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SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTIONUNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMBulletin 170
LIFE HISTORIES OFNORTH AMERICAN BIRDS OF PREY(Part 2)
ORDERS FALCONIFORMES AND STRIGIFORMES
BYARTHUR CLEVELAND BENTTaunton, Massachusetts
IperV yORE
UNITED STATESGOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICEWASHINGTON : 1938
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ADVERTISEMENTThe scientific publications of the National Museum include twoseries, known, respectively, as Proceedings and Bulletin.The Proceedings series, begun in 1878, is intended primarily as amedium for the publication of original papers, based on the collec-tions of the National Museum, that set forth newly acquired factsin biology, anthropology, and geology, with descriptions of newforms and revisions of limited groups. Copies of each paper, inpamphlet form, are distributed as published to libraries and scien-tific organizations and to specialists and others interested in thedifferent subjects. The dates at which these separate papers arepublished are recorded in the table of contents of each of thevolumes.The series of Bulletins, the first of which was issued in 1875, con-tains separate publications comprising monographs of large zoologi-cal groups and other general systematic treatises (occasionally inseveral volumes), faunal works, reports of expeditions, catalogs oftype specimens, special collections, and other material of similarnature. The majority of the volumes are octavo in size, but a quartosize has been adopted in a few instances in which large plates wereregarded as indispensable. In the Bulletin series appear volumesunder the heading Contributions from the United States NationalHerbarium, in octavo form, published by the National Museum since1902, which contain papers relating to the botanical collections ofthe Museum.The present work forms No. 170 of the Bulletin series.Alexander Wetmore,Assistant Secretary, Smithsonian Institution.Washington, D. C, June 1, 1938.ii
CONTENTS
PageIntroduction vnOrder FalconiformesFamily Falconidae: Caracaras and falconsFalco rusticolus candicans: White gyrfalconHabitsDistribution 9Falco rusticolus obsoletus: Black gyrfalcon 10Habits 10Falco rusticolus uralensis: Asiatic gyrfalcon 15Habits 15Falco mexicanus: Prairie falcon 18Habits 18Distribution 40Falco peregrinus peregrinus: Peregrine falcon 42Falco peregrinus anatum: Duck hawk 43Habits 43Distribution 64Falco peregrinus pealei: Peale's falcon 07Habits 07Falco columbarius columbarius: Eastern pigeon hawk 70Habits 70Distribution 80Falco columbarius suckleyi: Black pigeon hawk 83Habits 83Falco columbarius richardsoni: Richardson's pigeon hawk 86Habits 86Falco columbarius bendirei: Western pigeon hawk 89Habits 89Falco aesalon aesalon: Merlin 90Habits 91Distribution 95Falco fusco-coerulescens septentrionalis: Aplomado falcon 96Habits 96Distribution 98Falco tinnunculus tinnunculus: Kestrel 99Habits 100Distribution 105Falco sparverius sparverius: Eastern sparrow hawk 106Habits 106Distribution 118Falco sparverius phalaena: Desert sparrow hawk 121Habits 121Falco sparverius peninsularis: San Lucas sparrow hawk 124Habits 124
IV BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMFamily Falconidae?Continued. PageFalco sparverius paulus: Little sparrow hawk 125Habits 125Polyborus cheriway auduboni: Audubon's caracara 127Habits 127Distribution 134Polyborus lutosus: Guadalupe caracara 136Habits 136Distribution 139Order Strigiformks 140Family Tytonidae: Barn owls 140Tyto alba pratincola: American barn owl 140Habits 140Distribution 151Family Strigidae: Typical owls 153Asio wilsonianus: Long-eared owl 153Habits 153Distribution 166Asio flammeus flammeus: Short-eared owl 169Habits 169Distribution 180Strix varia varia: Northern barred owl 182Habits . 182Distribution 196Strix varia alleni: Florida barred owl 197Habits 197Strix varia helveola: Texas barred owl 201Habits 201Strix occidentalis occidentalis: California spotted owl 202Habits 202Distribution 207Strix occidentalis caurina: Northern spotted owl 208Habits 208Strix occidentalis lucida: Mexican spotted owl 209Habits 209Scotiaptex nebulosa nebulosa: Great gray owl 213Habits 213Distribution 218Scotiaptex nebulosa barbata: Siberian gray owl 219Habits 219Cryptoglaux funerea richardsoni: Richardson's owl 220Habits 220Distribution 226Cryptoglaux funerea magna: Tengmalm's owl 228Habits 228Cryptoglaux acadica acadica: Saw-whet owl 228Habits 228Distribution 240Cryptoglaux acadica brooksi: Queen Charlotte owl 242Habits 242Otus asio naevius: Eastern screech owl 243Habits 243
CONTENTS VFamily Strigidae?Continued. PaeeOtus asio asio: Southern screech owl 259Habits 259Distribution 260Otus asio floridanus: Florida screech owl 263Habits 263Otus asio mccalli: Texas screech owl 265Habits 265Otus asio bendirei: California screech owl 266Habits 266Otus asio kennicotti: Kennicott's screech owl 267Habits 267Otus asio maxwelliae: Rocky Mountain screech owl 270Habits 270Otus asio cineraceus: Mexican screech owl 274Habits 274Otus asio aikeni: Aiken's screech owl 275Habits 275Otus asio macfarlanei: MacFarlane's screech owl 277Habits 277Otus asio hasbroucki: Hasbrouck's screech owl 278Habits 278Otus asio brewsteri: Brewster's screech owl 280Habits 280Otus asio quercinus: Pasadena screech owl 281Habits 281Otus asio gilmani: Saguaro screech owl 282Habits 282Otus asio xantusi: Xantus's screech owl 284Habits 284Otus trichopsis: Spotted screech owl 286Habits 286Distribution 291Otus flammeolus: Flammulated screech owl 291Habits 291Distribution 295Bubo virginianus virginianus: Great horned owl 295Habits 295Distribution 319Bubo virginianus pallescens: Western horned owl 322Habits 322Bubo virginianus subarcticus: Arctic horned owl 328Habits 32SBubo virginianus saturatus: Dusky horned owl 330Habits 330Bubo virginianus pacificus: Pacific horned owl 333Habits 333Bubo virginianus elachistus: Dwarf horned owl 341Habits 341Bubo virginianus heterocnemis: Labrador horned owl 342Habits... 342Bubo virginianus algistus: St. Michael horned owl 344Habits 344
VI BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMFamily Strigidae?Continued. PageBubo virginianus lagophonus: Northwestern horned owl 345Habits 345Bubo virginianus occidentalis: Montana horned owl 348Habits - 348Nyctea nyctea: Snowy owl 358Habits 358Distribution 371Surnia ulula pallasi: Siberian hawk owl 374Habits 374Surnia ulula caparoch: American hawk owl 375Habits 375Distribution 382Speotyto cunicularia hypugaea: Western burrowing owl 384Habits 384Distribution 394Speotyto cunicularia floridana: Florida burrowing owl 396Habits 396Glaucidium gnoma pinicola: Rocky Mountain pygmy owl 401Habits 4Q1Distribution 408Glaucidium gnoma californicum: California pygmy owl 410Habits 410Glaucidium gnoma swarthi: Vancouver pygmy owl 428Habits 428Glaucidium gnoma grinnelli: Coast pygmy owl 430Habits 430Glaucidium gnoma hoskinsi: Hoskins's pygmy owl 434Habits 434Glaucidium brasilianum ridgwayi: Ferruginous pygmy owl 435Habits 435Distribution 438Micropallas whitneyi whitneyi: Whitney's elf owl 438Habits _. 438Distribution 443Micropallas whitneyi idoneus: Texas elf owl 444Habits 444Micropallas whitneyi sanfordi: Sanford's elf owl 444Habits 444Literature cited 445Index 467
INTRODUCTIONThis is the eleventh in a series of bulletins of the United StatesNational Museum on the life histories of North American birds.Previous numbers have been issued as follows:107. Life Histories of North American Diving Birds, August 1, 1919.113. Life Histories of North American Gulls and Terns, August 27, 1921.121. Life Histories of North American Petrels and Pelicans and their Allies,October 19, 1922.126. Life Histories of North American Wild Fowl (part), May 25, 1923.130. Life Histories of North American Wild Fowl (part), June 27, 1925.135. Life Histories of North American Marsh Birds, March 11, 1927.142. Life Histories of North American Shore Birds (pt. 1), December 31, 1927.146. Life Histories of North American Shore Birds (pt. 2), March 24, 1929.162. Life Histories of North American Gallinaceous Birds, May 25, 1932.167. Life Histories of North American Birds of Prey (pt. 1), May 3, 1937.The same general plan has been followed, as explained in previousbulletins, and the same sources of information have been utilized.The nomenclature of the 1931 Check-List of the American Ornithol-ogists' Union has been followed, but it has seemed best to continuein the same order of arrangement of families and species as given inthe 1910 check-list.An attempt has been made to give as full a life history as possibleof the best-known subspecies of each species and to avoid duplicationby writing briefly of the others and giving only the characters of thesubspecies, its range, and any habits peculiar to it. In many casescertain habits, probably common to the species as a whole, have beenrecorded for only one subspecies; such habits are mentioned under thesubspecies on which the observations were made. The distributiongives the range of the species as a whole, with only rough outlines ofthe ranges of the subspecies, which in many eases cannot be accuratelydenned.The egg dates are the condensed results of a mass of records takenfrom the data in a large number of the best egg collections in thecountry, as well as from contributed field notes and from a few pub-lished sources. They indicate the dates on which eggs have beenactually found in various parts of the country, showing the earliestand latest dates and the limits between which half the dates fall, theheight of the season.The plumages are described in only enough detail to enable thereader to trace the sequence of molts and plumages from birth tomaturity and to recognize the birds in the different stages and atthe different seasons. No attempt has been made to describe fullythe adult plumages; this has been well done already in the manymanuals. The names of colors, when in quotation marks, are takenfrom Ridgway's Color Standards and Nomenclature (1912), and thevn
VIII BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMterms used to describe the shapes of eggs are taken from his Nomen-clature of Colors (1886). In the measurements of eggs the fourextremes are printed in boldface type.Many of those who contributed material for previous bulletins havecontinued to cooperate. Receipt of material from nearly 400 contrib-utors has been acknowledged previously. In addition to these, ourthanks are due to the following new contributors: R. P. Allen, E. R.and M. L. Arnold, D. B. Bull, A. W. Butler, C. H. D. Clarke,Crompton Crook, J. A. Hagar, S. D. Knox, K. H. Maslowski, TheedPearse, R. W. Quillin, H. H. Schroder, E. T. Stuart, Jr., M. G.Vaiden, F. C. Walcott, and Mrs. F. C. Willard. An attempt hasbeen made to record the names of all contributors, but omissions mayhave occurred ; if any contributor fails to find his name, either in thisor in some previous bulletin, the author will be glad to be advised.Dr. Charles W. Townsend and Dr. Winsor M. Tyler renderedvaluable assistance in reading and indexing, for this group, a largepart of the literature on North American birds, which saved theauthor many hours of tedious work. Dr. Townsend also contributedthe entire life histories of two species, and Dr. Tyler contributed one.The Rev. Francis C. R. Jourdain contributed the life histories of threeEuropean species, and Milton P. Skinner wrote those of nine NorthAmerican forms. Thanks are due also to the late Owen Durfee formany hours of careful work in copying and arranging a great mass ofdata on egg dates, and to F. Seymour Hersey for figuring egg measure-ments. Egg measurements were furnished, especially for this volume,by Griffing Bancroft, R. M. Barnes, C. E. Doe, J. R. Gillin, A. D.Henderson, T. E. McMuUen, S. B. Peyton, J. H. Riley, J. S. Rowley,W. B. Savary, G. H. Stuart, 3d, J. E. Thayer, Stanton Warburton,Jr., and Miss M. W. Wythe.Through the courtesy of the Bureau of Biological Survey, theservices of Frederick C. Lincoln were again obtained to compile thedistribution paragraphs. With the matchless reference files of theBiological Survey at his disposal, his many hours of careful andthorough work have produced results far more satisfactory than couldhave been attained by the author, who claims no credit and assumesno responsibility for this part of the work.The manuscript for this volume was completed in April 1937.Contributions received since then will be acknowledged later. Onlyinformation of great importance could be added. The reader isreminded again that this is a cooperative work; if he fails to find inthese volumes anything that he knows about the birds, he can blamehimself for not having sent the information to The Author.
LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN BIRDSOF PREY(Part 2)ORDERS FALCONIFORMES AND STRIGIFORMES
By Arthur Cleveland BentTaunton, Massachusetts
Order FALCONIFORMESFamily FALCONIDAE: Caracaras and FalconsFALCO RUSTICOLUS CANDICANS Gmelinwhite gyrfalconPlates 1-4HABITSThe gyrfalcons have always been a very puzzling group; theirnomenclature has been confusing, their relationships have never beenwell understood, and confusion as to the distribution of the differentforms has been even worse. Various views on all these points havebeen expressed by different writers, but none of them are conclusiveor wholly satisfactory. Until we have available a considerable seriesof breeding birds, both adults and their young, collected in variousparts of the breeding ranges, we shall never fully understand the rela-tionships of the various forms and their ranges. Most of the speci-mens in collections are late fall or winter birds, which may have wan-dered far from their native ranges. Even summer specimens are notnecessarily breeding birds, as immature birds and nonbreeding adultsare often widely scattered in summer. We need also a series of youngbirds in juvenal plumage, taken before, or soon after, the flight stageis reached, to help us recognize with certainty the immature plumagesof the different races.At one time the white gyrfalcons of northern Greenland were con-sidered as specifically distinct from the gray forms, but it now seemsto be generally conceded that all the forms are races of one species,1
2 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMFalco rusticolus. The British Ornithologists' Union List (1915) recog-nizes two species, Hierojalco gyrfalco and H. islandus, each with twosubspecies, only three of the four forms being listed as British. ButWitherby's Handbook (1924) includes the three British forms as sub-species under rusticolus. Peters's Check-List (1931) names five racesfrom different parts of the world, all as subspecies of rusticolus. Onlythree of these are included as North American in the latest AmericanOrnithologists' Union Check-List (1931). I examined the large seriesof specimens in the Museum of Comparative Zoology, on which Mr.Peters based his conclusions, and I believe his treatment of the groupis as nearly correct as our present knowledge permits.The distribution given in the A. O. U. Check-List (1931), which ispractically the same as that given by Peters (1931), is, I believe, sub-stantially correct, but I doubt if candicans breeds regularly anywhereon the North American Continent; the Asiatic form, uralensis, verylikely does extend its breeding range into extreme northern Alaskabut probably not onto the southern Bering Sea coast. Apparently allthe gyrfalcons that breed regularly on the North American mainlandare referable to obsoleius. The breeding records of the white gyrfal-cons in Labrador and Ungava, mentioned below, doubtless representcases of casual breeding far south of the normal breeding range.The white gyrfalcon {Falco rusticolus candicans) breeds in northernGreenland at least as far south as latitude 76? N. and perhaps fartheron the west coast; on the east coast it may breed farther south thanon the west coast, as the east coast is much colder. In southernGreenland, at least from Disco Island southward, the breeding birdsare darker, but just what their status is has not yet been definitelydetermined. Dr. Walter Koelz (1929), who went to Greenland on oneof the MacMillan expeditions, brought back a fine series of these fal-cons; these are deposited in the University of Michigan collection,which now contains 88 Greenland gyrfalcons. In this large series hefound specimens from various points in southern Greenland, from lati-tude 73? southward on the west coast, which compare favorably withthe Iceland bird (islandus), with the Scandinavian bird (rusticolus),and with the dark North American bird (obsoletus). These puzzlingvariations are probably due to interbreeding with birds from Labra-dor, or possibly from Iceland. Such strong-flying and wide-rangingbirds could easily fly from either of these places to Greenland andmight become established there. Ptarmigans regularly migrate be-tween Greenland and Labrador, and the short distance could easilybe covered by a gyrfalcon. It is conceivable that obsoletus, the darkLabrador race, might regularly migrate to southern Greenland and,by interbreeding with the light northern race, produce a variety ofintermediates.
WHITE GYRFALCON 3Dr. Frank M. Chapman's (1899) study of a collection of 33 gyr-falcons from Greenland shows much the same range of variationfrom the lightest to the darkest forms. He says: "Four examplesare dark enough to be referred to F. r. obsoletus, one of them beingfully as dark as the darkest of three specimens from Ungava, Labradorkindly loaned me by Mr. Ridgway, and warrant the addition of Falcorusticolus obsoletus to the Greenland fauna. These birds are con-nected with the lighter specimens in the series by finely graded stages."Nesting.?First-hand, reliable information on the nesting habits ofthe white gyrfalcon is very scanty. A. L. V. Manniche (1910) foundfive nests in northeastern Greenland, where candicans proved to bethe breeding form. He writes:I only succeeded in making relatively few observations regarding the breedingof the Gyrfalcon. Only one of the nests found was accessible viz. that on NordreOrienterings.May 19th 1907 I shot an old female at this nest; judging from her exteriorshe must have been sick, certainly from an inflammation of her oviduct. In herovary were found 5 rather developed eggs. She had very pale plumage andorange-yellow feet. In the nest was lying a fresh egg, which on one side had acrack caused by frost. Like the other eyries observed, this one was conspicuouslymarked by heaps of excrements and remnants from the meals of the birds suchas pellets, bones and other remains of animals. It was placed only 10 metersabove the level of the sea on the northern side of the rock, which rises precipitouslyand steeply from the Stormbugt.Judging from the enormous heaps of excrements the nest had certainly beeninhabited for many years. The bottom of the nest was formed only by theexcrements of the birds.A falcon flying out from this nest was observed July 14th in the same year,so the male must within a short time have found another mate.The next spring the female falcon was observed at the nest already April 20th.The breeding did, however, not commence before May 26th.I often passed the nest and thus had good opportunity to observe the breedingfalcon.She kept very close to the nest, and did not leave it, even if I approachedto the very side of the rock, only stretching out her neck to eye me anxiously.The male used to sit on the projections not far from the nest.June 22nd I arrived together with two of my companions in a dogsledge at theeyrie of the falcon, intending to secure the young ones now supposed to behatched.The 4 eggs were, however, not yet hatched, but I could plainly hear the hoarsecries of the young ones within. The shells were still unbroken with exception ofone, that had an insignificant crack. I kept the eggs warm by putting themunder my sbirt against my body.Having sledged for some hours we arrived at my station at Stormkap, and hereI continued my brooding of the eggs in my sleeping-bag.The first of the young ones emerged on June 23rd the next three 24 hours later.The time of incubation for this clutch of eggs was thus nearly 29 days.The female Falcon behaved very anxiously when I ascended the rock and shevery unwillingly left her nest. Several times she rushed swiftly and vigorouslytowards the disturber. The male, which proved very cautious, left the rock,when the female was shot.
4 BULLETIN 170, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
* * * June 8th 1908 I found another nest of Gyrfalcon on the steep northernside of the mountain Trekroner. This nest was placed at least 200 meters overthe level of the ground and was quite inaccessible.The enormously high heaps of excrements around the nest formed a largewhitish-yellow ledge and could be seen from a distance of 3 km. Around theeyrie a colony of Barnacles (Anser leucopsis) had their nesting places. I was sur-prised to see, that the Geese were sitting in couples on the projections close to theFalcons.When I?by means of a pair of rifle bullets?caused the breeding falcon tofly out of her nest, she and the male circled around the mountain in companywith the Geese for a long while. From a dizzy height the falcon at last swift asan arrow shot down to the nest and was soon followed by the Barnacles, whichagain confidently took their seat close by.This eyrie also looked as if it had been used from immemorial time.Falcons eyries were also recorded on the high rock Teufelkap and on a rock nearthe M0rkefjord; both of them were?like the two already mentioned nests?builton the northern side of the mountains. This was also the case with the 5thnest of a bird of prey, which was found, and which certainly also belonged to aGyrfalcon.This can hardly be considered accidental; perhaps the falcons choose to neston places, which in the coldest time of the day and night are warmed by the mid-night sun; it must be remembered, that the breeding-time is partly in May, inwhich month the temperature of the nights is usually some degrees under zero.Lucien M. Turner, in his unpublished notes, records the nestingof a pair of white gyrfalcons in northern Ungava, as follows:A pair was building their nest on the side of the bluff known as Hawk's Head,some two miles north of Fort Chimo. I undertook to ascend the bluff by meansof a rope drawing me up a distance of 168 feet, where I had nothing to cling tobut the rope and be whirled round and round dozens of times (as the nest was ona part which could not be reached from above) until, when I reached the spotwhere the nest was located, I was so dizzy that I was glad to find a resting place;and, when I attained the site, I put my foot directly on the half completed nest,composed of a few sticks and a great quantity of dry grass, forming a bulk about15 inches across the top and 3 inches high. The birds were whirling and screamingoff at a distance while a man was firing at them. The birds deserted the localityand were not seen again.Audubon's (1840) account of the finding of a nest of white gyrfalconsnear Bras d'Or on the southern coast of Labrador on August 6, 1833,seems worthy of credence. Both parent birds were shot at the nest,and his drawing, made on the spot, is unmistakable. As this is farsouth of the present known breeding range, it must have been a veryexceptional case. He describes the nest as follows:The nest of these hawks was placed on the rocks, about fifty feet from theirsummit, and more than a hundred from their base. Two other birds of the samespecies, and apparently in the same plumage, now left their eyry in the cliff, andflew off. The party having ascended by a circuitous and dangerous route, con-trived to obtain a view of the nest, which, however, was empty. It was composedof sticks, sea-weeds, and mosses, about two feet in diameter, and almost flat.About its edges were strewed the remains of their food, and beneath, on the marginof .the stream, lay a quantity of wings of the Uria Troile, Mormon arclicus, andTetrao Saliceti, together with large pellets composed of fur, bones, and varioussubstances.
WHITE GYRFALCON 5Eggs.?The white gyrfalcon lays ordinarily four or five eggs; theseare indistinguishable from those of the other races of the species, whichare described under obsoletus. The measurements of 90 eggs average58.7 by 45.7 millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremes measure64.4 by 50.8, 53.5 by 44.5, and 56.9 by 41.4 millimeters.Plumages.?I have never seen the downy young of this falcon anddoubt if there are any anywhere in American collections. This raceis easily recognized at any age, as it is always much whiter than anyof the other gyrfalcons. Dr. Koelz (1929) describes two nestlings,which were still in the nest but fully feathered, as follows:The under parts are entirely white with a creamy cast, except for a band ofnarrow streaking of brown on the feathers of the breast (the male specimen hasonly the sides of the breast streaked), and broader streaks of the same color onthe feathers of the sides. The under tail coverts and the tarsals are immaculate.The general tone is white above. The top and the sides of the head are faintlylined along the feather shafts with dark brown. The feathers of the back havea streak of brown along the shaft of the feathers, which broadens as it nears thetip to become rather pendant shaped. On the shortest scapulars the drop becomesbroader so that the feathers here may be described as brown with a broad borderof white. The upper tail coverts are streaked like the breast. The tail feathersare pure white. The wing coverts are marked about like the scapulars; the shortones with a central field of brown and the longest ones with broken v-shapedcrossbars. The wing feathers are white with dark shafts and a few broken bandsof dark brown, chiefly near the tips.The two nestlings, described above, came from Etah in northernGreenland. Of an adult candicans, also from northern Greenland, he
The adult has the entire under parts immaculate. The back is chiefly white.The crown, sides of head, and fore part of the back are unspotted except for a fewlines of black brown on the ear coverts and on a few feathers of the occiput. Theupper tail coverts, the rest of the back, and the wing coverts are barred with arrow-shaped blotches of black brown. The tail is virtually pure white. The plumagesof adult and juvenile are thus different. Young birds have the markings paler,probably more numerous, and they tend to run lengthwise of the feather, especiallyon the short feathers.Specimens from farther south in Greenland, both juvenals andadults, are darker, showing resemblances to corresponding plumagesof islandus, rusticolus, or even obsoletus. These are, of course, nottrue candicans and have probably been produced by interbreedingwith the dark birds from Labrador. Hagerup (1891) says that
"Holboll and Fencker repeatedly observed mated pairs, one of whichwas white (F. islandicus), and the other dark (F. rusticolus)" and that
"Holboll also found light and dark colored young in the same nest."The latter is just what might be expected, as a result of the former,under the well-known laws of heredity.The juvenal plumage is worn for a year or more and then graduallymolted between June and January. This new plumage is practically
6 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
adult. Mr. Turner says that subsequent plumage changes are muchlike "those of the snowy owl and extremely old birds become purewhite with the exception of the tips of the wings."Food.-?The two species of ptarmigans seem to furnish the principalfood supply of this gyrfalcon, especially in winter, when they areabout the only birds available in the far north. Mr. Turner saysthat at Fort Chimo it is called the "partridge hawk" by the English-speaking people, who apply the name of "partridge" to both ptarmi-gans and to the spruce grouse. Manniche (1910) says that it feedsmainly on lemmings in northeastern Greenland, as well as on variousbirds and occasionally on the Alpine hare. When springtime bringsthe hosts of summer birds to the Arctic shores, the falcons feast andfeed their young on the numerous sea birds, dovekies, puffins, murres,guillemots, and kittiwakes. They are even strong enough to killthe eiders and other ducks and geese. The smaller land birds andshorebirds arc less often taken, but golden and ringed plovers, phala-ropes, snipes, turnstones, dunlins, purple sandpipers, and snow bunt-ings have been recorded in their food.Manniche (1910) writes:The falcons appeared most numerously near the ship to which they wereallured by the pigeons of the expedition. From September 3rd to 17th 17 falconswere shot here. Often 4 to 5 individuals would appear at one time either circlingaround the mast-heads, on which they sometimes settled, or sitting around on thesurrounding hummocks of ice or blocks of stone, watching for pigeons.As soon as these were started in the air, they were most violently pursued byone or several falcons which, however, never succeeded in capturing a pigeon.I often saw a falcon and a pigeon manoeuvering for a long while extremely highup in the air until the pigeon finally?swift as an arrow?vertically shot down tothe ship and entered the pigeon-house, which was built on the deck, all the whilepursued by the falcon, which stretching its talons forward and uttering angrycries would only give up the chase just before the entrance-hole of the pigeon-house. During this autumn 40 falcons were shot?all of them young birds, andat least 5 times as many were seen.During its winter wanderings this falcon preys on the native grouse,and sometimes attacks domestic poultry. Elsie Cassells (1922) re-ports that "a fine specimen of the White Gyrfalcon was shot by Mr.Waghorn on his farm at Blackfalds, Alberta, in the act of attackingone of his turkeys in December, 1920." M. J. Magee (1932) refersto two cases of its eating prairie chickens; in one case "the bird hadinside it 140 grams of Prairie Chicken, meat, bones and feathers."Behavior.?There seems to be no great admiration among observersfor the swiftness and skill of the gyrfalcon in capturing its prey inflight. The foregoing statement by Manniche (1910) would seemto indicate that the pigeons were more than a match for it. Hagerup(1891) had a similar experience; he flew his pigeons regularly to attractgyrfalcons but never lost a pigeon. Manniche (1910) also says thata gyrfalcon cannot catch a phalarope on the wing. Kumlien (1879)
WHITE GYRFALCON 7
says: "I often had an opportunity of witnessing this hawk preyingupon jaegers, kittiwakes, &c, but was surprised that they are notpossessed of swifter flight. A duck hawk would have made a shortjob of catching a kittiwake that one of these hawks followed till hefairly tired the bird out. Their success seems to depend more upona stubborn perseverance than alacrity of flight."Audubon (1840) writes:Their (light resembled that of the Peregrine Falcon, but was more elevated,majestic, and rapid. They rarely sailed when travelling to and fro, but used aconstant beat of their wings. When over the Puffins, and high in the air, theywould hover almost. motionless, as if watching the proper moment to close theirpinions, and when that arrived, they would descend almost perpendicularly ontheir unsuspecting victims.Their cries also resembled those of the Peregrine Falcon, being loud, shrill,and piercing. Now and then they would alight on some of the high stakes placedon the shore as beacons to the fishermen who visit the coast, and stand for a fewminutes, not erect like most other Hawks, but in the position of a Lestris or Tern,after which they would resume their avocations, and pounce upon a Puffin, whichthey generally did while the poor bird was standing on the ground at the veryentrance of its burrow, apparently quite unaware of the approach of its powerfulenemy. The Puffin appeared to form no impediment to the flight of the Hawk,which merely shook itself after rising in the air, as if to arrange its plumage, asthe Fish Hawk does when it has emerged from the water with a fish in its talons.Turner says, in his notes: "The manner of flight is by rapid beats ofthe wings followed by a short sail. They dart with astoundingswiftness among a flock of ptarmigans and seize them while the preyis flying or on the run. The hawk carries the bird to a convenientspot to be devoured; or oftentimes consumes it where it was taken.This depends on the particular location, which, if commanding a goodview, the falcon will not carry the food, but, if it is in a low spot, theptarmigan is usually carried to higher ground. I have never seen thishawk alight in trees, always on the earth."Dr. W. Elmer Ekblaw thus describes, in his notes, an attack on aglaucous gull by a pair of white gyrfalcons, probably in an attempt todrive the gull away from the vicinity of then nest:The big gull seemed much harassed. While I watched he appeared to becomefatigued and more vulnerable to the attack. At first he evaded every stoop thefalcons made, either by rising to meet them or by suddenly dodging. He wouldfly fast and strong in a straight line and then suddenly, as the hawks caught upwith him and gained the advantage by being above him, he would double abruptlyon his course while the falcons, apparently not able to alter the direction of theirflight so quickly as he, would lose both distance and advantage by sailing on byhim. Whenever the hawks pounced down upon him, he would rise quickly andobliquely to meet them, but at the last of the fight, as I saw it, he failed to meetthem promptly as at first and they often succeeded in striking him about the head.Always as they did so, he screamed angrily and worriedly. The method of theattack of the falcons was to rise above him and dash or stoop down upon him frombehind, first one striking him and then the other, and then rising above him again.Immediately after each strike they would give a piercing whistle.
8 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMEnemies.?Manniche (1910) relates the following two incidents inwhich the gyrfalcons were attacked by other birds:A falcon was in the most violent manner attacked by two Ravens. Thequarrelling birds flew for a while around high up in the air uttering angry cries,after which the Ravens descended and took place side by side on a rock evidentlylurking after Lemmings, the holes of which were numerous around the place. Thefalcon also settled with the same intention on another rock some 50 meters fromthe Ravens. At my approach the birds rose again in the air and immediatelycontinued their battle. The Ravens seemed much superior to the falcon, whichtherefore showed an inclination to fly away to avoid their rough treatment.The battle at last took place just over my head, and I shot one Raven in orderto make the fight more even.Frightened by the shot the two other birds flew away in different directions, butthey soon met again, and took up the battle nearer to the coast. Here the falcongot relief from two birds of its own kin, and now the Raven was obliged to departhastily, while the three falcons settled on the summit of a rock.Not rarely I observed falcons pursued by Skuas (Lestris longicauda) . At theend of August the young Skuas will frequently be sitting around on stones, stillcared for by their parents, which with extreme violence will guard their offspringagainst attacks from falcons. The Skuas exceed by far the Gyrfalcons in abilityof flight, and the falcons therefore always wish to escape the pursuit and retire tothe rocks. Most frequently 3 or 4 Skuas would join in an attack; the battle wouldusually be fought out immensely high up in the air.Field marks.?This bird can be recognized as a falcon by its longpointed wings and its manner of flight, rapid wing beats with occasionalshort sailings, or a stationary, hovering flight. But only by its greatersize can it be known as a gyrfalcon. If it has a wholly white breastand is mainly white above, it is an adult white gyrfalcon; even youngbirds of this race are nearly white below and largely white above.All other gyrfalcons are considerably mottled or streaked on the underparts and dark colored above. Gyrfalcons are not likely to be seenwithin the United States except in winter.Winter.?Some of the gyrfalcons remain far north throughout thewinter, wherever they can find a sufficient food supply. But, as theptarmigans migrate southward, many of the falcons have to followthem. White gyrfalcons are much commoner in winter than in sum-mer in southern Greenland. Bernhard Hantzsch (1929), writing ofnortheastern Labrador, says:It most probably does not breed until northward of our district, but reaches itoccasionally as a visitor and migrant. The birds, especially in autumn, regularlyfollow the flights of the ptarmigan which make their favorite food. However,they feed upon everything else possible, apparently not only on living creatures.The inhabitants not seldom find them during the winter in the baited fox-traps,by which the birds become annoying to them. These more or less light wintervisitors and migrants are far more frequent than the dark breeding birds; indeed,in many years of abundant snow they are said to occur in rather large numbers.Mr. Turner says that this "bird is far more numerous from Septem-ber to April than at other times" in Ungava. At this season it
WHITE GYRFALCON 9
wanders far from its summer haunts in search of food, though onlyrarely to the southern Provinces of Canada and to the northernStates. DISTRIBUTIONRange.?The species is circumpolar in its distribution and confinedalmost entirely to the Arctic and sub-Arctic regions, wandering irregu-larly south to the Northern United States, the British Isles, centralEurope, and Kamchatka.Breeding range.?In North America the gyrfalcon breeds north tonorthern Alaska (Tuksuk River, Kotzebue Sound, Fort Yukon, PointBarrow, and the Porcupine River "above Fort Yukon"); GrinnellLand (Cape Hayes); and Greenland (Godhavn). East to Greenland(Godhavn, Holsteinborg, Frederikshaab, and Ivigtut). South tosouthern Greenland (Ivigtut); Labrador (Cape Chidley and PortPurnell); Ungava (Chimo); southern Franklin (Iglulik and FelixHarbor); northern Mackenzie (Fort Anderson); and Alaska (CraterMountain). West to Alaska (Crater Mountain and Tuksuk River).The species also is reported to breed on the east coast of Greenland;for exact details see Manniche (1910).Winter range.?The precise limits of the winter range are difficultto define, as the gyrfalcon is resident in many high latitudes as inAlaska (Nulato), Ungava (Chimo), and Greenland. Its southwardmovements are always irregular, but based upon frequency of occur-rence the winter range may be stated as south to Massachusetts(Ipswich, Northampton, and Melrose); Rhode Island (Providence,Tiverton, and Newport) ; Connecticut (Durham) ; New York (FishersIsland, Quogue, Oceanside, Flushing, Chester, Canandaigua, andMonroe County); Pennsylvania (Kittatinny Ridge and Manheim);southern Ontario (Ottawa); Wisconsin (Beaver Dam); Minnesota(Minneapolis and Madison); Montana (Shonkin and Fortine); andsouthern British Columbia (Saanich, mouth of the Fraser River,and Comox).As above sketched the territory includes all races of the gyrfalconthat are found in North America, but, as has been previously indi-cated, the respective ranges are not clearly understood. Generallyspeaking, the typical North American race is the black gyrfalcon(Falco r. obsoletus), which is found from northern Alaska to Labrador,wandering southward to New England, Pennsylvania, the Dakotas,British Columbia, and, casually, even farther. The white gyrfalcon(F. r. candicans) is resident in Greenland and possibly also in extremenortheastern Canada. It too is known occasionally to wander southto the Northern United States. The Asiatic gyrfalcon (F. r. uralensis)is found in northern Siberia east to Kamchatka and the islands in13751?38 2
10 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMBering Sea. It has been recorded as breeding on the coast of Alaska(Deering, Kotzebue Sound, and Muller Bay).Migration.?Very little information is available concerning themovements of the gyrfalcons. In the fall of 1905 there appears tohave been a rather extensive southern movement in both Europe andNorth America. It has been recorded that during the fall of 1908they were abundant at Winter Harbor, Franklin, and that the lastone seen was on September 8. The Kittatinny Ridge in Pennsyl-vania is apparently a good observation post for this species, severalhaving been noted there in the fall of 1934, from October 11 to Novem-ber 2.Nothing is known of the return trip to the north.Casual records.?There are several widely scattered records ofoccurrence south of the winter range above outlined. Among theseare: Ohio, a specimen from Washington Court House on January 30,1907; North Dakota, one collected at Grafton, on October 7, 1908;South Dakota, one on October 21, 1880, near Vermillion; Kansas, oneat Manhattan on December 1, 1880; Wyoming, one noted at FortMcKinney during the winter of 1883-84; and Washington, a specimencollected near Spokane, in December 1896.Egg dates.?Greenland: 5 records, May 6 to June 13.Arctic America: G records, May 9 to June 12.Labrador: 3 records, May 22 to 28.FALCO UUSTICOLUS OBSOLETUS Gmelinblack gyrfalconPlates 1-4HABITSThis, the darkest of all the gyrfalcons, was formerly supposed to beconfined to Labrador in the breeding season; but now it is generallyconceded to be the dominant American form, breeding all across thenorthern part of the continent from Labrador to northern Alaska.Lucien M. Turner says in his unpublished notes on the birds of Ungava:This species may be considered common, as it is the most abundant hawk in theregion. During the excessively cold periods of winter but few are to be seen.About the middle of March they are more numerous, and they become plentiful bythe last of April. They evidently retire to the southern portion of the region forthe winter. As soon as the warm days of April arrive these birds seek theirmates and, from the evidence presented under the remarks on the eggs procured,it would seem that their courtship is of short duration. These hawks have nospecial preference for any particular portion of the country, whether it be barrenor wooded.Dr. E. W. Nelson (1887) says of its status in northern Alaska,though some of his notes may refer to uralensis:
BLACK GYRFALCON HThroughout all Alaska, from the Aleutian Islands, north, both along the coastand through the interior, extending from Bering Straits across the northern portionof British America, the present falcon is the commonest resident bird of prey.It was observed by Murdoch at Point Barrow, though it was not common. Itfrequents the vicinity of cliffs and rocky points about the sea coast, or the rockyravines of the interior, during the breeding season, and the remainder of the year,especially in fall, it is found wandering over the country everywhere that food canbe obtained; it is especially numerous during the migration of the Ptarmigan alongthe sea-coast.Nesting.?Mr. Turner's notes contain the following account of a nesthe examined near Fort Chimo, Ungava, on May 22, 1883:The "Chapel" is an immense rock some 300 feet above the surrounding rocks,and gradually slopes upward to the north end, which is almost precipitous andabsolutely inaccessible. The eastern side is more abrupt, being in places over 200feet almost perpendicular. Here are several ledges on which these hawks havebuilt their nests for many years. On April 7, 1883, 1 observed beneath the nest sitefirst selected a number of sticks and other refuse lying on the snow below, as if thesituation had been subjected to a rearrangement or cleansing process; such materialas appeared unnecessary was rejected and cast over the side of the ledge. The siteof this nest was a narrow ledge of rock, which projected from the main wall andembraced an area of not over three superficial feet. Here was an accumulation ofspruce and larch twigs and branches of various sizes imbedded in what appearedto be the accumulated debris of many generations. Among this a few grass seedshad found enough soil to enable them to send forth a rank growth which was nowappearing. The mass or accumulation was about 10 inches deep and coverednearly the entire surface of the ledge, heaped up immediately under the new nest,forming an irregularly truncated cone of matter on which the nest was placed. Infront of it huge icicles stood and joined with the slightly projecting roof above theledge. Some of these ice columns were 2 or 3 inches thick and 4 inches wide.They formed an icy palisade around the edge of the nest and permitted approachto the interior only by a narrow space, or doorway, next to the main wall of rock.I was compelled to detach the ice before I could reach the four eggs which I sawwithin the nest. The nest was composed of a few twigs and branches of larchand spruce, irregularly disposed on only the outer side of the rim of the nest toprevent the eggs from rolling out, forming only a semicircular protection, while therear portion was a part of the bare rock of the ledge. Below the twigs were theremains of former nests. Some of the sticks were so rotten that they would notsupport their weight when held by one end. The eggs were placed nearly touchingeach other.Major Bendire (1892) writes:Mr. R. MacFarlane, chief factor of the Hudson Bay Company, states that thisFalcon is common in the wooded country on both sides of the Anderson River, andfrom the fact that over twenty nests were secured by him this must certainly bethe case. All of these nests, with but two exceptions, were placed close to or nearthe tops of the tallest trees in the neighborhood, generally in pines. One nest wasbuilt on a ledge of rocks and the other against the side of a deep ravine. The nestswere composed of sticks and small branches and lined with mosses, hay, deer hair,feathers, etc. They were similar in composition but smaller in size than those ofthe Bald Eagle, and while the number of eggs was either three or four, their con-tents were frequently found in different stages of development.Both parents manifested much anger and excitement when interfered with, oreven distantly approached. They made a great noise, and indeed more than
12 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
once their folly in coming so near and screaming so loudly over our heads attractedattention to some that would otherwise have escaped notice. The earliest dateof finding a nest was May 10, 1863, at Anderson River Fort. The eggs, three innumber, were quite fresh. In another, taken five days later, the eggs containedpartially formed embryos. In a few cases young birds were found in the samenest with eggs, the contents of which were but little changed, and in another nesta perfectly fresh egg was found with several ready to hatch. In nearly every casethe eggs seemed to be in different stages of development, and incubation seems tobegin as soon as the first egg is laid.Eggs.?I cannot do better than to quote Bendire's (1892) descrip-tion of the eggs, which will apply equally well to all the gyrfalcons, asfollows:The eggs are three or four in number. The ground color, when distinctlyvisible, which is not often the case, is creamy white. This is usually hidden by apale cinnamon rufous suffusion. In an occasional specimen it seems to be pinkishvinaceous. The eggs are closely spotted and blotched with small, irregular mark-ings of dark reddish brown, brick-red, ochraceous rufous, and tawny. Thesemarkings?usually pretty evenly distributed over the entire egg?are generallysmall in size, and more or less confluent. Some specimens show scarcely any traceof markings, the egg being of nearly uniform color throughout. * * * In thegeneral pattern of markings the eggs of the Gyrfalcon approach those of thePrairie Falcon (Falco mexicanus) much closer than those of the Duck Hawk (Falcoperegrinus anatum), which as a rule are much darker. In shape they vary fromovate to rounded ovate. The shells of these eggs feel rough to the touch, are ir-regularly granulated, and without luster.The measurements of 55 eggs average 59.4 by 45.3 millimeters; theeggs showing the four extremes measure 63 by 46.5, 61 by 48, 56 by46.2, and 61 by 42 millimeters.Young.?Mr. Turner says in his notes: "The young birds are ableto leave the nest by the middle of August, and in September of someyears they are quite abundant, flying over the houses at Fort Chimowith but little fear. They generally evince but little disposition toshow fierceness, and on only two occasions did they display more thanordinary courage. They will not seize with the beak when wounded,but will grasp firmly with the claws. They immediately lie on theirbacks when wounded."Plumages.-?So far as I know, there are no specimens of the smalldowny young of this gyrfalcon in any American collection. Witherby'sHandbook (1924) describes a very young specimen of rusticolus asfollows: "Down white with a slight creamy tinge, rather short, cover-ing bird well on upper parts, but thinly on sides of belly and bare patchat base of sides of neck."A small nestling of the Iceland bird, in the Museum of Compara-tive Zoology, is about half grown but still largely downy; the "clovebrown" juvenal plumage is growing on the crown, scapulars, wings,tail, and sides of the breast; otherwise it is thickly covered with long,soft, woolly down, white to buffy white in color.
BLACK GYRFALCON 13
I have not seen any young of the black gyrfalcon in fresh juvenalplumage. Except for generally darker colors, it is probably much likethe European bird of that age, of which Witherby's Handbook (1924)says in part: "Upper mantle usually uniform dark brown, rest ofmantle and scapulars dark brown, feathers with brownish-whiteedgings and spots; back, rump and upper tail-coverts with ratherlarger spots and edgings, often forming bars on upper tail-coverts;chin white, streaked dark brown; rest of under-parts very widelystreaked dark brown, feathers of flanks mostly dark brown with whiteedgings and spots."Evidently the light-colored spots and edgings wear away during thefirst fall and winter, for many immature birds in our series have uni-formly dark brown upper parts. Some, or perhaps all, of these maybe more than a year old and may have partially molted their juvenalplumage. This first, postjuvenal, molt is much prolonged, beginningin summer, when the young bird is a year old, and continuing into thefollowing winter. Consequently there are many birds in collectionsthat are in this transition stage. All the immature specimens ofobsoletus that I have seen are heavily streaked on the under parts with
"clove brown" or brownish black, in many so heavily that the darkcolor predominates. Air. Turner says that "birds of the year may bedistinguished by the color of the cere, tarsus, toes, and eyelids beingof a pale blue, while in the adults these portions are bright yellow at allseasons." Young birds do not reach maturity in plumage until theyare nearly, or quite, 18 months old.In the normal adult plumage the crown, mantle, and wing coverts arequite uniformly dark brown, "olive-brown" to "clove brown", some-times interrupted by a few whitish streaks on the nape; the lower back,rump, and upper tail coverts are grayer, or slaty plumbeous, but notnearly so bluish gray as in the European birds; the upper breast isheavily streaked, the belly heavily spotted with round spots, and theflanks broadly barred with blackish brown or nearly black. In somebirds the entire body plumage, above and below, is nearly uniform,dark, sooty brown, with little or no whitish anywhere; these areprobably melanistic individuals, or they may represent a dark phase.Ridgway (1880b) has described the adult plumage in detail.Adults apparently have one complete annual molt between June andJanuary, though some of the primaries may be molted in spring.Food.?The food of this gyrfalcon is much the same as that of thepreceding race, with due allowance for the difference in habitat.Mr. Turner says: "Their food consists almost exclusively of ptar-migans, little else ever being found in their stomachs. They seizetheir prey while on the wing, depending doubtless on their suddenappearance among a flock of ptarmigans to put their prey to flight when
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it may be secured. Their food is devoured on the ground. I havenever seen them carry it in their talons."During their winter wanderings they feed on whatever living preythey can find, such as rabbits, squirrels, rats, domestic poultry, grouse,and wild ducks and geese. A bird in my collection, shot at Tiverton,R. I., on December 26, 1896, was hovering over some wooden duckdecoys, as if about to pounce upon one of them. Henry A. Purdie(1879) recorded the capture of a gyrfalcon in Piscataquis County,Maine, in December 1876, of which he says: "It had caught severalhens, and having pursued one under a barn through a small openingwas itself caught in the arms of a man as it came out." Arthur H.Norton (1907) records the capture of a specimen near Portland,Maine, on December 11, 1906; he writes: "It swooped into the henyard of Mrs. John Smith on Allen Avenue, killing a large, pugnaciousrooster, which it speedily began to devour."Behavior.?Mr. Turner's notes state that "their manner of flight isby extremely rapid wing beats followed by sailing for a few rods.They pass through the air with great rapidity ; no bird of prey in thoseregions flies more rapidly. They dart upon their prey at a dash,bringing up, just at the moment of seizing, in an almost perpendicularposition, doubtless to stop their momentum. I do not think theyattempt to fly over the bird they wish to seize, but secure it by flyingagainst and seizing it during the moment of shock. They fall to theground with the bird seized."Maj. Allan Brooks (1900) says: "The flight of this Falcon is as arule rather slow compared with that of other large Falcons, but whenin pursuit of a Duck it gets up a tremendous velocity and can turn andtwist almost as quickly as a Goshawk. In ordinary flight the wingstroke is much shorter than a Peregrine's, and the bird when goingstraight away appears to be hovering like a Kestrel."Sir John Richardson (Swainson and Richardson, 1831) had a pairof gyrfalcons attack him while he was climbing in the vicinity of theirnest; he writes: "They flew in circles, uttering loud and harsh screams,and alternately stooping with such velocity, that their motion throughthe air produced a loud rushing noise; they struck their claws withinan inch or two of my head. I endeavoured, by keeping the barrel ofmy gun close to my cheek, and suddenly elevating its muzzle when theywere in the act of striking, to ascertain whether they had the power ofinstantaneously changing the direction of their rapid course, andfound that they invariably rose above the obstacle with the quicknessof thought, showing equal acuteness of vision and power of motion."Voice.?Turner says: "The only note ever heard from this hawk wasa chattering scream of the syllables, ke a, ke a, ke a, repeated a numberof times, more rapidly toward the fifth or sixth utterance, and finally
ASIATIC GYRFALCON 15
so blended that the sound is a rattling scream. The sound is pro-duced only when danger is sighted."Field marks.?This bird can be recognized as a falcon by its shapeand manner of flight, as explained under the preceding race, but as agyrfalcon only by its size. It is much darker than candicans in allplumages, sometimes appearing almost wholly dark brown, or almostblack in certain lights.Winter.?The winter range of the black gyrfalcon is much the sameas that of the white gyrfalcon, though it ranges more widely andsomewhat farther south into the United States. Many individuals,mainly adults, remain on or near their breeding grounds all winter.Dr. Nelson (1887) writes: "Along the Lower Yukon and KuskoquimRivers in winter it is numerous, and finds an abundance of Ptarmigan,upon which it preys. At this season it is frequently seen perching on astout branch of a tree overhanging the river bank, and I have seen iton several occasions allow a train of dog-sledges to pass within 40 or50 yards, only noticing their presence by slowly turning its head."FALCO RUSTICOLUS URALENSIS (Srwertzov and Menzbier)ASIATIC GYRFALCONHABITSThis subspecies was described from specimens from the Ural Moun-tains in eastern Russia. Its range extends through Siberia to Kam-chatka, to the Commander Islands, to St. Lawrence Island, St.George Island, and probably other islands in Bering Sea, and tonorthern Alaska. A female in my collection, in fresh juvenal plumage,was taken at Deering, Kotzebue Sound, Alaska, on August 1, 1914;it was probably hatched in that vicinity, as it was still accompaniedby its parent. A breeding female, with bare incubation spaces,was taken at Muller Bay, Alaska, on May 24, 1903. That this racemigrates, or wanders occasionally, down the Pacific coast of NorthAmerica is illustrated by an adult specimen taken in December 1896near Spokane, Wash.D. Bernard Bull, who has had about 3 years of experience withthis gyrfalcon on the Bering Sea coast of Alaska, has sent me someinteresting notes on it; he says of its haunts and distribution: "TheAsiatic gyrfalcon, like some other falcons, seems to prefer countrythat is open and free from timber for hunting, and where ledges ofa rocky cliff or a high dirt bank are available for a nesting site. Suchconditions prevail at Goodnews Bay and adjacent territory on theBering Sea coast of Alaska, where this bird breeds and is partly, ifnot wholly, resident. I am confident also that it may be foundnesting on Nunivak Island, at Nelson Island, and in the hills 15 mileseast of the village of Hooper Bay. At these three places, although I
16 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMdid not take specimens, conversations with Eskimo natives convinceme that gyrfalcons nest there regularly. In conversation with thenatives, there was no doubt between us as to the specific identity ofthe bird, for we used the native name ka-gukh-tuk, which is appliedto the Asiatic gyrfalcon by the natives at all places mentioned inthese notes."Nesting.?Until Mr. Bull's notes were received, we had very littleinformation on the nesting habits of this gyrfalcon. The bird in mycollection, referred to above, was shot on a ledge on some rocky cliffsin Kotzebue Sound, where its nest was probably located.The "white" gyrfalcons reported by Dr. Leonhard Stejneger (1885)as breeding in the Commander Islands were probably all uralensis, asbirds from Bering Island, now in the United States National Museum,are referable to this race. He writes: "The White Gyrfalcon breedson Bering Island, though in limited numbers only. A pair had theirnest in a steep and inaccessible rock in the so-called 'Nakovalnaja,'a couple of miles from the main village."Mr. Bull has succeeded in finding and collecting eight sets of eggsof this rare gyrfalcon in the region referred to above; five of thesewere collected in May, two in April, and one in June; the earliestwas taken on April 22, 1934, and the latest on June 8, 1934, withlarge embryos; there were five sets of 4, two sets of 3, and one set of2, with small embryos. He writes to me: "On May 13, 1932, myfirst set of eggs was taken from a ledge on a dirt bank overlooking avalley near Goodnews Bay. Other sets were collected in 1933 and1934, when seven good sets were taken. At this time, a total of 14nesting sites were known to me, but it was not practicable for oneperson to visit them all in a single season on account of the breakingup of the ice at this time. I believe that the beginning of nestingvaries each year according to the weather. In 1934 we had a veryearly year, the break-up occurring on April 22."The nests were on ledges overlooking the bay, a river, or a valley.No addition was made to them except an occasional feather. Iflocated on loose dirt ledges, a hollow was scraped. Frequently theywere in nests formerly occupied by American rough-legged hawks.That the Asiatic gyrfalcon resents any intrusion upon its nestingdomain there can be no doubt, and he who admires temperamentaldisplay can never forget the actions of a gyrfalcon disturbed at itsnest."Eggs.?According to the brief description of the eggs, given to meby Mr. Bull, these do not differ materially from those of other gyrfal-cons. I have no measurements of them.Plumages.?As this race is none too well known, and as no des-cription is available in American publications, so far as the writerknows, it seems worth while to describe the known plumages in some
ASIATIC GYRFALCON 17detail. In general appearance this race is somewhat lighter and lessgray above than rusticolus, much lighter and somewhat grayer thanobsoletus, but decidedly darker than candicans. The wing formulagiven by the describers, fourth primary longer than first, seems to bevery variable and unreliable as a subspecific character.The Deering bird, referred to above, is in fresh juvenal plumage.The crown and nape are buffy white, streaked with "clove brown",and much whiter than the back ; in obsoletus the crown is uniform incolor with the back, or even darker; the rest of the upper parts is
"clove brown", edged on the mantle and lesser wing coverts, andspotted, notched, or partially barred on the greater coverts andscapulars with pinkish, or buffy, white; there are broken bars of thesame on the tail; the under parts are white, tinged with buff, withbroad, elongated spots or streaks of "clove brown"; the inner websof the primaries are deeply notched or barred with "light pinkishcinnamon" to white. In older immature birds the edgings have wornaway and the buffy tints have faded out to white. At this stage theyoung are much like young birds from Iceland.In fully adult plumage the crown is white to "pale pinkish buff",heavily streaked, especially posteriorly, with blackish brown; themantle, scapulars, and wing coverts are "olive-brown" to "clovebrown", more or less heavily, transversely barred with white, buffywhite, or grayish white (not gray, as in European birds); the lowerback, rump, and upper tail coverts are broadly banded with darkand light shades of "neutral gray"; the tail is broadly banded with
"hair brown", or "fuscous", and gray mixed with white; the underparts are white, the throat and fore-breast pure white, except fora few narrow to almost invisible dusky shaft-streaks; the belly isspotted and the flanks are barred with sepia or blackish brown; theunder tail coverts are barred with the same. Except for whiterheads and more white, less gray, in the barring on the mantles, thesebirds now look very much like adults from Europe.Food.?According to Mr. Bull, the food of the Asiatic gyrfalcon,in the Goodnews Bay region, includes the local subspecies of boththe willow and the rock ptarmigan, as well as lemmings, snowshoerabbits, minks, and weasels.Behavior.?J. A. Munro (1936) gives the following account of thebehavior of one of these falcons that he observed in British Columbia,on December 19, 1935:I was motoring past a small brush-fringed creek in otherwise open countrywhen someone shot at, and missed, a female mallard which then flew over theopen range toward Okanagan Lake. A large falcon suddenly appeared andflying after the duck on the same level gained upon it rapidly, whereupon theduck swerved from its former straight course and the falcon shot past it. Theduck then spiraled down to a small ice-covered pond where it alighted. Thefalcon flew swiftly toward the standing bird and in the next five minutes or so
18 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
swooped at it again and again, each time clearing the duck by a foot or more.After this it alighted on the ice about eight feet from the duck and remainedthere motionless for a few minutes. The mallard quacked continuously but didnot move from its position. The falcon then rose and again began swooping atthe duck. By this time my companion and I were walking toward the pond,one on either side and several hundred yards apart. When distant from thepond about 75 yards the mallard rose and flew toward Okanagan Lake and thefalcon, passing close to my companion, was shot.In the crop of the gyrfalcon were approximately two ounces of flesh from thebreast of a male mallard, identified by the presence of the characteristic chestnut-colored breast feathers.It is likely that the gyrfalcon was attempting to induce the mallardto fly, as the larger falcons seem to prefer to strike down their victimsin the air, rather than pounce upon them on the ground ; but, as thesebirds usually do not eat oftener than once a day, and as it alreadyhad considerable food in its crop, it may have been merely playingwith the duck. FALCO MEXICANUS Schlegelprairie falconPlates 5-10HABITSContributed by Milton Philo SkinnerThe prairie falcon is a close counterpart of the lanner falcon (F.biarmicus jeldeggii) of Europe. It is also the prairie and desert cousinof the duck hawk, which it closely resembles with its pointed wingsand its dash and courage, although it preys more on small mammals.Possibly this mammal-catching is due to the falcon's marked prefer-ence for the open spaces where the rodents live. In certain sectionsboth the prairie falcon and the duck hawk occur, and there the twocan be distinguished from each other by the uniformly lighter colorof the falcons. The falcon is the same size as the duck hawk andlarger than the American sparrow hawk, which it resembles in someof its habits. It ranges, normally, east to the Missouri River, occa-sionally to Minnesota and even to Illinois. It is particularly abun-dant in eastern Washington and Oregon and in the coast ranges thatlie west of the great central Californian valleys. Yet, in California,it is seldom out over these level valleys but prefers the rough, brokenfoothills. This is easily understood when we find that the prairiefalcon markedly prefers a nesting site in a cavity, or in a crevice, inthe face of a cliff. Its range reaches only a little over the inter-national boundaries into British Columbia and Alberta on the northand into the Mexican highlands on the south. At the present timeit is rather rare over much of the range east of the Rocky Mountains,and it is steadily growing rarer everywhere.
PRAIRIE FALCON 19Spring.?Throughout the more northern and colder parts of itsrange the prairie falcon is migratory, generally retiring toward thesouth to escape the coldest weather, especially in the Rocky Moun-tains and east. In the Yellowstone National Park I found thempassing through on migration, appearing after March 25. Farthereast, in northeastern Wyoming, they are rare, arriving usually aboutApril 10 or 12, according to Peabody (1907). In Colorado, they arecommon in the warm months but all leave the mountains duringwinter. Still farther east they are seen occasionally in Kansas,Missouri, and the Dakotas; but south of these States prairie falconsare resident, except perhaps on the highest mountains.Courtship.?Dawson (1923) gives an interesting account of thecourtship of this falcon:About the brink of the precipice a dozen Falcons are at play. It is courtingtime and the birds are showing off. The females are the larger birds, but it istheir turn to sit in the boxes while the aspirants perform. The doughty malesare not really contending?only renewing their vows as they come hurtling outof the heavens, screaming like all possessed and cutting parabolas whose acute-ness is a marvel of the unexpected. The female screaks in wild approval, or takesa turn herself because she cannot contain her fierce emotions. The rock wallsresound with boisterous music, and the observer feels as though he were wit-nessing the play of elemental forces?riotous, exultant, unrestrained, the verypassion of freedom and conquest.Nesting.?Although the discovery of a prairie falcon nest is an eventto be cherished, it is still more rare to see a pair hunting for a site.Harry S. Swarth (1904) tells us: "On April G, 1902, Mr. Howardand I watched a pair flying about a rocky cliff in Ramsey Canyon.They were apparently in search of a nesting site for they flew intoquite a number of caves and crevices in the rock, screaming shrillythe while, but on a later visit to the place we failed to find them."In the open, rough sagebush country of California, Oregon, andWashington, prairie falcons choose for their nesting sites outcroppingsof rocks, or cliffs, 50 to 400 feet in height and usually perpendicular.The sites chosen are generally 30 feet or more above ground and inac-cessible to man, except by ropes from above. In the northeasternpart of their range falcons are known to nest in the badlands ofMontana, Wyoming, and western North and South Dakota, althoughrarely in eastern North and South Dakota. There are only a fewrecords of occurrence in Minnesota and none of nesting sites (Roberts,1932). A preferred site faces out over open country, and a southernexposure is often chosen, for the bright hot sun seems to cause nodiscomfort. Where there are neither cliffs nor crevices these birdswill nest in all sorts of niches in any kind of wall, even in dirt banks.Consequently, while the average site is very characteristic, nestsmay be found almost anywhere. Decker and Bowles (1930) say that
"in one nest we took a handsome set of five eggs after no more of an
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effort than simply walking to it and picking up the eggs, while othersare placed under an 'overhang' of rock at such dizzy heights that wesimply wished them good luck. In Washington they are, as a rule,less than sixty feet above the ground, forty feet being perhaps a fairaverage." In most cases the shelves or crevices used are natural,but in the soft material of dirt banks the birds may excavate a hollowof their own. Where they have a choice of sites falcons place theirnests in recesses, or "pot-holes", varying from a few inches to severalfeet in width and penetrating into the walls from a foot to as much as5 feet. Generally there is a projection above, protecting the nest.Although the species, as the name indicates, is prairie-loving, falconsare sometimes found where the mountains are quite heavily wooded.On the other hand, they do not nest on cliffs over the ocean as theduck hawks sometimes do. As a rule there is no nesting materialwhatever, the eggs being laid on clear sand or gravel, or amid bones,bits of fur, and feathers. Although falcons often use ravens' neststhat are placed in niches in the rocks, they less often make use ofones placed on rock pinnacles, but Sclater (1912) says of Coloradobirds: "Dille found a nest on the top of a chimney of sandstone insome buttes in the north of Weld county, on May 5th; it was animmense pile of rubbish, with skeletons and dead animals scatteredround. * * * Gale took four eggs of this species from an old eagle'snest on April 24th, in a cliff on the Little Thompson River, the situa-tion was about fifty feet from the bottom, and thirty feet from thetop of the cliff, * * * another nest in a similar position on theSt. Vrain." There is only one well-authenticated record of a falconnest in a tree, even on the prairies, where cliffs are rare. Goss (1891)says: "At Marysville, Mo., [was] a nest in a tree, thirty-five feet fromthe ground; notes fail to show whether the nest was in the forks ofthe branches or in a hole in the tree, but doubtless in the latter."Since that record no further instances of tree-nesting have come tolight. Mr. Bent noted a nest in a cliff at the top of a rocky hill inthe Mojave Desert, San Bernardino County, Calif., saying: "Whenwe yelled or clapped our hands the bird flew out from a little shelfon the side of a vertical crevice in the rocks. The eggs were in theremains of an old nest of a raven which had crumbled almost to dust,only a few pieces of sticks remaining, the eggs lying on the dirt in thecenter. Later, while I was at the nest the female made severalclose swoops at me within ten or fifteen feet; she was flying and cack-ling all the time." Generally these swoops are vicious in appearanceand very trying to the collector's nerves, but almost always the falconwill, when within a few feet of the intruder, suddenly swerve to oneside or the other. She does not have quite the nerve required foran actual attack, but Mr. Dawson (1923) says:
PRAIRIE FALCON 21The assaults of an angry Falcon are really dangerous. Even when the earliestefforts are discouraged by a show of sticks or stones, it is decidedly disconcertingto feel the rush of air from a passing falcon-wing, upon your hatless pate, or tomark the instant change in pitch from the shrill uproar of impending doom to theguttural notes of baffled retreat. The Falcon has a nasty temper at best, and ifshe dare not vent her spite on you, she will fall upon the first wight who crossesher path. Woe betide the luckless Barn Owl who flaps forth from his den to learnthe cause of the disturbance. I have seen such bowled into the sage in a trice.* * * At such times also the Raven is put on trial for his life. In spite oftheir close association, there is evidently an ancient grudge between these birds.* * * The Raven is an adept at wing-play himself, and the Falcon's thunder-bolt is met with a deft evasion. * * * But the Raven takes no pleasure in it.His eyes start with terror, and while he has no time for utterance himself, the dis-tressed cries of his mate proclaim the danger he is in.The close association of Falcon and Raven at nesting time is the strangestelement in the lives of both of them. To be sure, their requirements of nestingsites are similar; but it is more than that which induces the birds to nest withina hundred yards of each other in the same canyon, when neighboring or distantcanyons offering as excellent sites are empty. So constant indeed is this associa-tion that when one finds the Raven's nest, he says, "Well, now, where is theFalcon's?" Of the entire number of Ravens' nests which came under my observa-tion in one year, seven were thus associated with nests of the Falcon in the samecanyon, and the remaining three were within a quarter of a mile of Falcons' inneighboring canyons separated by a single ridge. And it is impossible to tellfrom the stage of incubation which bird is the follower. * * * The only guesswe dare hazard is that both birds reap advantages of warning in case of hostileapproach. Concurrent with this association is the annual, or at least occasional,shifting of sites on the part of both species.* * * This shifting is of course quickened by persecution. If unsuccessfulin raising a brood one year the bird will try another situation, but always, exceptin extreme instances, in the same canyon or general locality. In this way theFalcon appropriates the site once occupied by Ravens (and so gets credited witha "stick" nest, though I am satisfied that the Falcon never lifts a twig); and theRavens, in turn, without opposition, are allowed to rear their pile in a niche justpreviously occupied by the Falcons.Decker and Bowles (1930) write that while potholes
?
are perhaps the favorite nesting sites of these birds, they are by no means the onlykind selected. In many cliffs there are no potholes at all, but on some projectingledge of rock a Western Red-tail or a Raven will have built its nest during somepast season, and it is the old nests of these two species that are very commonlyused by the Falcons. In fact, in many localities the abundance of the Falcons asbreeding birds depends entirely upon the presence of the old nests of these otherbirds. An instance by way of proving this statement occurred to us in the pastspring when we visited a cliff where the year before we had found a Falcon usingan old Raven's nest. The nest had been dislodged by the winter storms and, asthere were neither old nests nor potholes, there were no signs of the Falcons to befound anywhere in the vicinity. This is only one case in several that we havenoticed. In our experience the Falcons will always return to the old nest, eventhough the rightful owners wish to take possession themselves. A very interestingexample of this was given us in the past spring of 1928, a somewhat detailed accountof which may be permissible. The nest in question was that of a Western Red-tail, which was situated on a ledge about twenty-five feet from the ground andsome forty feet below the top of the cliff. We had taken a set of three eggs of the
22 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMHawk from this nest in 1926, and in 1927 we had found it occupied by a Falconwith five eggs. Going to it in 1928 we at first thought it deserted as no bird couldbe seen, but, upon going directly beneath it and shouting, the Falcon flushed withher customary fierce challenge. Much to our pleasure the nest contained fiveeggs of the Falcon and, to our great surprise, one egg of the Red-tail, all of whichwere perfectly fresh. The poor Hawks had been through a very hard spring, asthey had built a nest about half a mile distant across the river and had their eggseaten by Ravens. Of course we had no means of ascertaining the course of events,but it would have been most interesting to know if the Hawk had laid its egg beforeor after the Falcons had taken possession of the nest. It is highly probable thatthe Falcons could and would drive away the rightful owner, if they wished to do so,even though the Hawks had taken possession first. However, on the other hand,it seems highly possible that the Ravens had destroyed an incomplete set in thenew nest and the Hawk had then taken advantage of a temporary absence of theFalcons and laid the egg to complete her set in her nest of a former year.The friendly relationship existing between Falcons and Ravens, that are bothnesting in the same cliff, is nothing short of astounding, especially when we considerthat a Raven is perhaps the most "dyed-in-the-wool" egg eater in the animalkingdom. It is fairly safe to say that in seven cases out of ten a pair of Ravenswill be nesting in the same cliff that is occupied by a pair of Falcons, the nests inmany cases being only a few hundred feet apart. Yet strangely enough we havenever seen a sign of friction of any kind existing between the two species. Whenwe first commenced our studies of these birds we always were fearful that theRavens would eat the Falcon eggs before the set was complete. However, thishas never occurred in all the many instances that have come under our observa-tion, the Falcons paying little or no attention to the Ravens at any time. Thereason for this may, perhaps, date back to some past generations of the Ravenswho learned through bitter experience that it was far the wisest thing to makethe contents of a Falcon nest the exception to their general rule of eating eggs andbaby birds. Perhaps this knowledge has been inherited by the present generations.One thing absolutely certain is that the Falcons "rule the roost" and do exactlyas they please in the selection of nests, the poor Ravens simply taking what theFalcons do not want and making the best of things. As a rule the Ravens lay theireggs about a week earlier than the Falcons, but the latter have apparently alreadyselected the nest they want and the Ravens usually build a new nest for their firstset. If the contents of the nests of both species are removed the}' will usually layagain in the same nests, but they occasionally trade nests * * *. Yet in allthis switching around we have never seen any signs of discord between the twospecies, trying as it must be on their tempers.John G. Tyler (1923) says:In the region where my observations have been made the north end of the ridgesbreaks off abruptly into cliffs and for that reason most of the nests I have examinedhave had a northern exposure. A few have been on west-facing cliffs and onefaced the east or northeast, but none has been on ledges with an outlook to thesouth. Of seventeen nests personally examined during the past few years ninehave been in pot holes of various sizes, where the eggs rested on the gravel andsmall loose rocks which lined the cavity. Six sets were laid on the tops of nestsbuilt by ravens and these nests were utilized without any alterations whatever.In one case, the nest was newly built and freshly lined with wool, while the otherfive were in various stages of disrepair. One pair of falcons used, during threeseasons, a hole in which a pair of ravens had evidently built a nest many yearsbefore.
PRAIRIE FALCON 23The female docs the brooding, although the male will sometimes takeher place under unusual conditions. Usually the male, unless hunting,will perch on a tree somewhere near the nest. Decker and Bowles(1930) say that for some reason she will remain with the eggs when inan open nest almost to the last extremity, "while in one of the pot holenests she may flush at some little distance." They continue:The period of incubation does not seem to influence her actions in this respect toany great extent so far as we have seen. We had one most fascinating exhibition ofa close sitting bird at one site where an old nest of the Raven was used. One of uswas walking along the top of the cliff, while the other walked along at the base,the man at the top being considerably further in advance. Presently a nest wassighted at very close range with the bird crouched upon it and most intentlywatching the man below her. The man at the top made very little noise and shehad not seen him, so he had a perfect opportunity to study her. She flattenedherself down into the nest so far as to be completely out of sight from any directionexcepting directly above and remained in that position until the man below wasalmost up to her. Then she stood up in the nest and commenced her battle crythat gives such a never failing thrill to the bird lover, not leaving until she knewit was useless to remain any longer.In its action around the nest we have never known a Falcon to actually strikea human being.Between the "close sitters" and the wary birds there are all grada-tions. After the female has been driven from her nest, she will seldomreturn to her eggs while the enemy remains in sight. Should theintruder suspend activities and remain quiet, she may perch moreor less nervously on a tree not too far away; but renewed movementwill often bring her back to scream and swoop. She is evidently themore aggressive and the more concerned over the eggs. The maleusually contents himself with circling high overhead.Throughout most of its range this falcon is a valley or foothill bird,so that it comes as a surprise to hear of its hunting, and even breeding,far above timberline. Merriam (1890) says: "A pair of these Falconshad their nest on a high cliff in the crater of the main peak of SanFrancisco Mountain, and another pair had possession of a similarledge on Kendrick Peak." Both of these locations were at least 1 1 ,000feet above sea level. Bergtold (1928) says that in Colorado the prairiefalcon "breeds up to 10,000 feet." Lowe (1895) says that "one wasshot at 10,000" in the Wet Mountains, Huerfano County, Colo.Dr. E. A. Mearns (1890) saw one on June 4, 1887, at the very tip ofHumphreys Peak, Ariz., at 12,562 feet, and writes: "These onlybraved the wind and cold at the summit. The name of 'Prairie'Falcon scarce accords with my recollection of that scene."Eggs.?Usually there are four or five eggs to a set in California,Oregon, and Washington. Records of just 100 sets collected in theseStates show 7 percent contained three eggs, 21 percent four eggs, 70percent five eggs, and 2 percent six eggs. But four sets obtainedfarther east in Wyoming and Colorado showed one set of two eggs,
24 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
one of three eggs, one of four eggs, and one of five eggs. Thereforeit is presumed that eastern nests have fewer eggs. Additional sets oftwo eggs have been taken, even in California; but in these cases thesets were incomplete or second sets. Bendire (1892) says that the
"eggs are laid at intervals of a day or two."Tyler (1923) says:The eggs from any one pair of birds bear a close resemblance from year to yearand it is always possible to tell, by the eggs alone, when a new female takes pos-session of a nest.I have never made a practice of taking second sets, but I have determined that asecond set is nearly always laid within a period of from twenty to twenty-five daysafter the first set has been removed. Usually the same nest is used, althoughsometimes the birds move to another site which, as a rule, is in the same cliff or inone not far away. * * * Undisturbed birds raise but one brood of young eachseason. Moreover, I am inclined to believe that certain pairs occasionally pass aseason without nesting, as I have, on two different occasions, found both birdspresent at a nest site, yet their actions did not indicate that they were nesting andon subsequent visits they showed no active interest in the neighborhood.Prairie falcon eggs are somewhat smaller than those of the duck hawkand average lighter in color than the eggs of any falcon except theAmerican sparrow hawk. The eggs are very handsome and, sincethey vary a good deal in color, are attractive to collectors. Accordingto Mr. Bent's notes they are ovate to nearly oval, finely granulatedto smooth, and often pimpled. The ground color is white, creamywhite, or pinkish white. About half the surface is finely and evenlysprinkled with minute dots, nearly or quite concealing the groundcolor; the other half is more openly spotted with larger spots that aresometimes concentrated at one end; sometimes there is a broad washof color at one end, and sometimes the overlying color even obscuresthe ground color so that the whole seems "vinaceous-cinnamon." Themarkings are "burnt sienna", "amber-brown", "tawny", or "cinna-mon." These three ground colors and the four overlying ones arecapable of many combinations. Since the markings also differ inshape and distribution, prairie falcon eggs are subject to a wide varia-tion in appearance. Very rarely an egg will show a uniform color allover. One beautiful tint is a purplish shade noted by Coues (1874)and by Dawson (1923) but even better described by Truesdale (1910).The measurements of 331 eggs, from all sections, average 52.3 by40.5 millimeters; eggs showing the four extremes measuring 57.9 by42.7 and 47.1 by 36.0. The largest egg came from Sweetwater County,Wyo., but one only a trifle smaller was collected in the State of Wash-ington.Young.?Bailey and Niedrach (1933) reached a nest in Coloradojust as the eggs were hatching. They tell us that they used a photog-rapher's tent as a blind, and, although the female falcon was suspiciousof the blind, especially of the bright lens, she came back to her nest
PRAIRIE FALCON 25
again and again. The last time, the motion-picture camera wasstarted as she approached, "and in a few moments she alighted asbefore. Motionless, with wings dropped, she looked at the blind,and finally, apparently satisfied that all was well in spite of the whir-ring noise, settled down upon her eggs." On the following day twodowny young sprawled on the rocky shelf. The mother returned inhalf an hour to cover the falconets and the other two eggs.When the young falcons first leave their eggs they are as helplessand ill-formed as any birds could be. During the following five weeksthey are carefully looked after and fed by the female parent. Theygrow rapidly, and at the end of this period they leave the nest and aresoon able to care for themselves. Taverner (1919a), however, dis-tinctly noted that the young, after leaving the nest, "while full-fledgedand apparently strong on the wing, were under parental care."Although we have many accounts of finding the nests and of secur-ing the eggs, with whatever habits could be noted at the time, onlyone scientist, that I know of, has had the time and patience to make adetailed study of the brooding, care, and growth of the young. F. H.Fowler (1931) made this study in 1928 in the canyons of the easternside of the Mount Hamilton range of mountains in California. Thenest that he designates as Nest no. 1 on April 29 "was found to containfive young falcons, about nine days old, according to subsequentweight comparisons. [Full set of eggs was found April 1.] Nestnumber 2, which could not be visited until May 6, then containedfour very young birds, believed, after much subsequent study andfiguring, to average about three days old. [Full set of five eggs wasfound April 1.]" Mr. Fowler continues:They were weak, had a marked tendency to capsize, and when they did roll overimmediately curled up as if still in the shell. Only the most advanced had theireyes part way open, and the others showed very marked and extensive granulationaround the unopened ej^elids. No remnants of the fifth egg, nor of a chickhatched from it, could be found.The young in nest number 1 were systematically weighed and photographed inthe nest, until the family took to wing some time between May 23 and the nextvisit on May 30. Those in nest number 2 were weighed, and a selected birdphotographed to scale, until they appeared ready to leave the nest when lastvisited June 6.The weights of a typical young falcon are as follows (condensedfrom Fowler's diagram):May 6,1928 3 days old weighed 2 }{ ouncesMay 13, 1928 10 days old weighed VA ouncesMay 20, 1928 17 days old weighed 14 ouncesMay 30, 1928 27 days old weighed 20 ouncesJune 3, 1928 31 days old weighed 19 ouncesJune 6, 1928 34 days old weighed 18 ounces13751?38 3
26 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMWeights taken at nest number 1, when adjusted to compensate for age, and forfull or empty crop, correspond closely with the longer and more complete recordtaken at nest number 2, and are therefore not here included.* * * This pair [nest no. 2] were mighty hunters, remarkable for the varietyof their quarry. They also had the habit of bringing in their game intact to thenest, or to a small shelf near the base of the cliff, and there plucking the birds andleaving the remains, after satisfying the ravenous family and their own appetites.This habit is rare, I believe. Usually the mammals are torn into and partlyeaten before being brought to the nest to feed to the young. When the feedingis about completed, the parent lifts the remains in its beak, makes a running start,and on the instant of taking wing shifts the remains to its talons. On some rockypoint in the vicinity it then probably cleans off and eats the scraps of meat fromthe skin and bones, and leaves them where they are never found for record. Thelarger birds are ordinarily partially plucked before being brought to the nest, andthe fag ends are probably carried away at the end of the feast. Smaller birdsdisappear on the spot as if by magic. This habit of carrying remains away wasobserved from the blind in 1930 * * *.It is difficult or impossible to estimate definitely the number of animals repre-sented by a given numbers of pellets from a nest. All the young may receive afull crop of fur from a single large ground squirrel. In a family of five, such asthat at nest number 1, this meal might result in five pellets available for analysisfrom the death of one animal. On the other hand, five pellets found at the roost-ing place of a mature bird would almost certainly have meant at least five animalskilled. * * *After the photograph and movie campaign of 1930 had been completed, fourpellets were found on the edge of the mesa, just behind the old bird's lookout rockacross the canon; none was found at the base of the rock. These pellets measured2.00x 0.80 in.; 2.12 x 0.88 in.; 1.82 x 0.90 in.; and 2.10 x 0.90 in.; they are nota-bly more compact and symmetrical than those of the young.Observation of falcons in captivity coupled with the fact that these wild birdsdeserted their lookout point for the firmer footing of the flat mesa shows that theprocess of casting up a pellet is a serious and sea-sick business. When the symp-toms of "casting" first attack a falcon it draws its feathers down flat, stands upfull height, sticks its head and neck outward and upward, and for a few momentslooks bereft of its senses. It then starts to duck its head in a series of quick jerks,at the same time contorting its neck violently from side to side. This muscularaction appears to force the relatively large pellet from the bird's interior upwardinto the crop. The sidewise contortions then cease, and the pellet is cast by aseries of up and down pumpings of the head and neck. The bird then stands fora few moments seemingly with the sad question in its mind?"Would a good doseof Mothersills have obviated all of this?" It then shakes itself, resumes itsinterest in life, and begins to wonder where the next supply of fur and feathers isavailable. * * *Probably a definite weight of meat (with comparatively little variation one wayor the other) is required to develop a young falcon from the egg to the day offlight. Whether this food supply consists of tender birds or tougher rodentsprobably makes little difference in the total weight consumed. However, towardthe end of the nest life the demands of the family are so tremendous that an end-less stream of mammals and fair sized birds seems to be the only recourse of thehard-working parents. Small birds could hardly be caught fast enough.The food actually secured probably depends to a large extent on the locality,the season, and the individual hunting ability of the parents. In the generallocality of these studies ground squirrels and meadowlarks (being the mostreadily available source) probably form a large part of the normal supply of the
PRAIRIE FALCON 27
average falcon family. Here, and elsewhere, it is probably more difficult for theparents to raise a brood hatched a month late than one hatched at the normaltime. The hunting ability of the parents is a prime factor in at least the varietyof the food supply.Only by observing a large number of families can a true estimate of the falcon'seconomic status be established.Mr. Fowler (1931) also gives the following data in detailed tables:At Nest no. 1 a partial tabulation showed that 1 California horned lark,8 western meadowlarks, and 9 California ground squirrels were eatenbetween April 29 and May 20, 1928. At Nest no. 2 it was possible tomake much fuller tabulations, showing 2 mourning doves, 8 burrowingowls, 3 California horned larks, 9 California jays, 15 western meadow-larks, 3 Brewer's blackbirds, 2 California shrikes, 1 rock wren, 1poultry, 1 unidentified bird, 1 California pocket gopher, 7 Californiaground squirrels, and 1 Nelson spermophile eaten by four youngbetween May 6 and June 6, 1928. The poultry item was "one smallwhite wing about the size and shape of a meadowlark; probably aLeghorn chick from a neighboring ranch", but a detached wing mighthave been picked up so far as data show.Speaking of a nest in Montana, Cameron (1907) says that a pair ofSay's phoebes that built a nest "in a hole near the Prairie Falcons'eyrie were killed by the latter for their young."Plumages.?Falconets just out of the egg, or at least as soon asthey are dry, are covered with fine white down. When the birds areabout two weeks old the darker feathers of the tail and wings becomenoticeable, and a few days later various feather tracts on the bodyoutline themselves. At about four weeks of age, the feathers arewell started. During the following week the feathers grow so fastthat the bird actually loses some of its body weight, although amplefood may be greedily swallowed. The changes in color are rapid,so that a young bird five or six weeks old is really darker above thanthe adults. Although this coloration is rich, it is still obscureduntil the shedding of the last down at some two months of age. Thefinal growth of plumage and the last shedding of down takeplace after the young are on the wing. The young falcons out of thenest are buffier and more striped than the adults, with a more red-dish tinge to the upper parts; the iris is brown; the feet and legs areslate color; the claws, black; the bill, bluish black, with the base of theunder mandible yellow. It is not known just when the changes arecompleted, but gradually the juvenile plumage becomes lighter,clearer, and more like the adult. The feet and legs become yellow,while the mandibles and iris change little, if any. Bailey and Niedrach(1933) write:Out came the female falcon. And, what a bird! Niedrach had promised asurprise, but such a beautiful hawk was not expected. Instead of the naturalbrown plumage of the species, this bird was cream white, with occasional markings
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of the natural dark color. She hovered overhead, shrieking her displeasure atthe invasion, and, even at that distance, her black eyes contrasted with her light-colored feathers. Niedrach has known that particular bird for nine years. Shehad nested in the vicinity each year, but he had never been able to reach her nestto photograph it, and, in that time, he had never seen other light-colored falcons,with the exception of one young bird, which had a white feather in the center ofthe back. Apparently, the young were usually of normal plumage. [PI. 10.]Like most hawks, the adult prairie falcons may exhibit either lightor dark phases of plumage, with all gradations between the twoextremes. Although it is probable that this species molts at leastonce a year, nothing is known about the time or the manner. Neitheris it known positively whether there is only one molt each year or more.Food.?While I was examining reports on the food habits of thisfalcon, from various sections of its wide range, two things becamevery evident: First, no adequate study of the subject has ever beenmade, and we are therefore mostly dependent upon various itemspicked up incidental to oological, or other, studies; and second, theseincidental notes show great diversity of food, possibly due to differ-ence in range, availability of certain victims, opportunities of theobserver, and changing conditions as affected by man. All agreethat this falcon is bold and enterprising and fully capable of easilykilling prey even larger than itself. No doubt the ease and certaintyof securing a stated prey are responsible for a seeming preference forthat prey in that locality; otherwise, food is normally quite varied.In places where there are large flocks of these small birds, the prairiefalcon preys on sparrows and Brewer's blackbirds, more or less harry-ing the flocks as long as they remain in the vicinity. Its powers offlight are great enough to permit of the successful chase and captureof mourning doves; and in places it takes meadowlarks in numbers.Speaking of central California, Tyler (1923) says: "My personalobservations have convinced me that small birds are preferred at alltimes * * *. From the time the falcons return to their nestcliffs in early spring through the egg laying and incubation periodsthe Gambel Sparrows (Zonotrichia leucophrys gambeli) are veryabundant in the regions where falcons abound and a very heavy tollof sparrows is taken. But, by the time the young falcons haveappeared, these sparrow hosts have practically all migrated and thefalcon turns his attention to Western Meadowlarks, Valley Quail,and Western Mourning Doves." Most of the falcon's hunting isdone early in the morning and late in the afternoon, even in cloudyor comparatively cool weather. Dawson (1923) says:The bird makes little fuss over the capture of small game. It simply material-izes out of the empty blue and picks up a gopher or a blackbird as quietly as youwould pluck a flower. The approach has doubtless been nicely calculated. Thethunderbolt, launched from the height of half a mile, has been checked every fewhundred feet by a slight opening of the wings, that the Falcon might gauge the
PRAIRIE FALCON 29
caliber and the intent of the victim; and the final plunge has, therefore, the speedand accuracy of fate. In case of larger game the quarry is knocked headlong bya crashing blow, after which the assailant turns to try conclusions as to weight.But the Falcon prefers always to snatch, and when small game is abundant, thebird is less likely to disturb rabbits or poultry.* * * While his visits to the poultry yard are by no means rare, and hisoffenses, judged from this narrow human angle, are serious, we shall not stop toplead the thousands of destructive squirrels which this bird accounts for.Henninger and Jones (1909) say: "They seem to prefer bird flesh,but during a scarcity of such diet may be driven to any of the smalleranimals." On the other hand, Decker and Bowles (1930) say thatduring the nesting season young rabbits are preferred, probablybecause of abundance; but stomach examination indicates change ofdiet in winter. Mr. Ridgway (1877) says: "Late in November, ofthe same year [1867], it was noticed again among the marshes alongthe Carson River, near Genoa, where it was observed to watch andfollow the Marsh Hawks {Circus hudsonius), compelling them togive up their game, which was caught by the Falcon before it reachedthe ground; this piracy being not an occasional, but a systematichabit." But Cameron (1907) says that a golden eagle in Montanaseemed to play a somewhat similar trick on a prairie falcon: "OnSeptember 21, 1904, at our ranch in Dawson County, my wife and Iwatched a Prairie Falcon in the act of carrying off a Meadowlarkwhich was screaming and struggling in its talons. As the falcon roselevel with the lull-tops, a Golden Eagle sailed majestically over inclose proximity to it, thereby appearing to fluster the other whichallowed its victim to escape."In the Yellowstone National Park I once saw a prairie falcon makeseveral swoops at a flock of 44 Brewer's blackbirds, although on thatoccasion they all escaped into the thick foliage of some big pines.Ellsworth D. Lumley writes me in a letter: "On November 16, 1932,I witnessed a prairie falcon eating an English sparrow in this city[Great Falls]. Another falcon sat in a nearby tree and gave its pierc-ing cry." But Lumley also writes that on October 18, 1932, a falconstomach was found to contain a pellet of hair and some small bones,indicating rodent diet. Goss (1891) says that he saw a prairie falcon
"dart from a telegraph pole into a flock of chesnut-collared Longspurs,and knock down four of the birds at a single dash, killing three andwinging the other." Fuertes (1920) adds "jays" to the list of falconprey. Mrs. Bailey (1928) writes that the prairie falcons were "aboutthe alfalfa fields at Carlsbad [N. Mex.] in September, apparently look-ing for game among the flocks of waders that followed the irrigationof the fields. When the waders were quietly feeding, the appearanceof this dark, short-necked hunter would send a big flock of the silverybirds into the sky, or if he dashed in among them, would put them todisorderly flight." Mrs. Bailey, quoting Dr. Wetmore, also says that
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"they harried the Yellow-headed Blackbirds so mercilessly that theyset up an outcry whenever a bird of any size appeared on the skyline."Strange, indeed, seems the incident witnessed by Pemberton andCarriger. They (1915) write that a prairie falcon was seen on May27, 1909, "to sail into a flock of sea gulls flying near the beach andstrike one of them to the sand. After performing the trick the birdflew away, evidently not caring to eat his prey."We have already spoken of the prairie falcon taking doves andvalley quail, but it also preys upon many other game birds as well.Willard (1916) says that they take considerable toll from the flocksof band-tailed pigeons. "These terrors of the air will dash into atree and grab a pigeon off a. branch, rarely making an unsuccessfulraid." Still, because this falcon prefers open country, its raids fallmore severely on game birds of the open, such as valley quail andGambel's quail, and it has found the newly established Europeanpartridge a choice morsel. Munro (1929) says: "The present relativeabundance (the species is by no means common) is perhaps due to arecent increase of European Gray Partridge which these falcons huntpersistently. When a Prairie Falcon passes along one of the openhillsides frequented by these birds coveys rise in every direction. Nobetter aid in estimating the partridge population of a hillside couldbe devised."Even the sharp-tailed grouse is not too large a quarry. Bendire(1892) says that he found "the remains of a Columbian Sharp-tailedGrouse in the crop of one specimen." E. S. Cameron (1907) andHenninger and Jones (1909) mention this grouse as prairie falcon prey,without giving further particulars. Goss (1891) cites both ducks andprairie chickens as victims. When the boldness and audacity of thisfalcon are considered, it does not sound strange to hear that it willcatch ring-necked pheasants at a game farm. Jewett (1926) says:"On November 24, 1925, at the Oregon State Game Farm at Corvallis,Oregon, one of the farm employees shot an adult female Falco mexi-canus that was in pursuit of a female Ring-neck Pheasant. * * *This is the first Prairie Falcon to be seen there, and only the secondrecord of the species in the Humid Coast Belt of western Oregon ofwhich I have knowledge." Mrs. Bailey (1928) also speaks of thishabit: "A Ring-necked that was once attacked by one was so terrifiedthat, at each swoop of the Falcon, it would flatten itself against theground."In addition to the upland game birds, prairie falcons sometimesattack water birds. Decker and Bowles (1930) say: "A large femaleat Santa Barbara, California, had killed a Coot (Fulica americana)with which it tried to fly across the road." E. S. Cameron hasknown the prairie falcon to prey upon mallards and both kinds ofteals. He (1907) says: "At the time of their migration Green-winged
PRAIRIE FALCON 31Teal seem to be a favorite quarry and Mr. J. H. Price has twice shotone of these ducks from a flock pursued by a Prairie Falcon before ithad made its stoop. This dashing marauder attends upon the Tealas they move up and down the creeks." From such a list as this,with so many game species upon it, it would seem that the prairiefalcon is a great destroyer of birds. The fact is that all the incidentsgiven here are exceptional, although interesting because they illus-trate the prowess of some individual prairie falcons. Grinnell, Dixon,and Linsdale (1930) actually say: "Feeding ducks and coots at EagleLake appeared to pay no attention to hunting Falcons. It was thoughtthat in that vicinity this species hunted for meadowlarks and flickers."I believe, also, that prairie-falcon attacks on poultry are unusualoccurrences. Although I have searched the literature about thisspecies, I find only the following records, and these include bothspecific instances and general statements based upon evidence un-known to me. Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway (1905) say: "Dr. Suckleyprocured a specimen at Ft. Dalles in the beginning of winter, 1854-5,caught in the act of carrying oft" a barn-yard fowl of about its ownweight, and which it had just seized near the door of a dwelling-house."Ridgway (1877) notes: "In the Truckee Valley we saw one snatch ayoung chicken from a door-yard, in the presence of several specta-tors." Merriam (1891) records one shot while "in the act of chasinga chicken in the lower part of Birch Creek [Idaho], August 7 [1890] ; itsstomach contained a Horn Lark (Otocoris). But they "were oftenseen chasing Teal up and down the creek." Cohen (1903) adds:"One attacked a band of half grown turkeys early in the fall and theother flew from an oak at some pigeons inside their enclosures andstruck the wire netting." Peabody (1907) says: "As is well-known,this Falcon is a terror to poultry." Cameron (1907) notes: "ThePrairie Falcon is very bold in its attacks upon game birds and poul-try * * *. In attacking full grown hens the falcon suddenlychecks its stoop about a yard above the victim over which it hoversbefore making the final dash. Meanwhile the shrieking fowl runswildly about and there is often time to scare away the freebooterwhich then mounts with incredible rapidity." Truesdale (1910)writes: "Their food consists chiefly of small mammals, birds andoccasionally chickens which they catch. * * * I have seen thisfalcon fly into a flock of chickens and strike one * * * returningagain and get another one in the same manner, until they have lolledoff nine chickens." Vernon Bailey (in Florence Merriam Bailey, 1902)says: "The falcons are bold freebooters when a farmyard happens tolie in the valley below and their hungry young are calling, but ordi-narily ground squirrels and other small rodents supply most of theirfood. The few birds they get are mostly caught on the wing. Onethat shot past me in pursuit of a flock of Gambel quails in southern
32 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMUtah struck a quail from the flock with such force as to knock it tothe ground amid a cloud of feathers, but fortunately for the quail itlanded in the brush, where it escaped." H. S. Swarth (1924) records:
"Once observed in pursuit of domestic pigeons in Flagstaff, and sev-eral times after poultry about ranch houses. The one specimen pre-served was shot while making off with a chicken." Tyler (1923)adds: "October 24, 1912, near Fresno I saw, at close range, a falconwhich was circling overhead suddenly fold his wings and swoop at asmall white chicken in a barnyard. The chicken escaped by quicklydiving under a clump of shrubbery." Finally, Ellsworth D. Lumleywrites us: "On the May 13, 1933, trip I came into possession of aprairie falcon that a woman had killed the day before. It was in thechicken yard with a chicken in its talons and when approachedallowed the woman to come close enough to knock it out with arock." But, on the other hand, Bendire (1892) bears contrary testi-mony for the prairie falcon: "Poultry was rarely molested; andalthough one of these Falcons would sometimes make a dash at someof the fowls, it seemed to me that it was done more to scare and tosee them run than to capture them. Not a single instance came undermy observation where a chicken was actually struck by one of them.I have no doubt whatever that they are fully capable of killing a full-grown hen and of carrying her off, but they do not seem to care forpoultry, and I have more than once seen chickens feeding under atree in which one of these birds was sitting." In many ways I con-sider Mr. Tyler's article (1913) particularly illuminating when hewrites: "A farmer living near New Hope once told me of a long-winged 'bullet-hawk' that made regular visits to his place in quest ofyoung chickens, which it seized and bore away so rapidly that hecould never prevent the loss. Finally he resolved to wait for therobber, as it always appeared about the same time each day, comingfrom the foothills of the Coast Range mountains, fully twenty-fivemiles away, and returning toward the same place. * * * At theshot the bird dropped its victim [a squawking young fowl] but con-tinued its flight, although apparently much weakened. It was neverseen again." There are scores of falcons in these same Coast Rangemountains. If chicken-killing is at all common, why did not Mr.Tyler hear of, and record, other instances? That this was simplyone and the same individual that had developed a taste for chickenseems shown by the fact that it never returned after being shot at once.While all ornithologists are naturally more interested in falconattacks on birds than on mammals and are more likely to note suchinstances, there are many notes of mammal destruction by prairiefalcons. Goss (1891) says that they kill "mice"; Bendire (1892)and Henninger and Jones (1909) list "rodents"; Bryant (1918) adds
"pocket gopher"; Coues (1874), Goss (1891), Fisher (1907), Tyler
PRAIRIE FALCON 33(1923), Dawson (1923), and Hix (no date) all record "ground squirrels"of various species; Cooper (1870), Ridgway (1877), Goss (1891),Bendire (1892), Henninger and Jones (1909), and Sclater (1912)specify "hares" or "jack rabbits"; Decker and Bowles (1930) say thattheir food during the nesting season, "so far as we have seen, consistsalmost entirely of cotton-tail rabbits and young jack rabbits"; whileSclater (1912) adds "prairie dogs" to the mammal list. Bailey andNiedrach (1933), operating in Colorado, give us more details: "A fewminutes later, we saw the falcon darting low over the homes of theprairie dogs. He dipped close to the earth and struck one of therodents scurrying for cover, and, with scarcely slackening speed,mounted into the sky with a young prairie dog dangling from histalons. He circled higher, as though to look us over, and then flewto a pinnacle of rock where we could see him tearing at his prey."As said before these falcons can kill prey larger than themselves,and this is particularly true of the jack rabbits that are fully twiceas heavy as their destroyers.So it seems evident that many of us know only a part of the story.Unfortunately, only one study of the food of the prairie falcon hasbeen made, so far as I know, and the details of that are given undersubheading "Young" (p. 24). It is a good account, but it shows usthat there is much more to be learned about the food of these birds.Strange to say, when we consider the prowess and strength of theprairie falcons, there are several records of lizard and insect eating.Fisher (1893b) says: "Lizards are occasionally taken, and, amongthe insects, the large crickets and grasshoppers which are so abundantin some sections of the West are also eaten." Goss (1891), also, listslizards as one of the items of food, but does not speak of insects.Taverner (1926) says: "On occasions it even turns seriously tograsshoppers and the crop of at least one specimen examined by thewriter was filled with these insects. Of eight other stomachs examined,3 contained game birds; 5, other birds; 2, mammals; and 2, insects."Tyler gives an interesting account of a prairie falcon hunting on theground. He speaks of the probability that it was after a jack rabbit;but, to me, it seems very likely that it was after rodents or insects.I have personally seen them hunting grasshoppers in just that way.Tyler (1923) says:That this species sometimes seeks its food in mucli more lowly manner than onewould expect is evidenced by an incident which came to my notice on January 13,1920, near Hughson, Stanislaus County. I was sitting in an automobile talkingwith an acquaintance when I noticed a Prairie Falcon on the ground in a largegrain field. * * * He was hopping over the ground and seemed to be care-fully looking at the many small bunches of stubble which had accumulated as aresult of the recent plowing of the field. The falcon was repeatedly seen to hopup onto small clumps of this straw, and scrutinize them carefully as if in search of
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any small bird which might be concealed therein. After satisfying itself that noprey was to be found, other straw heaps, in turn, were visited. Fully half anacre of ground was covered, but the falcon was not seen to capture anything.* * * As I left the field, * * * it sprang into the air and beat awayon strong wings. As the falcon began to gain speed a jack rabbit sprang from itsplace of concealment, whereupon the falcon made a very swift and graceful swooptoward the rabbit but did not appear to endeavor to strike it.Giving due consideration to all the cross currents noted in the livesof various prairie falcons, we begin to wonder just what their economicvalue to man may be. The most serious complaint against them isnot that they kill chickens, but that they destroy tame pigeons. Oftena single falcon will hang around a grain elevator to catch the tamepigeons coming there for waste grain. At times, a falcon will locatea pigeon cote and visit it more or less regularly until it has takenevery bird. But, even this pigeon hunting seems to be more or lessindividual, and is not at all a general habit.Probably the destruction of poultry, pigeons, and wild birds byprairie falcons is pretty well balanced by the good the falcons do indestroying so many noxious rodents. Dr. A. K. Fisher (1893b)writes: "At present the data we have on the food of this Hawk is notenough to decide whether the species should be protected or perse-cuted." Later, although still undecided, Dr. Fisher (1907) sums upthe evidence well, saying:Throughout a large portion of the country inhabited by this species, poultry isscarce, as most ranchers do not yet attempt to raise it. Although this falcon feedsextensively upon waterfowl, quail, prairie chickens, and other game, it attacksalso various kinds of injurious mammals, notably the smaller ground squirrels,such as the striped, Franklin, Richardson, Harris, and the allied species, whichabound in many sections of its range. In this respect it is of considerable serviceto the agriculturist, and probably offsets the injury done by destroying game; but,unfortunately, the data at hand are insufficient to show just how extensively itpreys on these animals; hence the benefit done cannot be correctly estimated.Eichard M. Bond (1936b) says: "At an eyrie in southwestern SanLuis Obispo County was found a fresh half-eaten wild cat {Lynx rvfuscalifornicus) kitten, the estimated live weight of which was slightlyover 2 pounds, or about the load limit of a female Prairie Falcon.There is no proof that the kitten was killed by a falcon (it was on aledge about 30 feet from the nest), but a rather extensive exploration ofthe cliff disclosed no signs of other large birds of prey."Behavior.?To use the wording of the hawking brotherhood, this isa noble bird, met with far out over the wild, lonely foothills, over theunsettled plains and prairies, and even over the deserts of the South-west. It is strong, bold, and a fearless fighter, but wary, shy, andsecretive where it has been subjected to molestation. Like most otherhawks it likes to sit on dead trees and other conspicuous perches thatwill give it a wide outlook over the domain that it considers its own.Although it is normally a resident of the Sonoran Life Zone, some indi-
PRAIRIE FALCON 35
viduals nest, as in Colorado, almost up to the tops of the mountains;and many of the lowland birds climb to the highest altitudes as soon asthe nesting season is over.While individuals vary, most nesting prairie falcons react as Mr.Bent records: "While I was at the nest the female made several closeswoops at me within 10 or 15 feet. She was flying around and 'cack-ling' all the time. Meanwhile, the male was flying around at a safedistance." S. F. Kathbun writes that when he approached a nest
"the falcon flushed from the nest and gave three shrill cries, and imme-diately its mate came to the scene. Meanwhile my friend was workinghis way up the side of the crevice in the wall. The pair of falconsdashed back and forth, the one that flushed diving at me repeatedly,at times coining within 10 feet of my head, and both gave their cries soloud I think they could be heard nearly half a mile."Bailey and Niedrach (1933) tell us:As we walk along the edge of the dog town, near the steep escarpment, a greatwinged eagle sails out into space from a spot of shadow, where he had been restingunobserved, and flies leisurely along, and then while we admire the beauty ofhis flight we are attracted by a shrill scream of displeasure overhead, as a mediumsized falcon darts with the speed of an arrow at the slow moving eagle. Thelatter's movements are no longer leisurely, however. He immediately puts onall speed, and with the unwelcome falcon swooping in vicious onslaughts fromthe rear, much as a small terrier would snap at the heels of a lion, the great birdmakes an undignified and hurried exit from the vicinity.Decker and Bowles (1930) had a still more entertaining experience:While examining the location [a cliff with one nest of Prairie Falcon and onenest of western redtail] we found that someone had shot a bird from each pair,oddly enough it being the male Red-tail and the female Falcon, their bodieslying on the ground close to their respective nests. The remaining parents hadcontinued to 'carry on,' however, and the young that both nests containedseemed to be in excellent condition. When we appeared upon the scene andworked around close to the cliffs we started a very interesting disturbance betweenthe two birds, both of which showed the greatest solicitude. Their previousunfortunate experiences with mankind had evidently taught them to keep wellout of gunshot range of human beings, but the Falcon was apparently so angrythat he had to give vent to his feelings on something, the nearest available objectbeing the poor female Red-tail. Consequently we were treated to a most mar-vellous exhibition of what can be done by two trained experts in the art of flying,and the unusual and graceful movements of the Hawk were as thrilling to us asthey were unexpected. The Falcon would mount high in air over her and thendrop down upon her like a meteor until so close that it seemed inevitable hemust tear her to pieces. Then, just as he seemed upon the point of striking her,the Hawk would turn gracefully back downward and thrust her great talonsup at the approaching Falcon. Then there seemed no possible chance of avoidinga collision that would have meant almost certain death to them both, but alwaysthe Falcon would swerve in the very nick of time, missing by the merest fractionof an inch. This most interesting performance kept up until we left.Mr. Bond (1936b) says: "At an eyrie in western Kern County afemale was flushed from the eggs and was joined in the air by the male.
36 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMA pair of Barn Owls (Tyto alba pratincola) flew from the same cliff.The female Prairie Falcon broke the wing of the female owl, and themale falcon killed the male owl outright, each with a single stoop."Although I have long known that this falcon likes to chase andhector large birds, I still wonder why it chooses the great blue heronso often. Is it simply because of the size of the heron and its veryevident fear of the falcon? Ellsworth D. Lumley writes us: "Thesebirds seem to take delight in annoying the herons, for I watchedone of them as he repeatedly dived toward a heron that was standingon the rock cliff, coming to what appeared to be inches of the heron'shead. The heron always ducked and lowered himself as the falconsped by. The herons were also attacked when flying by the falcons,although I never saw one of them struck." Like Mr. Lumley, Ihave never seen a great blue heron actually struck by tins tormentor,but the falcons I have seen seemed to take a positive delight in seeinghow closely they could sweep and in how loudly they could makethe herons shriek.In spring falcons are keen, dashing, and wary, beautiful to see asthey dart across the country. But in autumn they may be seen attimes hunched up, like a clod, on some bare limb or pole. If startledthen they may only fly negligently a few hundred feet and mayeven show entire indifference to a person's presence. Usually theycatch their food by dashing, lightninglike swoops that are the veryessence of grace and wildness. At other times they may be seenhopping on the ground or across the grass, like small fowls aftergrasshoppers. They may be seen over low plains and deserts, orthey may be up over snow-clad mountains. Tyler (1923) says:A moody creature at all times, peevish and whimsical, the Prairie Falcon is abird of extremes. One never knows just what to expect from this handsomefalcon and the expected seldom happens. He may fairly dazzle us with a burstof speed as he comes in to his nest cliff from a long flight over the sage-coveredridges ; but our admiration fades as we behold him stoop-shouldered and motionless,for an hour at a time, on some low mound in a pasture, a picture of listless dejection.A pair of ravens in a nest not fifty feet from the falcons' own pot hole may betolerated for days at a time with no act to indicate that the falcons are even awareof the presence of their neighbors. Then a sudden outburst of anger, totally un-provoked so far as the human eye can detect, may mark the beginning of mercilessand unceasing persecution. * * *Sometimes the canyons echo with her noisy cackling as the female falcon strikesagain and again at the observer who approaches her nest cliff and yet, when, upona return visit, we expect the same thrilling demonstration, she often flaps silentlyaway with all the cramped awkwardness of a sparrow hawk just aroused from theduties of incubation.With a roar of wings the male sweeps along a canyon wall, dashes into a feedingflock of quail, snatches a victim and beats away like some giant swift; but whenwe hope to see this marvelous exhibition of flight repeated, we find him hoppingaround sparrow-like on the ground in some summer fallow field scrutinizing thebunches of stubble for a chance hidden meadowlark or Savannah sparrow.
