foster; 5.9 inches (15 cm.) high.)Figure 21 is an old gimbel lamp sconce used on the New Londonwhaling fleet many years ago. The lamp was designed for all con-ditions for carrying in the hand, hung against the partition, and tocare for all sorts of sea motions. (Cat. No. 75467, New London,Conn.; J. T. Brown; 5.5 inches (14 cm.) high.) In 1842 a patentwas granted on a two-tube lard-oil lamp (fig. 16). The reservoirof the lamp was filled with a tube plunger bearing at the top thetwo-tube burner. In the tube two copper strips reached down to theoil, transmitting the heat from the burner to heat the oil. (Cat. No.207821, Berks County, Pa.; Henry D. Paxson; 5.9 inches (15 cm.)high.) The original patent models are also in the collection. Thelatest of the two-wick tube lamps is a small hand lamp of giltbrass (fig. 19) filled partly with cotton to absorb the oil and preventits spilling. Apparently coal oil was burned in this lamp. Collectedin Washington, D. C, 1888. (Cat. No. 73385, District of Columbia;Otis T. Mason; 2.4 inches (6 cm.) high.) An interesting readinglamp not uncommon in collections is Plate 60, Figure 1. It is for lardor whale oil and has two wick tubes. Two lenses having hoods areset in sockets at the sides of the reservoir. (Cat. No. 178633, England
;
Ira F. Harris; 8.7 inches (22 cm.) high.)Glass lamps were much valued in the older days and many of themhave done service under the several burners demanded by differentlamp fuels. The glass-lamp series normally have two tubes for burn-ing whale oil earlier and lard oil later. In many cases the base isof pressed glass and the reservoir blown glass, the two being neatlyjoined. It appears that in the earlier examples the burner was setin cork and thus put in the opening of the reservoir. Later collarsof pewter with threading were set on with cement, a method whichhas never been superseded. Figure 2, Plate 61?, has a blown-glassreservoir and pressed base. (Cat. No. 300541, United States; WilliamPalmer; 7.1 inches (18 cm.) high.) Figure 4 has a cork shod burner,a pressed-glass base, and pear-shape blown reservoir. (Cat. No.316030, United States; Kendrick Scofield; 11.9 inches (30 cm.) high.)Figure 6 answers to the same description. It has been stated that attimes the blown reservoirs were imported from England and thebases added in America, but there is no exact authority for this con-
HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 67
elusion. (Cat. No. 204891, United States; C. A. Q. Norton ; 8.4 inches(21.5 cm.) high.) Figure 1 is a pressed glass two-tube lamp withpewter collar from the same locality and collector. (Cat. No. 204893;9.5 inches (24 cm.) high.) Figure 3 is an old pressed-glass lampstill containing the thickened whale oil customarily burned in theselamps before 1829. (Cat. No. 130670, Baltimore, Md. ; J. T. Durney
;
11 inches (28 cm.) high.) An excellent specimen of pressed-glasslamp with pewter collar is shown in Figure 5. (Cat. No. 204890,United States; C. A. Q. Norton; 6.5 inches (16.5 cm.) high.)A pewter lamp of good form and with an ornamental handle is ofEnglish manufacture. The burner is screwed into a threaded brasscollar. (PL 60, fig. 2, Cat. No. 311710; Elizabeth S. Stevens; 10inches (25 cm.) high.)In the period following the practical disuse of the candle inlanterns the two-tube fish or lard oil burner was adopted, as shownin the mica-window lantern. (PI. 46, fig. 3), dating about 1800, andcollected in Alexandria, Va.Lamp and candlesticks as adjuncts figured in the state of illumina-tion at the time when the reservoir lamp was superseding the olderdevices. Lamp reservoirs intended to be set in a stem or joined to astem and base had a peg at the bottom which would fit into a candle-stick. Plate 60 shows a wooden stand for a set of these lamps to beused by hotel guests and when carried to the bed chambers to be setin the candlestick which already furnished the room. The specimenon the left has the burner inverted to show the expansion of the tubestoward the base, which construction was customary in the two-tubelamps. The stand and lamps were used in a hotel at Ellsworth, Me.,probably in the early thirties. (Cat. No. 326350, Ellsworth, Me.;D. I. Bushnell, jr.; 13.9 inches (35 cm.) long, 7.1 inches (18 cm.)wide.) TIME-INDICATING LAMPSObservations on the gradual wasting away of oil in the reservoirof a lamp suggested to some unknown experimenter a means ofmarking time, perhaps following up the idea of the sand glass andclepsydra. On this line of thought King Alfred traditionally pre-pared his time candles (p. 40). Prof. S. P. Langley became inter-ested in pr mitive chronometrics years ago and initiated the collec-tion of such devices in the National Museum. Among the specimenswhich Doctor Langley collected for this exhibit was a time lamp ofpewter with ovate glass reservoir mounted as in the Argand lamp,delivering oil by gravity to the wick laid horizontally in a spout.The reservoir is encircled vertically with a pewter girdle having onone face the hour and half-hour divisions from 9 to 6 and on theopposite side a handle for convenience in setting the reservoir in
68 BULLETIN 141^ UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMplace. The lamp was seriously designed as an instrument of pre-cision and may have been adequate at the period (pi. Gib, fig. 1).(Cat. No. 208097, Nuremburg, Germany; 14 inches (35.6 cm.) high.)The lamp is dated about 1750. Of curious interest are time lampswhich were sold in America as late as 30 years ago. One of these,called "the Weaver time lamp," is of pressed glass, has a roundwoven wick, and a miniature chimney mounted in brass claws. Thehours are from 8 to 6. (PI. 61c, fig. 2, Cat. No. 316031; UnitedStates; Kendrick Scofield; 8.8 inches (25 cm.) high.) Another,called " Pride of America," was patented April, 1891 and 1896. Itis of pressed glass, with globular opaque glass chimney, and thehours are also from 8 to 6. (PI. 61c, fig. 3, Cat. No. 176091, Phila-delphia, Pa.; Stewart Culin; 6.7 inches (17 cm.) high.)CAMPHINB LAMPSThe search for a good lamp oil which had been earnestly prosecutedin the years following Argand's epoch-making discovery when in-ventors strove to produce a perfect lamp seemed finished when in thethirties camphine appeared. Properly, camphine is a product securedby the distillation of turpentine over quicklime, namely, pineine,a limpid fluid of agreeable odor, free burning without residue.Spirits of turpentine had previously been used but abandoned onaccount of its disagreeable odor. Camphine as sold for burning in
"fluid lamps" and the Vesta lamp, in which it was originally used,was generally a mixture of turpentine and alcohol. Camphine is veryvolatile and explosive and about as safe to use in lamps as gasoline.On this account, despite many inventions to make its use practicable,camphine was abandoned about 1850. During the camphine period,which began about 1830, many of the two-tube whale-oil and lard-oillamps were converted in "fluid " lamps, having two tubes, but longer,and inclined away from each other, as seen on Plate 63. The lampmentioned has a marble base, brass column, and pressed-glass reser-voir with threaded collar cemented on. It was necessary in the cam-phine lamps to have a cap for each tube to prevent evaporation fromthe wick, and which also served as an extinguisher. (Cat. No. 178189,Virginia; Walter Hough; 14 inches (36 cm.) high.) Plate 62shows a variety of camphine lamps. Figure 1 is a fine cut-glasslamp with pressed base and gracefully fashioned. It is complete withthe two-wick tube caps. (Cat. No. 13665, Baltimore, Md. ; JamesRussell & Son; 14.2 inches (36 cm.) high.) Figure 4 is the reservoirof an old whale-oil lamp converted to camphine. The base havingbeen broken off, the reservoir was firmly set in a block of wood toextend its usefulness. (Cat. No. 325647, Massachusetts; WalterHough; 10.4 inches (25.5 cm.) high.) Figure 6 is a pewter two-tubecamphine lamp formerly used for whale or lard oil. (Cat. No.
HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 69207820, Philadelphia, Pa.; Henry D. Paxson; 11.2 inches (28.5 cm.)high.) A smaller specimen of pewter, also fitted with two tubes, isFigure 7. (Cat. No. 175591, United States; M. F. Savage; 7.1 inches(18 cm.) high.) Figure 5 is an ornate lamp of brass and marblefitted with five tubes and globe. The column bears a bas-relief ofJefferson ( ? ) surrounded with wreath and surmounted by a spreadeagle. The column is much older than the reservoir and appears tohave been fitted with an Argand type, probably the astral. (Cat.No. 168306, District of Columbia; Walter Hough; 19.7 inches (50cm.) high.) A bottle lamp with one tube is shown in Figure 3.(Cat. No. 92866, Haiti; Foreign Exposition, Boston, Mass.; 5.2inches (13 cm.) high.) A tin lamp from the same source is Figure9. (Cat. No. 92867; 6.8 inches (15 cm.) high.) A small bedroomlamp of glass with one tube and cap hung by a chain is shown inFigure 10. (Cat. No. 207811, Philadelphia, Pa.; Henry D. Paxson;4.2 inches (10.5 cm.) high.) A typical camphine table lamp withgraceful glass reservoir, brass column, and marble base is a con-verted whale-oil lamp of the later part of the period when thatfluid was burned. (PPl. 63, fig. 1, Cat. No. 178189; 13.5 inches (34cm.) high.) Improvemets on the camphine burner in the interestboth of light and safety were brought out in America and Europe.One of these with globular gas chamber and perforated disk burneris shown in Plate 62, Figure 2. (Cat. No. 130430, Broadalbin,N. Y.; F. S. Hawley; 14.2 inches (36 cm.) high.) This lamp hasbeen converted to camphine from whale oil. Another old lamp ofpewter is supplied with an improved burner (fig. 8). Cat. No.130671, Baltimore, Md. ; I. T. Durney ; 13 inches (33 cm.) high.) Animproved camphine lamp based on the gravity principle with stop-cock on the line and a fan-shape perforated burner (pi. 63, fig. 2),was brought out in 1860. It is probable that by this plan of separat-ing the fuel to some distance from the flame, as in the faker's gasolinetorches of 1875, the use of camphine would have been rendered safe.Coal oil, however, superseded all other lamp fuels within a fewyears. (Cat. No. 263465, United States; Mrs. Yates Davis Duke;21.5 inches (54.5 cm.) high.) A chandelier for camphine with im-proved burners is described on page 30. A wall lamp for camphine(pi. 63, fig. 3) has a horizontal cylindrical tank attached to a sconce.From the bottom of the tank a tube supplies the fluid to an uprightsecondary reservoir having the burner tube at the top. A tube curvedat the end and open leads from the top of the secondary reservoirover the top of the tank. The burner is primed by stopping the endof the curved tube and pumping air into the tank through a vent inthe top. When lighted the heat of the burner causes a constant flowof camphine vapor mixed with air. (Cat. No. 325648, Baltimore,
70 BULLETIN 141, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMMd.; Anton Heitmuller; 10.9 inches (28 cm.) long.) These lampswere used in churches and public halls between 1850 and 1860. Themost costly and artistic camphine burners in the collection is a pairof " torches " which came by some unknown donor to the Library ofCongress and transferred to the United States National Museum.The reservoir is of repoussee silver swung between two arms and thehandles are of polished ebony. The divergent tubes of the burnerindicate the use of camphine, dating these lamps after 1830. Theywere made by Gait & Bro., of Washington. It is suggested that theywere used in one of the great mansions to light guests to their car-riages. (PL 62, figs. 11, 12, Cat. No. 301543, 301544; Library ofCongress; 28 inches (71.2 cm.) long.)LAMPS OF THE INVENTIVE PBRIODIn the decade between 1800 and 1870, marked by the productionin quantity of the ideal lamp fuel from petroleum, the tw^o-wick tubelamps burning heavy oil practically disappeared. The glass chim-ney nearly a century after its application or discovery, and the ven-tilated burners long seen on certain types of heavy-oil lamps, cameinto wide use. Wicks which had given infinite trouble to lamp usersfor ages were flattened and raised and lowered by a spurred wheelon a horizontal axis. The round wick inherited from old times wasinsensibly retained by the inventors, who improved the lamp afterthe discovery of Argand. The wick was given a tubular form,recognizing the principle of aeration of both sides of the flame,which was ventilated through the tube containing the wick. Theflat wick was used in models sent in to the United States PatentOffice as early as 1830. Many of the smaller hand lamps in theperiod 1870-1880 were not fitted with chimney, both on account of thesurvival of the chimneyless lamp and the uses for which they weremade. Figure 7, plate 64, is a brass lamp gilt, the burner incasedin perforated metal as in the safety lamp. This lamp was patentedin 1863. (Cat. No. 73824, Philadelphia, Pa.; Centennial Exposition,1876; 4.5 inches (11.5 cm.) high.) Another of the same period hasa round wick and an extinguisher cap (pi. 64, fig. 9). The reservoiris cotton-filled to absorb the oil. (Cat. No. 204895, United States;C. A. Q. Norton; 4.3 inches (11 cm.) high.) Lamps collected by theUnited States Fish Commission for the fisheries exhibition in theUnited States National Museum show interesting adaptations for theneeds of the industry. Figure 10 is a well-made copper binnaclelamp with socket for a stanchion, weighted and swinging like a bin-nacle compass. It has a brass ventilated burner for a flat wick, andwas patented in 1864. (Cat. No. 75383, New Bedford, Mass.; J. T.Brown; 6.1 inches (15.5 cm.) diameter, 6.5 inches (14 cm.) high.)
HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 71A brass gilt gimbel lamp for table or bracket was patented also in1864, The lamp swings in a ring pivoted on the arms of a bellbracket mounted on a base. (PI. 64, fig. 13. Cat. No. 75,368, Glou-cester, Mass.; U. S. Fish Commission; 13 inches (23 cm.) high.)Figure 14, plate 64, is a lamp of japanned tin with burner, patentedin 1864. It is swung in a U-shape support riveted in the bottom of apan like a candle dish, having a ring on the edge by which the lampmay be hung as a wall light. Used in the forecastle of whalers andmade by F. M. Loring. (Cat. No. 75384, Gloucester, Mass.; J. T.Brown; 7.9 inches (20 cm.) high.) A lard lamp in which the flatwick and round wick are set in the same reservoir was patented byD. Kinnear, February 4, 1851, shown in Figure 11, plate 64, by aspecimen which was used in Pennsylvania many years ago. Theround wick tube has a brass rod running down at the side conductingheat to melt the fat. (Cat. No. 75351, Bainbridge, Pa.; GeorgeBean; 7.3 inches (18.5 cm.) high.) The lamp (fig. 12, pi. 64) is afine specimen of the period 1860-1870. It is of silver, made by Hinks& Sons, Birmingham, England. The wick is flat, the burner venti-lated, and the chimney tubular, swelled out in the lower portion.(Cat. No. 316029, England; Kendrick Scofield; 13.8 inches (35 cm.)high.) Some of the early flat-wick lamp models are shown onplate 64. Figure. 5 has the sinumbra, " without shadow," type ofreservoir, three inclined wick tubes holding coarse woven wicksi-aised by picking through slots in the metal, and posts with a setscrew for securing the globe which acted as a chimney. This lampwas patented March 23, 1831, as a chandelier lamp by William Law-rence. (Cat. No. 251760, United States; U. S. Patent Office; 7.5inches (19 cm.) diameter.) Figure 6, of the same type, has fourwick tubes mounted in inclined position on a ring reservoir havingbrackets for suspension. This quaint device was patented March 13,1833, by Couch and Fray. (Cat. No. 251453, United States; U. S.Patent Office; 6.7 inches (17 cm.) diameter.) Figure 8 is a glasslamp with flat wick raised and lowered by the familiar toothed-wheel device.The flat wick has evidently a more limited history than the tubularwick. It superseded, as has been noticed, the round wicks of theheavy oil lamps which had persisted to the middle of the nine-teenth century in defiance of the fact that Argand's great inventionhad come into the world long before. The reason for this is thatArgand's invention and the long line of improvements thereon byknown and unknown inventors catered to luxury and not to the needsof the people. These needs were indeed small and easily satisfied.Lamps made for the most part by hand and a modicum of machinerywere costly and beyond the means of the many. Therefore, forms of54261?28 6
72 BULLETIN 141^ UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMlamps which should have become obsolete held on till machinery-should make luxuries necessities.The investigations at the beginning of the modern oil lamp hadto do with wicks, the delivery of oil to the wicks, aeration of theflame, and draft in the burner. The problem of suitable oil wasalso very difficult. Inventors earnestly worked to make the lampefficient. By the first quarter of the nineteenth century the lampsproduced had failed in competition with the Argand with its im-provements. The Argand supplies oil to the wick by gravity, andwhen regulated by a valve is delivered at the rate of combustion, jThe collection of the relics of George Washington in the National jMuseum includes three lamps of this kind. One of these has tubularchimneys of blue glass, the globes missing. It is of silver plate andis without marks. The other lamps are a pair of silver plate wall,or possibly desk, lamps, without glassware and marks.^ If theselamps were used in Mount Vernon during the decade before the deathof Washington, they would be perhaps the earliest Argands to whicha date could be assigned. It can only be ventured that the style andworkmanship of these lamps, especially the two-light specimen,appears early. The astral lamp of our forefathers was an Argandof sturdy English manufacture in which labor and material was notspared to make a practicable and enduring product, though less canbe said on the point of art. The astral had an extended use amongthe first families, and from their indestructible character, as stated,and their preservation as ornamental objects for the mantelpiecemany have survived to this day. The fine specimen shown on Plate65a, Figure 2, bears a metal label sweated on the wick tube, " J and ICox, New York." This inscription was put on in England for theNew York vendor. The lamp is massive brass in French rococostyle. Even without the lusters, globes, chimneys, and fittings it isan imposing object. (Cat. No. 150434, Baltimore, Md.; T. W. Swee-ney; 24 inches (61 cm.) high, 13.8 inches (35 cm.) wide.) Astrallamps were in sets of three, a central two-burner and side one-burner,following the candelabra mantel sets, indicating the special andformal lighting usages of a past period. Plate 66a, Figure 1, is ofa side lamp of a set of heavy brass gilt. The set is in good condi-tion and lacks lusters and globes. The globe and chimney supportengages the collar containing the wick, which is raised and loweredby turning the support. The lusters were hung from a corona, bywhich it could be lifted off when the reservoir needed filling. Thehandle of the shut-off valve is seen below the reservoir. The lampis inscribed " Manufactured for T. Palmer, Baltimore." (Cat. No.