PRAIRIE FALCON 37A wounded falcon, or one who has changed her nesting site only to have thenew location discovered, can give an exhibition of unmistakable anger which defiesall attempt at description; but an overfed mid-October bird as it sits dreamilyon a roadside fence post is usually too utterly lacking in spirit to attempt any-thing that requires more energy than a lazy flight to some more secluded perch
_
Because so much of the time our only view of falcons and hawks iswhile they are on the wing, the flight of the prairie falcon is of particu-lar interest. It is direct and swift, with short, powerful beats of thewings. Mr. Bent says that the prairie falcon "flies with rapid strokesof its pointed wings, the strokes being more downward than upward,with frequent spells of sailing." S. F. Rathbun writes that in easternWashington the normal flight is strong and even with "a successionof rapid wing-strokes, then short glides" ; and that "when even a strongwind is on its counter, the plane of its flight is not in the least affected.At one time a bird hovered for a space above the sage, then made avery wide sweep and returned to alight upon the surface of a freshlyfallowed field. In many of its flight actions the prairie falcon resem-bles the sparrow hawk. Its hovering is identical and of commonoccurrence. But the prairie falcon's dashing and rapid flight is whatgains a person's immediate notice and admiration." At another timeMr. Rathbun wrote: "What tricks this bird can pull in the air! Howfast it flies! When one is close to it, you have a better appreciation ofits flight. I never enjoyed anything more than watching the flying ofthese two birds. But at the speed they flew I would hate to have onehit me." Nor is Mr. Rathbun alone in being impressed by the swift-ness of this flight. J. G. Cooper noted it as long ago as 1870, and eversince that date ornithologist after ornithologist has admired it. Itsflight has often been compared to that of the swift. As a rule there islittle circling except at great heights above the ground. In its descentupon prey, the speed of the bird is so great as to be "as swift as anarrow" and to earn for the bird the name of "bullet hawk." So rapidis the swoop and so powerful the blow that the prey must often bekilled before it is at all aware of the danger. Over the foothills ofthe Rocky Mountains I noted that the height of hunting falcons wasusually only 30 or 40 feet above ground; but when they did mountinto the air, over the more level valleys, they ascended very rapidlyand were soon lost to sight. Not only does the prairie falcon swoop,but the speed of its flight is great enough to catch even rather swiftprey by direct pursuit. When it chooses to alight upon a high perchit flies low and when close enough suddenly closes its wings and shootsgracefully up to the desired height because of the speed already at-tained. Naturally such marvelous fliers give graceful, wonderfulexhibitions near their nests.So far as the literature shows, Mr. Taverner was uniquely favoredwhen he found prairie falcons bathing. He (1919a) says: "They
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were usually seen bathing in the shallows of the river shore." Andin a letter Mr. Taverner adds: "We saw the birds splashing in thewater from afar in true bird-bathing style."Voice.?The notes of the prairie falcon are somewhat similar tothose of the American sparrow hawk but arc louder, fiercer, andwilder. Bendire (1892) says: "Their alarm note was a rapidly re-peated 'kee, kee, kee,' and a sort of cackle." Peabody (1907) saysthere are two cries "that might be written down: a rattling, 'Kr-r-r-r,'with rising intonation; and a peevish, whining 'kruk.' This I findcompared in my note book to a noise made occasionally by flickers,or to one call of the guinea hen." Decker and Bowles (1930) say:"The cry may be described as a shrill yelping 'ldk-ldk-kik-kik-kik,'repeated over and over again. It strongly suggests a combination ofthe cackle of a Cooper's Hawk (Accipiter cooperi) at its nest and thealarm notes of the Greater Yellow-legs (Totanus mclanoleucus) ." Butthe best general description that we know of is that given by Tyler(1923), who writes:The voice of the Prairie Falcon is, on the whole, rather disappointing. Aseries of rapidly-repeated screeching, whistling, or cackling notes of varying toneand pitch constitute the usual calls, and these are most often heard in the springmonths near the nesting cliffs. Sometimes these notes are given with consider-able spirit, but often there is recognizable a sort of indifferent tone. In manycases I have been unable to detect any difference between the voices of the maleand female of a pair of falcons, but some females, which may be old birds, haveharsh cackling voices, while a few males with which I have come in contact haverather pleasing high-pitched whistling calls. While inspecting nests I have oftenfound that one of the pair of birds will remain silent while the other makes allthe noise, but this is not always the case. In the majority of instances it hasbeen the male that whistled while his mate kept silence. Occasionally, bothbirds of a pair will become enthused and the resultant din is most thrilling.Enemies.?Such a bird as the prairie falcon is naturally let alone bymost birds, and, because of its lonely life, contacts with others arerare. No doubt antagonisms between two or more pairs of thesefalcons are fierce and intense. Howard (1902) writes:When we were within a few hundred feet of the cliff we were greeted by a suddenscreaming, and on looking up saw three prairie falcons in an aerial combat.Their flight was very swift and graceful; undoubtedly two of the birds were thepair nesting in the cliff and the other an intruder. One bird of the pair wasfollowing in close pursuit of the enemy while its mate would ascend high into theair and with folded wings drop like a falling stone and at the same time utter ashrill scream. Just at the second one would naturally expect to see the enemydashed to pieces, a slight turn of the tail would carry him to one side and thewould-be assassin would dart harmlessly by like a flash.Most of the small birds keep out of the falcon's way as far as possible.Still, I once saw a prairie falcon pursued across a valley by a scoldingClark's nutcracker, although it soon escaped into the top of a deadfir. And Pierce (1915) says: "On January 9, 1915, 1 collected another
PRAIRIE FALCON 39female Prairie Falcon near Chino, California. My attention wasdrawn to this bird, which was sitting in a large branching willow,by the actions of some Red-winged Blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceusneutralis) that were sitting about in the same tree with the falcon.Several of their number kept persistently flying at the falcon, whoapparently cared little for their actions, as she sat quietly until Iapproached."With other raptors the contacts observed have largely been fightingones. Brooks (1909) says that "a male Peale Falcon incessantlybadgered the female Prairie Falcon of a pair nesting near, with aseries of splendid stoops." Of a nesting site known to have been usedpreviously to 1901 by prairie falcons, Cohen (1903) writes: "In 1901,March 30, the site was tenanted by a pair of duck hawks * * *.It is probable that no pair of duck hawks, or even prairie falcons dwellwithin a few miles of each other's domain owing to mutual antago-nism * * *. In 1902 we did not arrive at the prairie falcon nestuntil April 15, so as to allow the usurping duck hawks ample timeto pay the rent, and found things vice-versa once more." Grinnell,Dixon, and Linsdale (1930) record that "a great horned owl wastrapped at Eagle Lake on October 19, 1923. A Prairie Falconthat discovered the owl in the trap swooped and struck at the birdrepeatedly."One strange enemy with which the prairie falcons could ill contendwas the open tar pits in California. The bones of the victims havebeen collected and reported upon by Dr. Loye Miller. He says therewere great numbers of prairie falcons, duck hawks, and an extinctfalcon caught at the McKittrick pool, but not so many at the RanchoLa Brea now within the western limits of Los Angeles.We so rarely get any items on the parasitic enemies of birds thatthe following is particularly welcome. Ellsworth D. Lumley writesof a prairie falcon taken in the act of killing a chicken: "I found itsstomach contained a pocket gopher, but more interesting than thisI found its entire viscera filled with long white roundworms. Thesewere wound through the mesentery, intestines, cardiac muscles,even into the lungs and trachea. The insides of the bird lookedalmost as if they had been sewed together with white thread." Theseworms have since been identified as Serratospiculum tendo by Dr. JohnE. Guberelet, of the University of Washington, who further adds thatthese parasites are not uncommon in hawks in various parts of theworld.Winter.?According to Decker and Bowles (1930), these birds changetheir diet from rabbits to birds in winter. The stomachs of the birdsmentioned in the previous paragraph all contained the remains ofwestern meadowlarks. Cameron (1907) says the Montana prairiefalcon is a "relentless persecutor of the Sharp-tailed Grouse. I have
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even seen the falcon watching on a pine for the grouse to emerge fromthe snow at its foot. On February 7, 1895, an adult Prairie Falcon(now in my possession) was shot by a neighbor, J. C. Braley, atTerry, under peculiar circumstances. His wife was cooking beetrootand threw out the refuse on the snow, when the falcon, passing over-head, stooped to the beetroot which it probably mistook for raw meat."That these falcons do thus pass the winters in this cold Montanaclimate was also noted by Bendire (1892): "I have met with them(during winter) at Fort Walla Walla, Washington, and also shot anadult male on February 19, 1885, at Fort Custer, Montana, whilethe weather was still intensely cold."Although this is a bird of the wide open spaces, it was seen insidethe city limits of Denver in December 1919, at least. There it wassupposed to have preyed on juncos and English sparrows. Curiousto say, Dr. Fisher found these falcons under nearly the opposite condi-tions in winter, in Death Valley, Calif. There is additional evidencethat many falcons spend at least the winters over the desert rangesof southern California and Nevada.Prairie falcons are resident in most of the California habitat, andtheir winter habits are not known to differ from those of other seasons.DISTRIBUTIONRange.?Western United States and southern Canada east to south-eastern Saskatchewan, the Dakotas, and Missouri and south toMexico and Lower California. Accidental in Minnesota, Wisconsin,Illinois, and the Farallon Islands.Breeding range.?The breeding range of the prairie falcon extendsnorth to northern Washington (probabty Lake Chelan) ; southeasternBritish Columbia (Osoyoos Lake and probably Deer Park) ; southernAlberta (Elbow River, Milk River, and Little Sandhill Creek);southern Saskatchewan (Eastend and probably Last Mountain);and North Dakota (Fort Lincoln). East to North Dakota (FortLincoln); southeastern South Dakota (Harrison); and northwesternMissouri (Maryville). South to northwestern Missouri (Maryville);northern Texas (Blanco Canyon); New Mexico (Mesa Pajarito,Montoya, Santa Rosa, Capitan Mountains, probably Big HachitaMountains, and Animas Mountains); southern Arizona (Tombstoneand Huachuca Mountains); and Baja California (San Luis Island andSan Esteban). West to Baja California (San Esteban); California(San Pasqual, Colton, probably Mount Pinos, Sargents, Berkeley,East Park, and probably Shasta Valley); Oregon (Fort Klamath,Prineville, and The Dalles); and Washington (probably Walla Walla,Cheney, and probably Lake Chelan).Winter range.?The winter range of this falcon extends north nearlyto the limits of its breeding range. At this season it is found north to
PRAIRIE FALCON 41Washington (Walla Walla); rarely to Okanagan Landing, BritishColumbia; Montana (Billings); rarely southeastern Wyoming (Chey-enne); and Nebraska (Alda and rarely Omaha). East to Nebraska(rarely Omaha and Red Cloud); Kansas (Hays); Texas (Corsicana);Nueva Leon (Monterrey); Hidalgo (Real del Monte); and Oaxaca(Tehuantepec). South to Oaxaca (Tehuantepee) ; and Baja Cali-fornia (Cape San Lucas). West to Lower California (Cape San Lucas,San Jose del Cabo, Mira Flores, and San Jose); California (Chino,San Fernando, Paicines, Petaluma, and Marysville) ; Oregon (rarelyCorvallis); and Washington (Walla Walla).Spring migration.?Early dates of spring arrival at points north ofthe winter range are: South Dakota?Harrison, February 7; Ver-million, April 4. North Dakota?Harrisburg, March 21. Sas-katchewan, Osier, April 11. Alberta?Manton, March 28.Fall migration.?Late dates of fall departure are: Alberta?Brooks,October 12. Saskatchewan?Eastend, October 18. North Dakota
?
Red River Valley, October 2; Foster County, October 8 (once, De-cember 6, 1891). South Dakota (rarely winters)?Harrison, October30; Yankton, November 9. Southward flights of this hawk have beennoted in August in New Mexico.Some idea of the movements and (for some birds) lack of extensivetravels of these falcons may be found in a few recovery records ofbanded birds. Three juvenile birds banded on May 18, 1930, in theLucerne Valley, Mojave Desert, Calif., were retaken as follows:The first on October 6, 1930, at Lancaster, Calif.; the second on Octo-ber 28, 1930, near the point of banding; and the third on December 15,1931, nine miles east of Calipatria, Calif. Another juvenile, bandedon May 2, 1928, at Merrill, Oreg., was recaptured about August 5,1928, at Irvine, Alberta; while still another banded at the same timeand place was retaken at Arbuckle, Calif., on September 29, 1928.Casual records.?Among several records (some sight) for Minnesota,the following may be mentioned: A specimen from Traverse Countyon September 11, 1894; a female taken near Madison on September24, 1895; an immature male near Pipestone, on November 1, 1930;and a somewhat doubtful record of one purported to have been takenduring the winter of 1890-91 at Benson, Swift County. There areseveral records for Iowa and a rather doubtful record without date orexact locality for Wisconsin (Kumlien and Hollister, 1903). InIllinois, one was taken at Rock Island sometime prior to 1872; oneat Mount Carmel on September 27, 1871; and one at Bridgeport inJuly 1871. There also is a record of one on the Farallon Islands,Calif., on December 18, 1886.Egg dates.?California: 134 records, March 1 to May 25; 67 records,April 6 to 15, indicating the height of the season,13751?38 4
42 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMWashington and Oregon: 16 records, March 25 to April 28; 8records, April 5 to 14.Alberta and Saskatchewan: 7 records, April 22 to June 14.Montana and Wyoming: 14 records, April 25 to June 10; 7 records,May 4 to 19.Texas and Mexico: 10 records, February 18 to May 25; 5 records,April 22 to May 10.FALCO PEREGRINUS PEREGRINUS TunstallPEREGRINE FALCONContributed by Francis Charles Robert JourdainThe European race of this species is included in the third andfourth editions of the A. O. U. Check-List on the ground that it is
"casual in Greenland." Herluf Winge (1898) ascribes all Greenlandbirds, from both west and east coasts, to Falco peregrinus Tunstallvar. anatum Bonaparte, i. e., the duck hawk. This was generallyaccepted until 1926, when O. Helms published a little work on thebirds of Angmagsalik, based on the collections and notes of JohanPetersen. Here he states that the "nomadic Peregrine" has reachedAngmagsalik and breeds there, but sparsely and only at intervals ofyears. He records nests found in 1909, 1912, and 1924 and states thatPetersen had birds brought to him, shot from the nest on May 26,1909, and a male, also shot from the nest on June 11, 1912. Thesetwo skins were sent to Denmark, and Helms reports that the 1909bird proved to be "a mature but not very old bird which, with itsunspotted breast, closely resembled the American form, whereas theone shot in 1911 [1912?] was more like the European form." As allwriters are agreed that the West Greenland bird is the duck hawk,this record is the sole evidence for the inclusion of the European bird.It should be noted that this specimen was a breeding bird.E. Lehn Schi0ler in his great work, Danmarks Fugle, vol. 3, pp.399-405, published posthumously in 1931, who had before him a seriesof 19 adult males and 16 adult females from Greenland, includingspecimens of both sexes from Angmagsalik, admits only the Americanform (F. p. anatum) to the Greenland list. There is scarcely anydoubt that the two specimens described by Helms were included inSchi0ler's survey, although there is a slight discrepancy in the dateof the second bird, which is given by Helms as 1911 in one place and1912 in another, while Schi0ler records it as 1914; and, as he had alsosplendid series of the European bird for comparison, his evidence canbe accepted without hesitation. The extreme improbability of tworaces breeding in the same locality, when the nearest breeding stationof one of the two is over 1,000 miles distant, also provides strongcorroboration, and the race should be deleted from the American list.
DUCK HAWK 43FALCO PEREGKINUS ANATUM Bonaparteduck hawkPlates 11-15HABITSThis noble falcon is our representative of a world-wide species,of which some 16 races have been recognized in various parts of theworld, including all the continents and most of the principal islands.The best known of these races is the European form, F. p. peregrinus,from which our bird differs in having a whiter throat and upper breast,with little or no dark marking; our bird also has a wider moustacialstripe and more black on the sides of the head. The European raceis on our Check-List as "casual in Greenland", but the best authoritiesnow refer all Greenland birds to anatum (see p. 42).I do not like the name duck hawk, as it suggests a close relationshipto the hen hawks and other ignoble hawks; neither do I like the oldname great-footed hawk, used by Audubon and some of the early-writers ; this suggests clumsiness, a trait far removed from this gracefuland agile falcon. I should prefer to call it the American peregrinefalcon, but duck hawk seems to be the established name.This large falcon is widely distributed in North America, breedingfrom beyond the tree limits in Arctic regions southward to some of themore southern States; it is very rare on the central plains and is no-where abundant, though its range extends from the Atlantic to thePacific. It is an eventful day when one can see and admire the dashingflight of this bold warrior.Joseph A. Hagar, Massachusetts State ornithologist, has beenvery active for the past two years, 1935 and 1936, in protecting theduck hawk in this State. He has visited repeatedly all the knownaeries in the State, some dozen or more, spent many full days in thefield each season, making as many as a dozen or more trips in a seasonto a number of them, and made an intensive study of the habits of thisinteresting falcon. He has taken voluminous notes and accumulatedmany valuable data on the subject, all of which he has generouslyplaced at my disposal. He contributes the following interestingaccount of the spring and courtship activities:Courtship.?"In Massachusetts adult duck hawks reoccupy thebreeding stations before the end of February, and since the first eggsare not laid before March 25 or April 1, there is a long and interestingcourtship. So wonderful are the aerial evolutions of the peregrinesduring this season that I am inclined to think that no observer canfully appreciate their powers of flight who has not seen them at thenesting site on a windy March day; every movement, no matter howextended, is centered about the home cliff, so that its whole coursemay be traced, which is not usually the case at other seasons and places.
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"There is some evidence that it is the male bird that is stronglyattached to the cliff?that he returns there first and endeavors toattract a female, but if unsuccessful, remains there throughout thesummer, while unmated females apparently roam about from placeto place. Whether the duck hawk mates for life, and the female ofthe previous season returns directly to the cliff, if still alive (as hasbeen generally assumed), I am not yet prepared to say, but I do recallvery vividly a little drama that throws considerable light on the initialstages of courtship. This took place at Mount Sugarloaf on March16 and involved a male peregrine that at that date, some three weeksafter his return to the mountain, appeared to be still unmated. I hadbeen watching him for more than an hour as he sat quietly on a deadpine above the cliff and during this whole period had heard no call orseen no such animation as is associated with the courting period.Suddenly, at about 9 o'clock, he launched out from his perch and beganto sail back and forth along the face of the cliff, repeatedly giving thewichew or rusty-hinge note. A moment later I spotted a large femaleperegrine coming up the valley from the south, some 200 feet abovethe mountain. Arriving abreast of the cliff, she began to describewide circles over the crest, flying very leisurely and seeming to watchthe proceedings below her ; the tercel redoubled his cries and flew fromone shelf to another, alighting for a moment on each one and thenswinging along to the next, with every appearance of the greatestexcitement. The falcon, having presently completed three or fourcircles, now straightened her course toward the north, and picking upspeed with every stroke of her wings soon disappeared in the hazealong North Sugarloaf; the male continued his vain activity, wailingand wichew-ing for nearly a minute after she had passed from sight.He then made a short silent sally out over the valley and finallyreturned to sit hunched up and quiet on his dead tree for many minutes,before leaving on a hunting expedition behind the mountain. Thisepisode introduces several of the elements of the courtship?theflight display, the shelf display, the coaxing wicheiv note?and itremains only to elaborate on their use and to mention the food-bringingroutine."The male assumes an aggressive role throughout the first part ofthe period, seeming to arouse and lead on the female from step tostep of the reproductive cycle. With both birds at a cliff, early inMarch, the first business of each morning is feeding. Shortly afterdaylight the falcons will be discovered perched on their favorite deadtrees on the upper part of the cliff, watching closely for the passingof some smaller bird suitable for prey. If none appears near at handthe male will sally out at intervals and go far across the valley,returning perhaps at the end of 20 or 30 minutes with a blue jayhanging limp in his talons. He wails while still at a distance, and the
DUCK HAWK 45female, wailing in return, flies to meet him and receives the bird inthe usual way. Or perhaps his search has been in vain, and hesuddenly plunges down from a great height, empty-footed, to resumethe watch from his perching tree. Perchance a flicker now appearsflying up the valley at a considerable height above the trees, but stillbelow the level of the hawks; they both start out from their trees and,stroking steadily, converge on the unfortunate bird with a speed anddeadly earnestness chilling to the onlooker. The female takes thelead. The flicker sees its peril too late, and in a trice the falconsnatches it dead in the air and, turning sharply about, heads back forthe cliff while her mate convoys her from behind. She lights on hertree, holding the bird against the branch with one foot, and in anothermoment flicker feathers are drifting down-wind as she eagerly plucksher booty. Meanwhile the tercel sallies forth again over the valleyand this time returns with his bird. There are many variations ofthis morning scene?the birds may go away hunting together, themale may make his kill near the cliff, or the female may miss herstoop, in which case the tercel often stoops at the same bird?butcertain parts of the pattern are quite invariable. In general, thefemale stays closer to home; if they both chase the same bird, thefemale makes the first stoop; and she eats the first bird whether shekills it herself or the male brings it to her.
"Having fed, the hawks are likely to sit quietly for some little time,occasionally wailing to each other, preening their feathers, perhapslazily stretching first one wing and then the other. At length thetercel starts off his perch and begins to soar and swoop about thecliff, describing a series of figure-eights in the air, sometimes in ahorizontal, sometimes a vertical, plane. At times he lights on littleshelves and wichews ; again he returns to his tree and wails, or perhapshe soars higher and higher in the air, farther and farther out acrossthe valley, until at last he shuts his wings to his sides and plungesdown in a mile-long swoop that brings him back to the cliff. Some-times the falcon accompanies him on these flights, but for the mostpart she is distinctly passive. The culmination of these flight dis-plays depends much on the weather, but eventually the patient watcherwill see an exhibition of flying that is literally breath-taking. I haveseen it at many nest sites, but never to better advantage than onebeautiful spring morning at Black Rock when a rising southerly galewas whipping along the flanks of Mount Everett. We were hiddenin the woods below the south end of the cliff, and the peregrines werequite unconscious of our presence at the time; again and again thetercel started well to leeward and came along the cliff against thewind, diving, plunging, saw-toothing, rolling over and over, dartinghither and yon like an autumn leaf until finally he would swoop upinto the full current of air and be borne off on the gale to do it all
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over again. At length he tired of this, and, soaring in narrow circleswithout any movement of his wings other than a constant smalladjustment of their planes, he rose to a position 500 or 600 feet abovethe mountain and north of the cliff. Nosing over suddenly, heflicked his wings rapidly 15 or 20 times and fell like a thunderbolt.Wings half closed now, he shot down past the north end of the cliff,described three successive vertical loop-the-loops across its face,turning completely upside down at the top of each loop, and roaredout over our heads with the wind rushing through his wings likeripping canvas. Against the background of the cliff his terrificspeed was much more apparent than it would have been in the opensky. The sheer excitement of watching such a performance wastremendous; we felt a strong impulse to stand and cheer.
"As March advances, the male peregrine tries more and more toentice the female to certain shelves he has picked out. Betweenhunting trips and exercising flights above the valley he spends longintervals on these shelves, scratching around in the debris, wichew-mgin his most persuasive tones, standing at their front edges breast outto the sun, wailing mournfully now and then, and even flying to thefemale's roost tree to wichew at her in soft conversational tones. Atfirst she pays no attention, nor leaves her tree, but gradually herpassivity gives way to mild interest; she flies to the shelf where he isworking and lights there; they both walk back out of sight and for amoment there is an outburst of argumentative wichew-mg andcreaking as she seems to disagree emphatically with all his plans.Either bird may come off first, leaving the other to scratch and digaround, but as a rule they do not both stay. At any time now thefemale may be seen to return to her tree alone; the male wichewsexcitedly at one or more shelves and then comes off the cliff, fliesdirectly to her with no other preliminaries, and copulation takesplace to the accompaniment of a low, conversational, chucklingnoise, which is entirely distinct from the usual notes. Coition ismore likely to occur near the middle of the day and is usually repeatedwithin an hour or so ; it is also repeated on succeeding days until atleast two eggs are in the nest."The interest of the male in nesting shelves now begins to wanein inverse proportion to the female's increasing, though somewhatfurtive, activity. While he is away hunting she may be seen goingall over the cliff, squeezing into the most inadequate cracks andniches, scratching and scraping with bill and feet, turning round andround to get the feel of tentative nest hollows. At length she choosesthe site, apparently with no reference to the male's previous selection,and in the course of a few days makes a smooth well-rounded scrapean inch or two deep. If disturbed at this time she is very likely topick a new site at once and hurriedly prepare it, and I have several
DUCK HAWK 47times had the experience of watching a falcon carefully form a nesthollow only to return after a short interval and discover the firsteggs in quite a different spot on the cliff. The eggs are laid at inter-vals of every other day, with often two full days between the thirdand fourth."Nesting.?I shall never forget how my youthful enthusiasm wasfired by reading in my ornithological primer, Samuels's "Birds ofNew England", the thrilling account of the taking of the eggs of thegreat-footed hawk on Mount Tom by C. W. Bennett, on April 19,1864, and how I longed to have a similar experience. But it wasmany years before I had the pleasure of visiting this historic old aerie.Duck hawks had been known to breed in the Holyoke Range, includ-ing Mount Tom, in central Massachusetts, and on Talcott Mountainin Connecticut since 1861, where they had probably nested for manyprevious years. Dr. J. A. Allen (1869) says that the eggs taken byMr. Bennett "were the first eggs of the duck hawk known to natu-ralists to have been obtained in the United States, the previous mostsouthern locality whence they had been taken being Labrador." Hesays further:Mr. C. W. Bennett, of Holyoke, their discoverer, has since carefully watchedthem, and his frequent laborious searches for their nest have been well rewarded.In 1866 he took a second set of eggs, three in number, from the eyrie previouslyoccupied. In 1867 the male bird was killed late in April, and this apparentlyprevented their breeding there that year, as they probably otherwise would havedone. At least no nest was that year discovered. In 1868 hawks of this specieswere seen about the mountains, and although they reared their young there, alleffort to discover their nest was ineffectual. The present year (1869) they com-menced to lay in the old nesting place, but as they were robbed when but oneegg had been deposited, they deserted it and chose a site still more inaccessible.Here they were equally unfortunate, for during a visit to this mountain, in com-pany with Mr. Bennett (April 28th), we had the great pleasure of discoveringtheir second eyrie, and from which, with considerable difficulty, three freshlylaid eggs were obtained. Not discouraged by this second misfortune, theynested again, this time depositing their eggs in the old eyrie from which all exceptthe last set of eggs have been obtained. Again they were unfortunate, Mr.Bennett removing their second set of eggs, three in number, May 23d, at whichtime incubation had just commenced. The birds remained about the mountainall the summer, and from the anxiety they manifested in August it appears notimprobable that they laid a third time, and at this late period had unfledgedyoung.Probably these falcons, or their successors, have nested on MountTom ever since then. When we visited this locality on April 14,1928, we found the nest situated on a shelf of rock 55 feet from thebase of a nearly perpendicular cliff, 120 feet high, above a long, slop-ing talus of broken rock. The photograph (pi. 11) taken by mycompanion, Robert L. Coffin, shows the general location very wellbut gives only a faint idea of the beauty of the landscape spread outbefore us, the alluvial plain of the Connecticut River with its pan-
48 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMorama of fields, gardens, orchards, and woodlands, dotted with farmhouses and intersected by the winding, silvery thread of the river.The ledge, on which the aerie was located, was about 14 feet long, 6feet wide at its widest part, and only 20 inches wide at the nest.Some grass and moss were growing on it, a gray birch sapling grewnear the center, and a few very small birch saplings fringed the nar-row end in front of the nest. The four handsome eggs lay in a slighthollow, an inch and a half deep and about 12 inches wide, scraped inthe accumulated soil and rubbish, and surrounded by flakes of rock,a few twigs, scattering bird bones, several pellets, and an aluminumband from the leg of a carrier pigeon. The nest is well illustrated inthe photograph (pi. 11) taken by my other companion, Frank C.Willard, who climbed up to the nest from below, while I handled theropes on the top of the cliff.On that same trip, in the same general region, we visited fourother nesting sites, at all of which the birds were in evidence andsolicitous; at one place we failed to locate the nest, and at the othersthe nests were empty, evidently robbed. On Sugarloaf Mountainthe empty scrape was on a small shelf, less than 10 feet from the topof the high cliff and easily accessible. The aerie on Mount Tekoawas also easily reached, as it was about halfway up on a low irregularcliff not over 50 feet high; the ledge was partly overgrown with grass,and the nest was merely a hollow lined with grass.I had found a duck hawk's nest with eggs twice previously onBear Mountain in this same range. This is a steeply sloping moun-tain of about 1,000 feet altitude, more or less wooded on the slopesand capped by an almost perpendicular cliff of trap rock about 100feet high. The nest had been located the previous year by my com-panion, R. P. Stapleton, on a fairly accessible ledge on a steeplysloping part of the cliff ; but this year, 1907, the falcons had chosenfor their aerie a small ledge, about 6 feet long and 18 inches wide, onthe perpendicular part of the cliff, about 70 feet down from the topand 30 feet up from the base, protected from above by overhangingrock and difficult to reach from the only accessible side, as the rockbulged out so far that there was no foothold within 10 feet of theaerie. On May 18, 1907, the nest contained three half incubatedeggs, laid in a hollow in the soil about 3 feet from a small gray birch.The following year, on May 16, these falcons had three heavilyincubated eggs in the same spot.The duck hawk breeds at various places in the Appalachian Moun-tain Chain, at least as far south as Tennessee. Albert F. Ganier(1931) found a nest on a picturesque, lofty crag on the slope of MountLeConte, in the Great Smoky Mountains, on April 7, 1929; the site,which had probably been in use for years, was quite similar to those
DUCK HAWK 49described above, "a shelf about 12 feet long and 15 feet below thetop, on the vertical side." On March 30, 1930, he found anothernest, 125 miles farther west in the Cumberland Mountains; "thisnest was unusual, in that the eggs were laid in an old nest of thered-tailed hawk, built in a recess in the cliff some 90 feet from thebottom and 20 feet from the top."Mr. Ganier (1933) also located a pair of duck hawks at ReelfootLake, in the northwestern corner of Tennessee, that were probablybreeding there; he says: "On April 24, in company with a group offellow students of bird life, the author identified a pair in the bigtimber at the upper end of the lake. They were so bold and vociferousin their protests that it was evident an eyrie with young was locatedin the hollow top of one of the old cypress trees nearby."The European peregrine has been recorded as nesting in trees andthere are a few such records for this country. Robert Ridgway(1889) writes: "In the spring of 1878, the writer found several pairsnesting in sycamore trees in the neighborhood of Mt. Carmel [Illinois].Three nests were found in the immediate vicinity of the town. Allwere placed in cavities in the top of very large sycamore trees, andwere inaccessible. One of these trees was felled, however, andmeasurements with a tape-line showed the nest to have been eighty-nine feet from the ground, its location being a shallow cavity, causedby the breaking off of the main limb, the upper part of which pro-jected over sufficiently to form a protection from the sun and rain."Col. N. S. Goss (1878) found-in February, 1875, a pair nesting about three miles southeast of Neosho Falls,Kansas, in the timber on the banks of the Neosho River. The nest was in a largesycamore, about fifty feet from the ground, in a trough-like cavity formed by thebreaking off of a hollow limb near the body of the tree. I watched the pairclosely, with a view of securing both the birds and their eggs. March 27 I becamesatisfied that the birds were sitting, and I shot the female, but was unable to getnear enough to shoot the male. The next morning I hired a young man to climbthe tree, who found three fresh eggs, laid on the fine soft rotten wood in a hollowworked out of the same to fit the body. There was no other material or lining,except a few feathers and down mixed with the decayed wood.Western nests are often in pot-holes or other cavities in sandstonecliffs or high cut-banks. Major Bendire (1892) mentions such a nest,above the falls of the Missouri, that "was situated in a small hollowin a perpendicular wall of rock, some 15 or 20 feet above the base ofthe wall, and consisted of a few coarse twigs and bits of grass, forminga ridge on the outer side barely sufficient to prevent the eggs fromrolling out." He also writes of a set of eggs taken by Denis Galefrom an old eagle's nest on a rocky cliff on the Cache la Poudre Creek:"The site was in a rocky ledge about 80 feet high and about 50 feetfrom the foot of the cliff."
50 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMEdwin Beaupre (1922) found, in Ontario, a set of this falcon's eggsin a very unusual location: "They were laid among ferns close tosome silver birch saplings on the open ground on the top of a cliff."The islands off the coasts of California and Lower California offerideal nesting sites for duck hawks, where they are free from preda-tory animals and where they find abundant food among the seabirds. Here their nests are often easily accessible to the collector, insome natural cavity or on some small shelf on a low cliff sometimesonly 10 or 20 feet high.Along the coasts of Labrador and Ungava the duck hawks nest onthe islands or on cliffs on the mainland, usually near breeding coloniesof gulls, eiders, or other sea birds. A pair had a nest on an islandwe visited near Nain, in the midst of a large colony of glaucous gullsand black guillemots. Lucien M. Turner says, in his notes from FortChimo, that there is scarcely an island near the sea-bird colonies thatdoes not have one or more pairs of these falcons nesting on or near it.Eggs.?The duck hawk lays ordinarily three or four eggs, occa-sionally five and very rarely six or even seven. In shape they varyfrom short-ovate or ovate to oval, or even elliptical-oval. The shellis smooth or finely granulated. The eggs are richly and handsomelycolored; the ground color varies from creamy white to pale pink, butit is almost always nearly, or wholly, concealed by small blotches,spots, or fine dots of brilliant rich browns or reds, which are some-times concentrated at one end. The colors most often seen are"Morocco red", "mahogany red", "brick red", "Kaiser brown",
"hazel", "russet", or "tawny." Some light-colored eggs are "palesalmon color", finely speckled with "Congo pink", overlaid with afew scattering blotches of "cinnamon-rufous"; rarely one has faintunderlying blotches of "pallid purple-drab." Often there is a solidwash of color at one end, or over the whole egg, with darker markingsover it. The measurements of 61 eggs, in the United States NationalMuseum, average 52 by 41 millimeters; the eggs showing the fourextremes measure 57 by 43, 56.5 by 43.5, and 48.5 by 38.5 millimeters.Young.?The period of incubation has been said to be 28 days, butMr. Hagar has definitely determined that it varies from 33 to 35 days.He says, in his notes: "The two sexes change places rather frequentlyfrom the time the first egg is laid until incubation begins, if theweather is cold or stormy; once incubation has started, the femalesits very closely for the first two weeks or so, leaving the nest onlylong enough to receive birds brought in by the male. She is mostlikely to leave the nest late in the afternoon. The last half of theincubation period the male performs rather more of the incubation,usually taking short turns in mid morning and late afternoon, whilethe female goes hunting."
DUCK HAWK 51Only one brood is raised in a season, but, if the eggs are taken, thebird will lay a second, or even a third, set after about three weeks.Dr. Charles R. Keyes (1906) reports that a pair in Iowa laid two setsof six eggs each in one season.Allen and Knight (1913) made a series of observations on a broodof young duck hawks near Cayuga Lake, N. Y. On May 11 the youngwere apparently about three days old.During the four hours that the nest was observed, the female brooded, exceptfor two short intervals, when she left for the purpose of securing food. Each timea Rough-winged Swallow was brought in from a colony that had established itselfin the gorge below. The young were still Weak, and were fed with great care;quite differently from the mad orgies that took place later on, as they grew older.Between ten and fifteen minutes elapsed before either Swallow was consumed.Small bits were torn from it by the parent, and the young permitted to pick themoff from the side of her bill. On May 19 the young were still in the down, thoughmuch larger. At this time, during the four hours of observation, two moreSwallows were brought in; the Hawks seeming to fancy these birds, and pursuingthem with evident satisfaction. * * *The nest was not visited again until June 9, when the young seemed nearlyready to leave. Standing at the very edge of the ledge, they flapped their wingsin exercise, as though they would like to sail across the gorge to meet their parents,and yet dared not. Their vision had become exceedingly acute, and everypassing bird was watched with the keenest interest. They always saw theapproaching parents long before the human eye could perceive them, and awaitedthem with the most intense excitement. They danced about the ledge anduttered the wild screams of their race. It seemed as though at any moment oneof them might tumble from the precarious position. To add to the excitement,the parent bird never came directly to the nest, but passed by as if to tantalizeher offspring. When she did come to the ledge, a wild fight ensued among theyoung for the possession of the game, and for a few minutes the proprietorshipwas undecided. Usually, however, the first one to get a hold managed to drawthe prey beneath it, completely covering it and allowing the others no chancewhatsoever. On this day, two pigeons were brought in, one by the female andone by the male. * * *On June 21, but one young remained on the ledge. The others were flyingabout the gorge, but toward the latter part of the afternoon returned to thenesting ledge, evidently to roost. The first young to leave was now flying aboutwith the ease of the adults, and could be distinguished from his parents onlywith difficulty. He, likewise, took great interest in the Rough-winged Swallowsand frequently pursued them, striking, like his parents, from the side. Theprevious year the young were watched taking food from the talons of the parentsin mid-air. As the adult bird glided up the gorge bearing food, the young flewout to meet it, coming from below and to the side, and struck the prey from itsclaws even as they were now striking at the live Swallows.The young bird that remained on the ledge, though frequently exercising itswings, seemed to be fearful of trusting itself to the air, even when clods weretossed down, it lacked the stamina to go. Finally, however, as it perched onthe brink and a stone struck too close for comfort, it jumped forth and set itswings. We were uncertain as to whether it could control its unaccustomedwings after leaving the supporting ledge, but to our surprise, when once started,it lost all timidity. Instead of sailing to the creek below, as we thought it might,it circled about the gorge, and, espying the trees in which it had so frequently
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watched its parents, set its wings in that direction. There it landed safely,sixty feet above the ground, on a large branch close to the trunk, and waswelcomed by its parents.Joseph Dixon (1908) took three small downy young duck hawksfrom a nest in Alaska on June 16, when the largest one was justgetting its eyes open.He raised them in captivity and weighed them at intervals. OnJune 19, the smallest one weighed h}{ ounces and the largest 7 ounces.In five days they almost doubled in weight, to 9 and 12 ounces.They weighed 12 and 20 ounces on June 30 and 20 and 25 ounces onJuly 6. During the next two weeks their plumage began to developuntil, on July 21, the largest was "a beautiful falcon with cleanbright plumage and a general clear-cut neat appearance"; theyweighed 25 and 26 ounces. On July 23, when about six weeks old,the large one was able to fly. "They were not particular as to theirfood as long as it was fresh meat, except that they preferred birdbodies to mice."Dr. Elon H. Eaton (1910) says that sometimes the young "fallfrom the nesting-shelf and perish on the rocks below." He and hiscompanions had watched an "eyry for 24 hours from a concealedstation to observe the visits of the parent falcons. Food was broughtonly once in this time, and the young birds became unusually rest-less. Finally the male fell over the mountain side and was killed onthe talus slope. I believe that the old birds in this case were tryingto lure the young from the nest by bringing insufficient food to theledge. As the young begin to fly the parent birds fly by with preyin their talons, and the young rise to snatch it from them in mid-airas they pass. Thus the weaklings are sometimes left to perish, or intheir struggles to obtain the prize meet their destruction. Thefalcon's eyry must needs be a strenuous school to train the fiercestof all raptores for his murderous career."From three nests, in which the date of hatching was definitelyknown by Mr. Hagar, the first young bird flew from the nest on the33d, 35th, and 33d days, respectively.Plumages.?When first hatched, the young duck hawk is rathersparsely covered with short, creamy-white down; when about 10 or14 days old, this is replaced or concealed by longer, thicker, coarsedown, pale grayish white above and creamy white below. Whenabout three weeks old, the juvenal plumage begins to appear, andthis is completed during the next two or three weeks; the flight stageis reached at an age of about five weeks. The plumage appears firston the back, scapulars, and head ; the wings and tail are sprouting atabout the same time. The pectoral tracts are then feathered, and thelast of the down is seen on the back, showing through the plumage,on the center of the breast, and finally on the thighs.
DUCK HAWK 53In fresh juvenal plumage the crown is mainly "cinnamon-buff" to
"cinnamon", lightly streaked with blackish; the lores, auriculars,and a broad rictal band are brownish black; the upper parts are
"bone brown", broadly edged or tipped, especially on the lesser wingcoverts, with "orange-cinnamon"; the under parts are from "Mikadobrown" to "light pinkish cinnamon", fading later to "cream-buff",broadly streaked, except on the throat, with "bone brown" or "fus-cous"; the dark brown tail is banded with broken bars of "cinnamon"and broadly tipped with "light pinkish cinnamon", fading later topale buff.The juvenal plumage is worn for a year or more, with only slightchanges by wear and fading; the buffy edgings on the upper parts andthe buff tips on the tail fade and wear away; and the under parts fadeout to nearly white. The molt into the adult plumage is completebut varies greatly as to time in different individuals and is generallymuch prolonged ; it sometimes begins in spring, when the bird is abouta year old, but oftener it occurs during the following summer andfall.The adult plumage is characterized by the gray upper parts, darkeston the head, where it is nearly black, and lighter gray, banded withdarker, on the mantle; the under parts are white, often more or lesswashed with "pinkish buff" on the belly, sparingly spotted or streakedon the breast and belly and barred on the flanks with black. Adultshave one annual complete molt, which is irregular and prolonged, asin the young bird. Signs of molting may be found during almost anymonth.There is a tendency toward melanism even in eastern individuals.This is so well marked in some immature birds that they are almost asdark as young pealei. Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway (1905) describeone, taken near Chicago, Illinois, that is "above continuously pureblack", and "beneath ochraceous-white ; the neck, breast, and abdomenthickly marked with broad longtitudinal stripes of clear black." Ofan adult, taken in Connecticut, they say: "The upper surface isplumbeous-black, becoming deep black anteriorly, the head withouta single light feather in the black portions; the plumbeous bars aredistinct only on the rump, upper tail-coverts, and tail, and are justperceptible on the secondaries. The lower parts are of a very deepreddish-ochraceous, deepest on the breast and abdomen, where itapproaches a cinnamon tint?the markings, however, as in otherexamples."Food.?The duck hawk is primarily a bird killer ; nearly all its foodconsists of birds, ranging in size from mallard ducks down to warblersand nuthatches. The following long list includes many, thoughprobably not all, of the birds that have been recorded in its food:Domestic pigeons and other poultry, grebes, auklets, murrelets, small
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gulls, terns, petrels, wild ducks from the size of mallards down toteals, small shearwaters, small herons, coots, gallinules, rails, wood-cock, snipe, sandpipers, plovers, quail, grouse, ptarmigans, pheasants,sparrow hawks, cuckoos, kingfishers, mourning doves, flickers andother woodpeckers, marsh hawks, whippoorwills, nighthawks, chimneyswifts, kingbirds, jays, crows, phoebes, starlings, bobolinks, black-birds, orioles, grackles, meadowlarks, crossbills, goldfinches, grosbeaks,juncos and other sparrows, purple martins, swallows, tanagers,thrashers, catbirds, warblers, nuthatches, robins, thrushes, andbluebirds. Probably the very largest and the very smallest birds onthis list are less often taken than those of intermediate size; pigeons,flickers, jays, meadowlarks, and other birds of similar size probablyconstitute the bulk of the food in inland localities; on the seacoastand islands, these hawks live almost exclusively on the smallersea birds.Dr. Paul L. Errington (1933) writes:It is plain that domestic pigeon is the Prairie du Sac peregrine's main staple.Bluejays, flickers, and icterids figure prominently. Next in order might be con-sidered mourning doves, nighthawks, killdeers, and young domestic chickens. Ihave record of but the one duck (green-winged teal) from the feeding places,although Wisconsin, of course, is not much of a waterfowl state. Mammals donot seem to be brought in at all.Various authors cite definite instances of ruffed grouse preyed upon by pere-grines, but, while my nests were in excellent ruffed grouse country, I have notfound a single trace in bone and feather debris from the Wisconsin falcons. In-deed drumming logs were located within 50 to 150 yards of two of the peregrinenest sites, and I cannot recall a visit at which grouse were not to be flushed. Theimpunity with which these grouse habitually frequented the vicinity of the pere-grine haunts I ascribe to the entirely different habitats and adaptations of thetwo birds; the falcon's long pointed wings arc ill-designed to whip into the brushin pursuit of a short-winged compact flyer like the ruffed grouse.* * * Pigeons are spoken of as a nuisance by most of the farmers withwhom I am acquainted; the rest of the prey is drawn largely from species thatplainly thrive in spite of?or perhaps because of?the predator pressure theyhave always borne. And the Mourning Doves, swifts, nighthawks, martins andteal one might be pardoned for reckoning legitimate game for an aerial hunterequipped only with natural weapons, however superb.Mammals form an insignificant part of the duck hawk's food. Re-mains of hares, rabbits, woodchucks, squirrels, and field mice havebeen found near their nests, as well as pellets made up of fur andbones of mammals. Even beetles and dragonflies have been foundin their stomachs. Audubon (1840) says that they sometimes feedon dead fish; he found the eyes and scales of fishes in their stomachs.The duck hawk is a clean feeder and a good sportsman. It wantslive game and prefers to capture it on the wing. It is the swiftest ofour birds of prey and can easily overtake our fastest flying birds. Ifthe bird is not too heavy for it to carry, it dashes along beside orunder it, often turning upside down, seizes the bird in its talons, and
DUCK HAWK 55
flies away with it. Larger birds it strikes with such terrific force asto kill its victim instantly, or send it tumbling to the ground, whitherit descends to pluck and devour it. I believe that it always plucksits bird, at least partially, before eating it.Allen and Knight (1913) say that "the Falcons never struck fromabove, but waited until opposite the victim, when, with a quick semi-inversion of the body, they fiercely struck the Swallow from the side.At one time the Hawk was observed to strike from nearly below thevictim, so that an almost complete inversion was necessary." Dr.Charles W. Townsend (1930) saw a female duck hawk strike in flight,lull and carry off for 300 or 400 yards a lesser scaup duck. He alsowrites, explaining another method of capture: "I was watching aflock of Pectoral Sandpipers in the marsh when a Duck Hawk sud-denly appeared and dashed into the startled flock which had jumpedand were flying in all directions. The hawk turned, flew back andpicked up a bird that it had struck down, and, without alighting,carried it off in its talons. The act of striking was executed withsuch speed that, although it took place within thirty yards of me, Ifailed to see it and did not realize what had happened until the falconchecked its impetuous career by banking and returned and pickedup its victim."Theed Pearse writes to me that he was watching wildfowl at seanear Courtenay, Vancouver Island, "when a bird came out from theshore flying at a great pace, not far above the surface of the water,skimming it; the glasses showed the bird to be a male duck hawk.I never saw a bird fly faster, and I lost sight of the bird for an instant,and the next thing I saw with the glasses was the hawk over the water,where one horned grebe was getting away as fast as possible andanother was floating dead, belly up. The live bird did not interestthe hawk, which swung around and swooped down, trying to pickup its quarry; it did this half a dozen times; each time it swept aroundto come at the dead bird up-wind; once it managed to lift the bodywell out of the water but could not retain it. Unfortunately, I didnot see the actual strike by the hawk, but I think the hawk sweptalong so close to the surface and at such a pace that it struck andkilled the grebe before the latter had time to dive, which it wouldhave done had it seen the hawk ; it seemed certain therefore that thekill was made on the surface of the water."Duck hawks are especially fond of pigeons, living largely on themin some of our large cities in winter. Audubon (1840) says: "Forseveral days I watched one of them that had taken a particular fancyto some tame pigeons, to secure which it went so far as to enter theirhouse at one of the holes, seize a bird, and issue by another hole inan instant, causing such terror among the rest as to render me fearfulthat they would abandon the place."
56 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMDr. C. Hart Merriam (1877), referring to a duck hawk shot on anisland where terns were breeding, says: "During her brief visit shehad made sad havoc among the Terns, and her crop was greatlydistended with their remains, which had been swallowed in incrediblylarge pieces?whole legs, and the long bones of the wings were foundentire and unbroken! Indeed she was perfectly gorged, and containedthe remains of at least two adult Terns, besides a mass of newlyhatched young!"Dr. Alexander Wetmore (1933) thus describes the hunting tacticsof the duck hawk on the Bear River marshes, Utah:The birds at rest perched in low willows, or on logs or bits of drift, where theyhad clear view of the teeming bird life about them. When hungry, they dashedacross the open flats at high speed, striking ruthlessly at any birds that appeared,from small sandpipers to large ducks.Their appearance in the air was always the signal for chattering cries of alarmfrom blackbirds and avocets that put all their bird neighbors on the watch.These warnings had little effect, however, as the duck hawk, killing practicallyat will, was truly despot of this realm.I have seen this falcon dash through closely massed flocks of flying sandpipers,striking out two or three with as many thrusts of its claws, allowing each bird todrop and then wheeling swiftly to seize the falling prey in mid-air before it reachedthe ground. Again, I have seen one in a stoop, swift almost as light, knock aredhead duck to the ground, where it landed with a broken wing and otherinjuries.Col. Andrew J. Grayson (1872) writes: "On a passage from Ma-zatlan to San Francisco, in 1858, on the bark Carlota, one of thesefalcons came to us, more than a hundred miles off the coast of LowerCalifornia, and took up his quarters upon the main-yard, or mast-head; it remained with us two days, during this time it captured atleast a dozen dusky petrels. It was a fine sight to see him dart head-long upon these unsuspecting wanderers of the deep, seldom missinghis aim; he would then return to his usual resting place and partlydevour his prize. At other times he would let them drop in the sea,after they were dead, seemingly in wanton sport."Mr. Hagar kept a record of the bird remains that he foimd at thevarious aeries visited by him between March 28 and June 29, 1936;there were 22 domestic pigeons, 21 blue jays, 13 flickers, 7 robins, 6meadowlarks, 3 bluebirds, 2 each of red-winged blackbirds, scarlettanagers, and starlings, and 1 each of nighthawk, Baltimore oriole,and bronzed grackle.He gives, in his notes, the following graphic description of the cap-ture of a crow: "At 8.12 there appeared over the top of the mountain,and certainly almost as high again in the air, a strange whirling appari-tion that I was quite at loss to identify for the moment, whether bird,autogyro, or space ship from Mars?a shifting tangle of flapping wings,tails, necks, and whatnot. At first the progress of this flying apparatus
DUCK HAWK 57was far from steady, and twice it paused in the air for an appreciablemoment, but on the whole it approached over the mountain, and Ibegan to suspect that part of it was the duck hawk. Suddenly therewas another short tussle, lasting hardly longer than the twinkling ofan eye; and from it emerged two recognizable shapes, a black andvery dead crow underneath and to the rear, its head and wings hang-ing limply, and a very lively duck hawk ahead and on top. Withno more effort than he would display to carry a sparrow, with speeddiminished not a whit, the falcon winged out over the valley at a levelheight, banked sharply down wind until he faced the cliff, half-shuthis wings to his body, and came down like a thunderbolt?one long,smooth, magnificent swoop that carried him well below his intendedperch, then up again with unbelievable speed until he checked himselfagainst the very face of the cliff, tossed his prize on a feeding shelf,and in the same instant lit beside it. For several minutes he stoodat the edge, surveying the world with obvious triumph, then turned,took an awkward step or two, and went to work plucking feathers.Almost immediately he stepped up on the crow, and I could see himtearing off great bites from between his feet?now his head waslowered to take a grip, now he was standing straight up with neckextended, pulling the warm, red flesh with savage gusto?bobbing upand down, feathers flying. For 26 minutes he tore and gulped beforefinally leaving the shelf."He describes the capturing of a pigeon as follows: "The pigeon hadbeen flying level and at top speed; the falcon had been descendingslightly, with continuous, strong, rapid wing-beats, and was movingat least twice as fast as the pigeon, so that the gap between themclosed with inexorable speed ; in the instant before the strike, thefalcon had arrived at a point perhaps 12 feet behind the pigeon anda foot below it, when she suddenly changed direction, extended hertalons, shot up across the pigeon's back, and, at the moment ofpassing, grappled her prey, apparently by the body just behind thewings, so that the two birds swept on as one, without the least per-ceptible pause. One instant the pigeon was flying desperately; thevery next, it hung a limp bundle, with drooping wings and neck, inthe talons of its terrible pursuer."Ordinarily, when bringing food to the female, the male flies up tothe cliff, carrying the bird in his talons, she flies out to meet him, hedrops the bird, and she catches it in midair in her talons. Mr. Hagardescribes two different methods of transferring the prey, as follows:"The male brought a small bird, not larger than sparrow size. As heflew past the cliff, he dexterously transferred it from his feet to hisbill?the female came off the nest, flew under the male, giving thefeeding call?he dropped the bird and she caught it in her bill before13751?38 5
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it had fallen throe feet?she transferred it to her talons and lit on thedead tree to eat it."On another occasion "the male came in from the east with a smallbird, circled over the talus slope several times, and finally swoopedin almost over the nest shelf, but 10 feet above it, without making asound. The female came off in a moment, circled up under the male,giving the feeding call, and the bird was transferred from talons totalons."Behavior.?The flight of the duck hawk is a marvelous exhibitionof grace, agility, and speed. Few of its intended victims can escape.It seems to have speed in reserve, for a quick dash over, under, or toone side of its victim before delivering the death blow. Its long,pointed wings whip the air with quick, powerful strokes, giving it themomentum for the final dash on half-closed wings, as it swoops downon its prey with the sound of rushing wind.About its aerie it flies swiftly, with from two to four or five quickstrokes, followed by a longer period of sailing. I have read that itseldom soars, but I have often seen it do so ; I have seen it sail, or soar,for a long distance on horizontal wings and spread tail, with little orno wing movement, rising, falling, or turning at will. Sometimes,when coming down from a great height, it makes a swift "nose dive"at terrific speed, with wings flexed and primaries pointing straightbackward. It is a graceful master of the air at all times.These falcons often indulge in playful flight for exercise or sport.Delos E. Culver (1919), writing of two that were playing about thetower of the Philadelphia City Hall, says: "When first observed theywere engaged in aerial evolutions apparently purely for the joy offlying, now rapidly, now slowly, now chasing one another and thena rapid swoop to one of the lower ledges, the leading bird alightingand the other wheeling about the tower or out into mid-air. Theseevolutions were continued until dusk. * * * Often they were seento fly directly toward one another with a very rapid flapping of thewings but in a labored manner so that they made very slow progress,and then when almost breast to breast they would turn suddenly anddive down vertically."Dr. Wetmore (1933) writes:When not hungry, the duck hawk, feeling its superior strength, frequentlyindulges in harmless play at the expense of its bird neighbors.Often I have seen them flying along the river channels, driving ahead of thema motley flock of blackbirds, herons, avocets, and other birds, herding them indisorder like sheep, but without offering to harm them. Again, as night heronsflew ahead of my launch, a duck hawk would dart at them repeatedly, forcingthem down lower and lower, until finally, with protesting squawks, they struckthe water. They were not allowed to rise, but had to swim into the shelter ofthe willows to escape.One pleasant afternoon in fall I heard a great roaring of wings overhead andlooked up to see a cormorant that a few minutes before had been soaring peace-
DUCK HAWK 59
fully high in air, dashing down with set wings toward the river, with a duck hawka few feet behind. Just above the water the hawk suddenly accelerated, tappedthe cormorant lightly on the back, then circled easily away, while the frightenedquarry took refuge unharmed in the water. Frequently falcons at play dashedat top speed through milling flocks of flying sandpipers, scattering them likeleaves in the wind, but not striking any of them.Dr. Winsor M. Tyler tells me that he saw a duck hawk swoopdown several times at some feeding hens; the hawk never came nearerthan 4 or 5 feet and apparently was not attempting to strike them;the hens did not seem to be much alarmed, except when the hawkwas just above them.Alexander Sprunt, Jr., has sent me some interesting notes on someflight performances of a group of seven of these falcons, as observedby him and his companions on Grandfather Mountain, N. C, aboutthe first of August 1930, from which I quote as follows: "Hardly hadwe seen the pair when three more appeared above the first two,circling rapidly. To the five already in the ah' came another andanother, until the whole seven were wheeling and swooping about atclose range. Then began a series of aerial evolutions that wereworth far more than the exertion we had expended in reaching ourlofty observation post. Pair after pair of the falcons would cometogether, whirl apart, and dart away at high speed, one climbingswiftly above the other in the heights. The uppermost bird wouldthen swoop with incredible velocity at the other, and the two seemedto be in close contact for many feet at the termination of the plunge.That the birds were indulging in a sort of play was plainly evident.The wonderful plunges, the apparent contacts, and ultimate separa-tions were entirely devoid of animosity, the falcons seeming to enjoythe performance as thoroughly as their observers."William Brewster (1925), referring to the great speed and momentumof the duck hawk's flight, remarks: "Although this enables him toovertake the fastest-moving birds of other kinds with no less easethan certainty, it often foils his attempts to seize those given to suddenturns or erratic twistings, because he cannot with equal abruptnesscheck or deflect his own headlong career, but must keep straight onfor several yards, at least, before doing so, and hence constantlyovershoots the mark. His supposed preference for water-fowl, asprey, and reputed prowess in dealing with them, may therefore bedue largely to the fact that they are no more capable than he ofabruptly devious flight."As to the highest speed that this falcon is able to attain, we havevery little accurate data. Its utmost speed has been estimated asranging between 150 and 200 miles an hour; it may attain, or evenexceed, such speed in its swift plunges, but no such speed could bemaintained for any great distance. D. D. McLean (1930) timed with
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a stop-watch a hunting duck hawk and estimated its speed as between165 and 180 miles an hour. The following observation, recorded byRalph Lawson (1930), was made by an expert aviator in whom he hadgreat confidence:He was flying a small pursuit plane, which had a normal speed of about 125miles per hour and, while cruising about at a considerable altitude, he saw abunch of ducks flying far below and ahead of him. Thinking to gain someexperience in diving at a moving object, he turned the nose of his plane downand opened the throttle of his engine, thereby gaining speed rapidly. While hewas still some distance from the ducks he glanced at the wingtip of his plane tosee how much vibration his swoop was causing and as he did so, a hawk shot byhim "as though the plane was standing still," and struck one of the ducks whichfell towards the ground apparently lifeless. At the time the hawk passed theplane the latter was travelling at a speed of nearly 175 miles per hour and myfriend thinks that the hawk was stooping two feet to his one but of course thatis only an estimate as under the conditions no accurate computation was possible.We do know however that this particular hawk was moving at a rate of speedmuch greater than 175 miles per hour and perhaps not far from double that rate.Mr. Forbush (1927) cites several instances where a duck hawk hasattacked and killed larger birds. A red-shouldered hawk was struckand its skull "split wide open"; another was struck and seen to fall."Audubon tells of a Snowy Owl which snatched a young duck hawkfrom its rocky perch, but was followed by the avenging parent, whichquickly struck the larger bird dead."Mr. Forbush also tells of a duck hawk that struck down a largemerganser; when the dead merganser was picked up, it was "foundthat most of its side had been torn out by the force of the blow or theclutch of those powerful claws." He says further: "Swifts arebelieved to be the swiftest of all birds, and it has been generallyasserted that the Duck Hawk is unable to overtake them. I havenever found the feathers of a swift near a Duck Hawk's aery, but afarmer in the Connecticut Valle}7 states that he saw this falconcapture a Chimney Swift. Many swifts, he says, were coursing abovethe fields, when the falcon made several dashes at them, but missed.At last as one turned to evade the rush, the hawk swung over on itsback, and reaching up one foot as it shot by, caught the swift in itspowerful grasp."Although the duck hawk has been known to kill marsh hawks andsparrow hawks, both of these species have attacked and driven awaythis powerful falcon. I have seen a colony of common terns drive aduck hawk away from their nesting grounds by attacking him enmasse. I once saw one of these falcons perched on a spruce tree,with a flock of Brewer's blackbirds sitting contentedly in the sametree; neither species seemed to be at all concerned about the other.Once a phoebe sat on its nest on a cliff near a falcon's nest that I wasexamining; I doubt if it was ever disturbed and it probably raised its
DUCK HAWK 61brood safely. C. L. Broley has sent me the following note: "A duckhawk was flying high over a field when a small bird quickly mountedup and attacked it as a kingbird does a crow, swooping down in fierceplunges until the duck hawk turned and fled the way it had come,giving us an excellent view of the pugnacious little battler that hadso completely turned the tables and put the deadly raptor to flight.It was a sharp-shinned hawk, a slight little fellow scarcely larger thana sparrow hawk! The enraged duck hawk was completely out-maneuvered by the little sharpshin, which mounted above it with thegreatest ease time after time and dashed down on its back, apparentlydelivering blows that were at least irritating, as the duck hawkrepeatedly tried to strike sideways at its spunky tormentor."Very rarely have duck hawks been known to attack human beingsthat were disturbing their nests, but G. Bartlett Hendricks (1935)tells of an especially savage female that attacked four different peopleseveral times. All these people, while attempting to photographthe young hawks in the nest, were struck repeatedly and severelyscratched by the sharp talons of the hawk. "A small boy, who wasstanding on the summit some distance from the nest, was hit frombehind and knocked on his face." The hawk followed one of themen "a hundred yards or more from the nest and dove at himrepeatedly."Mr. Hagar had a somewhat similar experience with this same bird,at Monument Mountain, of which he says: "The female was evennoisier and more demonstrative than on the day I found this nest, andby the time I was down on a level with the chicks was coming within afoot or two of my head at each plunge.
"This was interesting, so, by way of trying her out, I leaned downand picked up a youngster. Once he was in my hand, my attentionwas all on him and I forgot the matter for a moment?a short moment;she struck me a stunning blow on the top of the head. I was wellwedged between the cliff and a small tree that grows just south of thenest, so that she could not have dislodged me, but my head stung for aminute. I kept my eye on her, as I replaced the chick and withdrewa few feet up the slope, and several times she passed inside of the littletree."He says later, of the same bird: "This bird has struck everyonewho has been to the nest since my last visit; ten days ago she attackedBen Leavitt, apparently with both bill and feet, for she took a jaggedbite out of his shoulder, tore the sleeve out of his shirt, and left threelong scratches down his upper arm; and early in the week she struckWarden Giddings on the knee, as he stood beside the nest."Voice.?When I visited the Bear Mountain aerie with R. P. Staple-ton, he called a falcon from the cliff by giving a shrill, nasal, squealingcall, nyeh, nyeh, nyeh, rapidly uttered in a high key, which he said was
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an imitation of its note. We also heard a note from the male thatsounded like nyee-ee-ee-ee-ee, a long-drawn-out, shrill scream, some-what suggesting the cry of the broad-winged hawk. While both birdswere flying about the clifF, we heard a variety of shrill, whining, nasalnotes, suggested by the syllables wauk-wauk, or yaak-yaak-yaak, orquack-quaack-queck-quec-quec-quec-quec, the first two or three notes inthe last series being somewhat drawn out, with a nasal twang, and thelast four or five much more rapidly given and shriller. The note issaid to be like that of the sparrow hawk, but louder and more intense,or like that of the kestrel, but stronger and in a deeper key. It alsohas a hissing menace, like that of the owls; and the notes of the femaleare said to be hoarser than those of the male.Mr. Hagar has contributed the following descriptions:"An observer who knew the duck hawk only on migration wouldcertainly call it a very silent bird, but during the breeding season it isan exceedingly noisy one. The notes are varied and expressive, sothat it is frequently possible to know what goes on about the nestingcliff when the falcons are out of sight, yet it will be found that thereare only three principal calls, of which all the rest are but variations."The first of these, which is a note of anger or protest, is a loud,harsh cack-cack-cack-cack-cack given in bursts of varying length withthe most monotonous regularity for minutes on end when intrudersare in the neighborhood of the nest. The tone is different in the twosexes, the voice of the male being more wheezy and high-pitched, thatof the female grating and coarser. The sound suggests a giantwatchman's rattle twirled rather slowly. In the case of birds that arebold and thoroughly aroused, and therefore plunging close to thevisitor, it is very wearing and disagreeable, so that after a few minutesthere arises an almost irresistible desire to get away from it. Whendirected at another hawk, either a visiting peregrine or one of thelarger Buteos or eagles, its intensely angry quality is often somewhatamusing."The second is a note of courtship and conversation, used when themale is calling his mate to a desirable nest site, or when they aretogether on a shelf; presumably it is a pleasing sound to duck hawks,however unmusical to human ears. I have usually represented it inmy notes by the word wi'-chew, wi'-chew (or wee'chew), with the firstsyllable lengthened and heavily accented. Occasionally it is assmooth as the similar note of the flicker, although louder; but typicallyit is rougher and creakier than a grackle's song, or a very rusty hinge.It is the most variable of the three notes, either persuasive, amorouslyexcited, or talkative, as the occasion requires."The third is a recognition or location call given when two birdsof a pair are separated; a clear, high slightly ascending, wailing notethat falls upon the ear and fades away again so gently that neither
DUCK HAWK 63beginning nor end can be accurately determined, and yet its middlepart has great carrying power. It can be closely imitated by singingaaaaa in the roof of the mouth, with the lips open, at a pitch close tosecond-octave F on the piano. It is a pleasing sound of itself, and to anhabitual watcher at the cliffs becomes more so by association. It andthe wichew note are used by both sexes but somewhat more extensivelyby the male than the female; there is no recognizable difference intone."Field marks.?The characteristic falcon flight, the long, pointedwings, and the long tail will distinguish it from all other hawks, exceptthe other falcons, from which it differs in size. If one is near enough,the white throat, the peculiar color pattern of the head, and the largeyellow feet are conspicuous, especially in the adult. The adult ismuch darker colored above than the prairie falcon, especially on thehead; the young bird is also somewhat darker; but the two species areabout the same size. The head markings will distinguish it from themuch larger gyrfalcons.Fall.?The fall flight of duck hawks from their more northernbreeding resorts occurs early in October in New England. Referringto the flights at Fishers Island, N. Y., the Fergusons (1922) say:"A few come on the regular flight days, but, like the Pigeon Hawks,they prefer a southwest wind to any other. A strong wind is nohindrance to them, and we have come to feel that a typical Duck Hawkday is one when the wind is blowing from the south-west, with almosta hint of bad weather. * * * The adults come mixed in withthe immature birds during the migration, but late in the season adultsare still seen after the last of the young have gone by."Winter.?Most of our northern-breeding duck hawks retire to theSouthern States in winter. During the winter that I spent in PinellasCounty, Fla., a large female duck hawk frequented the lower sandyislands about Tampa Bay; I occasionally saw it sitting on some littleeminence on the islands frequented by terns and various shorebirds.A picked skeleton of a royal tern and the remains of galls and shore-birds were evidences of its work. It remained all winter until it wasshot on March 11. About the Everglades, in southern Florida, weoccasionally saw a solitary duck hawk sitting on some tall tree, orflying about where small herons, ibises, and coots were abundant.But some adults remain as far north as Massachusetts and NewYork all winter. It is not unusual for one of these falcons to spendthe winter in one of our large cities, where it finds an abundant foodsupply in the large numbers of pigeons that now live in our cities.The Custom House tower in Boston, the tall buildings in New YorkCity, the City Hall tower in Philadelphia, and the Post Office towerin Washington have all been favorite resorts for winter-resident duckhawks. Using the tallest buildings for their lookouts, they make
64 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMfrequent raids on the pigeons, catching them in the air and carryingthem to some lofty shelf to pluck and eat them, letting the feathersflutter down into the streets. They furnish considerable entertain-ment for interested spectators and should be welcome visitors if theykeep in check the increasing hordes of pigeons and starlings.DISTRIBUTIONRange.?The duck hawk is cosmopolitan in its distribution, thebreeding ranges of the northern subspecies being circumpolar and thewinter ranges extending south to the Indian Peninsula, Africa, andsouthern South America, while other races occur in Malaysia andAustralia. The typical race, or Old World peregrine falcon (f'alcoperegrinus peregrinus), is doubtfully casual in Greenland (see discus-sion by Jourdain, p. 42). The following account includes the duckhawk and Peale's falcon (F. p. pealei), which is confined to the NorthPacific coast from the Commander and Aleutian Islands south rarelyto southern California (San Diego and Pacific Grove).Breeding range.?In North America the breeding range extendsnorth to Alaska (Nome, Colville River, Camden Bay, Barter Island,and Demarcation Point) ; Mackenzie (Lockhart River, Melville Moun-tains, and probably Bernard Harbor) ; Keewatin (probably Fullertonand Repulse Bay); Franklin (Frozen Strait, Southampton Island,Baffin Island, and Greater Kingwah Fiord); and Greenland (Holstein-borg). East to Greenland (Holsteinborg, Godthaab, Frederikshaab,and Cape Farewell); Labrador (Okkak); Quebec (Wapitagun, Anti-costi Island, and Perce) ; southeastern New Brunswick (Grand Manan)
;
Maine (Milltown, Bangor, and Auburn); New Hampshire (probablyMonadnock) ; Massachusetts (Mount Tom and Sheffield) ; Connecticut(Talcott Mountain, Meriden, and New Haven); New Jersey (Engle-wood); eastern Pennsylvania (Nockamixon Cliffs, Lehigh Gap, andChickies) ; West Virginia (Harpers Ferry and White Sulphur Springs)Virginia (Great Falls); western North Carolina (Roan Mountain,Black Mountain, and Great Smoky Mountains); and northeasternAlabama (Fort Deposit). South to northern Alabama (Fort Deposit)rarely northern Arkansas (Cleburne County); Kansas (Neosho Falls,Hays, and Ellis) ; southwestern Texas (Chisos Mountains and Boquil-las); Arizona (probably Keams Canyon and Camp Verde); and BajaCalifornia (Idlefonso Island and San Roque Island). West to BajaCalifornia (San Roque Island, Natividad Island, San Geronimo Island,San Fernando, Todos Santos, and Coronados Islands) ; California (SanDiego, San Clemente Island, Santa Rosa Island, Santa Cruz, SanMateo County, Alameda, Tomales Point, and Eureka) ; Oregon (FortKlamath and Newport); Washington (Quillayute Needles, CarrollIsland, Flattery Rocks, and Bellingham); British Columbia (Okana-gan, Masset, and Langara Island) ; and Alaska (Forrester Island, Ad-
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miralty Island, Aleutian Islands, Beaver Mountains, Chitina Moraine,and Nome).Verrill (1905) stated that in 1904 a pair nested on the island ofDominica in the Lesser Antilles. While this is considered doubtful,nevertheless an adult female was collected on May 5, 1928, at Chan-guinola, Panama (Peters, 1931).Winter range.-?In winter the duck hawk ranges north with fairregularity to western Washington (Grays Harbor); southeasternBritish Columbia (Okanagan); northeastern Texas (Corsicana);Kentucky (Versailles and Lexington); Connecticut (New Haven,Saybrook, Milford, and Stamford); and Massachusetts (Boston).East to Massachusetts (Boston); eastern New York (Fire Island);New Jersey (Princeton and Long Beach); Virginia (Wallops Island);North Carolina (Cape Fear); South Carolina (Oakley Depot andCharleston); Georgia (Blackbeard Island); Florida (Lake Iamonia,Kissimmee Prairie, and Whitewater Lake); Bahama Islands (Nor-mans Key and Watling Island); rarely Haiti (Fort Liberte); PuertoRico (Faro de Cabo Rojo and Cartagena Lagoon); and rarely theLesser Antilles (Anguilla, Antigua, St. Bartholomew, St. Vincent,the Grenadines, and Trinidad). South to rarely the Lesser Antilles(Trinidad); rarely Colombia (Bonda); and Panama (Santiago).West to Panama (Santiago); Guatemala (Duenas and probablyOcos); Michoacan (Los Reyes); Jalisco (La Barca and Guadalajara);Nayarit (Tres Marias); Baja California (Cape San Lucas, Santiago,Todos Santos Islands, and Natividad); California (Upland, Clovis,Bodega, and East Park); Oregon (Fort Klamath and Netarts Bay);and Washington (Grays Harbor).Migration.?There appears to be very little regularity in the sea-sonal movements of this species, as dates of arrival and departure varygreatly in any one locality.Spring migration?Early dates of spring arrival in regions northof the winter quarters are: Massachusetts?Huntington, February 3;Holyoke, February 22. Vermont?Woodstock, March 11; SouthNewbury, April 1. New Hampshire?Monadnock, March 19.Maine?Westbrook, March 14. Quebec?Kamouraska, March 21.Missouri?St. Louis, March 8; Mount Carmel, March 17. Indiana
?
Bicknell, March 9. Ohio?Columbus, March 5; Youngstown, March8. Michigan?Grosse Isle, March 9; Silver Lake, March 10; AnnArbor, March 10. Ontario?London, April 14 ; Bowmanville, April 16
;
Ottawa, April 17. Iowa?La Porte City, March 14; Keokuk, March14. Wisconsin?Burlington, April 7 ; Lacrosse, April 8. MinnesotaHeron Lake, March 24; Lake City, March 27. Kansas?Onaga,March 23. Nebraska?Lincoln, March 12. North Dakota?TeepeeButtes, March 17. Manitoba?Aweme, April 6; Treesbank, April 16.Colorado?Loveland, March 29. Wyoming?Albany County, April 2.
66 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMMontana?Big Sandy, March 21; German Gulch, March 23. Al-berta?Belvedere, April 18. Yukon?Dawson, May IS. Alaska
?
Pribilof Islands, March 12 (observed on St. George on January 13,1917); Beaver Mountains, April 25.Late dates of spring departure from points south of the breedingrange are: Honduras?Swan Island, February 17. Lesser AntillesSt. Croix, March 17; St. Lucia, March 18; Trinidad, April 5. PuertoRico?Boqueron, April 18; Cartagena Lagoon, April 25. FloridaDaytona Beach, April 28; Tortugas, May 18.Fall migration.?Late dates of fall departure from breeding areasnorth of the winter range are: Alaska?Icy Cape, September 6;St. Lazaria Island, September 30; Sitka, October 1; near AleutianIslands, October 7. Yukon?Herschel Island, August 16; Forty-mile,September 15. Alberta?Camrose, October 2. Montana?Rock-creek, October 26. Wyoming?Wheatland, October 15. Colorado?
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Grand Junction, December 23. Mackenzie?Fort Norman, Sep-tember 30; Gravel River, October 6. Manitoba?Aweme, October18; Treesbank, October 23. North Dakota?Argusville, October 20;Charlson, December 2. South Dakota?Arlington, November 15;Sioux Falls, November 18. Nebraska?Page, November 14; Lincoln,December 8. Minnesota?St. Vincent, October 13. WisconsinBurlington, November 15. Iowa?Badger Lake, November 4;Keokuk, November 12. Ontario?Toronto, October 20; Point Pelee,October 23; Ottawa, November 11. Michigan?Newberry, October16; Rockwood, October 29; Locke, November 2. Ohio?Columbus,November 14. Illinois?Evanston, November 13. Missouri?MountCarmel, November 12. Franklin?Five-hawser Bay, September 8;Baffin Island, September 15; Ashe Inlet, Hudson Strait, September 25.New Brunswick?Scotch Lake, October 11. Quebec?Montreal,November 13; Godbout, November 20. Vermont?Rutland, October1. Massachusetts?West Boylston, November 12; Ipswich, Novem-ber 12; Danvers, November 16.Some early dates of fall arrival in the southern part of the winterrange are: Florida?Pensacola, August 11; Miami, September 18;Key West, October 1. Puerto Rico?Anegado Lagoon, August 8.Lesser Antilles?St. Bartholomew, November 8 ; Barbados, November17.The banding files of the Biological Survey contain an interestingseries of records of duck hawks that have been banded and subsequentlyrecovered. Most of the banding has been done at Woronoco, Russell,and Huntington, Mass., and these birds have been retaken chiefly inConnecticut, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. One bandedon September 3, 1932, at Treasure Island, N. J., was killed at McClure,111., on September 22, 1932, while another banded at Mohonk Lake,N. Y., on September 18, 1929, was recaptured on September 26, 1929,
PEALE'S FALCON 67
at Grand Island, Nebr. These are striking examples not only of acurious east-to-west flight, but also of very rapid travel. One bandedat Kings Point, Yukon, on July 30, 1924, was shot at Duchesne, Utah,on February 20, 1925.Casual records.?-An easy and powerful flier, the duck hawk has beenrecorded many times outside of what is considered its normal range.One was reported from Port au Port, Newfoundland, in 1911, andthere are several records, dating back to 1846, of specimens taken orobserved on Bermuda.Complete data are not available for many of the South Americanrecords, but notice may be made of the following countries where theduck hawk has been observed or collected: Dutch Guiana (April 19,1922, Paramaribo); British Guiana; Brazil (Praia de Cajutuba, SaoPaulo, the Lower Amazon and Caceres in March 1909); Uruguay(Sta. Elena, Flores, and San Jose); Paraguay (Puerto Bertoni);Venezuela (Los Hermanos Islands on January 9, 1909, and Bonaire);Ecuador (Puntilla de Santa Elena, Pichincha, Pomasqui, Chaupicruz,Carapungo, El Muerto Island, and a specimen from Cocos Island ofthe Galapagos group, collected on January 26, 1902); Peru (Janinand Chorillos); Chile (Santeyas, and Valdivia); and Argentina(Provinces of Buenos Aires, Cordoba, and La Kioja, Los Ynglases,and Cape San Antonio and Lomas de Zamora, Buenos Aires Province).A specimen also has been recorded that was collected about 1887on Elizabeth Island, in the Straits of Magellan, Patagonia.Egg dates.?Alaska to Ungava: 10 records, May 12 to July 6;5 records, June 5 to 26, indicating the height of the season.British Columbia: 9 records, April 13 to May 7.Alberta and Saskatchewan: 16 records, May 6 to June 13 ; 8 records,May 19 to June 3.New York and New England: 20 records, March 29 to May 23;10 records, April 12 to 26.New Jersey and Pennsylvania: 9 records, March 29 to May 19.California: 28 records, March 8 to May 28; 14 records, April 8to 23. FALCO PEREGRINUS PEALEI RidgwayPEALE'S FALCONHABITSThis dark race of the peregrine falcon is none too well understood,as to its subspecific status and its distribution. Considerable doubthas been expressed as to the validity of the name, because the typeis an immature bird taken, presumably, in Oregon; it is a dark-coloredbird but no darker than some dark specimens from eastern localities.However, this need not necessarily invalidate the name, for the typespecimen may well have been, and probably was, a migrant from therange of pealei, as now recognized.
68 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMThe range, as now revised in the A. O. U. Check-List (1931), isapproximately correct. Maj. Allan Brooks (1926), who has made astudy of this group, gives the range of pealei, as follows: "The NorthPacific islands between latitude 50 and 55, from the Skeena Rivermouth (British Columbia) to the Commander Islands (and adjacentcoast of Kamchatka?). Probably resident throughout its range."He gives the following characters of the race:It is characterized by a very heavily marked under surface in the adult andpossibly greater size than in Falco peregrinus peregrinus and F. peregrinus anatum.The markings in the adult female extend up onto the jugulum in the form of teardrops and bars, not hair lines or narrow lanceolations as in other forms of pere-grinus. In the adult male the markings are not so pronounced, but the wholelower surface is usually dusted with dark gray in addition to the bars. There isvery little rufous on the lower surface in either sex. The young are very darkand may or may not have rufous edgings to the feathers of the mantle; they canbe matched almost exactly by dark juveniles from the Atlantic coast.Adults from the Queen Charlotte Islands that I have examinedhave the upper parts "fuscous" to "hair brown"; the under partsare white, slightly tinged with "cinnamon-buff" on the belly, heavilyspotted on the upper breast, and heavily spotted and barred on thebelly and flanks with black; the black bars on the flanks are as wideas the white spaces, and nearly so on the tibiae; the dark bars on thetail and its upper coverts are wider than the gray bars. Adults Ihave seen from the Commander and Aleutian Islands are no darkerabove, in fact they are somewhat lighter, in color than those from theQueen Charlotte Islands; but the under parts are whiter, less buffy,than in anatum, and they are more extensively spotted and streakedon the upper breast and jugulum. Young birds from the AleutianIslands are much darker than those I have seen from the QueenCharlottes, and very much darker than the darkest of our easternbirds. Duck hawks from interior and northern Alaska and from thePacific coast south of latitude 50? N. are clearly referable to anatum,as are also those from Admiralty Island and the Sitkan region.Nesting.?The nesting habits of Peale's falcoD are not essentiallydifferent from those of other peregrines. Among the Aleutian Islandsin 1911 we saw these falcons on Atka, Kiska, Tanaga, and AdakIslands. At Kiska Harbor, on June 19, I watched a pair flying aboutsome high cliffs; they were apparently building a nest on an inaccessibleledge, as I saw one of them fly up with a stick in its claws. I alsosaw a pair mating on Atka Island on June 13. They are apparentlylate breeders in that region. We did not succeed in finding anyoccupied nests or in securing any specimens of the birds.We shot one bird, but it fell over a high cliff and could not be foundamong the piles of loose rocks at the base.Major Brooks (1926) says:
PEALE'S FALCON 69On the Queen Charlotte Islands the Peale Falcon is probably more abundantthan peregrines are anywhere else in the world. On North Island in the breedingseason one is never out of hearing of the birds. Sometimes three broods offledglings can be heard calling from one vantage point, and probably thirty-fivepairs nest on the twenty-five miles of coast-line of this small island alone.C. deB. Green (1916), referring to other islands in this group, writes:The birds nearly always choose [for a nesting site] the very top of the cliff underthe roots of a spruce-tree growing on the edge?in some cases quite easy of access,sometimes requiring a rope and some help. * * *Peale's Falcon, lays, of course, four eggs, like its congener the Duck-Hawk;the eggs are indistinguishable from those of the latter, being red to match thehollow of rotten wood amongst the debris of trees growing at the top or on theledges of cliffs, at any elevation above the water-line from 20 to 500 feet. Oneclutch was found upon a grassy slope dividing a lower cliff from an upper one,but always amongst the roots of a spruce-tree, which gives shelter to the sittingbird in rainy weather. Only one eyrie was found differently situated, and thatwas on a ledge sheltered by an overhanging rock; the nest had no red rotten wood,and, interesting to note, the eggs were the palest seen.When the complete clutch is taken, before incubation begins, the bird beginsher fresh set close by the first in about ten days, but if incubation has advancedit will be more like three weeks before the new set is laid.Lucien M. Turner (1886) writes:This Falcon was frequently observed on Amchitka Island in the month ofJune, 1881; and on several occasions on Attu Island, during 1880 and 1881. Itbreeds on nearly all of the islands of the chain, and is a winter resident on theNearer Group, at least. On Agattu it is reported to be very common; and, onAmchitka I knew of three nests on the ledges of the high bluffs, hanging over thesea. Any approach to the cliffs was heralded by the bird darting from the nestand circling high in the air, screaming fiercely all the while, and any attempt toshoot the birds, while flying over the water, would have resulted in the loss of thespecimen, for they always flew in front of the cliffs out of gun-range.Eggs.?The eggs are indistinguishable from those of other pere-grines. The measurements of 34 eggs average 53.3 by 41.1 milli-meters; the eggs showing the four extremes measure 58 by 43, 48.5by 41, and 52.9 by 39.1 millimeters.Plumages.?A nestling taken on Amnak Island, Alaska, on July 17,is much like the young of anatum, but darker; the upper parts are
"fuscous" instead of "bone brown"; the under parts are more heavilymarked with "fuscous", with narrower buff edgings; the head is moreextensively "fuscous", less bufly, tawny, or ochraceous than inanatum; and the tail is broadly tipped with "pinkish buff." Subse-quent plumage changes are probably similar to those of other pere-grines.Food.?Sea birds and ptarmigans seem to form the main foodsupply of this falcon in the Aleutian Islands. Mr. Green (1916),referring to the Queen Charlottes, writes:The isolated Falcons at lonely points on the coast were living chiefly uponduck, chickens, and sandpipers, but the congregation of F. p. peali?thirteen
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eyries at the north-west corner of the main island and on the rocky shores ofLangara Island, just across Parry Passage?were living entirely upon the AncientMurrelets (Synthliboramphus antiquus), which were breeding there in thousands.Nothing was found at any of the eyries but remains of Ancient Murrelets, veryrarely anything but the heads, very neatly cut off and always fresh; all otherremains were cleared away carefully.Langara Island is about twenty miles in circumference, and has a pair ofFalcons at a distance of every two miles apart; the whole island is a warren ofAncient Murrelets, and there are colonies of other sea-fowl at particular pointsand on adjacent islets, but the Ancient Murrelets predominate, and are killed byhundreds by the Falcons and by thousands by Indians, who visit the island fromMay to August and destroy the birds and eggs simply for food. Something inthe flavour evidently pleases both the Falcons and the Indians, for neither ofthem seems to make war on the other fowl.Behavior.?Mr. Turner (1886) writes:At Attu Island I frequently saw one of these birds join the Ravens when thelatter were performing their aerial gymnastics on the approach of a gale.The Hawk endeavored to imitate the Ravens, which paid but little attentionto the antics of the intruder.At Attu this Hawk is not common, though the natives assert that it is commonenough at Agattu and the Semichi Islands. The natives told me that where thisHawk breeds there will also be found the nests of the Eiders. I could not believethis until a short stay at Amichitka Island forced me to recognize it as a fact,for, in each instance, the nests of Eiders were very abundant in each of the lo-calities where the nest of this hawk was known to be. It is quite probable thatthe hawk selects the place with special reference to prospective young Eiders.Winter.?Peale's falcon apparently wanders south occasionally infall or winter. Harry S. Swarth (1933) records a specimen of thisrace taken at San Diego Bay on March 31, 1908. I have a bird inmy collection taken 2 miles south of Colorado Landing, Lower Cali-fornia, on December 30, 1924, which I regard as nearly typical ofpealei. FALCO COLUMBARIUS COLUMBARIUS Linnaeuseastern pigeon hawkPlates 16, 17HABITSOar American merlins, or pigeon hawks, have been subdivided bythe latest authorities into four races. There are three quite distinctforms, but one of these, suckleyi, may be only a color phase, as it seemsto have no distinct range in which it alone is found; and the fourth,bendirei, is to my mind only an intermediate between the darker andthe lighter races, and is too near the eastern race to warrant recogni-tion. This matter is discussed further under these two forms. Therange of the eastern form extends roughly north to the limit of treesand west to the eastern edge of the prairie regions and to Alaska.Some form of the pigeon hawk is to be found at some season of the
EASTERN PIGEON HAWK 71year over practically all the North American Continent, except inthe treeless Arctic region.Spring.?To most of us the pigeon hawk is known only as a springand fall visitor, as its breeding range is mainly north of the UnitedStates and as it spends its winters in the Southern States and beyondour borders. In New England the spring migration occurs mainlyduring the last half of April and the first half of May, coinciding withthe main flight of small birds on which it feeds.Nesting.?My experience with the nesting habits of the pigeon hawkhas been limited to two nests found on the south coast of the LabradorPeninsula and one found in Newfoundland. In each case our attentionwas attracted to the nesting site by the noisy behavior of the birds,flying about nervously and screaming excitedly even while we weresome distance away. On June 3, 1909, while we were walking alongthe rocky shore of Eskimo Island, Canadian Labrador, we heardthe cries of a small hawk; on climbing up to the edge of the sprucewoods, we saw a pigeon hawk flying about, or perching on the top of atall spruce and flying down occasionally into the woods. I began acareful search through the dense thickets of spruces and firs, where Ifinally found, in a thicket of taller spruces, what looked like an oldcrow's nest, about 14 feet up in a red spruce. The hawks were notin evidence, but I climbed up to the nest and was surprised to findthree beautiful eggs. It had long been my hope to collect a set ofpigeon hawk's eggs, and four days later I returned and gratified thewish by taking a handsome set of five eggs and photographing them inthe nest. The nest was apparently a very old crow's nest that hadsince been used by red squirrels, as the deep cavity had been filledwith rubbish, including numerous seed scales from the cones of thewhite spruce. It rested on horizontal branches close to the trunk ofthe tree and was made of rather large, dead sticks, interwoven withsoft mosses ; the center had been hollowed by scraping out the rubbish,which had become quite rotted; very little lining had been added,merely a few small pieces of fine twigs and lichens ; a few bits of downwere visible in and around the nest and on the surrounding branches.The nest measured 16 by 14 inches in outside and 8 by 8 inches ininside diameter; the outside height was 9 inches and the inner cavitywas 2% inches deep (pi. 16).While fishing for trout in the Mingan River, on June 17, 1909, wewere attracted to another nest by the cries of a pair of pigeon hawks.This was somewhat differently located in a large, rather open space inheavy spruce timber, where there were a few tall, scattered spruces.My companion, Dr. Charles W. Townsend, saw the male falcon flyinto a tall black spruce and out again, in winch a large nest wasvisible; he rapped the tree and the female flew from the nest. Thetree was about 45 feet high aDd measured 58 inches in circumference
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near the base, a very large tree for this region. The nest was about24 feet from the ground and 10 inches out from the trunk on a hori-zontal limb, well sheltered from above and on the north and eastsides by thick foliage. It was apparently a new nest, made of deadsticks and lined with masses of soft, fine rootlets, a few small twigsand pieces of bark, and a few feathers. It measured 20 by 15 inchesin outside and 9 by 8 inches in inside diameter; it was hollowed to adepth of 2 inches and was only 5 inches high over all. The four eggsthat it contained had been incubated for about a week.My third nest was in an entirely different situation, and we werepuzzled for a long time to find it, although the hawks advertised it inno uncertain terms. On June 19, 1912, while we were hunting aroundGafftopsail in Newfoundland, a pigeon hawk flew out from a largetract of heavy spruce and fir woods, yelling and showing every sign ofanxiety. But, though I searched those woods thoroughly for over anhour, no occupied nest could be found. Meantime, my guide, whowas sitting out on an open hillside to watch the birds, saw the malefalcon hover for an instant over a little hummock on the hillside.As he walked toward it the female flushed from her nest when he wasabout 100 yards from it. The nest, containing five eggs, was on theground in a roomy hollow under some low, scraggly firs and sprucesonly a few inches high (pi. 17). The hollow was lined with bits oftwigs and a few feathers.I heard of two other cases where these falcons had nested on theground in that vicinity. Also, out of seven sets of pigeon hawks'eggs in W. J. Brown's collection, three of them were taken from nestson the ground, all from this same general region. He also refers, inhis notes, to a nest found in Matane County, Quebec, that was about50 feet up in a spruce tree.Dr. Harrison F. Lewis (1922) writes:On June 22, I found, a few rods west of the first falls of the Little NatashquanRiver, a rather unusual nest of this species. It was on the ground, among theReindeer lichen, on the summit of a small knoll of gentle slope. A black spruce
"tree" which had grown here for many years, until it had attained a height ofabout 3 feet and a width of 6 feet, had died, apparently two or three years pre-viously, leaving a confused snarl of stiff dead limbs. The Pigeon Hawks hadplaced their nest beneath this shelter. The nest, which was about 6 inches acrossand 1 inch deep, was a depression in the soil, here composed of sand and rottenwood, and was lined with a few small scales of bark, picked by one or both of theHawks from the base of the trunk of the sheltering "tree," as was clearly indicatedby the recent scars on that trunk. Four eggs rested on these bits of bark. OneHawk flew from the nest when I approached it, and it and its mate scolded mevigorously, charging repeatedly to within a few feet of me, as long as I remainedin the vicinity.Dr. Lynds Jones wrote to Major Bendire (1892) "that he found anest of this species near Grinnell, Iowa, on April 28, containing foureggs. They were placed in a hole in an American linden tree about
EASTERN PIGEON HAWK 738 feet from the ground. The nest was made of dry grasses, fibrousbark, and a few feathers."Roderick MacFarlane (1891) writes:This falcon ranges along the Anderson River almost to the Arctic coast ofLiverpool Bay. Several of their nests had apparently been built by them on pinetrees, and others on the ledges of shaly cliffs. The former were composed exter-nally of a few dry willow twigs and internally of withered hay or grasses, etc., andthe latter had only a very few decayed leaves under the eggs. * * * I wouldalso mention the following interesting circumstance: On the 25th of May, 1864,a trusty Indian in my employ found a nest placed in the midst of a thick pinebranch of a tree at a height of about six feet from the ground. It was rather looselyconstructed of a few dry sticks and a small quantity of coarse hay. It then con-tained two eggs. Both parents were seen, fired at, and missed. On the 31st herevisited the nest, which still held but two eggs, and again missed the birds.Several days later he made another visit thereto, and to his surprise the eggs andparents had disappeared. His first impression was that some other person hadtaken them. After looking carefully around, he perceived both birds at a shortdistance, and this led him to institute a search which soon resulted in finding thatthe eggs must have been removed by the parent birds to the face of a muddy bankat least forty yards distant from the original nest. A few decayed leaves had beenplaced under them, but nothing else in the way of lining. A third egg had beenadded in the interim. There can hardly be any doubt of the truth of the fore-going facts.H. Kirke Swann (193G) states that the pigeon hawk sometimes nests
"under the roofs of deserted buildings.''Eggs.?The number of eggs laid by the pigeon hawk is usually fouror five, oftener five than four, very rarely six, and occasionally onlythree. They vary in shape from short-ovate to oval or nearly ellip-tical-ovate. The shell is smooth but without gloss. They look almostexactly like small duck hawks' eggs, showing the same rich andbrilliant colors, but they average somewhat darker. Bendire (1892)describes them very well, as follows: "The ground color when visibleis pale creamy white as a rule, and is hidden by a reddish brownsuffusion of various degrees of intensity, and this, again, is finelymarked or boldly blotched, with different shades of burnt umber,claret brown and vinaceous rufous. These markings are generallyequally and profusely distributed over the entire egg, and are super-ficial ; occasionally they are most distinct about one of the ends, beingdisposed in the shape of a wreath."I have seen some that were sparingly spotted with dull browns andbuff; and one set that was nearly immaculate white. The measure-ments of 55 eggs average 40.2 by 31.3 millimeters; the eggs showingthe four extremes measure 44.5 by 33, 40.4 by 33.1, 37.5 by 33, and38 by 30 millimeters.Plumages.?When first hatched the young pigeon hawk is ratherthinly covered with short, creamy-white down, mixed with pure white ;this is replaced later by longer down, brownish gray or grayish white13751?38 6
74 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMabove and nearly pure white and longer down below. In a young bird,18 days old and nearly fully grown, the primaries have begun to bursttheir sheaths and are about 1 inch long; the tail feathers are in aboutthe same condition, but are only about three quarters of an inch long
;
the head and body are still wholly downy, except that feathers areappearing on the scapular region.In fresh juvenal plumage, the crown is "russet", broadly streakedwith black; the mantle is "bone brown" to "clove brown", with narrow
"russet" edgings, and with a purplish sheen; there are some tips andconcealed spots of "orange-cinnamon" on the scapulars and remiges;the tail is black, or slightly brownish, with narrower gray bars than inthe adult, and broadly tipped with "pinkish buff"; the under partsare "cinnamon" to "cinnamon-buff", broadly streaked, except on thechin and throat, with "sepia" or "bister."The sexes are alike in this plumage, which closely resembles that ofthe adult female. This plumage is worn for nearly a year with nochange, except by wear and fading. By late in winter or early inspring the upper parts have faded out to "olive-brown", "buffybrown", or even "drab"; and the under parts are white, or creamywhite, streaked with "snuff brown", or even paler browns.In April or May, when the bird is less than a year old, the molt intothe adult plumage begins; the body plumage is molted first and thewings and tail later. I have seen molt in the wings in June, but usu-ally it does not begin until July. The complete molt may not befinished until November.In adult plumage the sexes are quite different. In the male theupper parts are "plumbeous", darkest on the upper back; the tail ismainly black, tipped with grayish white, and with broad "cinereous"bands; the streaks on the under parts are black, or nearly so. Thefemale is brown above, uniform "warm sepia" to "bister"; the tail is
"olive-brown" to "clove brown", with narrower, pale buffy bars; andthe streaks on the under parts are "sepia."The annual, complete molts of adults are irregular and prolonged,much as in the young birds. Witherby's Handbook (1924) says, ofthe European merlin, that the complete molt begins with the wingfeathers in June and is completed usually in November, but some-times not until December or even January. It also says that "whatcertainly appears to be a second moult confined to body feathers takesplace Feb.-March and occasionally not finishing until April." Itseems to me that this merely shows that the body molt precedes thewing molt. I once collected a breeding pair of pigeon hawks on June17; the male was in fully adult plumage, but the female was mainlyin immature plumage, much worn, and was molting the body plumageand the wings. This shows that sometimes at least these falcons, like
EASTERN PIGEON HAWK 75some other hawks, become sexually mature before they acquire theadult plumage. This female had laid a set of four fertile eggs.Food.?The pigeon hawk is mainly a bird eater. Dr. A. K. Fisher's(1893b) report on the contents of 56 stomachs says that 2 containedpoultry, 41 small birds, 2 mice, and 16 insects. The following birdshave been recorded in its food: Leach's petrel, green-winged teal,woodcock, snipe, sandpipers, Eskimo curlew, plovers, small domesticchickens, California quail, ptarmigans, pigeons, doves, chimney andblack swifts, flickers, jays, bobolink, meadowlark, blackbirds, grackles,various sparrows, waxwings, swallows, warblers, vireos, gnatcatchers,brown creeper, nuthatches, kinglets, pipit, robin, and thrushes. Otherthings listed include pocket gophers, squirrels, mice, bats, toads,lizards, snakes, dragonflies, butterflies, moths, grasshoppers, crickets,beetles, spiders, crawfishes, scorpions, and caterpillars. That thislittle falcon is able to catch such rapid fliers as swifts and swallows, orsuch nimble insects as dragonflies, speaks well for its powers of flight.Its boldness and courage are shown in its attacks on the largerspecies. It has been known to enter a pigeon cote and kill andcarry off a pigeon.Dr. Fisher (1893b) says that "pigeons, flickers and grackles areabout as large birds as it usually attacks, though Dr. Dall in oneinstance saw it kill a ptarmigan, and Dr. E. A. Mearns speaks of aspecimen shot in the act of destroying a hen." John Murdoch (1877)mentions four pigeon hawks that came out to a vessel in the Gulf ofSt. Lawrence: "The first that appeared had a Leach's petrel, dead, inhis talons. He alighted with this, on the fore crosstrees, and pro-ceeded to eat it." Dr. Elliott Coues (1861) saw one of these hawks,at Henley Harbor, Labrador, "foraging among the immense flocks ofcurlews (Numenius borealis), which then covered the hills in thevicinity."Thomas Mcllwraith (1894) once saw one dash into a flock of black-birds; "how closely they huddled together, as if seeking mutual pro-tection, but he went right through the flock and came out on the otherside with one in each fist."Dr. B. H. Warren (1890) writes: "Two Pigeon Hawks during thelate fall lurked about the southern suburbs o'f the borough of WestChester, preying at regular intervals on the pigeons of a blacksmith.In one week the hawks killed or drove away fifty of the birds. Thehawks would enter the boxes and take from them the pigeons."Edward H. Forbush (1927) says of its hunting:It likes to take a stand on post, pole or tree where, having an unobstructedview, it can survey at leisure the wild life of the locality, and from which it canlaunch forth in swift pursuit of some passing bird, or plunge into some near-bythicket after some timid warbler or sparrow. I never saw one descend almostperpendicularly from a great height upon its prey, as the Duck Hawk often does,
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and I have not seen one actually strike it prey. Its usual method is to chase theprospective victim, which in most cases it can overtake with apparent ease; butin my experience it is frequently baffled by the sudden doublings of the pursued,until it gives up the chase or the hunted bird escapes by suddenly diving intowater or dense shrubbery. I have seen a Pigeon Hawk chase a small flock ofCommon Terns without even touching one, and once in Florida I watched onepursuing for a long time a flock of Sandpipers, but it was unable to catch one aslong as the chase was maintained within my field of vision. The hawk seemed tobe able to overtake them and to follow their flash-like turns quite closely, butcould not lay its claws on a single bird; snipes and sandpipers continually escape,and probably the hawk cannot often take a vigorous shore bird in full possessionof its faculties, but a weak, sickly or wounded bird would stand little chancebefore it.Dr. Charles W. Townsend (1930) says:I was watching, at Plum Island, a flock of twenty-one Semipalmated Sandpipersand a few Sanderlings, when they suddenly rose and flew off from the beach,close to the water, pursued by a falcon. Suddenly the falcon shot up for aboutten feet into the air, banking with its wings and tail widely spread, then darteddown with a splash into the water, submerging its outstretched legs, its belly andpart of one wing. Rising with a sandpiper in its talons, it flew to an old stumpwashed up on the shore where it proceeded to tear out the breast and wingfeathers of its victim.This is what we saw but it is evident that it had struck down the sandpiperin flight so quickly that our eyes failed to follow, and had immediately turned topick it up. The victim was a Semipalmated Sandpiper and the falcon a PigeonHawk.I once saw a pigeon hawk flying with some small object in its talons,probably a mouse, which it was apparently eating on the wing.Holding it forward and downward in one foot, it occasionally bentdown its head and tore off a bit without slackening its speed. JohanBeetz, of Piastre Bay, Quebec, a close observer of birds, told us thatthe male feeds the female during the incubation period. He said thatthis is often accomplished on the wing; the male, having secured asmall bird, or mouse, flies toward the nest and calls to his mate, whoflies out to meet him; mounting high in the air, 20 yards or so abovehis mate, he drops his prey; she darts in and seizes it before it reachesthe ground, turning over on her back beneath it and seizing it in hertalons from below.Lewis O. Shelley sends me the following note: "April 30, 1931, latein the afternoon, when two white-throated sparrows were feeding byone of my bird-banding traps, a pigeon hawk alighted in a large cherrytree. It could evidently hear the sparrows while not seeing them.There was a hedge of alders along the brook just beyond my traps;after a few minutes of unavailing watching on the hawk's part, be-cause the sparrows had detected its presence and 'froze', it surprisedme by flying headlong into the alders with a great confusion, in aneffort to frighten the birds to flight. One ran directly into a trapand 'froze', and did not move for ten minutes, even after the hawk
EASTERN PIGEON HAWK 77had gone; the other moved, as the hawk apparently intended, and asudden swoop from the hedge, a screamed cry from the whitethroat,and the hawk had its prey. This seemed a daring way of frighteningintended prey to take wing."Behavior.?The flight of the pigeon hawk is swift and dashing, likethat of the larger falcons. Its trim body is propelled at tremendousspeed by the rapid motion of its long, pointed wings. Few, if any,birds can escape it in straightaway flight; even the black swift, oneof our fastest-flying birds, has been captured by it. But the prowessof this and other falcons has been somewhat overestimated by admir-ing observers; it is not always successful, and it often fails to capturebirds of much slower flight that are skillful at dodging. WilliamBrewster (1925) tells of a pigeon hawk's attempt to capture a titlark:Titlarks were particularly abundant. As I was watching not less than onehundred of them circling over the marshes, a Pigeon Hawk dashed repeatedlyinto the midst of the crowded flock without capturing any of its members, al-though one was finally separated from the rest, and pursued for upwards of fivehundred yards. The Hawk rose above and stooped down at it fully twenty timesin quick succession, with lightning speed and faultless grace. More than onceI thought it had it in its talons, but it always eluded them at the critical momentby an abrupt turn or twist. This he could not seem to follow, but invariablydescended straight for several yards farther before checking his impetus, tomount and swoop again. All the while the Titlark was nearing, if by deviouscourses, a dense thicket of alders into which it plunged at length, to be seen nomore.He also witnessed the repeated attempts of a pigeon hawk to cap-ture one of a small flock of blue jays; in spite of his swift and spectac-ular dashes, the falcon always failed, as the jay always succeeded indodging or dropping into a treetop, where the falcon did not attemptto attack it; a sharp-shinned hawk would have dashed in after it.Tavemer and Swales (1907) relate the following incident, witnessedby W. E. Saunders: "We had fired at and wounded a Black-belliedPlover which was flying over Lake Erie. The wounded bird wasat once pursued by this falcon. Attaining a height of thirty or fortyfeet above the plover, who was only five or six feet above the water,the falcon swooped and missed?the plover dodging. Again he roseand swooped, and again missed. This was repeated perhaps sixtimes, the birds drawing away northeast towards the mainland, whenfinally the falcon was successful and struck the plover, knocking himinto the water. He then rose, and with a careful swoop, picked himup and flapped away to the Point and we saw him no more."Referring to the flight of this falcon, Ernest Thompson Seton (1890)says: "One trick of flight they had in common with the Whisky John,Shrike and others, namely, flying low over the ground towards apost or stump, and just as one expects to see them strike the bottomof it there is a sudden spreading of tail and wing, and the bird grace-
78 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMfully bounds straight up to the top and alights there. This specieswill sometimes hover, though they do not make such a practice of itas the Sparrow Hawks."Richard M. Bond (1936a) made some interesting observations onthe speed in flight of some pigeon hawks that he was training forfalconry. He found that a trained bird, in coming to the lure, flewat the rate of 29.9 miles an hour, but estimated that, in pursuit of a.flying quarry, it would fly about 50 percent faster. He says, also:
"In comparing it with birds it was attempting to capture, it wasobserved that the Pigeon Hawk flew faster than quail {Lophortyxcaltfornica) or Meadowlarks (Sturnella neglecta), and more slowly,at least in a rising flight, than Horned Larks (Otocoris alpestris). Itcould catch a shrike (Lanius ludovicianus gambeli) in a long coursefree from cover; it was keener after shrikes than after any other bird.It could catch, bring down and kill a dove (Streptopelia risoria),or even a strong adult common pigeon if released within about 50feet, but was easily outdistanced by these birds after they had at-tained top speed."Pigeon hawks are notoriously bold, fearless, and unsuspicious; theyallow a close approach when perched and will fly quite near a man inthe open; hence they are often shot. About their nesting sites theyare far too solicitous for their own welfare. At every one of the threenests that I have seen the birds came flying out to meet us long beforewe reached the vicinity of the nest, crying in distress, advertising theproximity of the nest, and encouraging us to hunt for it. While Iwas examining the nests the birds were most solicitous and bold,flying about the tree, perching on nearby trees, sometimes dartingpast or down at me in swift falcon swoops, and sometimes circlingwith a slow, hovering flight, their sharp, pointed wings vibratingrapidly; and they were constantly cackling in their harsh, shrill,chattering notes.W. J. Brown (1912) had similar experiences in Newfoundland, forhe writes: "I might here state that the Pigeon Hawk is probably themost curious and inquisitive of the Raptores. The sectionmen onthe railway told me that they were always greeted by a pair of PigeonHawks when they passed down in the hand car, although the nestwas a quarter of a mile off in the woods. * * * One day in June,1911, we pitched our camp out on the barrens. A pair of PigeonHawks, which had their nest on the side of a mountain one mile away,observed the smoke from our fire and immediately came over ourheads, uttering alarm notes."Its behavior with other species is no less interesting. Dr. E. W.Nelson (1887) in Alaska "saw one of these birds dart down and strikeits talons into the back of a Burgomaster Gull (Larus glaucus) as thelatter was flying over the sea; after holding on for a moment?the
EASTERN PIGEON HAWK 79gull continuing its flight unimpeded?the falcon let go, and risingalmost directly up for 30 or 40 yards made off." Harold H. Bailey(1906) saw one chasing a red-billed tropicbird on the west coast ofMexico; he also saw it put to flight gulls and caracaras that werefeeding on carcasses. William G. Fargo writes to me that on a long,narrow lake in Florida he saw a number of kingfishers strung alongat intervals, and practically every one of them was attended by apigeon hawk, sitting some 10 or 20 yards away; and when the king-fisher moved the hawk wont along too. Mr. Brewster (1925) wit-nessed the following peculiar behavior of a pigeon hawk:He was either playing or fighting with a Crow, the former I thought, for althoughthe behaviour of both birds was rough and aggressive, it seemed to representmutual participation in a sportive game curiously regulated and much enjoyed.Thus the successive lungings and chasings were not either one-sided or haphazard,but so conducted that each bird alternately took the part of pursuer and pursued,and when enacting the latter role gave way at once, or after the merest pretenceof resistance, to flee as if for its life, dodging and twisting; yet it was promptenough to rejoin the other bird at the end of such a bout, when the two wouldrest awhile on the same stub, perching only a few feet apart and facing one another,perhaps not without some mutual distrust. During these aerial evolutions theHawk screamed and the Crow uttered a rolling croak, almost incessantly. Theyseparated and flew off in different directions when my presence was finally dis-covered.James S. Hine (1919) picked up, in Alaska, "a pigeon hawk thathad been in an encounter with magpies. The hawk received suchsevere treatment that it was unable to fly away and it allowed me towalk up to it. The single magpie which was engaging the hawkwhen I first realized that a fight was on flew gracefully away on myapproach to join six others of its kind which, very likely, had beenhelping in a common attack upon their enemy."Voice.?The cackling notes heard near the nest reminded me, inform at least, of the protesting notes of the sharp-shinned hawk,though they were louder and harsher. Dr. Townsend (1920), whowas with me, recorded the cry as "a rapidly repeated wheet, wheet,wheel varied to a ki, ki, ki, harsher in the female than in the male."Ora W. Knight (1908) records the same notes as "an angry cac, cac,cac, cac, cac varied by a shrill piercing ki-e-e-e-e-e." Mr. Brewster(1925) heard one "uttering, while still on the wing, a rapidly deliveredkla, kla, kla, kla, kla, kla almost precisely like the familiar outcry ofthe sparrow hawk."Field marks.?The falcon form and manner of flight are character-istic. It could hardly be confused with the larger falcons, but itmight easily be mistaken for a sparrow hawk, unless the colors couldbe seen plainly; the brilliant colors and the conspicuous markings ofthe sparrow hawk are very distinctive with any reasonable amountof light; in the pigeon hawk the slaty-blue back of the adult male andthe dark brown back of the female and young bird are distinguishable
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only in a good light, but the black tail, with whitish bands, is moreconspicuous.Fall.?It is during the fall migration that most of the pigeon hawksare seen. They come straggling along from September to November,but the height of the migration comes late in September and early inOctober, together with the heavy flight of small land birds. At thatseason they are oftenest seen in open country, along the borders ofstreams or large bodies of water, or along the seacoast. A. L. andH. L. Ferguson (1922), referring to Fishers Island, N. Y., say: "ThePigeon Hawk is very common at the Island during migration. Thesesmall falcons prefer a southwest wind to fly on, though numberscome along on a northwest wind. They feed early in the day, andrarely is one collected that is not found to be packed full of birds.They are very savage, and are ready to fight at any time, either withanother Pigeon Hawk or a decoy owl. At the decoy we have seenone return seven times, dashing in and squealing, but never striking.They decoy better than the Sharpshins, and when once near the owlare not afraid of a person. The young birds migrate first, and theadults later, like the Sharp-shinned Hawk."Lucien M. Turner's latest date for Fort Chimo, Ungava, where thespecies is rare, is September 25. Arthur T. Wayne (1910) gives thedates for the migration through South Carolina as ranging from Sep-tember 13 to November 7. He says: "It is most frequently seen inOctober, when large flights sometimes occur, as on October 10, 1903,when I witnessed an enormous migration lasting through the wholeday. Nearly all of these hawks were flying beyond gun shot and butone specimen was taken. Adult birds are very rarely seen or taken,and a male secured April 13, 1900, and a female taken November 7,1898, are the only adult birds I have ever seen. Although thisspecies is said to 'winter in Massachusetts and to the southward' itcertainly does not occur at that season on the coast of South Carolina."Ivan R. Tomkins writes to me that he has seen it near Savannah,Ga., "all through November, and once on January 24." Probably itdoes not spend the winter regularly much north of Florida, where it isfairly common at that season, arriving during the latter part of Sep-tember and remaining until April.DISTRIBUTIONRange.?The species is circumpolar, Old World forms breedingfrom Iceland and the British Isles, across northern Europe and Asia,to Kamchatka and wintering south to northern Africa, India, Turk-estan, China, and Japan. The North American races breed fromAlaska across Canada to Newfoundland and winter south to the WestIndies and northern South America.Breeding range.?In North America the pigeon hawk breeds northto Alaska (Kobuk River, Gens de Large Mountains, and possibly
EASTERN PIGEON HAWK 81Demarcation Point); Yukon (La Pierre House); Mackenzie (PeelRiver, Fort Goodhope, Fort Anderson, Fort Rae, and Hill IslandLake); northern Manitoba (Lake du Brochet and Fort Churchill);northern Ungava (Chimo); and Labrador (Okak). East to Labra-dor (Okak and Groswater Bay); eastern Quebec (Romaine); New-foundland (Deer Lake and St. Johns) ; Prince Edward Island (NorthRiver); and Nova Scotia (Halifax). South to Nova Scotia (Halifax);southern New Brunswick (St. Stephen); Maine (Dover); southernQuebec (Quebec) ; southern Ontario (Charlinch and Lake Joseph);probably Ohio (Ashtabula County); rarely Iowa (Grinnell, probablyIowa City, and probably Sioux City); Colorado (Summit County andFort Lewis); southwestern Wyoming (Fort Bridger); northern Utah(Wasatch Mountains); northern Nevada (Buffalo Creek); andsouthern Oregon (Lake Malheur and Klamath Lake). West toOregon (Klamath Lake, Fort Klamath, and Newport); Washington(Bumping Lake, Tacoma, and Wrights Peak); British Columbia(Chilliwack, Okanagan, and Glenora); and Alaska (Chitina River,Seldovia, Nogheling River, Mount McKinley, Jennie Creek, andKobuk River).Winter range.?In the East most of the pigeon hawks retire inwinter south to the Gulf States, the Caribbean region, and northernSouth America. Nevertheless, frequency of records in December andJanuary actually extends the range much farther north.At this season the species has been recorded north to southernBritish Columbia (Okanagan); southeastern Washington (WallaWalla); Utah (St. George); northwestern Wyoming (YellowstonePark); Colorado (Plateau Creek and Boulder); Nebraska (Crawfordand Neligh) ; rarely Iowa (Sioux City, Ashton, and Keokuk) ; Illinois(De Kalb, Urbana, and Rantoul); probably rarely Indiana (Bicknelland Richmond); rarely southern Ontario (Toronto and Ottawa);rarely southern Quebec (Montreal) ; and rarely southern Maine(Portland). East to rarely southern Maine (Portland); rarely Con-necticut (New Haven); rarely Maryland (Westwood); rarely SouthCarolina (Charleston); Florida (Gainesville, New Smyrna, Miakka,and Fort Myers); Bahama Islands (New Providence); DominicanRepublic (Monte Cristi, Moca, Miranda, and La Vega); Puerto Rico(Mayaguez and Cartagena Lagoon) ; and the Lesser Antilles (Anguilla,Antigua, probably St. Vincent, probably Barbados, and Trinidad).South to the Lesser Antilles (Trinidad); northern Venezuela (Alta-gracia and Caicara); and rarely Peru (Trujillo). West to rarelyPeru (Trujillo) ; Ecuador (Cuenca, Canar, Zambiza, and Esmeraldas)
;
Colombia (Medellin); Panama (Calobre); Costa Rica (San Jose);Oaxaca (Tehuantepee) ; Puebla (Chietla); Sinaloa (Mazatlan); BajaCalifornia (La Paz); California (San Diego, Buena Park, SantaBarbara, San Jose, Marysville, and Willows) ; Oregon (Portland)
82 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMWashington (Quilcene, Seattle, and Smith Island); and BritishColumbia (Okanagan).The range above outlined combines the four races currently recog-nized as North American. The eastern pigeon hawk (Falco columbariuscolumbarius) breeds in the eastern part of the range west to the easternborder of the Great Plains and winters south through the West Indiesand eastern Mexico to northwestern South America. The blackpigeon hawk (F. c. suckleyi) is found during the nesting season onlyon the coastal islands of southern Alaska and British Columbia,wintering south rarely as far as San Francisco Bay. Richardson'spigeon hawk (F. c. richardsoni) occupies the Great Plains region fromsouthern Alberta and Saskatchewan south in winter through Colo-rado and New Mexico to Texas and probably northwestern Mexico.The western pigeon hawk (F. c. bendirei) breeds from northernAlaska, Yukon, and western Mackenzie south to Saskatchewan,Alberta, and British Columbia and through the mountains to northernCalifornia, wintering south through California to New Mexico,northern Mexico, and Baja California.Spring migration.?Early dates of arrival north of the winter rangeare: New Brunswick?Scotch Lake, April 2; St. John, April 7. NovaScotia?Pictou, March 26. Prince Edward Island?North River,April 16. Newfoundland?Placentia Bay, February 13. Wisconsin
?
Milwaukee, March 10; Elkhorn, March 15; Whitewater, March 17.Minnesota?Cottonwood County, March 20; Heron Lake, March 27;Wilder, April 2; White Earth, April 12. South Dakota?Vermillion,March 11; Brookings, March 22; Yankton, March 25. North Da-kota?Argusville, March 25; Larimore, April 6; Bathgate, April 9.Manitoba?Margaret, March 31 ; Killarney, April 1 ; Treesbank, April7; Aweme, April 9. Saskatchewan?Eastend, March 15; South Qu'Appelle, March 18; Skull Creek, March 22; Muscow, March 25.Mackenzie?Fort Simpson, April 25; Fort Providence, April 27.Idaho?Coeur d'Alene, April 16. Montana?Terry, March 7; For-tine, April 16 (one seen January 15, 1931). Alberta?Alliance, April11; Nanton, April 13; Stony Plain, April 15; Fort McMurray, April21. Alaska?mouth of Stikine River, April 19; Kuiu Island, April 25;Strelna, May 8; Ilusbagah, May 10; Fort Yukon, May 13; St. Michael,May 18; Kowak River, May 19.The last individuals appear to leave the southern parts of the winterrange in March and April. Some late dates of departure from thisregion are: Virgin Islands?St. Croix, April 28. Puerto Rico?Lajas,April 1. Dominican Republic?Lake Enriquillo, March 5. FloridaKey West, April 3; Pensacola, April 22; Dunedin, April 30. Louisi-ana?Chenier Tigre, March 10.Fall migration,.?Late dates of fall departure from the northernparts of the breeding range are: Alaska?Unalaska, September 25;
BLACK PIGEON HAWK 83Taku River, September 26 ; Admiral Island, September 30. Yukon
?
mouth of Moose River, October 1. Alberta?Calgary, October 14;Fort McKay, October 15; Belvedere, October 18. Montana?BigSandy, September 30; Fallon, October 22. Mackenzie?Fort Resolu-tion, September 27; Grand Detour, Slave River, October 3; RocheTrempe-Feau, October 8. Keewatin?Oxford House, September 10.Saskatchewan?Eastend, October 4. Manitoba?Oak Lake, October19; Ninette, October 28; Killarney, November 4; Aweme, November15. North Dakota?Argusville, October 14; Grafton, October 18.South Dakota?Yankton, October 16; Forestburg, October 24; mouthof the Vermillion River, October 25. Minnesota?Minneapolis,October 6; St. Vincent, October 11; Virginia, October 16. Wiscon-sin?Shiocton, October 9; New London, October 14; North Freedom,October 30. Prince Edward Island?North River, October 3. NovaScotia?Pictou, October 17; Halifax, November 4. New Bruns-wick?Scotch Lake, November 3; St. John, November 5.Early fall arrivals in the southern part of the winter range aregenerally in September and October. Among such are: FloridaPensacola, September 4; St. Johns County, September 15; WakullaCounty, September 27. Puerto Rico?Mayaguez, October 1. Ven-ezuela?Culata, September 18.The banding files of the Biological Survey contain two records thatthrow light on the movements of this species. Both birds were bandedat Rosebud, Alberta, and are for the subspecies richardsoni. Onebanded on July 8, 1930, was shot in the Gila Valley, near Stafford,Ariz., on December 12, 1930, while the other, banded on July 6, 1931,was recaptured near Tucson, Ariz., on January 28, 1933.Casual records.?The pigeon hawk is probably a fairly regular falland winter visitor on Bermuda, but only two records are now avail-able. One was seen on December 2, 1874, and the following day aspecimen was obtained. Another was taken on March 23, 1919.Egg dates.?Arctic America: 8 records, May 25 to June 29. Albertato Manitoba: 19 records, May 7 to June 6; 10 records, May 18 toJune 4, indicating the height of the season.Ontario to Newfoundland: 14 records, May 18 to June 22; 7 records,May 24 to June 9.Labrador: 8 records, May 15 to June 30.FALCO COLUMBARIUS SUCKLEYI RidgwayBLACK PIGEON HAWKHABITSThis dark race of the pigeon hawk is supposed to be resident inthe humid, northwest-coast region, but the limits of its restrictedrange are none too well known. It is supposed to breed in British
84 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMColumbia and to wander only rarely as far south as northern Cali-fornia. Major Bendire (1892) writes:I am quite positive, however, that an occasional pair breeds in the vicinity ofFort Klamath. On May 9, 1883, while en route from this post to Linkville,Oregon, I observed a pair of these birds in the large open pine forest about midwaybetween the two points. I had halted my party to let the horses graze, and,while resting, my attention was attracted to the male, by its incessant screamingin the trees overhead; this also brought the female around, and she was equallyas noisy. It was clear that they had a nest in the vicinity, either in the tallpines or in a cliff about 400 yards distant, but a careful search instituted by themembers of my party and myself failed to reveal it. Both birds were rather shy,but I finally succeeded in killing the male, a very handsome adult specimen.J. H. Bowles (Dawson and Bowles, 1909) says: "Black Merlinsare fairly common thruout the country lying between the CascadeRange and the Pacific Ocean [in Washington]. They are mostnumerous during migrations, but a few pairs remain with us duringthe summer for the sake of raising a family.
"During the fall and early spring they are most often to be met within the open prairie country, and on the extensive tide flats that areto be found along Puget Sound. In such localities there is alwaysan abundance of the smaller migratory birds, which seem to makeup almost the entire sum and substance of their food supply."S. F. Rathbun has very kindly looked over for me the pigeon hawksin local collections and reports that all the specimens of suckleyi, takenin the vicinity of Seattle and Tacoma, Wash., were migrant or winterbirds, September to March. From this he infers that "quite likely, inthis locality, the bird is much more of a transient than a resident,although our notes, some thirty years ago, show that for several seasonswe saw the species at times about the city in the summer months."Dr. George M. Sutton writes to me that he shot an exceedinglyhandsome, richly colored male of this race, on June 10, 1934, aboutthree miles north of Blue River, British Columbia. The stomachcontained "only the remains of a Vaux's swift." The gonads wereconsiderably enlarged. He says: "Judging from this record, andfrom a similar one made by Taverner in an earlier year, I am inclinedto think this bird may nest Jar in the interior, as well as, or perhapsinstead of, along the coast, as has been supposed."Nesting.?Mr. Bowles (Dawson and Bowles, 1909) writes:So far as known no positively identified eggs of the Black Merlin have everbeen taken, and only two nests have been reported to me, both of which werein inaccessible cavities high up in decayed trees. One of these that I personallyvisited in June was placed in a lone cottonwood tree in the valley of the PuyallupRiver, and contained young that were learning to fly. The young paid no atten-tion whatever to me, but the parents sat overhead looking down at me and utter-ing plaintive whimperings, altho seemingly pretty well assured that I could notreach them. The note sounded not unlike the kik-kik-kik call of the Flicker,only very much more subdued, and is the only sound I have ever known thisbird to make at any time.
BLACK PIGEON HAWK 85There is a set of four eggs in the A. M. Ingersoll collection, takenby L. D. Rice near Sitka, Alaska, on May 27, 1887, from a "nest ofsticks, lined with leaves and feathers, built on top of a rock abouteight feet high." These eggs are now stored in the museum of theSan Diego Society of Natural History.Plumages.?The molts and plumages evidently follow the samesequence in the black pigeon hawk as in others of the species, butsuckleyi is much darker than columbarius in all plumages. In thejuvenal plumages of both sexes and in the adult female, the upperparts are "fuscous-black" to "clove brown" in fall birds, somewhatpaler in spring; the tail bands are narrow and broken, or restrictedto mere spots; the under parts are heavily marked with broad streaksof "clove brown" or "bone brown", the dark colors predominating.In the adult male the upper parts are "dark plumbeous", lighteston the rump and tail coverts, deepening to "blackish plumbeous"on the upper back and to nearly black on the nape; the tail is black,with white tip spots and three or four interrupted bars or spots of
"dark plumbeous"; the chin and throat are white, with narrow blackstreaks; the remaining under parts are strongly washed with "cinna-mon-buff" and broadly streaked with black; the black predominateson the belly and flanks. Mrs. Fannie H. Eckstorm (1902) has givenus a fine description, in more detail, of a very dark specimen, anextreme melano.Behavior.?The food, manner of hunting, and other habits of theblack pigeon hawk are similar to those of its eastern relative. It isthe same bold dashing little falcon. Mr. Rathbun writes to me:"A friend of ours was hunting jacksnipe on marshy pastureland quitesome distance north of here. The section was open, although a longdistance away was a standing tree or two. The snipe came dartingpast my friend just within long gunshot. He swung on one, andwhen the gun cracked the bird started falling in a diving, flutteringflight, appearing to have a broken wing. But only part of its descenthad taken place when 'from nowhere' flashed a small, dark hawk, itsflight so swift that it appeared only as a 'blurr in the air'. The hawkstruck the snipe squarely in mid-air, then quickly carried it away.The whole occurrence took place so quickly that, although a shotwas fired in turn at the departing hawk, it had no effect, as it waspractically out of range when the shot was fired, for my informantwas taken completely by surprise at what had occurred."Since the above was written, I have been interested in reading thefollowing suggestion by Harry S. Swarth (1935) as to the validity ofthis dark form as a geographical race:
"Suckleyi was described, and has been regarded, as an extremely satisfyingexample of the darkening effect of the humid coastal environment of the north-west, as another 'saturated' local race. However, breeding birds are unknown
86 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMfrom any point whatsoever, and, so far as I am aware, no specimens of suckleyihave been collected on the coast north of Vancouver Island. On the other hand,migrants have been collected east of the Coast Range the entire length of BritishColumbia. South-bound migrants collected by myself near Atlin, where theform is not uncommon, were taken such a short distance south of the YukonTerritory boundary as to make it obvious that suckleyi must breed in at least theupper portion of the Yukon drainage. In the Atlin region, columbarius andsuckleyi occur in about equal numbers. Indeed, so far as I know, whereversuckleyi has been collected typical columbarius has been found as well. Do notthese facts point toward the probability of the existence of two color phases ofFalco columbarius in the northwest rather than of two geographic races? Isthere, indeed, anything corroborative of geographic segregation of these forms?"Hamilton M. Laing (1935) evidently does not agree with the abovetheory, and produces some evidence to indicate that the black pigeonhawk is a good race and occupies a fairly definite breeding range inthe heavily forested coastal region of British Columbia and theinterior of Vancouver Island.FALCO COLUMBARIUS RICHARDSONI RidgwayRICHARDSON'S PIGEON HAWKHABITSThis beautiful little falcon, the palest of the American merlins, isa bird of the Great Plains, breeding mainly in southern Alberta andSaskatchewan, in Montana, and in northwestern North Dakota. Itssummer home is on the wide rolling plains and prairies, where theyare dotted with small groves of poplars, aspens, cottonwoods, andother deciduous trees. Prof. William Rowan writes to me that inAlberta this falcon "breeds quite regularly, though not abundantly,in the Edmonton district, in the Cooking Lake and the Sullivan Lakedistricts, also on the Red Deer." He also thinks that it "breedsfarther north than is indicated in the Check-List, at least up toAthabaska and possibly to the northern limit of the Canadian Zone."This falcon, when first discovered by Richardson, on the plains ofthe Saskatchewan, was supposed to be identical with the Europeanmerlin, which it somewhat resembles. Richardson's specimen, figuredin Fauna Boreali-Americana, plate 25, under the name Falco aesalonwas taken near Carlton House on May 14, 1827. Its distinctness fromthat species was not discovered for many years, when Ridgway (1870)described it as a full species and named it for its discoverer. Mr.Ridgway (Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway, 1905) later decided to regardit as a subspecies of columbarius, and it has so stood in the last twoeditions of our Check-List.Spring.?T. E. Randall writes to me that Richardson's merlin, asthe bird was called for many years, is the first migrant to appear inthe spring in the vicinity of Castor, Alberta. His earliest record isFebruary 22, 1924, a male bird. "The bird is quite common by April 1.
RICHARDSON'S PIGEON HAWK 87and the birds have paired and chosen nesting sites by the middle ofthat month."Nesting.?Mr. Randall says (MS.) of its nesting habits: "An oldcrow's nest is invariably used, generally one that is built in the forkof a poplar, 15 to 18 feet from the ground. The nest is alwaysrelined with dry inner bark of poplar. Laying commences aboutthe first of May, and four is the usual clutch, but I have twice foundfive eggs. If the first clutch is taken, the birds will often takepossession of another nest, at no great distance from the first, andlay a second clutch of eggs, but I find that the second clutches numberonly three eggs. If the nest tree is climbed before an egg is laid, thebirds always desert the nest; on one occasion of which I have recordthe birds returned to their first choice on being disturbed at thesecond nest. This year, 1924, for the first time in my experience, apair of merlins nested in a nest that was used by merlins in 1923;after the eggs were taken, a pair of Swainson hawks took possessionof the nest and reared their young."W. J. Brown spent the spring and summer of 1904 at Lethbridge,Alberta, and has sent me his notes on eight nests of this falcon thathe found from May 7 to June 5. Five of these were in old magpies'nests, one in an old nest of ferruginous roughleg, and two in oldcrows' nests. "Two pairs of these birds were nesting in holes incutbanks, but their nests could not be reached."J. E. Houseman (1894) found a nest of Richardson's pigeon hawknear Calgary, Alberta, in a cavity in the top of a black poplar, wherethe trunk had been broken off. On May 5 it held only one egg, anda week later there were four perfectly fresh eggs, indicating that anegg is laid every other day. "The cavity these eggs were in wasabout eight inches across, one and one half feet deep, and 22 feetfrom the ground." G. F. Dippie (1895) found two more nests, thefollowing year, in the same general region, in hollows in large blackpoplars.Frank L. Farley sends me the following notes: "I have found fiveor six nests of this little hawk, and all have been within a half mileof a lake or river, sometimes within a few hundred feet. Two ofthese were in spruce trees, in dense spruce woods along the Saskatche-wan River, from 30 to 60 feet from the ground. Two others were inpoplars in small groves on the prairie, averaging 25 feet from theground. Another was in an old covered magpie's nest, 15 feet upin a willow clump. All the nests were loosely constructed andlooked as if they had been used previously. All the nests were lightlylined with pieces of the inner lining of poplar bark. Both old birdsare very noisy, when one approaches the nest, uttering a shrill,scolding note; this action on the part of the birds often leads to thediscovery of the nesting tree."
88 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMEggs.?Richardson's pigeon hawk lays from three to six eggs,usually four or five. Mr. Randall's notes indicate that four is theusual number, and Mr. Rowan evidently agrees with him; but Mr.Brown took seven sets of five, one of six, and none of four. Mostof the eggs are indistinguishable from eggs of the eastern pigeonhawk, but some are more lightly spotted, showing more ground color.Mr. Rowan thinks that they are more like eggs of the hobby falcon(Falco subbuteo) than like those of the merlin. The measurements of48 eggs average 39.8 by 31.2 millimeters; the eggs showing the fourextremes measure 43.3 by 32, 42.7 by 32.5, 37 by 30.5, and 39.1 by30 millimeters.Plumages.?The sequence of molts and plumages is apparently thesame as other pigeon hawks, but this race is easily distinguishable inany plumage by its much paler coloration. The sexes are alike inthe immature plumage of the first year. This is similar to thecorresponding plumage of columbarius but much paler; the upperparts are "hair brown" to "light drab", with "cinnamon" edgingswhen fresh ; the under parts are paler and less heavily streaked thanin eastern birds.In the adult male the upper parts are pale, bluish gray, or "cinere-ous", slightly darker on the upper back and crown, with narrow,black shaft-streaks; the tail is "gull gray", or paler, tipped withwhite, with a broad subterminal band and three interrupted bars ofblack, the gray bands as wide as, or wider than, the black; the underparts are white, or creamy white, deepening to "cinnamon-buff" onthe tibiae and paling to pure white on the chin and throat ; the throatand tibiae are lightly, or not at all, streaked with black; the bodybelow is streaked with "buffy brown" or "snuff brown", with darkershaft-streaks; the white bars on the remiges are wider than the darkspaces.The adult female is similar to the male but has a distinct brownishcast on the upper parts, much like the immature birds; and there areusually spots of "light ochraceous-salmon" on the outer webs of thewing quills.Females and immatures arc much like the corresponding plumagesof bendirei, but paler.Behavior.?We found this little falcon to bo quite rare in south-western Saskatchewan. During two seasons there I succeeded incollecting only one specimen and found no nest; my companionscollected another, and we saw two or three other birds supposed tobe this falcon. My bird was shy and was secured only by exercisinga little strategy. As we were driving along a prairie road we saw asmall hawk sitting on a fence post by the roadside; as we approachedhe kept flying along ahead of us, alighting on the fence posts at fre-quent intervals, but never allowing us to come within gunshot range.
WESTERN PIGEON HAWK 89So I stopped the wagon, alighted from it, made a long detour to apoint far ahead of the hawk, and hid behind a bank. As my com-panion came along, the hawk behaved as he had before and finallyflew past me near enough for me to secure him.I cannot find anything to indicate that the food, voice, or otherhabits of this bird differ materially from those of other pigeon hawks.Fall.?Richardson's pigeon hawk migrates southward in fall,mainly east of the Rocky Mountains, through Colorado, New Mexico,and western Texas. Mr. Randall says that it is one of the last of themigrants to leave Alberta; his latest record is December 5, 1922.FALCO COLUMBARIUS BENDIREI SwannWESTERN PIGEON HAWKHABITSThis supposed northwestern race of the pigeon hawk is not a verywell marked subspecies. It seems to me to be only an intermediatebetween two of the other races and therefore hardly worthy of recogni-tion in nomenclature. It is said to be slightly paler above thancolumbarius, which may be due to interbreeding with richardsoni. Iam inclined to agree with Harry S. Swarth (1935), who says: "I haveexamined series of Pigeon Hawks wherever opportunity has offeredwithout being able to substantiate the existence of a western race,bendirei. * * * I am unable to distinguish between eastern andwestern examples of Falco columbarius in normal plumage, but it maybe desirable to recognize a northwestern subspecies on the samegrounds as Buteo borcalis calurus, that is, on the basis of a dimorphismthat is prevalent over part of the species' range. For this subspeciesthe name Falco columbarius suckleyi is available, of course; bendireishould be ruled out in any event."What little we have available on the habits of pigeon hawks, in theregions supposed to be occupied by this race, indicates no variationfrom the habits of the species elsewhere. M. P. Skinner tells me thathe has seen them in Yellowstone National Park, some of them "quitedark", during every month from April to October; his earliest date isApril 15, and his latest October 10. He says that "these hawks arelike the sharpshins in preferring the edges of the forests and the opencountry, dotted with groves, to the heavy forests."Nesting.?H. R. Taylor (1888) writes of a nest, containing five eggs,that he found on April 6, 1888: "It was on a steep mountain side, inSanta Clara Co., Cal., on a ledge of a precipitous bluff about thirty-fivefeet high." The nest "was composed simply of pieces of friable rock."Behavior.?Mr. Skinner says, in his notes: "Although most of thepigeon hawks' prey are small birds flushed and chased down, they are13751?38 7
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versatile hunters. I have seen them circle over and hunt a meadowas a red-tailed hawk would ; and I have seen one hover in air for sometime like a sparrow hawk and then shoot straight down to the groundat high speed." FALCO AESALON AESALON Tunstall
Contributed by Francis Charles Robert JourdainThe claim of the merlin to a place in the American list rests,according to the fourth edition of the A. O. U. Check-List, on thefact that it is "accidental in Greenland." The latest and best author-ity on Greenland birds is the monumental work "Danmarks Fugle",initiated by the late E. Lehn Schi0ler, of which the third volume,dealing with the Raptores, was completed with the help of R. Her-ring, H. Scheel, and A. Vedel Taning. Here two races of the merlinare recognized from western Europe, the typical race (which mostEuropean ornithologists regard merely as a form of the pigeon hawk,F. columbarius, and which, according to the A. O. U. Check-List,should be called F. aesalon aesalon Tunstall) and the Icelandic race(F. aesalon subaesalon Brehm). As the nearest point of the Icelandcoast is only about 300 miles distance from east Greenland, while theShetlands are at least 1,300 miles away, it would seem probable thatstragglers to the Greenland coast would belong to the Iceland form,if recognizable. This is not the place for an analysis of the distin-guishing points of the two races, but, on the measurements given in"Danmarks Fugle", the Iceland bird is the larger, the wing of Ice-landic males measuring 209.7 mm (average), females 228.9 mm, whileScandinavian birds average 197.8 mm (males) and 213.6 mm (fe-males), and Faeroe birds are intermediate, the males averaging 200mm and the females 221.7 mm. According to Kleinschmidt, whopointed out the difference between the Icelandic and European formsand proposed the name Falco alfred-edmundi for the Iceland bird in1917, there is also a difference in color, the Icelandic bird beingdarker. In Schi0lcr's work details are given of about four Americanoccurrences: One at sea, south of Greenland, in May 1867; anotherat Cape Farewell on May 3, 1875; one near Christianhaab on July 1,1883 (?); and one for Angmagsalik, July 3, 1914; with another pos-sible occurrence in 1908. The early records were ascribed to theScandinavian form, but the distinctness of the Iceland race was notthen appreciated; the Angmagsalik bird must be definitely classed asIcelandic (if recognized), as its wing (female, juvenal) measures 228mm and the culmen 15 mm.In the following notes no attempt has been made to separate thosereferring to the Icelandic form from those applicable to the typicalrace.
MERLIN 91HABITSIn Iceland the merlin is a summer resident, arriving about the endof March or the beginning of April, but in the Faeroes and the BritishIsles it is mainly a resident, although many, probably including mostof the birds of the year, move southward in autumn and may be metwith in districts where the species is never known to breed.It is a bold and dashing little falcon and has no hesitation in attack-ing birds larger than itself, such as the golden plover and lapwing, butits normal prey consists of small birds, such as the meadow pipit(Anthus pratensis) and the other small passerine birds that are to befound on the outskirts of the moorlands. In Iceland there is littlecultivation, and here the merlin is by far the commonest raptorialbird, though nowhere numerous. In this treeless land of lava fieldsand moors one comes occasionally on a pair that has selected a breed-ing site, generally on some rocky outcrop or cliff, but at times alsoamong the scanty heather on the ground. In the Shetlands and Ork-neys it is also the commonest of the Accipiters and may be met withalmost anywhere, not only on the tops of the hills, but also, as Saxby(1874) has well described, in the marshes and on the cliffs or by theshore, while it includes in its hunting grounds the roofs and chimneysof the villages and may dart down upon a sparrow or a twite evenat the very door of a house.Farther south, on the mainland of Scotland and the moors of north-ern England, its home during the summer months is on the hills,where it may be seen perched on a rock or swiftly flying over therough pastures and heaths, beating the countryside with untiring zealuntil some luckless small bird is flushed and flown down. Here itsnest is usually to be found in or near the same spot year after year.Seebohm (1883) gives details of two sites on the Yorkshire moors forfive years. During this period, on several occasions, both male andfemale were shot by keepers at the nest, and the young or eggs de-stroyed. Yet the next year, or sometimes after an interval of a year,another pair of birds appeared and recolonized the old site. To any-one living on a grouse moor in northern England, it seems almost in-credible that the stock can be kept up, for the breeding places areknown by tradition to the keepers and it is only occasionally that apair manages to bring off a brood from some remote part of the moor.Where the birds came from to replenish the vacant sites was long amystery, for though the merlin does little real harm on a grouse moor,no keeper will ever allow this beautiful little falcon to hatch off, if hecan possibly prevent it with the help of a trap or a cartridge or two.Fortunately for ornithology, there are, however, large tracts of hills,covered chiefly with rough pasture and a little heather and bracken,which are practically valueless as far as grouse are concerned and sodo not come under the keeper's jurisdiction. Often these hills are on
92 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMthe edge of the industrial districts of Yorkshire and Lancashire, andthe numerous tall factory chimneys, which disfigure the valleys, makethe place look most unlikely as a breeding haunt for a falcon, yet itis here that the merlin has found sanctuary, and it is from these un-promising-looking surroundings that the annual output of youngbirds moves south every year to return to the historic sites on thegrouse moors, where so many of their relatives have died. There isno part of the British Isles where merlins may be found nesting infair numbers in such restricted areas, as this "no man's land."South of the Trent the merlin is only an autumn and winter visitorto the midland and southern counties, except among the hills of Walesand on Exmoor. Here a certain degree of variation in the breedingsite begins to be apparent. In the northern part of its breeding rangethere are no trees, and it must breed among the heather or on therocks. There are a few cases on record in Scotland and northernEngland where it has bred in an old nest of a hooded or carrion crow,but in Wales this habit becomes quite common, and on Exmoor thepair or two that still breed prefer to use an old nest in a tree or strag-gling hedge. Another site adopted by Welsh merlins is amongsand dunes overgrown with marram grass. Here in a little cupscratched out in the sand and lined with grass, the merlin has found anew type of nesting place.Courtship.?Little is on record on the coursthip of the merlin, butlike so many other Accipiters, both male and female describe aerialevolutions high in the air over the nesting site at the beginning of thebreeding season and especially on warm sunny days. At other timesthe merlin does not fly high. William Rowan (1921-22), who hasdescribed the breeding of the merlin on the Yorkshire moors veryfully, did not observe any aerial courtship but suggests that the feed-ing of the female by the male at the nest site may be part of the cere-mony and is frequently followed by sexual union.Nest.?In the foregoing remarks something has already been saidas to the different types of sites adopted by the merlin in differentsurroundings. Little actual nest is made. When in heather or onrocks it is little more than a hollow in the ground with a few heathertwigs artlessly arranged, but grasses may be pressed down if alreadypresent. When an old nest of some other species, crow or raven, isused, practically nothing is added to it. On the sand dunes themarram grass is formed into quite a passable nest. Rowan (1921-22)noted that, during the early stages of incubation, the bird wouldbreak off twigs from heather within reach and add them to the nest.He also noted bits of bracken in a nest when a patch was within easyreach.A very extraordinary site is recorded by Nordling from Finland, in aweatherworn and old hole of a woodpecker in a tree. In the wooded
MERLIN 93parts of Scandinavia and Finland, an old nest in a birch or pine isfrequently used, although beyond the tree limit, only cliff and groundsites are available. It seems to be an almost invariable rule that anest on the ground should command a good view of the adjacentcountry.Eggs.?The commonest number of eggs in England is four, and fiveare quite exceptional. Farther north the proportion of fives seems toincrease, and in the Orkneys and Iceland they are common enough.The six set has occurred in Scotland at least nine or ten times andprobably oftener, while seven occur in Sweden in lemming years andhave also been recorded from Finland. Six have also been recordedfrom Iceland. Second layings may consist of only three eggs, butE. R. Paton (1917) says that it is also found in first layings at times,and J. A. W. Bond confirms this.In color they show less variation than the kestrel's eggs, and theyare sometimes rather elongated in shape, but normally almost oval,the creamy ground being often quite concealed by red-brown stipplingand spots. It is rare to find a really richly and boldly marked clutch,and the most remarkable varieties are those in which most of thecoloring matter is absent and a good deal of the creamy ground isvisible. One remarkable set has three eggs almost white, while thefourth is clouded with red-brown. Other varieties show patches ofviolet shell marks, while some sets have a very attractive violet bloom,and others are of a pale yellowish type, approaching that of the hobby(F. subbuteo). All the eggs are rather dull, and those from the moorsnear industrial centers become much contaminated by soot in the air.Measurements of 100 British eggs average 39.95 by 31.27 milli-meters; the eggs showing the four extremes measure 42.4 by 32, 41.4by 33.8, 37 by 29.1, and 40.3 by 29 millimeters. Fourteen Icelandiceggs average 40.9 by 31.9 millimeters; the eggs showing the fourextremes measure 42.3 by 32.8, 41 by 33.2, and 38.9 by 30.2 milli-meters.Young.?The eggs are laid at 48-hour intervals, i. e., every secondday, and Paton (1917) states that in a clutch of three it begins withthe third egg ; other observers are of the opinion also that it begins onthe completion of the set. Both sexes take a share in incubation, butthere seems to be a consensus of opinion that the female takes thegreater share of the work. Rowan (1921-22), however, states that inone case where he watched at night the male was incubating all thetime. During brooding the hunting is done by the male, the hengenerally keeping to the neighborhood of the nest, while she preensand sleeps during her mate's spell of brooding.The incubation period is estimated by Rosenius at 25 days ; Edmond-son states that it is not less than 26 days, while Rowan says that three
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eggs hatched on the twenty-ninth day, and Paton gives 30 days (mini-mum 29.) On the whole I think about 29 days would be a fair average.In a case recorded by H. S. Gladstone (1910) hatching was spread over3 days, so probably in this case incubation began before the clutchwas complete.The young are fed by the female, who leaves her station and takesthe prey from the male, not at the nest, but generally at or near oneof the perching places in the neighborhood. The young remain inthe nest for 25 to 26 or 27 days but stay in the vicinity for some timelonger. Only one brood is reared in the season.Plumages.?The plumages are fully described in Witherby's Hand-book (1924, vol. 2, pp. 116-118) and need not be repeated here atlength. The male is readily recognizable by his slaty-blue upperparts, while the tail has a conspicuous broad black band; the hen isnot unlike a hen kestrel but lacks the reddish-brown color, which isreplaced by brown in which the red is lacking. The flight, however,is quite different?low, eager, and dashing.Food.?The food of the merlin consists almost entirely of smallpasserine birds, very largely meadow pipits, but also occasionally sky-larks, twites, linnets, yellow buntings, ring ouzels, and song thrushes,while over 20 other species have been recorded from time to time.Besides these small birds up to the size of the mistle thrush andstarling, downy young of grouse are known to be taken at times, butonly in the very early stages, and larger birds, such as the smallerwaders, and even the golden plover, lapwing, rock dove, and lessertern have been recorded as taken. Mammals (voles and one record ofrabbit), insects in small numbers, and lizards complete the bill of fare.Behavior.?Although so small a bird, the merlin is extremely bold.Dr. H. L. Saxby (1874) says of it: "I have repeatedly seen it, withrapid swoops and loud menacing cries, send a cat sneaking home fromunder a hedge, and I once saw it openly attack a full grown HoodedCrow; only desisting when, attracted by the outcry, two old onescame hurriedly to the rescue. * * * More than once I haveknown it to seize a newly shot golden plover as it fell, and althoughunable to lift it many inches from the ground, and constantly com-pelled to drop it, make such good use of its opportunity as to be farbeyond reach with it by the time the shouting and gesticulatingshooter, having reloaded, was at liberty to follow in pursuit." J. G.Millais (1892) also once saw a merlin dash at a black cock and send itsprawling. Saxby (1874) also says that it is very easily tamed andbecomes a most docile and intelligent pet. One that was allowed fullliberty could be instantly recalled by waving about in the sunlighta tin basin in which its food was usually kept.Voice.?This has been very well and carefully described by Rowan(1921-22). First of all there is the alarm note, a rapidly repeated
MERLIN 95kek-kek-kek, not unlike that of the kestrel. In the cases that cameunder Rowan's observation, the note of the cock was higher pitchedthan that of the hen, and readily recognizable. The feeding note ofthe male closely resembles the alarm note but is repeated only halfa dozen times and more rapidly than when alarmed. The henresponds to this with her feeding note, a characteristic, long-drawnand oft-repeated eep-eep-eep, which she keeps up for some minutescontinuously. Rowan also records a soft tick, uttered when alightingat the nest, by both sexes. The hunger call of the young somewhatresembles the food cry of the hen, but it is not so loud and is repeatedmore quickly.Enemies.?The one real enemy of the merlin is the keeper, but withlittle reason, for the grouse live on good terms with it, and it is onlyfor a very brief period in the season that the chicks are ever taken.DISTRIBUTIONBreeding range.?Falco aesalon subaesalon breeds in Iceland, anintermediate form in the Faeroes, and the typical race in the BritishIsles (Scotland and its islands, northern and southwestern England,Wales, and Ireland), Norway, Sweden, Finland, northern andmiddle Russia, and western Siberia. Other races breed in southeast-ern Russia (F. a. pallidus), and in Asia, from Turkestan to Japan(F. a. insignis).Winter range.?Faeroes and British Isles, migrating from northernEurope through middle Europe to the Mediterranean region, winteringcommonly in northwestern Africa (F. a. aesalon) and in Egypt (F. a.insignis). Asiatic birds winter south to Turkestan and northwesternIndia.Migration.?The Iceland bird has recently been proved to visit theBritish Isles, a banded bird having been obtained in Kings County,Ireland. The four, or perhaps five, American records have alreadybeen mentioned. A juvenile bird has also been recorded as far southin Africa as Natal (Ibis, 1920, p. 508). In the Arctic region it has beenrecorded as a casual off Bear Island, and it is a common passagemigrant in Novaya Zemlya, where it may possibly breed.Egg dates.?Of 34 dates from the British Isles, ten fall betweenMay 9 and 15, seven between May 16 and 22, and eleven betweenMay 23 and 29; of June dates (first to twenty-first) there are six,but one on June 6 was much incubated, and one on the twelfth asecond laying, while that on the twenty-first was probably also asecond laying. Four Iceland dates fall between May 20 and June12, while seven dates from Finland fall between May 30 and June 25.
96 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMFALCO FUSCO-COERULESCENS SEPTENTRIONALIS ToddAPLOMADO FALCONHABITSThis handsome little falcon, with its two closely allied races, iswidely distributed throughout nearly all of South and Central America.Our northern race is found in Mexico, and probably in Yucatan andGuatemala; its range northward barely crosses our southwesternborder in southern Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. Its haunts arethe open plains, with growths of mesquite, yucca, and cactus.Nesting.?Dr. J. C. Merrill (1878) found two nests near Browns-ville, Tex. The nest found on June 16, 1877, was "placed in the top ofa low Spanish bayonet growing in Palo Alto prairie" ; it "was a slightlydepressed platform of twigs, with a little grass for lining. The eggs,three in number, were rotten, though containing well-developedembryoes." The second nest, found on May 7, 1878, was similarin situation and construction, "except that the yucca was higher, thetop being about twelve feet from the ground. The eggs were threein number, all well advanced but one, with a dead embryo."Major Bendire (1892) writes that Lt. Harry C. Benson found thisfalcon "fairly common" in the vicinity of Fort Huachuca, Arizona,and says: "Five nests were found by the lieutenant during the springof 1887, all of them placed in low mesquite trees from 7 to 15 feetfrom the ground. These nests were apparently old ones of the White-necked Raven (Corvus cryptoleucus), and used without any repairsbeing made to them. A nest found on April 25, 1887, contained threeyoung birds, which were taken by him and raised, becoming quitetame; one found on April 28 contained three fresh eggs; another foundon May 5 likewise contained three eggs, two with large embryos, thethird addled. A fourth and fifth nest, both found on May 14, con-tained each two fresh eggs, possibly a second laying of some of thebirds previously despoiled."I spent considerable time at these two localities, both in Texas andin Arizona, but failed even to see one of the birds. Three sets of eggsin the Thayer collection and two sets in the author's collection, allfrom Frank B. Armstrong, were taken near Brownsville, Tex., fromnests in Spanish bayonets, or daggers, at heights varying from 10 to14 feet from the ground; this species of yucca seems to furnish thefavorite nesting site in that locality.Eggs.?Three eggs seems to constitute the usual set for the Aplo-mado falcon, though sets of four seem to be fairly common in Texas.The eggs vary in shape from ovate to nearly oval. The shell issmooth and finely granulated. The ground color is white, creamywhite, or pinkish white. This is usually nearly, or quite, covered withsmall spots or minute dots of "russet", "cinnamon-rufous", or other
APLOMADO FALCON 97bright browns. Some eggs are thickly sprinkled with reddish-brownspots and blotches of various sizes; and others are sparsely spottedwith paler browns, showing the ground color. To my mind they looklike small eggs of the prairie falcon, showing some similar variations.The measurements of 56 eggs average 44.5 by 34.5 millimeters; theeggs showing the four extremes measure 48 by 34.7, 47.5 by 36.2, 40 by32.9, and 44.3 by 31.1 millimeters.Plumages.?I have never seen the downy young or any nestlings ofthis falcon. In the immature plumage of the first year, the colorpattern is similar to that of the adult, but the colors are quite different.The upper parts are "bone brown" to "sepia", with narrow buffedgings ; the tail has eight or nine narrow, broken bars, or spots of dullwhite; the dark areas on the under parts are "bone brown" whenfresh, fading later to "warm sepia" or "bister"; the anterior underparts are "cream-buff" to "cinnamon-buff" when fresh, heavilystreaked on the breast with "bone brown", but the chin and throatare unmarked; the belly, between the dark areas, and the tibiae are
"pinkish cinnamon" to "cinnamon"; these light-colored areas fade outto pale buff or nearly white, and the narrow edgings on the mantlewear away; the lining of the wings is black.There is apparently an intermediate, perhaps a second-year, plumagein which the upper parts are more plumbeous than in the young birdbut browner than in the adult; the feathers of the dark areas beloware no longer immaculate, as in the young bird, but have small whitespots along their edges; the tail is as in the young bird, the lining ofthe wings is still black, and the breast is still heavily streaked withblack. This may be merely a transition plumage.In the fully adult plumage, the upper parts are "dark plumbeous"to "plumbeous", darkest on the crown; the upper tail coverts aretipped with white; the tail is dark slate, broadly tipped white, andwith five to seven white bands; the chin is white, shading to "cinna-mon-buff" on the breast and immaculate; the lower breast and flanksare black, the feathers narrowly tipped with white; and the lining of thewing is white, barred with dusky.Food.?Bendire (1892) says that "their food consists of small rep-tiles, mice and other rodents, grasshoppers and insects of variouskinds, and occasionally a bird." Mrs. Florence M. Bailey (1928)adds dragonflies and seeds to the list. Col. A. J. Grayson (Lawrence,1874) has seen it hunting ground doves, quail, and other birds.Maj. Allan Brooks (1933) writes: "This graceful falcon is not much inevidence until a prairie fire is started on the wide coastal plain [nearBrownsville, Tex.], when they quickly arrive, sweeping gracefullybackwards and forwards in front of the advancing flames and deftlycapturing the large green locusts that are driven to flight. These areeaten on the wing, the falcon rising in the air as it picks its prey to
98 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMpieces, returning to the lower level to resume its hunting as each cap-ture is disposed of."Dr. John B. May (1935) says: "Manuscript notes in the Bureau ofBiological Survey state that J. S. Ligon examined two stomachs whichheld a Lark Bunting and a Lark Sparrow respectively, and that R. T.Kellogg examined one which held two dragonflies, a cricket, a HornedLark, and some seeds (possibly from the crop of the Lark)."Behavior.?Colonel Grayson (Lawrence, 1874) writes:This handsome little hawk may be recognized when at some distance off, whileupon the wing, by its lengthened and fan-like tail. I found it not uncommon inthe vicinity of Mazatlan and San Bias, where I have shot and preserved specimensin the winter months, and with many opportunities of observing its habits. Itseems to prefer a sparsely wooded country, where there are scattered trees andlow bushes. In its habits I am reminded at times of the Sharp-shinned Hawk(A. fuscus) in its stealthy manner of hunting for its prey beneath the thick foliageof the woods, flying near the ground, or perching in secluded places, from whenceit watched, cat-like, for quails, ground doves, etc. It, however, may be seen atother times, falcon-like, boldly pursuing its prey in the open country, and thesmaller species of ducks, as well as pigeons, plovers and sandpipers, are attackedand captured on the wing by this swift flying little falcon. I am not aware thatit breeds in this locality, not having seen one during the season of nidification.Henry W. Henshaw (1875) says:In 1874, this hawk was seen, on four different occasions, at distant localitiesin Southeastern Arizona. It would thus appear to be not very rare in this section.All the individuals noticed were among the timber of the streams as they issuedout on the plains; and in such localities it doubtless finds an abundance of smallgame, feathered and otherwise, which flock to the very limited supply of water.They did not appear very shy, and I had no difficulty in obtaining a shot in threeinstances, in two of which, however, the birds, though most grievously wounded,succeeded in flying so far that I was compelled to give them up. Their flight islight, powerful, and easy, and their whole organization classes them at once amongthe noble birds of prey.Field marks.?There should be no difficulty in recognizing this beau-tiful little falcon at any reasonable distance in life. In addition to thefalcon method of flight, its color pattern is very distinctive in anyplumage; the blue- gray upper parts, the cinnamon breast and thighs,and the black flanks and belly of the adult are very conspicuous;the young bird has a similar pattern but is browner in the dark areasand is streaked on the breast.DISTRIBUTIONRange.?South and Central America north to Arizona, New Mexico,and Texas. The range of the Aplomado falcon extends north toArizona (Tucson and Tombstone); New Mexico (Engle, Apache,and Rincon); and Texas (Toyah and Fort Stockton). East to Texas(Fort Stockton, Pecos, and Brownsville); Tamaulipas (Matamoras,Quizaro, Altamira, and Tampico); Veracruz (Mirador); southern
KESTREL 99Lesser Antilles (Trinidad); British Guiana (Mount Roraima andTakutu Mountains); Brazil (Mixiana Island, Para' Itaraca Moun- -e.tains, Marianna, and Rio Sapetiba); and Argentina (Buenos Aires,Cape San Antonio, Rio Colorado, Rio Negro, Chubut Territory,Puerto Deseado, and Tierra del Fuego). South to southern Argentina(Tierra del Fuego); and southern Chile (Isla la Mocha). West toChile (Isla la Mocha, Nilahue, Marga-Marga Valley, Coquimbo,and Viluco); western Bolivia (Caiza and Lake Aullagas); Peru(Arequipa); Ecuador (Crater of Pichincha and Antisana); westernColombia (Cali); Guatemala (San Agustin); Oaxaca (Tehuantepee)
;
Nayarit (San Bias) ; Sinaloa (Mazatlan) ; Chihuahua (Lake Palomas) ;and Arizona (Fort Huachuca and Tucson).The range as above outlined is for the entire species, which has,however, been separated into two geographic races. The typicalform, Falcof.fusco-coerulescens, is widely distributed in South America,ranging north probably to Panama. The northern form, F. j. sep-tentrionalis, is found from (at least) Guatemala north through Mexicoto the Southwestern United States. The exact limits of the respectiveranges are imperfectly understood and some taxonomists recognizetwo additional races in South America.While the species does not appear to be regularly migratory, theindividuals found in summer in the northern parts of the range with-draw southward in winter. At this season it is not found north ofSinaloa (Mazatlan) and southern Tamaulipas (Altamira). Similarly,in southern Patagonia, there is a slight northward movement at theonset of the southern winter.Egg dates.?Arizona: 4 records, April 28 to May 14.Texas: 29 records, March 14 to May 26; 15 records, April 12 to 26,indicating the height of the season.FALCO TINNUNCULUS TINNUNCULUS LinnaeusKESTRELContributed by Francis Charles Robert JourdainAccording to the fourth edition of the A. O. U. Check-List (1931) thekestrel is accidental in Massachusetts (Nantasket Beach) and Green-land (Cape Farewell). As to the first record there is fortunately nodoubt. Charles B. Cory (1888) writes that a female of this specieswas shot at Strawberry Hill, Nantasket Beach, Mass., on September29, 1887, and after being seen in the flesh by Mr. Cory, passed into hiscollection. With regard to the occurrence at Cape Farewell, theevidence is less clear. There is no mention of the record in Hagerup'spaper (1891) on the birds of Greenland. It is significant that HerlufWinge, who corrected several errors of identification in this work (seeAuk, 1891, p. 319) and published an authoritative work on the birds
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of Greenland (1898), omits it from his list; and from a note on page 32,I infer that it was merely a sight record at some distance from thecoast. Schi0ler also ignores the record altogether and states that thereare no occurrences for Greenland. The Massachusetts record, how-ever, is sufficient to give this species a claim to figure on the Americanlist. The Greenland record, if quoted, should be relegated to brackets.HABITSThere is one habit of this pretty little hawk that renders its identifi-cation in the field a very easy matter, and that is its method of hunting.One rarely watches a kestrel for more than a minute or two withoutseeing it "heave to" with head to wind and remain stationary in theair, sometimes with rapidly quivering wing tips and tail fanned out,at other times almost motionless for a few seconds while its keen eyescans the ground below. Then perhaps it drops a few feet throughspace and renews its quest, or else moves off a little farther and repeatsthe maneuver. This habit, together with its general brown coloration,is enough to identify it with certainty in the British Isles. In theMediterranean region another species of kestrel with very similarhabits, but with brighter coloring and more sociable habits, might bemistaken for it, and the red-footed falcon (Falco vespertinus) has thesame hovering habit, but both species are known in England only asrare stragglers, while the kestrel is mainly resident and widely dis-tributed over the whole of the British Isles and the adjacent islands.There is a certain amount of migratory movement in the northernpart, for, in the Shetland Isles, they disappear entirely during winter.This is probably due more to the absence of mice and insects than tothe cold, though in the northern part of the European Continent thewinter snows drive it south, as then it can subsist only on small birds.In the Orkneys there are more gardens and enclosed spaces, so thatit can pick up a living, but in the northern parts of Scotland andIreland there is a very decided southward movement, and one meetswith birds evidently on passage in autumn traveling southward alongthe river valleys, in places where they are not usually to be seen.The kestrel would be an exceedingly common bird in England wereit not for the gamekeeper. As a matter of fact, it is not as a ruleinjurious to game. The great majority of kestrels never touch gameat all, but, in districts where pheasants are reared under hens in coopsin the open fields, a kestrel will occasionally come foraging for miceand, seeing the young pheasants in numbers with apparently nomother bird in charge, may pick up a chick and in certain cases willreturn again and again for such easy prey, unless shot.As a rule no keeper troubles to ascertain whether a kestrel's inten-tions are honorable or the reverse. By law they are in many countiesunder protection, but no keeper ever troubles himself about such a
KESTREL 101
trifle, and shoots down every kestrel on his ground. A very enlighten-ing fact that came under my notice was the effect of the great war of1914-18 on the kestrel. In the second and third years of the war thenumber of men employed in game preservation was very greatlyreduced; in fact all the able-bodied younger men were at the front.The increase in the breeding stock of kestrels in the home countiesand the midlands was extraordinary. Where we had been accustomedto find one or two pairs scattered over a wide area, they were, in thethird year of the war, present in dozens. Even the territorial systemseemed to break down. Instead of each pair having a wide range ofcountry to itself, I have seen two pairs breeding in hedgerow elmswithin 20 yards of one another, while a third was only 200 yardsdistant. This was in Berkshire; but after the war this species rapidlyreverted to its former status, though there is now less ground pre-served for game than was the case in pre-war times, and in conse-quence the kestrel finds a secure breeding place in the unpreserveddistricts.Courtship.?The courtship of the falcons is simple in character andconsists chiefly in aerial evolutions on the part of the male and thepursuit of the female. Andre Labitte (1932) describes it as observedby him on several occasions about the beginning of April. On brightsunny days, especially, the male may be seen pursuing the hen, withrapidly repeated cries of ki-ki-ki-ki-ki. At times the two birds seemto be playing together as they fly in the breeze, the male usuallyflying above the female and circling round her; then, as she percheson the branch of a tree, still bare of leaves, she seems to watch theevolutions. These end in a series of stoops, in which he brushes hiscompanion with his wings.Julian Huxley (1923) also records a similar scene witnessed by himin Berkshire: "The hen bird was sitting in a large bush. * * *A strong wind was blowing, and the cock again and again beat hisway up against it, to turn when nearly at the house and bear downupon the bush in an extremity of speed. Just when it seemed inevi-table that he would knock his mate off her perch and dash himself andher into the branches, he changed the angle of his wings to shootvertically up the face of the bush; then turned and repeated the play.Sometimes he came so near to her that she would start back, flappingher wings, as if really fearing a collision. The wind was so strong
?
and blowing away from me?that I could not hear what cries mayhave accompanied the display."Pairing sometimes takes place on a horizontal branch of a tree, oreven in an old nest, but Labitte (1932) noticed that it was not nec-essarily that in which the eggs were subsequently laid.Nesting.?Strictly speaking, the kestrel makes no nest, and the sitechosen varies according to the district. Thus in the northern isles,
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where trees are absent or almost so, the eggs are generally laid in arecess or on a ledge in a cliff face, sometimes sheltered by ivy. Anold nest of the hooded crow (Corms c. comix) among rocks is alsofrequently appropriated. In the wooded districts of the midlands andsouth, the most usual site is an old nest of a magpie {Pica p. pica) orcarrion crow (Corvus c. corone), generally somewhat flattened out,while much less frequently old nests of rook (C. frugilegus), raven(C. corax), buzzard (Buteo b. buteo), heron (Ardea cinerea), sparrowhawk (Accipiter n. nisus), or even an ancient squirrel's "drey" maybe occupied. Where there is a scarcity of breeding sites, a pair ofkestrels will occasionally drive off a magpie from a new nest, aftersome days of fighting. One case of this kind came under my ownnotice in Derbyshire, and H. S. Davenport also describes a very similarincident. A regular pitched battle took place between a pair ofkestrels and a pair of magpies, in which the latter were worsted andhad to abandon their newly built home. In both these cases the mag-pies were evicted before eggs had been laid, but there is an even moresurprising case on record (Phillips, 1908, p. 139) in which a nest ofcarrion crow, which contained young birds, was taken possession ofby kestrels, which killed and ate the young crows. When examined,the nest contained not only a clutch of five kestrel's eggs, but manyfeathers from the crows.Another site occasionally adopted by the kestrel is the broken topof some old elm or the jagged hole formed by the breaking away of aheavy branch. Old buildings, ruins, and church towers also providemany pairs with breeding places, and where the birds are not disturbedthese are resorted to year after year. On the floor of a belfry in thetower of a church in East Anglia, I once saw a clutch of fresh eggs ofthis little hawk. Close by were several dirty, egg-shaped objects,which proved on examination to be infertile eggs, faded and dried up,from nests of previous years. Cases are also on record in which nest-ing boxes put up in trees have been appropriated; and likely holes,even in occupied houses and windmills, are sometimes taken possessionof. Perhaps, however, the most surprising site is on the ground! InWicken Fen, Cambridgeshire, nests have not infrequently beenrecorded among the coarse grass and sedge; and similar cases haveoccurred in other districts, such as Norfolk and the Outer Hebrides,but usually in places where trees are scarce or absent.Eggs.?The number of eggs usually ranges from four to six, the lastnumber being fairly common. Sets of seven are decidedly scarce,but I have known of 1 1 cases from various parts of the British Isles,while instances of eight are even rarer, and only five have come undermy notice. There are cases on record in which two females have beenfound in attendance at one nest. Thus M. C. H. Bird once foundnine eggs in a nest on the ground at Ruston, Norfolk, and this may have
KESTREL 103been a case of this land. A more definite instance is that recordedby M. A. Mathew (1882), in which three kestrels, a male and twofemales, were seen at a nest containing six eggs, of two quite distincttypes, four of one and two of the other. E. C. Stuart Baker alsoinformed me that he saw 11 eggs taken from one nest in Finland,six of which were evidently the product of one hen and five of another.When the first set of eggs has been taken, the female will lay againat least twice in the season, possibly oftener. The eggs are not laidon consecutive days, but at intervals of about 48 hours. Incubationgenerally begins as soon as the first egg is laid, and the eggs hatch outon alternate days, but apparently there are exceptions to this rule, assome sets show no differences in state of incubation. The period isestimated at about 28 days (A. G. Leigh), 27 to 28 days (W. Evans),and 29 to 32 (W. A. Shaw); both sexes take part in brooding, but thefemale takes the greater share. The male supplies the hen with foodat the nest and takes her place when she leaves it. In the case of apair that bred in captivity, the male relieved the female in turn, butsome caution must be used in dealing with data of this kind, as theconditions are not natural.The eggs are almost oval in shape and are very variable in color.The commonest type is that in which the ground is almost concealedby red-brown blotches and spots, varying in depth of color from lighttawny-yellow to almost black. In some cases a great deal of the whiteground is visible, and when the markings are rich bright red, or areconcentrated in large blotches, they form very striking and effectivecontrasts. It is not rare to find single eggs in a set, white or nearly so,with only faint markings, but on one occasion I found a clutch of fourinfertile eggs without a trace of markings except a few nest stains.Bluish-gray or violet shell marks are also to be seen on some eggs, andin some cases the red-brown is replaced by dark chocolate. Theaverage size of 100 British eggs, measured by the writer, is 39.73 by31.77 millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremes measure 43.7by 33.5, 41.6 by 34.2, and 35.4 by 29.7 millimeters.Young.?Only one brood is reared during the season. When theyoung are hatched, the male at first brings food which is given to theyoung by the female, who broods them ; later both parents bring foodto the nest, but according to Ludwig Schuster (1928), this does nottake place till the young are two or three weeks old. Heinroth alsonoted, when rearing the young, that at the age of about three weeksthey were capable of feeding themselves. Schuster also notes thatfeeding took place fairly regularly about once an hour from daybreaktill late in the evening, and remarks that the hunting ground was notin the immediate neighborhood of the nest. The mean of a consider-able number of observations on the fledging period shows that allestimates, with one or two exceptions, fall between 27 and 34 days,
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so that probably it varies usually from 30 to 32 days but is at times alittle longer or shorter. Interesting observations on the developmentof a young kestrel in captivity have been made by A. Geoffrey Leigh(1911).Plumages.?We do not propose to describe the plumage in detail,as full descriptions can be found in Witherby's Handbook (1924) andother works. The male in full plumage is recognizable in the field byhis brown coloration and slate-gray head; tail and rump also areslate-gray, with a conspicuous black subterminal band on the tail.The back of the male is chestnut-brown, with blackish markings onthe feathers, which distinguish it at once from the lesser kestrel. Thehen lacks the slate-gray and has the mantle thickly barred with black,bill horn blue, dark at tip, and feet yellow.Food.?To a very great extent the kestrel feeds on small mammals,especially rodents, and is therefore on the whole a most useful bird.It does not as a rule attack the larger mammals, such as the rabbit,though it has been known to kill a young one, and also a young leveret,and has been recorded as carrying off a weasel. The staple food, is,however, the long- and short-tailed field mouse, while bank-vole, housemouse, mole, shrew, rat, and exceptionally bats (noctule and pipistrel)are taken. In some districts where mice are scarce small birds arefrequently captured, such as house sparrow, skylark, greenfinch, gold-finch, linnet, yellow bunting, pipits, hedge sparrow, starling, thrush,blackbird, fieldfare, lesser redpoll, and, surprising to say, swift.Though as a rule confining its attacks to small birds, there are caseson record of attacking sandpiper, wounded redshank, young lapwingand snipe; and it has been seen devouring wood pigeon and hoodedcrow, though it is very doubtful whether it is capable of killing thelatter. It is generally harmless to game, but single birds may developthe habit of taking very young pheasants, grouse, and partridges.Other animals recorded as food are frogs, lizards, adder, slow-worm,beetles (Geotrupes, Melolontha, etc.), Orthoptera, caterpillars, andearthworms.Behavior.?This species hunts openly, skimming over the country-side fairly high in air and hovering over some spot in a meadow,where he can perhaps detect a mouse running about in the grass. Asuspicious movement below induces a drop to closer quarters and thena swift descent, which may or may not be successful. If the latter,up he goes again and resumes his beat until at last his stoop secures avictim. When after a bird, he flies it down, and I have seen one inpursuit of sparrows come swiftly around the corner of a barn into acrowd of noisy, quarreling sparrows and at once produce a headlongflight in all directions and a resultant silence. This open chase isquite unlike that of the European sparrow hawk, which flies low, onlyrising to top a hedge, and seeks to take its prey on the ground or
KESTREL 105perched on a bush before it has time to drop into safety. As a rulebirds show far less fear of the kestrel than of the other hawks. In oneremarkable case, I found a pair breeding in a rook's nest in the middleof a crowded rookery. In the same tree were five rooks' nests withyoung nearly fledged, a nest of wood pigeons with two eggs and, lowerdown, empty nests of sparrows and greenfinches, as well as an oldblackbird's nest. A week or two later the rooks had flown, but thegreenfmch and sparrow nests contained eggs.Enemies.?Besides the gamekeeper, who is the only serious enemythe kestrel has, there are occasional cases where he comes to griefwhen he comes to grips with both raven and peregrine falcon. Thelatter will at times kill and eat the kestrel, and I know of one casein which a kestrel was killed and practically decapitated by a blowfrom a raven in midair. Hooded crows are also destructive to theeggs on the cliffs of the Irish coasts, and R. J. Ussher (Ussher andWarren, 1900) says that he has seen it hunted perseveringly by rooks.Voice.?The usual note of the kestrel is a clear, ringing kee, kee, kee,or, as Naumann writes it, klih, kli, Hi. The latter naturalist alsorecords a soft kiddrik, kiddrik.Fall.?Although, as stated above, the kestrel is, partially at any rate,resident in the British Isles, there is no doubt that immigration takesplace during autumn, when birds from Scandinavia, Finland, andeastern Europe are moving southward and southwestward. It is, ofcourse, difficult to prove this (except by banding), but the fact that itoccurs fairly commonly at the light stations off the east coast is con-clusive. C. B. Ticehurst (1932) states that eight were brought inalive to him on September 4, 1913, which had been captured on fishingboats at sea off Lowestoft, Suffolk, and on the same day he counted sixon the wing at once on the Lowestoft "deries." Whether, as MenteithOgilvie (1920) supposed, the birds that breed in East Anglia almostall migrate south and return about mid-March is very doubtful, andTicehurst (1932) was quite unable to confirm the statement. Onparts of the European Continent, where the winter is more severe thanin the British Isles, the kestrel is necessarily a migrant, but even inthe coldest parts of Germany, in the towns, some birds manage to pickup a living of sparrows and other prey, even when the country is deepin snow and deserted. Although chiefly a diurnal migrant, one wasnoted by Eagle Clarke at the Kentish Knock light in September.DISTRIBUTIONRange.?Extends over the Palearctic, Ethiopian, and a great partof the Oriental regions; about nine races recognized.Breeding range.?The typical race (Falco tinnunculus tinnunculus)breeds throughout Europe, north to latitude 70? in Norway and lati-13751?38 8
106 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMtude 61? in Finland, also in the British Isles, and in the islands of theMediterranean. In Africa its breeding range extends from Moroccoeastward north of the Sahara, but in Egypt, the Canaries, and CapeVerdes it is replaced by other forms; also in tropical and southernAfrica. In Asia its breeding range extends through north and centralAsia across the continent to the Pacific, but in Japan, parts of theChinese Empire, and the Himalayas it is replaced by other races.Winter range.?Extends to tropical west Africa (Togoland andHaussaland) and to India and China.Casual records.?Besides the record from Nantasket Beach, Mass.,it has also been recorded from Iceland on at least one occasion, inOctober 1903 (skin in Reykjavik Museum, Hantzsch, 1905); in theFaeroes it was twice obtained by Miiller (Feilden, 1872).Egg dates.?For the British Isles most dates fall between April 16and May 31, but second layings may be found throughout June. Theearliest date of which I have any note is April 4, 1929, when a clutchof five eggs was found in County Tyrone, Ireland, and recorded byC. V. Stoney. A nest from Hants in the British Museum is also saidto have been taken on April 4, 1862.April 16-30 (9 dates); May 1-15 (17 dates); May 16-25 (13 dates);and May 26-31 (7 dates). In the Mediterranean region breeding isnaturally earlier; thus, in south Spain, eggs are recorded from April 2to May 9 (9 dates), and in Cyprus full sets may be found in the secondweek of April. In northern Europe, on the other hand, many birdshave not laid up till June.In middle Europe April records are scarce, and the vast majorityof birds have not full sets till May.FALCO SPARVERIUS SPARVERIUS Linnaeuseastern sparrow hawkPlates 18-21HABITSContributed by Winsor Marrett TylerThe eastern sparrow hawk, with its three local races, represents, inNorth America, a group of small falcons that in the Temperate andTropical Zones is of nearly world-wide distribution. So closely dothe members of this group resemble one another that over a verylarge part of the globe, wherever a traveler goes, he is sure to meet abird that in plumage and behavior reminds him of one of the littlehawks of his own country.Our bird received its common name through the misconception ofour English forefathers, who, primarily pioneers, failed to note itsclose relationship to their kestrel and misnamed it the sparrow hawkafter the British bird of that name.
EASTERN SPARROW HAWK 107That our sparrow hawk has always been a favorite with Americanornithologists is shown by the many appreciative, friendly commentsthat we meet as we pass through the literature. Thus Coues (1874)speaks of it as "the prettiest and jauntiest of our Hawks, and yet noprig", and Brewster (1925) calls it "most light-hearted and frolic-some."Spring.?As the breeding season draws near, the sparrow hawkrelaxes the habit of solitude to which it adheres, for the most part,during autumn and winter. It may be true, although it is not posi-tively known, that the birds mate for life, as is believed to be the cus-tom of some of the Raptores, but in any case, at the approach ofspring?during April and May in the North Atlantic States?the birdsare commonly seen in pairs, often on windy treetops, perched neartogether, either side by side or on adjacent branches. Here, not farfrom their prospective nest site, they remain quiet for long periods,with short flights together now and then, away and back again. Thedifference in size proclaims them, even at a long distance, to be maleand female, and they display by their attention to each other, whichstrongly suggests affection, the connubial character of their association.Courtshij).?William Brewster (1925) describes thus the behavior ofa pair of sparrow hawks, evidently on or near their breeding stationon May 17, 1881:To-day I saw them sitting not far apart on the tops of neighboring dead balsams.Every now and then one, always the male, I thought, would mount high in airto fly very rapidly, in a wide circle over and around where the other was perched,bending the tips of his wings downward and quivering them incessantly, at thesame time uttering a shrill, clamorous kee-kee cry, oft repeated. Sometimes bothwould start off together, to chase one another far and near, describing all mannerof beautiful curves and occasionally sweeping down almost to the surface of thewater. On realighting they invariably chose the very topmost twigs, often veryslender ones, and settled on these with no less abruptness than precision, yet withadmirable grace, scarce checking their speed until the perch was well-nigh reachedand just then deftly folding their shapely wings.Sherman C. Bishop (1925) had the opportunity for a period of twoweeks to watch the mating activities of a pair of birds that had "estab-lished their hunting headquarters on the tops of some marble columnswhich are a few feet below and a hundred feet away from my officewindows." He notes under April 14: "Preliminary to mating, thebirds faced one another and slowly bobbed their heads and tails, thefemale keeping up a continuous low call", and under April 17: "Rain-ing. Female called most of the afternoon. After mating, the malesometimes mounts high in the air and performs some remarkableevolutions?spirals, short dashes and a rapid drop ending on the backof the female." Summarizing his report, he says: "Judging from theseobservations, the female takes the initiative in mating. Her calls arecontinuous for many minutes at a time and are often accompanied by
108 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMfluttered wings and definite approach towards the male. The malewas observed to call only when actually dropping down to the female."According to my observation, coitus, which often takes place on thebranch of a tree, is a noisy, boisterous proceeding, accompanied by agood deal of wing flapping on the part of the male bird.Nesting.?Unlike most hawks, which either make true nests in treesor lay their eggs on open ledges of bare cliffs, the sparrow hawk, in thegreat majority of instances, hides its eggs away in deep hollows
?
either in a natural cavity in a tree or in a hole excavated by a flickeror some woodpecker of similar size.W. E. D. Scott (1886) speaks of the bird in an arid part of Arizonaas breeding "commonly in deserted Woodpecker holes in the giantcacti wherever they flourish", and, in a letter to Mr. Bent, A. DawesDuBois reports a remarkably high nest "in a hole in a dead branch atthe top of a tree, at a measured height of eighty-one feet above theground." R. C. Harlow (1912) mentions a nest site in "an enormousnatural cavity, two feet in diameter", and Bendire (1892) reports anunusual case of its resorting "to holes in sandstone cliffs and claybanks."Dr. Louis B. Bishop writes to Mr. Bent of a nest in a hole in an elmtree, 20 feet up, in which a female sparrow hawk was "sitting on onegolden-eye's egg, with the others and her own eggs around her. Thehole was reported to have been used by the golden-eye in previousyears."On rare occasions the sparrow hawk uses an open nest of anotherbird?a habit it shares with the pigeon hawk. Thus Dice (1918) says:"A nest was found * * * [in southeastern Washington] in anold magpie nest about twelve feet high in an osage hedge", and Rock-well (1909), speaking of sparrow hawks breeding in magpies' nests,says: "The Sparrow Hawk, unlike the preceding species [screechowl], seems to prefer nests which are rooft over, and instances wherethe eggs are deposited in open nests are quite rare. It is of someinterest to note that Sparrow Hawks nesting in this manner are muchmore timid than those nesting in cavities, and whereas it is a commonoccurrence to find a brooding female so fearless that it is necessary toremove her from her eggs in a cavity, it is seldom that one can ap-proach within thirty yards of a bird brooding in a magpie's nest with-out flushing it. Apparently the bird does not feel perfectly secure ina location which is not altogether natural to the inherited instinct ofthe species."Since the advent of civilized man to the country, the sparrow hawkfrequently makes use of buildings and bird boxes for breeding purposes.The birds habitually use their chosen cavity as they find it. Theyadd little if any nesting material but lay their eggs either on the barefloor or on whatever the previous occupant has left behind. Illus-
EASTERN SPARROW HAWK 109trating this habit Mr. Bent notes a nest "in an old pigeon box,with an outside entrance in the upper story of a barn, a bulky nest ofgrass at one end of the box?probably an old nest of pigeons", and S. F.Rathbun submits (MS.) the following vivid picture, showing unusualsurroundings of a sparrow hawk's nest: "In May, 1932, we were in theelevated plateau section of a county in central Washington. Formerlythis part of the county was more or less covered with sagebrush, butnow raises much grain. At infrequent times one will come across abuilding that has been abandoned for some reason, and it is alwaysworth while to look over such a building, for some species of bird maybe nesting in it, as that section of the country has a very sparsetree growth."We went into such a structure and, on entering a ground-floor room,caught the flash of a bird as it flew from the room through a windowlacking its upper sash. There was only one place from which thebird could have flown, a round entrance hole for a stovepipe on theface of the lower end of a brick chimney entering the room on one sidefrom above, the base of the chimney resting on a shelf about 8 feetfrom the floor. Within the chimney, below the stovepipe hole, wasa space 3 or 4 inches deep, which a sparrow hawk was using as a placefor nesting. The bottom ol this space was rather thinly strewed withdroppings from wood rats, there being more than a handful, and mixedwith the droppings, were some few bits of rotten bark and wood. Onthis latter were five eggs that the hawk was incubating.
"This dwelling was overrun with wood rats (Neotoma cinereaoccidentalis) , which had torn into small pieces much of the paper thathad been on the walls, evidently using some of it for their nests.Scraps of paper were on all sides, and likewise, scattered everywhere,was excrement from the wood rats. Never before have I seen sucha mess. As we walked about, now and then a rat scampered fromunder foot, and we heard others at work within the walls. Therewas no sign that the pair of hawks had interfered with the animals,or vice versa, as far as the nest was concerned. Possibly some sortof truce may have existed between the birds and the rats. No oneknows."Miss Althea R. Sherman (1913), who had an exceptionally favor-able opportunity to watch from a blind a pair of sparrow hawksrearing their young, has published her observations in detail in anarticle to which the reader is referred, as only the salient facts can bequoted here and in the section under "Young." She says: "The firstegg was deposited on April 28 before eleven o'clock in the morning,and an egg was laid on each alternate day until the sixth, and last, onMay 8. * * * Incubation was performed mainly by the female,only once was the male found in the nest. * * * Sometimes itwas noted that the eggs were left uncovered nearly or quite an hour,
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while both birds sat in their tree preening themselves, an exercise inwhich they spent a vast amount of time."In common with most birds of prey, a pair of sparrow hawks usuallynests far removed from another pair. Charles R. Stockard (1905),reporting an exception to this rule, says: "I found them in AdamsCounty [Mississippi] nesting in a manner almost social or colonial.In a newly cleared field there were many old stumps of deadenedtrees, some of which were very tall, and many pairs of this little hawkwere nesting in these stumps. Some were in natural cavities andothers in the deserted burrows of Pileated and other woodpeckers.* * * This clearing was about one mile long and half a mile wide."Eggs.?[Author's note: The sparrow hawk lays ordinarily four orfive eggs, occasionally only three, and very rarely six or even seven.The eggs are ovate, short-ovate, or oval in shape; and the shell issmooth but without gloss. The ground color is white, creamy white,or pinkish white, and rarely "light pinkish cinnamon." Usuallythey are more or less evenly covered with rninute dots and smallspots, which are often concentrated at one end or in a ring around theegg; sometimes they are more boldly and unevenly marked with largerspots or blotches. The markings are in various shades of brown,"Mars brown", "russet", "tawny", or "ochraceous-tawny" ; a feweggs show handsome lavender shell markings. Some eggs are verysparingly marked, or nearly, or quite, immaculate.The measurements of 169 eggs, in the United States NationalMuseum, average 35 by 29 millimeters; the eggs showing the fourextremes measure 39 by 32, 31 by 28, and 33 by 26 millimeters.]Young.?Four eggs in the nest under Miss Sherman's (1913)observation hatched on June 4, 5, and 6, showing that the incubationperiod in this case was 29 and 30 days. Miss Sherman continues:Very soon after hatching the young would bite vigorously at a finger thattouched their bills, opening their eyes for an instant as they did so, but not untilthey were two or three days old did they keep their eyes open longer than a fewseconds at a time. From their first day they uttered a faint cry, when expectingfood, that suggested the scream of the mature Sparrow Hawk, also peeps similarto a chicken but more mournful. * * * There was a third cry, difficult todescribe, which they uttered when fed.On June 13 the first manifestations of fear were detected, when the hawkletsflattened themselves on the bottom of the nest, but such signs were rare for a fewdays thereafter. It was on the following day that for the first time they wereseen ranged against the sides of the nest their backs to the wall; this arrangementappeared to be the normal one, thus the center of the nest was given to the onethat was eating, or to the mother, when she came to feed them. When two weeksold they could run quite well; when placed on the floor of the blind they ran to theinner angles formed by the studdings and the walls, where with backs well bracedthey faced the foe, and a few days later met with savage claws an approachinghand.When the nestlings were 16 days old
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EASTERN SPARROW HAWK 111
a marked difference was observed in behavior of the males and of the females.When a finger or a stick was pointed into the nest all opened their mouths; themales did little more than this as they hugged the farthest side of the nest but thefemales, springing to the center of the nest, every feather on their heads standingout seemingly at right angles, wings spread, mouths open and squawking, wereready to claw and bite. * * * When the mother came in there was littleclamor and no struggling for food on the part of the nestlings. In their earlierdays they merely braced themselves in the circle where they lay, later they stoodin an orderly row against the side of the nest. With great rapidity the mothertore the flesh and bending her head almost at right angle with the bill of the youngone she gave it the morsel. Her motions in this act were very dainty and graceful;this bending of her head was apparently necessitated by the hooked beaks of both.Sometimes the pieces served were so large that they were swallowed with difficulty.No more than five minutes were occupied in these feedings. At first the foodserved was "dressed meat," and the remainders of the feast were carried out by themother, and eaten by her in the dead willow. On June 17, she brought in the bodyof a half-grown ground squirrel with the skin still on, probably I frightened herout prematurely, since she left the remnant of the squirrel. It was not until aweek later that she began regularly to leave the quarry for the hawklets to feedthemselves. Thereafter she entered the nest with the food, but remained insideless than a minute, sometimes no more than twenty seconds.The same difference in temperament between the two sexes dis-played by Miss Sherman's birds was shown in a case of some captiveyoung sparrow hawks reported by Harold M. Holland (1923). Hesays: "Three were females, and it should be recorded that the lonemale became, from the first, much the most tractable." He goes onto say that "all exhibited a strong inclination for bathing and in thisthey frequently indulged."Dr. John B. May (1927) reports a similar case. He says: "It wasinteresting to note the difference in disposition between the two birdsas their feathers rapidly developed. The female was much wilderfrom the start, and squealed loudly when approached. The male wasvery docile and would have made a delightful pet, I am sure."Plumages.?[Author's note: When first hatched the young spar-row hawk is only scantily covered with white down on the feathertracts of the head, wings, and body. A larger young bird, about 6inches long, is covered with longer, yellowish-white down, throughwhich the first plumage is appearing on the head, central back, wings,tail, flanks, and pectoral tracts.The sparrow hawk is one of the few species in which the sexes aredecidedly unlike in the juvenal plumage, the color patterns of bothsexes suggesting clearly the adult plumages of their respective sexes.In the young male, the crown, wing coverts, and tertials are "deepplumbeous", with only a hidden trace of the rufous crown patch andwith larger black spots on the coverts than in the adult; the upperback and scapulars are "terra cotta", broadly banded with black;the rump and upper tail coverts are "cinnamon-rufous", unmarked;the tail is as in the adult male, but the rufous is more restricted to the
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central feathers, there is more black-and-white banding on the lateralfeathers, the subterminal black band is broader, and there is a broadterminal band of "pinkish cinnamon"; the head markings are muchas in the adult; the chin and throat are white, unmarked; the rest ofthe under parts is "pinkish buff", narrowly streaked on the breast andbelly, and heavily spotted on the flanks with black.In the young female the resemblance to the adult female is evencloser. The mantle and wings are like the adult, but the brown isduller, "vinaceous-russet", and the black bars are broader than thebrown spaces; the tail is like that of the adult female, but the blackbars are broader; the under parts, except the white chin and throat,are "pale pinkish buff", heavily streaked on the breast and flankswith "sepia" or "bister."These juvenal plumages are worn through summer, but early in fallchanges begin to take place, by fading and by a gradual molt of thebody plumage, during September and October; by midwinter greatprogress has been made toward maturity.During the first fall young birds have a restricted rufous crownpatch, with black shaft streaks, which gradually increases and clears.Meantime, young males become whiter below and some begin toacquire the cinnamon breast, but they are still heavily barred on theback and heavily spotted on the breast. Both of these sets of mark-ings partially disappear by molt during the first winter, but youngbirds always retain some of these markings, as well as the juvenaltail, until the next complete, annual molt in September and October.Similar progressive changes occur in young females; paler colors areacquired below, with paler and narrower streaks, and narrower,dark bars on the mantle.Adults have a complete annual molt, mainly in September andOctober. I believe that the full perfection of plumage is not acquireduntil the bird is two years old, or more. The oldest males have theleast spotting on the scapulars, a clear white or cinnamon breast,with only a few round black spots on the flanks, and the most rufousin the tail ; probably successive annual molts are required to reach thisperfection. There is a decided seasonal change in appearance, dueto wear and fading; the colors are deeper and richer in the freshlymolted, fall and winter plumage than in the worn and faded conditionof spring and summer. This is especially noticeable in birds fromthe desert regions.]Food.?The food of the sparrow hawk includes insects, birds,mammals, reptiles, and amphibians. Its diet varies considerablyaccording to season and locality ; hence the contents of a bird's stomachoften indicates merely local or temporary conditions. Where grass-hoppers abound, they make up the hawk's principal food, birds being
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captured incidentally, but during winter in northern latitudes thishawk's prey is restricted to birds and small mammals.The following quotations show the variety of the sparrow hawk'sfare:Dr. Harold C. Bryant (1918) reports from California that onesparrow hawk's stomach contained "15 black crickets"; another "pts.1 white-footed mouse, pts. 3 Jerusalem crickets, one cricket"; and athird "pts. 5 grasshoppers." Ellison A. Smyth, Jr. (1912) says
"they frequent the ivy-covered buildings on the campus [in Virginia],feeding on English Sparrows. The stomach and crop of one indi-vidual shot on the campus were densely packed with crickets. * * *I saw one catch a young Robin and perch with it on a telephone polenear one of the buildings, and calmly eat its capture in contempt ofthe onslaught of several excited adult Robins." Pierce Brodkorb(1928) reports that a bird, "taken April 24, 1926, at Winnetka,* * * Illinois, was found to have fed upon ants."Francis H. Allen (MS.) says: "I once saw one eating a smallsnake. Two or three inches of the anterior end of the snake's body(the head had already been eaten) stuck up vertically from the bird'stalons, and the hawk took pieces of flesh from the top down as oneeats a banana." John B. DcMille (1926) relates the following novelexperience: "Aug. 31, while walking the railroad near Gascons[Quebec], on the south shore, a bird darted into the bushes at the sideof the track just ahead. I was able to get close without being seenand was surprised to discover him standing on the ground beside amouse hole, in the manner of a cat. The bird stayed a minute ortwo and then hopped to an opening in the undergrowth. He flewaway empty handed." Lewis O. Shelley, writing to Mr. Bent of thebehavior of a captive female sparrow hawk, says that "she wouldtouch no food except living frogs which she killed, eating only thecontents of the abdominal cavity." Paul Bonnot (1921) tells of asparrow hawk which "sailed gently down to one of the [cliff] swallow'snests, passing over a group of about fifteen people, supported himselfwith one foot, hanging nearly upside down in the meantime, insertedthe other foot into the nest, and extracted its owner. The capturedbird was an adult Cliff Swallow. The nest was not very deep, andthe opening was large."John Steidl (1928) says that in Illinois he "frequently saw, at thesame spot in the road, a small chick in the talons of a Sparrow Hawk,"and, accounting for the hawk's departure from its customary diet ofinsects, he remarks that "for about two weeks preceding the periodduring which the observations were made there had been a record-breaking period of rainy, cool, and cloudy weather. The insectpopulation was considerably reduced by the weather. In fact, the
114 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMhordes of insects that often detract materially from the pleasure ofnight driving at this period were conspicuously absent. It is notdifficult to imagine, therefore, that the Sparrow Hawk was forcedto turn to other sources of food."Floyd Bralliar (1922) was successful "in learning exactly how thesebirds kill their prey, for," he says, "I not only saw them do it at closerange, but succeeded in scaring them away without their having timeto carry the chick with them. The hawk watches until he feels sureof his prey, then swoops downward straight as an arrow, strikes thebird in the back with his talons, and with his powerful beak tears thetop of the head off. The point of the beak is sunk into the base ofthe skull, and the skull is torn off with a swift forward motion. Isucceeded in getting a number of chickens immediately after the hawkstruck them, and every one had the whole upper part of the skulltorn off, the brain exposed, and the medulla mangled with the pointof the hawk's beak."To see a sparrow hawk strike a bird at rest on the ground is awonderful sight, but the act is so rapid that "ere a man hath powerto say, Behold" it is over. The present is obliterated; we look onsomething which is past. A long straight swoop, a flash of wings,and the hawk is off with its prey. "So quick bright things come toconfusion."Behavior.?What appeals to us most in this daring little falcon isits lightness and quickness?the speed of lightning compared to thecrash of thunder. Whether dashing past with sweeping wing beats,each wing beat carrying it far away; whether cruising along?thetail folded thin and the sharp wings, like a three-pointed star?thewings barely trembling, like the tips of oars just touching the water;or whether soaring against the sky, with tail fanned out, the wingsstretched wide, it is always ready to veer like a flash, to mount higher,to drop to the ground, or to come to rest on a little twig.Often too?perhaps the most remarkable of its aerial accomplish-ments?the bird, arresting its flight through the air, hovers, facingthe wind, its body tilted upward to a slight angle with the ground,its wings beating lightly and easily. Then, sometimes, with a preciseadjustment to the force of the wind, it stops the beating of its wingsand hangs as if suspended in complete repose and equilibrium, seemingto move not a hair's breadth from its position. It is hunting, scanningthe ground for a grasshopper or a mouse.There are several instances recorded in the literature that showthe lighter side of the sparrow hawk's character in its relation to otherbirds. In some of these the association is of a playful nature as inthe case mentioned by Edward R. Warren (1916), who "once sawone Sparrow Hawk after three Redtails", and in that related by
EASTERN SPARROW HAWK 115William Brewster (1925), who "saw a Sparrow Hawk amusing himselfat the expense of two Flickers. Calling clac-lac-clac-lac-clac-lac hewould first hover over them for a few seconds, and then dart downclose past them, to rise and hover again. Whenever they took flighthe accompanied them, describing graceful curves and circles aboveand around them. That all this was done without malice on his partseemed obvious, and the Flickers evidently so interpreted it, for theyshowed no fear of him and more than once flew into a tree where hehad just settled, alighting within a few feet of him."Earle R. Greene (1930), in Atlanta, Ga., saw a sparrow hawk
"uttering squeaky calls, dart several times toward and very close tothe Duck Hawk, which was on a ledge of the dome [of a building].The Duck Hawk flew away pursued by the Sparrow Hawk for somedistance."W. E. Cram (1901), showing the sparrow hawk in a hostile encounterdescribes "An Aerial Battle" as follows:On September 24, 1898, I witnessed a most vigorous and spirited fight betweena Sparrow Hawk and a female Sharp-shinned Hawk. Each seemed equally theaggressor and fought after its own peculiar method of hunting, the SparrowHawk always endeavoring to rise high above the other and then dash downfalcon-like on the back of its antagonist, a manceuver which the other usuallyforestalled by turning on its back and striking upwards viciously, though onceor twice I fancied that the Sparrow Hawk struck her prett}' severely before shewas able to turn.The Sharp-shinned Hawk attacked with a horizontal flight, sometimes with aside movement, but oftener straight ahead, and, to my surprise, appeared tohave the advantage when flying against the wind, in spite of its opponent's morecompact build and stiffer wing feathers. The two fought back and forth overthe same ground for ten minutes or more, each endeavoring to gain the advan-tage by keeping to the windward, but continually beaten back by the gale. TheSparrow Hawk fought in silence, while the other uttered sharp, petulant shrieksfrom time to time.Mr. Bent's notes tell of a somewhat similar case: "A sparrow hawkchasing a red-shouldered hawk. The large hawk had something,apparently a snake, in its talons. Both rose steadily in the airuntil they were mere specks in the sky, and the small hawk wasinvisible except through binoculars. It circled above the larger oneand frequently darted down at it, as a kingbird would do."H. I. Hartshorn (1918) notes a contest between a sparrow hawkand a starling in which the hawk had the advantage until it wasfrightened away. It seems remarkable that so small a hawk shouldbe able to vanquish a bird so nearly its own size, but I can attestthat it does so occasionally, for I saw a sparrow hawk carry a starlingin its talons to the roof of a building, where, standing on the deadbody, the hawk tore it to pieces.Song birds ordinarily pay little or no attention to the sparrow hawk,especially if it is quiet. Louis B. Kalter speaks in his notes of a
116 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMhawk perched "in a tree, while white-throated sparrows and juncosfed unconcernedly on the ground below, and a song sparrow sang."Primarily a bird of the open country and the borders of woodland,and finding most of its food on the ground, the sparrow hawk iscommonly seen in the characteristic pose of the falcons?hunched upand frowning?on high, exposed perches from which it can look outover wide stretches of grassland or pasture. It drops easily to theground to capture a grasshopper or cricket it apparently has seenfrom a distance, and, on returning to its watch-tower, a telegraphpole or wire, or a branch near the top of a tree, it tilts its tail a fewtimes, swinging it through a considerable arc before settling down towatch again.We see it scattered numerously through the open flatwoods of theSouthern States, and of this region C. J. Pennock remarks in hisnotes that "they are rarely absent from the edge of the smoke whichrises from extensive fires in the pinewoods and marshes, passing backand forth through a considerable pall of the uprising and wind-whirled smoke in pursuit of their winged prey which fly up in advanceof the fire." He also tells of a bird that "with its feet picked a
'lizard' from a tree trunk, plucking it off without stopping its rapidflight."Voice.?The common note of the sparrow hawk is a cry of fairlyhigh pitch?about that of a robin's alarm note?divided into syllables,often six or eight, each one inflected upward a little, qui, qui, qui, etc.Although this cry suggests a similar call of the flicker, the deliveryof the notes is markedly different in the two birds. The flickeihammers its notes out, as if pounding a piano key over and over,whereas the sparrow hawk delivers them with a lighter touch, eachnote delicately staccato and set off by the briefest pause. The hawk'svoice is not quite a pure tone; it contains a quality of slight roughness
?a cry as opposed to a whistle. This note varies somewhat. Ihave heard it given so as to suggest the call of a yellowlegs?in thiscase the notes being inflected downward but without the brazenquality of the sandpiper's voice. The syllables killy-killy, etc., havelong been applied to this note, and often it does have a disyllabiceffect.Francis H. Allen's notes mention "a short, shrill chatter and a noteyee, with or without a slight rising inflection." This latter note isevidently a modification of ki-wee, ki-wee, ki-wee, noted by Knight(1908).Field marks.?To distinguish the sparrow hawk from the pigeonhawk?the two birds are very close in size and in cut of wing?
a
glance of the ruddy brown on the back and tail of the former bird isenough.
EASTERN SPARROW HAWK 117The sparrow hawk resembles other birds very little. From themourning dove it is easily recognized by its large head and shortthick neck. The semidomestic street pigeon and the sparrow hawk
?
fellow citizens nowadays in winter?may readily be distinguished bythe agility of the hawk, its narrower, sharper wings, and, especiallyin flight, by its trim slenderness.Fall.?J. Eugene Law (1915) describes a remarkable migratoryflight of western sparrow hawks late in the afternoon of September13, 1914, in New Mexico. He says: "Thousands sailed by in a con-tinuous stream, all working leisurely south, often a hundred or morein sight from the car window at one time. Individuals frequentlyalighted on convenient trees and telegraph poles, and all seemed onthe lookout for food. The flight seemed to be confined to the vicin-ity of the river and its adjacent thickets of rank weeds and willowsinterspersed with stretches of green meadow and alfalfa."John Treadwell Nichols informs me that he has observed not in-frequently an autumnal migration flight of sparrow hawks over thedunes that line the beaches of the southern shore of Long Island,N. Y. On favorable days in September and October they come coast-ing along, flying alone, although two or three may be in sight at onetime, following the shore line to the westward at no great height aboveground. On many days he has seen five or six birds pass by in thecourse of a morning; rarety more than a dozen in a single day and oncein a while a pigeon hawk following along with them.Winter.?As we pass by train through the South Atlantic Statesduring the winter months, the sparrow hawk is one of the commonbirds we see from the car window. Perched on dead stumps by theside of the cottonfields, flying off from the wires along the track, hov-ering above the bare brown stubble, we see them again and again,nearly always alone. The traveler soon comes to associate thelone sparrow hawk, the lone red-headed woodpecker, and the flocksof mourning doves with the desolation that winter brings to theCarolinas.During recent years there have been more and more publishedrecords of sparrow hawks spending the winter in some of our largecities. Here they find an abundant food supply, in the flocks of resi-dent house sparrows and starlings, and convenient places to roost,even in the business districts of the city, in the niches of the highoffice buildings. That they disregard, to a large extent, the proxim-ity of man is well shown by the observations of Nathan Clifford Brown(1906), who, for about four weeks in January and February, watcheda bird retire each evening to a recess under the piazza roof of a largehotel in South Carolina. Mr. Brown's observations also show thatthis bird's motto was?early to bed and late to rise.
118 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMDISTRIBUTIONRange.?North and South America. The North American racesare found from northern Canada south to Panama. Other racesoccupy the West Indies and South America south to Argentina.Breeding range.?In North America the breeding range extendsnorth to Alaska (Chitina River); Mackenzie (Fort Good Hope,Fort Rae, and Fort Resolution); central Alberta (Athabaska Land-ing); central Manitoba (Sea Falls); northern Ontario (Cochraneand Moose Factory); Quebec (Quebec, Godbout, St. Anne desMonts, and Anticosti Island); and Newfoundland. East to New-foundland ; Prince Edward Island (North River) ; Nova Scotia (Pictouand Halifax); Maine (Calais, Bucksport, Lewiston, and Portland);New Hampshire (Franklin Falls and Concord); Massachusetts(Danvers, Boston, and Taunton); Connecticut (Jewett City); LongIsland, N. Y. (Smithtown); New Jersey (Princeton, Trenton, Cam-den, Salem, and Cape May); Virginia (Ashland, Eastville, and Nor-folk); North Carolina (Beaufort); South Carolina (Georgetown,Charleston, and Beaufort); Georgia (Savannah, Blackbeard Island,and Okefenokee Swamp); and Florida (Jacksonville, Palatka, Fruit-land Park, Fort Thompson, Miami, and Silver Palm Settlement).South to Florida (Silver Palm Settlement, Punta Rassa, TarponSprings, Tallahassee, Whitfield, and Pensacola); Louisiana (NewOrleans and Clinton); Texas (Huntsville, Bellville, San Antonio,Kerrville, and San Angelo); Durango (Rio Sestin); Nayarit (Tepic);and Baja California (Carmen Island and Guadalupe Island). Westto Baja California (Guadalupe Island and Todos Santos Island);California (San Diego, Twin Oaks, Riverside, Los Angeles, SantaBarbara, Monterey, Santa Cruz, San Francisco, Napa, Mount San-hedrin, Hoopa Valley, and Crescent City); Oregon (Bandon, Eugene,Newport, and Hebo); Washington (Aberdeen, Olympic Mountains,and San Juan Islands); British Columbia (Courtenay, Alta Lake, andCariboo District); and Alaska (probably Stikine Flats, probablyTaku River, and Chitina River).Winter range.?In winter the sparrow hawk is found north tosouthern British Columbia (Courtenay, Sumas, Chilliwack, andOkanagan); rarely Montana (Great Falls and Billings); easternColorado (Denver) ; Kansas (Wichita, Independence, and Columbus)
;
rarely Iowa (Cedar Rapids, Iowa City, and Davenport); Illinois(Moline and Rantoul); Indiana (La Fayette and Kokomo); rarelyMichigan (Wyandotte, Ann Arbor, and Detroit); rarely southernOntario (London, Toronto, and Ottawa) ; New York (Buffalo, Canandai-gua, Geneva, and Auburn); rarely southern Vermont (Bennington,Burlington, and Rutland); and rarely southern Maine (Yarmouth).East to rarely southern Maine (Yarmouth and Portland); Massachu-
EASTERN SPARROW HAWK 119
setts (Plum Island and Boston) ; Rhode Island (Providence) ; Connecti-cut (New London and Hartford); southeastern New York (OrientPoint and Staten Island) ; New Jersey (Princeton and Moorestown)
;
Delaware (Lewes); Maryland (Cambridge); Virginia (Bowers Hill);North Carolina (Raleigh and Pinehurst); South Carolina (Camden,Charleston, and Sea Islands); Georgia (Savannah and St. Marys);Florida (Daytona, Winter Park, St. Lucie, Florida City, and KeyWest); Yucatan (Camp Mengel) ; British Honduras (El Cayo); north-eastern Honduras (Lancetilla) ; eastern Nicaragua (Escondido River);and Panama (Gatun). South to Panama (Gatun); Costa Rica(Guayabo and San Jose) ; western Guatemala (Guatemala and Duenas) ;Oaxaca (Villa Atla); Puebla (Chietla); southern Sinaloa (Esquinapaand Mazatlan); and Baja California (Triunfo). West to Baja Cali-fornia (Triunfo, Carmen Island, Natividad Island, Todos SantosIsland, Las Cruces, and Calexico); California (Witch Creek, BuenaPark, Los Angeles, Santa Barbara, Palo Alto, Berkeley, and Marys-ville); Oregon (Sweet Home and Rickreall); Washington (Centralia,Tacoma, Seattle, and Everett); and British Columbia (Courtenay).The range as above outlined applies to the North American races ofthis species, four of which are currently recognized by taxonomists.The typical race, the eastern sparrow hawk (Falco sparverius spar-verius), occupies the entire range except the region from southernNevada, New Mexico, Arizona, southern California, and northernBaja California, which is the range of the desert sparrow hawk (F. s.phalaena); the southern part of Baja California, occupied by the SanLucas sparrow hawk (F. s. peninsularis) ; and the peninsula of Floridaand adjoining portions of the Gulf States, which is the range of thelittle sparrow hawk (F. s. paulus). Additional races of this speciesare found in South America and the Caribbean region.Spring migration.?Early dates of arrival in areas north of the winterrange are: Quebec?Montreal, March 25; Kamouraska, April 5;Quebec, April 16. New Brunswick?Grand Manan, March 19;Scotch Lake, April 8. Nova Scotia?Bridgetown, March 22; Wolf-ville, April 8. Prince Edward Island?North River, April 22.Wisconsin?Racine, March 1 (has been known to winter); BeaverLake, March 6; Milwaukee, March 8 (has been known to winter);Madison, March 13; North Freedom, March 14. Minnesota
?
Minneapolis, February 27 (has been known to winter); Jackson,March 8; Hutchinson, March 12; Elk River, March 18. NebraskaValentine, February 10; Omaha, February 19; Red Cloud, February20. South Dakota?Dell Rapids, March 5 ; Sioux Falls, March 1 1Vermillion, March 11; Brookings, March 22. North DakotaCharlson, March 14; Bismarck, March 21; Larimore, March 22;Jamestown, March 28. Manitoba?Aweme, March 17; Reaburn,March 23; Margaret, March 28; Pilot Mound, April 7. Saskatche-
120 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMwan?Eastend, March 19; Indian Head, March 22; Lake Johnston,March 28. Mackenzie?Fort Simpson, April 25; Hay River, April30. Alberta?Flagstaff, March 25; Camrose, March 28; Alliance,March 30 ; Fort Vermilion, April 1 ; Fort McMurray, April 19. Alaska-Kodiak Island, March 10; Craig, March 11.Fall migration.?-Late dates of fall departure are: Alaska?Juneau,September 11 ; Craig, September 11 ; lower Taku River, September 16.Alberta?Beaver River, September 24; Dorenlee, October 3; Banff,October 4; Glenevis, October 17. Mackenzie?Fort Resolution,September 16. Keewatin?Grand Rapids, September 5. Saskatche-wan?Eastend, October 2; Indian Head, October 5. Manitoba
?
Margaret, October 6; Reaburn, October 18; Aweme, October 20.North Dakota?Rice Lake, October 1 ; Harrisburg, October 3
;
Charlson, November 1. South Dakota?Lennox, October 21; WhiteRiver, October 23 ; Sioux Falls, November 20 ; Rapid City, November25. Nebraska?Red Cloud, October 20 ; Lincoln, October 27 ; Badger,October 30; Omaha, November 24; Crawford, November 30. Min-nesota?Elk River, October 15; Fosston, October 17; Lake Andrews,October 21; St. Paul, November 23. Wisconsin?Trout Lake,October 8; Superior, October 12; Madison, October 18; Beloit, October22. Prince Edward Island?North River, September 25. NovaScotia?Pictou, September 23. New Brunswick?St. John, October17; Scotch Lake, October 21. Quebec?Montreal, October 12.Among the records of recovery of banded sparrow hawks are a fewthat help to throw light on the migrations of the species. Of twobanded at Norristown, Pa., on June 11, 1932, one was recovered onOctober 24, 1932, in Nash County, N. C, while the other was retakenat Augusta, Ga., on November 17, 1932. Two others, banded atHuntington, Mass., on June 21, 1926, were recaptured at NewportNews, Va., on December 16, 1926, and at East New Market, Md., onMarch 19, 1927. Another, banded at Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, onJuly 12, 1935, was killed at Flatonia, Tex., about February 5, 1936.Casual records.?A sparrow hawk was taken in Bermuda on Decem-ber 9, 1853.Egg dates.?Alberta and Saskatchewan: 17 records, May 22 toJune 17; 9 records, May 24 to June 3, indicating the height of theseason.New York and New England: 34 records, April 9 to June 12; 17records, May 12 to 24.New Jersey and Pennsylvania: 57 records, April 17 to June 3;29 records, April 28 to May 14.Florida: 35 records, March 20 to June 1; 18 records, April 6 to 23.Ohio and Illinois: 12 records, April 23 to June 8; 6 records, May 9to 26.
DESERT SPARROW HAWK 121Colorado: 15 records, April 28 to July 7; 8 records, May 21 toJune 3.Washington and Oregon: 18 records, March 31 to May 29; 9records, May 21 to 24.California: 198 records, March 2 to June 4; 99 records, April 12to May 3.Baja California: 3 records, May 11 to 15.FALCO SPARVERIUS PHALAENA (Lesson)DESERT SPARROW HAWKHABITSWhen Dr. Edgar A. Mearns (1892) published his study of the spar-row hawks, he characterized this race, under the name deserticolus,as follows: "Larger than Eastern sparverius, with relatively longertail. This is a desert form from the treeless regions of the Southwest.It is paler, much more rufous, and with a larger crown patch thanin the typical form. The black bars on inner webs of quills do notcross the entire web, as in sparverius, but occur as sparse serrationsof dusky along outer extremity of shaft, sometimes approaching thecondition of whiteness seen in the light phase of F. dominicensis,and in some specimens from Florida. Female with more numerousand yellow spotting below, and a redder tone to the under side ofthe tail. The dark bars of the upper surface are narrower, those ofthe tail being more often incomplete."And he gave as its habitat: "Southwestern United States, northto northern California and western Montana, south to Mazatlan innorthwestern Mexico." This is a somewhat larger range than wenow ascribe to it. The Check-List (1931) now confines it to a breed-ing range "from southern New Mexico, Arizona, southern California,and southern Nevada south into Mexico and northern Lower Cali-fornia." This latter is doubtless more nearly correct, for we shouldnaturally expect this pale race to be confined to the arid plains anddeserts of the Southwest.Courtship.?Mrs. Florence M. Bailey (1928) publishes the followinginteresting note from Prof. D. E. Merrill:The female was perched on a cross arm of a light pole when the male appearedin air high overhead, and hovered there, both birds squealing vociferously.Dropping back behind a mesquite bush he caught a lizard and flew to her withit in his beak. But instead of accepting his offering, she ungraciously peckedhim on the head! "At this he moved away to a safer distance and both beganthe squealing again, at the same time gesticulating wildly with their heads andbodies. Gaining courage the male once more approached with the lizard. Thistime the female took it in her bill and immediately and coquettishly dropped itto the ground. A true gallant, the suitor flew down and picked it up again butflew to the next pole to alight. Here he preserved a dignified mien and stern13751?38 9
122 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMquiet for some minutes, when the fickle lady-love ceased her clamor and flew tothe opposite end of his cross arm. At once he took up cry, alighted beside herand offered the lizard again." This time she readily accepted the offering and thesuit was won.Nesting.?The nesting habits of the desert sparrow hawk do notdiffer materially from those of the species elsewhere, except wherethe birds are forced to make use of such cavities as they can find.It evidently prefers to nest in natural cavities in trees where theseare available. In southern California we found it nesting in suchcavities in sycamores, willows, and cottonwoods. But in a treelessregion, near the coast, I saw two or three pairs that were apparentlynesting in some burrows near the top of a high cliff. Here the birdswere very solicitous and had their favorite lookout posts on littleeminences, or peaks, on or near the top of the cliff, which were welldecorated with droppings. I had no means of reaching the holes orof digging them out.In Arizona we found them nesting in natural cavities in trees inthe wooded canyons; but out on the deserts, where no real trees ofany size are to be found, the only available nesting sites were in thegiant cactuses, saguaros. These great candelabra, which tower abovethe low growth of mesquite and greasewood on the deserts, offerideal nesting sites for many birds of several species. The abandonednesting holes of Gila woodpeckers and Mearns's gilded flickers areoccupied by sparrow hawks, elf owls, saguaro screech owls, Arizonacrested flycatchers, ash-throated flycatchers, western purple martins,and cactus wrens.Eggs.?The eggs of the desert sparrow hawk are indistinguishablefrom those of the eastern sparrow hawk. The measurements of 42eggs average 35.1 by 27.5 millimeters; the eggs showing the fourextremes measure 37.8 by 27.4, 34 by 30.1, 32 by 27.5, and 33 by22.8 millimeters.Young.?Mrs. Irene G. Wheelock (1904) gives the followinginteresting account:For the first week the nestlings are fed exclusively on insects; after that, insectspredominate in the nursery menu, although mice are brought several times a day.After leaving the nest they are fed in the tree, for a week or so, before they tryto hunt for themselves. The first lesson is very interesting to watch. One ofthe adults brings a bit of food to the youngster, who is sitting on the perch wherefor several days he has been fed, and instead of giving it to him, lets it fall infull view, at the same time calling "killy-killy-killy." In nearly every case theyoung hawk springs after it without hesitation the first time this is tried, and heoften gets it. The mother is beside, over, and under him as he drops for it,encouraging him with her calls, and he soon responds with a little cry of unmis-takable triumph. But he is not allowed to eat it on the ground, as he wouldlike to do. An imperative call from the adult makes the young hunter exert hisstrength and follow to the nearest low perch before he tastes it.