^T. T. Belote. Descriptive Catalogue of the Washington Relies In the U. S. NationalMuseum. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 49, 1915, pp. 1-24.
HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM /S325649, Baltimore, Md.; Walter Hough; 12.2 inches (31.2 cm.) high.)About 1840 sinumbra, " without-shadow," lamps came into use.Attempts at arranging the parts of the lamp to prevent shadows areobserved in the specimens of 1831 and 1833 on Plate 64. The sinum-bra of real worth was an Argand with ring reservoir furnishinggravity oil through two supporting tubular arms extending from thereservoir to the wick tube. The specimen figured on Plate 65a,Figure 3, is supported on a column of milky glass with base andpedestal of brass. The globe rested on a flange around the marginof the reservoir. The lamp was stated to have been in the possessionof a French family since 1847. (Cat. No. 176721, Quebec, Canada;P. C. Boyle; 21.3 inches (54 cm.) high.) An old astral lamp famil-iarly called "knitting lamp," being of convenient height when seton the floor to light up the knitting circle, comes from OrangeCounty, Va. In its present form the Argand burner and reservoirhave been superseded by a reservoir of about 1850. The columnbelow the reservoir is French. Traditionally this lamp was usedin the 1800's by Thomas Jefferson. (PI. 65a, fig. 1, Cat. No. 150442,Orange County, Va.; Miss Maggie Griffin; 27.2 inches (69 cm.)high.) Another fine lamp which has been modified in the same wayis shown in Plate 68, Figure 1. The reservoir is of brass with giltstriping.) (Cat. No. 258916, England; Miss Katherine Noyes.)One of a pair of pulpit lamps from the Presbyterian Church ofMorgantown, W. Va., is shown on Plate 66&, Figure 3. The reser-voir is mounted on a floriated brass bracket hung on a ball-and-socket joint at the top of the fluted column. In an oval medallionon the reservoir is the following : " Cornelius & Co. Philad., July24, 1849 patent ; April 15, 1845." The burner was probably for cam-phine and altered for burning coal oil in the late sixties. The coal-oil burner is large, ventilated through wire mesh and has no marks.(Cat. No. 175463, Morgantown, W. Va.; Walter Hough; 24.5 inches(62 cm.) high.) The collection contains several lamps belong-ing to the period of intense invention to supply the demand forbetter light. It is not possible or desirable, however, to indicatemore than in a very limited way the great and intricate subject hav-ing little practical bearing on the history of illumination. This isborne out by the fact that the mechanical lamp devices whichharassed our ancestors were supernumerary. Chiefly a limpid fluid,easily combustible without residue, readily drawn up by the wick,and properly oxidized in the flame, was the thing needed. With theheavy oils, vegetal and animal, at hand for ages up to 1830, whencamphine was produced, invention was spurred to do the almostimpossible.
74 BULLETIN 141, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMOne of these lamp curiosities is of French manufucture, inscribedon base, "'Lampe Silvant 15589 avec garantie/' This lamp has atubular wick raised and lowered by a ratchet device, the outer brasscollar choked. The lamp appears to be one of several similar inven-tions in which by an arrangement of chambers the displacement ofbrine and oil was made to force oil to the wick by hydraulic princi-ples long known. They were sometimes called oleostatic lamps.(PI. mb, fig. 2, Cat. No. 272261, France; Lemuel Merrill; 15.8 inches(40 cm.) high.) Another lamp of this type evidently forced the oilup into the wick by direct pressure on the reservoir. This appearsto be effected by turning the ornamental key to the left, which worksa rack thus lowered to give the proper pressure. The lamp is incasedin pressed-brass relief illustrating naval battles. (PI. 65&, fig. 1,Cat. No. 130669, Baltimore, Md.; J. T. Durney; 14.9 inches (38 cm.)high.) The specimen is of French manufacture. The Diacon lamp(pi. 66&, fi-g. 1) is marked "A. Diacon, New York. Patent lamp."There is a clockwork in the base actuating a pump forcing oilthrough a tube from the reservoir to the wick as in the Carcel lamp.Dates scratched inside the bottom cover hj repair man are 1841and 1849. The lamp is incased in a shell of artistic pressed brassand is of French manufacture. The chimney is tubular with ashoulder at the height of the flame intended to direct the draft andincrease the brilliancy of the light. The chimney is 10.7 inches(27 cm.) long. (Cat. No. 130668, Baltimore, Md.; James Russell &Son; 13.4 inches (34 cm.) high.) The Carcel lamp was reasonablyefficient and had considerable use before 1850. It has the Argandburner and tubular wick adjusted, however, by a spur wheel on ahorizontal stem as in modern lamps. The base contained a clock-work pump with two valves forcing oil into the wick. Plate 656,Figure 2, shows the mechanism. (Cat. No. 272259, Boston, Mass.;Lemuel Merrill.) The clock bears the number 23660. Figure 3 isthe complete lamp, same locality and collector (15 inches (38 cm.)high). The Hitchcock lamp, patented in 1868 and burning kerosenewith a flat wick and without chimney, was quite effective and is stillin current use. In this lamp a fan run by clockwork forces air intothe flame at the proper point and in the right amount to produce abrilliant light. This lamp may be considered the last of the mechani-cal lamps, and owes its success to the ideal fluid, kerosene. Thedevelopment of the kerosene lamp since 1870 is characterized bythe perfection to its limit of the flat-wick type and the ascendingof the tubular-wick type, which may be said to extend from theArgand to the Rochester lamp. The tubular lamp of 1876 exhibitedat the Philadelphia Centennial Exposition as the most advanced
HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 75product is shown on Plate 67. A pair of lamps combined withcandlesticks, the reservoir fitted to the candle socket and removable,is shown in Plate QQa. The inscription on the burner is " F. T. Gale.128 Oxford Street. Made in Germany." The flat wick is formedby the burner into a tubular wick. The chimney is tubular witha constriction in the lower portion. (Figs. 2, 3, Cat. No. 311510,England; Elizabeth S. Stevens; 18.5 inches (47 cm.) high.) Thechimney is by Macbeth.During his incumbency as Secretary of the Smithsonian Institu-tion, Joseph Henry carried on for the Lighthouse Board experi-ments to ascertain the relative values of oils suitable for economicaluse in lighthouses. Sperm oil, due to the diminution in the numberof whales from the unrestrained activity of the whalers, had in-creased in price to such an extent that it was found necessary to castabout for other illuminants. Lard oil and rapeseed oil were theavailable alternatives for sperm oil, which had for so many yearsbeen the mainstay of illumination. Both of these oils were foundsuitable for the purpose mentioned. Spencer F. Baird, second Sec-retary of the Smithsonian, continued experiments in the interest ofthe Lighthouse Board, giving especial attention to improved lampsfor the service. The lamp on Plate 68 (fig. 2) is one which ProfessorHenry used for his scientific work on oils and which was preservedby Professor Baird. This lamp is simple, the oil being raised in thewick by capillarity alone. The wick is tubular, mounted as in thetime-honored Argand, but adjusted by a toothed rack engaged bya cogwheel. The wick collar is choked at the wick edge. Ventila-tion through the wick tube is supplied through holes pierced in thewalls of the lamp support. The lamp is made of copper. (PI. 68,fig. 2, Cat. No. 325650, Washington, D. C, Spencer F. Baird; 18.7inches (47 cm.) high.) Another lighthouse lamp used by ProfessorBaird and traditionally devised by him is designed to force oil intothe wick at a regular rate by means of a clockwork with strong springactuating a gear engaged with a rack and pinion. This is practicallythe Carcel principle and illustrative of the devices necessary beforethe introduction of petroleum. The burner incorporates all the prin-ciples found useful up to the time of this lamp. The latter is en-tirely of brass and is a good piece of professional work. (PI. 68,fig. 3, Cat. No. 75373, Washington, D. C, Spencer F. Baird; 16.7inches (42 cm.) high.) GAS LAMPSThe subject of gas lighting is very interesting. Few realize thatthe beginning of gas lighting was 135 years ago and that this formof illumination is the oldest scientific method, introducing gas en-
76 BULLETIN 141^ UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMgineering in an early period of the age of progress. Thus while oillamps were subject to endless and mostly unsuccessful experimenta-tion, gas, though localized on account of engineering problems ofdistribution, has been from the first a most satisfactory illuminant.Collections of illumination devices usually contain few examples ofgas burning apparatus. On Plate 1, Figure 22, in the developmentof illumination series is shown a Welsbach mantle lamp in whichscience has done so much to foster the use of gas as an illuminant.A gas lamp with improved burner having a lever by which the flowin the burner is controlled is shown on Plate 656, Figure 4. In thisspecimen the gas issues from a ring of tine orifices on the ring topof the burner. The flame is ventilated on both sides as in theArgand. (Cat. No. 325651, Washington, D. C; Walter Hough;15.4 inches (39 cm.) high.) This gas lamp dates about 1840.HEATING DEVICESThe history of fire in heating may be gathered under the followingheads
:
Natural.?In response to a need for heat or pleasure in heat mansought caves and shelters where the temperature remains fairlyconstant, built shelters or primitive houses, clothed himself againstweather, and congregated at hot springs.Artificial.?It seems obvious that from the family fire there shouldbe lighted in the course of time smaller fires devoted to special uses.As the result of observations the qualities of stones to retain heatmight have a practical application. It is true that there is a line ofuses based on this principle and persisting through a very longperiod to the present. These hot-water vessels, hot stones, bricks,brazen or iron balls served a valuable purpose at times, but werenot radically important in fathering essential inventions. On theother hand the first portion of fire set apart and inclosed in a vesselbegan the stove and all that implies of usefulness and tremendousgrowth.The descriptions of specimens in the United States National iMu-seum incorporated in this section relate to the application of heatto bodily wants and mainly to cooking. Under warming the bodyand house we have individual apiDliances, as heated stones and metal,hot-water vessels, foot stove, pocket stove, and fire pot; familyappliances, as the house, camp, and tent fire, the lamp, brazier, stove,and accompanying fireplace, chimney, fire tools and irons; and col-lective appliances, as hot air, water, steam, gas, and electric stovesand furnaces.The intention here is to classify the objects described, not as per-taining to the races and tribes using them, but by their place in the
HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 77
scale of inventions. In this respect there will be presented an ob-vious histor}'^ of development in heating and cooking devices.Accompanying the heating appliances discussed are adjuncts whichhave developed with the fire, such as shovels, pokers, tongs, fire fans,bellows, andirons, grates, and cognate objects. Most of these showa considerable development, but some, as the poker, of necessityremain essentially primitive.There are presented as follow several classifications of the branchesof this subject, which will indicate the lines followed in the studyof the material. Remarks briefly classifying the early stages in theuse of fire for warming the body and house have already beenpresented. GENESIS OF COOKING DEVICESRoasting and broiling:Camp fire.Broche and skewer (animal in skin).Spit.Gridiron.Grill.Frying
:
Flat stone.Pan.Deep fat vessel.Baking
:
Flat stone.Pottery, stone or iron griddle.
"Vessel with cover.Oven
?
Hot stones on object.Clay cover.Pit oven.Reflector.Baker's oven.Dutch oven.Oven in range.Electric oven.Solar oven.Boiling, stewing, and chafing
:
Cooking vessel.Stones in basket.Pot over fire.Pot on range.Steaming, sunning, electric, and chemical
:
In can or steaming.Over boiling water.Exposure to hot sun.Above methods.By lime and water.
78 BULLETIN 141, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMMETHODS OF COOKINGDirect heat
:
Roasting
?
Open fire.Broche and skewer.Spit.Gridiron.Plank.Reflector (direct and reflected heat).Indirect heat
:
Frying?Flying pan.Deep fat.Baking
?
Hot stones.Stone slabs.Burying in coals.Coating with clay.Oven and pit.Sand bath.Boiling and stewing
?
Basket and hot stones.Pot.Stewpan.Chafing dish.SteamingSteamer.Dessication in sun
:
By heat
?
Sunning
?
In hot sun.By airElectric.Chemical.Portions of fire inclosed in simple vessels for personal use, hot-water containers, and heated masses of stone or iron were formerlyfairly common in the technology of fire. Many of such adaptationscome early in the use of fire and have the appearance of timely de-vices. Some are frankly the result of more or less urgent need, asthe slow match or torch carried to provide a little heat for the hands,or the smothered coal carried by Tibetan herdsmen for igniting attimes dry bunches of grass to get a little warmth against the bitingcold. It is allowable, however, to see in these rude makeshifts evi-dences of the methods of handling of fire at the period before therewere means of confining fire to vessels, of which the brazier is a type.