DESERT SPARROW HAWK 123Food.?The food and feeding habits do not differ much from those ofother sparrow hawks, though different species of mammals, birds,reptiles, and insects are included. Dr. John W. Sugden has sent methe following note:
"In the process of feeding, this bird exhibits a distinct preference forthe Orthoptera, and in devouring a grasshopper varies but little in themethod employed. The insect is grasped by the talons about theabdomen and hind legs. If it is caught in any other position, it isrotated by being held in the beak and regrasped in the correct positionby the talons. The grasshopper is held much the same as a child wouldhold an ice-cream cone. The bird begins by taking several bites ofthe head. Next the thorax is eaten. The viscera are pulled out andswallowed or occasionally dropped. If dropped, the bird often looksabout, as if determining if anything of value has been lost. The firsttwo pairs of legs and the wings are discarded by a flip of the beak.The femora of the third pair of legs are then eaten by taking severalbites and the rest of the leg discarded. The abdomen then remains inthe tjilons and, if small, is swallowed in one piece, but, if large, severalbites may be taken. If any pieces of food remain on the talons, theyare picked off and the bird finishes by cleaning its beak by rapidlybrushing it on the perch. Small insects are eaten with a similar pro-cedure and rarely by gulping, as the screech owl invariably does. Infeeding on an English sparrow, or small mouse, the hawk holds itsprey with the talons and, beginning at the nape of the neck, pulls offstrips of flesh. Flies are repeatedly rejected, even if the bird ishungry. Beef is preferred to other meats, and pork is never touched."In the depths of the Grand Canyon of the Colorado, at 4.35 p. m. onOctober 30, 1930, George M. Wright (1932) saw a desert sparrow hawkcapture and devour a small bat. He says:The inner gorge was in shadows, though the sun still brightened the plateauabove. The hawk flew low over the edge of the plateau, and while under observa-tion it was seen to be pursuing a small fluttering object which I instantly took tobe a bird. My immediate thought was to make sure that it was a sparrow hawkthus engaged in so unorthodox a pursuit. My field glasses were trained on thehawk and followed it while it dived at its prey, which proved to be a small bat.It dived repeatedly, not following the bat about, but striking at it and thengaining a little height before bearing down again. Once, however, it followed thebat into the overhanging recess toward which it was retreating and chased it outagain. At about the seventh attempt, the little bat was caught in its talons andcarried to the top of the ledge over the recess. The bird remained there for abouttwo minutes, picked at its prize a couple of times and then flew to a rock on theplateau above. In flight, the sparrow hawk was silhouetted against the eveningsky and its extended talons could plainly be seen clutching the body of the littlebat whose wings appeared to be folded.Behavior.?We found the desert sparrow hawk really abundant inArizona and in certain sections of southern California and met with italmost daily in the desert regions of Arizona, where it was decidedly
124 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMthe commonest hawk. Its bright colors and sprightly manners madeit one of the attractive features of the region. It could be easily-recognized by its manner of flight, when too far away to see its uniquecolor pattern or hear its characteristic notes. It seemed to differ inno way from its eastern relative, as to its behavior. I once saw oneattack and drive away a red-tailed hawk from its nesting site.FALCO SPARVERIUS PENINSULAKIS McarnsSAN LUCAS SPARROW HAWKHABITSIn describing and naming this race, which is known only fromsouthern Lower California, Dr. Edgar A. Mearns (1892) states thatthe male is similar to the male of the desert sparrow hawk, "butsmaller, with larger, stouter bill, with less black barring on back andscapulars, and scarcely any black spots on the wing-coverts; underside of wing mostly white, the quills being merely serrated with blacknext to shaft on inner webs; under parts suffused with yellow; veryslightly spotted on the sides." And the female is also similar to thefemale deserticolus, "but with a more rufous shade on tail; under partsmore yellowish; 'iris yellow,' instead of hazel."Very little seems to be known about the distribution, and much lessabout the habits of the San Lucas sparrow hawk. William Brewster(1902) says: "This small, light-colored form of the Sparrow Hawk isof common occurrence in the Cape Region in autumn and winter, butit does not appear to breed there at all numerously, for Mr. Frazarmet with it in summer only at San Jose del Rancho where he notes it as
'very rare'. It is believed to be confined to Lower California, but wehave no definite knowledge as to just how far up the Peninsula itsdistribution extends."Dr. Joseph Grinnell (1928b), in his latest work on the birds of thisregion, records it as a "common resident in the Cape district andthence northward to about 28? latitude. * * * Intergradationbetween the races phalaena and peninsularis probably takes placebetween latitudes 28? and 30?." He says further: "Since the abovewas written, Mr. C. C. Lamb has sent in to this Museum threediminutive Sparrow Hawks obtained October 14, 1927, on the ColoradoRiver twenty miles south of Pilot Knob, January 21, 1928, on theAlamo River twenty miles southwest of Pilot Knob, and February 4,1928, five miles east of Cerro Prieto. I am unable to distinguishthese from Cape-district peninsularis. Whether northward vagrantsof that race, or representatives of a resident 'colony' of that race onthe Colorado Desert, or curiously dwarfed individual variants ofphalaena, is not now demonstrable."
LITTLE SPARROW HAWK 125Nesting.?J. Stuart Rowley writes to me that five nests of thissparrow hawk were located near Mira Flores, Lower California, fromMay 11 to May 15, 1933, from which five sets of heavily incubatedeggs were taken. All the nests were in old woodpeckers' holes in thetopmost parts of the cardons (giant cacti), approximately 35 feetfrom the ground. He says:Locating the nests was tedious work. In each instance a male would be spottedperched on a cardon. It was learned that the breeding male was never very farfrom the brooding female, so a systematic search would start. The extensionladder was set up to every cardon in a reasonable area adjacent to where theundisturbed male was first seen resting. Each likely looking cavity was choppedout until we were rewarded with a discovery or until we became weary and hadto give it up. We found that no amount of pounding on the cardon, in whichsubsequently a brooding female would be found, would flush her from the eggs.The females remained in the holes until the chopping was well done before
"exploding" in one's face. The eggs were placed on a few chips of the giantcactus; and the bottoms of the cavities, where the eggs were deposited, wereabout 16 to 18 inches below the entrance holes.Eggs.?-The San Lucas sparrow hawk lays from two to four eggs.Mr. Rowley took one set of four, two sets of three, and two sets oftwo, all heavily incubated. The eggs resemble those of other NorthAmerican sparrow hawks in color but are noticeably smaller. Themeasurements of 11 eggs average 33.3 by 27.7 millimeters; the eggsshowing the four extremes measure 35.3 by 28.2, 31.5 by 27.2, and 32by 27 millimeters.FALCO SPARVERIUS PAULUS (Howe and King)LITTLE SPARROW HAWKHABITSReginald Heber Howe, Jr. (1902) described and named this smallFlorida race from a type collected near Miami. He calls it "thesmallest of the American Sparrow Hawk group. Rufous of upperparts very dark, particularly on the rectrices. Tail and wings short.Bill large and heavy." He says further: "The resident SparrowHawk of Florida has been referred to several races, but is undoubtedlydifferent from any already described. In fact it is one of the mostdistinctly separable races of this most interesting group on accountof its very short tail. It differs from northeastern examples in thatits colors arc darker, and in its materially smaller size. From C. s.isabellinus (Swains.) of northern South America to which it has beenreferred, it differs in that its upper colors are darker and that itsthroat is immaculate, while in size it is even smaller, its tail being overten millimeters shorter."Courtship.?C. J. Pennock says in his notes: "The 'quivering'flight is rarely ever seen except during the mating season. Then, notinfrequently, both birds practice it at the same time, in a short and
126 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
very slow flight out from the nest tree just preceding a final matingunion."Nesting.?During the winter we spent in Pinellas County, sparrowhawks were always very common. In driving to and from our resi-dence on Long Key, we used to amuse ourselves by counting the spar-row hawks sitting on the telephone poles; we could always depend onseeing 6 to 12 in the short drive of 5 miles. We hoped to find thembreeding on the island but were disappointed, for they all disappearedbefore April. We concluded that these were all northern birds, onlywintering there. We had not shot any of them.But we referred to the resident race the birds we found breeding incentral Florida, Hernando and Pasco Counties, on April 19, 1925.Here, and in other similar places, we found the little sparrow hawkcommon. While driving along the roads we passed several placeswhere the flat pinewoods had been burned over, leaving a numberof tall, dead, partially burned stubs. Many of these stubs containedholes made by flickers or red-headed woodpeckers, both of which werefairly common. At three of these places we saw sparrow hawks,sitting on the stubs or flying about, so we stopped to hunt for theirnests. My companion, Oscar E. Baynard, made some unsuccessfulclimbs but eventually found three nests. The nests were 20 to 30feet from the ground in old woodpecker holes, one of which had beenbroken out. They all held four eggs each; one set was heavily incu-bated, one advanced somewhat, and one was fresh. Once we sawthe bird perched on the nesting stub ; in another case we saw the birdfly into the hole; and in the third case, when Mr. Baynard climbedthe stub, a flying-squirrel ran out of the hole, and he found two ofthe four eggs broken (pi. 20).In another similar burned-over tract in Polk County on April 26,1925, we found a sparrow hawk's nest containing young and threenests of young Florida screech owls, all in old woodpecker holes.Donald J. Nicholson writes to me: "This bird begins to deposit itseggs in March, at least from Orange County southward, but theprincipal time is between April 1 and 15. Occasionally the bird willraise two broods in a season. My reason for such belief is the factthat I found in one day two nests with eggs in mid-June, and severaldays later found another nest with eggs. These nests were in placeswhere sets are found in April, and none of the nests had been previ-ously disturbed that season. It would seem quite unusual to find thisnumber of very late layings during a normally warm spring."Eggs.?Mr. Nicholson says that the "sets range from three to fiveeggs, with four the most common number found. I have no recordsof more than five eggs." There is a set of six eggs in Griffing Ban-croft's collection. The eggs are similar to those of the species else-where, except that they average smaller. The measurements of 45
AUDUBON'S CARACARA 127
eggs average 34 by 28 millimeters ; the eggs showing the four extremesmeasure 36.6 by 27.4, 33.3 by 29.9, 30 by 28.3, and 34 by 26 milli-meters.Food.?C. J. Pennock says in his notes: "In Charlotte County,Fla., the little sparrow hawk is the resident form and occurs abun-dantly, feeding largely on insects, so far as I have observed. Thirteenwere seen at one time circling about and through the smoke from araging marsh fire, evidently feeding on winged insects forced to takeflight. The stomach of one of these birds contained a katydid anda large winged grasshopper." One day, on the golf course, he sawone twice swoop down at golf balls rolling on the fairway.POLYBORUS CHERIWAY AUDUBONI Cassinaudubon's caracaraPlates 21-25HABITSAudubon's caracara is a northern race of a South American speciesthat reaches its northern limits in Arizona, Texas, and Florida. It israre in Arizona but fairly common in parts of Texas and Florida. Itis locally known as the "Mexican eagle", or "Mexican buzzard", bothappropriate names, as it somewhat resembles an eagle in its mannerof flight and partially resembles a vulture in its feeding habits.In Florida it is restricted mainly to the open prairie regions in thecenter of the State; its center of abundance seems to be on the greatKissimmee Prairie, north of Lake Okeechobee, but it may be foundanywhere that similar prairies exist. The Kissimmee Prairie is alarge, low, flat, grassy plain, drained by the Kissimmee River and afew small streams; it is dotted with numerous shallow ponds andsloughs, and, especially near the river, there are many small hammocksof large live oaks and cabbage palmettos. Scattered all over theprairie are clumps of saw palmetto, a few scrubby oaks, numeroussolitary cabbage palmettos, and an occasional small clump of cypress.In this characteristic home of the caracara, its most conspicuousneighbors are the sandhill crane, nesting in the shallow ponds andsloughs, and the Florida races of the red-shouldered hawk and barredowl, which nest in nearly every hammock. The caracara is not awoodland bird and is seldom seen in the pines and still more rarely inthe cypress country.In Texas its haunts are similar, according to George Finlay Simmons(1925), "open pasturelands and prairies, generally where dotted byoak mottes or crossed by creeks and arroyos narrowly skirted withtrees. Mesquite forests typical of the Rio Grande Coastal Plain fromAustin southward. Open divides in the wooded mountainous country.Prefers prairies to wooded country, never breeding in tall trees inwooded bottoms. Wanders along streams into the wooded hills."
128 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMWe found it very rare in southern Arizona, where we saw only oneflying across the Santa Cruz River south of Tucson.Nesting.?We found several nests in the Kissimmee Prairie regionnear Bassinger, Fla., during the latter part of March. The nests areoften so well concealed in the thick tops of the cabbage palmettos thatthey are very hard to see. One pair evidently had a nest in a smallpalmetto hammock, as they hung around it for over an hour whileI was hunting for the nest. There were numerous droppings and bitsof down scattered about, and the birds were flying about, screamingand alighting in the trees near me; but, although I climbed to everylikely-looking thick top, I could not locate the nest. Two nests con-taining young birds, two-thirds grown, were found on March 22,1925. One was about 25 feet up in a cabbage palmetto on the edgeof a live-oak hammock; the nest was barely visible among the greenfans in the thick top, resting on the flatter stems; I had to cut awaysome of the hanging fans before I could reach into it, and only withconsiderable difficulty even then. It was a bulky structure, looselymade of slender twigs, mainly the fruiting clusters of the palmetto,and was lined with fine bits of the same material. The other was asimilar nest, about 30 feet up in the top of a slender, solitary palmettostanding out in an open space; it also held young birds. All othernests seen were similarly located in cabbage palmettos, except one;this was only 15 feet from the ground on a branch of a live oak stand-ing in an open space near a stream; it was made of small sticks.Frederic H. Kennard found a caracara's nest in the top of a largesolitary pine between Fort Myers and Immokalee, Fla. (pi. 22).S. A. Grimes has sent me some photographs (pi. 23) of a nest that hefound on the Kissimmee Prairie on February 19, 1934; it was locatedonly 7 feet from the ground in a vine-covered clump of saw palmetto(Serenoa serrulata), a very unusual site. The following year, the nestwas built 25 feet up in a cabbage palmetto a short distance away.W. A. Smith sent me a photograph of a nest 7 feet up in an oak bush.Donald J. Nicholson (1929) says that "the caracara is one of theearliest of the raptores to begin nesting in Florida. It begins some-times early in December to lay eggs. But the height of the nestingactivity is in January and February and, even as late as April, nestswith eggs are to be found." He says elsewhere (1928) that out of40 or 50 nests that he has seen, only three were built in oaks and onein a pine; all the others were in cabbage palmettos. "Their nests aremade of green tough bushes, broken off by the birds, and sometimesbriars, piled up in a heap and trampled down until quite a decenthollow is made. Usually the nests are unlined, but at times a fewgreen leaves or pieces of grape-vines are placed in the hollow. Con-sequently the eggs rest upon a crude mass of rough, dried stems ofbushes."
AUDUBON'S CARACARA 129Capt. R. D. Camp told us in 1923 that the caracara was not socommon in Cameron County, Tex., as it used to be. He showed usonly one nest, from which he had taken a set of eggs earlier in the sea-son. It was about 8 feet from the ground in the crotch of a Spanish-dagger yucca in open country.Dr. James C. Merrill (1878) and George B. Sennett (1878 and 1879)both found this species common there at that time. The latter refersto two quite different nests. One "rested on the branches of a saplingonly about nine or ten feet from the ground. This small tree was oneof a clump which stood under larger trees, and was so slender thatgreat care had to be taken not to shake out the eggs in getting them."Near Lomita, in the taller growth of timber, "two eggs were takenfrom a nest, forty feet high, in a hack-berry tree."Herbert W. Brandt says in his notes: "Judging from past accounts,the caracara is on the rapid decline in southern Texas. On fourtrips from San Antonio to the coast we saw only one bird, whereformerly, the ranchers told us, they were plentiful. We found a fewbreeding on the King Ranch, making their abode about the variouswindmills. These birds always have the male lookout stationed con-spicuously near the nest, and he flushes when the intruder is still somedistance away. Every nest we examined was composed entirely ofbroomweed, and was usually deep, resembling an inverted Mexicanhat. The nests are often very bulky and show successive layers.Two-thirds of the sets observed consisted of three eggs, while theremainder numbered two. An interesting nest was found in ahuisache tree standing alone in the center of a large, wet, grassymeadow. In the tree was a caracara's nest and 50 nests of the great-tailed grackle, seven of which were crowded under that of the caracara."Adolph E. Schutze (1904) writes, referring to central Texas:The nest is usually placed in the upright branches of an elm or oak, eight tofifty feet above the ground. Of the thirty-five nests that I have so far found,two-thirds are yearly reoccupied, but whether by the same pair of birds, I amunable to say. The birds are always careful in selecting a position where theyare enabled to view the entire surrounding country with ease. When an intruderapproaches the parent immediately leaves without the slightest noise and islost to view for a time. After a short while it returns with its mate and bothalight on some nearby tree and watch the proceedings with much interest. * * *Of the thirty-five nests that have come under my observation, thirty were com-posed solely of broomweed and without a lining, two were built of broomweedand small briars, while the remaining three were built of various substances, suchas corn husks, small sticks, broomweed, mesquite twigs and the like. Sometimesold nests of hawks are appropriated, and to these are added a few broomstraws,or weeds.In the desert regions of southern Arizona and Mexico, the caracarasometimes nests in the branches of the giant cactus. It has beensaid to nest on cliffs. The nests are said to be used for several years
130 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMin succession, new material being added each season until they becomevery large.Eggs.?Audubon's caracara lays two or three eggs, oftener two andvery rarely four. These are usually ovate to oval in shape, and theshell is smooth or finely granulated. The ground color, which isusually mostly concealed, is white, creamy white, or pinkish white.Oftener the entire shell is washed or clouded with "light ochraceous-buff", "vinaceous-cinnamon", or "vinaceous-russet" ; such eggs areoften otherwise unmarked. Usually the ground color, whether lightor dark, is largely concealed by irregular blotches, scrawls, splashes,or spots of darker browns, "bay", "chestnut-brown", or "burntumber." Some eggs with a light ground color are openly spotted, orblotched, with fighter browns, "Kaiser brown", "hazel", or "russet"in pretty patterns. Very rarely an egg is nearly immaculate. Themeasurements of 57 eggs average 59.4 by 46.5 millimeters; the eggsshowing the four extremes measure 74.5 by 54.5, 53.8 by 44.5, and 56by 43.5 millimeters.Young.?Incubation lasts for about 28 days and is shared by bothsexes. Ordinarily only one brood is raised in a season, but, if theeggs are taken, a second, or even a third, set may be laid. Joseph C.Howell, however, writes to me of an exceptional case of two broodsbeing raised; he says: "On December 27, 1931, Hugo Shroeder and Ifound a caracara nest with one young, which I estimated was at least5 weeks old. Returning to this cabbage hammock on March 20,1932, we observed the birds remodeling the nest. On April 7 the nestheld two eggs. This is the only instance I am aware of in which apair of caracaras have raised two broods in a season. Moreover, thispair must have had a set of eggs in October."J. K. Strecker, Jr. (1894), writes: "I am told that the young Cara-caras occupy the nest for two or three months after they are hatched,which, if so, shows a resemblance to the habits of the young of theVultures while in the nest. However, although the young Vulturesare fed by regurgitation, the young of the Caracara are fed in thesame manner as other Falcons, i. e., with fresh meat, although Ithink that the adults feed quite freely on carrion."Plumages.?The young caracara, in its natal down, is quite uniqueand rather pretty. It is completely covered with long, thick, softdown; the upper half of the head is dark, rich brown, "Mars brown"to "auburn"; a large spot on each shoulder, a smaller one on eachthigh and one on the rump are "Mars brown" to "mummy brown";elsewhere the color varies from "pinkish buff" to "pale pinkish buff."A nestling 10 inches long is still mainly downy, but the juvenalplumage is appearing on the scapulars, middle of the back, flanks, andmiddle of the belly; the primaries are growing.
AUDUBON'S CARACARA 131A larger nestling, nearly grown and nearly feathered, is still downyon the sides of the neck and center of the breast; the tail is justsprouting; the crown, occiput, and scapulars are clear "Natal brown",some of the latter edged with "bay"; the feathers of the upper backare "bister" to "snuff brown", with a large terminal wedge of palebuff and a median streak of "bister"; the wing coverts are "Natalbrown", edged with "snuff brown" and tipped with pale buff; thethroat, sides of the head, neck, and upper breast are "cartridge buff"to "cinnamon-buff" and unspotted; the rest of the under parts are
"Verona brown" to "snuff brown", streaked with "cinnamon" or
"cinnamon-buff"; the sprouting tail show* a color pattern like theadult tail, but it is barred and broadly tipped with sepia instead ofblack.This juvenal plumage is worn until the following winter or spring,but the time at which the postjuvenal molt begins varies greatly,depending on the date on which the bird was hatched; this is veryvariable, owing to the prolonged nesting season. I have seen birdsin full juvenal plumage in December, February, April, and May, theplumage being decidedly worn in many cases. But usually sometimebetween January and April a complete postjuvenal molt takes place;I have seen the beginning of this molt as early as January 14 and aslate as February 25; and I have seen the molt nearly completed byApril 14.The body molt comes first, with the appearance of the spottedfeathers on the breast, followed by the rest of the body feathers andthen by the wings and tail. This molt produces what is probablya second-year, or subadult, plumage. It is like the adult plum-age in pattern, breast spotted with small spots, upper back as in theadult, and abdominal region solidly dark; but the light areas aretinged with buff, not pure white as in the adult, and the dark areasare "warm sepia" or "bister", instead of black. This plumage isworn for about a year, or until the following winter; about Decemberor January, or later, another complete molt occurs, which producesthe black-and-white adult plumage. Adults apparently have theircomplete annual molt later in the winter, or even early in the spring.Some adult males that I have seen are only beginning to molt inMarch ; the females may molt even later.Food.?The caracara shares with the vultures the habit of feedingon carrion, which probably constitutes a large portion of its food.These birds often gather about the slaughterhouses in large numberswith the vultures, to feed on the offal that is thrown out. They alsofeed on any dead mammal, large or small, bird, or reptile that theycan find. They are worthy of protection as good scavengers, as wellas destroyers of many harmful rodents and insects, as they hunt andkill many small animals. The following have been recorded in their
132 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMfood: Rabbits, skunks, prairie dogs, opossums, rats, mice, squirrels,snakes, frogs, lizards, young alligators, turtles, crabs, crayfish, fishes,young birds, beetles, grasshoppers, maggots, and worms.Bendire (1892) quotes William Lloyd as saying: "Although carrionfeeding birds, they are very fond of live fish and frogs. I have seenthem fishing repeatedly in Sonora, Mexico. In Concho County Ihave seen them hunting prairie dogs, in couples, and once showing ahigh degree of intelligence. One was hidden behind a tussock ofgrass while the other danced before a young lamb, trying to lead itfrom the place where its mother was grazing to where its companionwas hidden. The ruse was nearly successful, as the lamb began tofollow, but the dam, anxiously watching, finally called it back."Bendire himself "saw one of these birds engaged in quite an en-counter with a good sized snake which had partly coiled itself aboutits neck, both bird and snake struggling for a few minutes at quite alively rate. The Caracara had the best of the fight, however, andbefore I could get to the place, the bird was off with its quarry, thesnake still squirming and twisting about in its talons."Dr. J. C. Merrill (1878) writes: "I have seen a Caracara chase ajackass-rabbit for some distance through open mesquite chaparral,and while they were in sight the bird kept within a few feet of theanimal and constantly gained on it, in spite of its sharp turns andbounds. If one bird has caught a snake or field-mouse, its com-panions that may happen to see it at once pursue, and a chase followsvery different from what is seen among true Vultures."Mr. Grimes sent me a photograph showing the shells of 43 mudturtles and a box tortoise, the head of a large snapping turtle, asmall garfish, and the remains of a bass that he picked up in a fewminutes around a caracara's nest that held large young. Twelveheads of small turtles were found in the nest. I wrote to him that Iwas curious to know how the birds carried the turtles and how theyextracted the meat. He responded by spending two hours in a blindnear a nest and watching how it was done; he writes to me that he"saw the old birds make five trips to the nest with food for the young.Each of these times, and on three other occasions that I have seenfood brought to the nest, the object was brought in the bill. Onlyone turtle was brought to the nest while I was watching. It was a5-inch mud turtle, and was held by the edge of the shell, as the birdsailed in with it. The old caracara did not merely leave the turtleat the nest for the young (which were as large as the parent bird) tohelp themselves; but stayed there 35 minutes, removing the animalfrom its shell bit by bit and feeding the pieces to her offspring. Ata distance of 100 feet I could plainly hear the bird's mandibles clackagainst the turtle's shell, as she held it down with her feet and strained
AUDUBON'S CARACARA 133and pulled at what it contained. After 35 minutes the old caracaraturned the remains of the turtle over to the young birds."Behavior.?The flight of the caracara is somewhat like that of themarsh hawk, with frequent turnings, risings, and fallings, but swifterand more graceful, with rapid wing strokes followed by long periodsof sailing. Mr. Schutze (1904) describes it as "very straight andrapid" and says: "On a hot summer's day it can sometimes be seencircling high overhead after the manner of a hawk." Dr. ThomasBarbour (1923) says that "the flight is crow-like, direct, fast andwith heavy noisy flappings."The caracara is quite at home on the ground, where it spends con-siderable time hunting for its prey. We frequently saw one standingon the bank of a roadside ditch, probably looking for dead animalskilled by speeding automobiles, or for fish thrown away by fishermen.Its long legs enable it to walk easily, or even run fast, as anyoneknows who has chased a wing-tipped bird.It is an aggressive bird in pursuit of food and is not afraid to attackeven larger birds. I once saw a bald eagle rise from a marshy ham-mock with what looked like a marsh rabbit in its talons; a caracara,two vultures, and a lot of crows immediately gave chase ; the caracaraattacked the eagle in the air, plunging down upon it from above ; butthey all disappeared behind some trees, and we failed to see whathappened. Walter B. Savary writes to me that he "saw a marshhawk, with a mouse in its claws, trying to escape from three crowsthat were pursuing it in an endeavor to get the mouse. So close atlast were the crows that the hawk let its prey drop ; without checkingits flight, the leading crow snatched up the mouse and continued on,to be at once followed by a caracara who, in turn, forced the crowto drop its prize."Major Bendire (1892) quotes Capt. B. F. Goss, as follows:Brown Pelicans breed in great numbers on an island in the Laguna Madre, offthe coast of Texas. When these birds were returning to their breeding ground,with pouches tilled with fish, the Caracaras would attack them until they dis-gorged, and then alight and devour their stolen prey. These attacks were madefrom above, by suddenly darting down on the Pelicans with shrill screams andstriking at them with their talons. I am not certain as to whether they caughtany of their prey before it reached the ground. I Baw this maneuver repeated anumber of times by a pair of these birds that nested on this island and by othersthat came from the shore. They did not attack outgoing birds, but invariablywaited for the incoming ones, and as soon as these were over land (so that thecontents of their pouches should not fall in the water) they pounced on them.Dr. Barbour (1923) has seen caracaras chase large birds and saysthat "Gundlach once saw one chase, tire out and kill a white Ibis."H. W. Brandt says, in his Texas notes, that "the abundant scissor-tailed flycatcher makes life miserable for these grand birds by attack-ing them every time they take to the wing. They often perch on thecaracara's back for a mile and leave a wake of pulled feathers." W.
134 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMLeon Dawson (1923) tells of one that was attacked by a shrike. Al-most any small bird would probably drive one away from the vicinityof its nest, or at least attempt to do so.W. J. Hoxie writes me that a pair he had in captivity became verytame; he says: "They lived contentedly in a large cage until I wentto work on the railroad. A number of years after that, when the malewas at the German Club, he knew me so well that, when he escapedand went into the neighboring woods, I called him down out of a tallpine tree and took him back to the club. Some years after that, whenhe was at the Casino in Isle of Hope, he made such a fuss when hesaw me that I had to go and pacify him by scratching his head throughthe bars of his cage. He was then about 12 years old."Voice.?The caracara is usually a very silent bird, except for awarning cry to its mate when its nest is threatened. Dr. Barbour(1923) says: "Gundlach notes that when frightened or irritated itgives a high-pitched shriek, but I believe that observation was madefrom Gundlach's famous pet which he raised from the nest and keptfor fifteen years. The Caracara habitually rests perching, usually inthe very top of a high tree or on some steep hillock. Often in themorning, or before sundown, it throws back its head until it almosttouches its shoulders and gives its high, cackling cry which gave riseto the Brazilian name of Caracara, the Cuban Caraira, and the lessapt Argentine name of Carancho."Field marks.?Audubon's caracara is a well-marked bird. Its posein flight is much like that of the bald eagle, having a much longerneck and tail and a slenderer form than most other hawks. Its colorpattern is also distinctive, especially the head markings; the largewhite patch in the primaries and the white tail, broadly tipped withblack, are both very conspicuous in flight and can be recognized at along distance. Young birds are much browner than adults, but thepattern is very similar. At short range the eaglelike bill and the redface may be seen. While walking on the ground, it suggests to me ashort-legged secretarybird.Winter.?Being a semitropical species, it is resident throughout theyear over most of its range. There is probably some migration fromthe northern limits of its breeding range, for Dr. Merrill (1878) saysthat, in southern Texas, it is "more abundant in winter than in sum-mer. This seems to be due to a partial migration, from the north, ofbirds in immature plumage, for the number of mature individuals doesnot seem to vary." DISTRIBUTIONRange.?Southern United States, Cuba, and Central America; non-migratory.The range of Audubon's caracara extends north to Baja California(Santa Margarita Island and probably San Ignacio); southern Ari-
AUDUBON'S CARACARA 135
zona (Tucson); central Texas (Sheffield, San Angelo, Mason, Waco,and probably Houston) ; and Florida (Manatee River, probably Enter-prise, and probably Titusville). East to Florida (probably Titusville,St. Johns River, Deerfield Prairie, Fellsmere, St. Lucie, Fort Pierce,Immokalee, and Everglades); Cuba (Trinidad and Isle of Pines);Yucatan (Merida); and Panama (Tapia and Bugaba). South toPanama (Bugaba); Costa Rica (San Jose and Nicoya); Nicaragua(Chinandega) ; Guatemala (Escuintla, Duenas, and Finca El Cipres)
;
Jalisco (Las Penas); and Nayarit (Las Marietas Island). West toNayarit (Las Marietas Island and San Bias) ; southern Sinaloa (Esqui-napa); and Baja California (Cape San Lucas, San Jose del Cabo, LaPaz, and Santa Margarita Island).The typical race (P. c. cheriway) is found in South America rangingnorthward to meet auduboni in Central America. The line of contactis imperfectly known, and while specimens from southern parts ofCentral America approach the northern form in size, in color charac-ters they are more nearly like typical cheriway.Casual records.?Occasional specimens (apparently wanderers fromthe breeding grounds) have been observed or collected in the north-ern part of Baja California, as follows: Near Calmali on April 7, 1927;a pair at Santo Domingo; two seen in February on the upper HardyRiver; a specimen collected and two others seen near Pilot Knob, Calif.,on March 15, 1928. One was observed over a period of two weeks atMonterey, Calif., in February 1916. In Arizona one was shot by anIndian (date uncertain), and two others were reported as seen atSacaton, while there also is an indefinite record from Oracle. A speci-men was obtained at Fort Thorn, N. Mex., during the winter of 1856,and another was taken at Mesquite on May 4, 1914. Although someauthors have listed it as fairly common in Louisiana, the only definiterecord appears to be a specimen listed in the catalog of the NationalMuseum as taken at Calcasieu Pass in 1854.At one time the species apparently had a wider range in Florida, asits discovery by Audubon on November 24, 1831, was near St. Augus-tine, and in 1858 it was recorded from Enterprise. One was observed
"at close range" at Pineycreek, N. C, on February 19, 1933, and onewas found dead on the north shore of Lake Superior near Port Arthur,Ontario, on July 18, 1892.Egg dates.?Florida: 30 records, December 28 to April 7 ; 15 records,January 30 to February 28, indicating the height of the season.Texas: 80 records, January 30 to June 4; 40 records, March 15 toApril 18.Mexico: 10 records, March 2 to August 10; 5 records, March 6 toMay 10.
136 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMPOLYBORUS LUTOSUS RidgwayGUADALUPE CARACARAHABITSThe history of this extinct species is a tragic story. It seems sadthat such a unique and interesting species should be wiped outentirely; but it was a bad actor, and whenever a beast or bird inter-feres too much with human interests its days are numbered, unless itproves more than a match for its human enemies, as does the crow.This bird was not endowed with sufficient sagacity to survive, andwas too easily exterminated in its limited range.This interesting species was discovered by Dr. Edward Palmer,when he visited Guadalupe Island in 1875. The "quelelis", as thesebirds were called by the inhabitants, were then abundant on everypart of the island, in spite of the fact that hundreds of them had beendestroyed by the inhabitants, both with poison and firearms, withoutany noticeable diminution in their numbers.Ten years later, when Dr. Walter E. Bryant visited the island, thenumber of these birds had decreased very materially. He (18S7) writes:In January, 1885, during a two days' excursion about the central part of theisland, but four "Quelelis" were seen. By 1886 their number had been reducedby more than a score by the island agent, who never missed an opportunity to killone. Arriving on the island in the summer time, when the birds came to theshallow pools to drink, the agent would lie in wait behind a boulder and pick themoff with a rifle. The birds, if missed, heeding not the shot, or, if but slightlywounded, not realizing the danger, remained near, making certain the destructionof all that came to drink at the fatal spring.During my rambles I frequently came upon the weather-beaten carcasses of
"Quelelis" lying where they had fallen. In one place, four were found lyingdead together.Later (1889) he says:So effective has been the work of extermination carried on against this birdthat Dr. Edward Palmer who first discovered them in 1875, says that he visitedthe island this year (1889) and did not see a single individual. He tells me thatwhen he landed, fourteen year ago, the "quelelis" , as they are known there, wereso numerous and bold that men were obliged to stand over the angora goats withsticks to protect them from attack, particularly the kids, which were not defendedby their mothers. The short-haired kind will drive off the birds, so Dr. Palmersays, from his observation. Now that man has abandoned the island I cherishthe hope that a pair at least may still be living, and that some future explorermay succeed in finding the unknown eggs, and give us an account of the nestinghabits of this peculiar insular species.Four were reported seen by some goat hunters in 1896, Henry B.Kaeding (1905) saw one on March 22, 1897, and Rollo H. Beck secured9 out of 11 caracaras that flew over him on December 1, 1900; he saysin a letter to Clinton G. Abbott (1933): "The 11 birds were all thatwere seen, but judging by their tameness and the short time that I wason the island, I assumed that they must be abundant." This is the
GUADALUPE CARACARA 137last record we have of birds being seen by a competent ornithologist.W. W. Brown and H. W. Marsden spent two months on GuadalupeIsland in 1906; "the island was ransacked from end to end, but notrace of the caracara could be found. Goats were killed and left atvarious points on the island, especially upon the high, open tableland,where the caracaras, had there been any, must have detected them,but nothing came to any of the many carcasses that were thus exposed"(Thayer and Bangs, 1908).The "dark colored birds" seen by Capt. Charles E. Davis in 1913,reported by Harry S. Swarth (1913), must have been something else,perhaps immature gulls. Mr. Abbott (1933) has published an inter-esting paper on the closing history of this bird and the histories ofexisting specimens. He found a total of 37 recorded specimens, ofwhich he was able to locate 34; of these, 14 skins and one skeleton arein the United States National Museum.Nesting.-?Very little is known about the nesting habits of theGuadalupe caracara, and hardly anything that is really authentic.H. Kirke Swann (1925) writes: "Curiously enough, although thenests must have been common thirty or forty years ago, no eggsappear to have been preserved except the single one in my own collec-tion. This oological rarity was taken on the island by W. More onApril 17th, 1897. The nest was a huge affair of sticks on the top of apile of rubbish and cacti. Only two pairs of birds were seen and the9 of this pair was shot."The Mexicans told Dr. Bryant (1887) "that a cliff was alwayschosen for a nesting place, thus making then* nests difficult to findand still more difficult of access."Eggs.?The egg in the Swann collection is probably authentic.He says of it: "The egg resembles a pale egg of P. cheriway auduboni,but is rather smaller; size 55 by 43 mm. It has a whitish groundobscured by heavy spotting and blotching of dark reddish brown.This egg is figured on the plate accompanying pt. I."Charles E. Doe has an egg in his collection, which appears to begenuine; it was taken on Guadalupe Island on "3-4-80" and measures67 by 50 millimeters. Mr. Doe describes it as a light-colored egg,much like figure 4 on plate 11 in Bendire's (1892) work. No nestdescription came with it.Plumages.?Robert Ridgway (1876) has described the plumages ofthe Guadalupe caracara very satisfactorily. Of the downy young, hesays: "Four young birds taken from the same nest differ remarkablyin size and general development, the smallest being apparently justhatched, while the largest is nearly one-third grown, with well-developed feathers in the wings and tail. The other specimens wereintermediate." One of these, which I have examined, looks much like13751?38 10
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a young Audubon's caracara. It is covered with thick down,
"chamois" to "cream-buff" in color; the pileum and a large patch oneach scapular region, extending over the upper side of the wing, are
"snuff brown" to "sayal brown."Mr. Ridgway (1887) describes the immature bird, as follows:
"Quills, tail, tail-coverts, head, and lesser wing-coverts much as inadult; rest of plumage more or less distinctly striped with dull brownand dirty brownish white or dull buffy, the former prevailing, andsometimes nearly uniform on upper parts."Food.?Like other caracaras, the Guadalupe bird was largely a car-rion feeder. Wherever the carcass of any animal or bird was left inthe open, these birds were sure to gather. Dr. Palmer (Ridgway,1876) says: "Besides the principal sources of food-supply alreadyindicated (see below), the birds have other means of subsistence.They eat small birds, mice, shell-fish, worms, and insects. To pro-cure the latter, they resort to plowed fields, where they scratch theground almost like domestic fowls." Dr. Bryant (1887) writes:
"Their food during the season of caterpillars consists almost entirelyof these larvae, with a slight variation afforded by occasional beetlesand crickets. Whenever opportunity offers they are ready to gorgethemselves upon the offal of a slain goat, retiring after the banquetto a convenient tree to await the process of digestion. I have neverknown of their eating the bodies of their own species, but they do notobject to maldng a meal off the flesh of a fat petrel if fortune casts adead one in their way."Behavior.?Dr. Palmer says in his notes, quoted by Mr. Ridgway(1876):The "Calalie" is abundant on every part of the island; and no bird could be amore persistent or more cruel enemy of the poultry and domestic animals. It iscontinually on the watch, and in spite of every precaution often snatches its preyfrom the very doors of the houses. The destruction of the wild goats is not sogreat, as these animals are better able to protect themselves than the tame ones.No sooner is one kid born?while the mother is in labor with the second?thanthe birds pounce upon it; and should the old one be able to interfere, she is alsoassaulted. No kid is safe from their attacks. Should a number be together,the birds unite their forces, and, with great noise and flapping of their wings,generally manage to separate the weakest one and dispatch it. They sometimesfasten upon the tongue when the poor creature opens its mouth to bleat, andhave been known to tear it out, leaving the animal to perish, if not otherwisedestroyed. Sometimes the anus is the point of first attack. The birds are cruelin the extreme, and the torture sometimes inflicted upon the defenseless animalsis painful to witness. They occasionally, when pressed by hunger, attack full-grown goats; numbers harass it together from all sides at once, and soon put it todeath. A "burro" (jackass) which had accidentally become wedged among somerocks, was once furiously attacked and lost its eyes before assistance reached it.Even when food is plenty, they often attack living animals instead of contentingthemselves with the carcasses of those already dead, seeming to delight in killing.Should one of their number be disabled or wounded, it is instantly dispatched bythe rest.
GUADALUPE CARACAKA 139Dr. Bryant (1887) writes:Being of an unsuspicious character, they will allow a person to walk directlytowards them until within shooting distance, merely watching the intruder untilthe distance becomes less than agreeable. If they happen to be upon the groundthey beat a retreat at an awkward walk or, if necessary, a run, taking wing onlyas a last resort, and even then flying but a short distance before alighting. Theiractions, gait, and positions, while on the ground are similar to those of a buzzard.In flight, the light color on the primaries is distinctly shown.During several consecutive days, a "Queleli" came to my camp, searching forscraps of food. One day I saw him making off, at a walk, from the cook house,carrying with him a piece of bone from the leg of a goat, and upon which a littleraw meat still adhered. With this bone, fully nine inches in length, grasped firmlyin his bill, he retired to what he considered a safe distance before commencinghis feast.As far as my observations went, the birds were entirely silent, but the agentinformed me that when perchance a rifle ball carried away a wing or a foot, theunfortunate bird would scream long and loudly. If the wounded creature hap-pened to be in company with others of his kind, he would be immediately attackedand killed. One which was badly wounded attempted to escape by running, withthe assistance of his wings. Being overtaken and brought to bay, instead of throw-ing himself on his back in an attitude of defence, or uttering a cry for quarter,he raised his crest and with an air of defiance, calmly awaited death as became theEagle of Guadalupe. Weakened by the loss of blood which poured from a woundin his throat, he finally fell forward and died?silent and defiant to the last.Voice.?Dr. Palmer's notes (Ridgway, 1876) state: "When surprisedor wounded they emit a loud, harsh scream, something like that ofthe Bald Eagle. In fighting among themselves, they make a curiousgabbling noise; and under any special excitement the same sounds aregiven forth, with an odd motion of the head, the neck being firststretched out to its full length and then bent backward till the headalmost rests upon the back. The same odd motions are made andsimilar noises emitted when the birds are about to make an attackupon a kid." DISTRIBUTIONRange.?Formerly Guadalupe Island. Now extinct.
Order STRIGIFORMES: OwlsFamily TYTONIDAE: Barn OwlsTYTO ALBA PRATINCOLA (Bonaparte)american barn owlPlates 26-30HABITSThe North American form of this world-wide species is widely dis-tributed throughout the warmer portions of the United States; it israre in the northern tier of States, north of latitude 41?, but it increasesin abundance southward and is especially abundant in southern Cali-fornia. It is widely known locally as the "monkey-faced owl" andhas also been called "white owl", "stone owl", and "golden owl", thelast a pretty and appropriate name.Owls have always been victims of ignorance and superstition,believed to be birds of ill omen and harbingers of misfortune anddeath ; and the barn owl, in particular, has been responsible for manyreports of haunted houses. But, in spite of its sinister appearanceand its ghostlike habits, this curious owl is one of our best featheredfriends, most worthy of encouragement and protection, as a mostefficient living mousetrap.Nesting.?As I have had very little experience with the barn owl,I quote the following comprehensive statement by Bendire (1892):Their nesting sites are quite variable and include all sorts of places, such asnatural hollows in trees, holes and cavities in clay banks or cliffs, burrows underground enlarged to suit their needs, in the sides of old wells, abandoned miningshafts, dovecots, barns, church steeples, etc., and sometimes, though rarely, inperfectly exposed and unprotected situations, such as the fiat roof of an occupieddwelling-house in the midst of a village.Mr. W. O. Emerson, of Haywards, California, writes me: "A pair of BarnOwls nested the past season (1889) on the bare tin roof running around a cupolaof a neighbor's house, which was surrounded by a low railing. Not less thantwenty-four eggs were laid and none of them were taken away at any time. Therewas no nesting material on which the eggs were placed, not even a single twig,and they naturally rolled around on the roof, as it was impossible for the birdto cover them all. When taken down finally and examined, it was found theywere all rotten, caused, no doubt, by the intense heat from the sun's reflectionon the tin roof."Writing of his experience with the barn owl in Arizona, MajorBendire (1892) says: "In this vicinity I believe they nest mostly indeserted burrows of badgers, at any rate more than once I saw themsitting in the mouth of such burrows."The only nest of a barn owl that I have ever examined was shownto me by E. Lowell Sumner, Jr., near Claremont, Calif., on February28, 1929 (pi. 26). It was in a large, horizontal, natural cavity, about140
AMERICAN BARN OWL 14112 feet from the ground, in a thick, gnarled branch of a low-spreadinglive oak ; the owl flew out, as I climbed to the nest, and did not appearagain ; the cavity was so deep that I could barely reach the eight eggsthat lay at the farther end on a bed of rotten chips, rubbish, and bitsof down. The nest had been occupied on previous occasions.As far as I can learn, from the experiences of others, the barn owlshows a decided preference, in California at least and apparently inTexas also, for nesting in cavities, holes, or burrows, in cliffs or steepbanks, which are easily found or made in the numerous barancas orgullies to be found in that region. Dr. B. W. Evermann (1882) says:The site selected for the nest is most usually a hole or crack in the wall of abaranca or cliff. During the past season, I examined more than thirty nests, atleast five-sixths of which were thus located. The entrance to these holes, if inbarancas, is usually eight to ten feet from the surface of the ground; if in cliffs,any suitable place on the face is selected. The cavity usually extends inwardnearly horizontally for a foot or more, then bends down slightly, continuing atthat angle for two to three feet, slightly widening to the end where it is quitecommodious, being often as much as two feet in diameter. For some time it wasa preplexing question to me as to how and by what these holes were excavated.After careful investigation, I am convinced that the owls themselves make manyof them. A slight crevice or squirrel hole is selected, and, with their powerfulclaws, they hollow it out to proper dimensions. Both birds are frequently foundoccupying the cavity during the day,?the male to one side of the nest.* * * We visited a deep baranca a few miles east of Santa Paula, where weknew them to be abundant. * * * We dug down to eleven nests altogether,from six of which we got forty-four eggs, ranging from six to ten eggs to the nest.But the burrows are not always selected. Two nests were found in holes inoak trees, one was found in a barn, * * * and in April, 1880, I found a pairoccupying the deserted nest of a crow, which was placed about twenty feet from theground in a cottonwood. I visited this nest at two different times before takingthe eggs (five in number), and drove the female from the nest on each occasion.The use of a nest of this kind by the Barn Owl is very rare, I think; carefulsearch failed to discover a second instance of this kind.* * * As to whether it constructs any nest seems to depend entirely whereit nests; if in holes in cliffs, trees, or walls, no lining is used; if in barns or houses,it constructs a rude nest of sticks or other rubbish easily brought together.Julian K. Potter and John A. Gillespie (1925) made some extensivestudies of the home life of a pair of barn owls near Gloucester, N. J.The nesting site was in an old tower (pi. 27), "a frame building ofthree stories shaped like a truncated pyramid, with a water tank atthe top. It was in an extremely dilapidated state of repair, and thewindow panes were entirely missing." The nest was in a "hole in thefloor just in front of the stairway leading to the roof and about threefeet from the open window. * * * The nest cavity was approxi-mately twenty inches deep, fifteen inches wide and eight inches high,the sides being formed by vertical floor beams, and the top and bottomby the floor and the ceiling of the room below. * * * No nestingmaterial of any description was in evidence except a small clump ofblack feathers which possibly once belonged to a Starling."
142 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMIvan K. Tomkins writes to me that "a nest of the barn owl wasfound in one of the steel range lights on the Savannah River, March30, 1929, with five eggs (pi. 27). The nest was in a steel box about2 feet square, with part of the west side open to the sun, under the light,and was liberally carpeted with pellets. The keeper of the light saysthe owl has nested there for about four years."A. B. Howell (1912), referring to the Todos Santos Islands, writes:
"April 16 1 found a nest in a deep cleft in the rocks, twenty feet abovethe sea, which contained a single nestling two-thirds grown. This sitewas newly occupied, but on a ledge four feet above the floor of a cave onthe higher ground was a nest that must have been used for generations.Beneath it was a pile of refuse and pellets two or three feet high."W. E. D. Scott (1892) reports "a pair breeding on the hull of anabandoned dredge that had belonged to the company engaged indraining and reclaiming land in the vicinity of Lake Okeechobee."Eggs.?Major Bendire (1892) says: "The average number of eggslaid by this species is from five to seven, seldom less. Larger setscontaining from nine to eleven eggs are by no means uncommon ; it isquestionable, however, if every egg in such large sets is usually hatched.
"In shape the eggs are mostly ovate, a few are elliptical ovate, anda single specimen before me is elongate ovate. They are pure deadwhite in color, the shell is finely granulated, and they are decidedlymore pointed than Owls' eggs in general."The measurements of 59 eggs average 43.1 by 33 millimeters; theeggs showing the four extremes measure 48.8 by 32.5, 43.5 by 35,39.8 by 33.3, and 40.5 by 27.5 millimeters.Young.?The eggs are laid at intervals of two or three days, andincubation begins soon after the first egg is laid; consequently theyoung hatch at similar intervals and vary greatly in size. The periodof incubation is said to be from 21 to 24 days. Bendire (1892) saysthat "both sexes assist in incubation, and the pair may be sometimesfound sitting side by side, each with a portion of the eggs under them."E. L. Sumner, Jr. (1929) has made some intensive studies of youngbarn owls. On March 4, 1928, he found that three of a set of eighteggs had hatched, and says in his notes: "All three whimper contin-ually, in feeble tones. The oldest is able to stand up, although weaklyand with nodding head." On March 10, only two eggs remainedunhatched. On the 17th, the oldest "hisses harshly when handled,but is still quite docile. It stands up and walks about with ease."March 26: "The youngsters are quite lively, even the smallest. Whenset down in the long grass they stand up to their fullest height andcrane their necks in search of a hiding place. As yet, all the birdscan be handled without danger. When disturbed, a and b (the oldesttwo) hiss harshly and sway from side to side with heads lowered andextended wings inverted, after the manner of owls. If further pro-
AMERICAN BARN OWL 143
voiced they throw themselves on their backs and strike out with bothfeet." April 16: "Youngsters more active and aggressive than ever.When placed on the ground they strike at each other, as well as at anyother object that comes within range, and at times they even assumethe offensive; running toward me with open beaks and upraised,inverted wings."From that time on, the young became more pugnacious, until, onApril 27, he called the "actions of young positively unprintable"; andon the 6th of May, he had to tie them down to keep them from flyingaway. On May 27, the youngest bird left the nest. An interestingdiscovery was that, when between six and seven weeks old, every oneof the birds began to lose weight, though before that they had exceededthe average weight of adults.Messrs. Potter and Gillespie (1925) made several visits to the barnowl's nest in the old tower, referred to above. On their second visit,on May 13, 1924, the nest contained seven young, three days to twoweeks old. The youngest "was a pitiful, bedraggled and filthy littlefellow, having evidently been trampled on by the others. In size hewas little larger than a baby chick, and at times he uttered a faint,tremulous whine. The rest were of assorted sizes, the largest aboutthe size of a Pigeon. Dark colored pin feathers were in evidence inthe wings of the two largest. * * * The cavity was inspectedand was found to be in an exceedingly filthy condition,?the floorcovered with a layer of casts powdered into a furry mass by the feetof the young. Yet in such unsanitary surroundings the fledglings,with the exception of the smallest, were clean, except their feet, whichwere quite filthy."On June 9, "dusk was falling, but it was still light at eight p. m.when one of the young ones made the initial call for food. This is arasping, sucking noise, and can readily be imitated by drawing in thebreath sharply through the corner of the mouth, keeping the teethclosed. This is, no doubt, the 'snoring' call described by Dresser(Knowlton, 'Birds of the World,' page 516). It might also be likenedto the sound made by an ill-mannered person eating soup! It actuallysounds as if the bird's mouth were watering in anticipation of food,and it kept sucking back the saliva. The others soon joined in thecall, which by eight-fifteen was very insistent."At 9.00 p. m., "adult Owl drops on window-sill and then to floor asbefore. We flash light on her. She stands at entrance to nest peeringdown. Either a pine or a short-tailed field mouse hangs from herbill by the back of its neck. She appears to be waiting for the youngto take the mouse, but they are raising a great racket under the floor,apparently afraid of the light. The adult bird disappears into thecavity, feeds the young and reappears. The light seems to daze heras she looks toward us with black, blinking eyes. * * * Suddenly
144 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
she jumps and flies directly toward us, lighting on the stairs aboutseven feet from where we sit. * * * Then she seems to spy thewindow and silently glides out into the night."Another, similar feeding was observed at 9.18. Summing up theirobservations, they say: "Both adults participated in the feeding.Female an 'earlier riser,' her earliest visit made at 8.20 P. M. whilemale put in his initial appearance at 9.45 P. M. Under normal con-ditions the feedings no doubt continue throughout the night, butduring our observation the adults were frightened and paid fewervisits. Feedings were in the ratio of two by the female to one by themale. The first evening the bringing of food was witnessed, thefemale, obviously suspicious of our presence but not alarmed, broughtthree mice within a period of fifty-three minutes."They learned by subsequent observations that the young owls wereready to leave the nest and fly out into the world "seven and one-halfto eight weeks subsequent to hatching." And they inferred, from thesounds heard and the behavior of the adults, that the young lived inthe surrounding trees and were fed by their parents for some time afterleaving the nest. They describe the following calls of the young:(1) A high-pitched quavering whine uttered by recently hatched fledglingbefore eyes were open.(2) A loud hiss uttered through the open mouth, expressing alarm. As thefledglings develop in size this hiss gradually changes into a throaty, hissingscream devoid of tone, which presumably later becomes the adult "scream."(3) A short rasping call, or "snore" (Dresser). This is the food call and variesconsiderably in pitch.(4) A discordant scream, similar to that of the adult, but of shorter durationand higher pitch. Uttered on the wing at age of approximately 10y2 weeks.A young bird handled by Howard H. Cleaves (1910) uttered "aplaintive chi-le-le-le, chi-le-l-le, chi-le-le-le, repeated very rapidly."Plumages.?The young barn owl is easily recognized at any age byits much prolonged and pointed face, exceeding all other owls in thisrespect. It also differs from other owls in its sequence of downs,having at first a fuzzy, white down, which is followed by a woolly,bufiy-white down; it never acquires a long, fluffy, soft, juvenal plum-age, so characteristic of other young owls ; this is probably due to thefact that the first winter plumage is acquired at a very early age and isnearly complete when the bird leaves the nest. E. Lowell Sumner, Jr.(1933) has described this very well as follows:The fuzzy white nestling down is the only covering of the young barn owl untilabout the sixth day. At this time the buff-colored second downy plumage beginsto appear, and carries the earlier down away on its tips. This second downrapidly develops into the thick, woolly covering which is so characteristic of youngbarn owls, and remains as a conspicuous feature until the bird is about fifty daysof age. At this time close examination reveals traces of the short nestling downstill adhering to the tips of the second coat through which, on the wings, the darktips of the developing primaries are beginning to push their way. The rest ofthe contour feathers are as yet invisible and have not emerged from the follicles.
AMERICAN BARN OWL 145Mr. Sumner's plates (1933) show that at an age of 26 days theprimary quills are beginning to burst their sheaths, but the wingcoverts are still downy; at 44 days the primaries are well advanced,and the down is rubbing off, disclosing the first winter plumage; at66 days the development of the wing is practically complete.Potter and Gillespie (1925) describe the development of their youngbarn owls as follows: "Pin feathers in wings appeared in approxi-mately twelve days. Primaries and tail feathers acquired in approxi-mately three weeks. Complete wing and tail feathers acquired infive to five and a half weeks. Complete adult plumage acquired inapproximately seven and a half weeks."Most authors state that the first winter plumage, which is the firstreal plumage, is like that of the adult, but it seems to me that there aresome slight differences; the gray "pepper and salt" markings on theupper parts are less extensive and more mixed with buffy tints; thecrown and hind neck, which are uniform with the back in adults, varyfrom "cinnamon-buff" to "cream-buff", sparingly spotted with theblack and gray spots.This plumage is worn, without molt and with very little abrasion,until the annual, complete molt, which takes place in both young andadult from July to November. There seem to be two color phases inadults, which Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway (1905) describe as follows:
"Darkest: There is no white whatever on the plumage, the lowerparts being continuous light ochraceous; the tibiae have numerousround spots of blackish. Lightest: Face and entire lower partsimmaculate snowy-white; facial circle white, with the tips of thefeathers orange; the secondaries, primaries, and tail show no bars,their surface being uniformly and finely mottled. * * * Thevariations of plumage noted above appear to be of a purely individualnature, since they do not depend upon the locality; nor, as far as wecan learn, to any considerable extent, upon age or sex."However, in a large series that I examined, I noted that the malesaveraged lighter above and whiter below, often pure white below,with only a few scattered small spots of sepia, and with whiter faces.The females, on the other hand, averaged darker everywhere, thebreasts, flanks, and tibiae being often "cinnamon-buff", deepest on thetibiae, with more, larger, and darker spots; and the faces were moretinged with brownish. As this was not a universal rule, however, itmay mean only individual variation, or indicate two color phases.Similar variations were evident in the younger birds, so it is not anage character.Food.?All authorities agree that the barn owl is one of our mostuseful birds of prey, as its food consists almost entirely of variousspecies of rodents that, from their abundance and destructive habits,are a curse to agriculture and other human interests. Dr. A. K.
146 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMFisher (1893b) reports that "of 39 stomachs examined, 1 containedpoultry (pigeon); 3, other birds; 17, mice; 17, other mammals; 4,insects, and 7 were empty." He says that "in California the favoritefood of the Barn Owl is a species of pouched gopher. The pouchedgopher is one of the most destructive of this group, not only to vege-table and grain crops, but also to shade and fruit trees. The depre-dations in the latter case, which consist in the gnawing or entireremoval of the roots, are the most serious as they often result in thetotal destruction of groves and orchards. All the stomachs andpellets which we have received from that State contained the remainsof this animal."He quotes Dr. B. W. Evermann (1882) as follows: "Their foodconsists principally of the gopher (Thomomys talpoides bulbivorus)and the California ground squirrel (Spermophilus grammurus beecheyi),both of which are so destructive to growing crops and fruit trees onthe Pacific coast. Other small mammals, particularly rabbits, birds,and insects go to make up its bill of fare. * * * This owl is notlarge, yet it must be a very strong and courageous bird, as evincedby the fact that I have often found in its burrows portions of thelarge jackass hare (Lepus californicus) or 'narrow-gauged mule,' aspopularly known in California."In the East the barn owl lives largely on rats and mice, and in theSouth, where the cotton rat is abundant and very destructive, itsfood, according to several observers, consists almost exclusively ofthis rat.Dr. Fisher (1893b) examined the nesting site of a pair of barnowls in one of the towers of the Smithsonian Building in Washington,and says:"The floor was strewn with pellets, and the nest, which was in onecorner, was composed of a mass of broken-down ones. An examinationof 200 of these pellets gave a total of 454 skulls. Of these, 225 weremeadow mice; 2, pine mice; 179, house mice; 20, rats; 6, jumpingmice; 20, shrews; 1, star-nosed mole, and 1, vesper sparrow (Poocxtesqramineus)."Dr. Charles W. Townsend (1926) reports that 56 pellets of thebarn owl, found in the attic of an old rice mill near Charleston, S. C,contained the remains of the following mammals and birds: 2 smallshrews, 65 rice rats, 1 cotton rat, 7 red-winged blackbirds, 12 sorarails, and 4 clapper rails. Commenting on this unusually large per-centage of birds, Dr. A. K. Fisher wrote to him: "Although the mattercan not be proved, I am wondering whether rails and other birds thatin a way simulate the movements of rats and mice in the thick foliagemight not be taken by accident rather than intentionally by the Owls.This theory would seem to have some weight because they do not
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molest pigeons that are breeding in adjoining apartments or anyspecies that are not found on the ground around marshes or fields."Paul Bonnot (1928) tells another bird-killing story, of a pair ofbarn owls on an island off the coast of California, as follows: "Therewas an old cabin on the Island which had fallen partly to ruin. Undera built-in wooden bedstead was the nest of a Barn Owl. * * *The area covered by the bed was three inches deep with feathers,wings and bodies of Beal Leach Petrels (Oceanodroma leucorhoa beali).These little birds were evidently so easily caught that there werenumbers of bodies with only the heads removed, and I collected forstudy three specimens with hardly a feather misplaced. A goodnumber of the bodies of the petrels were rotting and inhabited byfly larvae."It is when the young are being fed in the nest that these owls dotheir best work in the destruction of rats and mice, for the youngrequire an enormous amount of food. W. L. Dawson (1923) writes:
"Tyler, of Fresno, found a nest containing four very small birds andsix eggs, for which the following provision had been made: fivePocket Gophers (Thomomys), five Kangaroo Kats (Perodipus), onePocket Mouse (Perognathus), and two White-footed Mice (Peromys-cus)." And W. L. Finley (1906) says:An old owl will capture as much or more food than a dozen cats in a night.The owlets are always hungry; they will eat their own weight in food every nightand more if they could get it. A case is on record where a half grown owl wasgiven all the mice it could eat. It swallowed eight in rapid succession. Theninth followed all but the tail which for some time hung out of the bird's mouth.The rapid digestion of the Raptores is shown by the fact that in three hours thelittle glutton was ready for a second meal and swallowed four additional mice.If this is the performance of a single bird, the effect that a whole nestful of owlswould have on the vermin of a community is self-evident.Mrs. Irene G. Wheelock (1904) writes: "When the sun sinks behindthe oak trees and the shadows creep over the valleys, the Barn Owlhurries to the nearest meadow or marsh land on a hunting trip. Ifit has young at home in the nest, its flight will be swift and noiseless,as it crosses the intervening fields at short intervals, carrying mice,gophers, and ground squirrels. Nine mice form a meal for the brood,and sixteen mice have been carried to the nest in twenty-five minutes,besides three gophers, a squirrel, and a good-sized rat."The following items have been recorded in the food of the barnowl: Various mice and rats, nearly every available species, pocketgophers, shrews, bats, moles, muskrats, spotted skunk (Spilogale), andyoung rabbits; though birds form a small part of the food, a numberof species have been found, such as various sparrows, blackbirds,grackles, starling, cowbird, Abert's towhee, bobolink, swallows,warblers, wrens, red-shafted flicker, sora and clapper rails, meadow-lark, green heron, and blue jay; a few insects, such as grasshoppers,
148 BULLETIN 170, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMbeetles, Jerusalem cricket, and katydid, as well as an occasionalfrog, should be added to the list.Behavior.?The flight of the barn owl is light, graceful, rather swiftat times, and always noiseless; its long, broad wings support its lightbody with ease and enable it to dash quickly on its prey. It is morestrictly nocturnal than some other owls; when pressed for food to feeda hungry brood, it starts to hunt at twilight, but, at other seasons,I believe it prefers to hunt during the darker hours and perhaps allthrough the night; its food consists mainly of such small mammals asare active only at night. Its sense of hearing is exceedingly acute,enabling it to detect the sound caused by the slightest movement ofits quarry; its eyes too are well adapted to night hunting; it seemsbewildered in daylight and seems to dislike and shrink from anybright light. It is very inactive during the day, spending the day-light hours in a dark corner in some old or unfrequented building, ina cave, burrow, or hollow tree, in the thick foliage of some tree, oreven among the scattered, dead leaves of a more open tree, where itsmotionless attitude and its concealing coloration make it incon-spicuous. In such a situation it remains drowsily inactive all day,and often sleeps so soundly that it is not easily aroused, until theshadows of dusk awaken it into action again.J. Harris Reed (1897) writes:During the fall and winter months I have found them roosting both singly andin colonies, depending on the size of their roosting places, and often occupyingseparate cavities of the same tree. An example of this may be found located inthe woods at Glenolden, Delaware County, Pa., which has been a favorite roostingand nesting place for several years. * * *On January 31, 1891, * * * I visited this tree and from the numerousholes in its branches counted fourteen Owls fly out during the evening. * * *Again on September 25, 1892, I paid the place a visit, but, arriving a little latein the evening, I saw only four Owls. * * * The Owls leave the roost veryearly in the evening, often a long time before sunset, departing singly, severalminutes elapsing after the exit of one before the appearance of another, eachcircling around the tree several times before leaving, emitting a note similar tothe clucking of a squirrel, probably a call note to their companions. This habitof leaving the roost before sunset, is more noticeable during the breeding seasonwhen the days are long and the nestlings require food, and this no doubt accountsfor their being seen occasionally during cloudy days searching for food.Barn owls are distinctly birds of the open country, rather thanwoodland birds, and they are less inclined than other owls to shun thehaunts of man; they find their best food supplies in the open fields andmeadows, and about the barns, granaries, and other buildings invillages, towns, and even cities. Their apparent familiarity withhuman beings is, doubtless, due to the fact that they are so strictlynocturnal in their habits and so retiring during the day that they areseldom disturbed or even seen by humans. Their silent coming andgoing is seldom observed; it is surprising how often a pair of these
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owls has long remained unnoticed in a thickly settled community;and it is well that it is so, for, otherwise, the long-established prejudiceagainst all owls, or the craze to kill a curious bird, might lead somethoughtless man or boy to destroy one of their most useful friends.Voice.?Potter and Gillespie (1925) record three different calls ofthe adult barn owl: "(1) A discordant scream expressing alarm.(2) A snapping of the bill expressing suspicion and alarm. (3) Aflight call, resembling 'ick-ick-ick-ick', apparently signifying thebringing of food."Grinnell and Storer (1924) say: "The notes of the Barn Owl are oftwo kinds: One is a single, loud, prolonged, rasping sksch, utteredonly at long intervals; the other, a series of notes click, click, click,click, click, resembling in character the notes of a katydid, but deliv-ered with diminishing emphasis and shortening intervals toward theend of the series. From the changing direction of the sounds, it isevident that the notes are uttered in flight as one bird closely followsanother."Bendire (1892) says: "Besides the peevish scream already men-tioned, they utter at times a feeble querulous note like 'quaek-quaek,'or 'aek-aek,' sounding somewhat like the call of the Night Hawk(Chordeiles virginianus), frequently repeated, only not so loud."Joseph W. Lippincott (1917) gives his impressions of the weird notesof the barn owl as follows:After listening night after night to the harsh screams, and even louder growling,rattling noise he can make, sounds which in the dark hours fairly make the shiversjump up and down one's spine, I can well imagine that woods could seem hauntedand that, in the silent flopping flight of the big whitish bird, any superstitious per-son could see a ghost or almost any uncanny being of the visionary world. * * *It is one of the old Owls that makes the growling rattle which, reverberatingamong tree trunks, sounds almost like a menagerie let loose. The sound seemsusually to be made while the bird is flying with, or to, its mate. When comingtoward one it is truly terrifying, particularly if in some gloomy recess of a wood.Enemies.?The barn owl has few enemies other than its arch enemy,man; it is deplorable that these interesting and useful birds are sooften killed because of their supposed destruction of game birds orpoultry, of which they are seldom guilty, or because they makeinteresting specimens to mount.The great horned owl seems to be their chief natural enemy. Theselarge, fierce, and powerful owls have been recorded several times askilling and devouring the gentle and weaker barn owl, which seemsto be incapable of defending itself against such a formidable foe.Dawson (1923) says of the prairie falcon: "The Falcon is a heartlesstyrant, and in this hour of his anxiety, he rejoices in a chance tovent his spite upon an innocent Barn Owl. Only luck can save theOwl. Some I have seen smashed in midair, and others merely bowled
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over, to rise wrathful but silent, and scramble into cover before asecond bolt should fall."Field marks.?The barn owl should be easily recognized anywhereand at any time by its unique shape and color. Forbush (1927) says:
"If seen sitting, may be recognized by its pale colors, long legsand long, white, nearly heart-shaped face. If seen in flight, it maybe told by buffy upper plumage, light or white under plumage andlong wings; flies very lightly, often reeling from side to side."Fall.?Throughout most of its range the barn owl is a permanentresident, but from the extreme northern portion it withdraws to someextent. It is also inclined to wander about more or less irregularlyin fall.Thomas Mason Earl (1934) writes: "A curious flight of BarnOwls was noted in 1917 just previous to the cold winter of 1917-1918.Two or three times a day for several weeks during the Novemberhunting season Barn Owls were brought in for mounting. Othertaxidermists had the same experience as I and I believe by a con-servative estimate 200 Barn Owls were killed in Central Ohio byhunters, who encountered them everywhere."Dr. Evermann (1882) says:This owl is resident in Southern California, being somewhat gregarious in Falland Winter, during which seasons they frequent, in day time, the dense foliageof the Live Oaks which abound in the lesser canons and fringe the lower slopesof the foothills. On one occasion I drove more than fifty of these owls from aclump of oaks in Canada de Largo, and I have often seen from eight to twelvedozing quietly in one tree. The cross-beams under bridges form a favorite resortfor them. Between Santa Paula [and San Buenaventura, a distance of sixteenmiles, there are bridges over as many as six barancas. * * *In passing over this road, I have often taken the trouble to look under thesebridges, and I hardly ever failed to find from two to six Barn Owls sitting on thecross-timbers, or on projecting portions of the walls.Alexander Sprunt, Jr. (1932) saw one come aboard a vessel 12 or 15miles off the coast of North Carolina at 11 a. m. on November 1, 1931
;
as there was a strong offshore wind blowing at the time, the bird mayhave been blown away from the land, to which it was evidently strug-gling to return.Winter.?Barn owls that linger too far north during severe wintershave been known to perish, perhaps from the intense cold, but morelikely from the lack of sufficient food to resist the low temperature.Dr. Paul L. Errington (1931) records such a case. In a quarry nearMadison, Wis., on February 10, 1930, he found one of these owlslying dead, and a few days later another. He says:They were lying on the ground at the base of the quarry face, in the crevicesof which face they had been accustomed to roost. A careful post-mortem dis-closed that these birds had not met death from shooting or from direct mechanicalinjury of any sort. Though lean, they were not emaciated. Their alimentary
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tracts were quite empty, except for a small amount of fecal matter in the intestineof one of them.* * * The presence of these two in the quarry had been known for somemonths, and their pellet accumulations had been gathered from time to time forfood habits study. It had been noted, as the winter had progressed, that the pelletshad been becoming smaller, due presumably to the protection afforded miceand shrews by the snow. Many of the pellets last deposited contained theremains of but a single meadow mouse (Microtus), instead of the three to sixsmall mammals making up a full size pellet. The owls were apparently unableto take advantage of the winter population of small birds; at least they had notdone so.Ivan R. Tomkins writes to me that in Georgia he has ' 'oftenflushed this species from dense cedar trees in winter and sometimesfrom dry grass clumps." DISTRIBUTIONRange.?Southern Canada, the United States, and Mexico. Alliedraces occur in many parts of the world.The range of the barn owl extends north to southern BritishColumbia (Ladner); North Dakota (Gilby and Grand Forks); Min-nesota (Fairmont and Waterville); Wisconsin (Madison and DodgeCounty); southern Michigan (Vicksburg, Ann Arbor, and SouthLyon); southern Ontario (Chatham, Hamilton, Toronto, and Kings-ton); southern Vermont (Bennington); and Massachusetts (Wenham).East to Massachusetts (Wenham, Lynn, Dedham, and Chilmark);New York (Montauk, Jamaica, and Staten Island); New Jersey(Lawrenceville and Camden); Maryland (Easton) ; Virginia (Toano);South Carolina (Waverly Mills, Cooper River, Charleston, and St.Helena Island) ; Georgia (Savannah and Blackboard Island) ; Florida(Fernandina, St. Augustine, Longwood, Cape Canaveral, and KeyWest); and Yucatan (Chichen-Itza). South to Yucatan (Chichen-Itza); Tabasco (Macuspana); Oaxaca (Tehuantepee) ; southernSinaloa (Esquinapa); and Baja California (San Jose del Cabo).West to Baja California (San Juan del Cabo, Mira Flores, SanAndres, and Todos Santos Island); California (San Diego, Escondido,San Onofre, Los Angeles, Santa Paula, Bakersfield, Shandon, Wat-sonville, Santa Cruz, San Francisco, Nicasio, and Ferndale); Oregon(Klamath Falls and Tillamook); Washington (Chinook, PointChehalis, Puyallup, and Tacoma); and British Columbia (Ladner).The range as above outlined includes the regions of more or lessregular occurrence. Actual breeding, however, has been recordedonly as far north as northern California (Ferndale); Nebraska(Omaha); Iowa (Sioux City and Laporte City); southern Michigan(Vicksburg and Ann Arbor) ; southern Ontario (Chatham) ; Connecti-cut (Winsted); and Massachusetts (Chilmark). The record fromLadner, British Columbia, is for a female in breeding condition, and
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it appears probable that other records in the northern part of therange may be of nesting birds.Migration.?Records of the recovery of banded barn owls show thatcertain individuals make lengthy nights that appear to be more or lessseasonal. These data are more numerous from the eastern part of therange and thus far the evidence pertains only to travels from breedinggrounds to more southern points. In practically every case the recordconcerns a bird banded as a fledgling in its nest. For example, abird banded in New Jersey at Westville on May 20, 1925, and anotherat Oradell on June 22, 1925, were recovered at Wilmington, N. C,on November 16, 1925, and at Savannah, Ga., on January 14, 1926,respectively. A third, also banded at Westville, N. J., on November14, 1925, was retaken at Trappe, Md., on April 5, 1926. Two othersbanded in New Jersey were recovered at southern points, but in bothcases the elapsed time was a year or more, as follows: One banded atWestville on June 4, 1926, was recaptured in Jasper County, S. C, inFebruary 1928, and the other, banded at Riverton on June 13, 1929,was recovered at Berea, N. C, on November 15, 1930.The files of the Biological Survey contain many other recoveryrecords covering the details of flights of banded barn owls, as?fromWisconsin to Arkansas, from Illinois to Mississippi, from Ohio toArkansas and Alabama, and from Pennsylvania to Georgia, the datesin some cases being strongly suggestive of regular seasonal migration.On the other hand, there also are records of birds that obviouslyremained in the north and were recovered in midwinter not far fromthe point of banding. About 20 cases are available of barn owlsbanded in California, all of which were recovered in the general vicinitywhere they were banded.To sum up, it appears that in the eastern part of the country someyoung barn owls make extensive journeys southward that have somecharacteristics of true migration. This apparently is not general, how-ever, and may be similar to the postbreeding season wanderings ofcertain herons, gulls, and other birds.Casual records.?The only record of this species of British Columbiais the breeding female captured at Ladners Landing, near the mouthof the Fraser River, about April 7, 1909. In addition to a specimenobtained at Aylesbury, Saskatchewan, on May 5, 1924, there probablyare one or two other sight records for that Province. There are tworecords for Manitoba, one taken at St. Amies on November 6, 1912,and another near Doleraine early in October 1927. There are severalrecords for Ontario, the details of the most northern occurrences beinga male taken at Toronto on September 7, 1899, and two specimensreported by Young in 1900 from the vicinity of Kingston.A specimen was taken at Lyndon in northern Vermont on June 4,1894, and there are three records for Maine, one shot at Biddeford on
LONG-EARED OWL 153October 4, 1923, a. second caught alive in a garage in Portland onOctober 26, 1927, while the third was captured on Moshers Island,Cumberland County, about December 10, 1927.Egg dates.?California: 100 records, January 17 to June 7; 50records, March 9 to April 16, indicating the height of the season.Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Delaware: 40 records, February 22to October 31 ; 20 records, April 9 to May 3 ; young, January 12.South Carolina and Georgia: 14 records, March 17 to December 24;7 records, March 30 to September 23.Florida: One record, December 12.Family STRIGIDAE: Typical OwlsASIO WILSONIANUS (Lesson)LONG-EARED OWLPlates 31-37HABITSAs the American long-eared owl is now regarded as a species distinctfrom the European long-eared owl, it seems to me that the above nameis misleading; the name American long-eared owl would be moreappropriate and would indicate the distinction. Wilson and Audubonregarded the two as identical. They are evidently closely relatedand bear considerable resemblance to each other. Baird, Brewer,and Ridgway (1905) regarded the American bird as a variety, orsubspecies, of the European bird and described the differences in thecolor patterns. The reader is also referred to Dr. H. C. Oberholser's(1922) discussion of this subject.The American long-eared owl enjoys a wide distribution over nearlyall the United States and the timbered regions of Canada, includingthe tree belts along the streams on the western plains and even on thedeserts. It can hardly be classed as a bird of the deep forests, as itmay be found wherever it can find the tree growth sufficiently denseto give it shelter for its nest and concealment during the day. I believeit prefers dense groves of coniferous trees, where these are to bo found
;
in Massachusetts I have always found it in such places; but on theplains and prairies of the West, and on the arid plains and deserts ofthe Southwest, it seems equally at home in the deciduous timberbelts around the lakes and along the streams, where it seems to bemore abundant than in the East and, in some places, almost gregarious.S. F. Rathbun writes to me that in eastern Washington "it appearspartial to valleys of streams that have a growth of cottonwoods,alders, and similar trees, with thickets of various kinds, for many ofthe latter have a heavy growth of climbing vines and this owl seemsto like the density of such places. In one such place, during the13751?38 11
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spring of 1933, we found it to be common. The birds appeared toconfine themselves to a stretch of territory extending 6 or 7 milesalong a small stream bordered with a mixed growth of the kind alreadymentioned, and within this area a number of pairs of the long-earedowl were nesting."Probably this owl is much commoner than is generally supposed,especially in the East, where it finds such effective concealment indense coniferous thickets. The long-eared owl is more strictlynocturnal in its habits than some of our other owls; it spends the daywell hidden in the densest cover it can find and seldom moves aboutunless disturbed; for this reason it is seldom seen and may be commonwhere its presence is not suspected. Its protective coloration and itseffective hiding pose make it difficult to recognize and easy to overlook.It is more conspicuous and so seems more abundant in the deciduoustrees of the West, especially in winter.Nesting.?The long-eared owl is a rare breeder in eastern Massa-chusetts ; many good ornithologists have never seen its nest ; however,I have been fortunate enough to have seen seven nests of four differentpairs of owls. My first nest was found on May 15, 1910, in Kehoboth.It was a small, insignificant nest about 20 feet up in a pitch pine in apatch of swampy, mixed woods, mostly white pines. It was appar-ently an old squirrel's nest, and I would have passed it by if I had notseen the bird fly from it; it was made of small sticks, rubbish, strips ofinner bark, and pine needles and was lined with chips of outer barkand downy feathers of the owl; it measured 20 by 8 inches overall, and the inner cavity was 7 by 6 inches in diameter and 2 inchesdeep. It contained three eggs nearly ready to hatch.The other nests were all in white pines. One, apparently an oldhawk's nest, was about 40 feet up in a pine, surrounded by deciduoustrees in a grove of tall, mixed woods. Two of the others were inrather open situations, where solitary pines, or small groups of pines,were scattered among a low growth of small deciduous trees andscrub oaks. These were, apparently, old crows' nests, well concealedin the thick tops of small pines, 25 and 35 feet from the ground. Theywere evidently successive nests of the same pair of owls ; the first heldfive young on May 19, 1920, and the second contained five eggs,about one-quarter incubated, on April 20, 1921. This latter nestwas made of coarse sticks and was lined with dead pine needles, stripsof inner bark, and many owl feathers ; it measured 24 inches in outsideand 12 inches in inside diameter and was hollowed to a depth of 4inches.The other three nests were the successive nests of another pair ofowls, in a large tract of dense white pine woods, where I had previouslyfound Cooper's hawks nesting. These nests ranged from 30 to 40feet above the ground, and two of them were in nests known to have
LONG-EARED OWL 155been occupied by Cooper's hawks in previous years. In the first nestthe hatching process was nearly completed on May 10, 1921. OnMay 24, 1925, all but one of the young had left the nest of that year.The following year, on May 26, the young of that year had all leftthe nest and were so well hidden that I could not find them, butthe old owls were both very solicitous. I had looked at this neston April 21, when the owl was undoubtedly incubating, but, as Isaw no signs on the nest and could not drive the owl off by poundingthe tree, I did not climb to it. I have doubtless passed by otheroccupied nests without knowing it, as this owl is not easily drivenfrom its nest and there are seldom any feathers showing about thenest until after the young have hatched. I have never succeededin locating any of these four pairs of owls since the above dates.On June 2, 1905, while hunting along Bear Creek, near Crane Lake,Saskatchewan, we saw an old ferruginous roughleg's nest, about 14feet up in solitary poplar among a lot of low brush near the creek(pi. 31). When I climbed up to it and looked over the edge, I wassurprised to see a long-eared owl staring me in the face and less than2 feet away; its feathers were all bristled up, its wings half spread, andits eyes blinking; it made a formidable appearance, hissing andsnapping its beak. It was evidently as much surprised as I, but itsettled down again on its five heavily incubated eggs as soon as I with-drew. The nest was a large one, 48 by 23 inches over all, and the innercavity measured 10 by 9 inches; it was made of the usual large sticksand rubbish, and was lined with bunches of grass, pieces of dry cowdung, and a few feathers of the owl.While I was hunting around Victorville, Calif., on the edge of theMojave Desert, with Dr. Louis B. Bishop and Walcott Thompson,they showed me a small nesting colony of long-eared owls, where theyhad found at least four pairs of these owls with eggs or young two yearsbefore. The locality was an extensive tract of cottonwoods andwillows along the Mojave River. The place was overrun with packrats, which evidently furnished a convenient food supply for the owls.We flushed two of the owls, but not from nests. There were a lot ofold nests in the woods, perhaps built by night herons or crows. Onethat I climbed to was evidently a feeding nest, as it had the remainsof a pack rat in it. Another, which I could not climb to without irons,had considerable down on it and may have been the owls' nest.In this connection Henry W. Henshaw (1875) says:It seems to be a habit with this species in the West to congregate together andform colonies, often made up of a large number of individuals. I have, however,noticed this to be most frequently the case in regions where timber was scarce,and doubtless this lack of places suited to the necessities of their nature, whichrequires them to pass the hours of daylight in some dark, secluded retreat, furnishesthe reason for this apparent sociability. In Grass Valley, Utah, I thus found atleast a dozen individuals together in a small grove of cedars, and nearly every tree
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contained one of their nests, rudely made of coarse sticks, while some supportedtwo or three. The birds were roosting in the low branches in the darkest portionsof the clump, and they were generally so well concealed that I saw them only asthey dashed hurriedly out when I was close upon their retreats.Major Bendire (1892) writes:The Long-cared Owl rarely constructs a nest of its own; usually the last year'snest of a Crow is slightly repaired by being built up on the sides and lined with alittle dry grass, a few dead leaves, and feathers; some of the latter may nearlyalways be seen hanging on the outside of the nest. Fully three-fourths of thenests found by me occupied by these Owls were those of the Crow. Only a veryfew were evidently built by the birds themselves. One such found near CampHarney, Oregon, on April 4, 1877, was placed in a thick bush of dry willows about10 feet from the ground. This was tolerably well built, composed externally ofsmall sticks and sprigs of willows and aspens. Some of the latter had been peeledby beavers, which were common in the vicinity, and they were still green andpliable; these fresh looking sticks drew my attention to the nest, which I mistookfor that of a Raven or Crow. The inner cup was about 5 inches deep and linedwith dry grasses and feathers; it contained four fresh eggs. * * * On anotheroccasion I found a pair of Long-eared owls occupying a cavity in an old cotton-wood stump not over 12 feet high; a Red-shafted Flicker had that seasonexcavated a burrow directly over that of the Owl's and the two entranceholes * * * were not more than 2 feet apart. The birds seemed to live inperfect harmony with each other.Audubon (1840) also found a nest that was evidently made by theowls, "near the Juniata River in Pennsylvania, where it was composedof green twigs with the leaflets adhering, and lined with fresh grassand sheep wool, but without feathers."Old nests of the black-billed magpie are often appropriated. A. D.DuBois, in his notes, thus describes such a nest that he found inMontana: "While exploring an almost impenetrable thicket, border-ing the Teton River, I came upon an old magpie's nest, which wouldnot have arrested my attention except for a number of downy feathersclinging to the outside of it. It was in a scrubby willow tree, about15 feet from the ground. The field glass revealed no sign of life within,but when I made my way to the tree and gave it a rap with a stick anowl flew out from the farther side of the nest. She alighted on abranch a few feet away to take a brief look at me and then hastilydisappeared in the brush. I climbed to the nest and could clearlysee, through the openings in the old flattened canopy of magpie archi-tecture, that it contained five white eggs. The old nest cup proper,constructed of mud, was for the most part intact, although somewhatdilapidated. It was rather flat and shallow. In it were a few coarsetwigs and some gray feathers of the owl, forming a flat saucer-shapedbed upon which the eggs rested. The canopy, or roof, though not verythick, was sufficiently intact to enclose the nest completely, except fora large hole in one side, which the owl was using as an entrance, anda smaller hole opposite."
LONG-EARED OWL 157Grinnell and Storer (1924), writing of conditions in the Yosemiteregion, say: "In all cases the owls had preempted older nests of theBlack-billed Magpie, a bird common in that vicinity. The owlsbegin to nest somewhat earlier than do the magpies, and hence gainpossession of the last year's nests before the original builders haveoccasion to reclaim them. The magpies thus have to build anew.In almost every instance a newly constructed and occupied magpie'snest was found within 15 to 50 feet of an owl's nest."Major Bendire (1892) says that J. W. Preston "took a fresh laidegg of the Long-eared Owl from a nest of Crow's eggs." J. A. Munro(1919) says: "On April 19, 1917, I found a female occupying a newcrows' nest and sitting on one egg. Broken crow's eggs on the groundbelow the nest indicated that she had evicted the original owners.On April 30, the crows were again in possession and the nest containedfour crow's eggs. The owl then laid four eggs in an old crow's nest,fifty yards from the first one."Sidney E. Ekblaw (1919) found a nest in an apple tree in an oldorchard and says: "About the nest small branches were very dense,thereby offering very good protection for a secluded nest. The nestitself was composed entirely of sticks with but a very few leaves for alining. * * * In another crotch in the same tree we observed anold nest, identical in composition to the present one. As the long-eared owl has been recorded in this vicinity every year recently,doubtless the second nest was last year's."Several instances have been recorded of the long-eared owl nestingon the ground, both in this country and in England. L. M. Terrillfound one in the Laurentian Hills, northwest of Montreal, on June 4,1928, and has sent me a photograph of the bird on its nest (pi. 36)and some elaborate notes on the subject. It was in a boggy, blackspruce forest bordering a lake. "The nest was merely a shallowcavity, at the base of a black spruce sapling on the margin of a glade,well within the woods, lined with a very few twigs, flakes of bark andLabrador-tea leaves; any or all of this material could quite easilyhave fallen there. The glade was carpeted with sphagnum, with asprinkling of such plants as Ledum and Rhodora and was somewhatlittered with fallen trees, owing to lumbering in bygone years." Mr.Terrill thinks the owl was forced to nest on the ground because of thescarcity of suitable tree nests. He has records of more than 20 nestsof this owl, and all the others were in old nests of crows or sharp-shinned hawks; all were in conifers in dense evergreen woods, mainlycedar swamps.Mr. Rathbun tells me that if a set of eggs is taken the owl will laya second set in about 20 days.Eggs.?The long-eared owl lays three to eight eggs in a set, butfour or five seems to be the commonest number. They are pure
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white and oval ; the shell is smooth and rather glossy. The measure-ments of 103 eggs, in the United States National Museum, average40 by 32.5 millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremes measure43.5 by 33.5, 43 by 35, 37.5 by 31, and 38.5 by 30 millimeters.Young.?The incubation period is generally considered to be about21 days. An egg is laid about every other day, and since incubationbegins when the first egg is laid the young hatch at similar intervalsand show considerable variation in size. It does not seem to be knownwhether the male assists in incubation, but he is always close at hand,while the female is incubating, during the day at least, and respondsquickly to her cries of distress. Probably he hunts for food at duskand during the night and may feed his mate on the nest or relieve herto hunt for herself.When between four and five weeks old the largest young birds beginto leave the nest, crawling out onto the surrounding branches. Allleave the nest long before they can fly, climbing about or flutteringdown to perch on any low branch or fallen tree. They are carefullyguarded by both parents during this period, who rush to their defenseand attempt to lure an intruder away by spectacular demonstrations.They are fed by their parents until they are at least eight or nineweeks old, have gained the full power of flight, and have learned tohunt for themselves. The family group keeps more or less togetherduring summer and fall and perhaps during winter.The calls of the young, described below by William Brewster(1925), are evidently their cries of distress that call their parents totheir defense; at least they produced that result each time that heheard them. He writes:They were perched together on a fallen branch about five feet above theground, to which they must have fallen or fluttered down not long before, froma nest that could be seen high in a pine directly overhead, for having wing-quills scarce more than one half grown they were incapable of level flight. Whenclosely approached they behaved precisely like the young found in 1874 [crouch-ing in a nest, see below under "Behavior"], and made essentially the same soundsalthough the blowing ones heard to-day were less suggestive of "snoring" than ofthe hissing or "spitting" of an angry house-cat, and the crick-a-crick calls seemedmore like the chirping of a field-cricket than the squeaking of a wheelbarrow.E. L. Sumner, Jr. (1929), in his studies of a brood of young long-eared owls, found that the egg tooth disappeared during the firstweek, but the young were very sluggish and inactive; even the oldestmade no protest other than a feeble hiss, and all the rest were silent.Eleven days later, he says: "The largest three youngsters are quiteaggressive, standing up with outspread wings inverted and everyfeather erect, winch gives them a deceptively bulky appearance.They snap viciously at my outstretched finger, and sway from sideto side?a trait not exhibited by any of the hawks?but are as yetperfectly harmless. With the exception of the oldest, they make no
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noise other than a snapping of the bill; this bird uttered a numberof loud shrill prolonged squeaks, similar to one of the notes utteredby the adults."When he visited the nest again, five days later, the young werefrom two to three weeks old; he writes:There are only three owls in the nest, and since it is highly improbable that thetwo largest birds could have learned to fly, it would seem that they have fallenout of the nest. This is all the more indicated by the surprising lack of care withwhich the remaining young move about in the nest when I approach?entirelyunlike the behavior of hawks. They raise their wings, snap their bills, and with-out the slightest hesitation back right off the nest. Bird c saved itself only byclinging desperately to the under side, where it could not have remained longunaided. Bird d fell all the way to the ground, striking a large limb in its descent,and was unable to use its wings other than to break the force of the fall. Thisinability to remain in the nest until the power of flight is gained would appear tobe a considerable liability to the species, especially because of the danger frompredatory animals. * * *The remaining birds are more aggressive than ever. Like the Barn Owl, theythrow themselves upon their backs and use their claws when hard pressed, andlike these owls, they also run at the intruder of their own accord.Plumages.?The young long-eared owl is hatched with eyes closed,but they open within a few days. It is sparsely clothed in shortpure-white down on the main feather tracts only, with bare spacesbetween them; the facial disks are prominent and covered with whitedown. When huddled down in the nest the bird appears fully cov-ered, but, as it moves about, the bare spaces are exposed; hence it isnecessary for the parent to brood the yoimg at this stage.After a week or ten days the white down begins to be replaced bythe soft, downy juvenal plumage. When about three weeks old theyoung bird is nearly half grown and the wing quills are partly out oftheir sheaths; the body is well covered with the long, soft, downyplumage; this is basally dusky on the head and neck, with grayishwhite tips, giving a hoary effect; on the under parts it is basally palebuff, terminally grayish white, and with two to four dusky bands oneach feather; the downy plumage on the back is similar but with morebuff and more distinct bands; the long, fluffy, grizzly down on thethighs is very prominent, the tail is still in sheaths, and the facialdisks are conspicuously brownish black.During the next two weeks the hoary down on the crown and napeis replaced by short, dusky feathers with broad, silvery-white tips;the wings and tail are growing, and the first winter plumage is replac-ing the downy plumage, first on the upper and then on the lower parts.At the age of six or seven weeks, the young owl is fully grown, thewings and tail are as in the adult, and nearly all the downy contourplumage has been molted; the last traces of immaturity to disappearare the hoary-tipped feathers of the crown and the downy plumage
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of the posterior under parts. In full first-winter plumage youngbirds are practically indistinguishable from adults.Adults have a complete annual molt in the fall, from September toDecember. There is considerable individual variation, but, in theseries I have examined, males average paler and with more white onthe under parts than females. Dr. Oberholser (1922) says that thereare "at least four color phases, these being a light and a dark ochra-ceous phase, and a light and a dark gray phase." These phases arenone too well marked in a series of more than 70 specimens that Ihave examined, and they look more like individual variation, thoughthere are more gray birds among the males and more ochraceous birdsamong the females.Food.?The long-eared owl is unquestionably worthy of protectionas one of our most beneficial birds of prey, for a very large proportionof its food, probably close to 80 or 90 percent on a seasonal average,consists of injurious rodents. Many of these owls have been shot asdestroyers of game birds or rabbits, but, among hundreds of records,I can find only one record of a quail and two of ruffed grouse beingkilled, and very few records of young rabbits. There seems to be norecord of domestic poultry being attacked.Dr. A. K. Fisher's (1893b) summary states that "of 107 stomachsexamined one contained a game bird [the quail referred to above]; 15other birds; 84 mice; 5 other mammals (including one young rabbit);one insects and 15 were empty." In a lot of pellets collected nearWashington, D. C, he found 17G skulls or parts of skulls, among whichonly 13 were of birds, and the remainder were of various mice andshrews. Dr. B. H. Warren (1890) "examined the stomachs of 23long-eared owls and found that 22 of them had fed only on mice."Dr. Paul L. Errington's (1932c) pellet records for Wisconsin showthat, during fall, winter, and early spring, mammals, mainly mice,make up 99 to 100 percent of the food; and during late spring andsummer this percentage drops to between 87 and 92 percent, the per-centage of birds running from 7 to 12 percent. His summary states:
"Total vertebrate kills from pellets and stomachs (quantitative data)amount to 3,273 ; juvenile cottontail, 1 ; Norway rat, 3 ; meadow mouse,2,732; deer mouse, 497; shrew, 14; small bird (mostly finches), 26."In two cases flocks of quail were wintering near where his owls wereroosting, but he found no evidence that the owls ever molested thequail.On the other hand, Dr. Charles W. Townsend (1918) had a collec-tion of pellets examined, wThich he had found under a nest in June atIpswich, Mass., and reported that the "owls had eaten some 13different species of birds and 23 individuals; also 4 species of mammalsand 25 individuals." This and Dr. Errington's summer records indi-cate that birds are taken in quantity only during the season when the
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owls have a brood of young to feed and when mice are not sufficientlyabundant to fill their requirements. As additional evidence on thispoint, we have the report by F. M. Jones (1934) that a lot of pellets,collected early in summer under a nesting tree in Pennsylvania, con-tained the remains of 46 birds and 45 mammals; but he says that twoyoung owls that he kept for several months in captivity "wouldinvariably eat the mice first if given both mice and English Sparrowsor Starlings, and should there be sufficient mice to satisfy their appe-tites, they would not eat the birds at all."Dr. George M. Sutton (1926) has reported the killing of two ruffedgrouse by a long-eared owl. It seems remarkable that this light-weight owl could attack and kill a bird so much heavier than itself,but the evidence seems convincing that the owl killed and partially atethe grouse.Various species of mice make up the bulk of the long-eared owl'sfood; other mammals included are various rats, including the destruc-tive Norway rat, shrews, moles, squirrels, chipmunks, pocket gophers,bats, and young rabbits. The list of birds is a long one, but in theaggregate it constitutes but a small part of the total food ; it includesone quail, two ruffed grouse, and one mourning dove, as exceptionallylarge birds; the birds oftenest taken are the various species of sparrows,but red-winged blackbird, horned lark, meadowlark, cardinal, towhees,juncos, goldfinches, warblers, kinglets, thrushes, bluebirds, scarlettanager, and brown thrasher have also been recorded in the food of thisowl. Beetles and various other insects, frogs, and an occasional smallsnake have been eaten by it.Grinnell and Storer (1924) write: "Hunting almost exclusively atnight, this owl does not capture many birds. The Spurred Towhechere recorded as being captured is notable for being especially activeat dusk, just when the Long-eared Owl begins its nightly forays.The Long-eared Owl, although roosting and nesting in dense thickets,does its foraging in the open, and small birds are not as available there,at least at night, as they are in the trees and bushes through whichcertain other species of owls, known to capture birds, are wont to hunt.The meadow mice and gophers are most active in the early hours ofthe night, when presumably this owl does most of its foraging."Behavior.?The long-eared owl is normally so inactive and retiringduring the daytime that we have learned very little about its behavior,except what we have seen of it when its nest or brood of young is dis-turbed. Here its behavior is quite variable and often exceedinglyinteresting and spectacular. I know of no bird that is bolder or moredemonstrative in the defense of its young, or one that can threatenthe intruder with more grotesque performances or more weird andvaried cries. But the full performance is not always seen; it is seen atits best when there are young to be protected. At the first nest that I
162 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMfound, containing heavily incubated eggs, the owl merely flew aroundat a safe distance, snapping its bill and uttering a variety of weirdnotes. At the Saskatchewan nest the owl did not leave the nest at allbut assumed her threatening attitude as I looked over the edge of thenest; she settled down again on her heavily incubated eggs when Iwithdrew.Once I sat under a nest tree for some time, eating my lunch, withoutseeing any signs of life about the nest. When I climbed the tree theold owl flew off the nest, where she had been quietly brooding heryoung all the time. Her cries of distress soon brought her mate to thescene, and the performance began. Both parents were very demon-strative, flying about close at hand, alighting in the tree close to me,threatening to attack me, and indulging in a long line of owl profanity.One of the owls occasionally dropped to the ground, as if wounded, andfluttered along, crying piteously or mewing like a cat ; by this ruse shesucceeded in tolling my companion some distance away before sheflew. This wounded-bird act, which I have never seen performed byany other bird of prey, was repeated several times on this and on otheroccasions.Once, while I was standing in plain sight in a treetop near a nest,the female stood for a long time, perfectly still, a short distance awayin the thick woods; meantime the male was perched near me, watch-ing me and making frequent short flights over and around me, scold-ing and snapping his bill. Finally I crouched down more out of sightamong some thick branches; the male soon flew to the nest and gavea low, squealing whistle, and the female returned to the nest at once,as if she had been assured that all was well.W. Leon Dawson (1923) describes a clever ruse, employed to enticehim away from a nest, as follows:The male parent had delivered himself of his quaint objurgations, and hadretired from the scene in disgust. The female had caterwauled and cajoled andexploded and entreated by turns, all in vain. * * * All of a sudden the Owlleft her perch, flew to some distance and pounced upon the ground, where shecould not well be seen through the intervening foliage. Upon the instant of thepounce, arose the piercing cries of a creature in distress, and I, supposing thatthe bird in anger had fallen upon a harmless Flicker which I knew dwelt in thatneck of the woods, scrambled down instanter and hurried forward. The promptbinoculars revealed neither Flicker nor mouse. There was nothing whatever inthe Owl's talons. The victor and victim were one and the same, and I was thedupe. Yet so completely was the play carried out that the bird fluttered herwings and trod vigorously, with a rocking motion, as though sinking her clawsdeeply into a victim.William Brewster (1925) writes:Half an hour after sunset this evening [June 12, 1S74J I was hastening throughwoods of intermingling pitch pines and red cedars near Arlington Heights when afaint, intermittent crick-a-crick, not unlike the squeaking of an ungreased wheel-
LONG-EARED OWL 163barrow, attracted my attention. It seemed to come from a dense growth ofcedars in a hollow towards which I had taken only a few steps when the still airwas rent by a dozen or more piercing shrieks, given in quick succession, and allalike save that each was a trifle less loud than the one immediately preceding it.Altogether they lasted almost half a minute and suggested the screams of aterror-stricken bird in the clutches of a Hawk, but were much louder and morestartling. They constituted a fitting prelude to the spectacular appearance, onlya second or two later, of their author, a large, female Long-eared Owl, who sud-denly pitched down to the ground about thirty yards away and stood facing mewith ruffled plumage and glaring yellow eyes. Her widespread wings were soheld that the tips of the outermost primaries touched the carpet of pine needlesat her feet and those of the innermost secondaries met over her back, the otherquills radiating outward between them. Although, as I have said, she faced me,the outer, not inner, surfaces of both wings were shown in my direction. Owingto this singular disposition and inversion of all the flight-quills, they formed whatappeared to be a large, erect, circular fan of evenly-spread feathers completelysurrounding the head and body of the bird. Standing thus with threatening mienand menacing, swaying movements of the head, she looked like some impish,malformed creature half beside itself with rage.This startling pose, so well described by Mr. Brewster, is often seenunder various circumstances as a defense display. It is the poseassumed by the bird that I surprised on its nest in Saskatchewan.Major Bendire (1892) describes exactly the same pose that was as-sumed in surprised self defense by one of these owls that he came uponsuddenly while it was killing a squirrel on the ground behind a log.On rare occasions this owl will actually attack an intruder at itsnest. Joseph Dixon had such an experience while trying to photo-graph some young owls. Grinnell and Storer (1924) say of it: "Theowls usually gave little heed to the camera, save to glare at the lensas though the reflection seen there were another and intruding owl.One individual, thought to be a female, was more aggressive, andseveral times attacked the photographer openly. She would waituntil Mr. Dixon put his head under the focussing cloth; then shewould swoop down and strike his head. At first the bird used onlyher wings, but later, becoming emboldened, struck with her claws,and once inflicted slight wounds in his scalp."Not the least interesting of the long-eared owl's tricks is its veryeffective hiding pose, which A. D. DuBois describes very well in hisnotes. He says: "I suddenly found myself gazing at a strange objectin front of me, some 20 or 25 yards away. Soon I realized that itwas an owl, standing upright and rigid, stretched vertically to itsutmost, its girth contracted to an incredible degree. It seemed muchmore like a piece of broken tree branch than a living creature. Itappeared perfectly cylindrical, very long, and small (I should sayperhaps two and a half inches in diameter). Its 'horns' were erectedto their full extent, were perfectly vertical and parallel, and in thisposition seemed very close together. This strange thing was entirely
164 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMgray, of blackish and whitish tones in vertical streaks, resembling therough gray bark of an old tree No color was visible except theyellow of the eyes, which gazed at me fixedly. It was a most remark-able protective attitude."The flight of the long-eared owl is light, buoyant, and as noiselessas that of other owls. Its long wings and tail are more than ample forits light, slim body; consequently it sometimes seems to hover orflutter like a butterfly. Its gliding flight is swift at times, but it isseldom, if ever, called upon to capture birds on the wing. Generallyits prey is silently approached and pounced upon. Although ithunts occasionally on dark days, its hunting is done mainly during thedusk of evening or early morning, or on moonlight nights. Whetherit hunts to any great extent during the darkest hours of the night wedo not know. The widely spread notion that owls cannot see in thedaytime is, of course, an error. This, and all other owls that I amfamiliar with, can see just as well in daylight as other birds; and thisone is especially expert in threading its way through the intricacies ofthe woods and thickets in which it takes its daylight naps.Voice.?The long-eared owl is a versatile vocalist; its vocabulary islong and varied. The notes that I have heard have all been given inthe vicinity of the nest; at other times this owl is a remarkably silentbird. The soft, hooting notes are recorded in my field notes asquoo-quoo-quoo, or as a more prolonged, single quoo-oo-oo, somewhatlike the notes of the screech owl in quality. They are not harsh butrather musical and mellow. A still softer whoqf-whoqf-whoqf isuttered at frequent intervals, presumably by the male, as an encour-agement to his mate on the nest, or to the young. Grinnell andStorer (1924) say that "the hoot of the adult bird is low, mellow, andlong-drawn-out, and bears a resemblance to the note of the band-tailed pigeon."When much excited, both owls may fly about, snapping their billsvigorously and uttering loud notes of protest in three syllables,wuck-wuck'-wuck, or wek-wek'-wek, with a strong accent on the secondsyllable. At such times, I have heard also a low, squealing whistle,like the warning note of the ruffed grouse. During the highest pitchof excitement and anxiety, the owl drops to the ground with shrillcries of distress, loud piercing shrieks, flutters along the ground, as ifbadly wounded, and pours out a series of catlike mewing notes,mie-e-ew, or a more prolonged mie-ee-u-u-u-ew.Others have heard similar notes as well as several different ones.Major Bendire (1892) says: "Except during the mating season it israther a silent bird, and the few notes which I have heard them utter,when at ease and not molested, are low toned and rather pleasing thanotherwise. One of these is a soft toned 'wu-hunk, wu-hunk', slowlyand several times repeated, which really sounds much better than it
LONG-EARED OWL 165looks in print; another is a low twittering, whistling note like 'dicky,dicky, dicky', quite different from anything usually expected from orattributed to the Owl family."Mr. Dawson (1923) mentions "the regular note of disapproval, asort of groaning execration used chiefly by the male, Morach moraaaoow,werek werek wraaow, wreck wraaa?all very 'flat' and very emphatic."Dr. Townsend's (1918) owl "constantly uttered low notes whichsuggested at times the barking of a small puppy, at times the noteslid-hunk." Dr. G. Clyde Fisher (1919) heard "a softly whistledwhee-you, the two syllables slurred together. Although scarcely aslong as the ordinary note of the Phoebe, in quality it suggested thatof the Screech Owl?being, however, much shorter and more fre-quently uttered than the latter." Ernest T. Seton (1890) mentions
"a strange shrieking, between the cry of a fox and a cat" and "a loudlong cry like on-il-il-il-il-il-il-loo."Alden H. Miller (1935) says that the hoot of the female is "four orfive half tones higher" than that of the male. He says of the hoot ofthe male: "The pitch at first approximated that of a female HornedOwl. As the hoots were repeated the pitch was raised as much asfive half tones. Even so, they were remarkably low for so small anOwl. Six to twenty hoots were given in a series and often only a fewminutes elapsed between groups of hoots."Field marks.?Being intermediate in size between the great hornedand screech owls, the long-eared might be mistaken for either of these
"eared" owls under certain circumstances, though it is relativelyslenderer than either; in flight it is more wavering and uncertain, andit has relatively longer wings and tail. When perched its "ears" risemore nearly from the center of the head; it lacks the white throat ofthe great horned and is more longitudinally striped, less transverselybarred, on the under parts. Its brown facial disks and its colorpattern should distinguish it from the screech owls when perching atshort range. As its "ears" do not show in flight, and sometimes notwhen perched, it might be confused with the short-eared owl, which itresembles in size and manner of flight, but it is more darkly colored,grayer, less buffy, and differently marked; neither of these owls islikely to be seen in the normal habitat of the other. E. S. Cameron(1907) says that "when this owl is in flight, a brown spot shows con-spicuously on the buff lining of the wings underneath the primarybases."Enemies.?Owls have few enemies except man; unfortunately theyare usually shot on sight, because they are big and are picturesque asmounted specimens, or because they are supposed to destroy game anddomestic poultry; this is a rank injustice to this beneficial mouser.Crows, jays, grackles, and many other birds habitually pester thisand other owls, but they do no real harm to them. L. M. Terrill says
166 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMin his notes that a pair of pigeon hawks had a nest within 150 yardsof his long-eared owl's ground nest, and that "whenever the owlflushed from the nest one of the pigeon hawks swooped to attack itand drive it away. This happened almost invariably."Winter.?Edward H. Forbush (1927) remarks:There seems to be a general belief that owls do not migrate, but with thisspecies as well as some others that range far to the north, there is a regular south-ward movement from the most northern part of the range, a general migrationwhich is evident also for a greater or less distance to the southward of their usualbreeding range. Therefore, in spring and autumn Long-eared Owls are morenumerous in New England than at any other season. Mr. H. H. Bailey says thatlarge numbers come into Florida from farther north to spend the winter there,the time of their arrival depending much upon weather conditions in the north,but that many arrive by December and depart northward in March.William Jay (1923) found a large colony of long-eared owls "winter-ing in a dense growth of pines and other coniferous trees growing alongthe Skippack Creek at Evansburg, Pa. No less than fifty of thesebirds were congregated in this grove. I was worldng my way slowlythrough the trees, when I came upon nine of these Owls at close range.As I did not wish to disturb them I backed slowly away, but right into the main colony where I saw five or six Owls on every tree aroundme."Dr. Alvin R. Calm and J. T. Kemp (1930) found a colony of sevenof these owls wintering "in an evergreen in the heart of the residencedistrict of the city of Urbana," 111. The numbers varied from fourto seven, the latter number being counted on 44 occasions. The birdswere first noted on November 8, 1926, and they remained until thefollowing April 2; they returned to the same tree on October 21, 1927,and left on March 16 next. These may have been family parties.Major Bendire (1892), on February 23, 1872, "saw about fifteen ofthese birds sitting close together on a small mesquite tree in a densethicket in the Rillitto Creek bottom, near Tucson, Arizona." E. S.Cameron (1907), referring to Montana, says that "in fall and winterthese owls occupy cavities in high cut banks of the badlands; Messrs.Archdale found a Long-eared Owl frozen to death in a badland hole."The foregoing accounts, and numerous others, show that the long-eared owl migrates southward to some extent in fall and spends thewinter almost anywhere that it can find suitable cover between thenorthern and southern borders of the United States. They also showthat the species is decidedly gregarious at this season and indicate theprobability that the young remain with their parents during theirfirst winter. DISTRIBUTIONRange.?Temperate zones of North America.Breeding range.?The breeding range of the long-eared owl extendsnorth to Mackenzie (Fort Simpson and Fort Providence); Saskatche-
LONG-EARED OWL 167wan (probably Fond du Lac, Prince Albert, and Qu'Appelle); southernManitoba (Oak Lake, Carberry, Portage la Prairie, and Shoal Lake);Minnesota (probably Browns Valley and Elk River); Wisconsin(Marshfield, Kelleybrook, and West De Pere) ; Michigan (MunuskongState Park, Brant, and Detroit); southern Ontario (Lucknow, Cold-stream, Toronto, and Kingston); southern Quebec (Quebec); NewBrunswick (Woodstock); and Nova Scotia (Kentville and probablyHalifax). East to Nova Scotia (probably Halifax); southeastern NewBrunswick (Grand Manan); Maine (Bucksport and Warren); NewHampshire (Franklin Falls); Massachusetts (Ipswich and Taunton);Connecticut (Northford); Long Island (Lake Grove and Flushing);New Jersey (Summit and Penns Grove); Maryland (Baltimore andRockville); and the District of Columbia (Washington). South tothe District of Columbia (Washington); southern Pennsylvania(Hanover, Carlisle, probably rarely State College, and Du Bois);Ohio (Uhrichsville, Steubenville, and Toboso); northern Indiana(Fort Wayne and Cedar Lake); Illinois (Philo, Odin, and Roadhouse);Missouri (Courtney and Independence); Kansas (Topeka, Man-hattan, and Ellis); New Mexico (Santa Fe); probably northernArizona (San Francisco Mountain); and southern California (SanDiego). West to California (San Diego, Escondido, Santa CatalinaIsland, Los Angeles, Santa Paula, probably Tulare Lake, Paicines,Alameda, Novato, Middle Lake, and Goose Lake); Oregon (FortKlamath, Haycreek, and Sheridan); Washington (Bumping Lake);British Columbia (Lulu Island and Okanagan) ; and western Macken-zie (Fort Simpson).Winter range.?In winter the long-eared owl is found north toBritish Columbia (Okanagan) ; Alberta (Stony Plain, Edmonton, andProvost); southeastern South Dakota (Vermillion and Sioux Falls);southern Minnesota (Hastings) ; southern Wisconsin (Madison) ; south-ern Michigan (Ann Arbor, Plymouth, and Detroit); southern Ontario(Plover Mills); New York (Lockport); and Massachusetts (Boston).East to Massachusetts (Boston and North Truro); Rhode Island(Newport) ; New York (Orient) ; New Jersey (Summit, Plainfield, andFive-mile Beach) ; Maryland (Laurel) ; the District of Columbia (Wash-ington); North Carolina (Raleigh); central Alabama (Greensboro);and rarely Florida (Cape Florida and Cape Sable). South to rarelyFlorida (Cape Sable); rarely Louisiana (Abbeville); Texas (Houstonand Brownsville) ; Durango (Las Bocas) ; Sonora (Tiburon Island) ; andBaja California (Rosario). West to Baja California (Rosario); Cali-fornia (Escondido, Victorville, and Willows); western Oregon (Cor-vallis); Washington (Yakima); and British Columbia (Okanagan).Spring migration.?While there is no question that the long-earedowl performs regular migrations, there is little definite information
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available. Actual arrival and departure dates are apparently influ-enced as much by weather conditions and available food as by responseto the migratory impulse.Early dates of spring arrival north of the regular winter range are:Vermont?Rutland, March 3. Quebec?Montreal, April 17. NewBrunswick?Scotch Lake, April 12. North Dakota?Rice Lake,April 9; Wahpeton, April 13. Manitoba?Treesbank, March 28;Margaret, April 1; Aweme, April 4. Saskatchewan?Indian Head,April 13; Osier, April 18.Fall migration.?Late dates of fall departure from the regions northof the regular winter range, are: Saskatchewan?Indian Head, Octo-ber 20. Manitoba?Margaret, October 20; Aweme, October 31;Treesbank, November 2. North Dakota?Argusville, November 18;Marstonmoor, November 18. Ontario?Ottawa, November 1. NovaScotia?Halifax, October 1. Quebec?Montreal, October 22. Ver-mont?Rutland, October 24.Data are too few to throw much light upon the times of arrival anddeparture in regions south of the breeding range, but in general theseowls may be expected in such areas during the latter part of Novemberand December and they will remain until late February and March.The extent of the travels that may be made by long-eared owls isgraphically illustrated by the flights of two individuals marked withnumbered bands. One of these, banded at Rosebud, Alberta, on July4, 1933, was shot at Layton, Utah, on February 2, 1935. The other,banded at Escondido, Calif., on April 22, 1934, was recaptured atCorbeil, Ontario, on October 9, 1934. This last record is one of themost remarkable banding records thus far obtained. It has, however,been thoroughly checked for accuracy.Casual records.?A specimen was taken on the Taku River, Alaska,on September 26, 1909; three were collected in May 1877 or 1878 atGodbout, Quebec; and according to Preble (1902), it was found atFort Severn, Manitoba, by Hutchins. One was seen at Oakley Depot,5. C, on January 16, 1917, while Wayne (1910) refers to two speci-mens collected in this State at Mount Pleasant, on March 16, 1896,and another at the same place on January 16, 1906. He refers alsoto another taken in Edgefield County, S. C, during the winter of1905. Three were seen and one was collected on San Clemente Island,Calif., in December 1908.Egg dates.?California: 58 records, March 1 to May 23; 29 records,March 17 to April 9, indicating the height of the season.Southern Canada: 21 records, April 12 to June 5; 12 records, May 9to 19.New York and New England: 13 records, March 31 to May 31;7 records, April 19 to May 15.
SHORT-EARED OWL 169Pennsylvania and New Jersey: 29 records, March 14 to May 30;15 records, March 29 to April 11.Indiana, Illinois, and Iowa: 8 records, March 20 to April 28.ASIO FLAMMEUS FLAMMEUS (Pontoppidan)SHORT-EARED OWLPlates 38-40HABITSContributed by Charles Wendell TownsendThe short-eared owl is one of the most cosmopolitan of birds, as itis found in every continent except Australia. In its habits it differsfrom most owls in preferring open plains, marshes, and sand dunes tothick forests, where it is almost never seen, and in the fact that itfrequently hunts by day. Although it sometimes takes small birds, itsfeeding habits in general are of great value to man, for its favorite foodconsists of rodents. When field mice or voles increase so as to becomeveritable plagues, various owls, especially of this species, have beenknown to congregate in the infested region and to have done greatservice in destroying the pests. There are several such records invarious counties in England extending back to the sixteenth century.Such a plague of mice is described by Hudson (1892) as occurring inSouth America in 1872-73, when short-eared owls wore most importantagents in stopping the plague. Notwithstanding their proved value,ignorant and thoughtless gunners continue to shoot these beneficialbirds, and their numbers are diminishing.Courtship.?The remarkable courtship flight and song of this birdhave been well described by A. D. DuBois (1924), who not only madeobservations on the song at night, but on both the song and flight byday. The song consisted of a series of toots "repeated fifteen totwenty times, at the rate of four toots per second, in a low-pitchedmonotone." The sound seemedto come from all directions. Finally, upon gazing upward, I discovered the owldirectly overhead, and for a time was able to watch him, with the field-glass,in the fading light. He was flying at a great elevation; so great in fact that it wasdifficult to see him at all without the aid of the field-glass. For the most part hisflight was with slow, silent flapping wings, although he sometimes soared. Hiscourse led in easy curves which kept him in the same general locality. His song,on this occasion, was made up of 1G to 18 toots. Now and then he made a shortslanting dive which terminated with an upward swoop. The dive was accom-panied by a peculiar fluttering noise * * * a sound as might be producedby a fluttering small bird imprisoned in a box, or by the flutter of a small flag in avery strong wind.Later, DuBois observed the flight in full sunlight and was able tosolve the mystery of the "fluttering flag." "When the owl began13751?38 12
170 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMthe short dive he brought his wings together beneath him, stretchingthem back posteriorly and striking them rapidly together with shortclapping strokes. The dive ended simultaneously with the clapping,when the bird spread his wings, abruptly and noiselessly turning hiscourse upward with a swoop. The clapping was clearly visible withthe field-glass and the fluttering sound produced by it was distinctlyaudible. He seemed to be applauding his own aerial performance."Mr. DuBois observed this flight song during four years, on the GreatPlains in Montana between March 17 and August 28. In the laterdates the young are already partly grown. On one occasion when hehad examined a nest of four young and had seated himself at a dis-tance, one parent disappeared, "the other flew and soared in circlesabove me, gradually climbing until it was at a great height. Duringthe time that I watched, he twice indulged in wing-clapping. Havingthus spiraled upward above me to his maximum height, he shifted hiscenter of flight to a point more nearly over the nest, at the same timereducing his elevation."Francis Harper writes that he observed the courtship flight of thisowl at Gardiners Island, N. Y., in 1911 and thus describes it: "Latein the afternoon of June 14 I noticed one of the owls high up in the air,flying with exceptionally slow and somewhat jerky wing strokes atthe rate of 150 a minute and making scarcely any headway. Thereseemed to be almost a perceptible pause of the wings as they reachedtheir highest point, before beginning the downward stroke. Now andthen the bird would swoop downward, meanwhile striking its longwings beneath its body, perhaps 8 or 12 times in the space of a secondor two. It was a remarkable act, quite unlike anything known to meamong other birds. The owl kept more or less over a particular partof the pasture and was probably 200, or even 300, feet in the air attimes."Edward A. Preble (1908) reports that several individuals of thisspecies were seen on April 30, 1901, to the north of Edmonton,Alberta. "They were usually flying in pairs, and the males frequentlyswooped down toward their mates from a considerable height, holdingtheir wings high above the back and uttering peculiar quavering cries."Nesting.'?The short-eared owl nests on the ground generally in aslight depression very sparsely lined with grasses and weed stalks andan occasional feather. Sometimes the nest seems to consist onlyof the flattened and dead vegetation of the spot chosen, or merely aslight hollow in bare sand. It may be entirely exposed to light in anopen field or marsh or partly hidden by a clump of grasses or weeds.A. K. Fisher (1893b) says that "in exceptional cases it has been foundin a clump of low bushes, or otherwise slightly elevated."Coues (1874) quotes Dall who had found the short-eared owl
"breeding in burrows on the island of Oomalashka; 'the hole is hori-
SHORT-EAKED OWL 171
zontal, and the inner end usually a little higher than the aperture;lined with dry grass and feathers.' The burrows were not over twofeet deep, usually excavated in the side of a steep bank."A few descriptions of individual nests will serve to show theircharacter. A. D. DuBois (MS.) thus describes a nest in Montana:"The nest was situated on almost level ground?on the slight westslope of a knoll, amid the young growing wheat and the old last year'sstubble. It was a shallow depression in the earth, sparingly linedwith old wheat straws and the shredded husks of the stubble. Therewere a few soft feathers about the edges. A dried Canada thistle,remaining from the previous year, afforded slight protection on theeast."Charles A. Urner (1923) described a nest in a salt marsh nearElizabeth, N. J. The nest "was composed almost entirely of salt hayand about Dine inches in diameter and an inch and a half to twoinches thick. * * * The ground, immediately about the nest fora distance of four inches had apparently been almost cleared to furnishmaterial and on one side the thick stubble still stood as if the matteddried grass had been broken off by the bird's bill. The presence offeathers (apparently owl's feathers) throughout the mass of the nestfurnished additional evidence that this species of owl actually con-structs its own nest."J. Claire Wood (1907) thus describes a nest found in Michigan:
"It was a mere platform of dead marsh grass half an inch thick andcovering a spot of bare ground ten by eighteen inches. The long
'saw-grass' formed an arch over the nest, but there was an openingat the easterly end leading into an open space about two feet wideby four long?a sort of play and feeding grounds for the young."The nest and vicinity were kept clean of all castings, down, feathers,etc., that would tend to betray its existence. On the other hand, nestsand their vicinity are often foul with droppings, feathers, and pellets.Bendire (1892) describes two nests found in Idaho on the ground,
"one in the center of a tall bunch of rye grass, the other by the side ofone of these, and both were well hidden. * * * They were simplyslight depressions not more than 2 inches deep, lined with pieces of drygrass and a few feathers from the birds."That the short-eared owl may occasionally return to the same nest-ing site seems to have been shown by Urner (1923) who discovereddirectly under a new nest in 1922 "a more or less discolored whiteegg, one side slightly cracked as if from freezing, the dimensionscorresponding to the egg of the short-eared owl. * * * Underthe cracked egg could still be seen the outline of a well-rotted nest,presumably from the 1921 season."Eggs.?[Author's note: The short-eared owl may lay anywherefrom four to nine eggs, and rarely even more; but the commonest
172 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMnumbers are five, six, or seven. The eggs vary in shape from oval toelliptical-ovate. The shell is smooth, or very finely granulated, withvery little, if any, gloss. The color is white, or very faintly creamywhite. The measurements of 56 eggs, in the United States NationalMuseum, average 39 by 31 millimeters; the eggs showing the fourextremes measure 44 by 32.5, 40 by 33, 37.5 by 29.5, and 38.5 by 29millimeters.]Young.?The incubation period according to Bendire (1892) isabout three weeks. F. L. Burns (1915) states it to be 21 days. Bothsexes incubate and take care of the young. According to Urner (1923)the young fly in from 31 to 36 days after being hatched and remainin the vicinity of the nest for six weeks, although they stray from itand hide in the surrounding grass long before they can fly, sometimesas early as two weeks from hatching. Owing to their protectivecoloration, they are found with difficulty in the grass, and as theystretch out motionless on the ground this difficulty is increased.When aroused they turn on the back and fight. Mabel Densmore(1924) describes the actions of a young bird full grown but unable tofly that she discovered, "a bundle of feathers, dumped down in theshort prairie grass, with no semblance to a bird except the eyes."While the parents flew excitedly around, the young continued to
"play possum" and could be moved about and handled freely withoutshowing a sign of life except in its eyes.Nearly all the young of short-eared owls found at or near the nestdiffer in size and in development of plumage. Aretas A. Saunders(1913) measured each of nine young of one pair and concluded thattheir ages ranged between 3 and 14 days. He also found that eachowl at about the age of two weeks strayed from the nest, going fartherand farther each day even to a distance of 100 or 150 yards. He wasalways able to find the young by the action of the parents in feigninginjury nearby.Urner (1923) concluded from his observations in the salt marshesof New Jersey that short-eared owls sometimes move their eggs orhelpless young to escape unusually high tides, and it is probable thatwhen the eggs are destroyed by high tides or prairie fires, a second setis laid.Urner (1921) describes the "wounded bird" actions of a short-earedowl flushed from a nest of young in New Jersey: "The first birdflushed strove vainly by imitating injury and distress to draw meaway, these exhibitions including sheer drops or tumbles from the airand flutterings and cries with wings outspread while on the ground.When not thus engaged the bird maintained a position directly overhead facing the wind. The second adult when flushed from the nest,joined the vigil overhead." The wounded-bird act differs in intensityand may or may not be accompanied by calling. On one occasion
SHORT-EARED OWL 173the excited bird struck his hat twice. The same author (1923) hasthis to add: "An interesting performance occasionally seen when thenest is visited is a steep dive toward the ground by the adult, the out-stretched wings being brought together under the body as the birddescends, the ends being clapped together rapidly, the sound beingdistinctly audible when the bird is within one hundred feet." This isan illustration of a use of part of the courtship performance by birdsat moments of intense excitement, even when not connected with theamatory instinct.Saunders (1913) describes the wounded-bird act as follows:The bird circles at a height of about fifty feet, then drops straight down closeto the intruder until within two or three feet of the ground, then sails low over thegrass and brush in the opposite direction from the nest until a hundred feet ormore away when he lights on the ground facing the intruder, squealing as thoughin great pain, and with wings widespread and flapping. If followed he will waittill one gets within about twenty-five feet, then slowly and carefully folds hiswings one at a time, rises and sails a little farther away and repeats the wingflapping and squealing. If one is not watching him when he first drops to theground, he frequently calls attention to himself by flapping his wings against hissides or breast as he drops, producing a sudden loud and startling noise that isvery surprising in a bird whose flight is ordinarily perfectly silent.An amusing variation of the wounded-bird act is given by Kitchin(1919): "We were here treated to a most ridiculous performance bythe male bird. While watching the female we suddenly heard anawful groaning and chuckling sound behind us. This was the maleand he was mad clear through, darting back and forth and utteringthese awful sounds. Finally, he could stand it no longer and literallydove into a bunch of high weeds, where he twisted and turned, and towatch the tops of the weeds one would think that nothing less than adeath struggle was going on."Plumages.?[Author's note: When first hatched the nestling isfairly well covered with rather short soft down, grayish white or buffywhite above and nearly pure white below. Witherby's Handbook(1924) says: "Base of down dark brown along wing, at base of wingand on each side of mantle, forming dark lines or narrow patches."This natal down is soon replaced by the secondary down, whichappears simultaneously with the first downy plumage, very loose andsoft in structure. A nestling about 6 inches long shows the firstplumage appearing on the back, but the under parts are now coveredwith long, soft, "cinnamon-buff" down, tinged with grayish on thechest. A still larger nestling, about 10 inches long, is well featheredon the back with the first plumage, "Verona brown" to "bister",broadly tipped with "cinnamon-buff"; the wings have just startedto grow, but the tail has not yet appeared; the long, soft, thick downof the under parts is "cinnamon-buff", suffused with dusky on thechest and throat; the facial disks are now brownish black. The first
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winter plumage, which is much like that of the adult, soon begins toappear through the downy plumage, and the latter is graduallymolted while the wings and tail are growing. By September orOctober, or perhaps earlier in early hatched birds, the young bird isfully clothed in a firm plumage, which is practically adult.Adults have a complete, annual molt between August and Novem-ber. Witherby (1924) says that a molt of the body plumage occursbetween January and March. Although the manuals do not mentionit, I have noticed that adult males, perhaps the oldest birds, averagemuch paler in color than the females. Some of the old males have analmost pure-white ground color on the belly, only faintly cream-white on the breast, and pure white on the tibiae and under tailcoverts; in these birds the light edges above vary from "cream-buff"to white. On the other hand, the darkest females are colored
"ochraceous-buff" to "warm buff" on these parts. These differencesmay be color phases or partially due to age or seasonal changes, butthere seems to be an average sexual difference.T. Russell Goddard (1935), while studying short-eared owls inEngland, discovered "that there were two distinct colour forms* * *?a brown form and a grey form. Of the six birds underobservation during April and May three were brown and three weregrey. They were paired in the following manner?two browns, twogreys and a grey male paired with a brown female. The grey formwas literally a cold grey without any warm brown about it at all.The feathers on the breast and tarsi, which in the brown form are awarm buff, were white in the grey form. The grey form of the Short-eared Owl was, in fact, quite as cold in colour as the extreme grey formof the tawny owl (Strix aluco)."]Food.?The short-eared owl is the friend of man, and if he had beentreated as he deserved and not shot on sight?as is man's stupid andcruel habit?the damage to our young orchards by mice, now socommon, would be less. Rodents of various kinds, particularlymeadow or field mice (Microtus), which do so much harm, are hisfavorite food. Dr. A. K. Fisher (1893b) reports the findings in thestomach of 101 short-eared owls as follows: "1 contained smallbirds; 77, mice; 7, other mammals; 7, insects, and 14 were empty."Of the mice, nearly all were meadow mice, a few white-footed, pine,and house mice. Six shrews, a cotton rat, a rabbit, and a pocketgopher were the other mammals listed. A grackle, a red-wingedblackbird, 4 juncos, 11 sparrows of various species, and a robin werethe bird victims.Junius Henderson (1927) states that 75 percent of the food of thisowl consists of mice and that it is more insectivorous than any otherof our owls except the burrowing and perhaps the screech owl. Onestomach contained 50 grasshoppers, one 18 May beetles, and one 13
SHORT-EARED OWL, 175
cutworms. Of 254 stomachs examined, 15 percent contained birds.Cahn and Kemp (1930) examined 137 pellets of this owl and foundthe remains of 110 small mammals of five species and of three birds;two were meadowlarks and one a vesper sparrow.Errington (1932c) from a study of pellets found the remains of 68meadow mice, 115 deer mice, 1 snow bunting, and 1 meadowlark,and he says that this owl "seemed to show a distinct preference forsmall mammalian over small avian prey, even at times when smallbirds may have actually far outnumbered the rodents which weredepended on for food."Although rodents are the chief of this bird's diet there are occa-sional exceptions generally under unusual circumstances. ThusWilliam Brewster (1879) found at Muskegat a small colony of short-eared owls that preyed on the nesting terns. At least a hundred hadbeen killed and eaten, judged from the remains, and in each case thebreast had been picked clean, but nothing but the breast had beeneaten. At this island in June 1913, I found about 50 terns treatedin this way by the short-eared owls. Nothing but the breasts andentrails had been eaten. The remains of the terns were found singlyor in groups of three to six. Laurence M. Huey (1926b) reports anentire California black rail, swallowed in two pieces, in the stomachof a short-eared owl. He also reports in detail the contents of twopellets of this bird from a salt marsh near San Diego. In one ofthese were the skulls and other bones of two species of bats and theremains of a meadow mouse, of a Belding's marsh sparrow, and of aSavannah sparrow. The other contained the remains of the twospecies of bats, of an American pipit, and unidentified bird bones,feathers, and mouse hair. Pierce Brodkorb (1928) reports twojuncos and two swamp sparrows found in one stomach and in anothera snow bunting. Urner (1923) found a nest of this owl "literallycarpeted with the feathers of small birds. At its edge was a freshly-killed Sharp-tailed Sparrow. I found no remains of mice and onlyone small pellet composed apparently of feathers." Ludwig Kumlien(1899) found a nest in Wisconsin made up of feathers and mattedgrass in which he found the remains of more than 40 species of birdsvarying in size from a kinglet to a meadowlark and, curiously enough,no trace of any mammal. He took the three young, about two weeksold, to his house and found they required 12 to 15 English sparrowsdaily to satisfy them.J. A. Munro (1918) records the following:Between September 28 and October 16, 1909, I spent several days collectingin a small dry meadow, on the south shore of Ashbridge's Marsh [Toronto].Short-eared Owls were more numerous than usual and were apparently feedingentirely on small birds. Four stomachs examined contained feathers and birdbones exclusively. In a small tract of dry grassy meadow, roughly estimatedat fifty acres, I found feathers of the following species marking the spot where
176 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMthey had been eaten by owls; one Hermit Thrush, one Sora, three Yellow-belliedSapsuckers, one Slate-colored Junco, one White-crowned Sparrow, and eighteenothers, of which there were not enough feathers left to identify the species.During April and the early part of May of the following spring, the owls wereagain plentiful, preying on the hosts of migrants, that rested along the sandbar,after crossing Lake Ontario. With one exception all the castings contained thebones and feathers of small birds. This meadow was swarming with voles, butonly one pellet, of the many examined was composed of the fur and bones ofvoles.Ivan R. Tomkins sums up and draws interesting conclusions onthe findings of pellets collected near Savannah, Ga., and examinedby the Biological Survey. He says: "The 50 pellets collected duringJanuary and February contained remains of 34 birds, of 14 identifiablespecies, and 54 mammals, of two or more species. The 18 pelletscollected m the same places during late February and March con-tained remains of 4 birds and 45 house mice. Several points ofinterest are: The unusual proportion of birds in the first lot (therewas also an abundance of birds during the last period, but mammalsseem to be the choice food then) and the presence of such species asfox and white-throated sparrows, woodpecker, flicker, and kinglets,all species preferring thickets or woods, coupled with the absence ofSavannah and song sparrows, these last very abundant in the preciselocality most inhabited by the house mice and rats."Behavior.?Owing to its diurnal habits and its love of open placesthe short-eared owl is one of the owls most frequently seen by man.It avoids forested regions, although in its extensive migrations itpasses over them as well as over the sea and has therefore beenobserved on rare occasions in the midst of a forest or many miles atsea. William A. Bryan (1903) reported one that was seen to circledown from a great height and alight on one of the yards of a vesselbound for the Hawaiian Islands and G80 miles from Puget Sound.This was in October 1902. In the same month, in 1900, another wasobserved some 500 miles from these oceanic islands.In hunting its prey the short-eared owl adopts the same habits asthe harrier, or marsh hawk, and may often be seen circling close tothe ground or flying over it, sometimes gliding, sometimes flappingand dropping down on its victims with down-stretched feet. Occasion-ally it sustains itself by hovering over one spot before it pounces.When the wind is blowing strongly, it takes advantage of the up-currents over rolling country and especially among sand dunes,where it may be seen gliding into the wind with great speed and skill.At times it may be seen sailing lightly about at a height of 20 or even30 yards, turning its round head now this way now that and closelyscanning the ground. On some occasions it alights on the groundand watches for its rodent prey to appear. II. H. Lawrence (1892)reports that in the salt marshes near South Bend, Wash., "they sat
SHOUT-EARED OWL 177much on the edges of man}' deep sloughs waiting for a species of rat.I found many evidences of their success in getting them." There is acut in the Argentine ornithological journal, El Hornero, of one of theseowls sitting on the ground with its feet on either side of a mouse hole,readjr to clasp its victim should it emerge from the ground.The short-eared owl may often be found perched motionless onfence posts or stubs of trees, in tufts of grass, or even on the bareground. Here among dead grass, especially in sand dunes, it is verydifficult to see. On one occasion after being deceived several timesby owls that resembled stumps or small posts flecked with lichen orsand or snow, I was willing to consider a certain obvious stump tobe an owl, but after changing my mind and deciding it was not one,the "stump" opened its wings and flew away! In such situations,the owl remaining perfectly motionless until the fatal moment, doubt-less snaps up many a wandering mouse.Although this owl hunts freely by day it hunts more freely at duskand in the early dawn, and it also hunts at night. It sleeps at inter-vals both day or night usually concealed in tufts of grass and some-times in thick evergreens, in the latter no doubt in storms. Inwalking over an upland pasture or marsh, or among sand dunes, onemay suddenly flush a short-cared owl, disturbed from its nap orwatching for a victim, or feasting on one already lolled. Once Iflushed one in dunes that, judging from the many feathers about, hadbeen eating a robin. At such times the owl flies away, sails gracefullyabout, and often alights again at no great distance.Charles A. Urner (1923) reports the following interesting behaviorof a short-eared owl. After he had answered the call of a yellowlegs
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Suddenly a Short-eared Owl came out of the growing darkness and dove at mystraw hat. He missed it by inches. I whistled the Yellow-legs call again. Heturned and dove at me the second time with no end of determination in his manner.Six times I whistled and six times he turned and swooped at me, finally alightingon a mud pile nearby to look the situation over more carefully. I stood in theopen marsh with no protection. Had I whistled in the daylight he would haveshown no interest. Apparently he did not recognize me as a human in the dusk.He struck on the impulse of his ears?not his eyes. And apparently he knew thetaste of Yellow-legs.Short-eared owls may be seen pursuing crows and even marsh hawks.Eugene Bicknell (1919) watched a pair of owls repeatedly attacking asingle crow. "The Crow, perhaps to escape the Owls, perhaps intenton depredation of their nest, several times swept down to the groundabout a certain spot, the Owls pursuing it or awaiting its return intothe air when attack and counter-attack were renewed. The followingyear at the same place a pair were observed on February 22, attackinga Marsh Hawk."In the following incident the tables were turned against the short-eared owl as reported by H. P. Attwater (1892). He was attracted
178 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMby the cries of two red-shouldered hawks and, walking toward them,flushed three or four short-eared owls. "One in particular mountedto a great height, followed by the Hawks, and in the fierce attackwhich followed it held its own bravely for some time till they finallyappeared tired of the fight and flew away."This owl sometimes attacks large birds, possibly only in a spiritof mischief or play .and not with any intention of killing them. ThusWilliam Brewster (1925) reports one swooping at black ducks in apond, and another soaring in circles above a soaring great blue heronand swooping at and striking it repeatedly on the back. For severalminutes this performance went on, the heron circling and "croakingincessantly and, when struck by the Owl, squalling so lustily that itmight have been heard half a mile away. Quite evidently it wasbadly frightened. The Owl, without doubt, was merely amusinghimself."Clarence S. Jung (1930) describes an aerial fight between a short-eared owl and a marsh hawk. "The Owl pursued the Hawk, flyingabove the retreating bird. Hovering some ten feet above the Hawk,the Owl would suddenly swoop down in a fierce attack. In the sameinstant the Hawk would half turn like a tumbler pigeon, in such amanner so as to strike the Owl with its talons as that bird passed.The dexterity and maneuver of the two birds was amazing. Theattack was repeated seven or eight times. It is to be supposed thatthe Hawk disturbed the Owl's nest and was being driven away."Voice.?During migrations and winter the short-eared owl is oneof the most silent of birds, but on the breeding grounds especiallywhen the young are about it is far from silent. The courtship song,both vocal and instrumental, has already been described above.Charles A. Urner (1923) describes five distinct calls of the short-earedowl. The first, high pitched and rasping, resembles the barking of asmall animal. It is usually uttered in triplets and might be writtenwak, wak, wak or yak, yak, yak, but there may be eight or more rapidrepetitions. The second is uttered singly and is more prolonged,w-a-a-a-k. The third, Mr. Urner writes as wa'u or even wow. Thefourth suggests sawing or filing, a rather long drawn rasping note,while the fifth is a clear whistle-like squeal. Like most owls, youngand adults may snap their bills and hiss. Saunders (1913) statesthat the voice of the female is "higher pitched, more squeaky andless harsh than the male." The cries of the owls, especially whentheir young are disturbed, have been likened to the "squealing ofyoung pigs" and to "the barking of a young puppy" (W. W. Worth-ington, 1893). Lawrence (1892) says "this owl has a shrill barkingcall like the 'Ki-yi' of a little dog." Mabel Densmore (1924) de-scribes the notes of a pair of birds signaling to their nearly fullygrown young as "subdued noise, muffled and short, half sneeze, half
SHORT-EARED OWL 179bark" and that of the young like the sound of ' 'escaping steam turnedon and off suddenly but lasting about three seconds."Field marks.?As the short-eared owl skims the marshes and fieldslike a harrier, it might be mistaken for a marsh hawk, but the muchshorter tail and the large round owl head, as well as the absence ofwhite on the rump, ma^e its identification easy. The small "horns"or "ear-tufts" can not be seen in flight and only rarely when the birdis perched. They are so short that they are concealed when the birdis alarmed or excited and erects the feathers of the head. The lightunder parts of the bird and the small oblong black patches at the baseof the primaries seen from below are good field marks. It is aboutthe size of the broad-winged hawk from which it is at once distin-guished by its round head. A patch of creamy brown on the uppersurface of the open wing is also distinctive.Winter.?As small rodents are the favorite food of this owl, itgenerally migrates south to grassy and weedy regions where there islittle or no snow. In such favorable localities they sometimes collectin considerable numbers. Harris (1919) describes such gatherings inflocks of 8 to 50 in the prairies close to buildings in Kansas City,and Tyler (1913), in the Fresno district of California, estimated asmany as 200 of these owls hunting over stubblefields at sunset oneDecember afternoon.Frank L. Farley contributes the following note: "In the fall of1931, when engaged in threshing their grain, farmers in centralAlberta noted an unprecedented number of mice in the fields. Later,when winter set in and threshing operations were halted on accountof deep snow and extreme cold, it was discovered that the grainshocks in the fields were infested with the rodents, as many as a dozenof the destructive little animals having taken up their winter quartersunder a single shock. In October and November, unusual numbersof short-eared owls were observed patrolling the fields, hunting formice, and later their numbers were augmented by the arrival ofthousands of northern-bred birds. On December 31, 1931, H. A.MacGregor and I drove 25 miles by automobile, south of Camrosethrough the Duhamel country, and saw 24 of these owls. All werehunting in, or adjacent to, fields of shocked grain. John W. Russellrecorded in 16 days, between November 26, 1931, and February 5,1932, 116 owls, this being at the rate of 7.25 a day. The number ofmice that this vast army of owls destroyed must have reached enor-mous proportions, and the birds may have prevented what otherwisewould have resulted in a serious plague. An invaluable service wasrendered at a time of emergency, and at no cost whatever to thepeople."The short-eared owl is an interesting and beneficial bird. May itlong survive
!
180 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMDISTRIBUTIONRange.?North America, Europe, and Asia.Breeding range.?In North America the breeding range of the short-eared owl extends north to Alaska (St. Paul Island, Cape Prince ofWales, Cape Blossom, Kobuk River, Wainwright, Point Barrow, andBarter Island); Mackenzie ("50 miles below" Fort Anderson, Frank-lin Bay, and Bernard Harbor) ; northeastern Manitoba (Cape Eskimo)
;
and rarely southeastern Baffin Island (Greater Kingwah and KingniteFiord). East to rarely southeastern Baffin Island (Kingnite Fiord);Labrador (Fort Chimo, Nachvak, Ramah, Okak, and Port Manvers);Quebec (Anticosti Island and Magdalen Islands) ; Nova Scotia (Kent-ville and Halifax); Massachusetts (Rehoboth, Chatham, MuskegetIsland, and Nantucket Island); New York (Plum Island and GardinersIsland); and New Jersey (Barnegat Bay, Beach Haven, Canton, andCape May). South to New Jersey (Cape May); northwestern NewYork (Brockport and Buffalo); northern Ohio (Pymatuning Bog,Cleveland, and Circleville) ; northern Indiana (Waterloo, Cedar Lake,and Lowell); southern Illinois (Odin); Missouri (Maple Lake andKansas City); Kansas (Neosho Falls and Manhattan); probablynortheastern Colorado (Sterling); Utah (Salt Lake County andBoulter); northern Nevada (Halleck, Paradise Valley, and DeepHole); and California (probably Amedee and Los Banos). West toCalifornia (Los Banos and Palo Alto); Oregon (Klamath Lake, Bandon,Corvallis, and Salem); Washington (Olympia and Tacoma); BritishColumbia (Victoria and probably Kamloops); and Alaska (MountMcKinley, Popof Island, Unga Island, Amaknak Island, and St.Paid Island).Various authors since 1848 have cited the short-eared owl as abreeding bird of Greenland, but the evidence appears to be entirelyhearsay, which through frequent repetition has gained credence.Similarly, there appears to be no unquestioned record for Newfound-land.Winter range.?Occasionally, individual short-eared owls will re-main north in winter nearly to the limits of the breeding range but thenormal extent of the range at this season seems to extend north tosouthern British Columbia (Victoria and Okanagan); east-centralWashington (Spokane); Alberta (Camrose); Moutana (Corvallis,Boseman, and Terry) ; South Dakota (La Creek, Forestburg, and SiouxFalls); Minnesota (Fort Snelling, St. Vincent, Marshall County,Pipestone County, and Roseau County); southern Wisconsin (Madi-son and Milwaukee); southern Michigan (Ann Arbor and Detroit);southern Ontario (London) ; northern Ohio (Cedar Point and Oberlin)New York (Lockport, Rochester, and Auburn); rarely Vermont(Clarendon and Bennington); and Massachusetts (Ipswich). East
SHORT-EARED OWL 181
to Massachusetts (Ipswich, Nahant, and Marthas Vineyard) ; NewYork (Orient, College Point, and Staten Island) ; New Jersey (Camden)
;
Maryland (Baltimore, Sandy Spring, and Dorchester County); NorthCarolina (Raleigh) ; South Carolina (Marion and Bulls Island) ; Georgia(Darien and the mouth of the Savannah River) ; and Florida (AmeliaIsland and Miami). South to Florida (Miami, Cape Sable, PassageKey, and Goose Creek); Alabama (Greensboro); Louisiana (NewOrleans, Lobdell, and Cameron); Texas (Houston, Rockport, andFort Brown); Tamaulipas (Matamoros); probably rarely Hidalgo(Tlalpam); and southern Baja California (Mira Flores, San Jose delCabo, and Cape San Lucas). West to Baja California (Cape SanLucas and San Fernando); California (Salton Sea, Buena Park,Jamesan, Haywards, San Geronimo, Marysville, Willows, and Chico)
;
Oregon (Fort Klamath, Rickreall, Tillamook, and Portland); Wash-ington (Yakima, probably Nisqually Flats, and Seattle); and southernBritish Columbia (Victoria).Spring migration.?Early dates of spring arrival north of the normalwinter range are: Quebec?Kamouraska, April 10; Godbout, May 3.Ontario?Ottawa, March 26; Toronto, April 10. North Dakota
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Keene, March 13; Westhope, March 27; Bismarck, April 2; Larimore,April 15. Manitoba?Treesbank, March 31; Margaret, April 5;Shoal Lake, April 30. Saskatchewan?Indian Head, April 6; LakeJohnstone, May 10. Alberta (winters rarely)?Flagstaff, March 30;Onoway, April 1; Veteran, April 4; Belvedere, April 14. Mac-kenzie?Fort Simpson, April 28; Fort Franklin, May 20. AlaskaMount McKinley, April 30; Fort Yukon, May 7; Demarcation Point,May 12; Flat, May 15.Fall migration.?Late dates of fall departure from the breedinggrounds are: Alaska?Unalaska Island, October 5; Craig, October 18;St. Paul Island, November 8 ; Baranof Island, November 27. YukonFortymile, October 10. Mackenzie?Arctic Red River, October 23.Alberta (winters rarely )?Alix, October 15; Glenevis, October 1G.Saskatchewan?North Battleford, September 3. Manitoba?Trees-bank, November 1G. North Dakota?Keene, November 2; James-town, November 17. Ontario?Port Dover, November 5 ; Point Pelee,November 22; Ottawa, November 28. Labrador?Red Bay, Septem-ber 13. Quebec?Montreal, October 31. Maine?Portland, No-vember 14.Casual records.?According to Reid (1884) four specimens weretaken on Bermuda prior to 1884. Indians brought specimens toSalvin that they claimed had been taken "in the rough grass amongscattered pines near the tree level on the Volcan de Agua", Guatemala.This remains the only Central American record for this species. Onewas shot between December 24 and 31, 1897, at Catalina Island,Calif., and the species also was recorded on the Farallon Islands,
182 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMduring the spring of 1885 and again in May 1887 (Bryant, 1888,p. 45).Egg dates.?Alaska and Arctic Canada: 6 records, June 10 to 30.Alberta and Manitoba: 9 records, May 5 to June 20.Dakotas and Minnesota: 17 records, March 20 to June 12 ; 9 records,May 12 to 23, indicating the height of the season.Illinois, Kansas, and Nebraska: 7 records, April 8 to May 17.STRIX VARIA VARIA Bartonnorthern barred owlPlates 41-47HABITSIn southern New England and southward, as well as through mostof its habitat east of the Prairie States, the barred owl is our commonestlarge owl. I have had more experience with it than with any otherowl. It is a forest-loving bird, living mainly in the deep, dark woods,heavily wooded swamps, gloomy hemlock forests, or thick growths oftall, dense pines, where it spends most of the day in the quiet seclusionof its shady retreats. In such resorts it is seldom disturbed, but whenits haunts are invaded it is not caught napping; it often greets theintruder with its weird hooting notes and flies about quite actively,even in broad daylight. Much of its hunting is done in the opencountry and about the farms, and in fall and winter it occasionallyventures into the villages and even into cities in search of food.Courtship.?The barred owl's courtship consists mainly of loud andspectacular vocal efforts, indulged in by both sexes. Many a time,late in winter or early in spring, I have listened to the weird love notesof these, the noisiest of owls. From the dark shadows of the hem-locks or pines they hoot again and again, answering each other withloud, vehement calls, strongly accented with a rhythmic swing anda wild, strenuous cadence of great carrying power.Edward H. Forbush (1927) witnessed a performance which I havenever seen; he writes:At one of my lonely wilderness camps in the month of March a pair of BarredOwls came to the trees over my campfire and made night hideous with theirgrotesque love-making, banishing sleep during the evening hours. Their court-ing antics, as imperfectly seen by moonlight and firelight, were ludicrous in theextreme. Perched in rather low branches over the fire they nodded and bowedwith half-spread wings, and wobbled and twisted their heads from side to side,meantime uttering the most weird and uncouth sounds imaginable. Many ofthem were given with the full power of their lungs, without any regard to thesleepers, while others were soft and cooing and more expressive of the tenderemotions; sounds resembling maniacal laughter and others like mere chuckleswere interspersed here and there between loud wha whas and hoo-hod-aws.Nesting.?In the region where I hunt, in southeastern Massachu-setts, the barred owl is decidedly our commonest large owl, but it is
NORTHERN BARRED OWL 183
none too common at that. My notes, from 1891 to 1935, give therecords of 38 nests examined; in 1924 I found the nests of three pairs,and during eight other years I found the nests of two pairs each year.The local distribution of the barred owl in this region coincides almostexactly with that of the red-shouldered hawk; I have always con-sidered these two as complementary and friendly species ; their hauntsand their food are very similar; one hunts exclusively by day and theother largely by night or twilight in the same locality. They oftenuse the same nests alternately and rarely even simultaneously ; almostalways there is a red-shouldered hawk's nest in the same patch ofwoods with the barred owl; once I found the occupied hawk's nestwithin 24 yards of the owl's nest.In this region the barred owl shows a decided preference for heavy,white-pine woods; 21 of my nests have been in white pines, only 6 indeciduous woods, and the others in mixed woods of pines, oaks, andchestnuts. I believe that this owl prefers to nest in a hollow in atree, where such a site is available; but suitable hollows are ratherscarce and the owls are more often forced to appropriate an old nestof some other species. Of my 38 nests, 18 were in old nests of red-shouldered or Cooper's hawks, often in a nest of the previous year;in some few cases the hawk has used the nest again the following year
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15 nests were in hollow trees, and 5 were in what were apparently oldsquirrels' nests.With the exception of the red-shouldered hawk and the osprey, thebarred owl is the most constant in its attachment to its chosen nestingsite of any of our local hawks and owls. Brief histories of some ofour local pairs, or their successors, will illustrate this. The history ofone of our old pairs began in 1896, when Herbert K. Job discoveredthe nest in a wide, deep cavity in a large, dead oak in a tract of swampy,mixed woods near his home in North Middleboro, Mass. (pi. 42).How long it had been previously occupied nobody knows. This oldcavity came very near being a death trap for me; I shinned the oldtrunk without my clirnbers, and, in reaching into the deep cavity forthe eggs, I slipped and my arm became tightly wedged in the narrowslit at the lower end of the opening; I struggled hopelessly for 25 min-utes (by the village clock), calling in vain for help, before I finallytore my arm loose and dropped exhausted to the ground.These owls occupied this old cavity until 1905, when the tree hadrotted so badly that a hole developed just below the nest and theeggs rolled out. We found these owls off and on up to 1928, nestingin these woods in old hawks' nests or in other hollow trees; they maybe there still, for we have not hunted there carefully since. Theabove records, however, cover a period of 33 years.The Scotland pair had been regularly robbed by another collectorfor a number of years before Mr. Job and I discovered it in 1897, in an
184 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
extensive tract of heavy pine timber. Cutting off the pines begansoon after this, and the owls were obliged to shift about from onepatch of pines to another, as one lot after another was cut. In 1927we found our last nest there, after a lapse of 31 years, and soon afterthat the last of the pines were cut. Except for an unsuccessful attemptto nest in a neighboring cedar swamp, this pair always nested in oldhawks' nests in the white pines. Arthur C. Dyke tells me that hefound these owls nesting in these pines every year from 1894 to 1898,inclusive, which gives them a record of 34 years.The Winnecimnett pair has a record of 26 years, 1905 to 1930,inclusive, though this pair also was much disturbed by cutting in thewoods and was obliged to nest in five different groves of pines, one ofwhich was a quarter of a mile away. In all these cases a pair of red-shouldered hawks nested regularly in the same tract.A more recent experience illustrates the remarkable attachment ofthese owls for a favorite locality in spite of adverse circumstances.We had found a pair nesting for two seasons, 1932 and 1933, in acavity in a dead oak stub in some swampy, mixed woods. When wevisited the locality in 1934 we were disappointed to find some wood-choppers at work there; they had cut 130 cords of wood all around theold stub and were still cutting on March 31. They said that theyhad seen and heard the owls repeatedly every day and that they werenesting again in the old stub, which now stood out almost alone in thebig clearing. In spite of all this disturbance of their old home, theowls had a set of two eggs in the old stub. The following year, 1935,we hardly expected to find them. The old stub had rotted out toobadly to hold them, but they were loyal to their old home, in spite ofits barrenness, and were living in a large white-oak stub about 50yards away; this was a very unusual nest, as the cavity was open atthe top and 8 feet deep, and it held the unusual set of four eggs.When the barred owl's nest is in a natural cavity, no nesting mate-rial is taken in, the eggs being laid on the bare, rotten chips or otheraccumulated rubbish, but often the cavity is well supplied with cast-off downy feathers of the owl. Almost always a number of fluffyfeathers or bits of long, soft, gray down are scattered about, clingingto the trees or underbrush in the vicinity of the nest, or seen wavingin the breeze on the nest itself; these are very helpful in locating thenest. The cavities chosen are preferably roomy and often quite deep;but I have seen nests in cavities that looked surprisingly small. The8-foot cavity, mentioned above, was by far the deepest I have seen;on the other hand, I once found a nest in an open, shallow hollow,only about 2 inches deep, in the top of an old dead pine; it was onlyabout 30 feet above ground, and I could plainly see the owl asleep onher eggs.
NORTHERN BARRED OWL 185When an old hawk's nest is used very little is done to it, as a rule,beyond scraping out a hollow in the old lining ; but sometimes the oldnest is relined with Usnea or fresh, green sprays of white pine; occa-sionally the rim of the nest is built up somewhat with fresh sticks, andrarely it is profusely lined with green pine needles; usually it is deeplyhollowed. Old squirrels' nests are made of softer materials, andwhen one of these is used the owls remove the top structure and hollowout the center, so that not much more than the shell is left; one thatI measured was hollowed out to a depth of 9 inches, so that the owlsank down into it out of sight; the eggs were laid on what rubbishremained.Barred owls are slovenly and careless with their nests; I doubt ifthey ever succeed in building a satisfactory nest for themselves; ifthey attempt it, they generally make a poor job of it. If they can-not find a good nest to appropriate, they will take a poor one and oftenfail to make it secure. I have recorded in my notes six cases wherethe nests were so insecure that the eggs rolled out and were broken.The North Middleboro owls stuck to their old rotten stub until ahole developed in the back of it and the eggs rolled out. The Scot-land pair twice attempted to nest in such flimsy old nests that theeggs fell out and were broken, once through a hole in the center andonce through a broken-down side; we wondered if these were notattempts at nest building by the owls.Some interesting "partnership" nests have come under our observa-tion. A very old nest in a large beech tree (pi. 41), in the NorthMiddleboro woods, has yielded us four sets of red-shouldered hawk's,one set of barred owl's, and one set of great horned owl's eggs; it wasprobably originally built by the hawks. Once we were almost surethat we saw a barred owl fly from this nest, but we found that it heldthree eggs of the hawk.The "reservoir woods", in Rehoboth, had long been the home ofone of our old reliable pairs of red-shouldered hawks until 1924, whena pair of barred owls came in for the first time and occupied the hawk'snest of the previous year, 48 feet up in the main crotch of a largescarlet oak. Four years later this nest was occupied by a pair of red-tailed hawks. Since then no hawks or owls of any land have beenfound in these woods.Mr. Job (1908) tells of a nest in Seekonk, Mass., from which abarred owl had been flushed several times. He went there one dayto photograph the owl but was surprised to see a red-shouldered hawkfly from the nest, which was found to contain three eggs of the hawk.Someone took these eggs, but later on the nest was found to containtwo eggs of the owl and one of the hawk.13751?38 13
186 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMDr. Louis B. Bishop has sent me his notes on two mixed sets of eggsof these two species, which he collected near New Haven, Conn., inthe same tract of woods in two different years. He had collectedseven sets of eggs of the hawk there during previous years. Thefirst nest contained three eggs of the hawk and one of the owl, theformer somewhat advanced in incubation and the owl's egg fresh.The owl was on the nest, and the nest contained many downy feathersof the owl, but none of the hawk. This nest was about 300 yardsfrom a nest often used by the hawks, from which he had once takena set of barred owl's eggs. The second nest was found the followingyear, and probably the same birds were responsible for it. It con-tained two eggs of the hawk and one of the owl, all somewhat ad-vanced in incubation; the hawk was incubating. It would be inter-esting to know whether both species would share in the incubationand in the care of the young.Judge John N. Clark (1887) writes of a nest near Saybrook, Conn.,built by a Cooper's hawk, 80 feet from the ground in a giant chestnuttree, which was occupied during four successive years by the Cooper'shawk, a great horned owl, a red-tailed hawk, and a barred owl.Walter A. Goelitz (1916) found a barred owl nesting in a hollow stubwithin 5 feet of an occupied nest of a red-shouldered hawk, in PiattCounty, 111. William W. Rubey (1927) tells of a pair of barred owlsthat nested in a wooden packing box put up in a tree by boys: "Thetree stood in a small, open grove, surrounded by houses and streets,and only 90 feet from a large residence. The box {!){ by l)i feet, openabove and 2 feet deep) was mounted 24 feet above the ground in alarge tulip tree, and could be reached by rungs nailed to the trunk."Eggs.?The northern barred owl lays ordinarily two or three eggs,oftener two than three, and rarely four. Three eggs seem to becommoner in western sets and two eggs in eastern sets. In my 38nests were 28 sets of two, 8 sets of three, and only 2 sets of four.Of 23 sets in the J. P. Norris collection, 13 are sets of two and 10 setsof three; this includes 4 sets of three and 2 sets of two from Iowa.There is a set of five in the United States National Museum, but itmay have been laid by two birds. The eggs are oval or rounded-ovalin shape; the shell is more or less granulated, slightly rough to thetouch, and not glossy. The color is pure white. The measurementsof 82 eggs average 49 by 42 millimeters; the eggs showing the fourextremes measure 55.5 by 44, 52 by 45, and 42.5 by 37.5 millimeters.Young.?The incubation period is said to be between 21 and 28days; I suspect that the latter figure is more nearly correct. Thefemale is supposed to do most of the incubating. Only one brood israised in a season, but, if the first set of eggs is taken, a second set willbe laid about three or four weeks later; sometimes even a third setmay be laid.
NORTHERN BARRED OWL 187Young barred owls are hatched with their eyes closed, but by the endof a week their eyes are partially opened, they begin to show someactivity when handled, and are able to utter a faint peeping sound.The young are brooded by their parents most of the time until theyare at least three weeks old, when they begin to move about more andare beginning to show fight when handled, snapping their bills, turningover onto their backs, and presenting formidable sets of claws; onehas to handle them with heavy gloves.The coming and going of the adults and the increasing activities ofthe young reduce what was once a well-built and deeply hollowed nestto a smaller and flatter platform; this makes the nest increasinglydangerous as a cradle for the young, and the old owls do not seem toknow how to meet the situation. I can remember at least three young,half grown or less, that have fallen from the nest; one of these dis-appeared, probably killed and eaten by some predator. I happenedto see one of the others fall, in attempting to back up to the insecureedge of the nest; the fall of 57 feet did not seem to have hurt himseriously, so I returned him to the nest. The third one I found atthe base of the tree, apparently unhurt after a fall of 45 feet.When about four or five weeks old, the young are able to climb outof the now dilapidated nest and move about among the surroundingbranches before they are able to fly; I have never seen them on theground at this age, as I have several times seen young great hornedowls. A young bird that I took from a nest, when fully three weeksold, refused to eat unless food was actually placed in his mouth, fromwhich I infer that the old birds must tear up the food and feed it to theyoung up to this age at least.I have some evidence to indicate that young barred owls areattended, and probably fed, by their parents during their first summerand perhaps much longer. On August 7, 1935, my cousin, Arthur R.Sharp, Jr., shot on his farm and gave to me two young owls that wereprobably fully four months old, that were being followed about byat least one of their parents, and were apparently calling upon themfor food. Pie has sent me the following notes on his experience withthem:
"Shortly after I had heard a barred owl hoot, not more than 100yards away, a squeaking noise, at first supposed to come from a rat,issued from the same direction though it seemed nearer. On approach-ing, it became increasingly apparent to me that this frequentlyrepeated sound came from two birds situated where the original hoot-ing had been heard. As the first bird fell to the gun, the secondflew about 50 yards into the woods and again began to squeak.They proved to be young barred owls, practically fully grown andwell feathered except for the head, which was still covered withfeathery down.
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"The call was a squeaky sound verging on a hiss and might bedescribed as a sibilant squeak. Each call lasted about three secondsand was repeated regularly at intervals of from 10 to 30 seconds. Itcan be fairly imitated by curling both lips outward, drawing the lowerlip over the upper teeth and, with jaws tight together, sucking inslowly. The sound ends at a higher pitch, which is accomplished bysucking faster."To see if the old owl would decoy, I imitated this sound over a 45-minute period, starting an hour after the death of the young. Theonly result was an unproved sound, almost a whisper, which can bedescribed as wu-wu-wu, in the same cadence as the note of the katydid,not unlike but much lower and fainter than that of the barred owl.This call was made six times from five different positions, makingalmost a circle around our position, and taking in all about fiveminutes."Frank Bolles (1890) took two young barred owls from a cavity in agiant beech and raised them in captivity. They developed into veryinteresting pets, and he has written a full account of his experienceswith them. At first "they were savage, using beaks and clawsvigorously. * * * No one's fingers were safe inside the barswhen the young gluttons were hungry. When satisfied they werestolid, and did little beyond moving their heads and snapping theirbeaks." Later they became very tame, and he was able to carrythem about with him on long tramps through the woods and fields;they sat contentedly on a stick that he carried in his hand, or perchedwherever he left them on any other object, and were always ready toreturn home with him. They always attracted large gatherings ofsmall birds of many species, particularly flickers, blue jays, red-eyedvireos, and chickadees, which showed their animosity in no uncertainterms.Plumages.?When first hatched the young barred owl is fairly wellcovered with thick, soft, pure-white down, quite silky on the back.When between two and three weeks old, the white down begins to bepushed out and replaced by the secondary down, or first downyplumage; on the back and wings these downy feathers arc broadlywhite terminally and basally buffy, broadly banded with "bister";the downy feathers of the breast are similar but paler; the belly,flanks, and thighs are clothed with long, soft, fluffy down, longest onthe thighs, basally light buff, and terminally yellowish white to white
;
at this age the wings are starting to grow, but not the tail.During the next two or three weeks the wings grow rapidly, and thedowny plumage becomes more fully developed, the white tips becomingmore conspicuous above, and the under parts, including the flanksand belly, becoming irregularly barred or spotted with "wood brown"on a grayish-white ground color and with less buff showing basally.
NORTHERN BARRED OWL 189The molt into the first winter plumage begins at this age with theappearance of the first firm feathers on the back and scapulars. Thelong feathers of the flanks and abdomen, each with a broad, medianstripe of dark brown, appear next, and are fully grown before thetransversely barred feathers of the upper breast are perfected. Intwo young birds taken on August 7, about four months old, the headsare still mainly covered with the soft, juvenal, downy plumage; andthe long, soft, downy plumage covers the thighs.By late in September, in New England, the young bird has a fullydeveloped first winter plumage, showing the transverse barring on theupper breast and the longitudinal striping on the belly and flanks.It is now like the adult, except that the general tone is slightly browner,with buff instead of white bars on the hind neck and with more palebuff on the under parts; the light bars in the wings and tail are alsotinged with buff. These buff tints all fade away during the winter,so that old and young birds are indistinguishable by spring. Adultsapparently have a complete molt during summer and early in fall, butmolting birds seem to be very scarce in collections.Food.?The food of the barred owl is varied and includes maivyspecies of mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fishes, and insects.It is, on the whole, decidedly a beneficial species, as most of its foodconsists of injurious rodents and other animals of doubtful value, andit does very little damage to poultry and game. Dr. A. K. Fisher(1893b) reports that "of 109 stomachs examined, 5 contained poultryor game; 13, other birds; 46, mice; 18, other mammals; 4, frogs; 1, alizard; 2, fish; 14, insects; 2, spiders; 9, crawfish." He quotes severalauthorities as saying that this owl is very destructive to domesticpoultry, particularly young chickens; but his investigations showedthat poultry formed a very small part of its food. What few gamebirds are taken are probably the weaker or more sickly individuals,thus preventing reproduction from unhealthy parents and improvingthe strength of the race. Mice seem to form the bulk of the food;he says that Dr. C. Hart Merriam took the remains of at least a dozenred-backed mice from a single owl.The following mammals have been recorded in the food of the barredowl: Mice of many species, rats, chipmunks, gray, red, flying, and foxsquirrels, young hares, rabbits, minks, opossums, weasels, moles,shrews, and bats. The list of birds is still longer; it contains chickens,pigeons, doves, grouse, quail, small owls, purple gallinule, flickers andother woodpeckers, kingfisher, crow, blue jay, cardinal, towhee, juncoand other sparrows, blackbirds, various warblers, swallows, brownthrasher, catbird, and robin and other thrushes. Other items arefrogs, crayfishes, lizards, small snakes, snails, slugs, salamanders,flesh of a terrapin, perch, hornpout and other fishes, grasshoppers,crickets, large beetles, and spiders.
190 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMDr. Paul L. Errington (1932c), in summarizing his study of thefood of this owl, says:It can perhaps be surmised from the data, without discussion, that the food ofthe Barred Owls was determined in the main by what was available to them.Their food was further determined by what was within the power of their weakfeet to kill. The ordinary size limit for avian prey was the flicker; for mammalianprey, moles and part-grown cottontails. The mink listed in no. 20 is the oneglaring exception that I have encountered, though it is not to be said positivelythat the mink had not died from causes other than Barred Owl talons. Possiblyit had attempted liberties with the tethered owlet. Altogether, the BarredOwl seems endowed with about as mild a personality as a raptor could have andyet maintain a predaceous existence, in some instances subsisting for considerableperiods upon large invertebrates (insects and crayfish) or upon fish or amphibians.He says elsewhere (1930) that "in one experiment 55 Englishsparrows (released alive in cage) were eaten in 154 hours" by one owl;and 49 sets of mandibles were recognized in the pellets. This partiallyupsets the theory that pellets are unreliable as indicators of birdseaten.Mr. Bolles (1890) says that his captive owls considered mice "arare treat, and they swallowed them without hesitation, head fore-most." He once "found a large number of mice in a barrel of excelsior.Carefully taking out most of the packing," he placed one of the owlsin the bottom of the barrel. "The mice spun round him in confusingcircles, but with great coolness he caught one after another untilnineteen were disposed of. The Owls between them ate the entirenumber within six hours." They had never seen fish until he putsome live perch and bream in their bathing tank, but they soon caughtand ate them all. They also caught and devoured live frogs that heplaced in their cage. He could not keep the owls in the sunny cellarwhere his hens were, for they caught and ate some of his pullets "andterrified the survivors so that their lives were a burden."Lewis O. Shelley has sent me some interesting notes on the captureof a cottontail rabbit by a barred owl in winter, and a diagram showingtheir tracks in the snow. He says that "the owl's talons, from visiblesigns, became fastened in the rabbit's back, midway; and for an even,erratic 84 yards the rabbit ran, with the owl holding fast and every sooften flapping its wings to maintain a balance, or trying in vain tolaunch into the air, as wing marks in the snow, on either side of thetrail made by the rabbit, showed. For all this distance the rabbitlabored, not on a steady run, but with spasmodic hops and rushes, forits belly every so often flattened into and trailed the snow." Therabbit tried twice to free itself from its enemy by running under bushesor low branches, but in vain. Where the conflict ended was found
"an owl pellet and a rabbit's hind leg. The fur-lined arena heldnumerous rabbit tracks and those of the owl."
NORTHERN BARRED OWL 191There is plenty of evidence that barred owls do much of theirhunting in broad daylight. I have several times seen one flying aboutin the open. A. D. DuBois tells me that he saw one "fly to the groundseveral times, in a low woodland, where it caught and ate some sortof prey." C. L. Rawson (1883) saw one that was clinging "to thetop of a white birch with one claw, and was tearing away at a squirrel'snew domed nest with the other claw."Dr. George M. Sutton (1928) writes:The Barred Owl is apparently the enemy of all the smaller owls. On May31, 1923, a Barred Owl was seen chasing a Screech Owl, the smaller creature cryingout in mortal terror. One killed on May 12, 1922, had the remains of a ScreechOwl and a Field Mouse in its stomach. The result of the big Owl's cannibalistichabits is that there are virtually no Screech Owls anywhere in Pymatuning, andwhere they do occur they almost never call. So far as I have been able to deter-mine, the Great Horned Owl never preys upon the smaller owls, and I offer noevidence that the Barred Owl ever captures the Barn, Long-eared, or Short-earedOwl.Mr. Forbush (1927) found the remains of long-eared owls in thestomachs of two barred owls, and in the stomach of one of the long-eared owls were the remains of a screech owl, a case of cannibal eatcannibal.Barred owls, as well as some other large owls and hawks, have well-marked feeding nests, old nests to which they carry their prey to tearit up and devour it at their leisure. Such nests are often well deco-rated with downy feathers, and I have been tempted to climb to themon several occasions. One of these, used by a barred owl, containedthe posterior half of a large hornpout, the hind leg of a cottontailrabbit, numerous bits of fur and feathers, and about a handful ofsmall, white fish bones, such as are found in kingfishers' nests. Thesefeeding nests are generally not far from the breeding nests, in the samepatch of woods.Behavior.?The flight of the barred owl is light, buoyant, and noise-less, with rather slow beats of its spacious wings; it often glides grace-fully and skillfully among the intricacies of the forest branches, slidingupward in a curving glide as it alights. It probably is not swiftenough to catch birds on the wing, but is quick enough in pouncingon its stationary prey from a silent approach. I have seen it flyinghigh in the air when pursued by crows, but I have never seen it soaring.Its behavior about its nest varies with different individuals; somebirds fly from the nest when they hear the intruder coming; othersfly when the tree is rapped; one bird, with which I was familiar forseveral years, always remained on the nest until I was partway upthe tree; once I saw her asleep on a low nest. This bird was so tamethat I had no difficulty in photographing her on her nest; while I wasperched in a treetop, within 15 feet of the nest, she returned to thenest again and again to brood her young, after I had purposely scared
192 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMher off; after a few attempts I had difficulty in making her leave atall (pi. 42).I consider the barred owl a very gentle bird for a raptor. I havenever had one even threaten to attack me, even when I was handlingthe young. The most aggressive ones have merely flown about at asafe distance, snapping their bills loudly. Other people have beenattacked, however. Mr. Bolles (1890) shot the two old birds when hetook the young and says: "The gun was quite necessary, for my friendwould have fared badly in climbing if I had not shot the old birdsbefore they could attack him." Dr. Sutton (1928) says: "The adultswere so combative, whenever Mr. Cook climbed the tree, that he tooka club with him for protection." H. D. Ruhl (1926) was attackedwhile handling the young in a nest, and gave his companion a chanceto photograph the event; he writes:In order to get a picture I deliberately turned rny back, took a firm grip on thetrunk and began to tease the young until they would utter a shrill squeal. Aftera few minutes the female swooped down and struck me on the shoulders with bothher feet. Although expected, the first impact was rather a surprise to me, anda new experience. The talons pierced my heavy shirt and underwear and lefttheir marks in my skin. In about three minutes the female struck again and bythis time the male seemed to think it must be a safe proposition for he, too, struckme, but with more caution and less damage. After the female had left her marksfor the third time, Mr. Hurlbert thought that he must have some good films andI was more than ready to call it enough.The prevailing impression that owls cannot see in daylight is errone-ous. The eyesight of the barred owl is particularly keen. Mr.Bolles (1890) often left one of his owls perched in the open sunlightand found that it "was keenly alive to anything passing skyward, forif a Hawk or Crow came into view far away in the deep blue, Puffy 'sgaze was instantly turned full upon the growing speck, the eyelidspartly closed and a most intense look coming into his eyes. Again andagain Puffy has seen Hawks or Gulls overhead which my eyes, althoughunusually far-sighted, have at first been unable to discern. On oneeventful day he showed me 334 Hawks sailing southwest under thepressure of a stiff northeast gale."On the other hand, he says: "Contrary to my expectations theOwls are not appreciably more active in twilight hours than at othertimes, and I think they are quiet, possibly asleep, at night. I am cer-tain that in an ordinary degree of darkness they cannot see. If thelight goes out while Fluffy is flying in my cellar in the evening, he issure to crash into something or fall heavily to the ground. I haveheld Puffy close to a cat in the dark, and he was wholly unaware of herpresence."Their sense of hearing is very keen, as it is with all owls. Dr.Fisher (1893b) tells of a pair that came from a distance of over 50yards in response to a low squeaking sound he made to attract birds.
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I have repeatedly had one leave a nest in a deep hollow, aroused bythe slight rustling of dry leaves, as I tried to approach silently. Mr.Bolles thought that his owls depended more on sight than on hearingin securing their prey. He says that his owls not only drank buttook prolonged baths whenever fresh water was given to them, evenin the coldest weather.Mr. Shelley tells me that this owl has an acumen for detecting baitat skunk traps set in burrows. In most cases the meat used as bait isanointed with an oil obtained from trout. It is a very smelly oil andseems to be enticing to owls, especially the barred owl, which has beentrapped in the mouths of burrows where the bait was covered andcould be detected only by a keen sense of smell. He gives an interest-ing account in his notes of a wounded owl of this species that he nursedback to health. The shot wounds had evidently produced a fever, forthe owl was very listless, refused all food, and drank water, "taking itas a feverish person might." After two or three days of fasting, forcedfeeding was tried with gradually improving results. At the end of 17days the owl had entirely recovered and was liberated.Voice.?The barred owl is a noisy bird at all seasons, except whenthere are young in the nest, when it is more quiet. Its vocal per-formances are most spectacular and thrilling, loud, emphatic, andquite varied. The antiphonal hootings of a pair of these owls, heardat any time during the day or night, will hold the hearer spellbound
;
when heard close at hand at night, they are fairly startling, as if a pairof demons were fighting. Once while I was fire-lighting for deer in theAdirondacks, our canoe floated under an overhanging tree ; the peacefulsilence of our noiseless motion was rudely broken by a series ofunearthly yells over our heads; fully expecting to see a panther, or atleast a wildcat, jump into our canoe, we were greatly relieved to see apair of barred owls fly away.The ordinary call note, the one oftenest heard, consists of two groupsof four or five syllables each, given with a rhythmic swing and stronglyaccented, loud, wild, and strenuous, hoo-hoo-to-hoo-ooo, hoo-hoo-hoo-to-whooo-ooo ; the first two syllables in the former group and the firstthree in the latter group are distinct, deliberate, and low-toned; thelast two are run together, with a strong accent on the next to the last,which is the loudest of all, rising in pitch and then sliding down thescale and diminishing in volume as the final sjdlable ends.There are many variations in this call, which is sometimes reduced tothree, or even two, syllables, or only one group is given. Anothervariation is ho-ho-ho-to-hoo-ah, ending in a loud, harsh note. A crythat seems to express anger sounds like ho-ho-to-whdh-ow, or whah-whah-whah-to-hoooo, with loud, nasal, rasping notes, as of derisivelaughter. Again I have heard two or three soft hooting notes of uni-form rhythm and with little accent, in a deep base tone much like the
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notes of the great horned owl. Twice I have recorded in my notes aprolonged, tremulous call, who-o-o-o-o-o-o, much like that of thescreech owl in form, but much louder. Once this note seemed to havea whining quality, which I recorded as wee-ow-o-w-ow-ow. I have oftennoticed that when a pair of owls are calling and answering each otherthere is a decided difference in pitch between the two voices; fancymight attritute the deep base voice to the male, but it may be justthe reverse.William Brewster (1925) has much to say about the voice of this owl.He refers to a "prolonged and cat-like scream. * * * Althoughcoming from a distance of nearly half a mile, this outcry was so loud,so piercing and so expressive of ferocity as to be very thrilling. Itended, however, with a hoarse hoo-ah which could issue from nothroat other than that of a Barred Owl, thus once more confirming myimpression as to the authorship of the 'caterwauling'."Referring to the nocturnal serenades heard in the spring, he says:"They consist of loud and prolonged outbursts of cackling, laughing,and whooping sounds delivered very rapidly and interspersed, as wellas ending, with the familiar ho-hdo-ah. Although probably inspiredchiefly by sexual ardour or rivalrv, they seem more suggestive ofloquacious and boisterous mirth. Both sexes take part in them andsometimes as many as three or four birds will be gabbling and laughingat once or in unbroken succession, making the woods ring with theiralmost deafening clamor, perhaps for minutes at a time."Mr. Forbush (1927) says that the common call is often translated"who cooks for you? who cooks for you all?", which gives a very goodidea of it. The call is easily imitated, and anyone who can do it wellshould have no difficulty in calling up any barred owls within hearing.Francis H. Allen tells me of a note that I have never heard, "a husky,whistling note, with an almost human quality, ascending sharply atthe end. It might be written shooeet, but it has a strident qualityimpossible to express in syllables. It may be imitated by whistlingthickly, not clearly, between the tip of the tongue and the inside gumabove the upper incisors." This sounds very much like the food callof the young, described above by Mr. Sharp. Audubon (1840) refersto a "hissing noise in lieu of a call", made by the young, which "maybe heard in a calm night, for fifty or probably a hundred yards, and isby no means musical. To a person lost in a swamp, it is, indeed,extremely dismal."Mr. Shelley tells me that one night when he was out coon huntingwith his hound, a barred owl four times gave a barking note, so muchlike the baying of his hound that he was completely fooled, until hetraced the bark to the owl.Enemies.?The misguided sportsman and the farmer with a gunare the owl's worst enemies; any hawk or owl is shot on sight, as a
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supposed killer of game or poultry; many large owls are shot to bemounted as ornaments, or as trophies of man's prowess. Next to mancrows seem to be the owls' bitterest enemies. I have often traced thelocation of an owl by the clamor made by a band of noisy crows thatwere pestering him. No sooner does a crow discover an owl than hecalls up all his friends and the fun begins. I have no evidence to showthat the crows ever inflict any serious injury on the owl, but they makelife miserable for him, darting at and about him and heaping uponhis innocent head all the vile epithets that crow profanity and insultinglanguage can produce. J. D. Carter (1925) gives the followinginteresting account of this:No sooner was the bird on the wing than a party of Crows, idling in the neigh-borhood, gave chase with all the choice expletives which are reserved for the bigOwls. When perched in the midst of a cawing mob, the Owl would duck its headwhen one of the Crows made a dive at it, and would often counter by a thrust ofthe beak. When the Crows were quiet enough, the snapping of the Owl's beakcould be plainly heard for 100 yards. The Owl did not make any visible attemptto use its feet as weapons. On two occasions it dived into a big hollow beechtree, leaving the watching mob outside. No doubt the Crows would have goneaway in time, but in both cases the Owl came out again before they had dispersed.When perched in the open, the Owl's plan, if it had any, was to endure the pester-ing and profanity until the Crows one by one lost interest and drifted away; thenby easy stages, approach, and finally disappear in the nest cavity. It did notapproach its nest so long as a single Crow appeared to be watching. There wasno loud talk near the nursery door.Though the barred owl is a gentle bird, as a rule, he has plenty ofcourage and is no mean fighter when necessity requires it. In thefight between a goshawk and a barred owl, referred to under the formerspecies, the owl was apparently the last to die, after putting up a goodfight. Mr. Bolles (1890) found that practically all small birds showedgreat antipathy to his owls, teasing and annoying them wheneverthey were left in the open. But he says:It was when a venerable and fiery-tempered Logcock caught sight of him onAugust 21, that the full force of Woodpecker eloquence was let out. Puffy seemedto recognize a hereditary foe, for before the Pileated came into my view the Owlsuddenly changed his appearance from rough-feathered and sleepy content to anastonishing resemblance to an old moss-grown stump. He effected the transfor-mation by standing up very straight, nearly closing his eyes, and making hisfeathers lie absolutely sleek against his attenuated body. Once on anotheroccasion when he ran away from me, he climbed to the top of a small oak stumpand made himself look so like a continuation of it that I passed him four timeswithout detecting his presence. Not so the Pileated, for with a shrieking cackle,his crest gleaming in the sunlight, he flew at the Owl so savagely that I expectedto see my pet slain on the spot. He only ruffled Puffy 's feathers, however, andmade the poor bird unhappy for some time by his discordant cries and frequentflights and counter flights.Field marks.?The barred owl may be recognized easily; it is a largegray owl, much grayer than the great horned owl and somewhat
196 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
smaller, spotted with white above, barred transversely on the breastand striped lengthwise on the belly and flanks, with a large, roundedhead, no ear tufts, large black eyes, and a yellow bill.Winter.?Mr. Forbush (1927) writes:It winters over most of its range, but seems to desert its most northern breedinggrounds in winter, where a southward migration has been reported often. Inseasons of deep snow, when mice can keep under cover, and especially whennorthern hares are scarce, great flights of Barred Owls come from the north intoNew England. At such times when in search of food this species may be foundalmost anywhere; many come into towns and cities where they find mice, rats,sparrows, doves and starlings, on all of which they prey. In March, 1922, aBarred Owl roosted daily for a long time on the trees about the City Hall or inKing's Chapel and the Granary Burying Grounds in Boston, where it attractedthe attention of the passing crowds; and there was another on Beacon Hill. Oneremained for several days in the trees in the Public Garden, and the species wasreported here and there about the suburbs.DISTRIBUTIONRange.?North America east of the Rocky Mountains and south ofHudson Bay. Nonmigratory.The range of the barred owl extends north to northern Alberta(Fort McMurray); central Manitoba (Chemawawin) ; Ontario (prob-ably Rat Portage and Moose Factory); and Quebec (Quebec, St.Joachim, Godbout, and Anticosti Island). East to Quebec (AnticostiIsland) ; Nova Scotia (Pictou, Kentville, and Halifax) ; Maine (Bucks-port and Norway); southern New Hampshire (Franklin Falls andWebster) ; Massachusetts (Danvers, Boston, Middleboro, Dartmouth,and Muskeget Island, casually); southeastern New York (Brooklynand Staten Island) ; New Jersey (Lawrenceville, Pensauken Creek, SeaIsle City, and probably Seven Mile Beach) ; Maryland (Laurel) ; Dis-trict of Columbia (Washington) ; eastern Virginia (Bristow, Ashland,Spottsville, and Dismal Swamp); North Carolina (Raleigh and LakeEllis) ; South Carolina (Georgetown, Mount Pleasant, and Frogmore)
;
Georgia (Savannah, Blackbeard Island, and Okefinokee Swamp) ; andFlorida (Watertown, Palatka, San 'Mateo, Fruitland Park, MerrittIsland, Kissimmee Prairie, Orange Hammock, Okeechobee, Lantana,and Royal Palm Hammock). South to Florida (Royal Palm Ham-mock, Tarpon Springs, Tallahassee, Whitfield, and Pensacola) ; south-ern Alabama (Stiggins Lake) ; Mississippi (Bay St. Louis) ; Louisiana,(New Orleans, Houma, and Patterson) ; and Texas (Sourlake, Bellville,and Corpus Chris ti). West to Texas (Corpus Christi, Skidmore,Losoya Crossing, San Antonio, and probably San Angelo); westernOklahoma (Kenton) ; northeastern Colorado (Holyoke) ; southeasternSouth Dakota (Vermillion) ; Minnesota (Waseca, Elk River, probablyGull Lake, and probably White Earth); and Manitoba (Winnipeg,probably Portage la Prairie, and Chemawawin).
FLORIDA BARRED OWL 197The range as above outlined is for the entire species, which has,however, been separated into three geographic races. The northernbarred owl (Strix varia varia) occupies all northern parts of the rangesouth to North Carolina, Arkansas, and central Texas; the Floridabarred owl (Strix varia alleni) is found in the south Atlantic and GulfCoast States north to central North Carolina, northern Alabama,and Arkansas and west to eastern Texas; and the Texas barred owl(Strix varia helveola) is confined to areas in south-central Texas.Casual records.?The species can be considered only as a casual inColorado although the single record for the State is based upon a pairof birds breeding near Holyoke in March 1897, one of which, with twosomewhat incubated eggs,* was collected. A specimen was taken atBear Lodge, Wyo., in March 1905 and identified at the BiologicalSurvey. It has been reported from the Yellowstone and MusselshellRivers in Montana, but without definite details. Nevertheless,according to Saunders (1921, p. 68), two have been taken in thatState for which full data are not available, while one was seen inGallatin County, on August 5, 1909. A specimen was collected atGrand Forks, N. Dak., on November 10, 1921. Old records of theoccurrence of this bird in Norway and Sweden seem extremelydoubtful.Egg dates.?Southern New England: 63 records, March 13 to May18; 32 records, April 2 to 21, indicating the height of the season.New Jersey: 41 records, February 28 to April 14; 21 records, March17 to 29.Illinois and Iowa: 23 records, February 25 to April 30; 12 records,March 6 to April 13.Florida: 22 records, January 11 to March 10; 11 records, January28 to February 20.Texas: 22 records, February 17 to June 4; 11 records, February 27to March 25. STRIX VARIA ALLENI Ridgwayflorida barred owlPlates 48, 49HABITSThe barred owl of the South Atlantic and Gulf States, from theCarolinas to eastern Texas, was characterized by Mr. Ridgway (1880a)as "similar to typical nebulosa, but toes wholly destitute of feathersor bristles, being perfectly bare to the extreme base; colors darkerthan in nebulosa, with less ochraceous, the tail scarcely barred on thebasal half, and the bars on the breast much more distinct, as well asnarrower and more continuous."This southern race of the barred owl is more generally distributedand much more abundant throughout its range than is the northern
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race ; it is especially abundant in Florida, where nearly every suitablehammock shelters a pair of these noisy owls. Here its favorite hauntsare the mixed hammocks of cabbage palmettos and live oaks on theprairies, or the swampy woods in the heavily wooded river bottoms.In Mississippi, according to Charles R. Stockard (1905), "this isthe common large owl of the State, and almost every wood, large orsmall, has its Barred Owls. On passing along almost any countryroad after sunset the hoot of this owl is heard, and where the roadleads through the wood it is not at all uncommon to find one or twoof them perched on some lower branch of a large tree. Then theowl will incline its body forward and peer at the passer-by in a mostamusing fashion, stretching and twisting its neck and bobbing itshead up and down in a remarkable way."Audubon (1840) says: "In Louisiana it seems to be more abundantthan in any other state. It is almost impossible to travel eight or tenmiles in any of the retired woods there, without seeing several of themeven in broad day; and, at the approach of night, their cries are heardproceeding from every part of the forest around the plantations."Nesting.?The favorite nesting sites of the Florida barred owl seemto be in the dense mixed hammocks of cabbage palmettos and liveoaks, preferably the low hammocks near extensive marshes, sloughs,streams, or ponds, where they can find abundant food. One nestthat I found in such a hammock on the Kissimmee Prairie was in alarge cavity in the broken-off top of a dead palmetto, about 18 feetfrom the ground ; I saw the owl fly off and climbed up to find a singleyoung owl, about one-third grown, on a bed of rotten chips andfeathers in a shallow cavity only 2 or 3 inches deep; this was onMarch 21, 1925. On the same day and in the same general region,I was shown another nest which had been robbed previously, in anopen cavity on the top of an oak stub only 6 feet high, in a densehammock of large live oaks.Oscar E. Baynard showed me a nest from which he had taken aset of two eggs, in a very different location; this was in a shallowcavity below a long narrow slit, which seemed to be almost too narrowfor the owl to enter, 15 or 20 feet up in a longleaf pine in rather openpine woods.Arthur IT. Howell (1932) says that in Florida the eggs are laid "notinfrequently in deserted nests of the Crow or Red-shouldered Hawk."Dr. William L. Ralph gave Major Bendire (1892) some very fullnotes on his extensive experience with this owl in Florida; he says:"They nearly always nest in cavities in trunks or large limbs of trees* * *. The cavities they choose for nesting sites are of all sizesand shapes. I have seen some so large that a person could easilystand in one of them, others so small that the birds could with diffi-culty squeeze through the openings, and again others so shallow that
FLORIDA BARRED OWL 199the tail of the sitting bird could be seen projecting from them.'' Inonly one instance did he find them using an old hawk's nest; "thisnest was situated in a large pine tree, 62 feet from the ground, at apoint where the trunk divided into several large limbs, and it wasplaced in the forks thereby formed. It was composed of sticks andSpanish moss, and lined with small twigs, Spanish moss, and feathersfrom the sitting birds. It was found in a wild and desolate spotabout Q% miles south of San Mateo, the tree containing the neststanding on the edge of a small but dense cypress swamp."Three other nests are mentioned; one was "in the hollow top of abroken cypress tree standing near the edge of a small swamp"; inanother case "the nesting site was a hole in the side of a cypress treeabout 28 feet from the ground and about 10 inches deep"; another
"nest was in a hole in the side of a very large pine tree, 21 feet fromthe ground. The cavity was 18 inches in diameter."Eggs.?The eggs of the Florida barred owl are practically indis-tinguishable from those of the northern race. The measurements of40 eggs in the United States National Museum average 51.4 by 43.5millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremes measure 55 bj^ 45.3,53.8 by 47, 46.5 by 41.1, and 47.5 by 40.5 millimeters.Young.?Dr. Ralph told Major Bendire (1892) that the youngremain in the nest about 42 days. But many of the nests are soinsecure and the parents are so careless that the young sometimes fallout and perish. C. J. Pennock saw this happen and wrote to me aboutit. While he was trying to photograph an owl flying from her nest,a shallow cavity in the top of a dead palmetto stub, she kicked orpushed the two young out of the nest as she left ; the young fell to theground, one was killed by the fall and the other soon died. Althoughthey were not more than two or three days old and their eyes were notyet open, their stomachs were crammed full of flesh, bones, and hairof mice, or other small mammals.Mr. Stockard (1905) says: "I reared a fine pair of these birds in1903, and after they became able to fly and were set at liberty, theyreturned each day about sunset to their familiar feeding shelf and criedfor food; they continued this habit for about one month after beingliberated; I then left this locality and so was unable to observe themlonger."Food.?Southern barred owls live on practically the same classes offood as their northern relatives, with the substitution of many southernforms of life for those found in the north. Mr. Pennock says, in hisnotes, that "while the smaller mammals, cottontail and marsh rabbits,mice and rats of various sorts, serve them well, they are pleased tovary such a diet with almost any water-living amphibian or fish withintheir capabilities; fiddler crabs and crayfishes form a considerableportion of their food at times."
200 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMMr. Howell (1932) writes: "Of 9 stomachs recently examined in theBiological Survey from various parts of Florida, 3 contained crawfishes;3, mammals?cotton rat (Sigmodon hispidus), deer mouse (Peromys-cus), and water rat (Neqfiber alleni); 3, the remains of fishes; and 1,a large beetle."Behavior.?The general habits of the Florida barred owl do not differessentially from those of the northern race. Southern birds seem tobe tamer and bolder, or more inquisitive, as the following two accountswill illustrate. While I was hunting with C. J.'Pennock, in CharlotteCounty, he demonstrated his ability to call up these owls by imitatingtheir voice. He relates the following incident in his notes: "One socalled came to me as I stood by a river bank about to row down stream;after I had started afloat the bird followed and alighted on an over-hanging limb, perhaps 30 feet above the water. Pulling quietly underhim, he sat undisturbed while I talked to him in an ordinary tone;this performance was twice repeated, the bird following me down-stream each time and taking a rather low but commanding view of theboat and passenger. He was finally left astern when the open marshbanks were reached."Francis M. Weston writes to me: "On four occasions?involvingat least three individual birds at widely separated times and places
?
I have had barred owls come to the 'squeak' that I use to attractsmall birds. All four of these occasions were between 7.00 a. m. andnoon in bright weather. On two occasions the owl merely appeared,flying toward the sound and checking his flight while still 20 or 30 feetaway. On another occasion, he actually passed between me and acompanion, standing about 4 feet away, and hovered for a few secondsbefore being convinced of his mistake and flying away. The fourthtime the owl came from behind me and realized his error only justin time to avoid striking me. How near his talons came to the backof my neck I have no way of knowing, but I distinctly felt the windfrom his wings, when he checked his flight, and he brushed the brimof my hat as he swerved away. The whole action was perfectly noise-less, except for the momentary scraping of stiff primaries on the roughstraw of the hat."Voice.?The Florida barred owl seems to be even more loquaciousthan the northern bird, though this may be clue to the fact that it ismore numerous and perhaps more sociable. Dr. Ralph (Bendire,1892) says: "During the first few years in which I visited these locali-ties they were so abundant that at times?when they were mating,I think?I have heard nearly a hundred calling at once. * * * Ihave known them to utter their calls from the roof of the house inwhich I lived as unconcernedly as they do now in the most isolatedswamps." He gives the call notes as similar to those of the northernbird, and says:
TEXAS BARRED OWL 201Where several birds are together, sometimes in the midst of almost a perfectsilence, one would begin. * * * Then another would answer in the samenote, and perhaps several others in turn. After this note had been given byseveral birds in succession, another would utter a call like "ah-ah-ah-who-ah," orperhaps "who-ah, whack-whack-whack, who-oo-ah," which would hardly bebegun before others would join in successively, some uttering the first notes andsome the second, until it would seem as if every tree in the neighborhood heldone of these Owls. After a few seconds' continuance at its greatest height, thisracket would gradually die away until there was almost a perfect silence again,which would last for a few minutes, and then the Owls would begin to call oncemore. I have never heard anything that could equal one of these Owl concertsof former days, and never expect to again.A good suggestion of the ordinary call notes is given by Arthur T.Wayne (1910) in the words "You cook today, I cook tomorroiv."STRIX VARIA HELVEOLA BangsTEXAS BARRED OWLHABITSThis is a pale race of the barred owl, found in south-central Texasfrom Lee and Bexar Counties to the Gulf coast. Outram Bangs(1899) says of its characters: "The Texas bird, like $. n. alleni, hasnaked toes, but is much paler in color throughout, with all the lightmarkings more conspicuous, and the ground color above, pale yellowor cinnamon, the wings and tail in particular being very pallid. Thedifferences in color between the Texas bird and true Syrnium nebu-losum are almost as great as between the great horned owls of theprairie regions and of the Atlantic States."In the heavily wooded river bottoms and lowland forests of south-eastern Texas this owl seems to be nearly, if not quite, as abundantand as noisy as its Florida relative is in similar situations in Florida.Its nesting habits are similar and it lives on much the same kind offood. It is said to be quite destructive to young poultry, wherethese birds are in the habit of roosting in trees. The eggs are in-distinguishable from those of other barred owls. The measurementsof 35 eggs average 49.4 by 42.4 millimeters; the eggs showing thefour extremes measure 53.4 by 42.7, 50.1 by 45.3, and 46.1 by 39.1millimeters.I can find nothing peculiar in the habits or in the vocal performancesof this owl in any way different from those of the species as foundelsewhere.Dr. Louis B. Bishop (1931a) has named two new northern races ofthe barred owl, a darker race (S. v. brunnescens) from northwesternMinnesota, and a paler race (S. v. albescens) from Quebec; these havenot yet been included in the A. O. U. Check-List.13751?38 14
202 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMSTRIX OCCIDENTALS OCCIDENTALIS (Xantus)CALIFORNIA SPOTTED OWLPlate 50HABITSThe spotted owl was discovered by Xantus, one of the pioneernaturalists of the Pacific coast, on March 6, 1858, and named byhim on the basis of a single specimen, collected near Fort Tejon,Calif., in the southern Sierra Nevadas. This specimen remainedunique until Major Bendire (1892) found the Arizona form of thisspecies, near Tucson, in 1872. I believe it was not seen again inCalifornia until 1882, when Lyman Belding (1890) found it "com-mon at Big Trees, Calaveras Comity, and vicinity in summer, andperhaps in winter." He collected a pair there on June 13, 1882, andsays: "It frequents the densest parts of the fir forests."The earlier writers knew practically nothing about this species formany years after its discovery; only in recent years have we learnedanything of its life history and habits. The range of the species isnow known to extend north to southern British Columbia, south tonorthern Lower California, and east to New Mexico and centralMexico. Throughout this range four races have been described; the1931 Check-List recognizes only three of these, as they appear in thisbulletin; Dr. H. C. Oberholser (1915) would recognize only two ofthese; after a study of a series of 31 specimens, from various parts ofthe range of the species, he concluded that the northern race shouldnot be separated from the California race.The spotted owl is the western representative of the commonbarred owl of the Eastern States, to which it is closely related andwhich it resembles in appearance and habits. Its haunts are in thedense coniferous forests and in the more remote and deeply shadedcanyons in the mountains. Although generally distributed, it isnowhere common, and, on account of its retiring habits during theday, it is seldom seen; for these reasons it may be commoner than isgenerally supposed.Nesting.?The only nest of the spotted owl that I have seen hashad an interesting history. Laurence G. Peyton (1910) has writtenthe early history of it, telling of its discovery by his father and hisbrother, Sidney, in May 1908, in Fish Creek Canyon, a tributary ofCastaic Canyon, in the northeastern part of Los Angeles County,Calif. There were young in the nest at that time. The Peytonstook a set of two eggs from this nest on April 1, 1909, and the follow-ing year, on March 30, 1910, they took from the same nest a set ofthree eggs and secured both of the parent birds. The Peytons didnot visit this locality again until 1925, when they took a set of two
CALIFORNIA SPOTTED OWL 203
eggs, probably laid by the descendants of the original pair; andagain in 1926 they took another set of three eggs, making the fourthset taken from the same old nesting hole, and from at least twopairs of owls. In 1927 and 1928 this locality was visited, but theold cavity was not occupied. In 1929 the Peytons offered to showme the localit}^ on the slight chance that the owls might be thereagain. This proved to be a successful venture, for we were delightedto see the head of the old owl on the nest as we approached the cliff,on April 1, 1929.The locality was reached after a 5-mile tramp over a rough trail,which crossed a clear mountain stream many times. The canyonvaried greatly in width, from narrow gorges, walled in on one or bothsides with high, rocky cliffs, to open wooded valleys, or wide flatparks, or pastures. It was mostly well timbered with oak, cotton-wood, willow, sycamore, and alder trees, many of large size; and alongthe more open, gravelly bed of the stream was a considerable growthof small wallows and shrubbery of various kinds. At the picturesquenesting site the stream flowed in a double curve over a stony bedand through a narrow gorge. On the south side of the gorge an almostperpendicular cliff of rough granite rock rose for nearly 200 feet,shutting out the sunlight (pi. 50). On the north side was a steeprocky slope and near the nest was a tall Cottonwood tree, the owl'sfavorite perch. The nest was in a roomy cavity about 15 feet upfrom the bottom of the granite cliff; the cavity was nearly three feetdeep, and the two eggs lay on a bed of rubbish, bones of small mam-mals, feathers of the owl, and a lot of pellets.Donald R. Dickey found a nest in Ventura County, Calif., con-taining two well-grown young on May 15, 1913, of which W. LeonDawson (1923) writes: "The situation was an old Raven's nest,placed 65 feet up in a pothole, on a perpendicular cliff of conglomerateover 200 feet high." A set in my collection was taken by T. D.Hurd from a "depression in the floor of a small cave, or washout ina clay bank", near Riverside, Calif., on April 24, 1886. A set of twoeggs in the J. P. Norris collection was taken in the same region byE. M. Haight on May 10, 1885. "The eggs were laid on the bareground, at the base of a large rock, and the only attempt at nestbuilding was the presence of a few feathers tying around." HarryH. Dunn (1901) took three sets of eggs from cavities in trees insouthern California; one was in an oak stub some 10 feet from theground on the side of a canyon; the second was "in an old hollowsycamore stub, which had fallen slanting across the creek bed" inSanta Ana canyon; and the third was 20 feet from the ground in ahole in a live oak. Apparently these owls seldom occupy old, opennests of other birds; but there is a set in the Thayer collection, takenby Fred Truesdale, in San Luis Obispo County, from an old hawk's
204 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
nest made of oak sticks and weed stalks, 35 feet up in an oak tree,on the edge of a steep canyon.M. C. Badger writes to me that he has found two nests of spottedowls in nests occupied by Cooper's hawks, the previous year, in SantaPaula Canyon, Calif., and that he captured a young owl at 6,000feet elevation on Mount Pifios.Eggs.?The spotted owl lays two or three eggs, usually only two,and very rarely four; one of Mr. Dunn's sets, referred to above, con-tained four eggs, and is the only set of this size that I have heardof. The eggs are practically indistinguishable from those of thebarred owl, though they average slightly smaller, especially in width.They are pure white and rather oval, and the shell is slightly granu-lated and not glossy. The measurements of 23 eggs average 49.9by 41.3 millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremes measure53.9 by 43.2, 42.3 by 35.8, and 44.5 by 33.5 millimeters.Young.?Very little seems to be known about the development andbehavior of the young. Donald R. Dickey (1914), while taking a fineseries of photographs at a nest containing young, noted that at aboutfour o'clock "all the owls had a period of sudden activity. The youngcame to the edge and tried their wings, hopping and flapping to andfro in the exposed part of the nest hole." Some three weeks later,when he visited the locality again, he was surprised to find the twoyoung owls and their parent perched in an oak tree some 100 yardsfrom the nest; he says:That the young could have reached the spot unaided seems incredible, foralthough the primaries were well grown out, they were, with that exception, inthe complete down, and were still weak. The alternative is that the old birds,continuing their distrust of the dangling rope, had deliberately moved them.Certain it is that they would not normally have left the nest perhaps for weeks.* * * The young were docile, downy little things of a soft grayish andbuffy white. They used neither bill nor claw, and the direst threat of the largerbird was a slight parting of the bill as it shrank back from the touch of our hands.Plumages.?I have never seen a small downy young of the spottedowl in the natal down, which is probably pure white, as it is in thebarred owl. I have examined the young owl that Mr. Dickey took,which is now in his collection. This bird is nearly fully grown, andthe wings and tail are nearly developed, but the body and head are inthe secondary down, or first downy plumage. The head and neck arecovered with soft, "cream-buff" down; the soft, fluffy feathers of theback are "clay color" to "cinnamon-buff", with three broad bars of
"snuff brown" on each feather; the soft plumage of the under partsis paler, with paler bars; the long, fluffy down on the thighs is "cream-buff" and immaculate; the wings and tail are as in the adult.Material is lacking to trace subsequent molts and plumages, but anAugust bird shows the beginning of the molt from the above juvenal
CALIFORNIA SPOTTED OWL 205plumage into the first winter plumage, which is apparently much likethat of the adult.Food.?Rats and mice of various species seem to be the favorite preyof the spotted owl, wood rats (Neotoma), white-footed mice (Pero-myscus), and the red tree-mouse (Phenacomys) , which forages in theforest trees. It also, probably, eats some chipmunks and other smallsquirrels, other small rodents, and a few birds. Mr. Dawson (1923)says: "Curiously, however, two instances are on record where remainsof Pigmy Owls, Glaucidium gnoma, have been found in the stomachsof recently killed Spotted Owls."Charles W. Michael (1933) found an interesting collection of pelletsunder a perching tree, of which he says: "Here we got a big surprise,for scattered through every pellet examined were a number of musk-melon seeds. Other identified particles contained in the pellets wereegg shells, apparently hen's egg shells, hair from a ground squirrel,small mammal bones, and other bones that looked like bits of bonefrom a pork or mutton chop. As the owl flies, it is just about half amile to the bear feeding platforms where owls could get such things asegg shells, melon seeds, and mutton chops."Behavior.?The spotted owl is a decidedly nocturnal species, seldommoving about in the daytime unless disturbed. It spends the daysleeping quietly in some shady retreat, and, if forced to move, it willfly only a short distance to some other perch and promptly close itseyes and go to sleep again.It is one of the tamest, or one of the stupidest, of the owls, as myexperience with the Arizona bird and the following quotations willshow. About its nest it is extremely gentle and shows only a mild in-terest, even when there are young to be defended. Mr. Dickey (1914)writes: "As we climbed to the young in the oak the old bird displayedher first sign of vital interest, flying within touch of the intrudingheads and peering at us from close perches among the branches. Buther passes at us were not fearsome things. She never even snapped herbill. Silently she swooped near, rather in an effort to see plainly, ordecoy, than to harm or frighten us." Again, while he was at thenest, he says:As I hung there, studying at first hand the nest of the Spotted Owl, therecame a last evidence of the bird's mild stupidity. Suddenly the shadow of herbroad, silent wings fell across me, and I instinctively cringed. While I still clungto the nesting ledge with' one hand, and to her protesting young with the other,she swept in and alit within eighteen inches of my fingers. And yet, so littleof menace was in her eye and pose, that I calmly left my bare hand within strikingdistance until we were ready to lower away. Surely the veriest dicky-bird ofthem all,? * * * would do more to avenge the supposed rape of her off-spring than did this taloned bird of prey, sitting idly by without apparently thecourage to protect its young by fight, or the common sense to protect itself byflight.
206 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMThe same observer, watching the owl at her toilet, says:Contorting herself into every conceivable position she shook her feathers intoperfect place and carefTilly preened away every frayed feather tip. There wassomething ludicrous in her every action. Even in the midst of her toilet therewere sudden periods when Morpheus seemed to overpower her and she woulddoze off, only to awake with a start a few moments later and continue the per-formance. Her movements were much more gentle than those of the hornedowls. The lack of their ear tufts and yellow irides also gave her a far moreagreeable expression, although I must confess that certain startled expressions,
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when one did succeed in startling her,?seemed unpleasantly lynx-like. Whenshe moved along a limb her every movement suggested a parrot, really a strikingresemblance.Grirmell and Storer (1924) write:In the late afternoon of July 23, 1920, on a wooded ridge-slope near BowerCave, Mr. Donald D. McLean found himself within hearing of a clamour of birdvoices. Following the clue he worked cautiously up the slope and discoveredthe center of the disturbance to be a spotted owl which was perched in an incensecedar, close to the trunk on a branch about 60 feet above the ground. Thethrong of excited birds included 19 Blue-fronted Jays, 5 or 6 California Jays,half a dozen California Woodpeckers, one Sierra Creeper, and many Cassin,Hutton, and Warbling Vireos, Black-throated Gray Warblers, and WesternFlycatchers.Voice.?The same authors say of the calls, as heard in the Yosemite:The notes were never given until late dusk; for example, on June 7 at 7:50 p. m.;on June 23 at 8:00; on July 24 at 7:32; on July 28 at 7:30; on October 23 at 5:25;and on November 18 at 5:10. It will be observed that these hours closely accordin the changing seasons with a certain degree of darkness. * * * Thesenotes differed from those of any other owl of the region, in that they were abruptrather high-pitched calls, in tone like the distant barking of a dog: whu', whu' ;whO.. The first two were loudest. There was no suggestion of the deep intonationof the Pacific Horned Owl.Frank Stephens (1892) writes: "The ordinary notes heard were asuccession of three syllables, alike in tone and volume, the first fol-lowed quickly by the second and then a pause of considerable lengthbefore the third
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hoo, hoo,?hoo. The other series of notes is differentand has a curious canine quality of tone; they were usually four,uttered rather rapidly, becoming emphatic toward the end, and maybe represented by the formula: oh, oo, ou, ow."Mr. Dickey (1914) mentions "a low, indrawn whistle, 'Whee e e?'with a sharp rising inflection", uttered repeatedly as she circled backfrom the nest to her perch, perhaps as a warning to the young, thoughthey paid no attention to it. "Soon came the deep 'Whoo, whoo, who,who' of the other parent from far up the mountain." Again he says:
"She also gave vent at this time to an utterly indescribable, turkey-like chuckle. Finally she hooted, but so low that it sounded like adove, 'Coo', coo' , coo, coo.' * * * It probably will not hold as aninvariable rule, but it is at least interesting that every time either
CALIFORNIA SPOTTED OWL 207
adult hooted, they used the indicated arrangement of two long andtwo short notes."Field marks.?A large, round-faced bird, without ear tufts and withlarge, spectral black eyes, the spotted owl cannot "be mistaken for anyother western owl. The brown plumage, conspicuously spotted withwhite both above and below, is distinctive; this color pattern producesan excellent camouflage, helping to conceal the inactive bird amongthe flickering lights and shadows of the forest foliage. It differs fromother owls too in its tameness and apparent stupidity, which makes itan easy bird to observe at short range.DISTRIBUTIONRange.?Southwestern British Columbia and Western UnitedStates and Mexico. Nonmigratory.The range of the spotted owl extends north to southern BritishColumbia (Mount Lehman, Chilliwack, and the Hope Mountains);northern Arizona (Grand Canyon National Park) ; and northern NewMexico (Water Canyon and Santa Fe Mountains). East to NewMexico (Santa Fe Mountains, Manzano Mountains, San MateoMountains, and Sacramento Mountains); western Texas (McKit-trick Canyon); Guanajuato (Guanajuato); and Michoacan (MountTancitaro). South to Michoacan (Mount Tancitaro); southern Ari-zona (Paradise, Huachuca Mountains, and the Santa Rita Mountains)
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and southern California (Mount Smith and Palomar Mountain).West to California (Palomar Mountain, Los Angeles, Santa Barbara,Mount Tamalpais, Bohemia, Ferndale, Eureka, and ShaldefordCreek); Oregon (Siuslaw River in Lane County, probably Scio, andprobably Netarts); Washington (Ohanapecosh Hot Springs, Tacoma,Kirkland, and Mount Vernon); and southwestern British Columbia(Mount Lehman).Casual records.?One was reported as seen on August 10, 1922, tenmiles west of Glacier National Park, Mont. The late C. E. H. Aikenreported that one killed near Colorado Springs, Colo., was brought tohim about 1875 and that he had seen another in Deadmans Canyonin the same general vicinity during June or July 1873. The disposi-tion of the Aiken specimen is unknown, and, since other Coloradorecords are not considered satisfactory, the inclusion of this speciesin the bird list of that State rests on slender evidence. All recordsfor spotted owls in Baja California are too indefinite for seriousconsideration.Egg dates.?California: 15 records, March 1 to May 10; 8 records,March 27 to April 1, indicating the height of the season.Arizona and New Mexico: 4 records, April 4 to 17.