The brazier is of great antiquity, and though treated here as adraughtless vessel for holding fire for personal use, in reality standsnear the beginning of the stove and in this sense it will be mentioned
HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 79later. The examples figured are crude and common vessels of thetype which ran the gamut of art embellishment during the period ofhandicrafts. Gold, silver, bronze, brass, and fine woods entered intothe brazier of luxury, which was an important piece of house fur-nishing. Braziers of solid silver, very massive, were in use in Chile.The brazier of common use in Mexico consisted of an earthenwarebowl with three short legs. The specimen (PL 69a, fig. 1) is fromDurango, Mexico, collected by Edward Palmer (Cat. No. 176486).Such vessels kept a little fire at hand, supplied warmth when re-quired, and over them minor cooldng could be done. The porta-bility of the brazier also was much in its favor, facilitating thecarrying out of the ashes and cleaning. As to the introduction ofthe brazier into America from Spain there is no evidence, thoughEuropean modifications of the native brazier may have occurred.Indigenous censers and braziers antedate the conquest. A bowlbrazier has been found in a prehistoric cliff dwelling in New Mexico.*The only attempt to ornament the Durango specimens is a wash ofred ocher on the border. The specimen is 11.4 inches (29 cm.)diameter, 4.7 inches (12 cm.) high. The Philippine brazier (PI. Qda^fig. 2) is of earthenware washed with red and ornamented with pleas-ing designs formed by continuous zigzags and punches, the depres-sions filled W'ith lime. The vessel is of graceful shape. It has foursmall holes through the walls in the lower part of the body, whichsuggest draught holes. The concave of the lid has three bossesw^hich indicate that the lid could be turned over and a vessel set onthe bosses to keep food warm. The specimen is from Luzon andprobably from the town of Poliacan. (Cat. No. 238321, PhilippineCommission, 10.6 inches (27 cm.) diameter, 8.6 inches (22 cm.) high.)The Spanish brazier, which may be taken as a type of Europeanbrazier, has a circular ring stand with three feet. In this ring isplaced the pan which has two loop drop handles for lifting. Theshovel has a circular blade and a cross handle. This model is ofcast brass. (PI. 69a, fig. 3 ; Cat. No. 167048, Madrid, Spain ; WalterHough; 3.6 inches (9 cm.) diameter.)HEATED IRONS AND HOT-WATER VESSELSThere is no evidence that the use of heated stones, iron, or hot-water containers has any considerable antiquity, but, as mentioned,it seems reasonable to imagine that the heat-retaining quality ofstones and water would be known experimentally very early. Theapplication of this principle for personal use was probably not car-ried out until a late period. Hot stones, preferably soapstone, hot
* Culture of the ancient Pueblos of the upper Gila River region, New Mexico andArizona. (Museum-Gates Expedition.) Bull. 87, U. S. Nat. Mus., Washington, 1914, p. 3>
80 BULLETIN" 141, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMbricks, flat irons, water bottles, and the like were employed by ourancestors during the rigorous winters. Some of these uses are seenin what we consider modern inventions, as the irons in the tirelesscooker.The specimen shown in Plate 69flr, Figure 4, is of excellent castiron made in Germany. It is a table hand warmer and is chargedwith a shoe-shape hot iron when in use. (Cat. No. 325301), fromAnton Heitmuller, 4.3 inches (11 cm.) high.) The second example(pi. 69a, fig. 5) is a brass pail with bail, of Flemish origin. Thelid is a heavy plate of iron covered with sheet brass. The iron isheated by a charcoal pan and the vessel served to warm the handsor feet, and could also be used to dry-iron laces. (Cat. No. 169091,from S. B. Dean, 9 inches (23 cm.) diameter, 5.5 inches (4 cm.)high.) Heated irons were also used in the Colonial smoothing iron(see pi. 93) and in the water heaters or biggins for the table (seepi. 81). HOT-WATER APPLIANCESThese occur in a number of forms, some extemporary and somemanufactured to fill a want. One of the latter is a bottle-shapevessel of Binghampton pottery ware with flat bottom. One sidehas two concave depressions for the feet. It holds a quart of hotwater. Similar vessels were made by English potters in Stafford-shire. (PI. 695, fig. 1; Cat. No. 303672, from C. S. Smith; measure-ments, 7.1 inches (18 cm.) wide and 9 inches (23 cm.) high.) Forspecial use in drying boots is a shoe-form hot-water bottle of graystoneware from Doulton and Watts, Lambeth, England (pi. 69&, fig.2), and from the same ceramists a concavo-convex bottle for warm-ing the abdomen (pi. 69&, fig. 3). A foot warmer, also English, isshown in Plate 69&, Figure 4. It has a copper hot-water tank in-closed in a padded hardwood foot stool. Dimensions, 13.8 inches(35 cm.) by 11.8 inches (30 cm.) by 4.7 inches (12 cm.).SLOW-BUKNINO FUEL DEVICESThe Japanese pocket stove brings forward an interesting inven-tion which, however, has as yet proved of little economic importance.This is of a fuel which, ignited, slowly consumes and gives outheat in a closed receptacle such as the little curved pocket stove inwhich is placed a cartridge of the fuel. (PI. 70a:, figs. 1, 2; Cat.No. 128139, Tokio, Japanese Department of Education; 4.5 inches(11.5 cm.) long, 2.75 inches (7 cm.) high.) Another example is atight stove of Japanese cast iron of excellent work decorated withfans and mice. Two cast-iron open-work lifters serve to move thestove about. It appears certain that the slow consuming fuel men-tioned, made from powdered charcoal and seaweed, was burnt in
HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 81this stove. (PL 70a, fig. 3; Cat. No. 128135; donor unknown; 8.7inches (22 cm.) diameter, 6.6 inches (17 cm.) hijjh.) Combustionof fuel without air is the outstanding feature of the stoves of northEurope and Asia. Wood fuel is introduced, ignited, and allowed toburn under a draft for a time, the stove is then closed, and in theheated chamber the combustion goes on, sending out a gentle heat.Wood-burning stoves of iron employing this feature were used inthe United States some years ago, but in them the wood was reallydistilled and the products were disagreeable to the housewife. TheRussian stove and the Chinese Kang are examples of slow-burningstoves. HAN'D AND rOOT WAHMBRSA great variety of hand and foot warmers are found in latitudesand at elevations where their use might be necessary. They consistof a container for holding charcoal and a surrounding case, moreor less elaborated in basketry, metal, and wood. Frequently theirartistic treatment renders them prized objects. Their survival alsomay be due in part to the fact that they are small and there mightbe an exigency when they would be used again. In some parts of theworld hand warmers are still current. The Museum has a specimenconsisting of an oblong rounded rectangular box of brass with twinhandles which fall to either side, an artistically perforated lid andchased sides. (PI. 71, fig. 2); Cat. No. 315065, China; Mrs. JohnVan Eensselaer Hoff; 5.8 inches (15 cm.) long, 4.7 inches (12 cm.)wide, 4.5 inches (9 cm.) high.) Another is of copper with finelyperforated lid and handle wrapped with cloth and is from westernChina. It is signed in Manchurian characters. (PI. 71, fig. 1; Cat.No. 306971; Kendrick Scofield; dimensions 5.5 inches (14 cm.) by 4.3inches (11 cm.) by 3.2 inches (8 cm.).) Another Chinese form issimply an earthenware bowl inclosed in basket weaving of bamboo.(PI. 71, figs. 3, 5 ; Cat. Nos. 14044, 76416, Chinese Commission, Cen-tennial Exposition, Philadelphia, 1876; 6.3 inches (16 cm.) diameter,7 inches (18 cm.) high, 5.5 inches (14 cm.) diameter, 8.3 inches(21 cm.) high.) An interesting specimen from Srinagar, Kashmir,is also an earthen pot surrounded with an elaborately worked basketof osier and decorated with pendants of rings, plates of mica, andred paper. It has a yoke-shape superstructure and a loop for carry-ing. The native name is Kangri and this vessel is used for warmingthe body in cold weather. (PI. 71, fig. 4; Cat. No. 164967, Dr. W. L.Abbott; 8 inches (20 cm.) diameter, 9 inches (23 cm.) high.) Agroup of three Italian fire vessels called scaldino are shown in Plate71 (figs. 6-8). They were collected in Florence by Dr. GeorgeBrown Goode. Two are of artistically treated terra cotta glazed incolors, the other of bronze, and from its condition and type may be
82 BULLETIN 141, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
antique. These were required by ladies going to market in winter orfor any other contribution to personal comfort during this season.Some of the scaldini were provided with covers. (Cat. Nos. 165461,165462, and 165463; middle figure 5.9 inches (15 cm.) diameter,10.2 inches (26 cm.) high.)Brass and copper foot warmers of European craftsmanship arefrequently worth considering treasures of the past. One of these,of red hammered copper, is decorated with repousse designs. Overthe top is a spider-leg grating of brass rods for resting the feet.The brass handle is artistically bent into shape. (PI. 71, fig. 12;Cat. No. 169089, Italy, S. B. Dean; 7.1 inches (18 cm.) diameter, 6.7inches (17 cm.) high.) An oblong brass pail with horizontal ribbedornament and perforated lid surmounted with a strap-brass footrest is from France. It has a brass bail with wooden spool. Thelid is hinged. Four low brass feet raise the vessel from the ground.(PI. 71, fig. 11; Cat. No. 205376, S. B. Dean; 4.75 inches (12 cm.)high.) Another specimen is a brass pail with a bail of rolled-upsheet brass. The bowed lid is perforated in heart-shaped pattern.With this specimen is a quaint little spatulate shovel of iron forregulating the coals. The foot warmer is dated 1785, with the in-itials A. B. (PI. 71, fig. 13; Cat. No. 169090, France, S. B. Dean;6.7 inches (17 cm.) high.) A square, perforated brass box on fourfeet, with repousse escutcheons on the sides and a bowed perforatedtop with brass bail is of Dutch workmanship. Like the Englishand colonial American foot warmers it has a door in the side forinserting the pan of coals. The specimen shows the conscientiouswork of the craftsmen of the early eighteenth century. (PI. 71, fig.9, Cat. No. 289455; Anton Heitmuller; 6.3 inches (16 cm.) square,6.7 inches (17 cm.) high.) Another Dutch foot warmer of the sameperiod is octagonal with double door and latch on the side. Thebail is of brass hooked into two strap-brass loops. (PI. 71, fig. 10;Cat. No. 289454, Anton Heitmuller; 7.9 inches (20 cm.) diameter,6.3 inches (16 cm.) high.)A dovetailed wooden rectangular box I'ned with sheet iron andhaving a hinged lid with slats and lined with perforated tin is ofEnglish workmanship. Each of the long sides has two perforationslined with brass. The foot warmer has within a sheet-iron panwith bail for the charcoal fuel. It is carried by a bail with awooden spool and is stained cherry color. (PI. 70&, fig. 3; Cat. No.311657, Miss E. S. Stevens; dimensions 10.2 inches (26 cm.) by 7.5inches (19 cm.) by 4.7 inches (12 cm.).) The specimen just .de-scribed is close to the type used in America during colonial and sub-sequent times. These, however, almost always consisted of a sheet-iron perforated box with door placed in a wooden frame or betweentwo tablets of wood forming the top and bottom and held by comer
HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 83posts of wood or iron rods. From the identity of many specimensit is inferred that the demand for foot stoves prompted a ratherextensive manufacture of a certain standard. The specimen figuredhas a trapezoidal opening in the top while usually cross bars ranacross the top. (PI. 70h, fig. 4; Cat. No. 130623, F. S. Hawley,Broadalbin, N. Y., dimensions 8.7 inches (22 cm.) by 7.9 inches (20cm.) by 5.9 inches (15 cm.).) The more familiar type has a strongwooden frame with turned corner posts. The sides have a band ofbaluster piercing, which is more exact than occurs in the usual footwarmers. The piercings and punched designs commonly seen arerows of small holes, hearts, joined hearts, diamonds, and quatrefoils,examples of the quaint symbolism of the times. (PI. 706, fig. 2;Cat. No. 325601, donor unknown. New England ; dimensions 9 inches(25 cm.) by 7.5 inches (19 cm.) by 5.9 inches (15 cm.).)Bed warmers were among the conspicuous household impedimentaof the Colonies. They w^ere articles of luxury, and for this reasonthere are no crude examples such as might have been made by alocal artisan. These objects were honestly made by good craftsmenand are both sturdy and graceful. The specimen has a turnedmaple handle worthy of admiration inserted in an ample brasssocket riveted strongly to the side of the pan so that the junctionhas not worked loose in the past hundred years. The lid is hingedand chased and perforated in several places. (PL 706, fig. 1;Cat. No. 311502, Miss Elizabeth S. Stevens; 11.2 inches (28.5 cm.)diameter, 41.5 inches (1 m. 9 cm.) long.) Hot-^vater bed warmerswere used in south Germany, and sometimes specimens were broughtto America by immigrants.An interesting and artistically complete series of small fire setsto which the name hibachi applies is found in Japan. These aresmokers' conveniences, consisting of a tray with pottery fire bowl,or neat cabinets with drawers and pipe holders (pi. 72a, figs. 1-3) ;and hibachis in variety, which are used for making tea, etc., andfor warming (pi. 726, figs. 2, 3). In most cases the fire receptacle isof pottery, containing a bed of ashes on which the charcoal fire is set.In some instances copper-lined boxes are used. Accompanying thehibachi are rests for the teapot, tongs, shovel, sifter for ashes, fireblower of bamboo, or in the tea ceremony a fan of perfect feathers.(Cat. Nos. 4418, 128140; from the Japanese Department of Edu-cation and Romyn Hitchcock; dimensions?fig. 1, 9.8 inches long,7 inches wide, 3.5 inches high (25 cm., 18 cm., 9 cm.) ; fig. 2, 10.6inches square, 7.1 inches high (27 cm. square, 18 cm. high) ; fig. 3,6.9 inches diameter, 9.5 inches high (17.5 cm., 24 cm.) ; fig. 4, 6.7inches square, 3.1 inches high (17 cm. square, 8 cm. high) ; fig. 5,5.3 inches long, 4.9 inches wide, 4.9 inches high (21 cm., 12.5 cm.,
84 BULLETIN 141, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM12.5 cm).) The Chinese fire bowl figured was used by candidatessecluded for the official examinations held at Peking. It is ofmassive brass with relief panels and elephant-head handles. Aniron tripod rests in the ashes for supporting the teapot, and a pairof tongs, like larger chopsticks, are shown. (PI. T2&, fig. 1 ; Cat.No. 128533, Mrs. W. P. Mangum; 11 inches (28 cm.) diameter, 10.2inches (26 cm.) high.) Over the fire is set an iron tripod consistingof a bearing ring with three legs with incurving feet. Two ironrods, hibashi, accompanying the liibachi, and other implements asa blowing tube, ashes leveler shaped like a spatula, etc. We have,here in a nutshell the early fire and its belongings.
Andirons have been traced from stones or clay cones put in the fireas rests for fuel and later as pot supports. They remained primitivetill the iron age, which provided the means at least by which thispiece of fire furniture could develop. For a long time the andironsused in the great common house fireplace remained simple rests muchas the pair worked from bar iron used by Lewis Wetsel in colonialwestern Virgina (PI. 73, fig. 1), property of the writer. Transferredfrom the great fireplace to fireplaces in rooms in which increasingpride in the furnishings was taken, the andiron demanded ornamen-tation. A fore piece was added to tlie humble three-legged iron. Onthis fore piece w^as lavished the metal worker's art in the variouscharacteristic periods to the present. Brass was usually the metalselected for the fore piece, but appears to have been preceded bycast iron, of which pleasing and artistic examples exist (pi. 73, fig.2). In Europe, notably France, where the great fireplace was artis-tically treated and preserved through conservatism, the andirontook on its highest development. The fore piece became an elabor-ately worked wrought-iron branched structure from which hungbaskets of charcoal for special cooking, and spoons, forks, and otherarticles of the chef's hatterie de cuisine. At present in this age ofdevelopment the andirons serve usually as ornaments frequently to afalse fireplace, or, one upon which the luxury of a wood fire maybe laid. SIMPLE STOVESSimple stoves of the type of the brazier are found in different partsof the world. The line of development of the stove may be begunwith them, considering the primitive rests or andirons of three stonesor bosses of baked clay as an intermediate step between the brazier-like vessels and the camp fire. A suggestion of this is shown in thecooking vessel set on three supporting overturned pots, from theHaussa of the Niger River, Africa. (PI. 74a, fig. 4; Cat. No. 249776,Leipzig Museum of Ethnology. (Model.).) From the Philippines
HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 85come two small pottery stoves, one a tripod and the other double,having four legs. (PI. 74a, fig. 1, 2; Cat. No. 238356, PhilippineCommission; 5.5 inches (14 cm.) diameter, 4.4 inches (11 cm.)high; and fig. 2, Cat. No. 238356, Philippine Commission, 5.5inches (14 cm.) long, 3.13 inches (8 cm.) high.) The right centralfigure is a model of a stove from Laos, French Indo-China. (PI.74a, fig. 3, Cat. No, 219640; C. C. Hansen.) Some of the little pot-tery stoves of the San Bias Indians of Panama are of the brazierdraftless type. (See pi. 75, fig. 2-4.) A pottery bowl modified on therim to form a rest for the pot comes from the Philippines. (PI. 74&,figs. 3, 4, 5; Cat. No. 238344; Philippine Commission, 7.5 inches (19cm.) diameter.) Another, from San Fernando, Union, Luzon, hasthree well-formed rests. (PI. 745, fig. 2 ; Cat. No. 238371 ; PhilippineCommission.) A well-defined expression of the idea of the three firebosses is seen in a small earthenware stove from the Philippines.(PI. 74&, fig. 6; Cat. No. 238370, Philippine Commission; 4.7 inches(12 cm.) high, 7.5 inches (19 cm.) diameter.) A large, massive earth-enware stove of triangular shape with three bosses is also fromthe Philippines. (Plate 746, fig. 1; Cat. No. 235184, PhilippineCommission; 15.4 inches wide, 14.6 inches long, and 7.1 inches high(39 cm., 37 cm., 18 cm.).STOVES WITH RUDIMENTABT DKAFTThe knowledge and utilization of draft grew slowly in the con-sciousness of man. Its evolution has only been rapid in the latterstages of man's progress. Charcoal also had its efiect in retardingthe development of draft in the domestic stove. This first manufac-tured fuel, a sine qua non in metallurgy, consumed slowly with aminimum of air and sent out sufficient heat for common purposes.Charcoal played the important part in the early stoves that bitu-minous coal played in the modern stove. Attention is called to anearthenware stove from Morocco, North Africa. This stove hasthree spurs or pot rests and three holes perforated through the sides.There is indication here that a little air entering these holes abovethe fire would aid in combustion. Whether these holes were intendedto give draft is not determined. (PI. 75a, fig. 1, Dr. and Mrs. Tal-cott Williams; 9.1 inches (23 cm.) diameter, 5.5 inches (14 cm.)high.) An earthenware stove from Durango, Mexico, shows bettera rudimentary attempt at draft. Four holes are punched in thevessel above the fire and one of these is larger and suggests a doorby which fuel could be put in. This vessel stands on three legs.(PI. 76a, fig. 2; Cat. No. 176486; Edward Palmer; 13.4 inches (34cm.) diameter, 9.8 inches (25 cm.)). Some of the small earthen-ware stoves of the San Bias Indians of Panama, already men-tioned, which were for warming and on occasion for burning incense.