208 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMSTRIX OCCIDENTALS CAURINA (Merriam)NORTHERN SPOTTED OWLHABITSAuthorities differ somewhat as to the validity of this dark, humidcoast race of the spotted owl. The 1931 Check-List refers to it thespotted owls that breed along the Northwest coast region, from south-ern British Columbia to Marin County, Calif. Dr. H. C. Oberholser(1915) thinks that it is not separable from typical occidentalis fromsouthern California. He says:Specimens from California prove beyond reasonable doubt that Strix occidentaliscaurina is a synonym of Strix occidentalis occidentalis, for all its peculiarities areto be found among these California birds. Many of the specimens of Strix occi-dentalis lucida from Arizona and New Mexico are fully as dark above as Strixoccidentalis caurina, and some are even darker; several are as dark below, withnearly the same amount of ochraceous suffusion posteriorly, and with practicallyan equal amount of mottling on the legs and feet. In the reduction of light mark-ings on the upper surface the type of Strix occidentalis caurina may be closelymatched in all respects by some of the California birds, as well as by the type ofStrix occidentalis occidentalis. Moreover, the type of Strix occidentalis occidentalisis an old, formerly mounted specimen, and is considerably faded and apparentlyotherwise discolored. Another southern California example is actually identicalwith the type of Strix occidentalis caurina, except for being darker. There is thusno distinctive character left for the recognition of Strix occidentalis caurina as asubspecies.Although Dr. Oberholser examined the type of caurina, it was theonly specimen he had from the Northwest coast region; moreover, itwas a summer bird and probably was somewhat worn and faded.The material that I have examined, 10 birds from California and 4from the Northwest coast, shows that the characters given for caurinaare constant and fairly well marked. Dr. C. Hart Merriam (1898),in naming this race, gave it the following characters:Similar to S. occidentale but everywhere darker. In general the white spotsand markings are smaller; the dark areas larger and darker. This is especiallynoticeable on the head and back where the white spotting is reduced to a mini-mum. The dark markings on the sides of the breast, flanks and feet are very muchdarker and more extensive than in occidentale. But perhaps the most strikingdifference is on the wings. The primaries are not only very much darker but thebroad whitish tips have disappeared and are represented by an indistinct paleband mixed with a little whitish on the outer side of the vane and on some of thefeathers a faint whitish terminal edging. The three or four pale bars nearest thetips of the feathers are also obsolescent.On May 10, 1911, a dark, rainy day, while collecting birds nearKirkland, Wash., across the lake from Seattle, I was fortunate enoughto secure a fine specimen of this rare owl. Squeaking to call up anysmall birds that might be within hearing, I was standing in a littleopen space in a dense forest of giant firs, in the midst of which stooda lone dead fir. After a few extra loud squeaks, I was surprised to
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see a large owl fly from the dense shade of the forest and alight onthe dead tree, looking for the expected prey. The owl paid no atten-tion to me and was easily securod. My companion, Rollo H. Beck,obtained two other specimens in the same way. I have no doubt thatthis owl is much commoner in the heavy coniferous forests of thatregion than is generally supposed ; but few specimens have been takenthere, and none of my Washington friends has been able to find anest. So far as I know the nest of the northern race has never beenfound.The only published note I can find on the behavior or voice of thisowl is the following by C. I. Clay (1911):Soon after darkness fell over our camp, we were attracted by an odd, nerve-racking noise. It would start with a kind of long-drawn out whining, graduallyincreasing to a more grating sound, which gave rise to uncertain thoughts, as toits source. It first seemed on the hill-side across the creek, then came nearer,all the while increasing in distinctness, and finally seemed to be double, with everincreasing loudness, until the woods seemed uncanny. My curiosity was arousedto a nervous pitch, and I found it hard to induce my wife to follow me with apaper torch. * * * After following in the direction of the noise for some littledistance, I located the ghostly racket nearly over my head in a large maple tree.The noise never ceased, but was continually repeated; and save the smoothbranches, sparingly tipped with rustling leaves, as they swayed under the strainof the gentle night breeze, nothing could be seen except the twinkling blue back-ground. Finally, I remarked, "It's an owl." A spread of wings was plainly visiblenow, and right on a bare limb, not over three feet above my head, sat an inquisi-tive owl with craning neck. Then came another from higher up and perchedbeside the first. They were attracted by the light, and sat there stretching theirnecks, with as much curiosity as I had shown, at the sound of a noise that seemedalmost panther-like." STRIX OCCIDENTALIS LUCIDA (Nelson)mexican spotted owlPlate 51HABITSBased on a single specimen from "the forested mountains about thesouthern end of the Mexican tableland (above 6,500 feet)", Dr. E. W.Nelson (1903) described the Mexican spotted owl as "darker and withmuch less yellowish buffy suffusion throughout than in S. occidentale;white markings larger and clearer white." He says further: "Theshade of brown in S. o. lucidum approaches more nearly to that ofS. o. caurinum than to that of typical occidentale, yet owing to thegreater intensity of the buffy suffusion and the small size of the whitespots on both upper and under parts of S. o. caurinum it is much moredistinct from lucidum than is occidentale."Some time later Harry S. Swarth (1910b) discovered that theArizona bird is distinct from the California bird and named theformer S. o. huachucae, based also on a single specimen; he described
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it as "similar to Strix occidentalis occidentalis (Xantus), but slightlysmaller, and conspicuously paler; white markings more extensive anddark areas less deep toned." He says further: "The spotted owlsfrom southern California are about intermediate in color between thevery pale Arizona race (huachucae) and the very dark, northwestcoast form (caurinus), though somewhat nearer the latter." Stilllater Dr. H. C. Oberholser (1915) finds that the Mexican bird andthe Arizona bird are identical, and, as the former description haspriority, the name for this race becomes lucida. It is interesting tonote, in the above descriptions, that, in what we now consider as onerace, the Mexican bird was described as darker and the Arizona birdas lighter than the California bird. This may be explained by Dr.Oberholser 's statement that "our investigation has resulted, further-more, in the interesting discovery that there are two well-markedcolor phases in Strix occidentalis, the lighter of which is of comparative-ly rare occurrence." The most reliable character by which the racescan be distinguished seems to be the number, size, and whiteness ofthe spots; one extreme exists in the northern bird (caurina) and onein the Mexico-Arizona bird (lucida), the California bird beingstrictly intermediate. As it seems unwise to recognize intermediatesin nomenclature, the author agrees with Dr. Oberholser that thereshould be but two races named ; as the California bird is nearer to theNorthwest coast bird than to the Mexican bird, it should be includedwith it under the name occidentalis, which has priority over caurina.The evidence presented under the discussion of the northern racedoes not alter the fact that the California bird is an intermediateand that there should be but one name for the birds now calledoccidentalis and caurina.Mr. Swarth (1910b) says that this owl "is possibly quite generallydistributed through the higher mountain ranges of Arizona, thoughthe published records of its occurrence are but very few and ratherunsatisfactory." His specimen was taken in the Huachuca Moun-tains "on Sutherland's ranch, near the mouth of Cave Canon, on thewest side of the mountains at an altitude of approximately 5,500 feet.Others were observed at various points in the range up to about 9,000feet, usually in dense clumps of maples in the creek beds, or in thethickets of quaking aspen."J. Stokley Ligon (1926) says that, in New Mexico, "the favoredhaunts of the bird are deep, narrow, timbered canons where there arealways cool shady places, at elevations ranging from 6,500 to 9,000feet. They are usually to be found sitting in young spruce or firtrees or in a cave or crevice in the shaded canyon wall; cliffs andcaves being one of the range requirements of the birds in the regionreferred to. They may be observed in the quietest and most inacces-sible mountain sections. The birds are very often seen sitting twenty
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or thirty feet from the ground on a small horizontal limb near thetrunk of a spruce or fir."Nesting.?To Major Bendire (1892) belongs the honor of discoveringthe first nest of this owl, near Whipples Station, Ariz., on April 17,1872, of which he writes:My attention was first drawn to the nest by one of my men, who noticed abird sitting on it. Rapping on the trunk of the tree it flew into the branches ofanother close by, from which I shot it. * * * The nest appeared to me tobe a new one, built by the birds themselves; it was about 30 feet from the groundand placed in a fork close to the trunk of a large and bushy Cottonwood treestanding in the midst of a dense grove of younger trees of the same species. Itwas composed of sticks, twigs, and the dry inner bark of the Cottonwood, linedwith some dry grasses and a few feathers. The inner cavity was about 2 inchesdeep, and the nest itself about the size of that of the larger Hawks. It wasreadily seen from below, but not so easily observed a little distance away, thefoliage of the tree hiding it pretty effectually.O. C. Poling wrote to him: "I discovered a nest and four newlyhatched young of the Spotted Owl in the foothills among the oaksat the northern end of the Huachuca Mountains in Arizona. Thiswas on May 23, 1890. Both parents were close to the nest and tooklittle notice of me as I approached close to them. The nest was simplya large cavity in an oak about 10 feet from the ground."Mr. Ligon (1926) has found several nests in New Mexico; he writes:On April 4, 1925, I located the first nest containing eggs; this nest was in theentrance of a cave, about which pine and fir trees grew, on the south side of asteep canyon. The cave faced the north, insuring perpetual shade, and had anopening about thirty-five feet high, forming a large circular room forty feet indepth. The nest, which was an old one reconstructed, was situated on a shelfabout four feet wide and thirty feet from the floor of the cave on the east side of theentrance. The overhanging roof of the cave and the perpendicular wall on theside concealed the nest from above and only by the use of an improvised laddercould it be reached from below. It was constructed of pine limbs and twigs andsome small clusters of dead pine needles, and three feet or more in diameter.The cavity was about three inches deep and ten inches wide and contained nolining.The above was probably an old eagle's or raven's nest; it containedthree eggs (pi. 51). Two days later he
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located another nest in a narrow box canon, the southern slope of which, whereverthere was footing, supported a rather thick growth of young fir, fifty to seventy-five feet high. I knew this particular place to be an Owl haunt and also knewthere were some old nests in the caves and crevices of the canyon wall. I investi-gated several old nests but none of these showed signs of having been used thisseason; however, up in a narrow cave or rent, which penetrated well back into thecliff that stood behind the evergreens was evidence that the Owls were inhabitingthe place. An old nest in the cave was inspected and as I was about to leave it,I discovered at the entrance of the cave, about twenty-five feet up in the side wallto my left, projecting sticks and a few clinging feathers in a natural cavity orpocket. * * * The cavity, which could not have been more suitable if madeto order, was just large enough to permit of the construction of the nest, about
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three feet high and three feet wide on the inside, with a little smaller entrance.This nest, which was perpetually shaded, was an old one with little indicationthat it had recently been repaired. * * *On April 10, in the same mountains, a third nest was found in a dense abnormalgrowth of Douglas fir, generally termed "witch limbs" and common among thetrees in this region. * * * I had suspected that the Spotted Owl nested inthe "witch limbs" of Douglas fir, as such examples of tree growth were often notedwhere the Owls were seen. The tree in question was 16 inches in diameter at thebase with no limbs below the mass that encircled it fifteen feet or more from theground. * * * After some difficulty I climbed to the nest but found that thebird had not laid, although she was reconstructing what was evidently a nest thathad been used before.* * * On April 12, I visited this nest again and found it contained one egg.Eggs.?Mr. Ligon (1926) says of the three eggs that he collected:"They are dull white with a very faint tinge of buff, shell faintlyroughened, with no glaze apparent. The eggs are rounded ovate inshape and the measurements are 50.1 by 40.6, 49.9 by 41.5, and 48.0by 40.6 millimeters." He also says that Bendire's egg "exhibits thesame faint tinge of buff as those from the San Mateo Mountains, NewMexico. * * * The lack of gloss in all these specimens is es-pecially noticeable when they are compared with series of the BarredOwl." Bendire's egg measures 52 by 45.5 millimeters.Food.?The food of this owl is similar to that of other spotted owls
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rats, mice, and other small rodents, with an occasional small bird.Laurence M. Huey (1932) found that the stomach of one taken inArizona "was filled to distention with insects"; these were determinedby the Biological Survey to consist "entirely of parts of at least 17noctuid moths of the genus Agrotis."Behavior.?The habits of this race of spotted owls do not differmaterially from those of other races. This owl is apparently just astame, unsuspicious, curious, or stupid as the California bird. Myexperience with it in Arizona was characteristic. On May 7, 1922,while walking up the trail toward the summit, through the coniferousforest at an elevation of about 7,000 feet, in the Huachuca Mountains,we were surprised to see a spotted owl sitting half asleep in a little firsapling, which stood at the base of a giant fir. It was the first onewe had seen and I was anxious to secure it, but we had no gun.My companion, Frank C. Willard, thought he might be able to creepup behind the tree and knock it over with a club, if I could keep itsattention focused on me. This I succeeded in doing by squeakinglike a mouse, dancing about or waving my arms. Moving stealthilyas an Indian, he made a wide circuit and gradually approached theother side of the tree without being seen; but several times the owl'skeen ears detected his footsteps and looked toward him, when I wouldmotion him to stop until I could again attract the owl's attention byrenewed activity. This game continued until Mr. Willard was close
GREAT GRAY OWL . 213behind the tree; then, reaching around the tree, he struck a suddenblow, and the owl fell to the ground with a broken skull.Mr. Ligon (1926) says that "one generally needs nothing more thana stone or stick to kill a Spotted Owl. So fearless or reluctant werethey to leave a perch to which they had become attached that byquiet maneuvering I have caught the birds by hand. They appear tofear man no more than they do any other creature and seem moreannoyed than frightened when driven from their day abode."SCOTIAPTEX NEBULOSA NEBULOSA (Forater)great gray owlPlates 53-55HABITSThis great owl is most deceptive in size; in external dimensions itexceeds in size all other American owls; but in bodily bulk it is ex-ceeded by the snowy and great horned owls and is but little larger thanthe barred owl; its long wings and tail, its large, round head, and itslong, fluffy plumage make it seem much larger than it really is. Ihave skinned several of these owls and have always been impressedwith the surprisingly small, and apparently weak, body in a greatmass of feathers.llev. C. W. G. Eifrig (1906) gives the following figures on one thathe skinned:The great gray owl is in appearance our largest owl, it measures in length25-30 inches, extent (wings spread) 54-60 inches, tail 11-13 inches. Its largefacial disk, much larger than in other owls, heightens the impression of largeness,besides making it appear somewhat solemn, mysterious and uncanny. The bodytaken out from this owl, i. e. the trunk, without skin, head and wings, measuredonly, length 6}4 in., depth, i. e., from breastbone to back 3% in., width acrossthorax 1 x/i in., weight 8-10 oz. * * * It is hard to understand how such atiny body compared to the bulk of the bird could keep up the huge wings, heavyclaws and enormous head, whose circumference measures 20 inches, the facialdisk alone, 6 inches.Mr. Eifrig's bird was somewhat emaciated, which would accountfor the light weight of the body, but this would not materially affectits measurements. The weights of four entire birds, of which I haverecords, vary from 1 pound 15 ounces to 2 pounds 14/2 ounces.The range of the great gray owl is in the timbered regions of centraland western Canada, from Hudson Bay westward to Alaska and thePacific coast, and southward in the mountains to central California.Grinnell and Storer (1924) have recently reported it as "probablypermanently resident" in the Yosemite region, "found by us only inthe fir woods of the Canadian Zone", at altitudes of 7,400 and 7,900feet. They say that it "seems prone to be active during the daytime,but keeps within thick timber."
214 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMNesting.?Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway (1905) say: "On the 23dof May, Dr. Richardson discovered a nest of this Owl, built on the topof a lofty balsam-poplar, composed of sticks, with a lining of feathers.It contained three young birds, covered with a whitish down, tosecure which it was necessary to cut down the tree. While this wasgoing od, the parent birds flew in circles around the tree, keeping outof gunshot, and apparently undisturbed by the light." RoderickMacFarlane (1891) found a nest "on the 19th July, 1862, near Lock-hart River, on the route to Fort Good Hope. It was built on a pinespruce tree at a height of about twenty feet, and was composed oftwigs and mosses thinly lined with feathers and down. It containedtwo eggs and two young, both of which had lately died."During his trip down the Mackenzie River in 1904, Edward A.Preble (1908) discovered a nest, of which he writes:While passing an extensive "brul6" on the left bank during the afternoon oJune 6 I noticed a large nest on a tree about a hundred yards up the side of thevalley from the river. On a nearer approach a large gray head became visibleover the edge of the nest, and I realized that I had discovered a nest of the greatgray owl. Making a landing, I made my way through the tangled mass of fallentimber to the base of the tree and by a few raps with the ax induced the sittingbird to leave the nest. She darted with a rapid swooping flight toward the nearestwoods, but as I desired her for a specimen, I shot her before she gained its shelter.The nest was about 50 feet up in a large dead and leaning spruce; and as I did notdare to climb it, I felled the tree to secure the young birds which I felt sure the nestcontained. They proved to be two in number, evidently 2 or 3 weeks old, andwere clothed with grayish down. In the nest were the partially eaten remains ofthree young rabbits about the size of red squirrels. The nest was a platform ofsticks, nearly flat and practically without lining, and measured about 2 feet indiameter.A. D. Henderson sent me a set of three eggs of the great gray owlwhich he took near Belvedere, Alberta, on April 30, 1922; the nest wasabout 40 feet up in the crotch of a balsam poplar, in poplar woods; itwas an old hawk's nest built up by the owls with twigs, well cupped andlined with bark strips and a few feathers; incubation was slight.Mr. Henderson (1915 and 1923) has published some notes on eightother nests of this owl, found by him near Belvedere. These were allin poplar woods or mixed poplar and spruce woods. One was placedin a dead poplar and the others were iu live balsam poplars or aspenpoplars; two were 50 feet, one 45, one 40, three 35, and one 30 feetfrom the ground. They were all old nests of goshawks, red-tailedhawks, or broad-winged hawks and had very little or no lining broughtin by the owls.Frank L. Farley writes to me that this owl nests in the muskegcountry "less than 100 miles north of Edmonton. On May 7, 1931,A. C. Twomey found a nest in which were four eggs. This nest wasplaced in the crotch of a poplar tree about 50 feet from the ground.
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It resembled other nests used by great horned owls, except that it waslined with the tips of green pine needles and twigs."Since the above was written, Dr. Thomas S. Roberts (1936) hasreported the taking of a nest and eggs of the great gray owl in northernMinnesota, on April 4, 1935. The locality was on the north slope ofa hill and but a short distance south of the Canadian line. The nest,which is now in the University of Minnesota Natural History Mu-seum, "contains both down and feathers unmistakably those of theGreat Gray Owl and the eggs agree perfectly with descriptions of theeggs of this species. The nest was in a dense tamarack swamp andrested about 13 feet from the ground in the crotch of a medium sizedtamarack tree. It was built externally of tamarack branches and twigsand lined rather thickly with deer hair with an admixture of shreddedbark, rootlets, and sphagnum debris. The three eggs were perfectlyfresh."Eggs.?The great gray owl has been known to lay anywhere fromtwo to five eggs, but three seems to be the commonest number. In thenine nests reported by Mr. Henderson, there were 5 sets of three,3 sets of two, and 1 set of five. The eggs are small for the size of thebird, and are not so rounded as the eggs of most other owls, being be-tween oval and elliptical-oval. The shell is rather roughly granulatedand not glossy. The color is dull white. The measurements of 52eggs average 54.2 by 43.4 millimeters; the eggs showing the fourextremes measure 58.7 by 49, 48 by 42, and 53.4 by 41 millimeters.Plumages.?The three, presumably very small, young found in thenest by Dr. Richardson (Swainson and Richardson, 1831) are de-scribed as "covered with a whitish down." Two that I examined in theBiological Survey collection, evidently the two taken by Mr. Preble,referred to above, are about 7 inches long and perhaps two weeks old;they are scantily covered with "olive-brown" down, which is just re-placing the long white down of the earlier stage, the latter attached tothe tips of the new down.A young bird in my collection, taken in Alaska on August 6, showsthe wings and tail nearly grown and like those of the adult ; the underparts are still in the soft, downy, juvenal plumage, each feather grayishwhite, with three or four dusky bands and broadly tipped with white
;
the juvenal feathers of the back and wing coverts are "olive-brown",broadly tipped with white; the long fluffy down on the flanks andthighs is grayish white, obscurely banded with pale dusky; similardown around the neck is banded wTith "olive-brown" and pale buff;the adult plumage is coming through on the back, scapulars and wingcoverts; the facial disks and the shape of the head are not yet de-veloped.An older bird, taken in Alberta on September 8, is practically fullygrown and in nearly fully adult plumage; the head and facial disks are
216 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMlike those of the adult but smaller; the upper parts are fully feathered,but there is still some downy plumage on the throat and under parts.Adults apparently have a complete annual molt ending in No-vember and December; an adult female, taken on December 11, hadnearly completed the molt of the wings, and the body molt was inprogress; two others were molting in these two months. H. S. Swarth(1930) reports a bird taken on July 28 that was "beginning the annualmolt. New and old flight feathers appear in the wings."Food.?The food of the great gray owl consists mainly of the smallermammals, such as young rabbits and hares, squirrels, rats, mice, andshrews, with occasionally a few small birds. Mr. Swarth (1930)found in the stomach of one an adult red squirrel, "the animal's headbitten off, but swallowed otherwise entire. The owl was shot at 5p. m., and as digestion had not begun upon the carcass the squirrelevidently had been killed and eaten in broad daylight, revealingdiurnal activity on the part of this owl, which I had not suspectedof it."Dr. A. K. Fisher (1893b) reports that of nine stomachs examined,one contained a small bird, seven mice, and four other mammals.He also says: "Dr. W. H. Dall took no less than thirteen skulls andother remains of red-poll linnets (Acanthis) from the crop of a singlebird."Francis H. Allen (1904) saw a great gray owl near Dedham, Mass.,on February 7, 1904. "It held in its claws a dead and partly eatencrow, which when it was finally dropped by the owl in flight, I foundto lack the head and fore part of body and the viscera."Behavior.?The great gray owl is apparently a very tame andunsuspicious bird, or a very stupid one. Mr. Allen (1904) says of hisbird:The owl seemed perfectly fearless of me, but showed nervousness when thecrows cawed nearby, and followed with its eyes the flight of the single crows thatflew over its tree from time to time. I drove it about from tree to tree withsnowballs. It flew low and always took a rather low perch?from ten to twentyfeet from the ground, and usually on a large branch of a pine tree, near the trunk,though twice it alighted on the very top of a red cedar. I could get as near asheight of its perch permitted and was frequently within twenty feet of it duringthe hour or two that I spent in its company.Dr. Fisher (1893b) says:Dr. Dall considers it a stupid bird and states that sometimes it may be caughtin the hands. Its great predilection for thick woods, in which it dwells doubtlessto the very limit of trees, prevents it from being an inhabitant of the barrengrounds or other open country in the North. It is crepuscular or slightly noc-turnal in the southern parts of its range, but in the high North it pursues its preyin the daytime. In the latter region, where the sun never passes below thehorizon in summer, it is undoubtedly necessity and not choice that prompts itto be abroad in the daylight. It is stated that the flight is heavy and somewhatlabored, and has not the buoyancy noted in that of most of the Owls.
GREAT GRAY OWL 217Mr. Henderson (1923) writes: "As I was looking through my glassat one of the birds about four hundred yards away it started to flytoward me. It came sailing along about two feet from the groundand finally lit on a fence post in front of me which I found afterwardsto be just eleven paces distant. It stayed there, staring at me forabout a minute and then flew to a small dead snag, and from thereto the ground and then to a small stump about two feet high."In another article (1915) he tells of the behavior of the owls at thedifferent nests that he found. In several cases he had to rap vigor-ously on the tree to make the owl leave the nest; in one case "thebird remained on the nest until it was touched by the hand." Once,when the owls were perched in a low tree, he "walked right underboth birds only a few feet beneath them and neither flew, only turnedtheir heads and stared at" him as he passed.Voice.?Mr. Henderson (1923) says of the notes of this owl: "Arather musical whistle was uttered frequently like oo-ih, sometimesvery softly, and at others quite loudly. They also hooted severaltimes, a deep booming Who-oo-oo-oo." Several authors have referredto the voice of this owl as a tremulous, vibrating note, somewhatresembling that of the screech owl.Field marks.?This is our largest owl in over-all dimensions, but notin bodily bulk or weight. Its wings and tail are very long and broad,giving it great expanse in flight. It has a very large, round head,which seems out of proportion to the rest of its outline, with no eartufts. Its general color is dark gray. It can be distinguished fromthe barred owl, the other round-headed large owl, by its much greaterapparent size and by its relatively smaller yellow eyes.Winter.?Edward H. Forbush (1927) writes:When the northern forests fail to produce cones for winter food of small arborealbirds; when deep snows cover the runways of mice, and grasses and weeds thatfeed ground-birds and when bush rabbits and ptarmigan are scarce in the northernwilderness; then we may expect an unusual invasion of Great Gray Owls. Sucha combination of circumstances probably does not occur often, but in the winterof 1842-43, according to Dr. Samuel Abbott, seven of these birds were taken inMassachusetts, and probably many more were seen and went unrecorded. Inthe winter of 1890-91 such numbers of this species were killed in eastern Mainethat Mr. Crosby, taxidermist of Bangor, received 27 specimens. Some birdsfrom this flight reached eastern Massachusetts, where a few were taken. * * *The bird is reported here and there in northern New England nearly every winter,but is noted seldom in any of the three southern New England states. Althoughit is a forest bird, it may be found almost anywhere in winter outside the citiesand very rarely even within city limits, but it prefers deep woods, and as it is herechiefly in winter and moves about mainly at night, it is rarely seen.In his paper on the birds of Toronto, Canada, J. II. Fleming (1907)thus refers to it:Winter migrant of irregular occurrence. The great flight that took place in .the winter of 18S9-90 is recorded by Mr. Win. Cross. "I have received twenty-13751?38 15
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three specimens, and have had them reported from various parts of the Province.One of my acquaintances stationed at Barrie, received twenty-six this season.They began to come into this region in November, and increased in numbers upto February, after which they became very scarce again." This is the largestflight recorded, but specimens have been taken in December 1890, January 1894,January and March 1895, and January and February 1896; the visits appear tohave ceased after this. DISTRIBUTIONRange.?Northern parts of the Northern Hemisphere.Breeding range.?In North America the breeding range of the greatgray owl extends north to Alaska (Nulato, Nenana, Salcha Slough,and Fort Yukon) ; Yukon (La Pierre House) ; and northern Mackenzie(Lockhart River)- East to Mackenzie (Lockhart River and FortResolution); and Alberta (Fort Chipewyan and Whitemud Lake).South to Alberta (Whitemud Lake) ; southern Mackenzie (Fort Prov-idence, Willow River, mouth of Nahanni River, and Fort Wrigley);and central Alaska (Birch Lake and Hooper Bay). West to westernAlaska (Hooper Bay, Yukon Delta, and Nulato). See also casualrecords below.There are a few observations in more southern latitudes at datesthat suggest nesting. Among these are: Quebec, an individual seennear Riviere Madeleine, Gaspe" County, on August 16, 1924; Minne-sota, one seen on July 12, 1928, at Bigfork, northern Itasca County;Montana, three, believed to be immatures were seen on July 4, 1931,near Stryker, and an old-time trapper and woodsman reported thatone summer he had seen two adults with four young near Fortine.Winter range.?This species is not regularly migratory, but attimes (probably owing to shortage of food) it extensively invadesmore southern regions. During winter it has been recorded north toAlaska (Diamond and Fort Yukon); Yukon (Fortymile) ; centralAlberta (Athabaska Landing and Mundare); and Quebec (Montreal).East to Quebec (Montreal); and rarely Massachusetts (Marblehead,Boston, and Taunton). South to rarely Massachusetts (Springfield);New York (Fulton County, Painted Post, and Watson); southernOntario (Toronto and South March); Michigan (Hillman, Elk Rap-ids, and Salt Ste. Marie); Wisconsin (Racine and Iron River); Minne-sota (Goodhue, Hennepin, and McLeod Counties) ; Montana (Billings,Buffalo-horn Creek, and Corvallis); and Oregon (Prospect and Med-ford). West to Oregon (Medford and Willamette River); Washing-ton (Shoalwater Bay and Seattle); British Columbia (Chilliwack andBarkerville) ; and Alaska (Stikine Flats and Diamond).Migration.?The winter movement (when it occurs) appears to beas much to the east as to the south. Nearly all the records for theeastern part of the continent are for the period October to March.Flights of considerable numbers of these owls passing eastwardalong Lake Ontario were observed in 1889-90 and again in 1907.
SIBERIAN GRAY OWL 219Casual records.?Great gray owls have many times been taken orobserved in winter south of what seems to be their normal range.Among these records are the following: One reported as seen on theHumber River, Newfoundland, on August 28, 1899. One taken atStratford, Conn., on January 6, 1843; another taken at North Havenin March 1907, while a third was reported as seen near the latterpoint on February 4, 1934. In 1887 one was recorded as havingbeen shot near Mendham, N. J., "many }rears ago", and another wasreported to have been killed in Sussex County in December 1859.One was reported as found in the smokestack of a steamboat at Erie,Pa., about 1900. There are two incomplete records for Clark County,Ohio, and an unsatisfactory record for Huntsburg. A specimenwas taken near Fowler, Ind., during the winter of 1897, and anotherwas collected at Hoveys Lake, Posey County, "some years before1913." One was taken at Hillsboro, Iowa, in 1860, and another wascaptured alive at Sigourney on April 25, 1921. A specimen wastaken at Omaha, Nebr., on December 17, 1893. There are a fewrecords for Yellowstone National Park, Wyo., and one was collectedat Wells in April 1899. In southern Idaho a speciman was taken inDecember 1910 at St. Anthony. One was taken at McCloud, Calif.,on September 26, 1913, while there are three records from Quincy,one being a specimen collected on May 12, 1894.Closely allied races of this owl are found in northern Europe andAsia.[Author's note: This owl may breed regularly within the limitsof the United States, as the following two records, which must for thepresent be considered as casual, seem to indicate. On June 18, 1915,Grinnell and Storer (1924) collected in the Yosemite region a pair ofgreat gray owls that had almost certainly bred near there and founda nest that probably belonged to this pair. More recently, Dr.Thomas S. Roberts (1936) has reported the taking of a nest and eggsof this owl in northern Minnesota, on April 4, 1935.]Egg dates.?Alaska and Arctic Canada: 3 records, May 15, June 19,and July 19.Alberta: 15 records, March 23 to May 15; 8 records, April 9 toMay 1, indicating the height of the season.SCOTIAPTEX NEBULOSA BARBATA (Latham)SIBERIAN GRAY OWLHABITSThe above name appears in our latest Check-List (1931) in place ofthe Lapp owl (Scotiaptex lapponica) , winch has long been supposedto occur, as a rare straggler from northeastern Siberia, on the BeringSea coast of Alaska. The record of its occurrence here is based on a
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single specimen brought to Lucien M. Turner (1886) from the YukonDelta, on April 15, 1876. But it now seems to be satisfactorily provedthat Turner's bird, which is now in the United States NationalMuseum, is not referable to the Siberian race. Therefore this raceis not entitled to any standing as a North American bird and shouldbe dropped from the Check-List.Robert Ridgway, who originally recorded this specimen (1878) aslapponica, evidently changed his mind, for, in his latest work (1914),he says: "Specimens from the Yukon delta, Alaska, formerly referred tothis form, prove to be rather light-colored examples of S. n. nebulosa."Dr. H. C. Oberholser (1922) writes:A recent study of available material fully confirms Mr. Ridgway 's opinion,which indicates that Scotiaptex nebulosa lapponica should be expunged from ourNorth American list. The specimens from the delta of the Yukon River, onwhich the North American record of this form was formerly based, are further-more, no lighter than birds from Alberta in the collection of the Biological Surveyin the United States National Museum, and are not to be distinguished subspecifi-cally by either size or color from Scotiaptex nebulosa nebulosa.The plate in Turner's work (1886) is misleading, as it shows a verylight-colored bird; but, Dr. Oberholser tells me, this plate was notdrawn from Turner's specimen but from a specimen of the Old Worldbird. CRYPTOGLAUX FUNEREA RICHARDSONI (Bonaparte)RICHARDSON'S OWLPlates 55, 56HABITSContributed by Charles Wendell TownsendThis little owl, breeding in the forests of the northern parts of ourcontinent, and of rare occurrence in the United States during its wintermigration, is, however, becoming better known and more frequentlyreported. Although it closely resembles the more familiar saw-whetowl, the northern bird student finds that he can easily distinguishthe two species in life owing to distinctive field marks. As theRichardson's owl has been found breeding at Grand Manan Island,New Brunswick, off the coast of Maine, and has been seen in summerhigh up in the Green Mountains, it may yet be found to breed withinthe limits of the United States. Warren F. Eaton and Haskell B.Curry (1924) saw one of these birds and carefully identified it nearthe summit of General Stark Mountain, 3,585 feet in elevation, inthe Green Mountains of Vermont on July 18, 1923.Courtship.?Seton (1911) has given a delightful description of thelove-song of the Richardson's owl, which is emitted by the male ashe flies in circles about the spruce tree top in which the female is sta-
RICHARDSON'S OWL 221tioned: "Like the slow tolling of a soft but high-pitched bell, it came.Ting, ting, ting, ting, and on, rising and falling with the breeze, butstill keeping on about two tings to the second, and on, dulling as withdistance, but rising again and again." Seton listened for 20 minutesto this song on the shores of the Athabaska River on a night in May,and then went to sleep only to hear it again from time to time duringthe night.A. TV. Schorger (1926) heard the same song in May on a cloudyafternoon at Rose Lake, Minn., on the international boundary.Nesting.?There are comparatively few authentic records of thenesting of this bird. One of the most complete is by Robie W. Tufts(1925), who discovered, on April 11, 1924, a nest on one of the smallerislands off the east coast of Grand Manan Island, New Brunswick.This small island is about 3 miles long and half a mile wide, coveredlargely with a growth of thick, stunted spruces, but with several acresof hayfields where runways of field mice are abundant.For the most part the land is very low-lying and the highest ridges would notbe more than twelve feet above sea level. It was on one of these ridges, in an oldand much decayed stump, where a pair of Flickers had at one time held forth,that the Owls had made their home, about ten feet from the ground and close tothe top of the stump. At the first tap the hole was quickly and completelyfilled by the grey face of the bird peering down at me with slowly blinking eyes.A second thump caused her to vacate the nest. This she accomplished, however,with difficulty, since the fit was a tight one and she was obliged to hitch from sideto side before getting clear. She then flew to a perch about 20 feet away whereshe sat nervously watching proceedings, but uttered no note. The nest cavitywas about ten inches deep and considerably enlarged at the base, which wascovered with a thick bed of soft decayed wood and feathers, well matted. Herewere deposited five much soiled eggs, typical of the Owl tribe as to shape and butslightly incubated. After the eggs were collected and the writer had withdrawna few yards, the female returned to the nest and for some moments was seen cling-ing to the entrance by her feet and fluttering there in a manner which suggesteda gigantic moth. Finally, after considerable effort, she was able to squeeze inand was last seen peering from the hole just as though nothing had happened.The male bird was not seen. The ground about the nest tree was examined forpellets but none were discovered and during our stay on the island, which lastedseveral hours, only one was found and this contained the fur, bones and skullsof some small rodents.Although in this case the flicker's hole seems to have been rathersmall for the owl, other holes of the flicker of the proper size are used.According to Dr. Fisher (1893b), "it is very partial to the old holesof the pileated woodpecker (Ceophloeus) , which seem to be just theright size and shape to suit its fancy." Preble (1908) found near theSlave River, ten miles below the Peace River on June 7, a nest in ahole containing three young. "It was in the deserted hole of a flicker,about 20 feet from the ground in a large balsam poplar stub, in deepwoods. The young were collected. Neither of the old birds was
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seen about the nest, but during the night the female was taken in atrap placed on a pole near by for that purpose."Two recently found nests are described by A. G. Lawrence (1932).One of them, containing five young, was discovered on May 7, 1932,by Alex Mackie near Winnipeg, in a hole 18 feet from the ground in adead poplar stump in open woodland country. The other nest, withfive eggs, was discovered by V. Latta at Shelley, Manitoba, on May15, 1932, in a spruce muskeg in a "woodpecker's hole about 18 feetfrom the ground in a dead tamarac stub, the eggs being placed in athick bed of wood and bark chips, mixed with some owl feathers."While the Richardson's owl is well known to nest in holes in trees,holes generally made by the larger woodpeckers, or in natural cavities,it has been stated that it also nests in the deserted open nests of suchbirds as the gray-cheeked thrush or the rusty blackbird, or in nestsmade by the owls themselves. This is said to be the case in the northwhere there are no large trees, but merely stunted trees and bushes.Nelson (1887) and Dall reported eggs brought to them from suchnests by fur traders and Indians, but considerable doubt exists as tothe accuracy of the testimony of these natives. Bendire (1892), whoquotes these records, states that the eggs obtained by Nelson areunquestionably those of the American hawk owl.Eggs.-?[Author's note: The number of eggs laid by Richardson'sowl varies from three to se\en, but usually the set consists of four,five, or six. They are pure white and oval; the shell is smooth, withvery little gloss. The measurements of 47 eggs average 32.3 by 2G.9millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremes measure 36.5 by 27.1,35.3 by 28, 28.8 by 27, and 30 by 25 millimeters.]Young.?The duration of incubation is not known but is probablyabout three weeks. As the parents begin to incubate soon after thefirst egg is laid and egg-laying may take 8 to 12 days, it is evident thatthe young in the nest will vary much in size. A. G. Lawrence (1932)says of five young found in a nesting hole that they "ranged in sizefrom a baby a few days old, clothed mainly in white down with thedark brown feathers appearing on the upper parts, to a well featheredyoungster which had lost most of its downy feather tips, and wasprobably two weeks old."Plumages.?[Author's note: I have not seen the downy young ofRichardson's owl, but infer from the above statement that it is coveredwith white down, though Witherby's Handbook (1924) states that inthe closely related Tengmalm's owl the "down is huffish-white onupper-parts and white on under-parts." We have no data on the exactage at which the juvenal plumage is acquired, but, if Mr. Lawrence's(1932) estimate is correct, it must be quite completed within threeweeks. The juvenal plumage is sufficiently unlike that of the saw-whet owl to be easily recognized. The entire upper parts are clear,
RICHARDSON'S OWL 223dark brown, from "cinnamon brown" to "mummy brown", withoutany lighter markings; the wings and tail arc as in the adult; there area few white spots on the forehead and about the ears; the facial diskis partially white, mottled with brown; the under parts are slightlypaler, "cinnamon-brown" to "Mars brown", mottled with "cinnamon-buff" posterially, with some white in the center of the breast; the thighsand feet are "cinnamon-buff." In older birds all these colors aresomewThat paler. This plumage is apparently worn until early in fall,when an incomplete molt, involving everything but the wings andtail, produces the first winter plumage, which is practically adult.Adults have a complete annual molt during summer and fall, whichmay not be completed until November.]Food.?Small rodents and insects are the chief food of this bird,which may therefore be classed among the beneficial owls, althoughFisher (1893b) quotes Ross as stating that in the vicinity of FortSimpson "it produced sad havoc among the flocks of linnets." Thereare several reports of mice found in the stomachs of these birds, as forexample one by L. R. Wolfe (1923) where three deer mice were foundin the stomach of a bird taken in New York in December. Taverner(1919a) says of "9 stomachs examined, one contained a small bird; 7,mice; and 4, other mammals." Preble (190S) collected three nearlyfledged young from a nest on Slave River and found their stomachs
"contained the remains of white-footed mice (Pcromyscus ardicus),meadow voles (Microtus drummondi) , and red-backed voles (Evo-tomys g. athabascae), and a matted layer an inch and a half in thick-ness, composed of the bones and hair of these species, filled the bottomof the cavity [of the nesting hole]." Mr. Lawrence (1932) says of anest of five young of this species: "To judge by the pellets ejected bythe young, mice formed a great part of their food, but remains of smallbirds were also in and around the nesting stump."R. V. Lindsay (1928) says of a captive example: "This particularspecimen seems to prefer mice to birds as an article of diet. Oneevening two English Sparrows were placed in the Owl's cage. Weexpected to find only a few feathers the following night, but on peeringinto the cage we saw both sparrows alive and healthy." Two livemeadow voles (Microtus) were then placed in the cage and all thatremained the next day was one headless sparrow. Two mice dailyseemed to satisfy the bird.Behavior.?-All accounts of the Richardson's owl dwell on its inabil-ity to see in daylight, and according to Nelson (1887) it is called the
"blind owl" by the Eskimos. This inference is based on the fact thatthe bird is easily approached in the daytime and will often permit of itscapture by hand, but this is true to a greater or less extent of certainother northern birds, in which cases it is inferred that the birds arestupid or confiding from unfamiliarity with man, but the inference is
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never made that they are blind. The spruce partridge, and even theruffed grouse in wild regions, act in this way, and crossbills and pinegrosbeaks are sometimes surprisingly tame and can be captured byslip nooses on short sticks. The "tameness" in the case of these birds iscertainly not due to blindness. Forbush (1927) says of this owl:"Even if it sees only indifferently well by day, it is the exceptionamong owls, as most of them see remarkably well then."An experience that I had (1925) with a Richardson's owl at GrandManan, not many miles from the nesting hole of this bird found byRobie W. Tufts the year before, leads me to think that, as in the caseof the spruce partridge, its eyesight is sufficiently keen by daylight,but that unfamiliarity with man accounts for its apparent tameness.If the owl I observed was the same one that was robbed of its eggs byMr. Tufts, it probably learned a lesson about man and was thereforewary of me. With the sun shining brightly, the owl appeared towatch me closely from the top of a telegraph pole about 30 yardsaway, turning its head from time to time, as if to look directly at me,while I moved about and inspected it through my binoculars for tenminutes. It was then startled by a horse and wagon and flew to aspruce tree, but it again flew from there and disappeared in the woodsat my approach before I had come within 30 yards. I feel sure that itsaw me, although, in the case of the horse and wagon, it may have beenthe noise that frightened it.On another occasion at Ipswich in winter, Prof. F. A. Saunders andI flushed a Richardson's owl at mid-day in a grove of pitch pines in thedunes, while we were still 20 yards or more away. There are, how-ever, numerous records of the taking of this bird by the hand , or in ahand net, in the daytime, and also of its being killed by means of ashort stick. Owing to the fact that it is not often flushed and is soprotectively colored, it doubtless often escapes unseen and may,therefore, be more common than is usually supposed.Mrs. Helen G. Whittle (1923) reports the interesting behavior of aRichardson's owl that visited her feeding shelf at a window on a snowywinter day in Cohasset, Mass. On the snow below the shelf were20 or more juncos and various sparrows at which the owl peered,
"swooped down upon them (not greatly to their alarm, it seemed to us),failed to capture any, and returned to the shelf. * * * He seemedin some degree aware of our light [in the room] and of our excitedinterest, but apparently could not really see my husband's face insidethe glass, within five inches of his own!" After this he flew into somepine trees. In a recent letter to me Mr. Whittle writes: "To this maybe added, emphatically, the surprising lack of fear among the juncosand sparrows below the shelf, and not over 5 feet away, when the owlalighted on the shelf from which it inspected the birds below. Theconsternation to be expected among the birds under the circumstances
RICHARDSON'S OWL 225
was entirely lacking, for they paid no attention to the visitor exceptwhen it dropped among them."A habit of this bird, which may enable it to stay in the north inwinter, is related by A. W. Anthony (190G): "On March 3 [1905] aRichardson's Owl was caught on the Agapuk River [Alaska], It hadtaken up its quarters in an abandoned igloo, and when driven intothe glare of the outer world was confused, and after a short flightreturned to the igloo and submitted without protest to capture. Froman inspection of several deserted igloos in the interior of the peninsula,I concluded this species was a regular winter resident and madegeneral use of these shelters." Of a similar nature is this report byWilliam Brewster (1925): "Several farmers living near the southernend of Lake Umbagog have assured me that an unfamiliar little Owlresembling the Saw-whet but 'a size or two larger,' sometimes enterstheir barns in midwinter and occasionally remains in them for weeksat a time when the cold is severe and the ground deeply buried in snow."R. V. Lindsa}' (1928) says of the habits of a captive specimen that itis "much more active early in the evening than later. On rainy dayshe appears quite active, and on fine days very quiet. * * * Whendisturbed or frightened he has a peculiar habit of swaying sideways onhis perch, shifting his weight quickly from one foot to the other.He also has a peculiar habit in the evening of climbing parrot fashionaround the wire front of his cage."Voice.?The courtship song, which is sometimes likened to thetolling of a soft but high-pitched bell and sometimes to the droppingof water, has already been described. It is probable that the followingby Dr. C. Hart Merriam (1882), quoting from the notes of NapoleonA. Comeau, is another description of the same song: "A slow liquidnote that resembles the sound produced by water slowly dropping froma height; hence the Montagne Indians call it pillip-pile-tshish whichmeans 'water dropping bird'." According to Dall, quoted by Baird,Brewer, and Ridgway (1905), "it was often heard crying in the eveningalmost like a human being." Richardson (Swainson and Richardson,1831) says "its cry at night is a single melancholy note, repeated atintervals of a minute or two." Nelson (1887) says: "In one instance,while at the Yukon mouth, I heard them uttering a peculiar gratingcry on a cloudy morning in the middle of May." Rev. P. B. Peabody(1899), who captured one of these owls in April in Minnesota, says:
"While not actually tame, from the first he showed ecstatic delight inmy stroking of the feathers on the back of his head,?chirping delight-edly during the process, with much the manner and voice of a chickenwhen tucked under the maternal wing."Enemies.?This little owl is doubtless the victim of larger owls andof hawks at times. Macoun (1909) records a set of four eggs, and
226 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
nearby "part of the remains of the parent bird, killed by ravens thatoccupied an adjoining tree."Field marks.?A little larger than the more familiarly known saw-whet owl, which it resembles in a general way, it can be distinguishedfrom it at once by its yellow, instead of black, bill and by the dark orblack outer edge to the facial disk. There are white spots, instead ofstreaks, on the top of its head and large round white spots on its back.Winter.?Although these owls winter in the north to a certainextent, sometimes making use of deserted igloos for shelter, as hasbeen mentioned already, the lack of food, owing to deep snows coveringthe runways of mice, generally drives them south. In the winter of1922-23 there was a great influx of these birds into Maine, and, owingto deep snows, starvation was frequently their lot.Forbush (1927) quotes T. A. James, curator of the State Museum atAugusta, as follows: "I am receiving a great many Richardson's owls,which appear to be starved. Most of them are picked up dead aboutfarm buildings, and are in a very emaciated condition." Twenty-sixwere reported by a taxidermist of East Jaffrey, N. H., and 30 from onein Bangor, Maine. "The starving birds", continues Forbush, "leftthe woods in search of food and entered not only farm buildings butbuildings in villages and cities, and many were captured in such situ-ations. The bewildered, weakened birds wandered on until some ofthem reached the shores of Cape Cod and the valleys of Connecticut."DISTRIBUTIONRange.?Northern North America. Not regularly migratory.Breeding range.?The breeding range of Richardson's owl extendsnorth to Alaska (Russian Mission and Nulato); Yukon (Rink Rapids);Mackenzie (Fort Simpson and probably Lake Hardisty); northernSaskatchewan (probably Fort Fond du Lac) ; and rarely eastern Quebec(Magdalen Islands). East to rarely Quebec (Magdalen Islands); andrarely New Brunswick (Grand Manan). South to rarely New Bruns-wick (Grand Manan); probably rarely Vermont (near summit ofGeneral Stark Mountain) ; southern Manitoba (Winnipeg and Shelley)
;
central Alberta (Athabaska Landing) ; and northern British Columbia(Laurier Pass, Thudade Lake, and Flood Glacier). West to BritishColumbia (Flood Glacier); and Alaska (probably Mount McKinley,probably Tocotna Forks, and Russian Mission).Winter range.?Probably many individuals of this species normallyremain north in winter nearly or quite to the northern limits of thebreeding range. Nevertheless, at this season in some regions southof the breeding range, records are too numerous for mere casual occur-rence. From these it appears that in winter the range may extendsouth to southern British Columbia (Sumas, Hope, Chilliwack, and
RICHARDSON'S OWL 227Okanagan); probably northern Montana (Glacier National Park);North Dakota (Towner County and Fargo); Minnesota (Aitkin andIsanti Counties and Lanesboro); probably rarely northern Wisconsin(Kelleybrook) ; Michigan (Sault Ste. Marie and Ann Arbor); southernOntario (Ottawa); and Massachusetts (Framingham, Hyde Park,Cohasset, Newton, Cambridge, and Seckonk).This owl has been taken in winter north to Alaska (Goodnews Bay,January 26, 1933).Migration.?A few large autumnal flights of this species have beenobserved. One occurred through the interior of British Columbiaduring the winter of 1898-99. During the winter of 1904 Richardson'sowls were fairly common in the Red River Valley of North Dakota.For the first time in many j^ears a heavy flight was recorded at SaultSte. Marie, Mich., during the winter of 1922-23, the last of the seasonbeing observed on March 4, 1923. In this same season a large flightwas witnessed at Ottawa, Ontario.Casual records.?Richardson's owl has been recorded on many occa-sions outside of both the summer and winter ranges above outlined.Among these occurrences are the following: A specimen was collectedat Bellingham, Wash., on January 17, 1905. Two were reportedfrom Fort Sherman, Idaho, early in the spring of 1894, while therealso is a report of an incomplete record from Coeur d'Alene. A malewas taken at Crested Butte, Colo., on October 14, 1896, and anotherwas collected at Breckenridge on December 28, 1882. Bones identi-fied as this species have been reported from Shelter Cave, Dona AnaCounty, N. Mex. Two specimens have been taken at Lincoln, Nebr.,one on December 10, 1892,' and the other on October 19, 1907. InIllinois one was found at Rockford, October 15, 1884; one at Syca-more in January 1887; one at Cicero in December 1902; one at Kenil-worth on December 26, 1902; and one was found dead in Chicago onMarch 5, 1914. A specimen was taken on November 14, 1914, atFort Covington, Franklin County, N. Y. ; and another was obtainedat Plattsburg on December 16, 1922. One in the Carnegie Museumat Pittsburgh was taken in Allegheny County, Pa., on March 12, 1896.There are two records from Providence, R. I., one about the middleof December 1880, and the other in January 1881. A specimen wastaken at East Windsor Hill, Conn., in midwinter about 1860, andone was found dead at Kent, on November 12, 1906.The closely related Tengmalm's owl, C.J. magna, of eastern Siberia,has been recorded once from North America, a female caught aliveon St. Paul Island, Pribilof Island group, Alaska, January 26, 1911.This specimen is preserved in the collections of the United StatesNational Museum.Egg dates.?Southern Canada: 8 records, April 11 to June 9.
228 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMCRYPTOGLAUX FUNEREA MAGNA (Buturlin)TENGMALM'S OWLHABITSThis is not the well-known Tengmalm's owl of Europe, but anotherof those light-colored races of Siberian birds that has occurred as astraggler in North American territory. Dr. Barton W. Evermann(1913) reported, under the name of Cryptoglaux funerea junerea, thecapture of a Tengmalm's owl on St. Paul Island, in the Pribilof group,on January 26, 1911. It was caught alive in the village by a nativeand brought to Dr. Walter L. Halm. "The stomach was empty savefor a few hairs. This is the first record for America of this interestinglittle Owl."The specimen is now in the United States National Museum and hasbeen referred to the race of Tengmalm's owl which inhabits the Kam-chatka and Kolyma districts in northeastern Siberia. According toHartert's (1920) description, this is a well-marked race, somewhatlarger than the European race and lighter-colored, and slightlylarger and much lighter-colored than our Richardson's owl. Thewhite markings on the upper parts predominate more than in otherraces, and the dark markings on the breast and flanks are narrower.I can find nothing relating to the habits of this race, which probablydo not differ essentially from those of the European or the Americanraces. CRYPTOGLAUX ACADICA ACADICA (Gmelin)saw-whet owlPlates 57-60HABITSI shall never forget the thrill I experienced when I first met thislovely little owl. It was in my boyhood days, and I was returninghome just as darkness was coming on. As I was leaving the woods,a small, shadowy form flitted out ahead of me and alighted on a smalltree within easy gunshot; it flew like a woodcock, but I knew thatwoodcocks do not perch in trees. I was puzzled, so I put in a lightcharge and shot it. I was surprised and delighted when I picked itup and admired its exquisite, soft plumage and its big, yellow eyes.I had never seen so small an owl, or one so beautiful. After someresearch in the public library, I learned its identity, and eventuallyhad it mounted by a boy friend who knew how to "stuff" birds.Many years passed before I ever saw another.This little owl is widely distributed throughout much of NorthAmerica, but it is so nocturnal and retiring in its habits that it isseldom seen and is probably much commoner than it is generallysupposed to be. Unlike the screech owl and the barred owl, it is
SAW-WHET OWL 229seldom heard at night, except for a few weeks during the matingperiod.Courtship.?-We common mortals, who cannot see in the dark, knowvery little about the courtship performances of the owls, except whatwe can learn from listening to their springtime voices. All owls aremore active and noisy at the approach of the breeding season thanat other times, and the saw-whet owl is particularly so. MajorBendire (1892) quotes Dr. William L. Ralph as saying: "Just beforeand during the mating season these little Owls are quite lively; theirpeculiar whistle can be heard in almost any suitable wood, and onemay by imitating it often decoy them within reach of the hand.Upon one occasion, when my assistant was imitating one, it alightedon the fur cap of a friend that stood near him." W. Leon Dawson(1923) writes:During the brief courting season, when alone the notes are heard, the male isa most devoted serenader; and his song consists of breathless repetitions of asingle syllable, whoop or kwook, vibrant and penetrating, but neither untendernor unpleasing. In the ardor of midnight under a full moon, this suitor whoopsit up at the rate of about three whoops in two seconds, and this pace he main-tains with the unfailing regularity of a clock. But to prevent his lady love fromgoing to sleep, he changes the key occasionally. In quality this Nyctaline noteis not unlike the more delicate utterance of the Pygmy Owl. * * * Therecan be no confusion, however, as between the incessant cadences of the Saw-whetand the xylophone "song" of Glaucidium.Nesting.?Many years ago Herbert K. Job showed me a nest in anold flicker hole in a dead pine stub in which a saw-whet owl had laidthree sets of eggs in a single season. As the owl had popped herhead out each time he rapped the stub, I made a point of rappingevery likely looking stub I passed thereafter. But it was not untilMarch 19, 1911, that I succeeded in finding another nest of this owlin a very similar situation. I was crossing an extensive clearing, nearTaunton, Mass., where a large tract of heavy white-pine timber hadbeen cut off, when I saw a large stub of a dead white pine that thewood choppers had left as worthless; and there was an old flicker'shole in it about 18 feet from the ground. I rapped the stub, as usual,and was delighted to see a small, round head appear at the opening;thinking that we were too early for eggs and not wishing to disturbher too much, we came away and left her. I visited the nest againon April 1 and 8, to show the owl to a number of my ornithologicalfriends, and on each occasion the owl appeared at the opening afterrapping the tree or starting to climb it; she would not leave then untilI almost touched her ; she then perched on a small tree within ten feetof a party of 29 people, while I was at the nest. On April 11, whenI came to collect the eggs, she sat even more closely; rapping was ofno avail until my companion, Chester S. Day, climbed up and lookedinto the hole; she finally popped her head out within a few inches of
230 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMhis face (pi. 57) but would not leave then until he pulled her out; shethen perched for some time on a small sapling nearby, where shedisgorged a pellet with considerable effort. The nesting cavity wasabout 12 inches deep and barely large enough to admit my hand andarm. There were six eggs in the nest, one in the center and the otherfive around it, partially buried in the fine chips usually found inflickers' nests, mixed with numerous feathers of the owl. Incuba-tion in the eggs varied from one-quarter to two-thirds.Dr. Ralph wrote to Major Bendire (1892) as follows:We found these birds quite common in Oneida County, New York, especiallyin the northern and eastern parts. Their nests are not very hard to find, and itseems strange that so few have been taken. Those found by Mr. Bagg andmyself were all in the deserted holes of Woodpeckers and the eggs were laid onthe fine chips found in such burrows without much of an attempt at making anest. They were all in woods, wholly or in part swampy, such situations beingparticularly congenial to these birds, who usually frequent them throughout theyear.The first nest was taken near Holland Patent, New York, on April 7, 1886.It was situated 22 feet above the ground in a dead maple stump, and containedseven eggs ranging from fresh to slightly incubated. The second was found nearthe same place on April 21, 1886, also in a dead stub 40 feet above ground. Itcontained five young birds and an egg on the point of hatching. The third wasfound on the same day near Trenton Falls, New York, likewise in a dead stub20 feet above the ground. It contained seven eggs which were heavily incubated.The fourth was found at Gang Mills, Herkimer County, New York, April 30,1886, in a dead stump 50 feet above ground, and likewise contained seven eggson the point of hatching. The fifth and last was taken near Holland Patent,New York, April 30, 1889, and was situated in the dead top of a maple tree 63feet above the ground, and contained four eggs ranging from fresh to slightlyincubated. I believe they lay their eggs at intervals of about two days.Outram Bangs (1894) writes:On July 3, 1893, Mr. Gerrit S. Miller, Jr., and I were setting out a line of trapsin a heavy white pine swamp that lies along Red Brook in the town of Wareham,Mass. We noticed a large old pine stump which was broken off about 25 feetabove the ground and full of Woodpeckers' holes, and pounded on it. We hadpounded but once or twice when a Saw-whet Owl popped her head out of theuppermost hole and kept it there motionless, although I fired at her three timeswith my pistol. The third shot killed her and she fell back into the hole.On taking the bird out, I found there was a nest containing seven eggs. Thenest was quite bulky and composed of gray moss (Usnea) interwoven with smallpieces of fibrous bark, a few pine needles, small twigs, and feathers of the birdherself. The hole in which the nest was found was 18 feet from the ground andabout 8 inches deep.In the nest besides the eggs was a half eaten red-backed mouse (Evotomys gapperi)
.
Three of the eggs were in various stages of incubation, one being on the point ofhatching,?in fact the young bird had already cracked the shell. Three wereaddled, and one was perfectly fresh.George W. Morse writes to me, on the nesting of this owl in Okla-homa: "They are apt to nest 14 to 18 feet up in an elm snag. Thenest usually consists of chips of decayed wood, occasionally a few
SAW-WHET OWL 231leaves surrounded by a circle of twigs from 6 to 12 inches long. Thesetwigs protruding from the hole are frequently indications of the nest,since the saw-whet is not easily flushed by pounding on the tree, asare other species. When the female leaves, she first drops down andthen flies directly up to a limb at the same height opposite the nest,alighting first across the limb, then turning parallel with it, keeping upa bobbing, peering motion of the head and neck in an apparent effortto adjust her eyes to the light and discover the cause of the dis-turbance."Numerous other accounts of the nesting habits of the saw-whet owlhave appeared in various publications, but they are all more or lesssimilar. Old deserted nests of woodpeckers seem to be the sitesoftenest chosen, with a decided preference for flicker holes, as theseare about the right size. I believe that the owls never bring in anynesting material, but lay their eggs on the fine chips usually found insuch cavities; the numerous cases reported, where other material hasbeen found in the nesting holes, merely indicate, in my opinion, thatflying squirrels, white-footed mice, or other small rodents had builttheir nests in these holes, and that the owls had not taken the troubleto remove the material. Most observers agree in stating that thisowl will usually show itself at the entrance of the hole when the treeis rapped, its little round head completely filling the entrance, andremain there until further disturbed ; this is in marked contrast to thebehavior of the screech owls under similar circumstances.There are at least two cases reported of this owl nesting in opennests of crows or herons, but I believe that these are cases of mistakenidentity. The normal habit of the saw-whet owl is to nest in deepwoods, or swamps, but Ned Hollister (1908) reports a case in Indiana,where "the nesting site was in a lawn shade tree close to the house."William Brewster's (1881) first set of eggs of this owl was taken froman artificial nest made from a section of a hollow trunk, boarded upat the open ends, with an entrance hole cut in the side, and nailedup in the woods. "No nest was made, the eggs being simply laidon a few leaves which squirrels had taken in during the winter."Lewis Mel. Terrill (1931) says of a nest he found in the Montrealdistrict:The nesting locality of the Saw-whet Owl was by the bank of a stream drainingan upland pine wood and the nest was barely twenty feet from the ground in anold cavity in the decayed top of a basswood stub, in the deep shade of surroundingsaplings. It is probable that a Flicker was responsible for the excavation, butthe entrance had become enlarged and ragged through decay and bore littlesemblance to the neatly chiselled nesting place of that bird [pi. 60].The Owl very considerately appeared at the entrance as I approached and whenI reached the cavity it merely flew to a sapling six feet distant and stared at mewithout other demonstration while I examined the single fresh egg, resting onchips of rotten wood, ten inches below the opening. Almost as soon as I had
232 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMdescended, the Saw-whet shook its feathers, flew back and disappeared into thecavity, reappearing in a moment to watch my movements. This was the usualprocedure during succeeding visits, except that it was sometimes necessary to rapthe stub lightly in order to bring the bird to its doorstep. The only note of pro-test heard in the daytime was an occasional snapping of the mandibles. Thiswas more noticeable after the young were hatched.Rockwell and Blickensderfer (1921) describe a nest that was in anunusual location in Colorado, quite in contrast with the usual locationin deep, shady, damp forests, or near water; they say: "The tree (alarge, dead yellow pine) in which this nest was located was on an ex-posed slope commanding a wide view of the adjacent country. Thesurrounding timber was sparse; the nesting cavity faced directlysouth into the bright sunlight and was unshaded except for a singleoverhanging dead branch; and the immediate surroundings werevery dry. The nearest stream was fully half a mile distant and therewas not even a trickle of spring water closer at hand."Eggs.?The saw-whet owl lays four to seven eggs, five or six beingthe commonest numbers. The eggs are usually oval in shape, butsometimes slightly ovate or more nearly globular. The shell issmooth, with little or no gloss, and the color is pure white. Themeasurements of 52 eggs average 29.9 by 25 millimeters; the eggsshowing the four extremes measure 31.5 by 25.2, 30 by 27, 28.3 by25.4, and 28.9 by 23.6 millimeters.Young.?The period of incubationhas been estimated as from 21 to 28days; Mr. Terrill (1931) says "at least 26 days and probably longer."Both sexes are said to assist in this, but probably most of it is done bythe female. The eggs are laid at intervals of from one to three days,and, as incubation begins with the laying of the first egg, the younghatch at variable intervals, and it sometimes happens that newlyhatched and nearly grown young are found in the same nest.Mr. Terrill says in his notes: "At birth the nestlings were blindand helpless and very tiny, with a scanty covering of whitish down. Atthe age of 8 to 9 days the ej^es were partly opened and the iris was adark inky color without lustre. When 16 to 17 days old, the upperparts were a dark chocolate-brown. The development of the eyes wasvery gradual, the yellow iris being first noted at this age, though theyellow coloring was not so bright and clear as at the age of 19 to 21days, and the lids were never fully opened. At the age of 26 to 28days one of the owlets could fly about 15 feet from a log, but wasapparently unable to rise from the ground. The young left the nestsome time between July 17 and 22, when the oldest was from 27 to34 days of age and could probably fly fairly well."Of the voice of the young, he says: "At the age of 4 to 6 days aliquid peeping was practically identical with the peeping of babylong-eared owls. Snapping of the mandibles was not noted untilafter the sense of fear had been developed, at the age of 16 to 17 days.
SAW-WHET OWL 233A rasping, sibilant call, heard from the nest after dark, was presum-ably the hunger call of the nestlings, and might be expressed thus?t-z-z-z-z-z-z-z. This call soon brought one of the parents which voicedits anger, or distress, in a very similar manner, though more insistentlyas it flew back and forth near the nest, even brushing me with itswings occasionally. This hissing might best be likened to the soundmade by jets of steam escaping from a small nozzle."Plumages.-?When first hatched the young saw-whet owl is clothedin white down, which is worn for probably the first ten days or twoweeks. This down then begins to be pushed out and replaced grad-ually by the juvenal, soft, downy plumage, which is not completeuntil the young bird is about four weeks old or older; between theages of three and four weeks the tips of the first down are wearing offand the wings are growing rapidly, so that the young bird will soon beable to fly.In the full juvenal plumage the young saw-whet is a beautifulcreature, a really lovely little owl. The upper parts are deep richbrowns, "auburn" on the head and hind neck, shading off to a palershade of the same color on the upper breast and to "Mars brown" onthe back and wings; the plumage of the head is particularly full andfluffy, making it seem over large; the facial disks are "Mars brown",and there is a large, conspicuous, white, V-shaped patch extendingfrom the base of the bill up over the eyes ; the middle and lower breastis "ochraceous-buff", shading off to "warm buff" posteriorly; thewings and tail are as in the adult.This plumage is worn well into, or entirely through, the summer, de-pending on when the bird was hatched, when a complete molt of thecontour plumage takes place, producing the first winter plumage,which is practically adult. I have seen this molt well advanced onJuly 25 and only just beginning on September 3; the molt begins inthe face and on the under parts. Adults apparently have one com-plete annual molt from August to November.Food.?The food of the saw-whet owl consists mainly of mice,especially woodland mice, small rats, young red and flying squirrels,chipmunks, shrews, bats, and other small mammals. A few smallbirds, such as sparrows, juncos, and warblers, have been recorded inits food; and a few insects are occasionally eaten. Dr. A. K. Fisher(1893b) reports that "of 22 stomachs examined, 17 contained mice;1, a bird; 1, an insect; and 3 were empty." He also says: "In winterMr. Comeau once saw one of these little owls fly from the carcass ofa great northern hare that had been caught in a snare. The owl hadeaten away the abdomen and was at work within the thoracic cavitywhen frightened away."13751?38 1G
234 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMIllustrating the patience of this owl, as a mouser, Lewis O. Shelleyhas sent me the following note: "One winter, near zero weather withsnow on the ground, a saw-whet owl was noticed as it perched on asapling maple close to a back stoop at a dwelling flanked on the backand sides by woodland. The woman of the house occasionally placedpies outside to cool quickly, and mice as surely found the pastry.Perhaps the owl had seen a mouse at such a time, and when on asucceeding day a pie was put out, and the lady of the house waswhere she could watch it, she saw the owl perched again in the mapletree. Then a mouse crept forth and the owl's patience was rewarded,when it glided down and made its catch, making off into the woodswith the mouse in its claws."Major Bendire (1877) once had one in captivity, of which he says:
"This I fed at first on live mice, the only thing it would touch, butafter a while it ate the carcasses of birds, and would eat twice its ownweight in a day. If several whole birds were thrown into its cage itwould eat the heads of all of them first, and hide the bodies in thecorners of the cage, covering them up with loose feathers. Once Iput a red winged blackbird, perfectly unharmed, in the cage with it,which it at once killed. Flying to its perch it grasped it with two ofits toes in front and two in rear, and always sat in this manner. Ikept it supplied with fresh water, but I think it never used any."Although this owl is mainly useful and beneficial in its feedinghabits, it is a powerful and savage little fellow at times and capableof killing birds and animals larger than itself; that it can be verydestructive is well illustrated by the following story, related by J. A.Farley (1924):Mr. E. Cutting of Lyme, New Hampshire, once told me that in the fall a fewyears ago he found that something was killing his Pigeons. He thought it mightbe a mink or a weasel or some other animal. He had 25 Pigeons that roostednightly on sticks put up for perches in his barn. The dove-hole was close by inthe barn door. Seven Pigeons lay dead one morning on the hay beneath theirperches. The birds' heads were gone, some feathers were lying about and therewas some blood on their bodies; otherwise there was no sign. The followingevening Mr. Cutting went by stealth into his barn. By the light of his lanternhe found two more headless Pigeons on the hay. Looking up he saw the "killer"perched on a beam. He despatched it with a long stick. It was a Saw-whetOwl.Rockwell and Blickensderfer (1921) quote George L. Nicholas asfollows: "While hunting in a pine wood near this town [Summit, NewJersey!, I obtained an Acadian [saw-whetl owl. Upon dissecting it Ifound that its stomach contained a flying squirrel, winch had beenswallowed whole and but slightly digested."Behavior.?The one characteristic most prominent in the behaviorof the saw-whet owl is its tameness, stupidity, or fearlessness; it canbe approached most easily, even within a few feet, and has often even
SAW-WHET OWL 235been caught in the hand, or under a hat, when carefully approached.Sometimes it shows marked curiosity, or sociability. Taylor andShaw (1927), writing of their experience with it in Mount RainierNational Park, say:This, perhaps the most interesting owl in the park, is one with which thecamper is most likely to become acquainted, for the saw-whet seems to be a victimof uncontrollable curiosity. One evening, just at dusk, as several members ofthe party were seated about the camp fire at Owyhigh Lakes, one of these littleowls flew into camp and perched, quite unconcerned, on a tree near the fire, as ifwishing to join the circle.Another owl did the same thing at Sunset Park; and at St. Andrews the even-ing twilight was made particularly interesting by the movements and curiouscall notes of saw-whet owls. Their interest in our camp was very obvious.* * * On more than one occasion their curiosity, or stupidity, maybe, drovethem into our tent. A peculiar sensation it was, to waken suddenly and hear thecall of an owl sounding within 6 feet of one's ear, followed soon by the soft flutterof wings as the bird left the tent.They appeared to be most active at dusk and again an hour or so before day-break.Cantwell describes their flight as quite unlike that of other owls, partakingmore of the nature of the labored undulating flight of the small woodpeckers.Shaw says their flight is rapid for an owl, giving the bird a sprightly appearancenot observed in others. This peculiar flight helps identify individuals encounteredin the daytime.My own impressions of its flight agree with those of Dr. Fisher, whosays (1893b): "The flight resembles that of the woodcock very closely,so much so in fact, that the writer once killed a specimen as it was fly-ing over the alders, and not until the dog pointed the dead bird washe aware of his mistake."The saw-whet owl is essentially a woodland bird, oftener found inthe dark recesses of coniferous woods than in the more open growthof the deciduous forest, with perhaps a preference for swampy wood-lands rather than the well-drained uplands. It is seldom seen in thehigh treetops but prefers to hunt, or to doze during the day, at thelower levels, often within a few feet of the ground. On May 28, 1925,while looking for sharp-shinned hawk nests, in a large, dense groveof white pines in Lakeville, Mass., I noticed the broken-off top of asmall pine that had lodged, about 10 feet from the ground, againstanother pine; an accumulation of sticks and rubbish, suggesting acrude nest, had lodged in the top, which tempted me to give the treea kick ; much to my surprise a saw-whet owl flew out and alighted ona low branch of a pine within a few feet, where it sat and stared at me.I examined the fallen top carefully but could find nothing of interest;but I judged from the number of white droppings and pellets, on theground below it, that this was the day roost of the male owl. Therewas probably a nest somewhere in the vicinity, but a protracted searchfailed to reveal it.
236 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMA different type of roost is described by Richard F. Miller (1923)as follows:On April 5, 1922, at Holmesburg, Philadelphia, Pa., while searching the upperborder of a strip of woods, for a Cardinal's nest, I almost bumped my head againsta Saw-whet Owl that was roosting under a dense canopy of honeysuckle vines,five feet high, that covered one of the bushes. The bird flew about fifteen feetand lit on a limb of a bush, a yard from the ground, with its back towards me. Itpermitted me to approach within two yards, turning the head around to watch me.It then flew about four yards and lit at the same height upon another bush. Iapproached within three yards before the bird flew to another perch, about tenyards away; both of these times it faced me and quietly and unconcernedly let meapproach. It seemed utterly fearless, and gazed at me with wide opened eyes.Under its roost was a pile of 31 pellets, and two feet distant was a similar roost,under a dense canopy of Lonicera vines; beneath this one were 35 pellets, alto-gether 66 pellets beside pills of excrement, indicating that the bird had spent thewinter here.Except by some chance encounter, as related above, even the keen-est human eyes are not likely to discover this diminutive owl, perchedsilent and motionless in dense foliage, unless its presence is indicatedby the excited activity and noisy protests of its small bird enemies,such as sparrows, warblers, chickadees, and kinglets, that always showtheir hatred and fear of all owls.Voice.?The far-famed saw-filing notes are far from being the only,or even the commonest, notes uttered by this versatile little owl.William Brewster (1925) has decribed several of these in his notes fromUmbagog Lake, Maine. Of the saw-filing notes, he says: "Theymay be heard everywhere in the forest in February and March;oftenest just before daybreak, not infrequently throughout the night,occasionally in the daytime during cloudy weather when they arethought to presage rain. The saw-filing season reaches its height inMarch and usually ends before the first of May, although it may con-tinue intermittently through that month and even into the first weekof June." On May 18 "they were given at infrequent intervals andalways in sets of threes thus:
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skreigh-aw, skreigh-aw, skreigh-aw.Their general resemblance to the sounds produced by filing a largemill-saw was very close, I thought." On May 28, he heard a some-what different, metallic note; the owl "kept it up for a little more thana minute, regularly uttering four apparently monosyllabic notes everyfive seconds. * * * Their metallic quality was so pronouncedand their tone so ringing that they reminded me of the anvil-liketang-tang-tang-ing with which a species of Bell Bird makes the tropicalforests of Trinidad resound. To this, indeed, they bore no slight re-semblance, although much less resonant and far-reaching. Nor didthey fail to suggest saw-filing also." The above notes were heardnear mid-day, but, at 9 p. m. on June 4, one "was heard to uncommonadvantage, not only because of his nearness, but also because the calm
SAW-WHET OWL 237
night air remained undisturbed by sounds other than those he pro-duced. Whurdle-whurdle-whurdle he called long and uninterruptedly,in a whistling voice obviously quite devoid of ringing or even metallicquality, and very like that of the Glaucidium of Trinidad, but some-what more guttural. All his utterances were rapidly delivered, evenlyspaced, and precisely alike. They altogether failed to suggest thesound of saw-filing." One, circling about the camp on two evenings,September 26 and October 5, "uttered a single staccato whistle, notunlike the familiar pheu of Wilson's Thrush, but decidedly louder andclearer. This was repeated at intervals of half a minute or less forsome time." This was then replaced "by a gasping and decidedlyuncanny ah-h-h something like that of a Barred Owl, but feebler andless guttural." Another "gave in quick succession four whistles:
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hew-hew-hew-hew. '
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W. Leon Dawson (1903) says that the principal note he has heard
"is a rasping, querulous sa-a-a-a-ay, repeated by old and young withprecisely the same accent, and inaudible at any distance above ahundred feet." The young also make a hissing sound, which is prob-ably a food call, and a bat-like squeaking; Mr. Brewster (1882b)says that this squeaking was discontinued shortly after molting, whenit began a new, whistling cry; "this utterance consists of a series offive or six low, chuckling but nevertheless whistled calls, which remindone of that peculiar, drawling soliloquy sometimes indulged in by adejected hen on a rainy day."The courtship notes are referred to above. The interesting bell-like note, with its curious ventriloquial quality, so graphically de-scribed by Audubon (1840), is probably also a courtship call. Mr.Terrill tells me that the saw-filing note is "not much louder than therasping song of the katydid, and in fact is almost as suggestive of agrasshopper as a bird; it might be described as t-sch?whet-t."Field marks.?The saw-whet owl is the smallest of our eastern owls,considerably smaller than the screech owl; it is, however, considerablylarger than the pygmy owls. It differs from the screech owls inhaving a rounded head with no ear tufts. It might easily be confusedwith the much rarer Richardson's owl, which is only slightly larger,but it has a black instead of a yellow bill; it lacks the black rim ofthe facial disk, so prominent in Richardson's owl, and the top of itshead is streaked, instead of spotted.Fall.?The saw-whet owl has generally been recorded as a residentspecies, but it evidently migrates to some extent, or at least wanderswidely, in fall. As with many other apparently resident species, thespecies may be present at all seasons in regions where the summer andwinter ranges overlap, but there has been a general southward move-ment of individuals. W. E. Saunders (1907) and P. A. Taverner andB. H. Swales (1911) have shown evidence of a heavy migration of
238 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMthese owls in Ontario in 1906, as revealed by the disastrous effects ofa severe storm. Taverner and Swales (1911) write:The first indication we received of any strong migratory movement in thisspecies was when W. E. Saunders of London, Ont., received word from Mr. Trippof Forest, Ont., of a migration disaster on the shores of Lake Huron, October 18,1906. His investigation of this occurrence was reported in "The Auk." He dis-covered the shore of the lake in the vicinity of Port Franks covered with the water-washed bodies of birds that had been overwhelmed in a storm, likely while crossingthe lake; and though he covered but a small portion of the affected territory anddid not touch upon its worst part, he counted 1,845 dead birds in two miles ofshore. Here was evidently a disaster that overcame a large movement of mixedmigrants but the salient fact in this connection is, that he counted 24 Saw-whetOwls among the debris. Mr. Saunders is, and has been for the last twenty-fiveyears, a most keen and enthusiastic field worker, but in summing up his experiencewith the species, says: "The Saw-whets were a surprise. They are rare inwestern Ontario, and one sees them only at intervals of many years, evidentlythey were migrating in considerable numbers."A statement elicited from the captain of the fish boat "Louise" of Sandusky,Ohio, bears very closely upon this subject. He says, that about October 10, 1903,when on the steamer "Helena", off Little Duck Island, Lake Huron, he saw a largemigration of small owls and that many of them lit on the steamer. His descrip-tion tallied very well with that of this species and there is the probability that itwas a relay of this same migration that was so hardly used in 1906.In an adjacent and quite comparable station, Long Point, on Lake Erie andsixty miles to the east, we had heard that Saw-whets were at times captured innumbers by stretching old gill nets across the roads in the woods. The birdsflying down the clear lanes became entangled in the meshes and thus caught.[While working through the red cedar thickets on this point, on October 15, 1910],within less than two hours, and in a small part of the thickets, we discoveredtwelve of these owls. We looked carefully for the young, the albifrons plumage,but without success.All birds seen were alert and the majority in the densest red cedar clumps.Most of them were close up against the trunk of their respective trees, and usuallyabout six feet from the ground, the highest being about twelve feet, and thelowest four. None showed any fear. But one flushed, and that was only whenthe tree it was on was jarred in our passage; even then it flew but a few yards andallowed our close approach. None uttered any sound except the usual owlishsnapping of the bill. * * *Here, then, are records of four migrational massings of this hitherto supposedresident owl. It was too early in the season to explain their gatherings as "winterwandering in search of food", and the close tallying of all the dates point to theconclusion that from the middle to the end of October the Saw-whet Owls migratein considerable numbers, but from their nocturnal habits and secluded habitatswhile en route are seldom observed.Winter.?When the weather is not too severe and the ground is nottoo deeply covered with snow, I believe that some of these little owlsspend the winter as far north as northern New England. Theyseldom, if ever, I think, perish by freezing to death, if they can findsufficient food to keep up their vitality; but when the mice are allliving in their tunnels under the snow, and most of the small birdshave gone south, the poor owls are hard pressed for food, become very
SAW-WHET OWL 239much weakened, and may succumb to the cold. Forbush (1927)writes:In winter in the great coniferous forests of Canada much of the snow is upheldon the branches of the trees in such a way that there are spaces here and thereclose to the trunks where there is little snow. There the wood mice come out atnight from their hiding-places under the snow, and there the little owl perchedin the branches above them awaits their coming; but if for any reason owl-foodis scarce or hard to obtain, as sometimes happens in severe winters with deep snow,the little owls must move south or perish. At such times, as in the winter of 1922-23, when Acadian Owls were abundant in New England, there was a great influxof these birds from the north. By the time they reach a milder clime, many ofthem are too emaciated and exhausted to hunt or even to eat. They seem to loseall interest in life, and seek only a quiet retreat in which to die. Others morehardy or less exhausted survive to return, with the advent of spring, to the landof their nativity.Bendire (1892) says:Mr. W. E. D. Scott took not less than twenty-one specimens during December1878, in a cedar grove on a side hill with a southerly exposure, near Princeton,New Jersey. He found some of them very tame and unsuspicious, allowingthemselves to be taken by hand; I have also found them equally stupid in thevicinity of Camp Harney, Oregon. Each winter one or more specimens werebrought to me alive by some of my men, who found them sitting in the shrubberybordering a little creek directly in the rear of their quarters, where they usuallyallowed themselves to be taken without making any effort to escape. I thoughtat first that they were possibly starved, and on that account too weak to fly, buton examination found them mostly in good condition and fairly fat. They seemto be especially fond of dense evergreen thickets in swampy places or near watercourses.It is hard to account for the large number of saw-whet owls thathave been picked up dead in all sorts of places, unless this species isendowed with an especially delicate constitution, which requires anunusual amount of food. Even so, it seems hardly likely that theycould have starved to death in the vicinity of Washington, D. C,where many have been picked up, or in the desert regions of Californiaand Oklahoma, where their remains have been found, as the climateis mild and food available in all of these places. It may be, as Mr.Forbush has suggested above, that they were too far gone when theyreached these places.Mr. Terrill writes to me, from the Montreal region: "I have recordsfor every month, but it is notable that I have recorded twice as manyin December as in any other month. One must, of course, discountthe suggested increase in December owing to the fact that some ofthem were seen in bare deciduous thickets. Nevertheless, there isundoubtedly a decided migratory movement of this owl in early winter,at least periodically, as they are frequently observed in places where Iam satisfied they do not breed."
240 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMDISTRIBUTIONRange.?North America.Breeding range.?The breeding range of the saw-whet owl extendsnorth to southeastern Alaska (Forrester Island); central Alberta(Carvel, Red Deer, and Stony Plain); Saskatchewan (probably Osierand the Qu'Appelle Valley); Manitoba (Aweme and probably Kale-vala) ; Ontario (probably Moose Factory) ; and Quebec (Lake Mistas-sini, probably Godbout, and Anticosti Island). East to Quebec(Anticosti Island, forks of the Cascapedia River, and the MagdalenIslands); Nova Scotia (Sydney, Pictou, Wolfville, and Halifax);Maine (Calais and Bucksport); New Hampshire (Tamworth andFranklin Falls); Massachusetts (Bridgewater, Taunton, and Ware-ham); Connecticut (Chester); New York (Millers); and western Mary-land (Cumberland). South to Maryland (Cumberland); probablyrarely northern Pennsylvania (Titusville) ; Ohio (probably Clevelandand probably Columbus) ; northern Indiana (Waterloo and Kentland)
;
Illinois (probably Chicago); central Missouri (Bluffton); Nebraska(Nebraska City) ; Oklahoma (near Tulsa) ; probably Colorado (DomeRock and Breckenridge) ; north-central Arizona (San Francisco Moun-tains); and southern California (San Gabriel Mountains). West toCalifornia (San Gabriel Mountains, Fyfee, and the South Fork Moun-tains); Oregon (Newport and Beaverton); Washington (Yakima andprobably Owyhigh Lake); British Columbia (Chilliwack and Masset);and Alaska (Forrester Island).Winter range.?The winter range of this little owl extendsnorth to British Columbia (Okanagan); central Alberta (Glenevis,Mundare, and Flagstaff); Saskatchewan (Eastend and Osier); Mani-toba (Minnedosa); southern Ontario (Listowel, Guelph, AlgonquinPark, and Ottawa); and Quebec (Montreal and probably AnticostiIsland). East to Quebec (probably Anticosti Island); New Brunswick(Scotch Lake and Oak Bay); Maine (Calais and Portland); Massa-chusetts (Ipswich, Boston, and Taunton); Rhode Island (Kingston);Long Island (Orient); and New Jersey (Princeton, Camden, and prob-ably Cape May). South to New Jersey (probably Cape May);Maryland (Baltimore, Laurel, and College Park); the District ofColumbia (Washington); Ohio (Medina and Sandusky); southernIllinois (rarely Mount Carmel and probably Anna); Missouri (St.Louis); Kansas (Manhattan); Colorado (Denver and Salida); rarelyNew Mexico (Santa Fe and Silver City) ; southern Arizona (HuachucaMountains, and Pima County); and southern California (Big Creek).West to California (Big Creek, Quincy, Point Reyes, probably Sonoma,and Oakland); Oregon (Gardiner and The Dalles); Washington(Kiona, Seattle, and Bellingham); and British Columbia (Okanagan).
SAW-WHET OWL 241Migration.?The movements of the saw-whet owl are too erratic tobe considered as true migration, and it will be observed that there islittle difference in the breeding and wintering ranges outlined. Never-theless, it is probable that in winter the individuals in the northernparts of the breeding range generally withdraw to the southward.Furthermore, during some winters the species becomes much morenumerous in certain parts of its winter range. At such times a heavyautumnal flight may have preceded the concentration. Such flightsusually take place in October but they are sometimes delayed untillate in December.In southern Ontario a large flight was recorded in the fall of 1889,again during the period October 10 to 28, 1895, and a third on October10, 190G. On the latter occasion large numbers were killed by a stormwhile crossing Lake Huron.The saw-whet is rarely seen in southern latitudes after the latterpart of March.Casual records.?There are a number of recorded instances of thisspecies in regions that are outside of the normal range. Among theseare the following:One was seen at Lewisburg, W. Va., on December 24, 1914. InVirginia one was reported from Parksley on December 10, 1889;another was taken at Cowart on November 26, 1902; and a third wasseen at Blacksburg in January 1912. A mounted specimen was ex-hibited at the fair at New Bern, N. C, in 1892; an adult female wascollected at Raleigh, on December 18, 1894; and another was taken inWake County, on December 4, 1897. South Carolina has at least fourrecords?a specimen with incomplete data from St. Helena Island;one collected on November 11, 1909, at Weston; one taken at Aikenin February 1899; and one seen by Wayne at Mount Pleasant onDecember 24, 1885. A specimen taken on Tybee Island, Ga., January1, 1911, was identified at the Biological Survey. One was collectedat Madisonville, La., in December 1889.Macoun lists the species as a "not uncommon summer migrant" inNewfoundland but gives no additional details. In Bermuda, onJanuary 12, 1849, one was found sitting inside the muzzle of a gunand was kept alive for several days. Another was reported to havebeen seen in the same locality a short time afterward.The status of the few saw-whets that have been reported from Mexicoand Guatemala is somewhat uncertain, but they are considered adistinct race by some authors.Egg dates.?New York and New England: 12 records, March 19to July 3; 6 records, April 10 to 30, indicating the height of the seasonOntario to New Brunswick: 3 records, April G and May 23 and 28.Washington and Oregon: 2 records, April 12 and May 2.Oklahoma: 2 records, April 18 and May 3.
242 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMCRYPTOGLAUX ACADICA BROOKSI FlemingQUEEN CHARLOTTE OWLHABITSA dark race of the saw-whet owl was first recognized and describedby Dr. Wilfred H. Osgood (1901), and called the northwest saw-whetowl (Nyctala acadica scotaea) ; the type was collected at Massett, QueenCharlotte Island, British Columbia, on December 19, 1896. Thecharacters given for it are: "Similar to N. acadica, but darker bothabove and below, dark markings everywhere heavier; flanks, legs, andfeet more rufescent." He says further in regard to it: "This dark-colored form of the Acadian owl doubtless ranges throughout the humidPacific coast region. * * * The only specimens that I have exam-ined beside the type are several imperfect ones from Puget Sound,which are in the National Museum collection. These agree with thetype in richness of color and extent of dark markings."Ridgway (1914) treated scotaea as a synonym of acadica, afterexamining the type of the former and other material available, for hesays:I am not able to make out any geographic variation in this species except aslight average difference in the hue of the brown of the upper and under parts,which is reddest in examples from the Pacific coast district (British Columbia tosouthern Mexico), more grayish brown in those from the Rocky Mountains, inter-mediate, but nearer the former, in those from the Atlantic side. * * * Theonly peculiarities that I am able to observe in the type of Nyctala acadica scotseaconsist in the deep ochraceous-buff auricular region and more reddish brown ofthe pileum; but I am of the opinion that these characters will not prove constantwhen more specimens from the Queen Charlotte Islands have been examined.The Queen Charlotte owl (Cryptoglaux acadica brooksi) was namedand described by J. H. Fleming (1916), based on three adult femalesand one immature bird, taken on Graham Island, in the Queen Char-lotte group, and sent to him by J. A. Munro; ho also examined twomore, one of them a male. These are all very much darker than Os-good's type of scotaea, in both sexes; for a detailed description thereader is referred to Mr. Fleming's paper. He suggests that|the typeof scotaea may have been a stray from the mainland, as it is very differ-ent from the birds he has described as brooksi, which probably representthe resident race of the islands. That there may be another race onthe Pacific coast, of which scotaea is typical, is a possibility; but Mr.Ridgway failed to recognize it, and Mr. Fleming says that it "is onlyapproached by a bird from Queretaro, Mexico, and is much brighterthan a male from Victoria, B. C, which in turn can be matched byOntario birds."Nothing seems to be known about the nesting habits of this race;but we have no reason to think that, in these or other habits, it differsmaterially from the eastern race; its food and its plumage changes are
EASTERN SCREECH OWL 243
apparently similar; the characters of the race are well emphasized inthe juvenal plumage; its eggs are unknown, so far as I know.OTUS ASIO NAEVIUS (Gmelin)eastern screech owlPlates 61, 62HABITSBecause the Linnaean name Strix asio was based on Catesby's
"little owl" from South Carolina, our familiar screech owl of the north-eastern United States has to be given the above new name, which isbased on the name that Pennant gave to the "mottled owl" in hisArctic Zoology.This species, as represented by its various races, is widely distributedfrom extreme southern Canada throughout practically the whole of theUnited States and well into Mexico. It is fairly common and wellknown throughout most of this range. As the eastern race enjoys thewidest distribution and is the best known, it will be treated more fullythan the other races, all of which are much alike in general habits.Courtshij).?Many of us have heard the tremulous and lugubriouswailings of the screech owl during the mating season, when this andother owls are most active in their vocal performances; but, becausethese demonstrations of affection are indulged in mainly during thehours of darkness, few of us have ever seen the birds in action. Dr.Lynds Jones was more fortunate, and wrote to Major Bendire (1892)as follows:I saw this species mating once. The female was perched in a dark leafy treeapparently oblivious of the presence of her mate, who made frantic efforts througha series of bowings, wing-raisings, and snappings to attract her attention. Theseantics were continued for some time, varied by hops from branch to branch nearher, accompanied by that forlorn, almost despairing wink peculiar to this bird.Once or twice I thought I detected sounds of inward groanings, as he, beside him-self with his unsuccessful approaches, sat in utter dejection. At last his mistresslowered her haughty head, looked at and approached him. I did not stay to seethe sequel.F. H. Carpenter (1883) had a pair of screech owls that raised abrood of young in captivity; he writes: "About the first of February,1883, their actions towards each other began to change. Instead ofsnapping at one another for a bit of meat, I was surprised to see oneof them take a bit of food and carry it to the other one that was perchedon the topmost beam, which in turn gravely received it. * * *These attentions seemed to increase. They would sit as close togetheras possible, frequently preening each other's feathers. The male bird(I was sure of it by this time) would take a piece of meat and fly up
244 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
with it to his companion, lay it down, and invite her to take it by aseries of hops and bows."P. T. Coolidge (190G) gives the following account of it:About ten or eleven minutes after sunset he left the tree and began singing hislove song; he was now full of life and ignored all disturbance. His song was inB flat of the middle octave, a soft trill, seemingly far away, two or three secondslong, and closing with an upward inflection, as if the bird were asking a question,
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as doubtless he was. Until the flight of the female, he sang from various perches,now from the branches of the elm, now from some neighboring tree, now from therim of the cavity in the elm, his eyes fastened upon his quiet mate. His hand-some head was continually bobbing and swinging. Once in a while the malewould light beside her; flashing of wings would follow, but darkness made moreexact analysis of their movements impossible. Occasionally he would fly outof sight. Returning from one of these trips lie lighted upon the rim of the cavityand touched his bill to that of his mate, but whether to give her some tidbit, ormerely a greeting, the darkness kept secret.Nesting.?Although the screech owl is fairly common in my hometerritory, I have never examined many nests, as I have never madeany special effort to find them. On only one occasion have I beenable to flush one of these owls off the nest by rapping on the tree;had I taken the trouble to climb to and examine every likely lookinghollow, I probably would have found many more. As it is, my notescontain the records of only seven nests. Three of these were in naturalcavities in old apple trees in orchards; two were in dead pine trees, andone in a dead poplar, in what were apparently old flickers' holes; andthe other was 35 feet from the ground, the highest I have ever found,in a natural cavity in a large oak on the edge of some woods. I foundmy first nest on May 18, 1889, while climbing to an osprey's nest ona dead pine stub in some mixed woods; the owl's nest was in an oldflicker's hole below the osprey's nest and about 20 feet from theground; the owl was sitting on a set of five eggs nearly ready to hatch,and had to be lifted off the eggs. On April 12, 1891, we found a pairof screech owls, a red and a gray bird, nesting in a natural cavity inan apple tree in an old orchard; the opening was only about 5 feetfrom the ground, so that we could look in and see both owls in thenest apparently sound asleep; under the red owl were five fresh eggs.After removing both owls, to inspect the nest, we returned the graybird to the hollow, where it promptly settled down; the red one wethrew up into the air; it dove straight for the hole, but missed it andfell to the ground, perhaps bewildered by the light and the rudeawakening; but it soon recovered its wits and flew off to some nearbywoods. On two other occasions I have found both of a pair of owlsin the nest together, always one red and one gray.Two other nests in old orchards were evidently successive nestingsof the same pair of owls. The first was found on May 20, 1933, in anatural cavity in an apple tree, about 10 feet from the ground; it
EASTERN SCREECH OWL 245
contained five young, partially clothed in the downy juvenal plumage,that were being brooded by a red adult; when I released her, she flewswiftly and easily to another apple tree and dove into a cavity. Weexplored this orchard thoroughly on April 19, 1934, but could find notrace of the owls; but in another old orchard, about 200 yards away,we were more fortunate. An upright branch, or fork of the maintrunk, of an old apple tree had an open cavity, facing upward; lookingdownward into this we could see the gray owl clinging to the roughside of the cavity and sound asleep; about 30 inches below the opencavity was a knothole, barely large enough to admit my hand; thiswas only about G inches above the nest of leaves and rubbish, on whichwe could dimly see the red owl, sitting on her eggs, blinking andsnapping her bill. I succeeded in relieving her of six, nearly fresh,eggs; she made no resistance, as I reached under her, but finallyclimbed up and clung to the side of the cavity below her mate (pi. 61).All the above nests were in Bristol County, Mass. In most casesthe eggs were laid on the rotten chips and other rubbish that the owlshappened to find in the cavities; I believe that they never carry inany nesting material and that where such material is found it merelyindicates that some other bird or mammal had brought it therepreviously. But the nests often contain a few feathers of the owls,or the feathers, fur, or other remains of their victims. Though I donot claim that it has any great significance, it is an interesting factthat it has always been the red bird, in a mixed pair, that I havefound sitting on the eggs, or brooding the young.The above nestings were apparently typical of the nesting habitsof the screech owl in other sections. A. D. DuBois writes to me of anest he found, about 50 feet from the groimd in a large sycamore; theowl sat with its head out of the hole, watching him, until he climbedto within ten feet of the hole; this habit has been noted by others.Major Bendire (1892) says: "Mr. Oliver Davie mentions his havingfound several nests between the broken siding of ice houses alongstreams. Mr. C. S. Brimley found a set of three eggs of this speciesplaced in a cavity of a stump, the bottom of which was below thelevel of the ground outside."Screech owls have been known to nest in bird boxes, set up for thatpurpose on trees or buildings, and they would probably do so oftenerif given more encouragement; a little sawdust or excelsior in the bot-tom of the box is quite to their liking. They have also nested indove cots and in purple-martin houses, and not always to the injuryof the rightful occupants, as the following experience, related by RalphR. Wilson (1925) will show:During the winter of 1923-24 two Screech Owls took up their quarters in oneof the roomy compartments of the largest nest-box. I was away that winter andthe following spring, but when school closed (May 2G) I returned and found ten
246 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMPurple Martins nesting in the boxes. Three days later, at twilight, I saw a grayphase Screech Owl frequently alight at the entrance of a compartment of the larg-est nest-box and quickly fly away after a very noisy reception from within. Iwas surprised at this as Martins were nesting in all the other compartments.Investigation next day disclosed a husky young Screech Owl, apparently thelast of a brood, in the box. It was observed that the Martins carefully avoidedthat compartment. Ten days later the Owl was gone and a pair of Martins atonce built a nest in and occupied that part of the box.By June 30 the Martins were all scouring the air and feeding their young. Thatevening one parent Owl reappeared at the box. I scared it away but next day Inoticed that the two Martins that nested where the Owl had nested were notfeeding their young. A second inspection showed an empty nest.The screech owl also has been known to nest frequently, evenregularly, in cavities in trees close to houses in towns and cities, thusshowing more confidence in human beings than most other owls show.1 have had several such cases reported in my home city.Eggs.?The screech owl lays three to seven eggs, but usually fouror five, with the average in favor of five; the extremely large or smallsets are rare; even as many as eight or nine have been reported, butthese reports seem doubtful. Bendire (1892) says that they "arepure white in color, usually oval or nearly globular in shape, andmoderately glossy. In the majority of specimens the shell is smoothand finely granulated, while in a few it is rough to the touch." Themeasurements of 56 eggs in the United States National Museumaverage 35.5 by 30 millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremesmeasure 38 by 31, 37.5 by 32, 32 by 29.5, and 33 by 28.5 millimeters.Young.?The period of incubation is variously reported as from 21to 30 days, but the average is probably around 26 days, as determinedby the careful observations of Miss Althea E. Sherman (1911). Asthe eggs are laid at intervals of two or three days, sometimes at longerintervals, and as incubation may begin after the first egg is laid, ornot until after two or three are laid, the exact period of incubation isdifficult to figure.Apparently the female does most, if not all, of the incubating and thebrooding of the 3^oung. Miss Sherman (1911) describes the egg layingand incubation as follows:The first egg was found in the nest on the morning of March 27, and was stillalone on the evening of the 29th. The following day the nest was not visited,the only day in two months and a half, when visits were omitted. No doubt thesecond egg was laid some time on the 30th of March; the third one was depositedon April 1, but two days intervening between the laying of the second and thirdeggs, while three or more days were the period between the other layings. Thefourth egg was in the nest at half past four o'clock in the afternoon of April 4,but it was not there at eight o'clock on the previous evening. This shows that ittook from eight to nine days to complete the clutch of four eggs. Whether theOwl laid in the night, or in the morning as other birds do, was not ascertained.* * * Constant incubation appears to have begun on the first day of Aprilafter which she was frightened out on two evenings. * * * Eggs No. 1 and
EASTERN SCREECH OWL 247No. 2 were found to have hatched on April 27; No. 3 hatched the following night,and No. 4 about five o'clock in the afternoon of April 29, showing that the periodof incubation was about twenty-six days.Following arc some of Miss Sherman's observations on the young:This owl may have been called the Shivering Owl, because it shivers. Itcertainly shivers, that it screeches may be a question for dispute. This peculiarityis one of the early things to be observed in the life of these nestlings; but the shiver-ing does not become very pronounced until the bird is two days old, and contin-ues until it is about two weeks old, at which time the young owl is well coveredwith thick down: therefore it seems quite possible that it shivers because it iscold. * * *Until the shivering period was past they sought the warmth found under themother's wings; after this as one would naturally suspect, they as do other youngbirds, continued to sleep much, standing in a bunch with their heads pressedtogether; they preened themselves but not so much as do some nestlings; frequentlythey yawned, monstrous, big-mouthed yawns. Stretching was the favorite exer-cise, during it the birds seemed to be made of india-rubber. On May 16 the heightto which one stretched itself was seven inches by actual measurement. * * *During their nest life but three varieties of cries were heard from them, thefirst, beginning as soon as they were out of the shell, had some resemblance to thepeep of a chicken, and was uttered by them when out from under the mother'swings, seemingly a cry for shelter and for food: this ceased when they were aboutthree weeks old. At this age a second cry was heard for the first time, which hada decidedly squeaking sound and was made when they were squabbling for thewarmest place in the family circle. The remaining cry, a sort of chatter, appearedto be the tone for a dinner discussion, friendly enough in quality, for they werenever seen to quarrel at meals. Besides these there was the snapping of the billwhich commenced the day they began to show fear, and a hissing sound madewhen they were frightened. * * *The male Screech Owl appears to have been the general purveyor for thefamily. In the first fortnight of incubation there were nine mornings when anexcess of food lay beside his mate; of this she rarely ate during the day, but therewere times when she did so. On the remaining days of incubation she had foodbeside her twice, but as soon as the eggs commenced to hatch there was a super-abundance provided. An example of this was furnished on April 29 when therelay in store four meadow mice weighing about two-fifths of a pound altogether.This excessive provision lasted only a few days, the supply decreased daily, andnone was seen after May 15. Nine o'clock, half past nine, and ten o'clock werehours upon which he was known to have brought food to the nest, eight o'clock inthe evening being the earliest time. * * *Bits of flesh clipped from meadow mice in store, that were placed in the mouthof a nestling, were swallowed with some difficulty and no apparent relish. Theirbeaks were stained upon the outside with bloody matter, and as they grew olderthey would nibble at the mother's bill as if teasing for food. All these things ledto a belief that in their earlier days they were fed predigested or partially pre-digested food, which they pulled from the beak of the mother. * * * On thetenth an owlet was seen for the first time pulling at food (the body of a frog), as ifeating it. The next morning during observations the mother lifted her headfrom the corner and appeared to eject something from her mouth; at once theowlets scrambled to the spot and seemed to eat for a few minutes. * * *Pellets ejected by the young were found for the first time on May 10; it maybe well to note that this was the first date upon which they were seen eating the
248 BULLETIN 170, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMfood that lay in the nest. A pellet disgorged on May 27 weighed sixty-two grains,which was one-thirtieth of the weight of the bird that ejected it.Dr. Arthur A. Allen (1924) made a series of careful observations onthe method of feeding a brood of young screech owls, which he con-fined in a cage in front of a blind, equipped with a lantern, flashlight,and camera. He writes:From the outset it was obvious that both parent birds were engaged in caringfor the young. * * * They never both came together to feed but frequentlywhen the flash light disturbed one bird before it had time to feed, the other wouldreturn with food and both would be near with food in their bills at the same time.The old birds were ordinarily silent in their hunting and feeding but the youngbirds, after they had been put in the cage, kept up a continuous humming duringthe night which lasted as long as they were hungry. If one of the young did notgive the food call, the old birds paid no attention to him but fed the ones thatcalled. The food was always brought in the bills of the old birds and placeddirectly into the mouths of the young. Large objects like birds or mice wereoften brought already partially torn or eaten or they were sometimes torn topieces in front of the cage before being passed through the wire. Just as often,however, the entire bird was given to the young and they would fight amongthemselves for it. It was after one such tug-of-war that two of the young attackedthe third and picked most of his bones by morning.In order to determine the number of feedings, the amount of food,and its nature, George McNeill (Allen, 1924) remained in this blindnearly all night for seven successive nights, June 29 to July G, inclu-sive. The earliest time at which feeding began was 8.25, and thelatest was 9.12 p. m.; the earliest time at which feeding ceased was2.50, and the latest was 4.15 a. m. The number of feedings was veryvariable, being 20, 73, 36, 14, 75, 67, and 72, respectively, on the sevennights. The most intensive feeding was on the night of July 4, when
"the young Owls were first fed at 8.34 and between then and 1.40 werefed 75 times, two beetles and 73 moths. The birds then became quietand as it was very chilly Mr. McNeill left. The next morning Igathered the feathers of six birds that had evidently been fed to theyoung after 1 .40 ; Phoebe, Scarlet Tanager, Cedar Waxwing, ChippingSparrow, Redstart, and Catbird."From the above records it appears that from the time that the firstegg is laid to the time that the young leave the nest about eight weekshave elapsed. Probably the young are watched over, and fed more orless, by their parents for five or six weeks more before they are turnedaway to shift for themselves.Plumages.?When first hatched the young screech owl is coveredwith pure white down, even to the tips of its toes; it is very attractiveat this age. Miss Sherman (1911) suggests:As they tumbled about in their nest they very forcibly suggested human babiesin fleecy white cloaks that are learning to creep. Held in the hand with theirbeaks downward and out of sight they looked like diminutive blind kittens; per-haps the most noticeable thing about them at that age was their large heads. Butthis winning aspect of the nestlings was of short duration. In a few days the pin-
EASTERN SCREECH OWL 249feathers began to show in the white down which soon turned to a dirty gray color.By the time they were twelve days old they had become most repulsive, exceed-ingly filthy to handle with an appearance that was decidedly repellant. Perfectminiatures were they of a doddering, half witted old man; the blue beak wasprominent and suggested a large hooked nose, while the down below it took theshape of a full gray beard, and that on the top of the head looked like the grayhair that covers a low, imbecile forehead; the eyes not fully open were bluish incolor, and had a bleared and half-blind appearance. This loathsome semblancelasted no longer than ten days by which time the eyes were full and bright andyellow, the bird was covered with a thick gray down, and looked as if a facsimileof it could very easily be made from a bunch of gray wool devoid of any anatomy.The above somewhat fanciful but graphic description gives a verygood impression of what the young screech owl looks like in its earlydays. The last stage referred to is what I call the downy juvenalplumage. This secondary down, or, more properly, downy plumage,is acquired before the young bird is half grown and before the flightfeathers have burst their sheaths. It replaces the first, or natal,down, the old adhering as white tips on the new. On the upper partsthis downy plumage is basally pale "tawny-olive", or "Saccardo'sumber", with grayish white tips, and barred with "sepia"; on theunder parts it is grayish white and more narrowly barred with palersepia. During this stage the two color phases begin to be distinguish-able, the gray phase being grayish white and gray and the red phasemore generally tinged with "pinkish cinnamon"; this difference be-comes more pronounced as the flight feathers begin to develop. Whenthe bird is about half grown the first winter plumage begins to show,first in the scapulars, then in the wings, and then in the tail; the birdis fully grown and the wings and tail are fully developed before thereis much change in the body plumage; the molt of the body plumageoccurs in July and August, beginning on the back, followed by theunder parts, and lastly including the head.This molt produces the first winter plumage, which is much likethat of the adult, and is worn through the following spring and untilthe next summer molt, the first postnuptial. Young birds can berecognized in this plumage by the juvenal wings, tail, and scapulars;the wings lack the white on the outer webs of the primaries, whichare broadly barred with "cinnamon" and dusky; and the broad whitetips of the greater and median wing coverts and the white outer websof the scapulars, so prominent in adults, are less pronounced in youngbirds; red adults have the central pair of rectrices nearly or quite clearred, and gray adults have them mottled; young birds of both phaseshave the central feathers more or less distinctly barred, and the lateralfeathers more heavily barred with dusky. Adults apparently haveone complete annual molt late in summer and in fall.The screech owl gives us one of the best examples of dichromatism,apparently entirely independent of sex, age, or season, but shown to13751?38 17
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its perfection in only the eastern races ; some of the western races showan occasional brownish phase; and an intermediate, brownish phaseoccurs rarely in the eastern races. Many years ago E. M. Hasbrouck(1893) made an extensive study of this subject, and published a paperbased on the data obtained from 3,600 birds. He attempts to
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show, first, that while the red, the gray and the intermediate phases are at presentbut individual variations of the same species?the gray was the ancestral stock;second, that the gray bird evolved the red, which at some future time will be arecognized sub-species with a range peculiar to itself, and thus dichromatism isone step in the evolution of the Screech Owl, while the various phases exhibitedare the transitorial stages of development of one species from another; third, thatthis condition of affairs is influenced by four powerful factors (two of which tem-perature and humidity, are dominant powers in geographic distribution), themost potent of which is temperature; fourth, that the predominating distributionof the respective colors is largely confined to the faunal divisions of the EasternUnited States, and as such is approaching the sub-specific differentiation of thetwo phases.His five maps illustrate the ranges of the eastern races, the areasoccupied by each one of the phases exclusively and those in which oneof the phases predominates, and the distribution of the phases in com-parison with temperature, humidity, and forest growths ; the distribu-tion of the phases seems to correlate fairly well with the distributionof these factors. He makes the statement that whereas the offspringof parents of two different phases, or of two red parents, may be allred, all gray, or of both colors, "not a single record can be found of theoffspring of a pair of gray birds showing the slightest trace of red."This statement seems remarkable, but I have no evidence to thecontrary.Food.?The screech owl enjoys a varied bill of fare including almostevery class of animal life. Dr. A. K. Fisher (1893b) summarizes itsfood as follows: "Of 255 stomachs examined, 1 contained poultry[pigeon]; 38, other birds; 91, mice; 11, other mammals; 2, lizards;4, batrachians; 1, fish; 100, insects; 5, spiders; 9, crawfish; 7, miscel-laneous; 2, scorpions; 2, earthworms; and 43 were empty. " He saysof their hunting methods: "At night-fall they begin their rounds,inspecting the vicinity of farm-houses, barns, and corncribs, makingtrips through the orchard and nurseries, gliding silently across themeadows or encircling the stacks of grain in search of mice andinsects. Thousands upon thousands of mice of different kinds thusfall victims to their industry."Dr. Paul L. Errington (1932c) says: "My Wisconsin record forScreech Owl vertebrate and large invertebrate prey totals up to 137individuals, in the following proportions: Norway rat, 1; meadowmouse, 49; deer mouse, 37; shrew (Blarina, 6; Sorex, 1), 7; small bird(predominantly English Sparrow according to feather evidence ofkills), 36; fish, 4; crayfish, 3."
EASTERN SCREECH OWL 251Dr. Allen (1924) says: "To summarize: remains of birds were foundon 35 days, insects on 28 days, crawfish on 24 days, amphibians on15 days, mammals on 12 days, fish on 6 days, and spiders, snails,and reptiles on one day each." He gives a fist of the species of birdsfed to the young, making a total of 24 species and at least 98 indivi-duals, and says: "Since the feathers in the nest undoubtedly representmany more than one bird of each species, the grand total of birdsrequired to feed the three young Owls from the time of hatching untilleft by the old birds was certainly over a hundred."The long list of items in the food of the screech owl includes thefollowing mammals: Mainly mice of various species, but also shrews,rats, moles, flying squirrels, chipmunks, and an occasional bat.Illustrating the usefulness of the screech owl as a mouser, Forbush(1927) writes: "All one season I watched a pair that were rearing abrood near my cottage. * * * All the pellets and other refusefrom their food that seasoD showed only remains of mice, shrews andinsects. * * * While the owls were there, the mice did no damageto our young orchard, but two years later their box fell down and wasnot replaced for the next two years. The second wiDter the micegirdled nearly all our apple trees. The next year a number of boxeswere erected. The owls returned and we had no trouble from micethereafter."Although birds do not form so large a proportion of the food asmammals, the fist of species is a long one, as follows: Domestic pigeons,quail, ruffed grouse, woodcock, sparrow hawk, screech owl, downywoodpecker, kingbird, phoebe, wood pewee, horned lark, blue jay,starling, blackbirds, Baltimore oriole, goldfinch, junco, canary,indigo bunting, English and various other sparrows, cedar waxwing,swallows, scarlet tanager, vireos, water thrush and various otherwarblers, house wren, chickadee, nuthatches, brown creeper, catbird,bluebird, robin, and various thrushes.A farmer once brought to me a screech owl that had been living inhis pigeon cote, and had killed nine of his pigeons; and there areseveral other similar records. I had one in captivity that broke intoa cage and devoured a captive sparrow hawk; I could find only itsfeathers. Many young birds are taken from the nests of various smallbirds and fed to the young owls. Dr. Fisher (1893b) records a reportof a screech owl, much emaciated and driven by hunger, attacking alarge hen and attempting to carry it off. An instance of a screechowl killing a ruffed grouse is recorded by Dr. George M. Sutton(1927) as follows:At about midnight on December 20, 1924, Mr. George Ryder, of LeRoy,Bradford County, Pennsylvania, captured a Screech Owl in a steel trap which hehad set earlier in the evening on the body of a grouse which he had just foundfreshly killed, and from which he had frightened what he recognized as a small
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owl of some kind. Examination of the snow about the body of the grouse showedthat no quadruped had caught the bird. Furthermore, the Screech Owl's stomach,which was examined at the writer's office, contained much of the head and neckof the grouse, as well as several sumac seeds, portions of rose-hips, and tiny twigswith buds attached, which must have been swallowed with the gizzard of thegrouse. The owl was caught by both feet only a few minutes after the setting ofthe trap, so it is fair to assume that the eating had been done prior to the settingof the trap, probably just after the owl had killed its prey.H. E. Tuttle (1920) says: "I came upon a Screech Owl one day, car-rying what seemed to be a small kitten. I followed his line of flight,and as the burden proved too great a handicap for him in his effort toplace a safe distance between us, he dropped it, but lingered near as ifreluctant to yield it to my inspection. To my astonishment I dis-covered that it was an infant Owl, quite downy and quite dead."Mrs. P. N. Jackson and G. Carleton (1931) write: "About two weeksago, in Mendham, N. J., a Screech Owl came down the chimney of ahouse and ate up the Canary. * * * Feathers showed that theCanary had been pulled between the bars of the cage."Screech owls feed quite extensively on insects; the list includesJune beetles and other beetles, cutworms, grasshoppers, locusts, crick-ets, cicadas, katydids, noctuid moths, caterpillars, and hellgrammites.Many of these are caught on the wing. Dr. Sutton (1929b) watched ascreech owl thus engaged, and writes:At first we were somewhat mystified by her actions. Soon we made out, how-ever, that she was capturing insects which were flying about the peripheral twigsof the tree. Some of these she evidently snatched from the twigs or leaves withher feet; others she caught in mid-air, with her beak. Since I had never knownScreech Owls to capture prey thus I changed my position so as to be able to seethe bird more clearly. From my new station under the elm tree I saw the birdcatch thus, Flycatcher-wise, at least twenty insects, most, if not all of them, thelarge beetles locally called June bugs or May beetles. We watched her for at leastthree quarters of an hour. She caught about two insects a minute, returningpromptly to feed the noisy young. * * *This habit of capturing insects with the mouth, on the wing, instantly called tomind the characteristics common to the Orders Strigiformes and Caprimulgi-formes. Birds of both Orders have soft, lax plumage permitting noiseless flight;both are at least to a degree, nocturnal, possessing relatively large eyes. Themouth of the Screech Owl, while hardly to be compared with that of the Whip-poor-will from the standpoint of siz,e, is, nevertheless, relatively large or wide, andthe hair-like feathers of the nasal portion of the facial disc probably perform thesame insect catching function as the enormously developed rictal bristles of theWhip-poor-will.Louis B. Kalter writes to me: "A screech owl practically snatchedfrom my hands two male cecropia moths (Samia cecropia), around 4:30a. m., when I was attempting to catch the moths with my hands. Inthe evening I had hung a live female cecropia moth, by means of athread, in the open window of my bedroom. It had lured a number ofmales by its scent and, when I leaned from the window to catch them,
EASTERN SCREECH OWL 253
a screech owl swooped down twice and caught them; once it came with-in 3 or 4 feet of my hands."Mr. Forbush (1927) says: "Professor Aughey dissected 8 of theseowls in Nebraska during locust invasions and in their stomachs found219 locusts, 2757 other insects, 2 mice and 1 small bird. The one thathad eaten the bird contained also 32 locusts and 8 other insects."In addition to mammals, birds, and insects, the screech owl has beenknown to eat snakes, lizards, frogs, toads, various fishes, crayfishes,snails, salamanders, spiders, scorpions, millipeds, and earthworms.M. A. Frazar (1877) found in a screech owl's roosting hole sixteenhorned pouts, four of which were alive; all the ponds in the vicinitywere under 2 feet of snow and ice, but in one pond, fully a mile away,a hole had been cut in the ice by fishermen, where he inferred that theowl had caught the fish ; this involved a total flight of 32 miles for the 16fish.With such an extensive and varied bill of fare, it is difficult to arriveat any general conclusion as to the economic status of this owl.It depends largely on its environment and the most readily availablefood supply, for this owl evidently is satisfied with what animal food itcan most easily obtain. Where mice, rats, and and other small mam-mals are abundant, it apparently prefers them; in destroying them andin eating so many locusts, cutworms, and other noxious insects, it isdecidedly beneficial. There are several cases on record, to its credit,where it has been useful in keeping in check, or driving away, an over-abundance of English sparrows, which had become a nuisance in barns,hangars, and vine-clad houses.But in a bird sanctuary a screech owl is an unwelcome guest.Miss Sherman (1911) found that her screech owls killed a great manysmall birds, especially juncos and song sparrows; all the latter dis-appeared in time; her verdict on the owls was that "their ravages wereso great that it was decided if we desired a little bird paradise where allgood birds were welcome through the summer time there ScreechOwls could not be encouraged to remain."Dr. Allen (1924) draws the following conclusions from his studies:A census of the birds nesting in the sanctuary in 1923 showed a slight increasein the total number rather than a decrease, though all species exterminated in1922 failed to reappear in 1923. * * *There can be little doubt that the number of insects and small mammalsdestroyed by this pair of Owls could never compensate for the destruction of onetenth of the insectivorous birds eaten by the young. Though the Owls mightspend the rest of the year feeding entirely upon insects and meadow mice, theycould not possibly consume the equivalent of what would have been eaten by the 98birds destroyed during the short space of eight weeks.From the data here presented it seems evident that the Screech Owl is a powerfulfactor in maintaining the balance of nature but, from the standpoint of increasinginsectivorous birds, he is an equally powerful menace.
254 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMDr. John B. May tells me that he had some young screech owlsconfined in a latticed shed. "Through the openings of the latticenasturtium plants climbed, and I found that the owls ate considerableof the stems and leaves of these vines. Pellets composed of the woodyfibers of the leaf stems were frequently found in the shed." Perhapsthey needed the additional "roughage" in their food.Behavior.?If the great horned owl can rightly be called a "featheredtiger", the screech owl deserves to be called a "feathered wildcat", forit certainly is a savage little brute, as some of the foregoing remarkson food indicate. Its courage in attacking birds much larger thanitself is admirable, but cruelty and cannibalism are not so muchadmired. I once took a mated pair of these owls from a nest in whichthey were sitting on five eggs. The eggs went into a friend's collection,but I put the two owls in a cage by themselves in my aviary. I wassurprised, a few days later, to find that one of them had killed andpartially eaten its mate; I wondered if the loss of the eggs had any-thing to do with it. Fred. H. Carpenter (1883) says that his captivescreech owl savagely attacked a long-eared owl which he put into theenclosure with it, so that it was necessary to separate the two birds.William Brewster (1907) published a thrilling story, on the authorityofMrs. JohnW. Ames, of Cambridge, of a pair of very aggressive screechowls that were raising a brood of young near a house in Concord,Mass. The occupants of the house were savagely attacked wheneverthey ventured near the trees where the owls were living after dark;even the neighbors were attacked when they passed the gate. Peoplewere repeatedly struck on the head and face, sometimes blood drawn,and this happened so often that they adopted the habit of wearinghoods or baseball masks when they went out in the evening. This wasa rather extreme case of persistent hostility and boldness, but I havefound in the literature no less than six somewhat similar accounts ofscreech owls attacking men, women, and children, in fancied defenceof their young. This is apparently a common habit, but it oftenerresults in threats rather than actual injury to human beings.The screech owl is one of our most strictly nocturnal owls. It doesnot hunt, and is said not to eat, during daylight Soon after dusk itsallies forth on its large, silent wings and glides swiftly along over thelowland fields and meadows in search of mice, or courses over the tree-tops to catch the larger flying insects. During the day it is inactive,dozing in some hollow tree, some dark corner, or huddled up close tothe trunk of some densely foliaged tree; often, however, it will perchmotionless all day in some opener situation, relying on its concealingpose and protective coloration to escape detection. Often it will sitfor hours at the entrance to a hole in a tree, or some opening in a build-ing, facing the bright sunlight. Its eyesight is strong enough, withthe pupil fully dilated, to see well at night, but, with the pupil
EASTERN SCREECH OWL 255
contracted, it can also see perfectly in the brightest daylight, thoughit seems confused when suddenly brought from darkness to sunlight.The only one I ever induced to leave its nest voluntarily in daylightflew perfectly and swiftly off through the woods for a long distance.Captive owls that I have tethered in the open could see clearly everybird that flew across the sky and would follow them with the eyes untilout of sight.As with all owls, the screech owl's hearing is very acute and of greatassistance to it in its midnight hunting. The rustling of a mouse in thedry leaves or grass, the stirring of a bird on its roost, the buzz or softflutter of an insect's wings, or the splash of a fish in a dark pool, allserve to guide it to its prey. Likewise its keen ears often warn it of anapproaching enemy. Probably its ears are fully as useful as its eyesat night.Screech owls are ordinarily quiet, gentle birds; they can be liftedfrom their nests or roosting holes without offering any resistance ; theymay indulge in ominous bill snapping but seldom use their claws, whichare sharp as needles. They make very good pets, provided they donot come in contact with other species, or even other individuals oftheir own species, which may result in tragedies; they love to bestroked or have their heads scratched; they are very cleanly, drinkwater freely, and are fond of bathing. Wild owls have been knownto bathe in bird baths, often exhausting the supply.Dr. Fisher (1893b) says: "Once about dusk the writer came upona small family which had emerged the moment before from the water.They were sitting on some low alders over a shallow portion of thestream, ruffling up and shaking the water from their feathers, andpresented a soaked and forlorn appearance. Apparently they weretoo wet to be able to fly well, for when approached they fluttered offheavily into the thicket and soon escaped from sight in the growingdarkness. The number of times this Owl has been drowned in waterbarrels indicates its fondness for bathing."W. I. Lyon (1922) had an interesting experience with one of theseowls that was nesting in the same tree with a pair of flickers ; the owl'seggs were destroyed, and for five consecutive days thereafter the owlwas found in the flicker's nest, brooding the young flickers; the latterwere regularly fed by their parents and were always uninjured; theowl had even brought in a small bird to feed to the young.The screech owl is well aware of the concealing value of its well-known hiding pose; it will maintain this pose, even though closelyapproached, and remain immovable until it realizes that it is dis-covered; then a decided change takes place. The following extractfrom Owen Durfee's notes gives a very good idea of the whole per-formance: "I had the pleasure of finding two screech owls sitting sideby side on a horizontal limb. The attitude was long drawn out,
256 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMthe whole body being stretched to its limit, the wings and feathersheld as close to the body as possible. This gave them the appearanceof two long stubs, the top of the head being nearly square across.The eyes were slanted slits, and while the head was directly towardme, the body was swung sideways so as to keep the wing in front asa shield ; in other words, they were looking over their shoulders. Infact, one of them, as I walked part way around them, suddenly swunghalfway around, so that it was looking at me over the other shoulder.After a few moments one of them evidently realized that it was dis-covered and underwent a sudden transformation; from a verticalposition it quickly assumed a horizontal one, of only about one-halfas great a height. It thus assumed a squatting position across thebranch, the feathers being fluffed out, the head a round ball, theround eyes wide open, and with one click of the bill, it flew heavilyaway. A few moments later, the other bird followed in exactly thesame line of performances."Lewis O. Shelley writes to me: "As we were walking up a hill roadwe spied a screech owl, in gray phase, perched on a short limb tightup against the bare trunk of an ash tree. As we came into sight,very slowly the bird attained the protective pose of a dead stub. Weapproached to within 12 feet, waved our arms, called and even tossedpebbles. But the bird was fain to move as it sat, eyes half closed,in the warm sun. We each had an orange and were debating tossingthem up at the bird. But the instant we drew them forth and thesun struck them, emphasizing their golden color, the bird quicklyresumed its normal attitude, edged along the limb and, spreading itswings, noiselessly swept away."Voice.?The name of this owl is somewhat unfortunate, as it veryseldom indulges in anything that can rightly be called a screech. Mr.Forbush (1927) heard such a note from only one individual, of whichhe says: "It resembled the note of the siren whistle, beginning lowand full and gradually rising without the usual tremolo until it endedin a shrill shriek."Francis H. Allen has given me his description of two of the notes:(1) "the well-known wail, or whinny, the so-called love song, consistingof a succession of short, even, low notes delivered with varying degreesof rapidity. It also varies in pitch. Sometimes the first part is slowand the latter part rapid, virtually a trill"; (2) "wheeoo, a mellowwhistle with a falling inflection, often followed by three shorter notes,each a very little higher in pitch than the preceding note
?
wheeoo,woo, woo, woo."I am tempted to quote Thoreau's (Langille, 1884) graphic descrip-tion of the love song; he says: "It is no honest and blunt tu-whit, tu-who of the poets, but, without jesting, a most solemn, graveyardditty, the mutual consolations of suicide lovers remembering the
EASTERN SCREECH OWL 257pangs and the delights of supernal love in the infernal groves.* * * Oh-o-o-o-o that I had never been bor-r-r-r-r-n sighs one onthis side of the pond, and circles with the restlessness of despair tosome new perch on the gray oaks. Then
?
that I never had beenbor-r-r-r-n echoes another on the further side with tremulous sin-cerity, and bor-r-r-r-n comes faintly from far in Lincoln woods."The screech owl's call is seldom heard until after dark, but Mr.Kalter tells me that he has heard it calling on at least three occasionsin bright daylight, at 11.30 a. m. and 1.15 and 2 p. m. On two occa-sions he has heard one calling while in flight, once while being chasedby a robin. Dr. Winsor M. Tyler contributes the following gooddescription of the screech owl's notes:"The commonest note of the screech owl is a whistle, well withinhuman range, which, rising a little in pitch, becomes tremulous, thenslides down below the starting point, the tremulous quality becomingso marked that, near the end, the voice is almost divided into separatenotes. The whole has a sad, dreary effect, due rather to the tone ofvoice and the sliding change of pitch than to any minor intervals."The owl varies this cry in several ways. The note may begin onvarious pitches?that is, one wail may be markedly higher or lowerthan the wail preceding it; the pitch may rise very little, or it may risetwo or more tones before it falls at the end ; the pitch may fall a varyingdegree, sometimes three or four tones; and a fourth variation is at thebeginning of the cry when the quavering quality is delayed appre-ciably."A second note, less common than the wail in proportion of about1 to 10, may be suggested by the letters ho-ho-ho-ho, pronounced witha good deal of aspirate quality. This series of notes is generallygiven alone, but it may sometimes immediately follow the wail.The pitch of this call is about five tones below the highest note of thewail, and as a rule does not vary, although it occasionally runs up-ward a little. It is sometimes heard in the daytime.
"I have often heard another note in August and early in September,when several owls?presumably a family out hunting?had gathered
'in the dead vast and middle of the night' and were calling to oneanother from the trees about Lexington Common. Among the sub-dued whinnyings and tremulous owlish coos, there comes out of thedarkness a sharp cry?almost human, or like a little child's voice?
a
cry like keerr, sometimes rolling at the end. It is about as long as aflicker's call note, and moves about as the bird flies from one perch toanother. Sometimes the note is uttered with so much energy that itsuggests excitement or eagerness.
"It seems probable that this is the call of a fledgling owl, signalingits whereabouts to its parents while they are away, searching for food
258 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMamong the branches of the trees, or on the grass underneath. On oneoccasion, when the owls were about the house, at 1 o'clock in the morn-ing, I heard the shriek of a robin burst out of the night."Field marks.?A small owl, with yellow eyes and prominent ear-tufts, is quite likely to be a screech owl, as the long-eared owl isconsiderably larger and slenderer. It is very seldom seen on the wingin the daytime, unless driven from cover. The bright reddish-browncolor of the upper parts in the red phase is quite distinctive ; no otherNorth American owl has any color approaching this. In the grayphase it is much grayer than the long-eared, and very much shorterand stouter. In the gray phase the color pattern resembles the roughbark of an old tree, and the hiding pose, described above, increases theresemblance in the attitude in which the bird is oftenest seen in thedaytime.Enemies.?The larger owls and occasionally some of the largerhawks have been known to kill the screech owl ; prowling cats or otherpredatory animals may pounce on one while it is securing its prey onthe ground. Its less dangerous, but far more annoying, enemies arethe crows, blue jays, and other small birds, which never lose anopportunity to pester, scold, and annoy one of these little owls whenthey can find it sleeping peacefully. The location of an owl can oftenbe detected by the presence of a noisy mob of small birds, flittingabout, chirping, and shrieking at the enemy they rightly fear anddetest, but seldom daring to venture too near. The owl may standthis abuse with stolid indifference for some time but may be driveneventually to seek seclusion in some dark hollow. I once followed upa noisy mob of blue jays in a dense thicket and shot one of them, as Iwanted a specimen ; when I picked it up, I was surprised to find a deadscreech owl lying near it, which I had killed unexpectedly. Manyscreech owls have been found dead along the much-traveled highways,apparently killed by automobiles.Winter.?Screech owls are supposed to be permanent residentsthroughout their range, but probably some migration takes placefrom the northern portion of their summer range. They certainlywander about more in search of food in winter, as they are often seenat that season in places where they are not found in summer. Thescarcity of food in the northern woods when the ground is covered withdeep snow drives them to more fruitful hunting grounds about farmsand even into towns and cities, where they find plenty of mice, rats,and English sparrows, as well as dark and secluded nooks in which tofind shelter, about farmhouses, barns, corncribs, and outbuildings.Many of these owls have been found in winter in a sadly emaciatedcondition, which indicates that they have been driven by hunger fromsome less hospitable region.
SOUTHERN SCREECH OWL 259OTUS ASIO ASIO (Linnaeus)SOUTHERN SCREECH OWLHABITSThe separation of this race from the other two eastern races of thescreech owls was suggested by Outram Bangs (1930), and the sugges-tion was followed in the 1931 Check-List. He gives as the range ofthis race: "In the east from Georgia north to Virginia, and west towestern Tennessee, southern Illinois, southeastern Kansas, Oklahoma,Arkansas, Louisiana, etc. Intergradation in the east takes placegradually in the region lying between Virginia and New Jersey." Heshows clearly that the birds from tins intermediate region are smallerthan naevius and larger than jloridanus, as might be expected. Buthis remarks on the color characters are not so convincing. He givesas the color characters of naevius: "Under parts in both phases, thered and the gray, coarsely marked with much white intermixed andwith a large area of plain white in the middle of the belly." Ofjloridanus he says: "In markings, standing off sharply from the othertwo forms, in that the under parts are much more heavily and finelypenciled with less intermixture of white and with less white in middleof belly." He claims for his proposed race, 0. a. asio, that it is "incolor and markings quite the same as 0. a. naevius." Then he admitsthat "two birds from Georgia (Broro Neck and Sapelo Island) aresomewhat intermediate in color, but are larger than in jloridanus andone bird out of six from southern South Carolina, though much largerthan Florida examples, somewhat resembles them in markings."It seems to me that he has shown conclusively that his proposedrace is strictly intermediate in size, and, at least partially, intermediatein coloration. Neither the northern nor the southern race is any-where nearly uniform, or constant, in coloration; there is greatindividual variation, as I have noted in the same series that Mr.Bangs examined. As to size, it is a well known fact that in this andother species there is gradual reduction in size from the largest north-ern birds to the smallest southern birds; halfway between these twoextremes would seem to be the logical place to divide the species intotwo subspecies; if we name three subspecies there is no reason why weshould not subsequently name two more, and so on indefinitely. AsI do not think it wise to recognize intermediates in nomenclature, Iprefer Mr. Ridgway's treatment of the case. He (1914) recognizes nodifference, worthy of recognition in nomenclature, between asio andjloridanus as differentiated by Mr. Bangs; and he includes under thename of Florida screech owl (Otus asio asio) all the birds included inthe two more southern races suggested by Mr. Bangs.Nesting.?The nesting habits of this owl are apparently no differentfrom those of the other eastern races. Francis M. Weston has sent
260 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMme the following note on a late nesting record, received from Mrs.W. H. Edwards, of Fairhope, Ala.: "Mrs. Edwards writes that one ofher pupils, who was familiar with the screech owl, had found a nest ofeggs in an old nicker hole some time late in the summer of 1929. Theboy visited the place again on October 15, 1929, and found the youngwell developed and apparently ready to fly; and when Mrs. Edwardsaccompanied him there a few days later, to band the young birds,they had gone."Behavior.?Helen M. Edwards (1932), presumably the Mrs.Edwards referred to above, tells an interesting story of the successfultaming of a screech owl by Mrs. Julian Dyer, of Fairhope, Ala. Theyoung owl was taken from the nest when a week old, on July 19, 1930,and banded. She kept the owl all through the following winter,when it became quite tame and very friendly. "When mating timecame, in spring, she released it and it flew away. "A few nights later"the owl returned, and since then it "has returned to the yard two orthree times a week." Mrs. Dyer says that the bird often "entersduring the night (her bedroom window being unscreened). The clickof the aluminum band on her foot announces the bird's presence asshe lights on the back of a chair. * * * At the time of writing(November 19, 1931)" the owl was "still paying regular visits to herhuman friends."Voice.?Edward H. Forbush (1927) writes: "The little Screech Owlof the south is known in Louisiana as the 'Shivering Owl' ; and alongBayou Lafourche when its notes banish sleep, and the resourceful
'Cajun' wishes to ward off the ills that he believes otherwise sure tofollow, he must arise from his couch and turn his left shoe upside down.Then the cries are supposed to be stilled. This charm does not work,however, on the lower Mississippi, where one must turn his left trouseror 'pants' pocket inside out."DISTRIBUTIONRange.?North America from southeastern Alaska and southernCanada south to northern Mexico; nonmigratory.The range of the screech owl extends north to southeastern Alaska(Sitka); southern British Columbia (Chilliwack, Penticton, Okanagan,and probably Sicamous); probably southern Saskatchewan (Eastendand rarely Regina); Manitoba (Whitewater Lake and Aweme);North Dakota (Fargo); Minnesota (Crookston, Elk River, and St.Paul) ; Wisconsin (La Crosse and Kelleybrook) ; Michigan (Newberry,Neebish Island, and Douglas Lake); southern Ontario (Port Sydneyand Ottawa); southern Quebec (possibly Beauport and Montreal);Maine (Dover and Calais); and probably New Brunswick (GrandManan). East to probably New Brunswick (Grand Manan); Maine
SOUTHERN SCREECH OWL 261(Bucksport and Norway); Massachusetts (Gloucester, Boston, Taun-ton, Woods Hole, and Marthas Vineyard) ; Long Island, N. Y. (Orient,Shelter Island, and Mastic); New Jersey (Red Bank and Sea IsleCity); Maryland (Easton and probably Cambridge); Virginia (CampLee and Lawrenceville) ; North Carolina (probably Sans Souci,Raleigh, and probably Cape Fear); South Carolina (Columbia,probably Aiken, and Ladies Island); Georgia (Savannah, Riceboro,Blackbeard Island, Mcintosh, and St. Marys); and Florida (SanMateo, Enterprise, Titusville, Fort Drum, Lake Worth, CoconutGrove, and Upper Matecumbe Key). South to Florida (UpperMatecumbe Key, Fort Myers, Manatee, St. Marks, and Whitfield);southern Alabama (Fairhope); southern Mississippi (probably BaySt. Louis); Louisiana (New Orleans, Houma, and Baldwin); southernTexas (probably Cuero, Corpus Christi, and Brownsville) ; Tamaulipas(Matamoros, Rio Martinez, and Ciudad Victoria); Guanajuato(Guanajuato); Durango (Rio Sestin); and Baja California (Cape SanLucas). West to Baja California (Cape San Lucas, San Ignacio,Rosario, El Sauz, Sierra de la Laguna, Villacares, and Rancho Viejo);California (San Diego, San Pasqual, Riverside, Los Angeles, SantaBarbara, Paso Robles, Monterey, Santa Cruz, San Francisco, Nicasio,probably Mount St. Helena, Mount Sanhedrin, and Eureka); Oregon(Waldo, Grants Pass, Corvallis, Salem, and Garibaldi); Washington(Cape Disappointment, Raymond, and Olympia); British Columbia(Victoria and Porcher Island); and Alaska (Sitka).The range as above outlined is for the entire species, which hasbeen, however, divided into several geographic races, most of whichare accorded recognition by all reviewers. A few are still of uncertainstatus, being held to be valid by some systematic ornithologists andinvalid by others. The 1931 edition of the A. O. U. Check-Listrecognizes 15 subspecies as follows, the ranges in some cases beingsomewhat amended: The eastern screech owl (Otus asio naevius),ranging from New Brunswick, Ontario, Minnesota, and southernManitoba south to the uplands of Georgia, Alabama, northern Arkan-sas, and eastern Oklahoma; the southern screech owl (0. a. asio),occupying the Lower Austral Zone from Virginia to Georgia and theGulf States, west to Louisiana, and north through the MississippiValley to southern Illinois, southeastern Kansas, Oklahoma, andcasually Colorado; the Florida screech owl (0. a.floridanus), occurringonly in the peninsula of Florida; the Texas screech owl (0. a. mccalli),ranging south from Bexar and Cowal Counties, Tex., to Tamaulipasand Nuevo Leon, Mexico; Hasbrouck's screech owl (0. a. hasbroucki),occurring in central Texas in Palo Pinto, Dallas, Kerr, Kendall, andTravis Counties; Aiken's screech owl (0. a. aikeni), foothills and plainsof eastern Colorado, Kansas, Arkansas, and Nebraska, north to
262 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
northeastern North Dakota, southern Manitoba, and northwesternMinnesota, and south to New Mexico; the Rocky Mountain screechowl (0. a. maxwelliae), ranging through the foothills and adjacentplains of the eastern Rocky Mountains from Saskatchewan andMontana south to central Colorado; MacFarlane's screech owl (0. a.macfarlanei) , occupying the interior of southern British Columbiasouth to northeastern California, Idaho, and western Montana;Kennicott's screech owl (0. a. kennicotti), occurring in the northwestcoast region from Sitka, Alaska, south to Washington; Brewster'sscreech owl (0. a. brewsteri), found in southwestern Washington,Oregon, south to Humboldt County, Calif.; the California screechowl (0. a. bendirei), occupying the coast district of California from thenorthwestern part south to the region of San Francisco Bay; thePasadena screech owl (0. a. quercinus), the western slope of the SierraNevada south of Mount Shasta, southern California west of the desertareas, and the Pacific side of Baja California south to latitude 30?30'N.; the Mexican screech owl (0. a. cineraceus), occurring in BajaCalifornia and Sonora, north to central Arizona, southern New Mexicoand central western Texas; the saguaro screech owl (0. a. gilmani),found in the Lower Austral Zone of southern Arizona, the ImperialValley of California, and northeastern Baja California; and Xantus'sscreech owl {0. a. xantusi), which occupies a restricted range in theCape region of Baja California.Migration.?There is no indication that screech owls perform anyregular seasonal migrations, and they are, in fact, one of the mostsedentary of all owls. This is abundantly demonstrated by the re-cords of those that have been banded and subsequently recovered.With few exceptions points of banding and recovery are in the sameimmediate area. One banded on Staten Island, N. Y., on October27, 1925, was recaptured at nearly the same spot, eight years later,on July 11, 1933.The Biological Survey files contain only two records of bandedscreech owls that show travels of considerable length. One of thesebirds was banded at Ashton, Iowa, on December 16, 1928, and wasrecovered in January 1930 at Tabor, S. Dak., nearly 100 miles north-east. The other was banded at Glenwood, Minn., on March 25,1932, and was retaken on December 20, 1932, about 200 miles to thesouthwest at Emmetsburg, Iowa.Casual records.?According to MacSwain (1908) the species hasoccurred once on Prince Edward Island. On June 27, 1899, Osgoodsaw a small "reddish-brown owl" thought to be this species at CaribouCrossing, Yukon Territory.There are two doubtful and incomplete records reported for England.One is said to have been taken at Kirkstall Abbey, Yorkshire, in 1852,and another at an unknown date near Yarmouth.
FLORIDA SCREECH OWL 263Egg dates.?New York and New England: 25 records, April 12 toMay 18; 13 records, April 15 to 27, indicating the height of theseason.Pennsylvania and New Jersey: 53 records, March 23 to May 18;27 records, April 7 to 21.Florida: 37 records, March 11 to May 18; 19 records, April 4 to 18.Illinois to Iowa: 16 records, March 29 to May 11; 8 records,April 9 to 24.Colorado and Kansas: 33 records, March 13 to May 19; 17 records,April 7 to 24.Arizona and New Mexico: 7 records, March 26 to June 6.British Columbia to Oregon: 46 records, March 26 to July 13;23 records, April 15 to May 7.California: 127 records, March 7 to June 5; 64 records, April 7 toMay 3.Texas and Mexico: 48 records, February 27 to May 25; 24 records,April 5 to 30.Baja California: 13 records, April 10 to May 20; 7 records, April18 to May 15. OTUS ASIO FLORIDANUS (Ridgway)florida screech owlPlates 63, 64HABITSAccording to the 1931 Check-List, this subspecies is now restrictedto peninsular Florida, the typical race (Oius asio asio) being assignedto the South Atlantic and Gulf States formerly included in the rangeof floridanus. Ridgway (Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway, 1905) de-scribes this race as "similar to var. asio, (what we now call naevius)but much smaller, and the colors deeper. The gray stage very similarto that of var. asio, but the red phase very appreciably different, inthere being a greater amount of rufous on the lower parts, the breastbeing nearly uniformly colored, and the rufous broken elsewhere intotransverse broad bars, connected along the shaft."Nesting.?On April 24, 1902, 1 found my first nest of this subspeciesin a palmetto grove, close to the cottage where we were staying, atOak Lodge, in Brevard County, Fla. It was in an old woodpecker'shole, about 18 inches deep and about 18 feet from the ground in adead cabbage palmetto. The female was sitting on three heavilyincubated eggs (pi. 64).Another nest, found on April 1, 1925, at Gulfport, Pinellas County,was in an entirely different situation; it was in an old flicker's holeonly 10 feet from the ground in a palmetto stub, in an open meadow,far from any cover; it held three fresh eggs and the parent bird.
264 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMOn April 26, 1925, while driving through Pasco County, we stoppedto explore several tracts of burned-over pinewoods, looking forsparrow hawks' nests. Flickers and red-headed woodpeckers werevery common here, and there were plenty of their old holes in thecharred pine stumps; three of the holes that we examined were alloccupied by Florida screech owls, all with young of various ages.Francis M. Weston sent me a photograph of one of two very lownests that he found in an open meadow near Pensacola (pi. 64). Theywere in stumps that "were left from medium sized cypresses (Taxodiumascendens) that had been sawed down, and the nests in both were madein hollows of decayed limbs less than 3 feet from the ground. Therewas no cover of any kind within 100 yards."Dr. William L. Ralph (Bendire, 1892) says:They are not at all particular as to the height at which they nest. I have foundthem occupying holes anywhere from 8 to 80 feet from the ground. They nestfrequently in rotten stumps at such heights as to make it dangerous, if not impos-sible, to reach them. I remember one pair that nested near the house where Iboarded, in a hole at least 80 feet above the ground, near the top of a very largerotten stump which towered above the tops of a clump of trees among which itwas standing. Every time during the breeding seasons of two years that I wouldgo near this stump one of the pair, whichever might be sitting, would look out ofthe hole in a most provoking manner, for I wanted a set of eggs of this subspeciesvery much at that time, but the stump was not climbable. Usually it is a hardmatter to make these birds show themselves; this pair, however, seemed to knowthat they were perfectly safe, and never hesitated to make their appearance.Harold H. Bailey (1932) writes: "This season there has been calledto my attention, two instances where these little owls have rearedfamilies inside houses, on top of the ceiling, access to which was throughventilator tiles."Eggs.-?The Florida screech owl lays two to four eggs; three is theusual number, and two is commoner than four. The eggs are likethose of other screech owls, but they average smaller than those ofthe more northern races. The measurements of 57 eggs average 33.7by 28.8 millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremes measure 36.8by 27.7, 35.1 by 30.9, 30 by 28.2, and 33 by 26 millimeters.Plumages.?The plumage changes are the same as in the easternscreech owl, and the red and gray phases are fully as pronounced; thered phase is even redder, especially on the under parts; there is alsoan intermediate or brownish phase.Food.?This screech owl lives on much the same kind of food asothers of the species, various small mammals, insects, and probablysome small birds. J. F. Menge (Bendire, 1892) says: "They feedtheir young to a great extent on lizards and grasshoppers." HaroldH. Bailey (1922) tells of a road, north of Miami Beach, on the westside of which "is the home of several species of mice, marsh rabbit,cotton tail, and the wood and water rats." On the other side is "a
TEXAS SCREECH OWL 265
rank growth of beautiful tall sea oat." He says: "Often during thedaytime while travelling this stretch of road, I have seen all the abovementioned mammals cross the road toward the beach. At night,however, there must be a regular migration of mammals across theroad to feed on the wild oats. Travelling up this stretch of roadwayduring warm summer nights, I have in one trip, seen with the aid ofmy spotlight, and by flashing on my bright headlights quickly, asmany as twenty Florida Screech Owls and Florida Burrowing Owlssitting in the roadway catching these mammals that pass back andforth across this open stretch."OTUS ASIO MCCALLI (Cassin)TEXAS SCREECH OWLHABITSThe above name is now restricted to the screech owls of southernTexas, north to Bexar and Comal Counties, west to Kinney County,and south to Tamaulipas and Nuevo Leon, Mexico. Formerly, underthe name of western mottled owl (Scops maccalli), its range was sup-posed to extend through Texas to Arizona and New Mexico. Morerecently other races have been described, restricting it to its presentrange. Ridgway (1914) describes it as "larger than 0. a. asio, butsmaller than 0. a. naevius and paler than either; gray phase muchmore coarsely mottled above than in any other form of the species,the lighter spots and mottlings decidedly more conspicuous; rufousphase paler than that of 0. a. asio, with rufous predominating on underparts."I have never seen this subspecies, and very little has been publishedon it in its restricted habitat. Herbert W. Brandt says in his notes:"The only place we met with this interesting little fellow was along therailroads, where he spends the day in the telegraph poles, which havebeen literally honeycombed with golden-fronted woodpecker holes.As many as 18 holes of varying depths were seen in a single pole,starting from the ground and going up to the top. All new poles todayare treated with a heavy coating of creosote, to which the woodpeckersdo not take kindly, which means that the screech owls will soon haveto return to their primitive abodes."Nesting.?Referring to his explorations on the Lower Rio Grande,George B. Sennett (1878) writes: "On April 23d, while on the side of agully in the edge of a woods, I flushed a bird of this species from itsnest above my head. * * * The nest contained three perfectlyfresh eggs, was situated about ten feet from the ground in a dead stubabout nine inches in diameter, and so weak and rotten that I couldhave pushed it over."13751?38 18
266 BULLETIN 170, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMDr. James C. Merrill (1878) says: "Near Hidalgo, on May 6, 1876,
1
captured a female of this race on her nest in an old hollow stump aboutfive feet from the ground. There were two eggs, nearly hatched,placed on a few chips at the bottom of the hole."Eggs.?Major Bendire (1892) says that this owl lays two to five eggs,that they "are similar in every respect to those of the common form,excepting that they are a trifle smaller", and that "the average meas-urement of twelve specimens of this race in the U. S. National Museumcollection is 33.5 by 29 millimetres, the largest egg measuring 35.5 by30, the smallest 32.5 by 28 millimetres."The measurements of 43 eggs average 33.9 by 29.2 millimeters; theeggs showing the four extremes measure 39.4 by 29.2, 38.1 by 32.3, 30.7by 27.2, and 35.1 by 25.4 millimeters.OTUS ASIO BENDIREI (Brewster)CALIFORNIA SCREECH OWLHABITSWhen William Brewster (1882a) named this race, he gave as itscharacters:Above essentially similar to asio in its gray dress. Beneath ashy-white, every-where thickly barred and streaked with black; the transverse bars being fine,numerous and regular, the shaft-stripes coarse and generally distributed from thethroat to the crissum, both markings occurring as thickly on the median line of thebreast and abdomen as along their sides. * * * The chief difference is in theground-color and markings of the plumage beneath. In asio the central line of thebreast and abdomen is nearly always immaculate, while there is frequently abroad, entirely unspotted gular space: in bendirei these parts are as thickly barredand streaked as are the sides, while the ashy tinge of the entire lower surface andthe much finer character of the transverse pencilling gives the plumage a cloudedappearance which, although difficult of description, is very characteristic. Theear-tufts, also, are usually shorter than those of S. asio.This race inhabits the coast region of California, from near the Ore-gon line, where it intergrades with brewsteri, to the San Francisco Bayregion.Nesting.?The nesting habits of the California screech owl are es-sentially similar to those of other screech owls. Mrs. Irene G.Wheelock (1904) found one nesting in a red-shafted flicker's nest,sitting on three eggs of the flicker and two of the owl's. The flicker'seggs disappeared entirely, but the owl hatched out her own eggs.Mrs. Florence A. Sumner (1933) reports finding a brood of four spar-row hawks and one screech owl, which were all reared successfully bythe hawks, in the same nest.W. Otto Emerson (1885) succeeded in getting a pair of these owlsto nest in a starch box, with some leaves and sawdust in the bottomof it, which he had nailed up on a tree in a grove. He adds further:
"I found one the past Spring that had taken up quarters in an old
KENNICOTT'S SCREECH OWL 267wood rat's nest placed on a limb of a Bay tree, some thirty feet fromthe ground. A large mass of dead leaves from the tree had been puttogether, and a hollow formed in the centre, lined with feathers offowls and birds."Eggs.?The California screech owl lays three to five eggs, which arelike those of the eastern screech owl but average slightly smaller. Themeasurements of 45 eggs average 34.8 by 29.9 millimeters; the eggsshowing the four extremes measure 38 by 28, 36 by 32, and 32 by 28millimeters.Plumages.?Dr. Louis B. Bishop, who has good series of all thedifferent California races of the screech owl, tells me that they all havetwo color phases, a brown and a gray one, but no red phase as in theeastern bird.Food.?The California screech owl is apparently rather more bene-ficial than otherwise in its food habits. Where English sparrows arenumerous it seems to show a decided preference for them. In a nest ina large oak on the University of California campus, Ernest D. Cla-baugh (1926) found as many as six English sparrows in the nest atone time, and others on three other occasions; he also found wingfeathers of birds, mostly sparrows of different species, feathers of aCalifornia jay, a pocket gopher, meadow mice, a salamander, and alarge beetle. One of the young, which had been injured by a fall, wasapparently eaten by its nest mates.OTUS ASIO KENNICOTTI (Elliot)KENNICOTT'S SCREECH OWLPlate 65HABITSThis large, dark-colored screech owl is found in the humid, north-west-coast region, from Sitka, Alaska, to northwestern Washington.Ridgway (1914) describes it as: "Large, like 0. a. macfarlanei, butcoloration much darker and browner, the general tone of upper partsinclining, more or less strongly, to tawny brown, with lighter markingsbrownish buff or pale cinnamon, the under parts more or less stronglysuffused with pale cinnamon, the legs (especially thighs) light tawny;gray phase (which is relatively rare) similar to 0. a. bendirei and 0. a.macfarlanei but very much darker (the general color of upper partsapproaching fuscous) and with lighter markings light brownish buffyinstead of v/hite, and the under parts much more heavily penciled andspotted."J. Hooper Bowles (1917a) says of the haunts of this owl: "The mostfavored localities are in the immediate vicinity of water, either fresh orsalt, where the country is to some extent open. Deciduous timber
268 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
seems to be given a slight preference over the fir woods, as a rule,though during the day the birds are usually found hiding amongst thedark foliage of some young fir."Nesting.?He says that the nests are very rarely found, and that
"the eggs are almost invariably deposited in natural hollows in trees,the only exceptions being extra big holes made by the NorthwesternFlicker (Colaptes cajer saturatior). One of these two cases was a holethat had been excavated to a depth of only about six inches, in a lonedead fir stub that stood in a vacant lot in the city. A most unusualnesting site in every way for these owls, as the cavities used are mostoften two or three feet in depth and situated in well wooded localities.The nests that I have seen were placed from four to twelve feet abovethe ground, but it is impossible to say what the average height may bein this country where trees two hundred feet tall are the rule ratherthan the exception."F. R. Decker (1912) mentions a nest that he found about 60 feet fromthe ground in a cavity in a cottonwood tree; doubtless these loftycavities are seldom investigated by collectors.Eggs.?Kennicott's screech owl lays two to five eggs. Mr. Bowles(1917a) says: "I think that complete sets will usually be found tocontain three eggs, although two are nearly as often the full number.In only one instance have I seen as many as four. In color they arepure white and somewhat glossy, with more or less nest stain accord-ing to the state of incubation. They are usually nearly sphericalin shape, like the eggs of most owls, but occasionally there is a slightlyelliptical tendency."He evidently changed his mind, as to the number of eggs laid,for, in an earlier article (1906a) he says that the eggs "are fromtwo to four in number, four being most commonly found." Mr.Decker (1912) mentions two sets of four and one of five.The measurements of 33 eggs average 37.8 by 32 millimeters; theeggs showing the four extremes measure 42 by 35.6, 33.3 by 31, and35.3 by 30 millimeters.Plumages.?Kennicott's screech owl has two well-marked colorphases, a gray one and a brown one, which are described above.The color phases in this race are more pronounced than in the otherPacific coast races, and more generally recognized, though nearlyall the races, if not all of them, show some tendency to dichromatism.Food.?Mr. Bowles (1917a) has published some interesting itemson the food of this owl; he says that a
?
bird was taken on January 6, 1917, at which time the thermometer was somewhatabove freezing with no snow on the ground. The stomach contained eleven cut-worms, two centipedes, one mole cricket, one good sized beetle, and other insectremains. With all this on the credit side of their ledger, these owls are at timessubject to some most astounding falls from grace. The fact does not reflect
KENNICOTT'S SCREECH OWL 269
very greatly to their credit that nests containing incubated eggs or young areusually well sprinkled with the feathers of smaller birds. However, this mightbe more or less natural if rodents and other small animals were scarce, but thefollowing incidents seem beyond all comprehension. One friend told me thathe heard an outcry among the ducks in his yard one night and, upon going outwith a lantern, "found a Screech Owl riding around on the back of one of his bigducks, hanging onto its neck."Then he goes on to tell of the experience of his friend, Dr. G. D.Shaver; a pair of these owls
?
came and nested on his place within a short distance of his pens of gamebirdsand fancy bantams, and, as the entrance of the nest was only four feet fromthe ground, the doctor took great pleasure in watching the sitting bird andher family as they grew u,p. One morning during the winter of 1914-1915,which was a very mild season, he was nearly overcome upon visiting his yardsto find two dead Golden Pheasants, four dead Ring-necked Pheasants, and oneRing-neck cock so badly hurt that it died a few days later. All were, of course,grown birds at that time of the year. The injuries were nearly all gashes andrips in the head and neck, so the blame was laid to rats although none wereever seen or caught there. * * * On the morning of February 4, 1916, thedoctor visited his yards and found a scene of murder similar to that of the pre-vious year. In one pen were four of his prize Buff Cochin Bantams mangledand dead, some being in their house and others out in their yard, while in anotherpen were two fine cock Golden Pheasants in a similar condition. The woundswere similar in location and character to those made on the birds killed abouta year before, but this time part of the head of one of the bantams had beeneaten. There was no indication whatever of what had caused the damage, norof how any predatory creature could have entered, so the doctor put a liberaldose of strychnine into the body of the partly eaten bantam and replaced it inthe same spot where he found it. Next morning the seemingly impossible wasmade a practical certainty, for he found the body of a screech owl with the clawsof one foot firmly imbedded in the body of the bantam.Elsewhere, Mr. Bowles (1906a) says: "On one occasion at anevening lawn party in the city, one of these owls spent more thanhalf an hour catching what I am positive were angle-worms. He wouldswoop down onto the lawn and stay for perhaps a minute, returningeach time either to one of a small group of maples or to the roofof the house. It was too dark to distinguish what he was catching,but he paid no more attention to the people walking near him thanan occasional turn of the head, busying himself with poking about inthe short grass with his bill."S. F. Rathbun writes to me: "In my collection is a fine specimenof this owl, which I collected after dusk one night in spring. Atthe time the owl was lurking about the eaves of a barn on a farm.I had an idea that the owl was after some cliff swallows that werenesting under the eaves of the outbuilding. But I did the bird aninjustice, I think, for when I skinned it I found its stomach andgullet packed with ants, the large, black pismires sometimes foundso common about farm buildings. The owl was so full of the insects
270 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMthat a few of them hung from the corners of its mouth, and its stom-ach was hard to the touch, so tightly was it packed with ants. Ihave always regretted that I shot the bird."Mr. Bowles (1906a) writes:During the greater part of the year these owls are entirely beneficial, their foodconsisting mostly of mice. Large beetles are often added, and nearly every smallstream shows signs of where an owl has successfully angled for craw-fish, carefullysplitting and picking the meat from the shell. After the eggs are hatched, how-ever, the parents are at their wit's end to procure food enough for the hungrybabies, and it is at this season only that birds are used in the bill of fare. Thenorthwestern flicker seems to be found especially delectable, tho feathers of theSteller jay, western robin and a few other species are sometimes found in the holewith the young. Curiously enough it is most unusual to find remains of juncos,sparrows or other small-sized birds; and, all things considered, these owls unques-tionably do many times as much good as they do harm.Voice.?In the same paper Mr. Bowles says on this subject: "Thehigh-keyed, tremulous hooting cry of these birds is, strangely enough,most often heard during the fall months. In spring and summer, thorepeatedly spending the night in localities where they were tolerablyabundant, I have never heard them utter a note of any description."OTUS ASIO MAXWELLIAE (Ridgway)ROCKY MOUNTAIN SCREECH OWLPlate 66HABITSThis large, pale race is the whitest and, to my mind, the handsomestof our screech owls. Ridgway (1914) describes it as
?
decidedly larger and very much paler than 0. a. aikeni; nearly as large as 0. a.macfarlanei and 0. a. kennicottii, but conspicuously lighter than any other form,with the white purer and more extended and the colored parts paler; ground colorabove pale gray or grayish brown, relieved by the usual ragged mesial streaks ofblack and irregular mottlings and vermiculations of lighter and darker shades ofgrayish, the general color more rufescent, and no darker than very light a6h grayor drab; white spots on outer webs of primaries frequently confluent along edgeof quills, the darker spots sometimes hardly visible on proximal portion whenwings are closed; under parts with pure white greatly predominating.Its range is given in the 1931 Check-List as "foothills and plainsadjacent to the eastern Rocky Mountains from eastern Montana andwestern South Dakota to central Colorado." I suspect that it mayrange even farther north along the eastern edge of the mountains. Itis said to be resident all through the year throughout its range.Robert B. Rockwell (1907) writes:Both Denis Gale and W. W. Cooke state that M. a. maxwellse rarely ascendshigher than 6000 feet, which would preclude the possibility of its extending morethan a few miles up into the foothills, and the most easterly record is recorded byCooke as "30 miles out on the plains", probably referring to the Loveland, Colo-
ROCKY MOUNTAIN SCREECH OWL 271
rado, record of W. G. Smith. * * * From this it will be Been that maxwells'is strictly a foothills form, inhabiting a long, narrow strip of country running in ageneral north and south direction and closely adhering to the base of the easternfoothills of the Rocky Mountains. * * *The Rocky Mountain Screech Owl * * * is a resident thruout the yearall along the eastern base of the foothills in the north central part of Colorado, butits hunting and breeding grounds are closely restricted to the well wooded creekbottoms, the only locations in this 6parsely timbered region which afford himproper food, nesting sites and means of concealment.As to whether this bird performs a slight north and south movement at migra-tion periods, there seems to be a difference of opinion. Some observers declarethat Megascops leaves its summer home around Denver, and moves south as farat least as Colorado Springs (75 miles), and its breeding grounds are occupied as awinter home by migrants from farther north. Others claim that it spends theentire year in the same haunts, laying its eggs in one of the many cavities occupiedduring the winter. Whichever view of the matter is correct, it is a fact that thru-out the year the "owl stumps" so dear to the memory of every bird student, areoccupied by these birds, and it is seldom indeed that a good sized grove of agedtimber, with a few dead stumps scattered thru it, will not contain a pair of ScreechOwls.Nesting.?The same observer says on this subject:As has been stated before the nesting site is invariably along the well woodedwater-courses and in more or less dense groves of cottonwoods and occasionallywillow or box-elder. A peculiar characteristic of this bird is its predeliction forsluggish or stagnant water, and one of the prerequisites of a model nesting site is asmall slough or pool within a short distance of the nest hole. I am at a loss toknow why this is so, unless it is that frogs and crawfish form no inconsiderableportion of the bird's food, and close proximity to a source of food supply may be asolution of the problem.The very great majority of nests are found in cottonwood trees. This is prob-ably due to the fact that this tree greatly predominates along all the foothillstreams, and it is the variety most commonly used by the Red-shafted Flicker,the deserted excavations of which the Screech Owl nearly always occupies. How-ever, natural cavities are occasionally resorted to; but owing to the nature of thetrees these are found mostly in box-elder or black willows, the cottonwood rarelyrotting out in this manner.Major Bendire (1892) says that the first nest of this subspecies wasdiscovered by A. W. Anthony on May 4, 1883, in the trunk of a largecottonwood ; the nest contained three young about a week old and anaddled egg; it was in a knothole within 4 feet of a new nest beingexcavated by a red-shafted nicker, but on the opposite side of thetrunk. He says, also, that Mr. Anthony thinks that this screech owlbreeds also in the abandoned nests of the black-billed magpie, as hehas often found them roosting in them both in winter and spring.Both Denis Gale and William G. Smith told him that they had foundthem nesting in such places.Eggs?Mr. Rockwell (1907) says:The great majority of full clutches contain four eggs, tho occasionally three orfive are deposited. In the twenty-five sets it has been my good fortune to examinein the nests, the following sets were found: One of 2, five of 3, fifteen of 4, two
272 BULLETIN" 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
of 5, one of 6 and one of 7. The set of 2 was a second clutch, the first set of 4 hav-ing been taken 23 days previously to the date upon which the set of 2 was found inwhich incubation was about a fourth advanced. The comparatively large numberof sets of three conveys a wrong impression, and is probably due to a little over-anxiety to collect the eggs, not giving the parent sufficient time to complete theclutch. I believe one in fifteen sets would be nearer the proper ratio of sets of3 and 4. The set of 6 was laid by a particularly prolific female which had laidsets of five on the two preceding years; while the set of seven I cannot accountfor unless it was laid by two females, which is very improbable. This was foundMay 30th, two birds were flushed from the cavity, and all seven eggs were addled.Major Bendire (1892) says: "The eggs of the Rocky MountainScreech Owl are pure white in color and moderately glossy; the shellis smooth and finely granulated. In shape they vary from oval toa broad elliptical oval, some being decidedly more elongated than anyother eggs of the genus Megascops I have seen."The measurements of 54 eggs average 36.3 by 30.2 millimeters;the eggs showing the four extremes measure 39.1 by 32.1, 36.1 by 32,30.9 by 30.7, and 35.7 by 27.9 millimeters.Young.?Bendire (1892) says: "In the latter part of June, beforethey are well able to fly, they may be seen sitting side by side, perfectlymotionless, upon a limb close by the nest site. The young and theirparents seem to desert their holes and live among the trees for thebalance of the summer; but when the cold winds strip the leaves fromthe trees in the fall suitable tree holes are selected for their winterquarters."Plumages.?This race is supposed to be monochromatic, but Dr.Louis B. Bishop writes to me that he has a specimen of this race inthe red phase, collected in Saskatchewan, which he and Dr. H. C.Oberholser both agreed to identify as maxwelliae, though it is appar-ently the only red specimen known. He says that the red phaseagrees with the gray phase in being very pale, with the facial disks,tarsi, and toes white, and that the red is paler and slightly brownerthan in the red phase of naevius from Connecticut.Food.?Major Bendire (1892) says that Mr. Anthony found "agood many fish scales" in a nest of one of these owls, and that DedsGale found feathers of the mountain bluebird and several sparrowsin a nest. He quotes him as saying that the female, while incubating,
"is waited upon and fed by the male, who, being a skillful hunter,provides liberally for her wants. Searching for nests I have some-times discovered the male hidden in a tolerably well stocked larder,in close proximity to the nest site. In one cache were portions of aBluebird, a mouse, and a frog; in another a Junco, a Tree Sparrow,and a minnow 3% inches long; claws and legs of crawfish were alsopresent."Behavior.?He quotes Mr. Dale further as follows:Like others of their genus they seem to delight in a sheltered, shady location,close to a pond or creek where they select a domicile, either in a natural tree hole
ROCKY MOUNTAIN SCREECH OWL 273
or in a Flicker's old nest site. If for any reason the Flicker wishes to retain hisprevious year's nest site, and Scops is in possession, strife is carried on betweenthem with great vigor, ending as often in favor of one as the other, judging fromthe broken eggs upon the ground ejected by the victor. The Flicker dares notenter to turn Scops out, but if the premises are vacated for ever so short a time,he enters and holds them against all comers. His formidable bill pointing outat the door is sufficient apology for leaving him in quiet possession.Again, when the female is taken off her eggs: "In some instancesshe will feign dead and lie on her back in your open palm with hereyes shut. Immediately you throw her off, however, she will rightherself on wing, and gaining a bough on a neighboring tree will crouchforward, bending her eartufts back and look very spiteful and wicked.At other times when removed from her eggs she will snap her bill,moan slightly, and show fight."Mr. Rockwell (1909) says that this screech owl makes frequentuse of the abandoned nests of the black-billed magpie "when notoccupying a cavity in a tree. It is a rather amusing spectacle to seea round, fluffy little screech owl (dislodged from his cosy corner ina hollow tree) making desperate efforts to reach the nearest magpienest before the noisy throng of mischief-loving magpies overtakeshim, and even more comical to see the plain look of disappointmentand incredulity upon the 'countenances' of the pursuers, as the owlreaches the welcome refuge and instantly merges himself into itssurroundings; for strange as it may seem magpies will not follow anowl into an abandoned nest, and seem utterly at a loss to understandthe prompt disappearance of the object of their pursuit."Winter.?That the Rocky Mountain screech owl remains all winterthroughout its more northern breeding grounds is indicated by thefollowing account by Major Bendire (1892):While stationed at Fort Custer, Montana, during the winter of 1884-'85, 1 tookfive of these birds, but was unable to find their nests. I discovered their presencequite accidentally. On December 1, 1884, while out hunting Sharp-tailed Grousein a bend of the Big Horn River, a few miles south of the post, as I was walkingby a thick clump of willows I indistinctly noticed a whitish looking object drop-ping on the ground, apparently out of the densest portion of the thicket and onthe opposite side from where I was standing at the time, and simultaneously heardseveral plaintive squeaks from that direction. Carefully skirting around thethicket, which was some 20 yards long and perhaps 5 yards wide, I saw the objectof my search savagely engaged in killing a meadow mouse which it had justcaptured. I promptly shot it. It proved to be a female and excessively fat; infact all the specimens I secured subsequently showed conclusively that theymanaged to secure an abundance of food in that Arctic winter climate, and thata portion of this at least seems to be obtained in the daytime. The four otherspecimens collected by me were all obtained in similar locations.Dr. Joseph Grinnell (1928a) has described a new race of the screechowl from eastern California, which he calls Otus asio inyoensis. Hesays that it is "characterized in comparison with other southwestern
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races by large size and extremely pale coloration; ground-color ofdorsum near drab-gray; streaking of both upper and lower surfacesnarrow, sharply outlined, and black; white about head, on lower sur-face of body, and on feathering of legs, clear and extensive." Hesays that it most closely resembles maxwelliae, but differing from it
"in still paler, more ashy and less brownish tone of general coloration;dark vermiculation beneath and on legs more sootily black; the whitespots on the outer webs of primaries in closed wing much the smallerin inyoensis, and the intervening correspondingly broader dark barsdecidedly grayer in color."OTUS ASIO CINERACEUS (Ridgway)MEXICAN SCREECH OWLHABITSThe Mexican screech owl occupies the Upper Austral Zone in cen-tral Arizona, southern New Mexico, central western Texas, and partsof Lower California and Sonora. Further remarks on the local dis-tribution of this race, in relation to the closely related gilmani, will befound under that race.Kidgway (1914), under the common name Arizona screech owl,describes this race as "similar to 0. a. aikeni, but more delicatelypenciled, both above and below, the pencilings on under parts aver-aging denser or more numerous."Nesting.?Major Bendire (1892) says:In the oak regions of southern Arizona they nest in the natural cavities of thesetrees, most of which are hollow. On March 26, 1872, I found one of their nestsin an old woodpecker's hole in a willow stump not more than 7 inches in diameterand about 6 feet from the ground. The cavity was slightly over 2 feet deep, andthe four eggs it contained, which had been incubated for a few days, were lyingon bits of rotten wood and a few dead leaves, not sufficient to call a nest. Thefemale was at home and had to be taken out forcibly, protesting and uttering ahissing sound, and, after being turned loose, snapping her mandibles rapidlytogether from her perch on a small walnut tree, into which she had flown. I wasin hopes she might continue to use the same site again, but was disappointed inthis.On April 16, 1922, in a row of immense cottonwoods along an irri-gation ditch, near Fairbank, Ariz., we found one of these owls asleepin a lofty hole in one of these trees. Again, on May 17, in the sameregion, we found another in a cavity in a low willow. But there wereno eggs in either hole.Eggs.?Major Bendire (1892) says: "The number of eggs laid isusually three or four, rarely five. They are similar in shape and colorto those of the rest of this genus. Now and then a set is found whichis so badly stained by the extrement of fleas inhabiting their burrowsin large numbers that the eggs, judging by their color, might be takenfor those of the Sparrow Hawk."
MEXICAN SCREECH OWL 275The measurements of 37 eggs average 34.3 by 28.8 millimeters; theeggs showing the four extremes measure 35.5 by 29, 34.9 by 29.9, 32by 28.8, and 34.1 by 24.1 millimeters.Plumages.?This screech owl seems to be wholly monochromatic, asnothing approaching a gray or a brown phase has yet been discovered,the universal color being pale, ashy gray.Foo'd.?Mrs. Florence M. Bailey (1928) lists, as the food of theMexican screech owl, "kangaroo rats, gophers, mice, rats, small birds,frogs, lizards, snakes, crawfish, scorpions, grasshoppers, locusts, andbeetles. It is one of the most insectivorous of our owls."Behavior.?Henry W. Henshaw (1875) writes:This bird was very common both in Arizona and New Mexico, and is, I think,the most numerous of the family in this region. Whenever our camp chanced tobe made near one of the groves of oaks, which are numerous, these owls were sureto be heard soon after dusk, and, not infrequently, several would take up theirstations in a tree within a few feet of the camp fire, and remain for an hour ormore, apparently to satisfy their curiosity, uttering, from time to time, their low,responsive cries. Their notes vary much in length, but, when full, consist of twoprolonged syllables, with quite an interval between, followed by a rapid utteranceof six or seven notes, which, at the end, are run together. They are very sociablein their disposition, and, as soon as it is fairly dusk, the first call of a solitary birdmay be heard issuing from some thicket, where it has remained in concealmentduring the day. After one or two repetitions, this will be answered by another,perhaps half a mile away, and soon by a third and a fourth, apparently all comingtogether; and I have heard at least eight of these owls, congregated within a shortdistance in the tree tops. When the band was complete, they would move off,still apparently keeping together, till their notes were lost in the distance.Enemies.?Mrs. C. J. Whitfield (1934), of Globe, Ariz., tells thefollowing interesting story:A heavy flapping of wings attracted our attention to an Arizona oak tree (Quer-cus arizonica) about five yards from the house. Approximately 12 feet from theground, and quite close to the trunk, a snake over three feet long (probablyPituophis catenifer rutihis) hung suspended by its tail from a small dead limb. Thelarge part of the snake's body was coiled once around a small owl, judged from itscolor and size to be a screech owl (Otus asio cineraceus) . The bird struggled moreand more feebly for three or four minutes, and finally was still.When we shot the snake, its body grew slack, and its tail loosened its hold onthe limb and began to slip. The owl freed itself and flew away, seemingly un-injured. The owl had apparently been roosting in the tree, and was "stalked" andcaught by the snake. OTUS ASIO AIKENI (Brewster)AIKEN'S SCREECH OWLHABITSThe A. O. U. Check-List (1931) gives the range of this subspeciesas "foothills and plains of eastern Colorado and Kansas north tonortheastern North Dakota and northwestern Minnesota and south
276 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMto New Mexico." Ridgway (1914) extends its range farther south-ward into western and central Texas, and into northern Durango.William Brewster (1891) describes it as "of about the size ofM[egascops] bendirei, with the ground color more ashy; the darkmarkings coarser, and more numerous and conspicuous, than in anyother North American member of the genus." Ridgway (1914) de-scribes it, from another angle, as "similar to 0. a. cineraceus but larger,the upper parts more coarsely mottled or vermiculated and withblackish mesial streaks broader and more strongly contrasted withthe general color; blackish pencilings of under parts heavier, ratherless numerous. Smaller and much darker than 0. a. mazwelliae."Mr. Brewster (1891) says: "I had the skin of Mr. Aiken, who, if Iremember aright, asserted that it was a fair representative of the formwhich inhabits Cottonwood timber along streams in the plains regionabout Colorado Springs, maxwelliae, of which he showed me severaltypical specimens, being confined to the neighboring mountains."Nesting.?Charles E. H. Aiken (Aiken and Warren, 1914) says thathe "has never found it anywhere except in cottonwood trees along thestreams. * * * A pair bred in 1913 in a flicker's hole in a tree onSt. Vrain Street, Colorado Springs beside the home of Dr. W. W.Arnold, raising four young. The owls drove away the flickers whichhad bred in the hole the year before, taking possession for themselves."Major Bendire (1892) writes: "Dr. R. W. Shufeldt, U. S. Army,found a Screech Owl breeding near Fort Wingate, New Mexico, whichI think is referable to this subspecies. He took three well incubatedeggs on April 18, 1887, from a cavity in an oak tree 10 feet from theground, capturing alive both parents at the same time. I have seenphotographs of these specimens, and they show every indication thatthe originals belonged to this race."There are two sets of eggs of this owl in the Thayer collection.One was taken at Rowse Junction, Colo., on May 9, 1899; the twofresh eggs lay on a lot of trash and rubbish in a cavity 8 inches deepin a live cedar.- The other set of four eggs was taken in DecaturCounty, Kans., on April 13, 1913; the nest was in an abandonedflicker hole, 14 inches deep, in a poplar tree 18 feet from the ground;the eggs were deposited on decayed chips and a few feathers.Eggs.?Three or four eggs are usually laid by this owl; these areindistinguishable from the eggs of other screech owls of similar size.The measurements of 28 eggs average 36 by 30.7 millimeters; theeggs showing the four extremes measure 38.2 by 30.5, 37 by 35.9,34 by 30, 36.5 by 29.4 millimeters.Plumages.?Aiken and Warren (1914) write: "January 9, 1904, aScreech Owl in the red phase was taken near Colorado Springs, theskin of which is now in the Aiken Collection. This skin was examined
MacFARLANE'S screech owl 277by Mr. William Brewster, who pronounced it to be typical Otus asioasio. Later Mr. H. C. Oberholser also examined it, and considers itto be the red phase of aikeni, and tells us that he has seen severalother specimens of the red phase of this subspecies, and that whilevery close to the red phase of typical asio they may be distinguishedby being slightly paler in color." Dr. Louis B. Bishop writes to methat he also has the red phase of this race in his collection.Voice.?Mr. Aiken (Aiken and Warren, 1914) gives the followingaccount of the notes uttered by a young female that he had incaptivity:Its baby or birdling call was like the smothered mew of a kitten; this was fre-quently uttered as a call for food or in answer to its name, or as a call to me fornotice. After completing its moult this cry was not often uttered unless she washungry and demanding attention. A note that was uttered when excited wasa short wow, wow, repeated several times, reminding me of a puppy's bark. Thiswas uttered at times when very hungry and demanding immediate notice, andwas also uttered as notice of the presence of a dog?very vehemently when a dogcame into the shop. A note like cr-r-oo-oo-oo-oo-oo-oo uttered gently and solow as to be heard only a few yards away was seemingly a love note and was anaffectionate greeting to me as it would be to her mate. Then another notesimilar, possibly the same under other conditions was like the whistling of ducks'wings in overhead flight at night.OTUS ASIO MACFARLANEI (Brewster)MacFARLANE'S SCREECH OWLHABITSThis large race of the screech owl occupies an interior range insouthern British Columbia, eastern Washington and Oregon, westernMontana and Idaho, and northeastern California. Major Bendire(1892) says of its haunts: "MacFarlane's Screech Owl is a constantresident wherever found and its habitat as far as known seems to berestricted to the timbered bottom lands of the lower sagebrush andbunch grass covered valleys and plains of the dry interior portions ofthe States above mentioned. It seems to avoid the mountains, and Ido not believe that it is found at much greater altitudes than 4,000feet."William Brewster (1891), in naming and describing this subspecies,characterized it as "of the size of M. kennicotti, but with the color andmarkings of M. bendirei." This race has a gray phase and a brownphase, but in the latter phase it is not as dark as kennicotti.Nesting.?Major Bendire (1892) writes: "Its general habits are inno way different from those of the other members of the genus Megascops, excepting that on account of its larger size it is compelled tonest entirely in natural cavities of trees, the excavations made by thelarger Woodpeckers breeding in the same localities, like Melanerpestorquatus and Colaptes cafer, being too small to accommodate them."
278 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMHe says of his first nest, found in southeastern Oregon on April16, 1877.This nest was found in a hollow willow stump, in a small grove of these andcottonwood trees among which I camped while on a hunt after waterfowl onLower Silvies River, near Malheur Lake, 20 miles southwest of Camp Harney,Oregon. The hole was about 5 feet from the ground, 18 inches deep, and con-tained six partly incubated eggs. There was no nest, the eggs lying on somerubbish which had accumulated in the hole; the female was caught on the nest,and beyond snapping her mandibles made no resistance; the male was not seen.* * * In 1881 a pair of MacFarlane's Screech Owls nested in a natural cavityof a good sized cottonwood tree, about 25 feet from the ground, and within 100yards of my quarters, giving me ample opportunity to watch them. WheneverI rapped on the tree the occupant would stick its head out and look about, butdid not fly away.All the nests found near Walla Walla, Washington, were placed in naturalcavities in cottonwood trees, from 15 to 30 feet from the ground, and invariablynear water.Eggs.?Bendire says that the eggs "vary from three to six in num-ber, usually four or five, and are deposited at intervals of one or twodays. * * * The eggs like those of all owls are pure white in color,rather glossy, and mostly oval in shape; some are nearly spherical;the shell is smooth and closely granulated."The measurements of 39 eggs averaged 37.6 by 31.9 millimeters;the eggs showing the four extremes measure 39.3 by 32.2, 39 by 33.5,35 by 31.5, and 37 by 30 millimeters.Food.?The feeding habits of MacFarlane's screech owl are appar-ently similar to those of other screech owls; it has been known to killdomestic pigeons.Bendire (1892) writes: "In two of the holes occupied by them Ifound trout from 6 to 8 inches long and a small whitefish (Coregonuswilliamsonii) about 10 inches long. It still puzzles me to know justhow they manage to catch such active fish, but believe that, whereobtainable, these as well as frogs form no inconsiderable portion oftheir daily fare, while the smaller rodents and grasshoppers supplythe remainder. I do not believe it catches birds to any extent, andmust be considered an eminently useful species."OTUS ASIO HASBROUCKI RidgwayHASBROUCK'S SCREECH OWLHABITSThe screech owls of central Texas have been separated from mccalliunder the above name. The 1931 Check-List says: "Central Texas,from Travis County to Palo Pinto and Dallas counties, and probablyother adjoining counties." Kidgway (1914) adds, with some doubt,Cooke, McLennan, Eastland, and Lampasas Counties, as probablywithin its range. He describes this race as "similar in pattern of
HASBROTJCK'S SCREECH OWL 279
coloration to 0. a. mccallii but decidedly larger, darker, and much lessbuffy gray above, and under parts much more heavily penciled, thetransverse bars, especially, being much broader, as well as morenumerous; mottling of legs much darker brown; rufescent phasesimilar to that of 0. a. naevius."E. M. Hasbrouck (1889), for whom this owl was named, describespart of its supposed habitat as follows:Eastland County, Texas, is situated between latitudes 32?-33? and longitudes98?-99? or a little northeast of the geographical centre, and is known throughoutthe country as the poorest and most unattractive portion of the State. The ele-vation varies from twelve hundred to sixteen hundred feet, and the entire County,as well as a number of those lying to the east, is one series of terraces, beginning alittle west of Cisco and extending through Erath and Bosque Counties, until thevalley of the Brazos is reached. Water is extremely scarce and the timber, al-though pretty generally distributed, is almost entirely of oak, and comprises fourspecies, known as post-oak, bur-oak, black jack, and "shinnery." This last isa short, stunted bush, frequently covering hundreds of acres and rarely exceedingfour or five feet in height.Nesting.?George Finlay Simmons (1925) says of its nesting habitsin the Austin region: "Nest location, 6 to 25, usually 16, feet up innatural hollow in cedar elm, live oak, post oak, or sycamore tree orstump, generally standing on creek bank; once in old woodpeckerhollow in telephone pole in town. Hollow, sometimes bare, generallyscantily carpeted with small decayed wood chips, a few feathers, ordebris of dead leaves, twigs, straw, grass, Spanish moss, or crawfishcrusts."Mr. Simmons (1915) describes a nest in another locality, probablyof this subspecies, as follows: "April 5, 1913, in the woods on BuffaloBayou about four and a half miles west of Houston, I found a nest ina natural hollow of an elm tree standing on the slope of the bayou
;
it contained four eggs, incubation far advanced. The entrance tothe cavity was nine feet from the ground at a bend in the trunk of thetree; from the bend the cavity extended almost vertically down intothe heart of the tree, about thirty inches deep and six inches in diam-eter; trunk of tree about ten inches in diameter. Only a few leavesand grasses, with a slight lining of feathers, were between the eggs andthe bottom of the cavity."Howard Lacey (1911) writes:A pair of these birds tried to breed in a small heating stove in the house in 1896and again in 1897, coming down the stovepipe which had a double elbow andlaying in the stove: they made too much noise scratching up and down the stove-pipe and so had to be discouraged. They often lay their eggs in houses put upfor the martins or for pigeons and I think destroy the young birds. In May, 1908,a pair nested in the martin box at the ranch. Finding a dead martin under thebox, I got a shotgun and sent a friend up the pole to investigate: an owl flew outand was promptly shot and then my friend found three young owls in the box,and brought them down, and put them under a live-oak tree in the yard. The
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remaining parent fed the young for a night or two on the ground, bringing them,among other things, two or three sphinx moths and a crawfish, and then persuadedthem to climb into the tree. The next evening my friend was smoking after supperand the owl knocked his pipe out of his mouth. The owl next attacked the ladyof the house as she was bringing in the milk, and as a final exploit struck me fullin the face as I was standing near the tree, using force enough to draw blood.The next morning the whole owl family was put to death.Eggs.?According to Mr. Simmons (1925), this owl lays threeor four eggs, "sometimes 5, rarely 6, globular oval, pure white, withmoderately smooth, finely granulated shell." The measurements of27 eggs averaged 34.8 by 30 millimeters; the eggs showing the fourextremes measure 37.1 by 31, 32.5 by 30, and 35.7 by 28 millimeters.Plumages.?Dr. Louis B. Bishop tells me that in the red phase thisowl is "bright red above, a paler and browner red than asio, withbroad, black shaft streaks; the red is browner than red maxwelliae."Behavior.?Mr. Hasbrouck (1889) says of this screech owl: "Com-mon everywhere, and as bold and daring as others of the genus. Iremember one occasion when I had a fine string of Teal hanging incamp. I was awakened by the hooting of one of these birds on alimb directly over my head and but a few feet above me; securinghim and returning to rest, I had no sooner rolled up in my blanketsthan his perch was taken by another which, it is needless to say,followed the fate of the first."Voice.?Mr. Simmons (1925) calls the voice a "weird, blood-curdling,quavering tremulo" and says: "There are two short notes, oftenuttered alone, occasionally used to begin the tremulous screech, avery low, short hoot, proot, and a puttering, beating put 1 t t, again, alow goop-goop." OTUS ASIO BREWSTERI RidgwayBREWSTER'S SCREECH OWLHABITSThe range of this race is given in the 1931 Check-List as "Oregon,west of the Cascades, and Chelan County, Washington, south toHumboldt County, California." Ridgway (1914) mentions only
"western Oregon." Dr. Louis B. Bishop has 11 specimens, ten fromOregon and one from Humboldt County, Calif., which he refers tothis race.Ridgway (1914) describes it as "similar to 0. a. kennicottii, butsmaller, and coloration much less brownish, the lighter markings onthe upper parts less pronouncedly buffy, the under parts much less(sometimes not at all) suffused with buff. (Intermediate between0. a. kennicottii and 0. a. bendirei.)" It has a gray phase and a brownphase, intermediate between the phases of the two forms namedabove. This is admittedly an intermediate form which, in theauthor's opinion, should never have been named.
PASADENA SCREECH OWL 281
Its habits are doubtless similar to those of the neighboring races.The measurements of 10 eggs average 37.3 by 31.2 millimeters; theeggs showing the four extremes measure 39 by 31.3, 38 by 32.5, 35.6by 31.3, and 37.2 by 29.7 millimeters.OTUS ASIO QUERCINUS Grinnellpasadena screech owlPlate 67HABITSAccording to the 1931 Check-List this race occurs in "southernCalifornia west of the desert region and along the western flank ofthe Sierra Nevada north to Mt. Shasta; also on the Pacific side ofnorthern Lower California north of lat. 30?30'."Dr. Joseph Grinnell (1915), in describing and naming it, says:
"Characters in general like Otus asio bendirei; differs in paler colora-tion: Light drab or ashy rather than hazel tones prevail dorsally,while beneath the black markings are sharper in outline, with verylittle or none of the ferruginous marginings. The restriction orabsence of ferruginous on the chest, around the facial rim, and on theear-tufts, is a good character."Nesting.?There is apparently nothing in the nesting habits of thisrace that calls for special comment, as they are similar to those of otherraces. But an unusual nesting site is thus described by John McB.Robertson (1925): "April 29, 1923, I discovered a nest in a bark-filled crotch of a large eucalyptus tree beside our driveway, and onlyabout twelve feet from the ground. The nest was well concealed byseveral years' accumulation of bark and trash and when discoveredcontained one adult bird and three partly feathered young."Eggs.?The Pasadena screech owl lays ordinarily four or five eggs,sometimes only three, and perhaps rarely six. These are indistin-guishable from other screech owls' eggs of similar size. The measure-ments of 46 eggs averages 35.4 by 30.2 millimeters; the eggs showingthe four extremes measure 38.2 by 30.2, 35.8 by 31.8, 32.4 by 30.3,and 34 by 27.1 millimeters.Young.?E. Lowell Sumner, Jr. (1928 and 1929) has made someextensive studies of the development of young Pasadena screech owlsand has published two papers on the subject, to which the reader isreferred. The progress of their growth is not materially differentfrom that of the eastern screech owl, which has been quite fully ex-plained under that race. He says, however: "In closing, two fea-tures seem to deserve special mention. One is the fact that afterthe eggs had first begun to pip, more than three days elapsed before13751?38 19
282 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMthe time of hatching. The other is the unaccountable fluctuationin the weights of the youngsters, as illustrated by the graph."Plumages.?The sequence of plumages to maturity is the same asgiven for the eastern screech owl. As in practically all the westernraces, adults are to some extent dichromatic, though the color phasesare not so pronounced as in the eastern races. The gray phase ofquercinus is lighter gray, and the brown phase is duller brown thanin the more northern races.OTUS ASIO GILMANI SwarthSAGUARO SCREECH OWLHABITSRidgway (1914) does not recognize the validity of this race, andsays, in a footnote under cineraceus: "With a considerable series ofspecimens before me, including those upon which 0. a. gilmani Swarthwas based, I am quite unable to appreciate reasons for the recognitionof that supposed subspecies; indeed, few of the recognized subspeciesof the group present as great uniformity of coloration as does thisseries as a whole." He also thought that the difference in size isinsignificant, and he could not accept the theory of two subspeciesoccupying such closely contiguous territory.Mr. Swarth (1916), however, seems to have explained the situationvery satisfactorily, and to have established the validity of his race,after an extensive study of a series of thirty screech owls from variousparts of southern Arizona. He concludes that
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there are two distinct types represented, cineraceus from the higher mountains,gilmani from the valleys of southwestern Arizona. Breeding birds from eitherregion are true to type in their appearance. Extremes of the gilmani character-istics appear at points farthest from the known range of cineraceus (as at Phoenixand on the Colorado River). At one point at the margin of the habitat of gilmani(as I conceive it) there occur in winter examples of cineraceus.There are certain facts in the distribution of screech owls in Arizona whichdeserve to be emphasized. My conception of Otus a. gilmani is of a bird of thehot Lower Sonoran valleys, and of Otus a. cineraceus, as one pertaining to UpperSonoran, oak-covered foothills and canyons. But I believe that a sufficientrepresentation of specimens would show the respective ranges of the two sub-species to be capable of definition on other terms than those of life zones. Insoutheastern Arizona, the region of the scattered mountain ranges where cinera-ceus occurs, the intervening valleys and plains, of vast extent, are for the mostpart grass covered, or else with but a sparse growth of mesquite or larrea, inneither case supplying habitable surroundings for the screech owl. Farther west,from the Santa Rita and Santa Catalina mountains westward, the endless stretchesof Lower Sonoran plains where gilmani is found are grown up nearly everywherewith the giant cactus, which supplies so many hole-dwelling birds with homes.In other words, in southwestern Arizona the Lower Sonoran zone offers congenialsurroundings to screech owls, in southeastern Arizona for the most part it doesnot. In southwestern Arizona, Lower Sonoran is the only life zone represented,in southeastern Arizona the higher zones occur, with associational conditionsacceptable to these owls.
SAGUARO SCREECH OWL 283In naming and describing this race, Mr. Swarth (1910b) gives asits characters: "Most like Otus asio cineraceus (Kidgway), from whichit differs chiefly in slightly smaller size, paler coloration and greaterrestriction of dark markings. Above pale ashy, darkest on crown,each feather faintly vermiculated with dusky, and with a narrowdark median stripe. Under parts somewhat darker, but still withdark markings much restricted. Legs and toes white, sparsely markedwith dusky."Nesting.?We spent May 21 and 22, 1922, exploring the dry, hotsaguaro plains near Tucson, Ariz. Here the arid, stony ground wasscantily covered with low mesquite and greasewood bushes, amongwhich the picturesque candelabra of the giant cactus, with their crownsof white blossoms, were widely scattered. My husky companion,Frank C. Willard, carried upright on his strong shoulders an 18-footladder, with which we investigated the numerous cavities in thesestrange plants. There were very few saguaros that did not containsome of these nesting holes, and many had three or four. The holeswere, doubtless, all originally made by Gila woodpeckers and Mearns'sgilded flickers, which were very numerous here. These holes last formany years, as the interior walls become crusted over and hardened,making ideal nesting sites, after the woodpeckers have abandonedthem, for elf and screech owls, Arizona crested and ash-throated fly-flycatchers, desert sparrow hawks, cactus wrens, and western martins.Among all this interesting collection of nesting birds, we found twofamilies of saguaro screech owls, each with two young nearly halfgrown, on May 21. The next day we saw evidence of overcrowdingin this thickly settled community of nesting birds; we saw an elf owllooking out of one of these holes, but when we chopped it out, we weresurprised to find a screech owl sitting on three elf owl's eggs.So far as I can learn, the saguaro screech owl has never been foundnesting anywhere but in the giant cactus (Cereus giganteus), and onlywhere this cactus grows in the lowlands. Herbert Brown told MajorBendire (1892) that he had found them "nesting in holes of sahuaraswithin 4 feet from the ground, and from that distance up to almost theextreme top of the plant. The sahuaras along the river bottoms, andon the mesas bordering them, are their favorite nesting grounds."He cut down a number of large saguaros in other places, at higher ele-vations, that were bored full of woodpeckers' holes, but never foundany owls in any of them ; so he concluded that these owls nest only inthe saguaros "growing in the lowlands and not those in the higher hillsor out in the deserts."Eggs.?The saguaro screech owl lays three to four eggs. These arelike the eggs of other screech owls but smaller than those of the largerraces. The measurements of 11 eggs average 34.1 by 29 millimeters;
284 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMthe eggs showing the four extremes measure 35.5 by 29, 35 by 30, and32.5 by 27.5 millimeters.Food.?Mr. Brown (Bendire, 1892) says: "Small birds, kangaroorats, gophers, different species of mice, lizards, scorpions, grasshoppers,and beetles are their staple articles of diet."Mrs. Florence M. Bailey (1923) found one in a cottonwood stub onthe bank of the Santa Cruz River and says: "The pellets taken fromthe cavity contained bones of wood rat, kangaroo rats, pocket mice,deer mice, and a grasshopper mouse, the skull of one young Neotomaalbigula, numerous jaws and bones of Perodipus ordii and Dipodomysmerriami, together with a few jaws of Perognathus eremicus, Peromys-cus eremicus and sonoriensis, and Onychomys torridus."Voice.?Dr. Loye Miller (1928) says of some that he heardrepeatedly:When whistling they invariably occupied a perch less than five feet from theground, in dense willow tangle grown up from beaver cuttings to a height of twentyfeet or more. Out of the midst of this brush, birds were repeatedly called (orstimulated or what you will) by imitating the whistled note. They came outinto the moonlight and circled my body so closely that the faint bat-like flutterof the wings was plainly audible and one bird perched within two feet of me, whereit was clearly visible in the moonlight. Otherwise they always returned to thedepth of the thicket where the two birds collected were searched out with the elec-tric flash light.The song (?) of all individuals was the same in its composition, though the abso-lute pitch might differ by a major third. The composition of the performancediffered from the customary note of the race of the San Diegan district (Otusasio quercinus Grinnell) in being made up of two tetrads of notes of equal tempo butwith the first one pitched a half tone above the second. The final note of thesecond tetrad slides down to a slightly flatted pitch. I heard no other whistlefrom the Colorado River birds.OTUS ASIO XANTUSI (Brewster)XANTUS'S SCREECH OWLHABITSThis small, pale screech owl is known only from the southern partof the peninsula of Lower California, Mexico. Dr. Joseph Grinnell(1928b) says: "Common resident in the Cape district, whence re-ported from many localities, all south of La Paz. Apparently occursfrom the coastal lowlands (Arid Tropical life-zone) up to the tops ofthe Victoria Mountains."William Brewster (1902) in naming it, describes it as "most nearyllike M(egascops) vinaceus Brewster, but smaller, the general coloringpaler and less reddish, the crown and outer surfaces of the wings lighter,the primaries with broad, well-defined light bars on both webs, theabdomen and flanks decidedly whiter, the under tail coverts nearlypure white and practically without mesial streaks, the feathering ofthe legs shorter and sparser."
XANTUS'S SCREECH OWL 285Ridgway (1914) describes it as "similar to 0. a. cineraceus but ver-miculations of upper parts finer and blackish streaks narrower, sizesmaller, and toes more scantily feathered."Laurence M. Huey (1926a) has described a new race from LowerCalifornia, which he has named Otus asio cardonensis. The charactersgiven are: "Nearest to Otus asio cineraceus, but darker, especiallyabout the head and neck, where the striping is more pronounced.Averages smaller than 0. a. cineraceus and larger than 0. a. xantusi."He gives as the range: "As far as known, the giant cactus (Pachycereus)association of the Pacific slope of Lower California from the vicinityof the hills east of Santo Domingo and San Quintin to the region lyingeast of El Rosario."Dr. Louis B. Bishop evidently thinks this is a good race, for hewrites to me: "0. a. cardonensis is the size of xantusi but darker thanit or gilmani, approaching cineraceus below, though not quite so heavilystreaked and basal portions of feathers paler; browner above thancineraceus; more heavily streaked above than gilmani and xantusi, lessso than cineraceus. "Griffing Bancroft sent me a small screech owl, collected at SanIgnacio with a set of two eggs, which he called xantusi. I comparedit with our good series of xantusi and cineraceus at Cambridge andreferred it to the latter, which it seemed to match quite closely ; it cer-tainly is not xantusi but may be referable to cardonensis, which I havenot seen. The two eggs that were collected with it measure 32.6 by27.9 and 31.8 by 26 millimeters, somewhat smaller than the averagefor cineraceus.J. Stuart Rowley says in his notes on Xantus's screech owl: "Thesebirds were rather plentiful about our camp in Miraflores ; from aboutdusk until 9 o'clock in the evening screech owls were heard callingnoisily. From that time on the owls became quieter?no doubt foodhunting and not courting. More than a dozen specimens were taken,most of them from woodpecker holes in cardons, while we were goingthrough the routine of ladder climbing and chopping from cardon tocardon."Nesting.?Mr. Rowley took five sets of eggs, in various stages ofincubation, near Miraflores from May 11 to May 20, 1933. He saysin his notes: "The nesting cavities were old woodpecker holes in car-dons, usually about halfway up one of the arms, or 15 to 20 feet fromthe ground, but one set of two was taken from a hole only 10 feet up.In each case, where a nesting female was taken, the male was either inanother hole in the same cardon or as near as he could get to it in thenearest cardon. No signs of food remains were noted. An occupiedhole could usually be detected by a telltale feather caught on the edgeof the entrance."
286 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMEggs.?Xantus's screech owl evidently lays two to four eggs. Mr.Rowley took one set of four, two sets of three, and two sets of two.They are like other screech owls' eggs but smaller than those of thelarger races. The measurements of 14 eggs average 34.2 by 29.3millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremes measure 35 by 31 and32 by 27 millimeters.Plumages.?Dr. Bishop tells me that xantusi has two color phases,showing about the same degree of difference as exists in the two phasesof triehopsw, that the brown phase predominates, and that in thisphase the upper parts are "wood brown" or lighter; in the gray phase,xantusi is the palest of the southwestern races, a trifle paler thangilmani, and less heavily streaked above and below.OTUS TRICHOPSIS (Wagler)SPOTTED SCREECH OWLHABITSThe spotted screech owl superficially resembles, in its gray phase,the other screech owls in the region it inhabits, from the mountainsof southern Arizona southward through Mexico to Guatemala. But,on close examination, it is readily seen to be a distinct species, andnot a subspecies of Otus asio. This species is decidedly dichromatic,having very distinct gray and red phases, which is not true of any ofthe southwestern races of Otus asio.Both phases are quite distinct even in the downy, juvenal plumages;these and the two adult phases are fully described by Ridgway(1914), but his account is too long to be quoted here. The mostconspicuous characters by which the species can be recognized arethe large white spots on the lower hindneck and on the scapularsand greater wing coverts, the large black spots on the under parts,and the greatly developed bristly tips to the feathers of the face.We are indebted to Edouard C. Jacot (1931), who for ten yearshas braved the hardships and dangers of night work in the mountainsof southern Arizona studying the screech owls, for most of ourknowledge of the habits of these elusive birds. He says that "thisyear fifty nights were spent in the field and some twenty square milesof country were worked." Having spent some time with him in theHuachuca Mountains in 1922, I can appreciate the difficulty of thiswork.As to the range of the spotted screech owl, he says that it "is apermanent resident in the Huachuca Mountains. * * * This isevidently a bird of the Arizona white oak (Quercus arizonica) belt,and none was taken outside of this region, all having been securedbetween 5,500 and 6,500 feet elevations."Courtship.?Jacot gives the following interesting accoimt of themating calls of this owl:
SPOTTED SCREECH OWL 287
I was almost certain that a pair of Spotted Screech Owls was nesting in thevicinity of my camp, as the male had been heard several times during the month.Another male arrived one night and passed on, acting like the wandering malesearlier in the season. About a week later the worried choo-you?coo-coo notesof the pair attracted my attention. Working carefully toward them, I realizedthat both birds were giving this call, and I was also surprised that both birdswere coming toward me. The female gave the chang note almost continually,and gave the longer call only twice after the two birds were located. The malealso gave the chang note a few times. He flew within a few yards of me, lit ona green limb of a white oak, well out near the end, and continued to call choo-you?coo-coo. The male was taken. The female did not call after the shot,but I was able to follow and watch her for a short time. Six nights later, a malegiving the mating song was taken within seventy-five yards of the place wherethe pair had first been seen. The following night the mating call was again heardin the same locality, the owl calling about twenty yards from the place wherethe first male had been secured. Another owl was answering farther up thecanon, and it was noticed that the notes of the calling bird were higher pitchedthan those of the answering bird. Thinking the bird nearest me was a male, Ishot it. This owl, however, proved to be a female in brooding condition. Ibelieve that this female would have had three different mates during the weekif she had not been killed. The males thus attracted are probably year-oldmales, which have not mated and are wandering singly over the country.Nesting.?I can find no published account of the nesting habitsof this owl that I am willing to accept as authentic. M. FrenchGilman (1909) found screech owls "rather numerous" and breeding,along the Gila River in Arizona, which he called spotted screech owls(Otus trichopsis). But this locality is far from the known range oftrichopsis, which is known to breed, in Arizona at least, only in thewhite-oak association in the mountains between 4,000 and 6,500 feetelevations. Moreover, he does not mention cineraceus or gilmani(if the latter is recognizable), one of which is the common breedingscreech owl of the Gila River region. Furthermore, there was someearlier confusion in the nomenclature of these owls, which may havemisled him.There are two apparently authentic sets of eggs of the spottedscreech owl in the Thayer collection, taken by Virgil W. Owen in theChiricahua Mountains, Cochise County, Ariz. The female parentwas taken with both sets, one of which I have examined. The firstset of three fresh eggs was taken on May 6, 1906, at an altitude ofabout 5,300 feet; the female was dissected and found to have finishedlaying. The nest was in a natural cavity in an oak tree, about 18feet from the ground. The eggs lay upon some oak leaves in thebottom of the cavity, 14 inches below the entrance.The second set of four eggs, in which incubation was well advanced,was taken on May 1, 1907, in the same locality. The nest was atthe bottom of an old flicker's hole, the entrance of which was 18 feetfrom the ground in the trunk of a large wild walnut tree. The eggswere deposited on bits of decayed wood, 10 inches down from the
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entrance. The female parent of this set was caught on the nest andis now in the Thayer collection.Since the above was written Herbert W. Brandt has sent me thefollowing notes, in advance of publication, based on his experiencewith the nesting of this owl in the Huachuca Mountains, Ariz., in1936: "We were fortunate to find two nests of this very rare bird,one on May 8, with three highly incubated eggs, and on the followingday a second set of the same number in which incubation had justbegun. The first nest was located 22 feet up in an apparent flickerhole in a dead juniper stub growing at an elevation of about 5,900feet, in the bottom of Sunnyside Canyon. The incubating bird leftits retreat when Jacot struck the tree sharply, but returned almostat once and was captured on the nest. The three globular whiteeggs were found, partly buried, at the bottom of the 16-inch cavity."The second nest was found by the same method as the first. Inthis case the bird had selected a large sycamore tree growing at analtitude of about 6,300 feet, which is here the higher limit of theUpper Sonoran Zone in Bear Canyon. The bird chose an open cavityformed by the breaking out of a main limb, in which to lay its threewhite eggs. No lining for the nest was employed, the eggs simplybeing deposited on the accumulated debris. The site was open above,and so formed that the sitting bird could look out without effort andobserve that which occurred at a large spring below. This owl wascollected also, and at each nest, the incubating bird proved to be afemale."Eggs.?The eggs of the spotted screech owl are similar to the eggsof other screech owls but are somewhat smaller. The measurementsof the 13 eggs in the four sets referred to above average 33 by 27.6millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremes measure 34 by 27.2,32.3 by 29, 31.9 by 28.7, and 32 by 26 millimeters.Plumages.?Specimens of this rare owl are very scarce in collections.I have seen only one specimen in immature plumage. This speciesis decidedly dichromatic, even in the juvenal plumage. Kidgway(1914) describes both adults and young of both phases quite fully,to which the reader is referred. Of the young in the gray phase, hesays: "Upper parts dull grayish brown, indistinctly barred or trans-versely mottled with dusky and dull grayish white, the latter on tipsof the feathers; under parts dull white, broadly barred with grayishbrown."The young in the rufescent phase he describes as "upper parts asin adults but black streaks indistinct (obsolete in some places) ; underparts pale cinnamon-buff deepening into light cinnamon-rufous onchest and throat, the breast, sides, and flanks with narrow and indis-tinct bars of dusky."
SPOTTED SCREECH OWL 289The gray phase is apparently much commoner than the rufescent.In the gray phase of adults, the general color of the upper parts is
"brownish gray, coarsely vermiculated with dusky, broadly streakedwith black"; and in the rufescent phase, adults are "above light dullcinnamon-rufous, relieved by conspicuous mesial streaks of black",according to Mr. Ridgway (1914). He says further: "The color(rufous) is much lighter and duller than in the rufescent phase of0. asio and its subspecies, and with the black streaks more conspic-uous."Food.?Mr. Jacot (1931) writes: "Black crickets, hairy cater-pillars, moths, grasshoppers, large beetle larvae, and centipedes formthe principal diet of the Spotted Screech Owl. Moth eggs, undoubt-edly taken from the female moths, were found in two stomachs, anda large spider was found in another. Caterpillars and black cricketsare staple articles of their diet the year round. Centipedes are takenmore frequently during the winter months than during the summer.Practically every stomach examined during the colder months con-tained one or more small centipedes."He tells me, in a letter, that one stomach that he examined "con-tained nine fuzzy caterpillars, seven black crickets, and two centi-pedes."Of the five specimens collected by Berry Campbell (1934) at PenaBlanca, Arizona, the "stomach contents were as follows: nos. 190,mantis and grasshopper; 189, mantis, grasshopper, and centipede;2269, 2 Stenopelmatus, 2 caterpillars, and one very large beetle; 2007,2 large hairy caterpillars and one vinagerone; 2269, beetle remains,finely broken. The presence of Stenopelmatus, or mole cricket, indi-cates that these owls must feed from the ground, in part at least.I have observed them on the ground only once."Behavior.?Mr. Jacot (1931) writes:The Spotted Screech Owl is seldom seen above thirty feet from the ground inany species of tree, and usually ranges below fifteen feet. The birds prefer theArizona white oak to all other trees, but they were also observed to frequent thealligator-barked juniper, sycamore, Emory oak, mountain ash, and to someextent the walnut. The pine seems to be the least favored of the trees in the regionalthough it is not uncommon. I have only one record of a Spotted Screech Owlfrequenting a pine. This was a small sapling, with its branches intermingledwith those of a small white oak, and the owl retreated into it at my approach.The plumage of the Spotted Screech Owl blends admirably with the barkof the Arizona white oak in daylight or at night. The owl during the day perchesat times on a branch close to the trunk of the tree. In this situation, with itseyes closed and hiding the yellow iris, and stretched to its full height, it resemblesthe dead stub of a branch. This screech owl does not attempt to escape observa-tion at night in this way, but when it is on a large limb, it fluffs out its feathersand leans forward in such a manner that it looks very much like a bulge on thelimb. Occasionally, one will be seen perched near the end of a branch amongthe twigs. In this position, it inclines its body toward the end of the branch and
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closely resembles a cluster of leaves. Whether this posture is assumed to avoiddetection, or is merely a position preparatory to flight, could not be determined,as, although the owls often hold this position for several minutes, they do notalways fly.Voice.?Mr. Jacot (1931) says of the calls of this owl:The mating song or call of the male consists of about six rapidly deliverednotes. These notes sound very much like boo or boot, and are delivered about asfast as a person can count: boot-boot-boot-boot-boot-boot. The male may be heardcalling a half mile or more away, but at times the call may be uttered so softlythat the sound carries only a few feet. The female also gives the mating call inan emergency, but at a higher pitch.There are several alarm notes used by both the male and the female. Aworried chang is most frequently given, especially by the female. A rather mourn-ful choo-you?coo-coo is uttered when the owls are greatly disturbed. They alsosnap their bills as other screech owls do. Both birds give clucking notes whilecourting, or when one or the other of the owls flies into a tree where its mate maybe.Mr. Brandt says further, in his notes: "We found the spottedscreech owl to be not uncommon in Sunnyside Canyon, where a pairdwelt about every mile or so. As soon as it becomes dark, this littlebird begins to bark its four, even-pitched notes that are more doglikethan those of the screech owl. It is tireless in its refrain, which maycontinue uninterrupted for an hour or more, usually coming down fromwell up on the canyon side. His voice is gentle, yet has far-reachingpower, and somewhat resembles the sound produced by blowing acrossthe opening of a bottle. On one occasion a spotted screech owl, fromhigh up on the mountainside, was singing incessantly his nocturnalcalls. As it was a long climb up to meet him, it was suggested thatwe try to lure him down to us by squeeching. Very promptly, afterthe first few squeeches, his answering voice was notably louder, hencewe surmised closer, and before long, like a shadowy bat in the darkness,he alighted in a tree only 5 feet over our heads."A. J. van Eossem (1936) adds to our knowledge of this rare owl, asfollows:About 9 o'clock on the evening of June 4, 1931, the notes of a small owl wereheard in the sycamore and oak timber along the stream which runs past the resortin Madera Canon in the Santa Ritas. These notes, while unmistakably "screechowl" in character, were very different in cadence from those of any member ofthe asio group covered by my experience. They consisted of a repetition of threeshort notes, a slight pause, and a fourth, terminal note, " -, -, -,
-, -." A whistled imitation soon decoyed the caller, which provedto be a Spotted Screech Owl, within range. On June 5, a night trip of severalhours' duration pretty well prospected Madera Canon between the resort at 5500feet altitude and Littleshot Cabin at 7000 feet. Among other nocturnal raritiesencountered, Spotted Screech Owls were located, by the unmistakable call notes,at five different points and by calling the birds from a central location I hadfour individuals close to me at one time.
FLAMMULATED SCREECH OWL 291DISTRIBUTIONRange.?Southern Arizona south through Mexico to Guatemala.Nonmigratory.The range of the spotted screech owl extends north to southernAirzona (Huachuca Mountains and the Chiricahua Mountains).East to southeastern Arizona (Chiricahua Mountains and the Hua-chuca Mountains); Chihuahua (Carmen); Durango (Rio Sestin);Mexico (Chimalpa and Ajusco); Puebla (Zentla); and Guatemala(Uspantan, San Lucas, and Villanueva). South to Guatemala (Villa-nueva, Joyabajo, and Chichicastenango); Oaxaca (La Parada); andGuerrero (Omilteme). West to Guerrero (Omilteme); Michoacan(Patzcuaro); Jalisco (Los Masos and La Pisagua); Nayarit (SierraMadre); and Arizona (Huachuca Mountains and Chiricahua Moun-tains).Egg dates.?Arizona: 4 records, May 1 to 9.OTUS FLAMMEOLUS (Kaup)FLAMMULATED SCREECH OWLHABITSThis pretty and gentle little owl is now known to be quite widelydistributed in mountainous regions from southern British Columbiaand Idaho southward through Mexico to the highlands of Guatemala.It was first added to our list by Capt. John Feilner, who obtained asingle specimen, a young bird, near Fort Crook, Calif., on August 23,1860. Its nest was not found until June 15, 1875, when Charles A.Aiken took a single egg in Wet Mountain Valley, Colo. It is still oneof the rarest of our owls and scarce in collections.Harry S. Swarth (1904) evidently considered this owl as mainly amigrant in Arizona, though it is well known to breed there, for hesays:Although the Flammulated Screech Owl is quite a common migrant in theHuachucas some years, I believe that but very few remain to breed, the bulk ofthem going farther north. In 1896 eight, and in 1902 seven, specimens weresecured; and of these, I believe all but one were migrating birds. * * * Theearliest secured was on April 22, 1902, and the latest on May 12 of the same year.All were shot where they were sitting in the trees, usually in dense thickets almostimpossible to penetrate; and this fact may perhaps account for so few specimensof this bird being taken, as quite half of those secured were found while searchingfor the nest of such birds as bred in the thick brush. On May 5, 1902, O. W. Howardsecured two females in some willows on the San Pedro River, fifteen miles from themountains and an exceptionally low altitude for this species, about 3000 feet.The breeding bird mentioned was taken at about 8000 feet elevation; and all theothers, from the base of the mountain (about 4500 feet) up to 6000 feet.A. J. van Rossem (1936) found the flammulated screech owl breedingin the Santa Rita Mountains, Arizona: "At Littleshot Cabin, in themixed oaks and pines at 7000 feet, a male was collected at dusk on
292 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMJune 6, 1931, as he was flying about through the trees. This birdwas not at all shy and decoyed readily to a squeak."Nesting.?Major Bendire (1892) quotes William G. Smith, on threenests found by him, as follows:The first nest was taken on June 2, 1890, in Estes Park, Colorado, at an altitudeof probably 10,000 feet. The site, a Woodpecker's hole in a dead aspen, was about10 feet from the ground and the burrow about 10 inches deep. It contained threefresh eggs. The female, which was in the hole, had to be removed by force,and in doing so one of the eggs was broken; they were lying on a few chips andfeathers from the bird.On June 4, I found a second nest about a mile from the former site and in asimilar situation, a ravine near water. This contained two fresh eggs and an eggof a Flicker (Colaptes cafer). They were placed in a Woodpecker's hole in a largeaspen, about 8 feet from the ground and 10 inches below the aperture, while about6 feet above this was a nest of young Flickers. The cavity appeared to have beenformerly used by a squirrel and the eggs were deposited on the old nesting material.It also contained a few Flicker's feathers. The female clung tenaciously to hereggs.On June 20, I found the third nest, but this time at a considerably less altitude,probably about 8,000 feet. It was in a pine tree in a Woodpecker's hole about14 feet from the ground, and contained four partly incubated eggs. On rappingthe tree the old bird flew out and perched on a limb close by while I investigatedthe nest. This consisted of a few feathers in the bottom of the burrow, whichwas about 10 inches deep.Frank C. Willard (1909) took a set of three fresh eggs, on May 18,1909, near the summit of the Huachuca Mountains, at the head ofRamsay Canyon, Arizona. He says:The eggs in the set were fresh and were lying on the chips in the bottom of thecavity, which was twenty-five feet up in a pine stub. The growth at this pointconsisted of scattering pines and firs. The altitude was 7,700 feet.On May 30 I started another female flammeola from her nest in a Flicker's hole,twelve feet up in an oak tree growing in the bed of a canyon on the west slope ofof the Huachucas, at an altitude of 6,000 feet. I left the two eggs and returningJune 11 secured the full set, incubation well along. The bird left the nest as Iclimbed up, and alighted on a drooping branch near the entrance. I dropt downand, picking up my camera, secured a snap shot at a distance of eight feet, im-mediately after which she flew away. It was a very comical picture she made asshe sat there, opening first one eye and then the other, like a sleepy child, in anendeavor to accustom herself to the glare of the bright sun.Mr. van Rossem (1936) found a nest containing young, on June 9,1931, in the Santa Ritas, in an old flicker hole 10 feet up in a dead pine.Eggs.?The flammulated screech owl lays three or four eggs; theseare about oval, the shell is finely granulated and slightly glossy, andthe color is white, with a faint creamy tint. They are about midwayin size between the eggs of the elf owl and those of the Mexican screechowl.The measurements of 38 eggs average 29.1 by 25.5 millimeters; theeggs showing the four extremes measure 32.1 by 25.1, 30.2 by 26.5,27.9 by 25.4, and 28 by 24 millimeters.