86 BULLETIN 141, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMhad small holes in the bottom. As a rule no American censers showevidences of draft. (PL 75a, figs. 2-4; Cat. Nos. 327349, 237352,327343, K. O. Marsh ; 6.3 inches diameter, 4.7 inches high ; 5.5 inchesdiameter, 5.9 inches high; 4.4 inches diameter, 5.1 inches high (16cm., 12 cm., 14 cm., 15 cm., 11 cm., 13 cm.).) An earthenware stovefrom Colima, Mexico, shows a flat base extending to form a hearthand walls curved in form of a horseshoe on which a cooking vessel maybe set. There may be seen here a rudimentary hearth, door, andfirebox, which point the way to the stove with draft. (PL 75*2, fig.5 ; Cat. No. 152715, EdAvard Palmer ; 9.9 inches (25 cm.) long.) Smallstoves like this were for sale in the public market at Colima in 1896.Another stove from Colima has a hearth, door, and firebox, the lattersealed in, compelling the ingress and egress of air and gases throughthe door and giving less ventilation than the specimen just described.(PL 75a, fig. 6; Cat. No. 152714; Edward Palmer; 7.1 inches diam-eter, 5.1 inches high (18 cm., 13 cm.).) A similar stove is found inthe Philippines, one specimen being rather rudely formed and theother, from Occidental Negros, much better made and provided witha base. (PI. 74c, figs. 5, 6; Cat. Nos. 238369, 238366, PhilippineCommission; 6.7 inches long (17 cm.).) From Sumatra comes amodel of a triangular earthenware stove with hook pot rests, thebase of the triangle forming the hearth. This stove suggests Hinduorigin. (PL 74c, fig. 7; Cat. No. 178666; Leiden Museum.) TheSiamese form is shown in model. It is well balanced and has anextended hearth. (PL 74c, fig. 4; Cat. No. 178338, C. E. Eckels;6.7 inches long (17 cm.).) The Javanese form consists of a pot witha large opening in the side and a flanged rim on which the cookingvessel rests. (PL 77, fig. 4; Cat. No. 178667, Leiden Museum.)A pottery stove with three holes with projecting knob rests comesfrom the Philippines. The fire placed back under the holes and theperforations in the sides suggest that the maker of this stove wasreaching toward the principles of draft. (PL 74c, fig. 3; Cat. No.326157, Luzon, P. I., Victor J. Evans; 9.5 inches diameter, 4.4 incheshigh (24 cm., 11 cm.).) Another Philippine specimen has sets ofthree perforations in the side of the bowl. (PL 74c, fig. 2; Cat. No.216687, Philippine Commission; 9.1 inches diameter, 6.3 inches high(23 cm., 16 cm.).)The Japanese kitchen range is an interesting development of thedraftless stove. The specimen in the United States National Mu-seum has three fireplaces with large openings into the fire box. Char-coal is the fuel, as noted for all simple stoves. It will be seen thatthere is no intentional draft, as the cooking pots fit tightly overthe holes, but the large door admits of circulation of air in the firechamber, the heated current going out at the top of the opening.
HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 87(PI. 75&, fig. 4, Japanese Department of Education.) Stoves ofthis character are found in various parts of the world. They werefound at Tonalon, Mexico, in 1900, whence came a well-made modelof a three-hole stove elevated on a substructure. (PL 77, fig. 3;Cat. No. 132407, Walter Hough; dimensions of model, 5.1 inchesby 3.9 inches by 3.6 inches (5.1 inches (13 cm.), 3.9 inches (10 cm.),3.6 inches (9 cm,).) Another specimen made of clay came fromthe Philippines. (PL 75Z>, fig. 1; Cat. No. 238392, Philippine Com-mission.) A similar structure with two holes comes from JogoKabu, Togoland, Africa. (PL 756, fig. 3, Cat. No. 249777, LeipzigMuseum of Ethnology.)Two Etruscan stoves of simple character, dating from the thirdcentury B. C, were found in Sovana, Italy, and are now in theprivate collection of Odowardo Giglioli. They have arcaded open-ings in the front and circular flaring openings on which pots wereset. (PL 75<?, figs. 1, 2; from photographs in the U. S. NationalMuseum; D. I. Bushnell, jr.)STOVES WITH AIR BOX AND GBATEThe features which mark a great advance in the stove are thegrate beneath the fire and the air chamber beneath the grate, togetherforming a rudimentary flue. With the incomplete data at hand itseems difficult to fix the date of these inventions. It is suspected,however, that they came late in the history of the stove. The simplefire pot, various forms of which have been figured, is often improvedby the addition of a grate. These specimens are often contempora-neous with the simple stove which has no doubt been retained bycustom. A specimen from Mexico, a model, is of graceful, brazierform with foot and flaring mouth. The grate is the early one ofholes pierced through the bottom of the fire box into the air chamber.(PL 77, fig. 5 ; Cat. No, 115798, San Pedro, near Guadalajara, Mex-ico; Edward Palmer,) A stove model in white clay decorated withred is from Madrid, Spain, and is furnished with grate bars. (PL77, fig. 6; Cat. No. 166997, Walter Hough.) A model from PortoRico, West Indies, is neatly made from earthenware. It has a singlegrate bar, leaving two openings, (PL 77, fig, 7; Cat. No, 201497,Paul Beckwith.) A model from Guadalajara decorated in colorshas holes punched in the bottom of the fire box. (PL 77, fig, 8; Cat,No, 175568, Edward Palmer.) A somewhat similar specimen fromCaracas, Venezuela, also has a perforated grate. (PL 77, fig. 9 ; Cat.No. 136020, R. M, Bartleman.) A stove from Tetuan, Morocco,worked from a block of tuff, has slits cut through the bottom ofthe fire box. Originally the stove was hooped with iron bands.(PL 77, fig, 2; Dr. Talcott Williams; 10,6 inches (27 cm.) high,8.3 inches (21 cm.) square.) An earthenware stove from the Philip-54261?28 7
88 BULLETIN 141^ UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMpines has the rim formed into three projecting spurs on which thepot is rested. It has a perforated grate. (PL 74(?, fig. 1; Cat. No.216704, Philippine Commission; 8.8 inches (22 cm.) diameter, 8.ainches (21 cm.) high.) A pottery stove from Sao Christoval, Portu-gal, made by Amaro Domincos Grillo, was exhibited at the Philadel-phia Centennial Exposition in 1876. It is of hard, dark gray sonorousware, and shows the appreciation of form which the Portuguese pot-ters have transmitted from classical times. This stove has gratebars formed in the clay. (PI. 78a, fig. 4 ; Cat. No. 325602 ; 10.6 inches(27 cm.) high, with cooking pot 16.2 inches (41 cm.) high.) Apottery stove from Santa Lucia, West Indies, shows the highestadvance in this material. The fire box has a flat, incurved rim withthree bosses on the inner edge. The grate bars are cut in the bottomof the fire box. The hearth is scalloped and the door arched. Abovethe arch two small holes are punched into the fire box, suggestingover-fire ventilation. Two finger cups on the sides are for lifting.(PI. 78^., fig. 2; Cat. No. 325603, Jamaica Exposition, 1891; 9.5 inches(24 cm.) diameter, 5.9 inches (15 cm.) high.)The iron stove used in Tetunan, Morocco, consists of a drum sepa-rated in two compartments for the fire box and air chamber by a grate.It has three spear-shape pot rests, a hinged door, three supportinglegs, and two ringed handles. A hole into the fire box is seen in thecut. (PI. 78a, fig. 2; Dr. Talcott Williams: 7.9 inches diameter,10.6 inches high (20 cm., 27 cm.).) A taller stove of excellent ironand brass work comes from the same locality. The construction islike that of the specimen described. The pot rests are hinged. Thereare ornamentally pierced openings above the fire. (PL 78a fig. 1;Pr. Talcott Williams.)A stove model collected by the writer in Jalapa, Mexico, seems tobe a survival of the temescal or vapor bath form. It has a round anda square hole in the top. In general the rectangular stoves such aswere built up of brick of earth in the house, indicating the fixedrange in contrast with the fire pot, are the models from which ourranges originated. (PL 77, fig. 1; Cat. No. 204663.) The Tibetanfixed stove is sadiron shape, built of mud, has two openings in thetop, one a fire box and the other for the pot. At the lower edge,below the pot hole, is an opening forming an ash channel and a flueto the fire box. The fuel is argols, dung of ruminant animals, as theyak. (PL 75&, fig. 2; Cat. No. 325604; after W. W. Rockhill.) Seealso Plate 97, Figure 6, for model restoration.A stove secured from the Philippines shows an elaboration of thecooking over an open-air fire. It exhibits clay bosses for three potrests mounted in an elaborately worked bench of bamboo. (PL 7Gb,fig. 1; Cat. No. near 216695; Philippine Commission; 24.6 incheslong, 14.2 inches wide, 11.8 inches high (64 cm., 36 cm., 30 cm.).)
HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 89STOVKS OF THE INVHNTIVB PBUIODIt is an almost imperceptible barrier between the simple stovesdescribed and the first examples which are placed in the inventiveperiod. This is due no doubt to the survival of the older forms.Thirty-five years ago in Washington, and no doubt in other parts ofAmerica, small cast-iron fire-pot stoves were common; and as thehot chestnut vendors used them, most of the population was familiarwith them. Artisans generally required these stoves, which havenow practically disappeared. These stoves belong in the periodwhen cast iron was coming into wide use. A specimen of the supe-rior quality of the castings from the Lebanon Valley, Pa., is in-scribed " Gotscher." In shape it is like some of the pottery stovesfigured. The grate is circular and removable and the handles arewrought iron cast in. (PI. 7Sh, fig. 1; Cat. No. 325605; donorunknown; probably a boat stove from the U. S. Fish Commission;9.3 inches diameter, 7.1 inches high, (23.5 cm., 18 cm.).) A moreelaborate stove of this character is of thin and good cast iron. Ithas a flaring rim with three ribs on which the pot is set. It has aregular grate and also a grating of open work over the fire. Thestove is mounted on three feet, has a hearth ornamented on the edge,and an iron bail. This stove was used on whaling ships, the speci-men coming from San Francisco, Calif., where it was collected bythe United States Fish Commission. (PI. 787;, fig. 3; Cat. No.163632; 13 inches diameter, 9.5 inches high (33 cm., 24 cm.).) TheMuseum lately received from Mrs. Frances Roome Powers a toyfireplace of cast iron with andirons, hanging pot, and spider.Family tradition places this relic to the " time of Washington'sfather and mother." There is no other history, but the specimenrepresents the period when fireplaces smaller than the great fireplacewere cast entire with hearth, an improvement on the old fire backsfigured by Henry C. Mercer,^ and especially common in Pennsyl-vania. The fireplace lining may have suggested the first Franklinstove of 1742 and appears to indicate a marked development in ironcasting in the eighteenth century. (PI. 78&, fig. 2; Cat. No. 328725;Virginia, Mrs. Frances Roome Powers; 4.5 inches wide, 4.9 incheshigh (11.5 cm., 12.5 cm.).)Before the disappearance of the great fireplace an interestingseries of adaptations had been built into its capacious dimensions,in many cases closing it up. These were ovens, hot-water tanks,and finally a grate, the latter often the survivor in a blank wallwhich hid the fireplace. Sometimes in tearing down old houses
? Henry C. Mercer, The Bible In Iron, or The Picture Stoves and Stove Plates of thePennsylvania Germans, with Notes on Colonial Pirebacks in the United States, etc. Pub-lished for the Bucks County Historical Society, Doylestown, Pa., 1914.
90 BXJLLETIN 141, UNITED STATES NATIONAIi MUSEUMthese accumulations are found, with often the old crane in place.At one period there was a great demand for cast ovens and hot-water tanks to be set in the fireplace. It is evident that we havetestimony here of the coming together of the various elements thathave joined to form the cook stove with all modern conveniences.The warming stove has a more direct lineage from the pot stovesdescribed. The cook stove is an assemblage of things used inde-pendently in other stages of progress. It must not be overlookedthat fuel has had an important part in the development of the cookstove. The important modifications of the cook stove have occurredsince charcoal was superseded by wood and coal; that is, deviceswere brought forward for consuming these fuels.The Museum collection contains a curious and interesting relicconsisting of a stove of old whaling days. It is a ship's stove withattached warming and cooking oven. It has sheet-iron sides andbottom, and cast-iron top with two holes and lids. In front is avalve with pivoted shutter. On the sides are ring drop handles.There are gadgets on the bottom for receiving the iron plates bywhich the stove was securely fastened to the floor. The oven ishung on two pins as in the old barn door and is formed to fi.tagainst the curved sides of the stove. The stove is provided withjoints of stovepipe, pans, etc. It was patented June 22, 1875, byH. L. Dunklee, Boston, Mass. It is said to have been the first sheet-iron stove. Wood was burned in it. (PI. 786, fig. 4; Cat. No.325606, U. S. Fish Commission ; 21.3 inches long, 13 inches wide,11.8 inches high (54 cm., 33 cm., 30 cm.).)A model gives an idea of the Norwegian stove built of tiles andforming an ornamental piece of house furnishing. In using, woodis placed in the fire box and a flue opened. The wood is lighted,allowed to burn a little while, when the door is shut and the flueclosed. The heat generated at first is sufficient to continue thecombustion of the wood. The warmth is slowly diffused throughthe structure of the stove and passed on to the air in contact withthe surface of the stove. (PI. 79, fig. 2; Cat. No. 167114, Mrs.Emma Brinton, model 9.1 inches (23 cm.) high.) Dr. LeonhardStejneger informs me that the installation of fire in the housewas formerly in the ample fireplace as in America and that thetile stove was an introduction from Germany.There have been many inventions whose idea was the furnishingof compact forms in which small amounts of heat could be appliedto temporary uses as the case might require, and others strove tocompress in convenient form all that might be demanded of arange completely equipped with cooking vessels. One of thesecombinations, a stove lamp, was collected in the Philippines during
HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 91the insurrection. It is probably of Spanish origin. The designerdeserves great credit. (PI. 79, fig. 13; Cat. No. 216668, PhilippineCommission; 11.4 inches (29 cm.) high.)The knowledge that alcohol was a good fuel has probably beenknown since the beginning of distillation. Alcohol has alwaysborne the name of fire water in Arabic. Its use as fuel for minorpurposes, hoAvever, does not date very far back. The earlier alcoholburners were lamplike vessels with wick tube and cotton wick.Later improvements to get a larger area of flame were asbestospads covered with a mesh wire grating. One of these is called
" pocket " cook stove, Houchin's Patent. (PI. 78c, fig. 1, Wash-ington, D. C; Cat. No. 329466, Walter Hough; 3.12 inches (8 cm.)diameter.) Another form regulated the flame and was called
" silver " spirit stove. It consisted of a brass cup, in the bottomof which were set seven brass open tubes, the cup mounted in athree-leg stand with three vertical spurs or rests. A plate used asa cover has three graded openings to regulate draft. (PI. 78g, fig. 5
;
Washington, D. C; Cat. No. 216256, Walter Hough; 4.4 inches(11 cm.) diameter, 1.6 inches (4 cm.) high.) A more recent andquite effective alcohol stove was used in 1915 at the San FranciscoExposition. It is called Universal No. alcohol stove, patented byFrary & Clark, New Britain, Conn., 1908. The burner is primedwith alcohol from a pump and when ignited the heat forces thealcohol from the reservoir through pinholes at the base of the burner.The flame is regulated by a sleeve moved by a ratchet. (PI. 78(7,fig. 6; Cat. No. 325607, Connecticut; Panama Pacific Exp., 1915;6.3 inches (16 cm.) diameter, 5.5 inches (14 cm.) high.)The means of using artificial gas for heat must be credited toBunsen, who invented the burner bearing his name about themiddle of the eighteenth century. For illumination effects gasdoes not require any mixture of air, but for heating by means ofthe blue flame it is necessary to introduce a sufficient quantity of airas an oxidizing agent. All gas stoves therefore have a device formixing air and gas, consisting of a chamber on the line in whichthe mixture takes place just before delivery to the burner. A cast-iron gas stove of about 40-50 years ago shows the gas mixer, lackingthe movable pierced ring by which the flow of air was regulated.(PL 78c, fig. 4; Cat. No. 325608; Smithsonian Laboratories; 4.7inches (12 cm.) diameter, 3.6 inches (9 cm.) high.)From time to time and in total a considerable number of devicesfor utilizing the heat of lamps for warming, cooking, and otherpurposes have been invented. Such devices are evanescent and rarelysurvive as examples of wasted inventive talent. One of these is abrass cylinder devised to insure proper ventilation and intended to
92 BULLETIN 141_, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMinclose the chimney of a kerosene lamp. Articles to be heatedcould be placed on the closed top of the cylinder. (PI. 78g, fig. 2;Cat. No. 325609, Museum Collections, 1876; 5.9 inches (15 cm.)diameter, 9.1 inches (23 cm.) high.)Electric heating has recently become of economic value, its usiBhaving been retarded by the limited electric power available. En-gineers regard electric heating as the most Avasteful and costly methodof employing electricity and can not predict that it may ever be usedfor general heating of houses. The conversion of electricity intoheat in small units over short periods of time is not unduly expensiveand has come into widespread use within a few years. An exampleis given of an electric-foot stove in use during the winter of 1914-15at the San Francisco Exposition. This stove has 106-114 volts and6.8 amperes, and was made by the American Electric Heating Co.,Detroit, Mich. (PI 78c, fig. 3; Cat. No. 325610, Panama-PacificExposition; 14.2 inches (36 cm.) wide, 12.6 inches (33 cm.) high.)STOVKS IX COMBINATION : COOKRRS, WATER HBATERS, ETC.There is a large class of vessels from which food or hot waterAvas served, the heating element being a hot iron, a spirit lamp, orcharcoal. These vessels are alwaj^s ornamental and are intended forserving in the dining room. The presence of a heating device asso-ciates these vessels with stoves and they may be called stoves incombination. In some cases, as will be noticed, they are actual smallstoves with charcoal, fire box, and draft, a type of which is thesamovar, "self-cooker," of Eussia, probably of oriental origin.A good specimen of the incorporated stove is from Swatow, China,made of pewter lined with brass. The air box is in the base andhas an ornamentally curved opening. The stove with grate standsin the middle of the bowl and the draft opening is throughthe lid. Food to be cooked or warmed is placed in the bowl andreceives heat through the sides of the fire vessel. The lid and vesselhave drop handles of brass. (PI. 80, fig. 3; Cat. No. 75326; Cen-tennial Exposition, Philadelphia, 1876; 8.3 inches (21 cm.) diameter,4.4 inches (11 cm.) high.) This vessel is almost duplicated in soap-stone by the Korean sin syol lo^ skillfully made and finished inpolished black. An opening in the foot leads to the draft chamber,and above this is the tubular fire box with grate. The lid fits downover the bowl and edge of the fire box. The specimen is of thesamovar type. (PI. 80, fig. 5; Cat. No. 77054; Seoul, Korea; J. B.Bernadou; 8% inches diameter, 7% inches high (22.5 cm. diameter,19 cm. high).)Another self-contained stove, made of pcAvter and brass, repre-sents China's contribution to the inventions connected with the
HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 93
cooking stove. In this stove hot water is utilized in cooking,attended with notable economy of fuel. The stove is drum shapeand has an arched opening for draft and feeding. The fire boxhas a grate and ventilates through the top of tlie stove by a flue.The surrounding part of the stove forms a reservoir for water, inwhich hang two tubular pots with lid and a larger vessel also withlid in which food is placed for cooking. The parts in contact withfire arc of brass. The Chinese name of this is saiiisu. (PI. 80,fig. 7; Cat. No. 75340, Amoy, China; Philadelphia CentennialExhibition, 1876; 13 inches (33 cm.) diameter. 11% inches (30 cm.)high.)An additional specimen is a teapot stove of pewter and brass, alsoChinese. The base of pierced brass, ornamented with geomanticand other characters, contains the grate. The teapot has a conicalbrass hot-air flue ventilating through the lid. It is decorated withincised characters in Chinese. (PI. 80, fig. 2; Cat. No. 75338; Swa-tow, China; Centennial Exposition, Philadelphia, 1876; 3.9 inches(10 cm.) diameter, 7.5 inches (19 cm.) high.) Shown with thisspecimen is a pewter teapot from Chefoo, China. (PI. 80, fig. 1;Cat. No. 130333, Centennial Exposition, Philadelphia, 1876; 5.5inches (14 cm.) diameter, 4.4 inches (11 cm.) high.)In the seventeenth century hot-water vessels for the table tea serv-ice were furnished with an iron billet which could be heated at thefire and lowered into a vertical tulje in the center of the reservoir.This was the method with the laundry iron of the period. It appearsthat the use of the stored heat of the hot iron preceded the spiritlamp. The specimen figured is of English craft and is a model ofdesign and execution in hammered copper. The date attributed tothe specimen in 1683 but is apparently too early. It is inscribed inink : " 17th Century English Cofl'ee Urn from an old Welch Coach-ing Inn of Richard Weeks " and the date 1683 is engraved. Thecover is stamped " Best. London Manufac." The handles and spoutroundel are of ivory. (PI. 80, fig. 8; Cat. No. 95829; gift of llichardWeeks; 9.1 inches (23 cm.) diameter, 16.2 inches (41 cm.) high.)An English coffee biggin of tinned iron decorated with pierced workand lion's head drop handles was used in the family of Prof. S. F.Baird, second secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. It consistsof three sections fitting together, the top section with a perforatedreceptacle for holding coffee, the middle section for the percolatedcoffee, fitted with a brass cock, and the base containing a cup holdingan iron disk to be heated. The specimen had come down in thefamily and is believed to be colonial. (PL 81?, fig. 2; Cat. No.75341, gift of Mrs. S. F. Baird; 17.3 inches (44 cm.) high.) Anotherbiggin for hot water is of tinned iron, well shai)ed, with rigid handles
94 BULLETIN Ul^ UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
of cast iron, four feet, and a brass cock. The lid is capped with apheasant in pewter. The base is perforated in baluster pattern andcontains a single-tube lamp in which alcohol was burnt for heatingwater in the reservoir. (PI. 81a, fig. 1; Cat. No. 130314, Morgan-town, W. Va., gift of Mrs. M. L. Casselberry; 8.3 inches (21 cm.)diameter, 15 inches (38 cm.) high.) The Museum has a specimen ofhot-water urn of britannia made in England. It is of classic shapewith two handles and mounted on four ornamental feet of pev, ter.The cock is quite old style, of brass with ivory handle. The bottomof the urn is lined with brass to resist the heat from a single-tubespirit lamp. (PI. 81?, fig. 3; Cat. No. 289433, Englan.l, AntonHeitmuller; 18.1 inches (46 cm.) high.)Preserving the Avarmth of food by means of hot water was com-monly practiced in the eighteenth centurj' and the early nineteenthcentury. It was effected by means of hollow dishes filled with hotwater on which was placed the food to be kept warm during a meal.These dishes were useful in the period when there were no warmingovens and when in some parts of the Colonies food had to be car-ried some distance through the weather to the table in tiie mansion.In tavern kitchens there were also great pew^ter hot-water platt(!rsfor the purpose mentioned. Specimens of hot-water vessels arescarce and the Museum collection has only one example, a Flemishhot-water dish in fine yellow brass. The dish is oblong-oval, standson four turned feet, has drop handles, and an ornamentally perfo-rated lid, flanged and recurving in the top of the dish. Upon thisperforated area was placed whatever food w'as suitable to be warmed.It is evident that fluids from roasts or moist food would drain intothe water pan. (PI. Sib, fig. 4; Cat. No. 169099, S. B. Dean; 19.7inches (50 cm.) long, 11.8 inches (30 cm.) wide, 3.9 inches (10 cm.)high.)Not many devices have been found in which steam is used as aheating agent. One of these is a pevv'ter vessel with long spout, onthe end of which is set an inverted goblet-shape vessel with a smallventilating hole on one side. The vessel is filled with hot waterand the steam passing through the spout warms the liquid in thecup. (PI. 81h, fig. 2; Cat. No. 130332, Chefoo, China; PhiladelphiaCentennial. 1876; 3.9 inches (10 cm.) diameter, 7.7 inches (19.5 cm.)high.)A device for getting hot water quickly, especially for shaving, isseen in a conical tin vessel with a hollow flange around the base.Alcohol poured in the flange and lighted burned quickly around theexterior of the vessel filled with water, causing it to boil imme-diately. The vessel is furnished with a hinged lid and a handle
HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 95
?which disappears inside, the lid boinir closed over it. (PI. 816, f\g. 1;
?at. No. 151485, Massachusetts about 1840, M. F. Savage; 3.9 inches(10 cm.) diameter, G.l inches (15.5 cm.) high.)VESSELS I'OK CONSEHVINO HEATThe conservation of heat has been known for a long time byrivilized man. This object to be carried out requires an experimentalIcnowledge of the conductivity of materials, seen in the hay basketsused by the Jcavs to keep food warm over the ceremonial Sabbathand mentioned by Juvenal in his satires. There has apparentlybeen a progress or at least a continuity from the early heat preserva-tion devices to the tireless cooker. The Chinese use a padded recep-tacle for the teapot to keep the tea warm, consisting of an ex-cellently woven basket or an embellished metal box fitted with thickpads into which the teapot is thrust, leaving only the end of thespout exposed for pouring. In the specimen figured the teapot ispewter, having a perforated tube in w^hich the tea is placed forsteeping. (Ph 82, fig. 3; Cat. No. 325611, Canton, China; Philadel-phia Centennial Exposition, 1876; 7.5 inches (19 cm.) diameter, 6.7inches (17 cm.) high.)As in retaining heat, the cooling of substances depends on theconductivity of materials. There is little evidence that the cool-ing principle was known veiy far backward in time. The onlyexample in the Museum collection is a "Calcutta water cooler"used in India. It consists of a glass water jar fitting into a tincase padded with cloth and having a similar cover sliding downover the jar. This device is said to be effective in keeping watercold. While this device is commonly known as a feature of Cal-cutta usage, it does not appear to be native, probably having beenintroduced from England. (PI. 82, figs. 1, 2; Cat. No. 325612,Calcutta, India; 6.3 inches (16 cm.) diameter, 7.1 inches (18 cm.)high.) PIRK FANS AND BBI.LOWSThe first aids for blowing up the fire appear to be fans. Theseare found both among uncivilized tribes and civilized peoples. Theywere common at the period of the open fireplace in America andEurope. The turkey-wing brush and fan was a familiar object of theearlier American domestic arrangements. Palm-leaf fans, whosenormal use was for cooling the face, were also made to serve in anemergency as a fire fan. The same may be said of the specimensshown as fire fans in the rare cases where fans were used for personalcomfort.The San Bias Indian fan is an excellent piece of weaving, espe-cially marked in the tubular handle. It is used for blowing the fireand also in ceremony. Miss Frances Densmore has collected the
96 BULLETIN Ul, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMinformation from Indians brouglit by the Marsh-Darien Expedition,that tlie guests at a wedding hold a fan of this kind in the hand.(PI. 83a, fig. 1; Cat. No. 326126; Mrs. G. N. Lieber; 8.3 inches (21cm.) wide, 15.4 inches (39 cm.) long.) Dr. J. Walter Fewkes broughtfrom Arima, Trinidad, West Indies, a diaper weaving fire fan withhandle formed by bimdling and crossing the weaving elements at theapex of the blade A smaller specimen has a loop at the apex.(PI. 83a, figs. 2, 4; Cat. Nos. 231188, 231196; 11 inches (28 cm.) wide,17 inches (43 era.) long; 5.1 inches (13 cm.) wide, 8.5 inches (21.5cm.) long.) A fire fan from Colima, Mexico, has a similar handleformed of two bundles of the rush splints. (PI. 83c/, fig. 3; Cat. No.162713, Edward Palmer; 7.1 inches (18 cm.) wide, 13.8 inches (35cm.) long.) A hoe-shape fan from the Arawaks of British Guianahas a cross handle at the apex. (PI. 83a, fig. 5; Cat. No. 210443,Hassler Coll., Field Museum, Chicago; 10.3 inches (26 cm.) wide, 8.Sinches (21 cm.) long.) A fan made by splitting a palm midrib andinterweaving the leaves is also from British Gui;ina. This clevermanipulation of the palm frond occurs frequently in British Guianaand is found in many parts of the East. (PL 83a, fig. 6; Cat. No.325613, donor unknown; 9.8 inches (25 cm.) wide, 8.7 inches (22 cm.)long.) A disk fan with handle of midrib and blade of interwovenleaf is found in Paraguay. (PI. 83a, fig. 12; Cat. No. 210556,Hassler Coll., Field Museum, Chicago; 11.8 inches (30 cm.) diameter^15.7 inches (40 cm.) long.) A disk fan of coarse palm braidsewed to a handle and cross brace comes from Merida, Yucatan.(PI. 83a, fig. 11; Cat. No. 73921; L. H. Ayme; 9.1 inches (23 cm.)diameter, 21.3 inches (54 cm. long.) Also from Yucatan is an excel-lently woven rush fan suggesting the Paraguay specimen. (Fig. 1.)(PI. 83a, fig. 10; Cat. No. 325614, donor unknown; 14.3 inches (36cm.) diameter, 16.9 inches (43 cm.) long.) A square-blade fanmounted diagonally with handle and cross brace comes from CapeBlanco, Morocco. It is woven of split cane and bordered with raffiacord. (PI. 83a, fig. 7 ; Cat. No. 14841, Wilkes Exploring Expedition
;
9.5 inches (24 cm.) wide, 15.7 inches (40 cm.) long.) An ovate firefan of esparto from Spain is woven after the fashion of wickerbaskets and is in two colors. A loop at one side is for hanging up thefan. (PI. 83a., fig. 8; Cat. No. 73260, Philadelphia Centennial Ex-position, 1876; 12.2 inches (31 cm.) by 13 inches (33 cm.) diameter.)A square-blade fan with branch handle at one corner, made by theCayapas Indians of Ecuador is Avoven of palm splints. (PL 83a, fig.9: Cat. No. 68090; William F. Lee; 10.6 inches (27 cm.) wide, 16.2inches (41 cm.) long.)Following the fire fan we may presume that the fire-blowing tubecame into use. This consists of a bamboo or cane tube with a small
HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 97hole in the septum at the node, througli which the breath >Yas con-centrated on the fire and was an improvement of the most primitiveblowing of the fire with puft'ed cheeks. An example of tlie tubeblower is a bamboo tube such as is customarily used by the Chineseand Japanese. (PI. 83&, figs. 1, 2 ; Cat. No. 128147, Japanese Depart-ment of Education; 14.5 inches (37 cm.) long.) In Europe tlietubular fire blower had a widespread use. A specimen collected inMadrid, Spain, is a brass tube with collar of iron having a hook forhanging up, and a swallow-tail expansion of iron at the base forstirring and regulating the fire, probably' of the brazier. The speci-men is regarded as of ancient type. (PI. 836, fig. 4; Cat. No. 169008,Spain, Walter Hough; 26 inches (66 cm.) long.)Bellows are of great antiquity and of lengendaiy origin, the classi-cal attribution being to Daedalus. This device is inseparably con-nected witli the increasing of iire heat for economic purposes. Ingeneral the bellows for domestic use is an outgrowth of the behaviorof fuel itself or in different stages of combustion of fuel materials.The familiar bellows of Colonial times hung by the fireplace waslegarded as both ornamental and useful. It had a cast-brass nozzle,leather belloAvs fastened with brass head nails to the two leaves.The hinge necessary to one of the leaves was usually of leather.These specimens were lacquered and decorated with sprays of flow-ers in bright colors, frequently on a dark-green ground. One speci-men in the Museum has bent handles. It is classed as American, butit may have been imported from England. (PL 836, fig. 5; Cat.No. 325615, donor unknown; 18.1 inches (46 cm.) long.) Anotherhas straight handles, a graceful nozzle, and is decorated with rosesprays on a broAvn background. (PI. 83&, fig. 7; Cat. No. 289464,Pennsylvania, Anton HeitmuUer: 19.3 inches (49 cm.) long.) Aninteresting bellow^s of French manufacture secured in Madrid, Spain,in 1892 has a fan actuated through a rack and pinions by meansof a crank. Air enters the bellows through an ornamental brassgrill and is forced by the fan through the plain tubular nozzle. Itis excellently made of fine curly maple wood. (PI. 83&, fig. 6; Cat.No. 167038," Walter Hough; 14.9 inches (38 cm.) long.) In theMuseum collection are a number of bellows used in the arts andindustries of various countries. The simplest of these is a Tibetanexample consisting of a goatskin bag open at one end and with aniron tuyere at the other. In w^orking it the sides of the bag mouthare pulled apart, closed, and the impounded air pressed through thetuyere against the fire. The specimen w^as collected by the lateW. W. Eockhill. In ancient Egypt and in many parts of Africathe simple bag bellows was used, but improved by placing two bagsside by side, connecting with a single tuyere, thus giving a more or
98 BULLETIN 141, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMless continuous current. The piston bellows originating in some
-eastern Asiatic center of metal industry is widespread over the EastIndies and parts of the continent. It is actuated by plungers in twopistons and is without valves.The date of the introduction of the valve is not known, but the loca-tion was probably Europe. The primitive appearing bellows used bythe Navaho silversmith is valved. It is probably an introduction fromSpain through Mexico. Plate 84, Arizona, Bureau of AmericanEthnology collection. A curious method of producing a blast ofsuperheated steam to intensify the fire in melting metals is practisedby the Lepcha gold workers in Sikkini, India. The specimen con-sists of a copper flask with long curved beak having a slight openingat the point. In practice this is heated and submerged in water, thevacuum created drawing much water into the flask. The flask isthen set in a fire and the point directed on the fire under the crucible.(PI. 8Sh, fig. 3; Cat. No. 326753, Dr. William Clemmons; 3.7 inches(9.5 cm.) diameter, 8.7 inches (22 cm.) high.)TONGS AND PIRB TOOLSOne of the earliest problems connected with the utilization of firewas fire handling. The poker may be considered the first of thefire tools and may be a branch sharpened and charred in the fire andalso serving at times as a temporary, fitful torch. Such pokers arefound in universal use around the fires of uncivilized races andspecimens are here and there preserved in the cliff dwellings of thesouthwesten United States. The poker as a simple device remainsindefinitely simple at all stages of progress. Two pokers, however,brought together indicate the beginning of tongs, that is, stickspressed on either side of a brand for lifting it form tongs. Veritableexamples can be found in use in the manner of chopsticks to thisday in China, Japan, and the northwest coast of America. Ap-parently the next step is to join these pokers at one end. The Jap-anese use two iron rods to attend the fire in the hibachi. Sometimesthese pokers are joined at the ends with a ring, but beyond this thereis no invention in the direction of tongs. (PI. 86, figs. 4, 5 ; Cat. Nos.128275, 128141, Japan, Japanese Department of Education; 11.4inches (29 cm.) and 14.6 inches (37 cm.) long.) On the northwestcoast sometimes the tongs are made by splitting a stick part way.Generally they are of two round sticks, and sometimes joined as men-tioned. (PI. 85, fig. 6.) The Kiowa used a pair of forked sticksto handle the hot stones for the sweat bath. (PI. 85, figs. 4, 5; CatNo. 153000, Oklahoma, elames Mooney, 14 inches (35.5 cm.) long.)The Washoes of Nevada and some California tribes bent a stick onitself, forming a loop, the implement resembling a tennis racket, andused it for handling hot stones. (PI. 85, fig. 1; Cat. No. 204473,
HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 99Eugene Mead; 24.4 inches (63 cm.) long.) The southwestern tribesgenerally used a spring tongs formed by bending a strip of woodby fire into shape or by cutting out two tongues in a billet of wood.The smaller implements of this character were useful in handlingspiny cactus fruit and the larger for coals of fire. The Apache speci-men is strong and well made and has a good spring. It was col-lected in 1869. (PI. 85, fig. 2; Cat. No. 9971, Arizona, EdwardPalmer; 20.9 inches (53 cm.) long.) The Havasupai specimen iscrude and strong. (PI. 85, fig. 3; Cat. No. 151901, HavasupaiIndians, Arizona; Maj. John G. Bourke, U. S. A.; 24.4 inches (62cm.) long.)The earlier American and European tongs were hinged at thehandle and the two prongs bowed. The grasping ends were flattenedinto disks. (PI. 86, fig. 7; Cat. No. 75357; Bainbridge, Pa.; GeorgeBean; 23.2 inches (59 cm.) long.) Improvements added a springto the pair of prongs and fingers for grasping. (PI. 86, fig. 6; Cat.No. 284335; Lucy II. Baird; 16.2 inches (41 cm.) long.) A pair oftongs called kinda^ coming from Denmark, is of bronze and was usedfor carrying a coal of fire from a neighbor's hearth, following thecustom of fire borrowing. This rare specimen was given by Dr.C. A. Q. Norton, of Hartford, Conn., one of the pioneer collectorsof illumination devices. (PI. 86, fig. 3; Cat. No. 151651; 8.7 inches(22 cm.) long.) For handling coals a pincerlike tool of wroughtiron was employed in Spain. These were principally for use Aviththe brazier. (PI. 86, figs. 1, 2; Cat. Nos. 167001, 167068; Madrid,.Spain; Walter Hough; 5.1 inches (13 cm.) and 12.6 inches (32 cm.)long.) ORIDIBONSGrids of wood preceded grids of iron and were used in parts ofthe world where iron was as yet unlinown. These picturesque gridswere erected on four posts over a fire and were made high enoughto prevent burning. On these were placed flesh or vegetable foodsto be semi-cooked and preserved by drying and smoking. (See pL87.) More primitive than the wooden grids were the simple spitsconsisting of a stick thrust into the substance to be cooked andinclined before the fire. In the salmon area the split fish was fixedon a spit and small sticks thrust across at right angles to hold thefish flat. This suggests the gridiron. From the Bronze Age, so faras may be ascertained, no grids have been found, but in the IronAge an iron strip bent to and fro appears to be such an object.During the Iron Age it is presumed that the grid came more andmore into use, and the simple iron grids of our forefathers might wellstand for Iron Age examples.From Virginia comes a gridiron of honest ironwork which ap-pears capable of surviving indefinitely the wear of time. (PI. 88^
100 liUI.T^ETIN lil, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
fig. 2; Cat. No. 289436, Anton Heitmuller; 4.7 inches (12 cm.) by 8.3inches (21 cm.) by 15.7 inches (40 cm.) long.) Later than the speci-men mentioned came the use of gridirons of bent wire, which werecommonly employed after the first cooking stoves were prevalent.The earlier specimens are single and made of stout wire. The laterwire gridirons were double. The camp chest of George Washington,a precious relic in the historical collection of the National Museum,contains a simple gridiron of wrought work. It has four legs, eightbars, and the handle slides into the frame to allow the gridiron tofit into the compartment in the green-baize-lined chest studded withbrass nails.^** The box placed under the grid in the illustration inMr. Belote's work cited is an oblong tinder box with candle socket onthe lid. (PI. 89, fig. 7; Cat. No. 92621; W. S. Winder collection.)One of the earliest wire gridirons is from Virginia. It is made of asingle piece of rod one-fifth inch in diameter, expertly bent, theends twisted together and forged into a loop. The specimen is over100 years old. (PI. 89, fig. 5; Cat. No. 127282, Lynchburg, Va.;Mrs. Ed. Hunter; 18.5 inches (47 cm.) long.) A gridiron whichshows inventive thought is of cast iron with wrought-iron side barsand handle. Each grid is concave and is pierced at the end nearthe handle, allowing some of the drippings to fall into a pan. Thisgridiron is thought to date earlier than 1840. (PI. 89, fig. 6; Cat.No. 127283, Lynchburg, Va. ; Mrs. Ed. Hunter; 9.5 inches (24 cm.)by 10.6 inches (27 cm.).) A remarkable specimen of Flemishgridiron of the fifteenth century has an oblong frame of seven barsof heart and spiral design, three feet, and a flat handle of dumb-bellshape. It is a splendid specimen of art ironwork applied to articlesof common use. (PI. 89, fig. 1; Cat. No. 205380, Belgium, S. B.Dean; 14.6 inches (37 cm.) wide, 26.4 inches (67 cm.) long.) Therevolving gridiron was an improvement in the seventeenth century.It consisted of a circular grid pivoted in the middle of a three-legspider, from one prong of which extended the handle. This formof gridiron found its way to America and was used here in thecolonial period and subsequently. The superior, even artistic iron-work of these gridirons and the honest work of rendering themalmost indestructible, have contributed to their preservation. Espe-cially on the handles is the ironworker's skill apparent, as may beseen on the specimen figured. (PI. 89, fig. 4; Cat. No. 168324, Bel-gium, seventeenth century, S. B. Dean; 12.6 inches (32 cm.) diameter,28.3 inches (72 cm.) long.)MEAT ROASTKRS AND TOASTEOSThere are described here trivets on which are mounted forks forholding meat to be roasted, in effect a spit. One of these came
"T. T. Belote. Descriptive Catalogue of the Washington Relics In the United StatesNational Museum. I'roc. TJ. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 49, 1915, pp. 1-24.
HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 101down in Mrs. E. J. Stone's family, Washin^^ton, I). C, and datesabout 1TG8. It Avas brought from P^ngland by Robert King, sr. Itconsists of a trivet with cabriolet legs and spade feet surmountedby a ring on which a drip pan could be set. At one side of thering plate is a pierced tab in whicli a rod held by a spring is setand is thus capable of being raised and lowered. At the top is aspring slide in Avhich the spit works. The si)it has four forks ina row and one ]">laced above, perhaps to hold basting material. (Pi.89, tig. 3; Cat. No. 130492, England, Mrs. E. J. Stone; height toring, 9.8 inches (25 cm.).) From Yorkshire, England, comes atall roaster consisting of an iron grid of five slats having nine forks,and sliding on an upright rod with three ball-toed feet. The upperiron through which the upright rod passes is curbed back and hasa hole at the end, apparently for hanging the spit on a hook. (PI.88, fig. 1; Cat. No. 150885, English, Edward Lovett; 30.8 inches(80 cm.) high.) Another specimen coming from Virginia and be-lieved to date to colonial times is of different type. It is purely ofwrought iron. The base is a long, narrow strip mounted on fourfeet formed by bending a strip of iron in U-shape and riveting tothe base near the ends. On the base are mounted two pairs oftwisted iron bows set opposite. Two twisted spikes with down-curving ornaments are set under the bows. The handle is hingedto an upright U-shape section and terminates in a loop. (PL 89,iig. 2; Cat. No. 233195, Virginia, Walter Hough; 121/, inches (31cm.) long, 5l^ inches (14 cm.) high.
This useful utensil from the period of the great fireplace servedas a skeleton stove. It was set over coals raked from the fire orhooked on the crane above the fire, the bent-down bars in the frontof the trivet giving that impression. The National Museum has atrivet given by Lucy H. Baird. It is of Pennsylvania origin andcame down in the family of Prof. Spencer F. Baird, second Secre-tary of the Smithsonian, whether on the Baird or Biddle side is notknown. It is a sturdy trivet with spade feet, a rack for a pan, anda finely perforated brass grid with turned applewood handle pol-ished like amber at the top. (PI. 90, fig. 1 ; Cat. No. 284327, Penn-sylvania, Lucy H. Baird; 13 inches (33 cm.) high.) A folding trivetof uncertain origin has a beautifully pierced iron rim having foursmall bosses punched up to accommodate the bottom of the vessel.The handle folds down on itself and has a latch to brace it. Thebottom of the pivoted handle forms one of the three feet and the tophas a hook for hanging a spoon or fork, and a yoke across for restingthe handle of a pipkin or such vessel. This folding device w^as prob-ably for use in the field and may be in a way the ancestor of the
102 BULLETIN 141, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMmodern field kitchen. (PL 90, fig. 4; Cat. No. 1G8326, probablyEuropean; S. B. Dean; 9 inches (23 cm.) high, 10.2 inches (26 cm.)long.) A third trivet is apparently very old and is supplied witha hot iron heating or warming cup placed at the junction of theprongs of the pan rack. The iron is missing. This trivet could beused away from the fire for the purpose of keeping a pan warm, orplaced on the fire in the customary way. (PI. 90, fig. 3; Cat. No.169095, Flemish; S. B. Dean; 6.7 inches (17 cm.) high, 16.1 inches(41 cm. ) long. ) A north African trivet from Tetuan , Morocco, showsthis utensil in a simple form. It is of iron, triangular in shape, andhas three stubs projecting on the inner side of the rim for resting thepot. This trivet is evidently for the open temporary fire of the Arabcamps. (PI. 90, fig. 2; Tetuan, Morocco; Dr. Talcott Williams;9.8 inches (25 cm.) diameter, 5.5 inches (14 cm.) high.)POTHOOKS, POT HANGERSThe humble pothook served an ordinary but useful purpose inthe great fireplace. Frequently the blacksmith spent time and carein making a pothook that was not only strong, but expressed hisidea of art. (PI. 91, figs. 3, 4, 6; Cat. No. 329468, West Virginia(Virginia), Walter Hough.) It was necessary to adjust the heightof kettles above the fire and chains were used in connection withpothooks. (PI. 91, figs. 2, 5 ; Cat. No. 329468, West Virginia (Vir-ginia), Walter Hough.) Other inventions were utilized, such as thehole and peg pothook, an ingenious device apparently of the eigh-teenth century. (PI. 91, fig. 1 ; Cat. No. 329468, West Virginia (Vir-ginia), Walter Hough.) European usage developed a rack andstirrup device by which the adjustment could be made easily. Ex-amples of these were brought to the New World in the course oftrade and immigration. A specimen from Belgium has a broadsaw blade. (PL 91, fig. 2; Cat. No. 168323, Belgium; S. B. Dean;40 inches (105 cm.) long.) A pothook from Finland is slender androughly beaten out of soft iron. The crane hook is large and simplyformed. (PL 91, fig. 1; Cat. No. 167870, Finland; J. M. Crawford;23.2 inches (5.9 cm.) long.) CUETBWThere have survived from an earlier usaiy- examples of fire coverswhich were an improvement on the old-time method of keeping fireover night in the ashes. These are low cones of brass punched andperforated with ornamental designs and a curved handle. It is ingeneral like a candle extinguisher. The function of this curfew,as it is called, is to cover a heap of coals raked up from the hearthfire and preserve them under smothered or slightly aerated condi-tion through the night. The curfew as a social institution and the
HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 103curfew as a material fire cover are thus brought together. (PI.92, fig. 5; Cat. No. 289435, Holland; Anton HeitmuUer; 9.8 inches(25 cm.) diameter, 4.7 inches (12 cm.) high.)LAUNDRY IKONS 'At one time, as mentioned, the use of a heating iron was quiteprevalent, as in the hot-water urns (p. 93) and even in a trivet(p. 102) . It is found in the laundry irons of the colonial period whenheating an iron and keeping it clean on the open fire was practicallyimpossible. Several of these quaint old irons are in the NationalMuseum. In one of these the heating iron is Avedge shape with ahole in the base for drawing it out of the fire. This iron was slidinto the hollow body of the laundry iron and closed in by a sliding;door. (PI. 93, fig. 1; Cat. No. 206401, Pennsylvania; Barton A,Bean; 4.7 inches (12 cm.) long, 4.9 inches (12.5 cm.) high, 3.2 inches(8 cm.) wide.) A heavier iron, the shell and bottom joined on,appears also to be a product of the Pennsylvania iron workers,probably from the Bethlehem Valley. It is wrought except the heat-ing iron. The latter, when placed in the iron, rests on an S-shapepiece riveted to the bottom. The back of the iron is closed by apivoted door with knob. (PL 93, fig. 2; Cat. No. 298361, Penn-sylvania; Dr. P. B. Johnson; 7.9 inches (20 cm.) long, 5.5 inches(14 cm.) high.) A third iron of cast brass is of unknown locality.It is cast in one piece and the handle is riveted on and held inposition by a screw. The handle also is of turned brass with awooden grip projecting forward in the direction the iron would bepushed. The heating iron, which is missing, ran on two ridges castin the bottom of the hollow of the iron. The door was pivoted andmoved in a slot. (PI. 93, fig. 3; Cat. No. 298362, probably English;Dr. P. B. Johnson; 7.9 inches (20 cm.) long, 7.1 inches (18 cm.)high.) IBON BESTSWith the use of the fiatiron rests became necessary. They comealmost invariably cast either of iron or brass and were always artis-tically treated. The range of folk art displayed in iron rests wouldcorrespond to that of the glass bottles so assiduously collected by thepresent generation. Often the rests were commemorative of somecelebrity or had a political or humorous slant. A yellow brass trivetiron rest from England is perforated with crown and plumes de-sign and is of excellent workmanship. (PI. 92, fig. 1; Cat. No.168329, S. B. Dean; 8.5 inches (21.5 cm.) long.) Another specimen,of bronze, has an elaborate rococo design. (PI. 92, fig. 2; Cat. No.289463, England; Anton HeitmuUer; 9.5 inches (24 cm.) long.)A cast-bronze specimen commemorates Jenny Lind posing as goddessof music. (PI. 92, fig. 3; Cat. No. 289462, United States; AntonHeitmuUer; 10.2 inches (26 cm.) long.)54261?28 8
104 BULLETIN 141^ UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMBBANDINa IRONThe branding iron reflects a phase of animal industry and a con-dition of settlement of a country in which grazing territory notunder fence is the rule. The type of branding iron shown has beenobsolete for many years, having been superseded by the straight ironwith which the brand is drawn free hand. (PI. 92, fig. 4; Cat, No.127275, Virginia, said to be colonial; Capt. J. J. Dillard; 13.8 inches(35 cm.) long.) ABORianrAI. COOKING DBTICESThe Virginia Indians at the time of John Smith dried, semicooked,and smoked fish, etc., for the winter provender on a woodengrid. Fish for immediate consumption were roasted on rod spitsthrust in the ground around the fire (see PI. 84), as shown from amodel constructed from John White's drawing. Another methodwhich primitive life employed consisted of suspending the paunch ofan animal, in previous times that of a buffalo, and boiling meat bymeans of heated stones placed therein. The sticks of the tripod werelashed together with rawhide near the top, spread, and the paunchhung in the triangle like a Gypsy oven. (PI. 94, Cat. No. 281261,Teton Sioux, Dakota; Miss Frances Densmore; 62 inches (1 cm.,61.2 cm.) high.) Stone boiling was extensive among the Indians,and the method was practiced also in other parts of the world.Stones definitely so used are rarely collected. (PI. 95, fig. 3; Cat.No. 178092, Maya Indians, Mexico; Edward Palmer.) Stonesworked for use as baking dishes are found in California amongrecent tribes and in ancient sites. It is possible that stone slabsmay have been more widely used and not being worked are unrecog-nized. The term baking is employed in reference to these stones,and it must be understood that it implies a procedure nearer tofrying. (PI. 95, fig. 1; Cat. No. 77161, Hupa Indians, California;Lieut. P. H. Kay, U. S. A.; 6.5 inches (16.5 cm.) long, 3.5 inches(9 cm.) wide; fig. 2, Cat. No. 30343, Santa Inez Island, Calif.; S.Bowers; 5.1 inches (13 cm.) long, 4.9 inches (12.5 cm.) wide.) Thesespecimens are worked from soapstone.GBIDDLBSGriddles of pottery and stone are widely distributed where sub-sistence on cereals prevails. It would appear that " flat bread " ismost ancient of the cereal breads. Stone griddles have come downto the present time, especially soapstone, which has the quality ofpreventing the sticking of the cakes, thus not requiring the applica-tion of grease. Dr. Talcott Williams procured from Tetuan, Mo-rocco, a circular stone griddle. The bottom is cut out below, form-ing three very low feet. (PI. 95, fig. 5; 11.8 inches (30 cm.)
HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 105diameter.) The Mexican tortilla griddle, coniial^ is of thin earthen-ware. It is made by forming the clay on a sand support, allowingit to dry, and baking. The pottery coinal is quite fragile. (PI. 95,fig. 4; Cat. No. 176438, Edward Palmer; 16.9 inches (43 cm.)diameter.) The Pueblo Indian griddle is an oblong slab of stonecarefully selected, worked, and prepared for use. It is mountedat the ends on a low stone wall and the fire built underneath. Thebatter is smeared deftly on the griddle with the hand, and theresulting bread is papery. (PI. 96, from family group in NationalMuseum.) Iron griddles of a simple character, consisting of arectangular plate of thick sheet iron with a loop handle rivetedon at one end, have taken the place of pottery gridirons to someextent in Mexico. (PI. 95, figs. 7, 8; Cat. No. 75350, Matamoros,Mexico; U. S. Department of State; 12 inches (30.6 cm.) by 16inches (40.7 cm.).) OVENSOvens appear to have begun with pits in the ground heated bymeans of a wood fire, the food placed in, and the cavity coveredwith earth. Such ovens are widespread among uncivilized peoples.Covering an animal with clay and burying the bundle in the ashesis conceived of as a more primitive phase of the oven, but themethod is not generally used, is for animal food, and must beregarded as a makeshift. The oven has its development in thecooking of vegetable food, principally, and has its greatest useful-ness in performing this function. The pit oven is seen in the ovenfor baking clams and other shellfish. There are also pit ovens forroasting pig, found among the Pacific islanders. The barbecuetrench oven is allied to the pit oven. There is a relationship betweenthe oven for cooking and those for baking pottery and smeltingmetals. The earth oven, therefore, is presumed to have a veryancient history. Two classes of earth oven may be distinguished,those requiring a pit dug in the ground and those heaped up onthe ground. In the latter hot rocks performed the cooking, whilethe pit oven usually cooked by the absorbed heat of the groundsubjected to fire action. Some tribes poured water on the rocksjust before closing the oven, thus calling in the aid of steam.The Hopi Pueblo Indian field oven consists of a bottle-shape holeexcavated in the sandy loam of the fields located along the washes.A duct is cut from the bottom of the excavation to the surface forthe purpose of draft. A fire of field debris is built in the hole andmaintained for several hours till the earth is very hot. Roastingears are then piled in, the draft hole closed, the top hole covered,and a fire built on it. When opened there issues from the mouthof the oven a tall column of steam. Corn ears lying near the hot
106 BULLETIN 141^ UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
wall of the oven are in reality wasted, and the ears in the mass arethoroughly cooked by steam (pi. 97, fig. 3; model). The same ideais employed in cooking mush, which is put in a jar and set in thehot chamber and cooked by heat radiation from the walls (pi. 97,fig. 4; model; Hopi Indians, Arizona). A curious modification ofthis type of oven is found among the Zuni Indians. In the heatedpit are piled hot slabs of stone alternating with mush. The ovenis then covered over and a fire built on top (pi. 97, fig. 2; model inthe U. S. National Museum). The heap oven was generallyused among the Indians whose habitation was the tipi. In this typethe roots, corn ears, and whatever was to be cooked were put in aheap on an area which had been heated by a fire, covered with grassand earth, and a fire built over the heap (pi. 97, fig. 1 ; model in theU. S. National Museum). From these rude earth ovens thereemerges a definite built-up oven in connection with human habita-tions and among bread-consuming people. A familiar example ofthese is the dome-shape oven seen in ISIexico and in the south-western United States. It adjoins the house, is built on the ground,and is constructed of mud or stone plastered with mud. The Mexi-cans invariably use this oven. All the Pueblo Indians have this ovenexcept the Hopi. No archeological traces of this type are foundin the Pueblo region, and the inference is that it was introducedfrom Mexico and to that country from Spain. Such ovens are seenin the Near East, and it is probable that this type is coterminouswith the wheat and yeast using peoples. Mounted on legs or founda-tion, or otherwise installed, this type of " bake oven " was wide-spread in Europe, parts of Africa, and Asia from ancient times, andwas introduced into North America by emigrants from the OldWorld (pi. 97, fig. 5; model in National Museum).In the earlier times the oven was a thing apart from the gi'eatopen fireplace of general utility. Its function was for baking atintervals of an amount of bread sufficient for family needs over aperiod of time. For smaller bakings of fresh bread the reflectingoven was used. This consisted of a number of forms, but the prin-ciple was the reflection of heat rays from a sheet of tin inclined at90? onto bread or other food in a pan resting horizontally in frontof the reflector. Few of the rigid reflectors have survived. TheMuseum has a folding or camp reflector, Lehnen's patent, patentedSeptember 80, 1875, and made by Scoville and Johnson at Mar-quette, Mich. This is of copper tinned inside. It has two reflect-ing surfaces, one 90? heating the top and the other 45? the bottomof the pan placed between them on an iron grid which also holdsthe sides together. This apparatus is set up in front of a campfire. The older reflectors were stationed in front of a bright fire in
HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 107the old-fashioned fire place. (PI. 95, fig. 6-9; Cat. No. 26843; Sco-ville and Johnson; 13.4 inches (34 cm.) long, 8.7 inches (22 cm.)wide, 2 inches (5 cm.) high.)A very useful fireside utensil and widely known is the Dutchoven. The Dutch oven indicates the difficulty of cooking over theopen fire in the old fireplace, and it also represents the portable ovenwhich since the period of cast iron was used over the peripatetic
?camp fire as well as on the house fire. Of the variety of handledthree-leg pots which have an ancient ancestry the only one surviv-ing indispensably to this day is the Dutch oven. It is the onekitchen utensil which renders the miner, prospector, explorer, trav-eler in wild country, the camper, and others independent in thematter of cooking. It is awkward to pack and the legs, handle, andJid loop often damaged the outfit, but in that case it was a necessaryevil. The body of the Dutch oven is like a deep skillet, the latterhaving degenerated from some such vessel. It stands on 3 legs andhas a straight handle, for which later, in some cases, a bail wassubstituted. The lid is heavy, curved upward toward the border,
-and has a wrought-iron loop cast in the middle. In cooking withthe Dutch oven a little bed of coals is raked out of the fire in aj
?circular heap and the oven is set on and the lid put inplace. Morecoals are put on the lid. Between these two fires the cooking goeson, and after several removals of the lid for inspection, the bread or?uch is found nicely baked. The adjustment of the fire top andbottom is a nice matter. When the wind blows baking is difficult.(PI. 98, fig. 3; Cat. No. 130315, United States; Emma Protzman.)A smaller trivet pot from Alabama is also characteristic. It isprobable that there was a lid like that of the Dutch oven. (PI. 98,fig. 2; Cat. No. 216022, Alabama; Louis Drummond; 6.7 inches(17 cm.) diameter.) An old specimen in cast brass has the handleprojecting from the rim. (PI. 98, fig. 1; Cat. No. 276122, England;Frances Benjamin Johnston; 5.3 inches (13.5 cm.) diameter, 4.4inches (11 cm.) high.) Some of these pots were oval with lid as inthe Dutch oven and were large, for cooking a ham, a joint, or a fowl.A curious oven is found in Novogachic, southwestern Chihuahua,Mexico. It is a large jar somewhat flattened on side and borderedby a ridge. A fire is made in the jar and cakes or meat fried on theexterior. This resembles the Near East oven or may be classed asa variant of the baking slab and gridde. (PI. 98, fig. 4; Cat. No.115781 Tarahumare Indians; Edward Palmer; 8% inches (22 cm.)diameter, 12% inches (31 cm.) wide, I41/2 inches (37 cm.) long.)
The Museum collection contains many pottery vessels, ancient andmodern, for cooking by boiling. The presumption is that boiling
108 BULLETIN 141, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMbecame a standard method of cooking food after pottery began to bemade. The use of pottery vessels for cooking has been continuousand in the bronze and iron age metal cooking vessels were not fea?tured.^^ Regarded as one of the most primitive cooking vessels is aspecimen from the Andaman Islands. It is of pottery reasonablythick and strong and rough curried on the exterior. The shape fol-lows the half coconut. (PI. 80, fig. 1, Cat. No. 164570; AndamanIslands, from H. H. Giglioli, collected by E. H. Man; 7. 9 inches(20 cm.) diameter, 7.1 inches (18 cm.) high.) The pot is held in arattan frame for protection when not in use. Pueblo pottery cook-ing pots are also of coarse heat-resisting paste, allowing them to beput directly on the fire. The specimen shown is from Zuni, N. Mex.(PI. 80, fig. 3, Cat. No. 41119; J. W. Powell; 7.9 inches diameter,7.1 inches (20 cm., 18 cm.).) In this connection attention is calledto the Korean soapstone pot with lid, and the curious frying pan ofthe same material on Plate 80 (figs. 4 and 6). In the latter strips ofmeat are placed on the sloping edge and the juices collected in thecentral basin. Evidently this vessel is placed over a fire hole.STBAMINOSteaming food other than takes place in baking in ovens has anarrow distribution. It is connected with rice agriculture exceptas it occurs in modern cooking of cereals, etc. We find, therefore,aboriginal steamers in the Far East, the specimens in the Museumbeing from the Malays of the East Indies. (PL 98, fig. 6; Cat. No.247752, Siak River, eastern Sumatra; Dr. W. L. Abbott; 11 inches(28 cm.) diameter, 19.7 inches (50 cm.) high; and pi. 98, fig. 5; Cat.No. 216295, Sibabo Bay, Simalur Island; same collector; 12.2 inches(31 cm.) diameter, 11.8 inches (30 cm.) high.) These specimens areof bark formed into a cylinder and hooped with rattan. Agrating of small rods is placed near the bottom of the cylinder.On this is put the rice, and the steamer is set over a pot of boilingwater. The top of the steamer is tightly covered during the steam-ing. The Sumatra specimen is sheathed with palm leaf to retainthe heat. A third specimen in the National Museum is from theDyaks, Landak River, Borneo. The grating is radial of rattanFecured to a sleeve which slides in the bark cylinder. It has twoloop handles on the side. WAFFLE IBONSFor baking certain forms of bread in the period when the greatopen fire was practically the only place in the house where cookingwas done there was a device, really a form of oven, called waffleirons. These consisted of two circular disks of equal size in the
** Guide to the Antiquities of the Bronze Age. British Museum, 1904, p. 29.
HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 109
older specimens, mounted to fit up tight one against the other atthe end of long tongs. The waffle molds were cast in obverse ofwhat the succulent waffle when properly baked would be when releasedfrom the iron. Shorter handle waffle irons with square molds appearto indicate that at a later period, when the gi"eat fireplace was moreor less boxed in with oven, water tank, etc., the shorter tongs couldbe used. (PI. 92, fig. 1; Cat. No. 130312, Morgantown, W. Va.(Virginia) ; Walter Hough; 37.7 inches (98 cm.) long; fig. 2; Cat.No. 239098, Charmian, Franklin County, Pa.; Mrs. W. H. Comer;24.8 inches (63 cm.) long.) XEAKBTTLBThe teakettle was an indispensable adjunct to the old fireplace,where it hung by a pot hook from the crane or sometimes was setover the fire on a trivet. The old-time kettle was of beaten copper,made with the idea of endurance uppermost, but always a subject ofthe metal worker's conception of art. It is said that domestic ves-sels made by the craftsmen in metal were copied by the potters intheir ware, the resulting teapots, sugar bowls, etc., being familiar tocollectors of old ceramics. (PL 81&, fig. 3 ; Cat. No. 329472, Colonial,probably English manufacture; Victor J. Evans; 7.9 inches (20 cm.)long, 6.3 inches (16 cm.) wide, 7.5 inches (19 cm.) high.)
The materials used for burning to produce heat are of vegetal,animal, and mineral origin. In the first stages of the use of fuel,in which fires are in the open, wood is the common and usual sub-stance for burning. Depending on the environment, we get a greatvariety of fuels suitable for the open fire. The stage when fuelis burned in a fire having the minimum of confinement betweenwalls or other surrounding devices may be regarded as primitive.In this stage the fuel industry was undifferentiated; every groupgathered fuel for themselves. With the progress in housing andknowledge of installing fire in various devices suggesting stoves,proper fuel as to kinds, sizes, etc., became more important. Manyfuels suitable for the camp had to be discarded for employment inthe habitation. There appear here the rudiments of the manu-facture of fuel. This is seen in charcoal, which was a productknown to all as derived from the incomplete combustion of wood.The definite, intentional use of charcoal as fuel is the key to thestove. Its importance as a social factor has been unrecognized. Itmay even be called one of the world's greatest inventions. Uponcharcoal rested for a long period the world's advance in fire utiliza-tion for heating and other purposes, especially metallurgy. Metal-lurgy required a fuel freed from volatile constituents and capable of
110 BULLETIN 141, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMbearing the weight of the ore charge while burning. It is a purefuel also, imparting no deleterious properties to the metal. Thetreatment of coal to produce coke may be said to be an extension ofthe ancient charcoal burner's art.The collection includes a number of representative examples ofnative fuels principally from America, described below. Hay fuel,consisting of twists of coarse grass, were used for fuel in the treelessplains of the Dakotas. Hay thus compressed made a hot and excel-lent fuel. It is remarked that in deforested China similar grassbundles are used for fuel. (PI. 99, fig. 1; Cat. No. 74216; KingsburyCounty, S. Dak., Byron Andrews ; 18 inches (45.8 cm.) long.) Anotherimportant native fuel coincident with the range of the bison wascalled " Buffalo chips," the solid excrement of the Bison Americanus.This valuable fuel was used by Indians and others on the GreatWestern Plains. On the march this fuel was collected around camp.Indian women usually collected the material and formed it into roundflat masses which they stored at the village. (PL 99, fig. 7; Cat. No.102226, Bismarck, N. Dak., 1876; Dr. C. E. McChesney; 13.5 (34.3cm.) inches by 16 (40.7 cm.) inches diameter.) Tablet form massesmore appropriately termed chips were also collected. (PL 99, fig.6; Cat. No. 102225; Bismarck, N. Dak., 1876; Dr. C. C. McChesney.)Slabs of material of high fuel value formed from droppings of sheepand goats beaten down on the floor of corrals were used by HopiIndian pottery makers for firing their ware.Peat lightly compressed is shown in Plate 99, Figure 4. Otherforms of compressed peat formed into tubular briquettes are shownin Figures 3, 6. A block of heavily compressed peat is shown in^Figure 2. The specim.ens are from northern Europe and were ex-hibited at the Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia in 1876. (Cat.No. 325616, Europe; Centennial Exhibition.)Charcoal fuel classified as other than the crude product is rarelyobserved in any other country than Japan. There charcoal madefrom the twigs, branches, and stems of certain wood growth is se-lected for some artistic quality and used in the tea ceremony andother expressions of refinements. In Japan also globular briquettes-prepared of finely powdered charcoal and other substances are slowburning and useful for keeping fire over night.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 1
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Development of the LampFor description of plate see paoes 2 and 3
U, S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 3
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Torches and CandlesFor description of plate see page 4
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 4
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Basket Torches and Fishing TorchFor descriptjon of plate see pages 12 and 13
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM
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Chinese Candle Making, and Religious TapersFor description of plate see pages 16 tO 18
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Pricket Candlesticks and Rush HolderFor description of plate see page 20
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 14
Candlesticks of Stone, Wood, Pottery, and GlassFor description of plate see paqes 21 and 22
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 15
Glazed Rounded Candlestick and Time CandleFor description of plate see pages 22, and 40 \/
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 16
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 17
Silver Plate and Silver CandlesticksFor descrjption of plate see page 23
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Candle Dishes; Brass and Iron CandlesticksFor description of plate see pages 24 and 26
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM
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Hammered-iron Candlesticks; Candle Arms and BracketsFor description of plate see page 25
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 21
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 22
CandelabraFor description of plate see page 28
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 23
ChandeliersFor description of plate see paoe 29
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 24
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Rococo Brass Chandelier and Camphine ChandelierFor description of plate see page 30
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM
Turkish Float Lamp ChandelierFor description of plate see page 29
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 27
Varieties of Horn and Dark LanternsFor description of plate see pages 30 and 31
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN U1 PL. 28
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Paper and Cloth Collapsing LanternsFor description of plate see page 38?54261?28 11
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 34
Collapsing Lanterns vvith mica WindowsFor DEScRrPTioN of plate see paqe 39
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 35
Church CandlesticksFob description o? plate see paoe 39
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 36
Night Light Candles and HoldersFor description of plate see page 40
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 37
Snuffer Trays, Snuffers, and ExtinguishersFor description of plate see page 41
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 38
Spring Candlesticks and Other DevicesFor DESCRrPTioN of plate see page 43
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 39
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 40
Simple Lamps and Firefly LanternFor description of plate see pages 44, 45, and 46
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 41
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U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 43
Ancient Hanging Lamps and StandsFor description of plate see page 49
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 44
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Float Lamps and Wick Channel LampsFor description of plate see paoes 51 and 57
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 46
Float LampsFob description of plate see pages 51 and 62
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 47
Boxes of Float WicksFor descrjption of plate see pages 52 and 53
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 48
Simple Saucer LampsFor description of plate see paqe 63
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 49
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Hawaiian Stone LampsFor description of plate see page 54
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 51
VVicK Channel Lamps from Near East, Europe, etc.For description of plate see page 55
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 52
Wick Channel Lamps from Indian and North AfricaFor description of plate see page 56
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 53
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Wick Channel Lamps from India, Java, Europe, etc.For description of plate see page 57
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 54
WiCK Channel Lamps and CrusiesFor description of plate see page 59
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 55
Crusies of Various TypesFor description of plate see page
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 56
Spout Lamps from Europe and PhilippinesFor description of plate see pages 61 and 62
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 57
Spout Lamps fromIEurope and CeylonFor description of plate see page 63
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 58
Wick Tube Lamps from EuropeFor description of plate see page 63
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 59
Single and Double Wick Tube LampsFor descript(on of plate see pages 64 and 65
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 60
Two-wiCK Tube InstallationsFor description of plate see page 67
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 61
Glass Two-tube Lamps; Oil and Time-indicating LampFor description of plate see pages 66 and 67
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 62
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Camphine-burning DevicesFor description of plate see page 69
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 64
Lamps with Flat Wicks; Candle Lamps and Torch BurnerFor description of plate see page 70
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 65
Astral. Argand, and Sinumbra Lamps,', etc., and Gas LampFor description of plate see page 7254261?28?13
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 66
An Argand Mantel Set and Lamp Candlesticks, etc.For descriptjon of plate see page 73
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 67
Table Lamp, 1876. with Tubular WiFor descrjption of plate see page 75
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 68
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Hand and Foot WarmersFor description of plate see pace 81
u. s. nationalImuseum BULLETIN 141 PL. 72
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Stove with Draft and Cooking Pots; Simple RangeFor DESCRfPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGES 85 AND
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 77
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Stoves of the Inventive PeriodFor description of plate see page 90
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 80
Self-contained Heater DevicesFor description of plate see pages 92 and 93
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN Ul PL. 81
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Preserving Warmth and Cooling DevicesFor description of plate see page 9B
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PRIMITIVE TongsFor description of plate see page 98
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 86
Tongs of MetalFor description of plate see page 99
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 87
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN U1 PL.
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Gridirons. Toasters, and RoastersFor description of plate see page 100
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 90
TrivetsFor description of plaie see page 101
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 91
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BRANDING IRON. IRON RESTS, CURFEW, AND WAFFLE IRONSFor description of plate see paoes 102. 103. and 108
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U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 93
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Tripod Paunch Vessel for CookingFor description of plate see page 104
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 95
Cooking Stones, Griddles, and Collapsible OvenFor description of plate see pages 104. 105. and 107

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 97
Simple OvensFor description of plate see pages 105 and 106
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U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 98
Spiders, Dutch Oven, Pottery Oven, and SteamersFor description of plate see pages 107 AND 108
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 99
FuelFor description of plate see pages 109 and 110

INDEX
PageAino, shell lamp of 45Alcohol heater for shaving water 94use as fuel 91Aleurites triloba nut for torch 9American Electric Heating Co 92Andiron, fore piece of 84origin of 84Andrews, Ellphalet F 36Argand, inventor 71Astral lamp 72Auction by candle, England 41Auk, great use for fuel 6Baird, Lucy H 101Spencer F 75, 101Baking stones 104Bamboo torch, East Indies 6Basket torch, in whaling 12Bayberry wax. New England 17Bayton Malleable Iron Co 14Bed warming pan 83Beeswax, history of 16Bellows 95, 97ancient Egypt 97mechanical 97Tibetan 97Belote, T. T 72,100Benjamin, Mrs. Marcus 23Biggin, English 93Binnacle lamp 70Birch bark torch 7Blast by steam, India 98Blowing tube 96Boas, Dr. Franz 6Boiling 107, 108Bottles, hot-water 80Branding iron 104Brass work and silver work com-pared 22Brazier 78Breasted, Dr. James II 44Brewers' candlestick 19Bronze lantern, Japan 37Brown, J. Templeton 13Buffalo chips, use as fuel 110Camphine, period of 68preparation of 68torches 70Candelabra 28Candle arms 27dishes, metal 26end burners 43fish 6holders, improvised 19molds, use of 18Candlenut torch, Polynesia 8Candle tree, Mexican 5
PageCandles 14conditions of use 14making of 15probable date of 14Candlesticks, bayonet 19brass 24brewers 19cast-iron 26earthenware and stone_ 21hammered iron 25improved 42
" Martin Luther " 25pewter 23processional 20rococo 23roundel 24Sheffield 23spring 42Cane torch, Kentucky caves 6Carcel lamp 74Carriage lanterns, candle 33Carter, Howard 44Casanowicz, Dr. I. M 52Cash and Barron 33Central wick tube, important inven-tion 04Chandeliers 29camphine .- 30feather mosaic 30Charcoal, discussion of 109Japanese preparation of
?
110retarding effect on draft 85Church candlesticks 39Coffee urn 93Colonial Dames, Society of 23Cookers, water heaters 92Cooking devices, aboriginal 104genesis of 77Cornelius and Co 73Couch and Fray 71Crusie, Europe 58filler for 60origin of ^9stand for 60Curfew ?'0-Daedalus 9"^Dall, Dr. W. H 46Dammar gum torches 7Dark lanterns 34Davy, Sir Humphry 65Davy lamp, used by miners 65Densmore, Miss Frances 95De Rochfort 8Detective lanterns 33Diacon lamp ''^Dipped candles 18111
112 INDEXPageDogflsb, use for light 6Doulton and Watts 80Draft, rudimentary 85Drip catcher, use on lamp 58Dunklee, H. L 90Dutch oven 107Electric heating 92Fewlces, Dr. J. Walter 96Field oven, Hopi 105Finland, wooden candlesticli from 21Firebacks 89Fire blower, Spain 97fans 95fly, used for light 44pots, cast-iron 89use of 1Fishing torch holder, Finland 13Flambaau, construction 14Float lamps 51Foot warmers, Colonial American __ 82European 82Franklin, Benjamin 65Frary and Clark 91Frying pan, Korean 108Fuel 109, 110slow burning 80Gale, F. T 75Galley stoves 89, 90Gait & Bro ' 70Gas lamps 75Giglioli. Odowardo 87Gimbol lamp 71Glazed pottery and glass candle-sticks 22Gotscher 89Grate 87Griddles 104Gridirons, aboriginal 99George Washington's 100origin of 99revolving 100Grids 104Grillo, Amaro Domincos 88Hand and foot warmers 81Hanuka lamp 57Hay, use as fuel 110Heated irons and hot water vessels- 79Heaters, stone and iron 70Heating by steam 94devices, general discussion- 76Heat preservation, vessels for 95Heinz, Henry J 10, 20, 49Henry, Joseph 75Hibachi, Japanese 83Ilildesheim, Germany, candlestickfrom 20Hinge, unknown in bronze or earlyiron age 11Ilinks & Sons 71Hitchcock lamp, fan-draft 74Horn lantern, English 30Ilot-water appliances 80platters 94Houcliin ; 91Howard and Morse 33
PageHumboldt 44Hurricane glasses, for candle pro-tection 27Illumination, development of 2Iron rests 103Jefferson, Thomas 73JolyJuvenal 95Kangri, Kashmerian warming vessel- 81"King Alfreds" 40King, Robert, sr lOlKinnear, D 71Krieger, II. W 9Kyal, spout lamps 62Lamp stands, ancient 49Lamps, ancient 47persistence of form__ 50camphine 68chimney 70complex invention 44Eskimo, Asiatic origin 46extemporaneous 46gas 75individual 67inventive period 70lard oil 60multiple wick 56origin suggested 44primitive 43simple 45sinumbra 71ten tube 65time indicating 67whale oil 66wick tube 63Langley, S. P 67Lanterns, cloth and paper 30collapsible 38discussion of 30firefly 44folding 39
' Guy Fawkes " 31perforated .__ 31ship 35tubular 32Laundry irons 103Lawrence, William 71Lehnen 106Library of Congress, torches from 70Lighthouse lamps 75Light wood. Southern States 5Link 4Lobstock, Chinese candle 5Lord, J. G. and W 34Lucerna, Italian 61McLane, Charles 31Magruder collection 49Marsh-Darien expedition 90Mercer, Henry C 89Mica, used in lanterns 31Mill lamp, spout type 62Miller, Gerrit S 59Millner, I. B 6Miner's candlestick 19lamp 62
INDEX 113PageMinor o9Modoin lamp, problems of 72Myrtle wax, for candles 16Night lights 52candles and holders 40Norton, C. A. Q 6Oleostatic lamp 74Ovens 105Dutch 107jar type 107Mexican 106reflecting 106Palmer, T 42,43,72Patent Office. 12Peat, use as fuel 110Petrel lamp 5Petroleum, effect on illumination 70ideal lamp fuel 70Pierced lantern, European 36Pine-knot burner, United States pat-ent 12Pit oven 105Pocket stove, Japan 80Pomeroy's coiled taper 15Pot hangers 102hooks 102Powers, Mrs. B''rances Roome 89Price, J 12Pricket candlesticks 20Asiatic 20Primitive lamps 43Range, kitchen, Japan 86Resin torch. West Indies 8Rice steamer, Malay 108Roasters and toasters 100Rochester lamp 74Rockhill, W. W 7,97Rush candles, making of 17chandelier, English 29clip, England 12Samovar, stove in combination 92Saucer lamps 53Scaldino, Italian, for warming 81Sconces 29Scoville and Johnson * 106Shalcr, I. W 13Shells, in lamp origin 45Ship's lantern 35Signal lantern, first example 33Silver and plate candlesticks 22Simple stoves 84Sinumbra lamp, date of 73Slow-burning fuel devices 80Snuffers, snuffer trays, and extin-guishers 41Soh, Pom K 54Spain, tapers in 14Splint and candle combination inholder 11Splint holders. Iron Age derivation_ 10pincer form 11with rack 12Splint torch aggregates 10
PageSpout lamps 61Steaming 108Stejneger, Leonhard 53, 90Stone, Mrs. E. J 101Stoneridgo lantern 39Stoves, air box and grate 87alcohol 91ancient Etruscan 87development in fireplace 89, 90electric 92gas 91in combination 92inventive period 89lamp 90rudimentary draft 85Russian and Chinese 81simple 84, 85Tibetan 88Survivals, discussion of 4Tallow tree, China 15Taper holders 15Tapers, ceremonial 18coiled 4, 14Teakettle 109Teapot stove, China 93Temporary light, fish oil 6Tile stove, German 90Time candles 40indicating lamps 67Tongs and fire tools 98for carrying fire coal 99Torch and candle 3Torches, campaign 13engineers on railroads- 14for fishing, varieties 13holders 9development of 9Tortilla griddle, Mexico 105Tripp, J. A 36Trivets 100, 101Tylor, E. B 62Valve in bellows, invention of 98Vegetable wax industry in China 16Waffle irons 108Wallace, Sir Alfred Russell 7Warner, Joseph 23Washington, George 72, 100Water cooler, Calcutta 93Wax, vegetal and animal 15Weaver's candlestick 19Welsbach lamp 76Wetsel, Lewis 84White, John 104Wick channel, development of 55larape 54tongue, invention of 59torches, modern 12tube lamps 63Wicks, use of, fiat type 70Williams, C. A. and Co 13Talcott 22, 51, 104Wind glasses, candlestick 27Wooden candlesticks -_ 21
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