FLAMMULATED SCREECH OWL 293Plumages.?Mr. van Rossem (1936) says: "Two newly-hatchedyoung collected on June 9, 1931, are thickly covered with snowywhite down, with, in life, the bills and feet flesh color. The irides,both of adults and young, were very dark, nearly blackish, brown
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very different from the yellow irides of the common and spottedscreech owls."Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway (1905) describe the "first full, butimperfect plumage" as follows: "Wings and tail as in the adult (lastpale band of latter apparently terminal). Whole head and body withnumerous, about equal, transverse bands of dusky and grayish white;the two colors about equal, but on lower parts both are much widerand more distinct than above the white gradually increasing posteriorly.Breast and outer webs of scapulars with a rusty tinge, the latterscarcely variegated. Eyebrow white, feathers bordered with dusky;eye-circle and ear-coverts bright rusty-rufous ; lores much tinged withthe same. No facial circle."In the adult plumage there is considerable individual variationbetween the two extremes of the gray and red phases, of which Mr.Ridgway (1914) writes:The individual variation in this species is so great that it is somewhat difficultto frame a description covering them all. The variations involve not only thegeneral color (extreme examples of the grayish phase being without a trace ofcinnamomeous or ochraceous color, except the partly buffy outer webs of exteriorscapulars, while extremes of the rufescent phase have cinnamon-brown andcinnamon-rufous the predominant colors) , but also the size of the darker markingson the under parts, which may consist of delicate pencilings or heavy spots andbars. So far as I am able to see, these variations are utterly without geographicsignificance, except that the extreme rufous phase is, at present, known only fromGuatemala, where, however, specimens occur which I am unable to distinguishfrom northern examples.Food.?The flammulated screech owl is apparently largely, if notwholly, insectivorous, though it may occasionally capture a smallmammal or bird. In the few stomachs that have been examinedhave been found various beetles, moths, grasshoppers, crickets, cater-pillars, ants, other insects, spiders, and scorpions.Behavior.?Edouard C. Jacot (1931) says of the habits of this owlin the Huachuca Mountains of Arizona:The pine trees seem to furnish the favorite perches from which the FlammulatedScreech Owls call, and the Arizona white oak is a close second. They were alsoheard calling from sycamore, Emory oak, madrona and thick oak brush, havingflown into the latter on several occasions when disturbed and continued to call.The owl, in calling from a pine tree, is usually to be found about two-thirds theheight of the tree, perched on a live limb near the trunk. In a white oak, thecalling bird may be perched on the bulge of the trunk or near the trunk on a livelimb, and at times well out near the twigs, but I have seen it only once on the deadstub of a branch. Usually, the Flammulated perches near the trunk of the tree
294 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMfrom which he may be calling, and there may or may not be intervening branchesbetween the bird and the ground.In my experience, the Flammulated is the shyest of the screech owls at night,and is adept at keeping some obstruction between itself and the observer, althougha given individual may not be consistent in this. It is greatly assisted in avoidingdetection by the color of its plumage. The owl's back blends perfectly with thebark of the pine tree, and the markings of its underparts with that of the whiteoak at night, so that it is almost invisible when it is perched with its back towardthe stem of the tree.Mrs. Florence M. Bailey (1928) writes: "The bird which Mr. Ligoncollected in 1920 was at the time 'sitting on the loose fine rock of aslide, under thick brush.' On the Indian School campus at SantaFe, Mr. Jensen found one sleeping in a peach tree in the orchard,and another dead under a light wire. One found by Mr. H. H. Kim-ball in the San Francisco Mountains was roosting in a road-camp
'garage, made out of upright pine poles roofed with galvanized iron,'in which a three-ton truck was kept. As Mr. Kimball remarks,
'evidently it had found the semi-darkened interior of the building asatisfactory resting place during the day.' "Voice.?Mr. Jacot (1931) says:The mating song is composed of two notes: boo-boot. The second note isaccentuated and louder than the first. This song is usually given at regularintervals so that it becomes monotonous. However, at times, when a bird'sattention is attracted, the song may be uttered at irregular intervals. The boonote is often dropped and the boot note given alone. At such times, this note maybe considered by the birds as a note of warning. The mating song of the Flam-mulated Screech Owl is the most ventriloquial owl call I have ever heard.The male, and I believe also the female, when apprehensive, utters a mewingnote, very much like that of a kitten, and almost identical with a warning note ofthe Elf Owl. In courting, both birds make clucking noises, and upon rare occa-sions one of the birds (it was not determined which) utters a screech which witha little more volume would be "blood-curdling".Dr. Joseph Grinnell (1908) writes:On the evening of July 15, 1905, at Bluff lake, I obtained an adult male specimenof this rare species. During the preceding two evenings we had repeatedly hearda peculiar note, different from that of any other owl we had ever heard. Itconsisted of a single mellow "whoot," repeated at regular intervals, somethinglike the call note of the phainopepla in this respect. These notes began to beheard at early dusk, by seven o'clock; but on account of their ventriloquialquality gave little clue as to distance. Although far-reaching the notes provedto have been uttered really close at hand. By careful stalking the point of originwas located in the top of a tall yellow pine 200 yards from our camp; and presentlya small bird with a true owl silhouette flew across an open space and lit in the topof a tall tree fully 100 feet from the ground. A charge of number 7 shot startedit down and after a few minutes lodgement, it fell to the ground at my feet,my first and only specimen of the dwarf screech owl, and one of the rarest birdsin California.Field marks.?The small size of this owl, the short, rounded eartufts, the dark chocolate-brown eyes, and the prettily variegated color
GREAT HORNED OWL 295pattern of browns, silvery gray, black, white, and cinnamon are allgood field marks by which the flammulated can be distinguished fromall other screech owls. DISTRIBUTIONRange.?Western United States and Mexico, south to Guatemala.Casual in British Columbia.The range of the flammulated screech owl extends north to southernBritish Columbia (Penticton) ; Idaho (Fernan and Ketchum) ; centralUtah (Boulter); and northern Colorado (Estes Park). East to Colo-rado (Estes Park, Idaho Springs, Fountain Creek, Copper Gulch,Beulah, and probably Mosca Pass); New Mexico (Carson Forest,Santa Fe, and Haut Creek); possibly western Texas (Dog Canyon,Guadaloupe Mountains); Veracruz (Mount Orizaba); Chiapas (SanAntonio); and Guatemala (San Geronimo and Duenas). South toGuatemala (Duenas and Tecpam) ; and the Federal District of Mexico(Chimalpa). West to the Federal District of Mexico (Chimalpa);Arizona (Huachuca Mountains, Camp Apache, and Grand Canyon);California (San Gabriel Mountains, Monache Meadows, Bigtrees, andFort Crook); Oregon (Hart Mountains); Washington (Kiona); andBritish Columbia (Penticton).The birds of the southern part of the range have been separated intoa geographic race known as Otus jlammeolus guatemalae Griscom, butlittle is known concerning the dividing line between it and the typicalrace to the north.Egg dates.?Colorado: 11 records, June 2 to 27; 6 records, June 5 to20, indicating the height of the season.Arizona and New Mexico: 5 records, May 18 to June 11.BUBO VIRGINIANUS VIRGINIANUS (Gmelin)great horned owlPlates 68-75HABITSAs an introduction to this grand species, I cannot do better thanto repeat the following well-chosen words of Ernest T. Seton (1890),which so well express my own sentiments: "My ample opportunitiesof fully observing these interesting birds in captivity as well as in astate of freedom, and indeed all that I have seen of them?theiruntamable ferocity, which is daily more apparent; their magnificentbearing; their objection to carrion, and strictly carnivorous tastes
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would make me rank these winged tigers among the most pronouncedand savage of the birds of prey."The great horned owl, with its various subspecies, is widely dis-tributed throughout the timbered regions of North, Central, and
296 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMSouth America, from the Arctic regions in the North to the Straits ofMagellan in the South. Many races have been described, but onlythose included in the latest Check-List (1931) will be considered inthis work.Our eastern race particularly is essentially a bird of the heavilyforested regions, where it finds seclusion and ample food supply in thedense, dark woods. Where there are extensive forests, well stockedwith small game, it is a common bird, but it is also found in lessernumbers where scattered woodlands still remain and where it canprey on poultry yards and game preserves. In my local territory, insoutheastern Massachusetts, the distribution of the great horned owlcoincides with that of the red-tailed hawk; I have always consideredthese two as complementary species, one hunting by night and oneby day in the same region; the same relation seems to exist betweenthe barred owl and the red-shouldered hawk. We usually find thegreat horned owl nesting in old nests of the red-tailed hawk, but Ihave never found these two species nesting in the same tract of timbersimultaneously, as the barred owl and the red-shouldered hawk oftendo. I believe that the great horned owl will not tolerate the nestingof any other raptorial bird anywhere near its own nest.Courtship.?During the January thaw, or on the first soft, warmevenings in February, we used to listen for the love songs of theseowls, for they start their preparations for nesting very early in theseason, and they are very noisy at this time; their prolonged hootingsat this season have often helped to locate a nesting pair; but I havenever been fortunate enough to see the courtship performance. Dr.Lynds Jones wrote to Major Bendire (1892): "I once had the goodfortune to steal unnoticed upon a pair of these birds in their lovemaking. The ceremony had evidently been in progress some time.When discovered the male was carefully approaching the female,which stood on a branch, and she half turned away like a timid girl.He then fondly stroked his mate with his bill, bowed solemnly, touchedor rubbed her bill with his, bowed again, sidled into a new positionfrom time to time, and continued his caresses. All these attentionswere apparently bashfully received by the female. Soon thereafterthe pair flew slowly away side by side."Floyd Bralliar (1922) gives the following account of it:So he began bowing his head, ruffling his feathers, raising his wings and spread-ing his wings in a curious manner. * * * Aside from watching his antics,she took no notice of his presence. Growing more earnest, he began hoppingfrom branch to branch, continuing his maneuvers and snapping his bill fiercelyas if to show that even tho he was not so large as she, what he lacked in size hemade up in bravery.Finally, he attempted to approach and caress her but she ruffled her feathersand rebuked him sharply. He took flight, sailing up and down, around andaround, evidently doing all the stunts of his race, now and again punctuating his
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efforts by snapping his bill. After a few moments he alighted again and beganhis bowing and dancing all over again.A rabbit came running down the bank and its white flag caught his eye. Risingin noiseless flight, he sailed downward without the flap of a wing, caught his preyfrom the ground, glided back into the tree, and presented his offering to hislady love. Apparently, she was convinced of his sincerity. Together theydevoured the rabbit, and when he again began his love dance she joined in withas much enthusiasm as he.Nesting.?The great horned owl has never been a common bird insoutheastern Massachusetts. I hunted for 20 years before I found anest containing eggs. I find only 13 local nests recorded in my notes;four of these were found during one season, 1907; in other years Ihave never found more than one each year; but during 1933 mycompanions, Alfred C. Weston and W. George F. Harris, found fournests of this owl in this general region.All my nests but two were in old nests of the red-tailed hawk; onewas in an old squirrel's nest, and one in an old nest of the red-shoul-dered hawk. All were in the heaviest timber available and as far aspossible from human habitations. Nine of the nests were in whitepines (Pinus strobus), three were in pitch pines (Pinus rigida) in aregion where no white pines were available, and one was in a largebeech tree. The nest in the beech was only 31 feet from the ground,those in the pitch pines were from 38 to 42 feet up, and the white pinenests varied from 40 to 70 feet above ground.Only twice have I known a pair of the owls to lay a second set afterbeing robbed; these were laid after an interval of three or four weeks,and in both cases the same nest was used for both sets. The greathorned owl, according to my experience, does not show the persistentdevotion to its nesting area that is shown by the barred owl and,particularly, by the red-shouldered hawk; whereas these other twohave been known to nest in the same patch of woods for many yearsin succession, I have never known Bubo to nest in the same tract formore than four years, and this has happened only twice in my experi-ence. My theory is that these owls are such voracious feeders thatthey exhaust the supply of small game, often within one or two seasons,and have to move to new hunting groimds.The nest from which I took my first set of eggs, on March 4, 1906,was an old red-tailed hawk's nest, 57 feet from the ground in a tallwhite pine, located in a swampy hollow in a large tract of heavy tim-ber, pines, maples, oaks, and yellow birches. The nest was made ofpine sticks and twigs, was full of dead pine needles, and was lined withshort, broken twigs and a lot of buff-colored down from the owl'sbreast. It rested securely on four large branches, against the trunkand very near the top of the tree (pis. 68, 69). It measured 32 by 2213751?38 20
298 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMinches in over-all diameter, the inner cavity was 12 inches in diameterand 2 inches deep, and the outside depth was 8 inches.The smallest nest that I have seen was in an old squirrel's nest, 52feet from the ground in the topmost crotch of a tall white pine; itmeasured only 18 by 16 inches in outside diameter but was deeplyhollowed to a depth of 8 inches. The rubbish and dirt had beenscraped out, down to the bare branches, and there was no liningexcept a few downy feathers of the owl.My most interesting nest was the one in a historic old beech, in alarge tract of heavy, mixed timber, which had been the home of a pairof red-shouldered hawks or a pair of barred owls for many years(pi. 41). This nest was built by the hawks and occupied by them in1907. On April 3, 1909, we were surprised to find that a pair of greathorned owls had invaded this territory and taken possession of thisnest; this was the first and only time that I have known this owl tousurp a nest of this hawk. The owls had, apparently, brought insome fresh sticks and added a few fresh sprigs of white pine, and thenest was well lined with the downy feathers of the owl; this freshmaterial may have been added by the hawks, which may have beendriven away by the owls after they had started repairing the nest.But Bubo did not long remain in possession of this nesting site, forwe robbed the nest, and the barred owls appropriated the nest in 1912.In 1913, 1915, and again in 1928, the red-shouldered hawks, probablythe original owners of the nest, occupied their old home. Since thenthe nest has disappeared.Our experience with this nest was not entirely unique, for othersomewhat siimlar cases of several species using a nest successivelyhave been recorded. John N. Clark (1887) found a pair of Cooper'shawks nesting in the lofty crotch of a large chestnut, near Saybrook,Conn., in 1884; the following year this nest was occupied by a greathorned owl, from which he secured a set of two eggs; in 1886 he wassurprised to find that a pair of red-tailed hawks had appropriated thenest; and in 1887 he collected a set of barred owls eggs from this sameold nest. It was indeed a popular nest to attract four species in foursucceeding years.The great horned owl is our earliest breeder, often laying its eggsin February, and sometimes in January, as far north as New Englandand New York, a month or six weeks earlier than our largest hawks.It seems remarkable that its eggs should be laid before the snows ofwinter have gone and while they are likely to freeze if left unprotected
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but the reason is obvious when the following facts are considered.The period of incubation is about 28 days, the young remain in thenest about six or seven weeks, and are unable to fly until they are 10or 12 weeks old; this means that if the eggs are laid about the first ofMarch, as they usually are in this latitude, it will be the middle or last
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of June before the young are able even partially to shift for them-selves. During all this time, and probably for some weeks longer,they must be fed wholly or partially by their parents. They areexceedingly voracious feeders, as the following records will show, theirfood is difficult to obtain, especially where game is scarce, and it ismuch easier for their parents to supply their needs before the summerfoliage becomes too dense.Such early nesting requires constant brooding of the eggs duringcold or stormy weather; sometimes the nest and even the incubatingbird are covered with snow, but the devoted mother generally succeedsin keeping the eggs and the center of the nest dry and warm. Some-times, however, the eggs are frozen and fail to hatch. C. A. Hawes(1881) tells of a case where the owl, finding that her two eggs werefrozen, laid two more in the same nest. "Two of the eggs were in themiddle of the nest, and sunk about two thirds their depth into thelining, and were much discolored from being in contact with the wetmoss and cedar bark. When blowing them they showed about sevendays incubation, but were badly addled. * * * The other twoeggs were a trifle smaller, but quite free from any stains, and werequite fresh."Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway (1905) say: "The mating of this birdappears to have little or no reference to the season. A pair has beenknown to select a site for their nest, and begin to construct a new one,or seize upon that of a Red-tailed Hawk, and repair it, in Septemberor October, keeping in its vicinity through the winter, and makingtheir presence known by their continued hooting."Throughout the Middle West, where large tracts of heavy timberare scarce and where the food supply is adequate, the great hornedowl nests in much more open situations than it does in New EDgland.Prof. Charles R. Keyes (1911) gives us a full and interesting accountof such a nest, found near his home in Mount Vernon, Iowa. A
"beautiful deciduous forest" along the Cedar River had been reducedto scattered groves, and in one of the largest of these he had seen theowls. "Soon after, the great oaks and hard maples of the easterntwo-thirds of the grove fell under the ax, leaving to the west only atwenty-five acre remnant and, in the cut-over area, only some oldwhite elms and a few young maples and lindens. Among these latterthe forest soil soon gave way to a thick carpet of blue grass and so whathad been heavy forest was gradually transformed into a rather openand still very beautiful timber pasture [pi. 70]." Of the nest he says:It was not in the heavy timber at all but in one of the large elms of the pasture,and, moreover, hardly more than fifty yards removed from the above-mentionedpublic road where teams were constantly passing. Toward the south the viewwas wild, open, and picturesque enough; to the west, north and east, at distancesvarying from 200 to 500 yards, were the schoolhouse and farm houses. * * *
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?The nest was in a large shallow hollow, 28 x 32 inches in diameter at the bottomwith an entrance 18 x 20 inches in diameter set at an angle of 45? and facing to-wards the southeast. The hollow was only 8 inches deep on the exposed side,thus permitting fairly good illumination. Of still more importance the nest sitewas only 22 feet from the ground and a strategic branch some five feet above thenest afforded a point of attachment for a ladder combination from which picturesmight be taken. * * * At the very moment when this nest was discovereda second pair of these birds were domiciled in a Redtail's nest placed in a tall whiteelm in heavy timber three and a half miles to the northwest and just ninety-twofeet above the ground.Thinking that the weather was too cold to keep the owl off her eggslong enough for photography, he pocketed the three eggs that thenest contained on February 17 and relied on her laying a second set;this she did, and on "March 23, three more eggs were found, justlike the first and lying in exactly the same little hollow." From thattime on a fine series of photographs were taken, and observations madeon the life history of these owls.Major Bendire (1892) says:Mr. George E. Beyer, of New Orleans, Louisiana, also found a nest of thisspecies, containing three young, in a hollow pine log on the ground. * * *Mr. Audubon also says that he has twice found the eggs of the Great Horned Owlin fissures of rocks. * * * Col. N. S. Goss, in his "Birds of Kansas," statesthat on the plains or treeless portions of the State it likewise nests in fissures ofrocks. These birds are poor nest builders, and if they do construct one of theirown, it is through necessity and not from choice. In the Eastern States themajority use open nests, generally those of the Red-tailed and Red-shoulderedHawks, the Crows, and sometimes those of the larger Herons, while farther westhollow trees, when procurable, are still, to a considerable extent, resortedto. * * *Judge John N. Clark, of Saybrook, Connecticut, writes me that he found a pairof these birds nesting in a quadruple fork of a large chestnut tree some 25 feetfrom the ground, the eggs lying on the bare wood, without any loose materialaround them whatever, not even a single leaf. Mr. P. W. Smith, jr., foundanother pair occupying an old soap box which had been originally put up forsquirrels in a grove not over 100 yards from a house. The top of the box hadblown off and it was nearly filled with dry leaves.He quotes Dr. William L. Ralph as follows:In the Indian River region of Florida, the Great Horned Owl usually lives in thepine wood districts, breeding altogether in these localities, and I have never knownit to nest in other situations in any part of this State that I am familiar with.At and in the vicinity of Merritt's Island, where I visited for several winters, thesebirds were so common that eight of their nests were found in one season whilelooking for those of the Bald Eagle, but, like most Florida birds, they are graduallydecreasing.In this region these Owls always deposit their eggs in the nests of the BaldEagle, and while I think that these are usually, if not always first deserted by theoriginal owners, the natives say that the Owls drive the Eagles from and appro-priate them for their own use. * * * These nests are originally constructedof large sticks and limbs, lined with dead grasses, palmetto leaves, flags, andweeds?usually with swamp grasses alone?and after being taken by the Owls
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are always further thickly lined with scales of pine bark, a material I have neverfound in any quantity in the nests occupied by the Eagles. The amount of thisbark in each nest seems to be about the same, which would not likely be the casehad it fallen into the nests by chance, which may occasionally happen to a limitedextent. In addition to this bark there are always more or less feathers from thebirds in this second lining. Many birds of prey line their nests with leaves orbark from resinous trees and they do this as a preventive remedy for parasites,with which they are always more or less troubled. * * *These birds become very much attached to certain localities and seldom wanderfar from them, even in cases of extreme persecution. As a usual thing they will,should their nest be disturbed, take another in the immediate vicinity, and aftera season or two return again to the first one; but in this locality I have known oneof these Owls to lay a third set of eggs in the same nest from which the first twohad been successively taken. In Florida this species usually commences breedingin December. I have taken eggs about one-third incubated December 17, andfound nearly fresh ones January 5. These are the earliest and the latest dates ofwhich I have any personal records, and have never found more than two eggs in anest, and about 60 per cent, of the sets consisted of a single egg.Donald J. Nicholson has sent me his notes on 14 nests found by himin Florida. Eleven of these were in old nests of the bald eagle, andthree were in red-tailed hawks' nests. The earliest date on which hefound eggs was December 7, but he found young as early as December26, which indicated an earlier egg date. In one case, where the owlhad preempted a brand new redtail's nest, he flushed the owl off thenest ; the owl alighted in the top of a palmetto and was attacked by thehawk, which "dived like a bullet at the thief and gave it a stunningblow", and the "owl flew rapidly away."Dr. Paul L. Errington (1932a) writes:None of the twenty-nine 1930-1932 Wisconsin horned owl nests upon whichpersonal data were procured showed evidence of having been built or remodeledto any degree by the strigine occupants. In practically every case the owls' nest-making instincts seemed satisfied by cleaning out the debris from the immediatebottom of the nesting place and by lining the same with variable quantities of breastfeathers. Nest sites chosen were: red-tailed hawk nests, thirteen; crow nests,eight; hollow trees, three; unidentified stick nests, two; holes or crevices in rockfaces, two; fox-squirrel nest, one. Nests taken over were usually in secluded loca-tions, the prospective occupants requiring mainly privacy and convenience; inother respects the birds displayed very limited judgment in selecting nests, as fourwere of such flimsy construction that they disintegrated during the storms or fromuse, to dump eggs or owlets on the ground.Herbert W. Brandt writes to me that in Texas they "show a greatvariation in nesting sites, generally utilizing old hawks' nests, but nestsare also found in rocky caves, hollow trees, and, in the prairie region,even on the ground. We found one nest in the long grass near awindmill."Ivan R. Tomkins tells me that he found two young owls of thisspecies "in a shell hole on the east side of old Fort Pulaski." R. C.Hallman (1929) found a nest on the ground in Florida; "the nest, whichcould hardly be called one, was placed on the ground, and was composed
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of a few parts of dry palmetto fans, grass stems and small sticks."Horned owls have also been reported as nesting on the hay in barnsand hay barracks, which stood in open spaces and were much fre-quented ; the owners of such places did not disturb them, as they wereso useful in destroying rats and mice.Eggs.?Major Bendire (1892) says:From one to five eggs have been found in a set, but as a rule two or three are al]that are laid, the smaller number more frequently. In some sections, however, setsof four are not unusual. Mr. J. W. Preston, of Baxter, Iowa, writes me that thisnumber is found by him about once in three sets, and that in the early part ofMarch, 1875, he found a set of five eggs too far advanced in incubation to disturbthem, and which were all hatched later. * * *I believe that where the Great Horned Owl nests in hollow trees the number ofeggs laid by them is usually apt to be larger than where an open nest is used.The young are more secure in such a location and not so likely to fall or be crowdedout. * * *The eggs * * * are white in color, and show little or no gloss, thoughthere are occasional exceptions; they are rounded oval in shape; the shell is thickand rather coarsely granulated, feeling rough to the touch.Dr. Ralph told Bendire (1892) that 60 percent of the nests he foundin Florida contained only one egg. Of the 14 nests recorded by Mr.Nicholson, two contained three eggs, three held only one egg or young,and the others were sets of two. All my Massachusetts nests containedtwo eggs or two young, never more or fewer. Apparently the largesets are laid in the Middle West, where perhaps the food supply ismore abundant.The measurements of 53 eggs average 56.1 by 47 millimeters; theeggs showing the four extremes measure 59.9 by 50.3 and 50.8 by43.2 millimeters.Young.?The following account of the development of young greathorned owls is based partially on my own studies of two of the fourbroods of young that I found in 1907 and partially on the publishedand unpublished notes of Professor Keyes, E. L. Sumner, Jr., and Dr.Alfred O. Gross.Two nearly fresh eggs were taken from the Raynham nest on Febru-ary 18 ; the owl laid a second set, probably around the middle of March,in the same nest ; there were two eggs in the nest on March 23 and onMarch 31 ; these eggs probably hatched around April 12. On April 14the two young owls were but little larger than newly hatched chickens,they were well covered with pure white down, their eyes were not yetopen, they were not able to hold up their heads, and were peepingfeebly as they nestled under the warm fur of two cottontail rabbits,the fore-quarters of which had been eaten (pi. 72). On April 25 theowl flew from the nest when I rapped the tree, and the young owls,which were now about two weeks old, were about one-third grown ; thefirst coat of white down had been replaced by a coat of dirty, buff-
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colored down, mottled on the back with dusky; the eyes were open,and the irides were a pale, yellowish hazel (pi. 73). There was no foodin the nest but a number of bones. One side of the nest had beenbeaten down considerably and was soiled with excrement, where theyoung had been unsuccessful in their attempts to cast it over the side
;
the odor was rather offensive. On May 5 the old owl was still brood-ing over her young, standing above them with ear tufts erected, butshe flew before I reached the tree. The young were now heavilyclothed in fluffy down ; their eyes were light yellow, and their primarieswere partially out of their sheaths. There was about half of a cotton-tail rabbit in the nest.When I visited the nest on May 12, 1 was surprised to find it emptyand considerably dilapidated ; perhaps the young were forced to leaveit prematurely, for they were only about one month old and would notbe able to fly for at least five weeks more. After a short search, wefound them huddled together on a rock at the edge of the woods,basking in the sun, two great, fluffy balls of down, hissing and brist-ling defiantly, if we came too near (pi. 73). I doubted if any fox orother predatory animal would dare to tackle them, as they looked tooformidable and seemed well able to defend themselves. Their parentswere watching them from nearby trees and were taking good care ofthem; they had been feeding on a black duck, of which only the bill,a few bones, and some feathers remained. Their wings were notmuch developed, and their tail feathers were only just bursting thesheaths. How they reached the ground in safety from that 40 footnest is a mystery ; probably their half-developed wings helped to breakthe fall, and they were tough enough to stand the shock. I neverknew what became of them, for on my next visit I could not find them.The other nest, in Middleboro, was a previous year's nest of a red-tailed hawk, 45 feet from the ground in a large white pine. When wevisited the nest on April 7 the two young owls were apparently re-cently hatched, perhaps one and three days old; their eyes were notyet open, and they were scantily covered with creamy-white down;they were peeping loudly enough to be heard from the ground andwere shivering with the cold. The nest was a large, flat platform ofsticks, 28 by 36 inches, with no lining except the remains of the oldpine needles formerly used by the hawks; piled up around the northside of the nest, as if to shield the young from the cold wind, were thehind quarters of six cottontail rabbits, the heads and entrails havingbeen eaten. My next visit was made on April 14, when I found theyoung owls to be about one-third grown ; they could move about in thenest somewhat, and were well covered with buffy, mottled down;their eyes were partly open and were light yellowish hazel (pi. 72).The nest was very dirty and smelled badly of decayed meat andgeneral filth; the food supply consisted of three cottontail rabbits
304 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMand the hind quarters of an American bittern. The old owls were inattendance, but not on the nest. On April 26 the young were fullyhalf-grown and were about three weeks old ; their eyes were now lightyellow, and their primaries were bursting the sheaths. The nest con-tained the remains of a skunk and a cottontail rabbit, and on theground below it were numerous black-duck feathers. The young nowshowed fight, bristling up their downy plumage, spreading theirwings, snapping their bills, and threatening to attack.My last visit to the nest was on May 5, when only one young re-mained in the nest; the other was soon discovered, sitting on a fallentree about 30 yards away. The young birds were much larger thanwhen I last saw them, being more than four weeks old and nearlyfully grown; their backs and wings were more fully feathered, andtheir tails were well started, but the rest of their plumage was mostlydowny (pi. 74). The old owls were very solicitous and were keepinga close watch over their helpless young; but, in spite of their protests,I carried off one of the youngsters for future study in captivity. Iplaced him in a roomy outdoor cage, with a sheltered compartment,where he lived in apparent contentment for more than two years,and might have lived longer if he had not been convicted of murderand executed. During the latter half of June his wings and tail be-came sufficiently developed for flight, though his body plumage wasstill principally downy. In July, he could fly, but it was not untilOctober that he was fully feathered.The whole nesting period for this species is much prolonged; theperiod of incubation has been estimated as from 26 to 30 days, but itdoes not seem to have been accurately determined; Professor Keyes(1911) says that it is not less than 30 days, and probably more. Bothsexes assist in it, but I suspect that the female does most of it. Theyoung do not open their eyes for the first week or ten days; they arebrooded by their parents for three or four weeks, perhaps more; theydo not leave the nest normally until they are four or five weeks old;and they cannot fly until they are nine or ten weeks old. During allthis time they are watched, protected, and fed by their parents. Be-yond this they follow the old birds about, crying lustily for food, per-haps for many weeks, until they learn to hunt for themselves and arefinally driven away, thoroughly weaned, to other hunting grounds farfrom the place of their nativity. Dr. Paul L. Errington (1932a)writes: "Where does the juvenile go, after it takes up a wholly inde-pendent existence? Of thirteen horned owl nestlings (birds that hadnever been tamed, tethered, or experimented with in any way to re-duce their prospects for survival) personally banded in 1930 and 1931,three were reported shot within a year or so, all at points thirteen totwenty miles of where banded."
GREAT HORNED OWL 305Clarence F. Stone, of Branchpoint, N. Y., tells me an interestingstory of a pair of young owls that followed their parents about allsummer, and even up to the latter part of October, in the vicinity ofhis camp. He writes: "Almost every night during the month of June1932, just as the shades of night darkened the woods, two large owls,uttering harsh screams, the like of which I had never heard, camedown through the gloomy hemlocks in the bottom of the gully andtook perch on lumps of shale, or on the dead fallen trees still clingingto the perpendicular cliffs. In July they changed their route bycoming around Chasm Lodge from the upper backwoods of pine andhemlock, where they took perch in the lofty pines and gave vent torather terrifying and horrid screams. These two owl screamerstraveled together, apparently hunting, and alternately uttering theloud, raucous screams that were evidently prompted by the urge ofgnawing hunger. Almost nightly during this month, a pair of greathorned owls came to hunt and hoot around the lodge. Invariably, alittle time later, the two screamers gradually approached the huntingarea of the hooting owls. Both the adult pair of hooters and the twoscreamers had two nighly sessions, first from just at dusk to nearmidnight and again just before the dawn of day."Again, on October 20, he writes: "As it was very rainy all the forepart of last night, the hideous screamers did not come to entertain meas usual, but at 4:30 o'clock this morning, I was awakened by thebooming hoots of adult great horned owls, and a few minutes later Iwas fully aroused when the two ferocious screamers suddenly begantheir harsh yowls in the big pines over the roof of the lodge." Onthe evening of October 23 the four owls "went on a rampage" again,and he saw the young owls clearly enough to identify them as greathorned owls, with well-developed ear tufts, and to see them givingtheir harsh screams "four to six times a minute." And he says, inconclusion: "In this instance, at least, it seems that the young owls ofthe year were yet, so late in October, partly dependent on, or atleast following, the parent great horned owls about on their huntingexcursions. At no time did I hear the adult owls utter anything butthe hooting owl language. Only the young owls of the year shriekedthe loud, harsh, blood-curdling screams. And I am inclined to believethat these harsh cries were simply hunger screams, characteristic ofyearling great horned owls."Plumages.?When first hatched the young owl is covered with pure-white down, only slightly tinged with grayish buff on the back andwings ; this gradually becomes more generally grayish buff during thefirst week or two, when the secondary, buff, down begins to appearand is fully developed at three weeks of age, with some of the nataldown adhering as white tips. This down is long, soft, and fluffy,especially on the thighs, "cream-buff" basally, paling to "cartridge
306 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMbuff" at the tips. Through this down the soft juvenal downy plumagegradually comes in, and this is worn in slowly diminishing areas allsummer, or until it is replaced by the first winter plumage early infall. This is somewhat darker buff, especially on the breast, and isbarred with dusky, more heavily on the back and more faintly on thebreast; it is long and fluffy, especially on the thighs and rump; onthe head the down is short and soft, basally "cinnamon-buff", withpale tips and barred with dusky; the ear tufts are only faintly indi-cated, and there is much black or dark brown in the facial disks.There is much individual variation in the colors of this plumage, fore-casting the color phases of the adult; and the various races show theirracial characteristics to some extent at this age. In the meantimethe first winter plumage has been pushing out through this downyplumage, first in the wings, then on the back, then in the tail, fol-lowed by the rest of the body plumage, and finally on the head. Theprimaries begin to burst their sheaths at an age of three or four weeks,but the wings are not fully grown until the bird is eight or nine weeksold. In my captive bird, the head, neck, and under parts were stilllargely downy at an age of 14 weeks; and the full plumage was notacquired until the bird was more than 20 weeks old in September.This first winter plumage is much like that of the adult but issomewhat more rufous throughout, the ear tufts are smaller, the whitethroat patch is less extensive and not such pure white, and more orless of the downy plumage persists for some time about the neck andlower under parts. It is worn for ten months or so, until the nextannual molt, the first postnuptial. Adults apparently have only onecomplete annual molt in summer and fall.Food.?The great horned owl is a ravenous feeder on a great varietyof animal life, and a very generous provider for its hungry young;almost any living creature that walks, crawls, flies, or swims, exceptthe larger mammals, is its legitimate prey; it is not at all particularas to what it kills for food and will take what is most available andmost easily caught. It is so powerful and aggressive that it canattack and kill surprisingly large mammals or birds. Where its vic-tims are plentiful it often kills much more than it needs, eating onlythe choicest parts, but where food is scarce it often returns again andagain to its kill.I believe that it prefers to feed on the smaller mammals, mainlythose that are active at night, as these are more readily availableand easier to catch in its favorite haunts than are birds and poultry;where these are sufficiently numerous, they make up the bulk of thefood of this owl. The fist of mammals taken includes hares andrabbits of various species, gray, red, flying, and fox squirrels, chip-munks, various rats and mice, including our destructive house species,muskrats, ground squirrels, pocket gophers, spermophiles, minks,
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weasels, large and small skunks, woodchucks, opossums, porcupines,domestic cats, shrews, and bats. Most of the records indicate thatthe cottontail rabbit is the most prominent item. Sometimes tracksin the newly fallen snow tell the story of the owl's hunting. LewisO. Shelley describes it graphically in his notes as follows: "Here on amoonlight night of February, in an open glen away from the darkconifers and near the swamp, several rabbits meet to sport and play,and can be heard squealing, as they hop about and follow their pathsat breakneck speed. As their play goes on, a shadow sweeps fromthe darkness of the hemlocks. And all the rabbits scatter, unmindfulof their paths, or freeze in their tracks, their eyes wide, their heartspounding. By daylight there will be this maze of tracks outside thebeaten paths, where a rabbit has darted here and there without co-herent thought of destination. At last you find where the tracks endin a circular arena. No tracks lead there save the rabbit's; nonelead away. There are bits of fur, to be sure, but that is all. Yetyou know that Bubo, the great horned owl, has dined to the full,back in the seclusion of the conifers; and Bubo leaves no tracks, onlybits of fur and sometimes drops of blood."The great horned owl's nest often smells strongly of skunk, and thebirds themselves often retain this pungent odor long after they havebeen made into museum specimens. G. Norman Wilkinson (1913)relates the following:One morning, late in the autumn, I was driving through the woods, when Iheard a disturbance in the dry leaves at a little distance from the road. * * *As I drew near, I saw clearly the cause of the disturbance. A few feet in front ofme was a large Horned Owl in a sort of sitting posture. His back and head wereagainst an old log. His feet were thrust forward, and firmly grasped a full-grownskunk. One foot had hold of the skunk's neck and the other clutched it tightlyby the middle of the back. The animal seemed to be nearly dead, but still hadstrength enough to leap occasionally into the air, in its endeavors to shake off itscaptor. During the struggle, the Owl's eyes would fairly blaze, and he wouldsnap his beak with a noise like the clapping of your hands. Neither the birdnor his victim paid the slightest attention to me, though I stood quite close.How long since the Owl had secured the death grip I do not know, but there wasno doubt about his having it. The skunk could no more free itself from theOwl's claws than it could have done from the jaws of a steel trap. Its strugglesgrew less and less frequent and at the end of about fifteen minutes they ceasedaltogether.At least three cases have been reported of a horned owl tackling adomestic cat. In one case, the owl found that it had "caught aTartar," for the cat put up a stiff fight and had to be dropped. OliverL. Austin, Jr. (1932), tells of a more successful attempt:I flushed a Great Horned Owl, which fluttered up in front of my car and flewlaboriously down the road. The headlights showed it to be carrying somethingheavy, something which it could not lift two feet off the ground. I gave chase,and the bird dropped clumsily a hundred yards farther on, to crouch defensively
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atop the prey it seemed so loath to leave. I stopped the car twenty feet awayand turned on my strong spotlight. The owl's attention was riveted by thedazzling beam, and while it stood motionless staring into the glare, I crept upcautiously on the dark side, threw my jacket over it, and pinioned it down. Afterwrapping the claws in my handkerchief to prevent accidents, and folding thebird safely in my jacket, I stooped to pick up its prey, which to my surprise (anddelight) proved to be a half-grown house cat. The kill evidently had just beenmade, for the limp body was still warm and quivering.Another dangerous animal for this owl to tackle is the porcupine;a strong dose of the barbed quills of this animal might eventuallyresult in the death of the owl. Rev. C. W. G. Eifrig (1909) had oneof these owls brought to him that had tackled a porcupine. "It wasliberally sprinkled over with quills, especially on the sole of the rightfoot?the quills having penetrated even that horny skin?under theright wing, on the breast, neck, and even two in the left eye-lid. Someof the quills had pierced the thick, solid muscles of the breast, lyingagainst the sternum. Fifty-six quills and parts of quills were ex-tracted from the skin and flesh, and about ten left in."The list of birds eaten is a very long one and contains many largespecies, which are probably attacked under great stress of hunger.It includes pied-billed grebe, several species of wild ducks, Canadagoose, tame ducks and swans, American bittern, small herons, Amer-ican coot, Florida gallinule, king and Virginia rails, red phalarope,Wilson's snipe, yellowlegs, woodcock, various quail and grouse,pheasants, domestic poultry (including turkeys, hens, guinea fowl,and pigeons), mourning dove, marsh, Cooper's, red-tailed, and red-shouldered hawks, barn, barred, long-eared, and screech owls, flickers,sapsuckers, and other woodpeckers, blue jay, crow, starling, black-birds, meadowlark, snow bunting, junco and other sparrows, mock-ingbird, and robin.Great horned owls often visit duck stands and kill the decoy ducksand geese that are tethered on the beaches. They kill also largenumbers of grouse in our northeastern forests; I have often foundthe remains in their nests and evidence of their numerous kills scat-tered through the surrounding woods. Mr. Shelley says in his notes:"A great horned owl killed a cock ruffed grouse in a piece of woods50 yards from the house. The grouse was almost entirely and neatlyplucked, this being done in two locations 20 feet apart. At thefirst spot all the small body feathers were stripped off, and at thesecond spot the wing quills and tail feathers. Here the bird waseaten, and only a few small pieces of broken bone were to be foundin the feather refuse. Again, early in the morning of April 23 (sixdays later), a hen grouse was found about 400 yards from the firstkilling, also prey of probably the same owl, which is rare here at anyseason. This time the grouse had been plucked neatly in two loca-tions 12 feet apart; at the latter spot the body had been carried 5
GREAT HORNED OWL 309feet farther and placed behind a fire-charred stump after the head,the meat of one leg, and most of the viscera had been eaten. Earlyin the morning of the 24th, the owl returned to its cache, dragged itto a new spot 10 feet distant, and there completed eating thecarcass."I once had a captive horned owl that I had raised from the nestand kept in my aviary with several other hawks and owls ; in the nextcage, separated by a chicken-wire partition, was a pet red-shoulderedhawk, of which I was very fond, as it would eat out of my hand;one night the owl broke through the partition, killed and partiallydevoured my pet hawk; the owl soon paid the penalty of a murdererand is now in my collection.In the middle of a bright day in April, while we were hunting fornests of the red-tailed hawk in the woods of Plymouth County, Mass.,we saw a pair of these hawks sailing about over a large tract of pitch-pine timber, half a mile or so distant. Half an hour or more elapsedbefore we began a systematic search for their nest, when only one ofthe hawks was seen, circling back and forth over the woods andevidently looking for something. We had not gone far into the pinesbefore we saw a great horned owl fly from a small pitch pine ; on closerinspection, we saw a great mass of feathers on a flat branch near thetop of the tree; it was apparently the owl's feeding roost, as therewere feathers and droppings on the ground beneath. I climbed upto investigate it and was surprised to find the wing of an adult red-tailed hawk which had recently been torn from the body of thevictim; the flesh was still fresh and warm. I had no doubt that theowl had just killed one of the hawks that we had seen sailing over thewoods less than an hour before.At least two other similar cases have been reported. Arthur H.Norton (1928) found even more convincing evidence on a nest of theowl that he was studying in Maine; he says: "On the side of the nestrested the wing of a large bird; this proved to be the wing of a red-tailed hawk which had been eaten by the family; feathers werescattered all about the tree, and a mass of other feathers on a bareledge about seventy feet east south east from the nest showed theplace where the victim had been throttled or partly plucked. Thewing proved to have been stripped of flesh; and later the legs werefound, one in the nest, the other near the crest of the ridge a hundredor more feet to the north north east from the nest, both with theflesh stripped off."The list of miscellaneous food includes snakes, frogs, dace, goldfish,bullheads, eels, perch, crawfishes, Jerusalem crickets, beetles, grass-hoppers, katydids, and scorpions. Mr. Forbush (1927) tells of a manwho "came upon a Horned Owl in trouble with a black snake. * * *Plainly the owl had caught the snake, but the reptile had twisted itself
310 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMaround the bird so that it was unable to fly, and fell to the groundwith its prey. * * * The Owl had grasped the snake about sixinches below its head, but the part of the snake below the owl's talonshad twisted itself around the bird tightly. There was at least onelight turn around the owl's neck." The snake was killed, though nei-ther antagonist had given up the fight, and "the owl was so weakenedand helpless that it could not fly; it seemed to have been choked."S. A. Grimes (1936) gives an interesting account of struggle betweena great horned owl and a large black snake, 46 inches in length. Hefound the owl "lying on its side with its wings outspread, trying itsbest to get its talons on a black snake that was coiled around the bird'sabdomen just back of the breast bone and beneath the wings. Thesnake had gotten itself around the owl in a double coil. Six or eightinches of its head and neck and perhaps a little more of its tail werefree, but the bird appeared to try only to get hold of the stranglingcoils around its body. It is easy to see that the bird could not possiblygets its talons on that part of the snake tightly wound around itsabdomen, but why the hooked bill was not brought into play is hardto understand." The owl was plainly exhausted but was able tomake a feeble flight for about 100 yards, with the snake dangling,and alight on a stump. As Mr. Grimes approached, the owl flewagain and alighted on a log in a small pond, where a charge of shotended the career of both combatants. The owl had evidently attackedthe snake, and the slippery reptile, noted for its agility, had somehoweluded the formidable talons and quickly coiled itself around thebody of the bird.The great horned owl, like some other birds of prey, often has aregular feeding roost, to which it brings its prey to be torn up anddevoured. This may be an old, unoccupied nest, a wide, flat branchof a tree, the hollowed top of a stump, or a hollow place on a fallen log.Such places are profusely decorated with the remains of the feasts,feathers, bones, fur, pellets, and droppings; they are usually not farfrom the nesting sites.Studies of pellets made by Mrs. Bessie P. Reed (1925) showed thatthey "were usually coated with a thick layer of mucus and nevercontained any other material save feathers, hair, fur, and cleanlypolished bone. * * * Microscopic evidence showed that hair andfeathers were in no way affected by the digestive juices, although thequills of large feathers were always splintered and rolled together.On a number of occasions pellets were found that contained hair oftwo different colors or hair and feathers in which the masses werenot mixed at all but were very sharply delimited, indicating that twoportions swallowed at different times were not mixed together."When small birds or mammals were fed to her captive owls,
"feathers, hide, and fur were always swallowed, the plucking or
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skinning process being evidently accomplished in the Owl stomach.These, along with the bones, were rolled into a compact mass andafterwards regurgitated, usually in about twelve hours. When livingon an exclusive diet of raw meat from the butcher shop for a few daysthe birds readily devoured feathers from a plucked chicken in con-siderable quantities."That this owl can be a powerful factor for either good or evil, isillustrated by the great quantities of food brought to the nest; I oncesaw six cottontail rabbits in a nest at one time; Major Bendire (1892)reports a nest that contained "a mouse, a yoimg muskrat, two eels,four bullheads, a Woodcock, four Ruffed Grouse, one rabbit, andeleven rats. The food taken out of the nest weighed almost 18pounds."The economic status of the great horned owl depends almost entirelyon its surroundings and the kind of food available and its abundance.I am not sure that, generally speaking, it is nearly so harmful as isgenerally believed ; and, in some places, it is certainly more beneficialthan harmful. Where rabbits and other small mammals, which itseems to prefer, are scarce, it is forced to live largely on birds anddomestic poultry; and probably some individuals develop the poultryhabit. Robert Little (1931) reports a case of this; he trapped one ofthese owls in an extensive poultry yard, and says: "The trap was setin open ground near the chicken pens and was baited with a live pallettethered to a stake. A few nights before, a small night-box in one ofthe yards, faced with chicken-wire, had been entered, and 106 pullets(nearly all the box contained) had been killed and left dead. Thebirds were pierced through the back with what were considered tobe talon woimds. * * * A turkey hen also had recently beenkilled and lesser depredations had been committed."Raids like this and lesser damage to poultry have given this owl abad name; but we must make allowance for the fact that such casesare oftener brought to our attention than are the good deeds of theowl in destroying harmful rodents. Furthermore, there have beennumerous cases recorded where great horned owls have lived andraised a family in close proximity to farms and poultry yards withoutmolesting the poultry at all, and with no signs of poultry found intheir nests.As to the effect on game birds, Dr. Errington (1932a) writes:The Wingra situation, contrasted with that of the Hammersley Slough area,illustrates the bearing of plentiful "buffer species" on the diet of a versatilepredator. Up to a hundred Mallard ducks frequented shore-line springs of therefuge all winter, and the lone owl's territory was cohabited by three large covie6of quail, yet he was known to get but two (and one of these kills was not unques-tionable) quail and no ducks during a four month's sojourn. Why? Becausethe refuge was over-run with rabbits, and Bubo had slight need of ranging very
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far in quest of something to eat. On the other hand, the owls of no. 24, findingcomparatively "lean pickings" near home, had to take almost anything they couldget.Mr. Forbush (1927) writes: "European Hares had been introducedby someone in eastern New York near the Massachusetts line and hadincreased rapidly in numbers and spread into western Massachusettswhere they had become a serious pest to the farmer and orchardist.In November and December of 1919 a flight of owls came into thatregion and Mr. Walter Pritchard Eaton told me that numbers wereheard about the mountain in Sheffield. There they preyed upon thehares. * * * These owls overran the region and many returnedthe next winter. The following spring European Hares were veryscarce in that country."To illustrate the value of the great horned owl as a ratter, H. A.Surface (1904) published part of a letter from O. E. Niles, from whichI quote as follows: "In the nest where he captured the young owlshe noticed several full-grown Norway rats, with their skulls openedand the brains removed. On descending to the ground he also noticedthe bodies of many rats around the tree, and out of curiosity countedthem, and found the bodies of one hundred and thirteen rats, most ofthem full grown. They all appeared to simply have had their skullsopened and the brains removed; and from their undecayed appear-ance, must all have been captured within the previous week or tendays."Behavior.?The silent flight of the great horned owl is powerful,swift, and graceful. When leaving a perch, it flaps its great wingsheavily and rapidly, with its feet dangling; the feet are soon drawnup into the plumage and the wings spread, as it glides swiftly awayfor a long period of sailing on fixed wings. It threads its way withperfect precision through the branches of the forest trees, or glidesat low levels over the open meadows, where it can drop swiftly andsilently on its unsuspecting prey. I have several times seen it soaringhigh in the air on a bright day, with all the grace and power of aneagle or a large Buteo, for its eyesight is perfect, and it hunts by dayas well as by night.The strength and endurance of this owl, as well as its failure tolearn by experience, are illustrated by a case reported by Dr. Sutton(1929a); an owl was caught in a steel trap but flew away with thetrap, which was not securely fastened; two days later the owl wascaught by the other foot in another trap set on the same post. Rev.J. J. Murray writes to me of a similar case: "A farmer, who had beenlosing his chickens and turkeys, set some steel traps in his chickenyard. Hearing a commotion one night, he got out to the henneryjust in time to see a large owl fly away with a trap, the chain havingbeen broken by its struggles. A week later the owl returned and the
GREAT HORNED OWL 313same thing happened, the owl departing with a trap on the other leg.It was later seen flying about with both traps. But, so handicapped,it managed to live and hunt for several weeks, until one of the chainscaught in a fence and the bird was killed."Although, during the season when they have to supply an extraamount of food for the young, these owls are forced to hunt some byday, I believe that at other seasons they prefer to spend the day inseclusion ; the thick tops of evergreen trees are favorite daytime roosts
;
here the owl sits, close to the trunk or among dense foliage, preferablywithin its breeding territory, its eyes closed to narrow slits, its earserected, and its body plumage contracted to the tall, narrow, hidingpose assumed by other owls; its colors and its shape make it quiteinconspicuous in such a situation. Dr. Errington (1932b) writes:"The trees favored were those to which leaves clung during the winter,those the tops of which were entangled with vines, those with broken,hanging tops, or those otherwise promising sanctuary to owls notdesirous of spending the daylight hours in the entertainment ofcrows."The behavior of great horned owls in the vicinity of their nestsvaries greatly with different individuals, though it is generally hostile,especially when there are young in the nest. One pair that I visitedtwice, while they had young, never showed themselves at all. Onother occasions the owls have generally been much in evidence, andmore or less threatening in their behavior, flying about near theintruder, alighting in nearby trees, snapping their bills, and hooting.Once I was savagely attacked, while I was climbing to a nest in whichthe eggs were hatching. I had hardly climbed ten feet on the big pinetree, when the great brown bird glided past me and alighted in a pinebeyond. There she sat, glaring at me, swaying from side to side, herwings partly spread, her plumage ruffled out, looking as big as a bushelbasket, her ears erect, and snapping her bill furiously, a perfect pictureof savage rage. As I continued upward her mate soon joined her,and then followed such a demonstration of angry protest as I hadnever seen; they flew from tree to tree, dashing past me repeatedly,too near for comfort, snapping their bills, and hooting constantly indeep, subdued tones, kr-r-r-ooo-ooo, krrooo-ooo. Only once did theygive their regular hooting call.Once, when I was not looking, I felt the swoop of powerful wings,then a terrific blow on my shoulder, almost knocking me out of thetree, and I could feel the sharp claws strike through my clothes.Several times I had to dodge from the furious attacks. As I nearedthe nest, I felt a stunning blow behind my ear, which nearly dazed me,and off sailed my hat a hundred feet away ; her sharp talons had struckinto my scalp, making two ugly wounds, from which the blood flowed13751?38 21
314 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMfreely. This was the limit; I did not care to be scalped, or knockedsenseless to the ground, so down I came, leaving the owls the mastersof the situation. I visited the nest the next day, with a cameramanto photograph the performance, but the owls failed to repeat theirattacks.I have since learned that my experience was not unique. I find inthe literature reports of numerous similar attacks on men at the nests.Professor Keyes (1911) says, of a blow that he received: "It cameabsolutely unexpected and was so violent as to leave the left side ofmy head quite numb. * * * The slash which began on the leftcheek and ran across the left ear was rather ugly but not dangerous.* * * Three times on this occasion one of the birds flew in from aneighboring tree and with strong stroke of wing came straight at myhead. It was not at all the stoop of hawk or falcon, but rather theonrush of a heavy projectile with a very flat trajectory. Like a largeprojectile too the flight was visible and so all the more disconcerting;unlike a projectile it was noiseless as a flying shadow."Donald J. Nicholson (1926) received even rougher treatment whenhe climbed to within 6 feet of a nest containing eggs; he writes:
"Swiftly the old bird came straight as an arrow from behind anddrove her sharp claws into my side, causing a deep dull pain andunnerving me, and no sooner had she done this than the other attackedfrom the front and sank his talons deep in my right arm causingblood to flow freely, and a third attack and my shirt sleeve was tornto shreds for they had struck me a third terrible blow on the rightarm tearing three long, deep gashes, four inches long; also one clawwent through the sinew of my arm, which about paralyzed the entirearm."Attacks on human beings at other times have been reported severaltimes; a man, moving about at night near the haunts of the owl, islikely to be struck on the head, especially if he is wearing a light-colored cap or one made of fur, which the owl may mistake for somekind of prey. Forbush (1927) tells of one that struck the claws ofboth feet into the back of a large collie dog. "This bird may havebeen misled by a white patch on the dog, as the white on the back of askunk is its favorite mark."Others have noticed a strange behavior at the nest, which is commonwith the long-eared owl, but which I have never seen in the greathorned. Ralph W. Jackson (1925) describes it as follows:As I was climbing the tree to examine the young, which were visible from theground, I heard short wailing notes to one side and arising apparently from theground. * * * When about thirty-five feet up, I was surprised to see one ofthe Owls half running and fluttering some fifty yards away on the floor of thewoods with wings outstretched and uttering the notes that I heard a few momentsbefore. Occasionally the bird would stop, beating first one wing and then the
GREAT HORNED OWL 315
other, as though wounded. Twice the bird left the ground perching in the topsof nearby trees and then the well known "hoot" was heard, which is the usual formof protestation. In each instance, after a few moments' inspection, the birdreturned to the ground and continued the fluttering actions which lasted while Iwas in the vicinity of the nest.Dr. Errington (1932a) has noticed similar behavior on three suc-cessive years by what he believes to be the same owl.There is abundant evidence that the eyes of the great horned owlare admirably adapted for effective use in either darkness or brightlight. Dr. Elliott Coues (1874) says of his captive owls:Their vision was acute at all hours. I often saw them look up and follow withtheir eyes the motions of a grasshopper or butterfly, flickering several yards upin the air. On one occasion in particular, I saw them both gazing steadfastly,and on looking up to see what had attracted their attention, I was myself blindedby the glare, for the direction was exactly in the sun's eye. But a few momentsafterward I discovered a pair of white Cranes, floating in circles half a mile high.The Owl's eyes endured a glare that my own could not, and the birds certainlysaw the objects, for they slowly moved the head as the Cranes passed over.* * * Nor was the inner eyelid drawn over the ball to shade it. I hadabundant evidence, on this and numerous other occasions, that the movementsof the bird's iris are entirely under the control of the will, instead, as commonlysupposed, of being automatic, depending upon the stimulus of light. I frequentlysaw them instantaneously contract or relax the quivering iris in accommodatingtheir vision to different objects, or different distances; and moreover, they couldmove the two irides independently of each other.Hearing is exceedingly acute in these and other owls. Mrs. Reed(1925) says of her captive owls: "It was almost impossible to surpriseany one of them in the shed although the approach was made ascautiously as possible and from the side where no glimpse of theobserver could be obtained. Not only was it possible for them tohear the slightest sound but they could readily localize it. Experi-ments were made where the observer, concealed, gave various soundsand each time the direction was detected. A tapping on the atticwindow when one of the captives was perched at the open side of theshed invariably brought a response, the one in question focusing itsvision at the origin of the noise."She seems to agree with Frank Bolles that the sense of smell is nothighly developed in these owls; her birds disliked putrid meat butalways tasted it before rejecting it. Mr. Shelley, on the other hand,says that he has seen owls caught in traps "where the meat was whollyconcealed by refuse and the bird could have been interested only bythe musky odor permeating from fresh muskrat carcass/'Great horned owls seldom make satisfactory pets. The one that Iraised from a nestling and kept for over two years never became tame ;it was always sullen and ugly; it would fly in a rage at any strangerthat entered its cage, and often at me. Three of Mrs. Reed's owlsmade gentle and responsive pets, though no special effort was made
316 BULLETIN 170, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMto tame them ; they would come in response to her call and alight onher arm, even when given full liberty.But the fourth, in spite of her efforts to tame it, was always "surly,sullen and morose," utterly untameable and vicious. Others havehad some failures and some successes. Dr. Errington (1932a) says:"The first two weeks in the young horned owl's life have a singularlyprofound effect upon its future disposition. Recently hatched owletsaccustomed to no source of food other than their human attendantscame to recognize them somewhat as they would their own parents,even displaying what appeared a great deal like true affection. Onthe other hand, an owlet reared by its parents through approximatelyone-fourth of its growth never did really tame, though it tolerateddiscreet handling."Otto Widmann (1907) had a male in captivity that lived for 29years; but, after he had had a mate for seven years, he killed andpartially ate her. Harold M. Holland (1926) tells a remarkablestory of a female that was still living after 19 years in captivity;when she was seven years old she laid two eggs; these were removed,and hen's eggs substituted for them, which she incubated and hatched,and afterward brooded the young as if they were her own. "Everyyear thereafter, in February or the fore part of March, eggs have beenlaid, the clutch never exceeding two, although sufficient time for athird was allowed, and as often has followed the substitution of hen'seggs. And each returning spring has witnessed the bringing forth andmothering of young by this faithful bird."Voice.?The hooting of the great horned owl is, according to myexperience, entirely different from the vehement, strongly accented,and spectacular hooting of the barred owl. It is on a lower key, deeperbass, and softer, but it has great carrying pov/er. I have likened itin my notes to the sound of a distant foghorn, the far-away whistleof a locomotive, or the barking of a large dog in the distance. Attimes, when near, it has seemed more like the cooing of a dove thanthe hooting of an owl. The ordinary note, when the owl is notexcited, is a prolonged, soft, somewhat tremulous, and subdued hoot,with little or no accent, whoo-hoo-ho-o-o, or, longer, who-ho-o-o, whoo-hoo-o-o, whoo. A still softer, cooing note sounds like hoo-ooo-ooo-ooo.Once, when the owls were somewhat excited and young birds werein the nest, the hoot was preceeded by a short bark, wa'-hooo-oo-oo-oo,but the bark was not so strongly accented as that of the barred owl.Again, when the owls were greatly excited, I recorded a more stronglyaccented hooting, whoo'-hu-hoo', hu-hoo''-hoo'', whooo, or, shorter, hu-hu-hoo-h6oo; the short notes were rapidly given, and the whole was inthe usual soft tone. While the owls were attacking me, referred toabove, they uttered angry, growling notes, which I recorded askrrrooo-ooo, but I have never heard the blood-curdling screams that
GREAT HORNED OWL 317
others have described. There is a sexual difference in the notes, thevoice of the supposed male being pitched on a lower key, perhapsthree or even four half-tones lower; his notes are more prolonged andelaborate, rich, deep, and mellow; hers are usually shorter, simpler,and softer.I once watched a female hooting at short range, while I was at thenest. She was perched on a tree within ten yards of me, bristling upher plumage, with half open wings, snapping her beak, and hootingsoftly. She generally leaned forward in a nearly horizontal positionwhile hooting, and I could plainly see the vibration of her whitethroat. Once she became more excited and gave a louder, morevehement laughing note, ivha, whaart.Mr. Shelley writes to me of an unusual demonstration that heheard one night, while he was out coon hunting: "There were threebirds at least, and their increased hooting and following display mayhave been occasioned some by our flashlights, as we approached andattempted to spot the birds themselves. Anyhow, their ordinaryhooting was changed to weird, hollow-toned, and idiotic laughter.They flapped from tree to tree with much noise and gave a chucklingnoise meanwhile. There were variations in the hooting: Whoo-who-who-whoo-who-who-oo-oo, one would call; and another, whar, who,whar, oo-who-o-o-o-ooh, ending in a throaty chuckle. And theywould make a great din flapping their wings. One particular birdliked best its eerie and idiotic laughing call, depicted by the followingphrasing: Whar, whah, wha-a-a-a-ah, the accent on the last syllableof each whah; it had a carrying quality similar to the water-pumpingnote of the bittern."Mr. Norton (1928) heard a variety of other notes from the femaleof the pair he was watching, such as "ankl; ankt; ankl; in a key higherthan her usual one. * * * Sometimes she called in a hawk-likenote, ke-yah, ke-yah. * * * The female called twice from thenest, in feeble tones, erk, erk. * * * From the direction of thenest a meow like that of a cat was heard."Many other observers have given somewhat similar renderings ofwhat were probably the same notes that I have attempted to describeabove. But I suspect that some unusual notes, ascribed to this owl,have been those of the barred owl, wrongly identified. Clarence F.Stone tells me that the loud, harsh, blood-curdling screams referredto above are the food calls of the yearling young, heard through thefirst summer and fall, and are not uttered by adults.William Brewster (1936) says of a young owl that he had in captivity:"At intervals of from one to five minutes during the night and occasion-ally by day, as well, it uttered a short, harsh, penetrating cry whichwas not unlike the peep of Chordeiles and which, no doubt, wasmerely a variation?perhaps characteristic of very young birds?of
318 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMthe Ja3T-like cry that I hear every autumn at Lake Umbagog. Isuspect that by means of this call it finally attracted the attention ofone of its parents."Field marks.?The great horned owl is the largest of the commonresident owls of the United States, somewhat larger than the barredowl, darker in color and brown rather than gray; some of the palerraces are quite light colored, but they are found in regions where thebarred owl does not occur; they are paler than the spotted owl butconsiderably larger. In all the races the wings seem very long andbroad in flight, and the ear tufts are very prominent when the owlis perched. At short range the white throat patch is conspicuousand the large yellow eyes may be seen. In flight the ear tufts areflattened and do not show, but the large head and short neck aredistinctive.Enemies.?Horned owls have plenty of enemies that cordiallyhate them, but none of them are dangerous, except man and occasion-ally one of their own species. Crows are their chief enemies, with bluejays a close second and all other small birds following. I have oftenbeen able to locate an owl by the clamor of a noisy and excited mobof crows. If an owl is discovered by a crow, the alarm is immediatelygiven and all the crows within hearing respond to the call, gatherabout the owl, flying around or perching in the tree as near to theowl as they dare go, cawing loudly and making a great fuss. Theyseldom are bold enough to strike the owl, though I have seen themdo so twice. The owl stands all this with dignified indifference,until his patience is exhausted, when he flies away with a string ofcrows trailing on behind; perhaps he has to move several timesbefore he shakes off his tormentors or finds a secluded hiding place,where he can doze in peace. The owl seldom retaliates by strikingone of the black rascals; in fact, I doubt if he ever does. But he getseven with them when they are in their roosts at night; I have heardof several crow roosts that were broken up by a great horned owlliving in the vicinity ; and many an owl has eaten crow.Horned owls are sometimes attacked by the larger hawks in contestsover nests, but the owl usually wins. On a Louisiana highway thathad been open only a few weeks, William B. Ward (1934) found, ona 10-mile stretch of road through a swamp, 17 large owls that hadevidently been killed by automobiles.Winter.?Horned owls are often said to be permanently residentthroughout their ranges, but this is true only in the more temperateregions. When the snow is deep and game is scarce in Canada, wemay look for heavy flights of northern owls to more congenial winterhunting grounds. Arthur W. Brockway (1918) reported a heavyflight at Hadlyme, Conn., in November and December 1917; a gamekeeper there trapped 91 great horned owls during the fall and winter.
GREAT HORNED OWL 319Referring to the same flight, J. Dewey Soper (1918) says: "The pointof interest lies in the fact that the Horned Owls were apparently absentfrom the north country at the time of my trip October 20-November6 ; common on my return to Preston, Ont., November 7, and apparentlyso at other points in southern Canada." Mr. Forbush (1927) men-tions other similar flights. He says also: "Mr. H. A. P. Smithwriting from Digby, Nova Scotia, March 14, 1923, says that a GreatHorned Owl was found there sitting upright in an apple tree frozenstiff. Probably his tightly clinched talons froze to the limb and heldhim there in death; but the bird would not have been frozen had it hadfood enough to keep up the animal heat in its body."Dr. Errington (1932a) writes:Prior to 1932, it was noted casually that horned owls were apt to stationthemselves in the fall in the near neighborhood of old stick nests (hawk or crow)which they would appropriate in the spring. During the season of 1931-1932 thiswas checked up more carefully. In the late fall, 1931, five horned owl territorieswere discovered in regular use (judged by birds seen and by accumulations of fecesand pellets beneath roost trees), of which four proved to be nesting areas.Three other nesting areas, not actually visited in the fall, betrayed by oldpellets their early occupancy. Exception: one pair did not move into their nest-ing territory until January or later, though breeding was not delayed, as incuba-tion had started by February 21, 1932.DISTRIBUTIONRange.?The greater part of the Western Hemisphere except onlythe islands of the Caribbean and the Arctic Archipelago. Non-migratory.The range of the horned owl extends north to Alaska (Allakaket,Wiseman, and Fort Yukon); Mackenzie (Fort McPherson, FortGood Hope, probably Sarahk Lake, and Stone Island in Great SlaveLake); Manitoba (Fort Churchill and York Factory); Ungava (FortChimo); and Labrador (Okak). East to Labrador (Okak, TurnivikIsland, Hopedale, and Rigolet) ; Quebec (Sandwich Bay, Muddy Bay,and Lance au Loup); Newfoundland (Raleigh and Glenwood); NovaScotia (Pictou and Halifax); Maine (Calais, Bangor, and Auburn);Massachusetts (Danvers, Boston, Plymouth, and Woods Hole);Long Island, N. Y. (East Patchogue); New Jersey (Princeton andSea Isle City); Virginia (Spottsville and Dismal Swamp); NorthCarolina (probably Areola, Raleigh, and probably Cape Fear);South Carolina (Waverly Mills, Mount Pleasant, and Frogmore);Georgia (Savannah, Blackbeard Island, and probably OkefinokeeSwamp) ; Florida (St. Augustine, San Mateo, New Smyrna, MerrittIsland, probably Sebastian, probably Bassinger, Fort Lauderdale,and Westlake); Tamaulipas (Soto La Marina); Puebla (Orizaba);Yucatan (Chichen-Itza) ; Brazil (Matto Grosso and Agua Blanco deCorumba); Paraguay (Fort Wheeler) ; Argentina (Upper Rio Chico,
320 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMPatagonia); and Chile (Gregory Bay, Straits of Magellan). South tosouthern Chile (Gregory Bay, Straits of Magellan). West to Chile(Gregory Bay, Straits of Magellan, and Santiago); Ecuador (Cechce,Mount Chimborazo, Bestion, and Upper Antisana); Costa Rica(San Jose and Chitra); Nicaragua (Matagalpa); Honduras (Teguci-galpa); Guatemala (San Lucas and Panajachel); Oaxaca (Tehuante-pec and Cacoprieto); Michoacan (Querendaro and Zamora); Jalisco(La Barca, Guadalajara, and Etzatlan); Baja California (Cape SanLucas, La Paz, Sierra de la Victoria, Magdalena Bay, probably SanFernando, Rosario, San Pedro Martir Mountains, and GardinersLagoon); California (San Diego, San Onofre, Los Angeles, SantaBarbara, Monterey, Santa Cruz, Micasio, probably Camp Meeker,probably Cahto, and Crescent City); Oregon (Gold Beach, Elkton,Newport, Netarts, and Olney); Washington (Grays Harbor, LakeCrescent, probably Mount Vernon, and Belliugham); British Co-lumbia (probably Errington, Beaver Creek, Lund, and Hazelton);and Alaska (probably Forrester Island, Rodman Bay, Yakutat Bay,Hawkins Island, probably Iliamna, Chulitna River, Wood River,Bethel, Marshall, Nulato, and Allakaket).The vast territory covered by the above outline is for the entirespecies, which has, however, been separated into a large number ofsubspecies or geographic races. In the revision of the American greathorned owls by Oberholser in 1904, no less than 11 forms were recog-nized for the North American Continent, including Baja California,with five others occupying ranges in Central and South America.Ridgway, who examined the same material, recognized the same racesin his work on the birds of North and Middle America in 1914. The1931 A. O. U. Check-List recognizes 10 of the 11 of Oberholser andRidgway (considering B. v. wapacuthu as a synonym of B. v. subarcH-cus), rejecting only Bubo virginianus icelus, which in the opinion ofsome systematists is an entirely valid form. Still other races areaccorded recognition by other systematic ornithologists, from whichit will be seen that the last word on the subject has not yet been said.Accordingly, and probable errors admitted, it seems desirable for thepurposes of this report to adhere to the latest official pronouncement ofthe American Ornithologists' Union and to follow, in general, the 1931Check-List.The typical great horned owl (B. v. virginianus) is found in easternNorth America from Ontario, Quebec, and New Brunswick south toFlorida and the Gulf coast and west to Wisconsin, eastern Minne-sota, southeastern South Dakota, eastern Kansas, Oklahoma, andeastern Texas.The Labrador horned owl (B. v. heterocnemis) ranges from the north-ern part of the Labrador Peninsula and Newfoundland south usuallyto Connecticut.
GREAT HORNED OWL 321The Arctic horned owl (B. v. subarcticus) (=B. v. wapacuthu (Gmelin)of Oberholser and Ridgway) is found from the limit of timber in theMackenzie Valley and Hudson Bay south to northern Alberta, north-ern Saskatchewan, central Manitoba, and northern Ontario. Inwinter sometimes reaching southern British Columbia, Idaho, Ne-braska, and Wisconsin. Casual in New York and Massachusetts.The western horned owl (B. v. pallescens) ranges from northeasternCalifornia (Lassen County), Idaho, and Utah east to New Mexico andcentral Texas and south to the Mojave Desert and the Mexican Statesof Sonora, Durango, and Nuevo Leon.The dwarf horned owl (B. v. elachisius) occurs chiefly in the Capedistrict of Baja California.The Pacific horned owl (B. v. paciftcus) occupies the great interiorvalleys of California south to northern Baja California.The Montana horned owl (B. v. occidentalis) occurs from southeast-ern Oregon, central Alberta, Montana, South Dakota, and Minnesotasouth to Iowa, Kansas, Wyoming, and northeastern California.The northwestern horned owl (B. v. lagophonus) ranges from CookInlet and the interior of Alaska south through central and easternBritish Columbia to northeastern Oregon and Idaho. Casual inColorado and Minnesota.The dusky horned owl (B. v. saturatus) is found from the coastregion of southeastern Alaska south to northern California.The St. Michael horned owl (B. v. algistus) occupies the coastalregions of Alaska from Bristol Bay north to Kotzebue Sound andcasually Point Barrow.Migration.?As stated above, the horned owls are nonmigratory inthe sense that they do not make regular seasonal journeys betweenbreeding and wintering grounds. That they can perform flights ofconsiderable length is demonstrated by the casual records of specimensof certain geographic races that have been collected at points welloutside their normal ranges. Such travels are, however, probablycaused by shortage of the food supply in the normal range of the in-dividual concerned rather than by the seasonal prompting that isresponsible for the journeys of the truly migratory species.This is further exemplified by a study of banding data. The filesof the Biological Survey contain the recovery records of more than 40banded horned owls. With few exceptions these birds were all re-captured within a relatively short distance of the place where they werebanded, the elapsed time being from a few months to about two years.In only one instance is there definite evidence of a long flight?
a
juvenile bird banded at Rosebud, Alberta, on May 23, 1930, andrecovered at Antelope, Mont., on January 8, 1931. The distancecovered is about 220 miles.Egg dates.?Alaska and Mackenzie: 5 records, April 1 to May 13.
322 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMLabrador and Newfoundland: 4 records, April 3 to May 2.Alberta: 26 records, February 23 to May 29; 13 records, March 15to April 5, indicating the height of the season.New York and New England: 66 records, January 18 to May 8;33 records, February 28 to March 21.Pennsylvania and New Jersey: 30 records, January 21 to May 2;15 records, February 23 to March 5.Florida: 9 records, December 7 to March 30.Ohio to Iowa: 21 records, February 1 to May 28; 11 records, Febru-ary 8 to March 9.British Columbia to Oregon: 9 records, March 2 to April 23.California: 106 records, January 29 to April 17; 53 records, February25 to March 23.Lower California: 3 records, January 31, February 2, and April 19.Arizona and New Mexico: 9 records, February 28 to May 3.Texas: 48 records, January 12 to June 12; 24 records, February 12to March 12. BUBO VIRGINIANUS PALLESCENS Stonewestern horned owlPlate 76HABITSContributed by Milton Philo SkinnerWhile there is a general resemblance between the eastern horned owland the western forms, there are some differences. Most charac-teristic, in the old days, was the preference of the westerners for ro-dents, rather than for birds. Perhaps this was due to the comparativewildness of the West, as well as to favorable habitat, which permittedthe many kinds of small rodents to exist in astonishing numbers.Now that the rodents are everywhere disappearing, the big owls mayturn to birds as they have done in the East. But the western hornedowls, in common with other raptors, are now, themselves, the objectsof a pitiless persecution and destruction that is sadly decreasing theirnumbers.Spring.?It is not certain that there is any real migration of hornedowls in any part of the Western United States, although at times,under stress of cold or hunger, Canadian birds may come south ingreat numbers.Courtship.?So little is really known of the courtship of these bigbirds that it is a distinct pleasure to read Chief Ked Eagle (1929).He says:It was well after sundown one evening in the early part of the past winter.* * * J was quietly picking my way eastward along the rocky bed of a ratherdeep and narrow canyon at the southern edge of the Capitan Mountains of New
WESTERN HORNED OWL 323Mexico, * * * when I heard the weird, thrilling whoo-whoo-whhuu of an owlahead of me.I peered from a clump of low juniper bushes and saw, about 20 yards to the west,the tall, nearly branchless trunk of a dead yellow pine, its upper part sharplyoutlined against the cold, clear, roseate sunset sky beyond. And there, perchedside by side on a stub of a branch jutting out to the north, way up near the top, Ibeheld two very large and magnificent Western Horned Owls.In a moment one of the pair suddenly tipped head downward on the branchuntil hi6 beak was a bit lower than the level of his feet, dropped his wings, thrustup his short tail, and fluffed his soft feathers, making him appear even larger thanhe was, and at the same time poured out a long-drawn, haunting, thrilling, qua-vering hoo-hoo-whooho-uhuhuuu-ivhhhhuuu. As the call ended he (or she) at oncepopped back into upright position on the stub again.Immediately, the other Owl fluffed its feathers and tipped forward and down-ward and hooted as had its mate, though I could easily detect quite a difference inthe calls. It swung back upright again, and I could plainly see one and then theother snap its curved beak sharply and could hear the clicking of them on thecrisp air.Then, as if by some sign, they simultaneously turned their broad 'faces' to eachother and began rubbing their beaks together, for all the world as if they werekissing and making love, much after the fashion of Pigeons and Doves. A fewseconds of this, and they both swung down on the stub at the same time andhooted their eerie calls again. Then they straightened up and billed some more.For several minutes they kept up this unusual performance, alternately hootingand billing, sometimes one hooting at a time, sometimes both at once, and alwaysthere was the snapping of their beaks mixed in.Once a prowling coyote made a slight rustling in the sere oak leaves as he slippedthrough the brush in a small ravine several yards to the rear of them. * * *I could tell by their actions that they had discovered the animal at once, but thepair seemed to realize that a coyote could not climb trees, * * * and in afew moments the two settled back to their courting once more, evidently no longerconcerned about the animal.I watched there till the shadows in the canyons and thickets grew black andmysterious and night had settled in earnest. Then, after a bit, I tried a new tactic.I hooted, quavering, long-drawn-out, as nearly as I could imitate their weird calls.They did not seem alarmed, but were immediately attentive to the sound. Firstone, then the other, would answer me, but they ceased their billing and love-making.Nesting.?The western horned owl makes her nest early in the yearin a small cave, or on a ledge, or a cliff; in a hollow tree; or on an oldcrow, raven, or hawk nest. Under primitive conditions, there wereso many owls in comparison with the available sites that some wereno doubt forced to utilize whatever places might be vacant, makingit difficult for us to determine if there ever was any real preference;and if so, for what.Bendire (1892) says: "In the neighborhood of Nueces Bay, insouthwestern Texas, they nest in holes in high banks." Lacey (1911)writes that in other parts of Texas these owls nest in caves in bluffsand on the tops of squirrel nests in trees. Carroll (1900) says thatthey adopt "the nests of Buteos and Caracaras. Breeding begins inJanuary. Have found their nests far out in the prairie in small
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mottes, miles from timber." W. B. Savary writes us: "On the southside of the Aransas River in Bee County, about 12 miles fromSkidmore, I found a western horned owl and a turkey vulture nestingin a large live oak, each in a separate cavity. The vulture had thelower and larger one, which was nearly 3 feet in depth and 18 inchesin diameter. The young vulture was standing up and probably 10or 12 days old. The owl's nest was in a smaller cavity where a hollowlimb had broken off on the opposite side, about 4 feet higher up.The young owlet was in the down with quills showing ; very likely itwas two weeks old."In New Mexico, Jensen (1923) says: "A pair is nesting regularly ina cut on the Santa Fe-Lamy Railway near Arroyo Hondo. Theincubating bird is only about six feet from the passing trains." InArizona, Kennard (1923) found a western red-tailed hawk's nestabout 15 feet above the ground in a mesquite tree. It "was found tocontain three Hawk's eggs and one of an Owl, presumably a WesternHorned Owl * * *. Of the Hawk's eggs, one had been dentedon some previous occasion, presumably by the claw of the parent bird,and was addled, and the other two were pretty hard set; while theOwl's egg was much fresher, laid I should say at least a week afterthose of the Hawk." Although most observers say there is little orno actual building of a nest, Mrs. Bailey (1928) says that they "arevariously lined with sticks, leaves, bark, moss, and their own feathers."In Arizona, these owls often nest in the great hollow arms of thesaguaro, the giant cactus, and still oftener in the deep crotches betweenthose arms. Nests may be at a considerable height in a tall cotton-wood ; but when placed on old magpie nests, or in stunted cedars andjunipers, they may be as low as only 10 feet above ground.Strange to say, some of these owls nest in oldTndian or cliff dwell-ings. Sugden (1928) says:The nest was in a cliff dwelling about a mile above the Augusta Natural Bridgein White Canyon, San Juan County, Utah. This Moki cliff dwelling, the habita-tion of a prehistoric Indian, was in a ledge in the sandstone wall of the canyonabout 20 feet above the dry stream bed. It consisted of two rooms, the largerabout 8 feet square, the smaller about 6 by 8 feet. The nest was in the farcorner of the smaller room, on the side next to the cliff wall. The roof had fallenin on the outer side but was supported on the inner side, forming a shelter overthe nest. On the floor of the dwelling was a thick layer of pack-rat droppingsand debris including the cactus spines remaining after the rats had eaten thefleshy parts. The nest itself was a depression in the debris lined with a few sticks,bones, feathers and excrement.Of a somewhat similar location, Gilman (1909) writes: "For at leastfour years a pair of these owls have nested in the pre-historic CasaGrande ruins. * * * Mr. Pinkley [the custodian] told me thebirds raised a brood each year in the old building, and had never been
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molested except once, when one of them developed a decided taste forprize Wyandot chickens."The actions of the old birds vary a good deal when their nests aremolested or robbed. Usually they show extreme anger and reckless-ness, diving again and again at the intruder and keeping up a constantcackling, or snapping of their bills. On the other hand, they some-times make no disturbance whatever. At one nest visited by Gil-man, he (1909) says that the old birds "made no demonstration whenI climbed to the home. A Redtail that percht in the top of a neigh-boring tree did not escape so easily tho, as the male owl savagelyattackt him, and drove him off." Apparently the female does all theincubating, although the male is often in the vicinity, and is generallyready to do his share toward defense of nest or young.Eggs.?Usually there are two eggs to a set, sometimes three.Fresh eggs are to be expected in the southern sections of Texas andArizona, and presumably New Mexico, in February, but later farthernorth; for instance, near Santa Fe, "March 10 to April 10," accordingto Jensen (1923). The measurements of 47 eggs average 54.7 by 46.5millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremes measure 59.2 by48.3, 56 by 49, 51.8 by 46.3, and 54.1 by 44 millimeters.Young.?Since there has been some confusion between the reportsfor this species and for the Montana horned owl, much that is saidunder that subspecies, particularly about "Nesting", "Eggs", and
"Young", applies nearly as well to pallescens.After the eggs have been incubated about 28 or 29 days, the younghatch out as downy, yellowish-white balls. They are very weak andunable at first even to stand erect ; but their legs and feet, being quitestrong, enable them to retain a firm grip of the sticks and other founda-tions of their home. There is usually a very noticeable variation insize among the two or three owlets of a brood, due to the eggs beinglaid as much as two or three days apart. As incubation begins as soonas the first egg is deposited, the eggs may hatch several days apart.At first the young birds take little notice of any intruding person, butgrow shier as they grow older and then resent intrusion to the best oftheir ability, hissing and shrinking away as far as the limits of the nestwill allow.Plumages.?At first the down does not entirely cover the littleowls, patches of bare skin showing here and there. But as the downgrows longer and spreads out more and more, the bare patches dimin-ish in size. The succeeding plumage is much darker but is more uni-form in color and the markings less sharply defined than the third, oradult, plumage that appears later.Food.?While this owl usually remains hidden during the day anddoes most of its hunting at night, it can see well enough to do some by
326 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMday, if necessary. Henshaw (1875) was inclined to believe that ithunted more by day while it had young.Under a nest at the western base of the Davis Mountains, Tex.,Vernon Bailey (1905) found remains that indicated the food of theyoung during the summer of 1902. The most abundant remains werebones of cottontails and half-grown jack rabbits. There were alsoskulls and other bones of pocket gophers, two species of wood rats, alarge kangaroo rat, two species of pocket mice, white-footed mice,grasshopper mice, spotted skunks, and bats. "Bones of horned toadsand snakes were common and the legs and shells of beetles, grasshop-pers, and various insects were abundant in the mass. I found onesternum of a bird the size of a meadowlark and one lower mandiblethat was probably from a chicken." There was a ranch near this nestbut Mr. Bailey says: "The ranchman admitted that only one or twochickens had disappeared during the summer, but even then he couldnot get over the idea that owls lived on chickens and were his enemies."While reading over this list we should remember that perhaps pelletsand discards from the nest may not always show the full proportion ofbirds consumed (see Brooks, 1929). Along the Mojave River, nearVictorville, Calif., these owls seem to live largely on meadow mice.Although it seems so strange that owls should eat skunks, thissubspecies has the habit fully developed. Huey (1931) says: "Oneof these birds was collected in December, 1915, at Fort Lowell, nearTucson, Arizona, and had a discolored area on its plumage where thescent had struck, which was, however, of a light pinkish color, notyellow. As there are three genera of skunks (Conepatus, Mephitis,and Spilogale) to be found in or near the locality where this owl wassecured, we may perhaps assume that one of the two larger forms, notSpilogale, had been the victim of the owl. * * * The otherHorned Owl was taken in January, 1917, at Potholes, ImperialCounty, California, and was marked with a yellow stain." Probablythis owl had been preying upon a Spilogale.A. B. Howell (1916) writes: "I had always understood that an owlis in the habit of killing its prey by a single bite through the head orneck, and, indeed, I have had indubitable evidence that such is oftenthe case. However, on the first of the year, I flushed an owl from theground, and discovered that it had abandoned a freshly-killed cotton-tail." But there were no marks on it except a few claw punctures onthe trunk of the animal.Mrs. Bailey (1928) adds ground squirrels, prairie dogs, fish, craw-fish, scorpions, cattle grubs, Jerusalem crickets, moths, and vinegar-roons to the prey already given. Western horned owls being large,voracious birds, they sometimes kill game birds and poultry. Lacey(1911) says: "Small rabbits seem to be their principal food, but occa-sionally they harry the hen roosts and I have known them to kill
WESTERN HORNED OWL 327young wild turkeys, even when half grown." E. R. Warren writes usthat although cottontails were the main food at one nest, he also foundmagpie feathers scattered about, and adds that there was a magpie'snest in the tree below which they were found.With its great killing powers and its boldness, the potential capacityof this species for harm is very great, especially where poultry isallowed to remain out in trees all night. Fisher (1907) says of thehorned owl that if it could be "considered only as it appears in thegreat West, it would earn a secure place among the beneficialspecies. * * * Where mammals are plenty it does not seem toattack poultry or game birds to any considerable extent, but in regionswhere rabbits and squirrels are scarce it frequently makes inroads onfowls, especially where they roost in trees. Undoubtedly rabbitsare its favorite food, though in some places the common rat is killedin great numbers ; we have a record of the remains of over one hundredrats that were found under one nest." Quite often small birdsseem indifferent to the presence of a horned owl. E. R. Warrenwrites us, in a copy of his notes, of an owl in a cottonwood tree.
"At the same time a pair of Rocky Mountain nuthatches were climbingabout in the tree and not far from the owl and not paying the slightestattention to it. In another tree close by violet-green swallows weregoing to and from their nest hole, probably feeding young."Behavior.?Before the Western States were settled as thickly asthey are now, these owls appear to have been quite abundant, par-ticularly where there were thick groves or large trees to shelter andhide them during the day. But they did, and do even now, sometimestake shelter in dark caverns in more or less perpendicular cliffs.After remaining quiet in some such secure retreat all day, they comeout usually about sunset, although they vary in this somewhat.Probably all remain well below 8,000 feet throughout the breedingseason, and some then travel up as high as 1 1 ,000 feet above sea level,only to descend again before cold weather. Of the very lowest parts oftheir habitat along the Gila and Colorado Rivers, Gilman (1909)says they are "found mostly in cottonwood trees, * * * and atnight range out on the alfalfa fields in search of gophers. I have seenthem also in bluffs and cliffs on the rocky hills a few miles from theriver. * * * A favorite perch of the bird is the roof of a building,and there they sit and murder sleep in the most approved fashion,along about 2 a. m. I have been obliged to get up repeatedly and goout and throw rocks at them in order to get my normal amount ofslumber."Although I have no notes on the bathing of these birds, they areknown to visit springs and pools at night to drink; and they maybathe there then, too.
328 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMVoice.?The characteristic solemn, deep-toned hooting of the west-ern horned owl is very much like that of the eastern subspecies.Usually it is sounded in the evening and early in the morning butsometimes during the daylight hours as well. Whenever a nest isdisturbed, both owners are apt to voice their protests in a series ofhoo, hoo, hoo-oo's from some nearby tree or other elevated perch.Enemies.?I have often been directed toward one of these owls bythe long-crested jays, the hubbub raised by a mob of these smallerbirds being almost unbelievable. Although this sport seems safeenough in daylight, I have no doubt that the owls can, and do, cap-ture many a daytime tormentor at night. But why should thesetormenting jays be safe during the day? The owls are able to see,and there appears to be no real reason why they could not turn thetables then as well as after dark.Winter.?Howell (1916) says for Tucson, Arizona: "I am sure thatthe residents [owls] of the region must be augmented during the coldweather by numbers which have come down from the mountains.L. S. Wylie, on the boundary of whose chicken ranch we camped,* * * is much bothered by these owls. He states that one willalight on a branch where a chicken is roosting. The latter willawaken and shriek, but is too scared to move. The owl then sidlesalong and grabs the fowl by the neck." Possibly the killing of chick-ens, and also of game birds, may be greater during winter, when somany rodents are either under the snow or hibernating.BUBO VIRGINIANUS SUBARCTICUS HoyARCTIC HORNED OWLHABITSA very pale race of the horned owl, sometimes almost as white assome snowy owls, inhabits the more northern timbered regions ofCanada, as far south as central Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba,where it intergrades with occidentalis. Breeding birds that we col-lected in southwestern Saskatchewan were intermediate. All threeof the adults we collected are very light colored, particularly above,where they are fully as light as the average and almost as light as thelightest subardicus. On the under parts, however, there is moreochraceous and less pure white than there should be. The legs andfeet are somewhat clouded with pale ochraceous, and the legs arefaintly barred with dusky. In typical subardicus the legs and feetshould be pure white.Nesting.?The only nest I have ever found that might possibly bereferable to this race was discovered near Crane Lake, Saskatchewan,on June 5, 1905, from which one of the adults, referred to above, andone of the young were collected. We were exploring a breeding rook-ery of great blue herons in the timber along Skull Creek, when we
ARCTIC HORNED OWL 329discovered that a pair of these owls had taken possession of an oldheron's nest. It was a very large nest, measuring 3 feet in diameterand placed 20 feet from the ground in the dead top of a large cotton-wood tree ; it was well decorated with down and littered with feathersand bones of the owl's victims. There was an occupied heron's nestin the next tree, about 15 feet distant. The single young owl hadleft the nest and was clinging helplessly in the top of a small saplingnearby; it was nearly fully grown but still unable to fly. We did notsee the old owl at first, but I soon saw her coming across an openspace, heading straight for me at full speed, as if she intended toknock me over, but she swerved to one side and passed me.Frank L. Farley writes to me: "Two nests that I have examinedbelonging to the Arctic horned owl were both located in heavy timberon the south side of Dried Meat Lake. One of these, found on March17, 1934, contained three fresh eggs. It was built in the crotch of avery large cottonwood tree, about 60 feet from the ground."A set of three eggs in my collection was taken by A. D. Hendersonnear Belvedere, Alberta, on March 20, 1924, from an old hawk's nestin the upright forks of a balsam poplar, at the edge of a small sprucemuskeg. It was about 45 feet from the ground; a few fresh twigs hadbeen placed around the edge by the owls, and feathers from the sittingbird had been added. It had snow on it around the edges. Thisnest was about 400 yards distant from another nest robbed thesame day.Referring to these and other nests, Mr. Henderson (1925) writes:"From this date forward we were out almost daily and including thenests containing young found seventeen nests of the Arctic HornedOwl. Of many nests of the birds found in the vicinity of Belvedere,only five were in spruce trees and one in a tamarac. The usual locationis in an old nest of the Western Red-tailed Hawk, in aspen or balsampoplar trees. Occasionally an old nest of the Crow is used."Writing of his work near Fort Simpson, Edward A. Preble (1908)says: "On March 14 I saw a pair in the vicinity of a prospective nestin a high Banksian pine on the hills southwest of the post. The placewas again visited April 1 and the female found on the nest. It wasleft for future developments, but later in the day the tree was cutdown by an Indian, and the nest and contents, two fresh eggs, de-stroyed. On April 17 I found another nest near the banks of theLiard, a few miles distant from the post. It was in the crotch of alarge aspen poplar, 50 feet from the ground, and held a single egg.It was visited again on April 22, and the two eggs and the male birdsecured."Eggs.?Mr. Henderson (1925) says: "The usual number of eggslaid is three, but clutches of two and four are also quite common, and13751?38 22
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I once found a nest containing five." The eggs are just like those ofother horned owls. The measurement of 50 eggs average 55 by 45.9millimeters ; the eggs showing the four extremes measure 58.9 by 50.8,50.1 by 45, and 52.6 by 41.2 millimeters.Food.?Mr. Henderson (1925) says: "Their principal food in thissection is the varying hare and they are much more plentiful at theperiodical times of abundance of these animals." Mr. Farley tellsme that "remains of Hungarian partridges have been found in pelletspicked up near their nests." Mr. Preble (1908) writes: "One takenNovember 21 had eaten a small shrew (Sorex personatus); one Novem-ber 23, a red squirrel (Sciurus hudsonicus); one December 1, severalmeadow voles (Microtus drummondi) , white-footed mice (Peromyscusarcticus), shrews (Sorex personatus)." He also mentions three thathad eaten several large water beetles (Dytiscus dauricus).This owl seems to be almost wholly beneficial in the regions that itlives.Its plumage changes, behavior, and voice do not seem to differmaterially from those of other horned owls. It is more migratorythan the other races, as it is difficult for it to find sufficient food in itsfar northern home in winter. In the big flights of northern owls thatdrift into New England and other northern States during certainwinters, specimens of very pale birds are occasionally found that arereferable to this subspecies. Mr. Farley says in his notes: "TheArctic horned owl is a fairly regular winter visitor to central Alberta.In lesser numbers it is a resident throughout the year. The migrantsfrom the north and west make their appearance in September andOctober and remain until February."BUBO VIRGINIANUS SATURATUS RidgwayDUSKY HORNED OWLHABITSContributed by Milton Philo SkinnerThis subspecies, living as it does in the dark, humid coast forestsof northern California, Oregon, Washington, British Columbia, andAlaska, is the darkest of the horned owls. But its habits and waysof life closely resemble those of other western forms.Nesting.?In California these owls are apt to have their homes in thetops of oaks, in canyons, as a rule 30 to 50 feet above ground. Some-times they nest in firs, and the nests are usually made of coarse sticks.Whether this subspecies ever builds its own nest is not known; but itis known to adopt old hawk nests, just as members of other sub-species do.Eggs.?[Author's note: The eggs of the dusky horned owl arelike those of the other horned owls of similar size. Apparently, from
DUSKY HORNED OWL 331the data at hand, sets of three are commoner than sets of four. Themeasurements of 26 eggs average 55.1 by 46; the eggs showing thefour extremes measure 60 by 47.7, 52.7 by 43.4, and 53.1 by 42.4millimeters.]Young.?Owlets are usually hatched out in March after an incubationof approximately 28 days. About two months later they leave thenest and are then taught to hunt by the parents.Plumages.?The development of their plumage is much like that ofthe Montana horned owl. Perhaps the coloration of adults of thisform shows more variation than other subspecies ordinarily do. Per-haps because the dusky horned owls live in a rainy, cold forest, theirplumage is thicker and heavier. Bowles (1918) says: "One markedlynoticeable feature * * * is the great luxuriance of feathers.In the made-up skin this is seen to best advantage about the legsand feet, where the hair-like feathers closely resemble a long andheavy coat of fur. Looking over my series of these owls taken in thepast few years I can find none that are nearly as well feathered asthose of the present season. This may, perhaps, suggest a verysevere winter, but up to date it has been about the mildest that I haveever seen here." (December 17, 1917.)Food.?Although it is known that the dusky horned owls devourgreat numbers of mice, bouse rats, various species of squirrels, andskunks, their life in the dense, giant tree forests gives them addedopportunities to destroy birds. Perhaps this tendency has been toogreatly commented upon, most of the notes we have being from gamewardens and others antagonistic to the Raptores. Bowles (1916)speaks of the dusky horned owls as preying upon wood ducks andmallards and says he "has found the remains of Sooty Grouse, OregonBuffed Grouse, Ring-necked Pheasants, and Steller's Jays" at thebase of a nesting tree after the young owls have left. As for myself,I have noted more of a tendency to hide uneaten prey and return toit again later. As this return is not invariable, it might be moreaccurate to say that the dusky horned owl often returns to uneatenprey if it has not been able to make a fresh kill. At times, I havefound this subspecies hunting in couples. Racey (1926) revealssomething of the boldness and ferocity of this owl when he writes:"One evening when my family was returning to camp at dusk, oneof these Owls flew down and tried to seize our small Pekinese dog andwhen driven off flew only a short distance away and perched on thelimb of a dead tree."Behavior.?Aside from living in the humid Pacific coast zone, thedusky horned owls differ little in behavior from the western subspeciesdescribed elsewhere. They may, perhaps, be a little more given todaylight movements than others, owing to the natural darkness oftheir chosen habitat.
332 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMVoice.?The hooting call of the dusky horned owl is similar to thatof other subspecies. Mailliard (1924) says of owls in SonomaCounty, Calif.: "These birds have a much larger vocabulary of notesand combinations of notes than is commonly supposed. The whis-tling note, with rising inflection, that is used in communicationsbetween the parents and the young, when the latter are first flyingabout, is often repeated for hours at a time during the night, or evenin the daytime when the young happen to be in a nearby tree and nostrangers are in the vicinity."Blackwelder (1919) says that "the call of the male is shorter andof lower pitch than that of the female."Bowles (1906b) adds the seemingly strange observations, that al-though these owls are common in fall and winter, he has never heardthem utter a note. But this is in direct contrast with Dawson (1923)who says:As a young man, in Taconia, the writer once lived in a house which immediatelyadjoined a large wooden church. My chamber window looked upon a flatkitchen roof, through which projected a brick chimney some ten feet away. Atthree o'clock one morning a horrible nightmare gave way to a still more horriblewaking. Murder most foul was being committed on the roof just outside theopen window, and the shrieks of the victims (at least seven of them!) weredrowned by the imprecations of the attacking party?fire-eating pirates to thenumber of a dozen. Pandemonium reigned and my bones were liquid withfright?when suddenly the tumult ceased; nor could I imagine through a wholesick day what had been the occasion of the terrifying visitation. But two weekslater the conflict was renewed?at a merciful distance this time. Peering outinto the moonlight I beheld one of these Owls perched upon the chimney of thechurch hard by, gibbering and shrieking like one possessed. Cat-calls, groans,and demoniacal laughter were varied by wails and screeches, as of souls in tor-ment?an occasion most memorable. The previous serenade had evidently beenrendered from the kitchen chimney?and I pray never to hear its equal.Winter.?Bowles (1917b) says:The winter of 1915-16 was the coldest and most severe that I have known duringa residence of twenty years in the northwest, ice and snow remaining on theground for weeks at a time. * * * The first migrants of importance to benoted were the Horned Owls, which began putting in their appearance early inthe fall of 1916. * * * At first these migrants were regarded only as whatmight be usually expected here, but soon they became so numerous as to be averitable pest. Poultry farms of all kinds were raided without mercy, one examplethat I shall give in some detail being the gamebird farm belonging to Dr. G. D.Shaver, of Tacoma. The captive wild ducks seemed to have the most attraction,and of fifty-three that the doctor had at the beginning of last fall, only twenty-sixare left at the present writing?and the owls are hooting there now. The doctorshot a number of them, but killed more by poisoning the carcasses left uneaten.They usually had the heads eaten off, after which the owls would drag them undersome log or roll of wire netting where they were well hidden. It is interesting tonote that sometimes the owls would not return to their kill for a period of timeranging from one to five or six days. In two instances two owls were poisoned inone night by eating the same bird, and one owl carried a full-grown Mallard hentwenty feet up into a fir tree where both birds were found dead about a week later,
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the owl firmly clutching the poisoned body of its prey. I examined a great manystomachs of these owls, the contents of which showed about an equal number ofmammals and large birds. Nothing smaller than a Green-winged Teal was found.A number of stomachs contained the remains of hens, curiously enough all of thembeing Barred Plymouth Rock. This is decidedly strange, because such breedsas the White Leghorn outnumber them in local poultry yards nearly twenty toone. The mammals eaten were confined almost entirely to rabbits and smallskunks, or civets (Spilogale) ; * * * in one stomach I found the entirehindleg of a full grown civet. * * * Great as was the flight of these owls inthe vicinity of Tacoma, the main abundance seems to have centered in VancouverIsland, as is shown by a letter from Mr. Walter F. Burton, of Victoria, B. C.:"We have a plague of Horned Owls here, which has cleaned out all our pheasants.Hundreds have been shot, but the damage is done. I was out after them yester-day and in a short walk counted fourteen pairs of pheasant wings. * * *Their chief food here is pheasants, grouse, Short-eared Owls and Meadowlarks.Now that they have finished the gamebirds they are eating salt-water ducks; thelast one I shot had a Goldeneye. Out of all the owls shot here I have not heardof a rat or mouse being found in the stomachs." * * * The largest bird thatI have known the Horned Owls to kill is the Hutchins Goose, which came from thegame farm of Dr. Shaver. The killing must have taken place in the water, asthe body of the goose was in the lake with the head and neck on a floating log.The body was poisoned and the owl found beside it next morning, the claws of onefoot securely grasping the tail of the goose. * * * The method of killing solarge a bird was by ripping up the neck, as the head and body were uninjured;* * * the victim is several times as heavy as the murderer. The HornedOwl Invasion, as it might be called, extended at least as far south as Portland,Oregon, where pheasant farms in that vicinity have suffered severely from theirdepredations. The main line of flight seems to have been on the Pacific coast sideof the Cascade Mountains, as on the east side reports do not indicate any verygreat increase over the usual numbers. Among the many interesting features ofthe migration of these owls is the fact that at least seventy-five percent of thosetaken have been females.This was in the vicinity of Tacoma, and it would be interesting tolearn if the males migrated by another route, or even migrated at all.There is no record of a corresponding male owl migration that year.Furthermore, the females examined up to March first showed noindication of breeding, and for any horned owls to wait that late ismost interesting. Can it be that the shortage of food and the con-sequent migration tend to slow up sexual impulses?BUBO VIRGINIANUS PACIFICUS Cassinpacific horned owlPlate 77HABITSContributed by Milton Philo SkinnerThis is preeminently the horned owl of California, where it occursfrom sea level up to 7,000 feet above, in all parts except the northwesthumid coast region. Its absence from the higher mountains above7,000 feet may be due to a lack of the food that it prefers. While
334 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMperhaps not so common in the lowlands as the barn owl, the Pacifichorned owl is often seen and reported, both because of its great sizeand because of the interest that its presence always creates. It livesalong the wooded river bottoms of the lowlands, in the wooded foot-hill ravines, and in the forests of the lower mountains.Nesting.?This subspecies usually nests on old hawks', eagles',herons', and crows' nests 14 to 60 feet above ground. While the lowerbody of the nest is neither added to nor even repaired by the owls,there are times when they appear to add a few materials to the topand build up a low rim to prevent the rolling away of the nearly roundeggs. As incubation advances, fur, bones, and a few feathers usuallycollect. In places the Pacific horned owl makes her nest on ledges,or in caves, of a rocky cliff. Sometimes a nest is put in a hollow in atree trunk, or where a limb has broken or rotted away. Occasionallya nest is placed in a niche in a cutbank. Nesting begins as early as themiddle of January, especially in the lower altitudes. Since most ofCalifornia's lowland trees are along rivers, or about ponds and lakes,there is at least an apparent grouping of the nests near water. Tyler(1913) gives some interesting data:Among a clump of willows standing in three or four feet of water I found a pairof Horned Owls nesting on April 12, 1902. They were occupying what may havebeen an old nest of a Night Heron, a thin frail structure, placed fourteen feet abovethe water. It measured six inches in width on the inside and nine in length, withthe cavity only two inches in depth; but it seemed ample for the great bird thatoccupied it, and for her three eggs. * * * On April 6, 1906, I examined twomore nests of the same species within a mile of the first one discovered. One ofthese nests was thirty-five feet up, in a partly-dead willow in a field. * * * Theother nest was eighteen feet up in a willow in a thick clump that, as in the firstinstance cited, was growing in water.Nests as a rule are in oaks, live oaks, cottonwoods, willows, eucalyp-tus, and sycamores. Apparently any tree that is tall enough and thatwill hold a nest is acceptable. Nests are not always at the top butsometimes as much as one-third of the way down. This subspecieshas also been known to make its nest, and rear its young, in the loftof a ranch barn. Dixon (1914) has recorded of a pair:Toward the east end of the Escondido Valley, San Diego County, California,there arises from the valley floor a steep and rocky ridge. On the eastern slopeof this ridge and in the big trees of the creek bottom directly beneath, two PacificHorned Owls (Bubo virginianus pacificus) have made their home for years. * * *The edges of the small valleys and clearings are thickly populated with the smallermammals which make up the principal diet of the Horned Owl. * * *Records of nesting dates for this pair of birds are available for the past thirteenyears. During this time, to my knowledge, there have been killed in this imme-diate vicinity four adult Horned Owls, but apparently the remaining bird hadvery little trouble in securing a mate, as the site has never missed being occupiedfor a single season. * * * This pair has nested in old hawk's nests in trees threetimes, in an old hawk's or raven's nest in a cliff, twice, and in every other instancehas made its home on some rocky ledge on this steep hillside.
PACIFIC HORNED OWL 335Taylor (1894) found a nest on February 22, 1894, at Sargent, Calif.,and says: "The Owl's nest was a loose collection of oak-sticks and sage-brush [on a ledge in a cliff], with a curious addition in the shape of alittle boy's bow, minus|the string. There were a few Owl's featherfor a lining, with a great quantity of rabbit bones." Another nest was
"in a hole in a 'sand cut,' right next to the railroad track, 4 feet in andabout 20 feet from the ground."Jacobs (1920) records a nest "collected by J. S. Appleton, March 20,1900, at Simi, Calif. One egg of the Owl and two of the [western red-tailed] Hawk, in a nest on a cliff where the Owls had nested for twelveyears. The old Owl was on the nest when found. All three eggsfresh. April 5, sixteen days later, the Owl was again sitting upon thenest which now contained one of the Hawk and two of her own eggs
;
incubation begun."Eggs.?Usually there are two or three eggs to a set; but Davie(1889), Beekman (1918), Ashworth (1928), and Bradford (1930) eachrecord the taking of a set of four eggs. Probably there are others.My records of 23 sets show 12 with two eggs each and 11 with threeeggs each.The measurements of 40 eggs average 53.4 by 45.1 millimeters; theeggs showing the four extremes measure 58.2 by 47.9, 52.5 by 48.2,49.4 by 43.9, and 54.8 by 43.1 millimeters.The eggs are pure white at first but later become nest-stained, andsometimes they are dotted with blood, possibly from food brought tothe nest. The earliest date I have noted is for a set of two, taken inSan Diego County, on January 29, by Joseph Dixon; the latest, April15, for a set of two taken in Los Angeles County; average for 27 sets,February 26. Since the larger number of these nests were in southernCalifornia, a series of more northern sets might show a later averagedate. Dunn (1899) records three sets taken in May when heavilyincubated. These may have been second sets, but if they were firstsets they were, as Dunn says, "very late for any sane owl to behouse-keeping."There seems to be some evidence that the incubation of this sub-species may be somewhat more than 28 days, possibly as much as 29or 30 days.Dixon (1914) says of the locality in Escondido Valley that hewatched for 13 years:The earliest date recorded for a complete set of eggs was January 29 (1911),with two eggs; the latest date was February 14 (1907) [with three eggsj. * * *In two instances a period of four days elapsed between the laying of the first andthe second egg, incubation starting with the deposit of the first egg. In fiveinstances three eggs, and in every other case two, were a complete set. This pairof birds would invariably deposit a second set, and even a third, within twenty-onedays from the time the first set was disturbed. During the wet seasons of 1907,
336 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM1908 and 1909 three eggs were laid, possibly indicating that the birds were findingfood more plentiful than formerly.It seems hard to flush a sitting bird of this subspecies from her nest,even before the eggs are hatched. E. L. Sumner, Jr., writes us thaton March 14, 1931, a "bird flushed from three eggs when I shook thetree. She flew to a willow along the same slough, about a fifth of amile away, and perched in the open on a bare branch, facing me.I left and hid in some willows a quarter mile away. In about sixminutes she left her post, flew to a willow nearer the nest tree, stayedthere about two minutes, and then flew to the nest tree. She litdirectly on the nest, walked to the center, fluffed her feathers, andsat down facing my hiding place."Young.?As with other horned owls, the mother Pacific horned owl,who does most of if not all the incubation (Dixon says "turn about")begins that incubation as soon as the first egg is laid. Since the secondegg may be laid as much as three or four days later, and the third eggas much as a week later than the first, there will be that much differ-ence in the dates of hatching, and a corresponding difference in thesizes of the owlets. At first the youngsters are weak and unsteadyand not aggressive. In fact they seem drowsy and half asleep.Dixon (1914) says that on March 2, 1913?the little owl just out of the shell kept up a lusty cheeping, and when I withdrewa short distance, the old owl returned to the nest without delay. On the 5th ofMarch I again visited the nest and found both owlets out of the shell, and bothset up a vigorous cheeping upon the old bird's leaving. * * * Upon settling onher young she made a short hissing noise, not unlike that of a goose but moresubdued, and the youngsters would immediately cease their complaint. Threeor four times she did this and I at first thought it was directed at me, but finallyconcluded that it was directed at the youngsters, as they then always became quiet.As the owlets grew older the parent birds became wilder, never again allowingthe intimacy shown during the hatching period. The young owls developedrather slowly until they were three weeks old, but from then on made a marvelousgrowth. * * * Seven weeks from the time of hatching the two young owlsleft their nest for good, taking up their abode in the brush and rocks of the steephillside. They were still unable to fly more than a short distance.Sumner (1929) says that of two very young "the older whimpersfeebly, but cannot stand up yet." A week later both birds weretorpid, not offering to move or utter a sound. At this stage they mayclap their bills feebly. At the age of 16 days, "young birds as dull andlifeless as ever, offering absolutely no resistance and behaving asthough sound asleep." At the age of 21 days, the "youngsters hissand snap their bills when I approach, but are still far from being wideawake." Eight days later "the young birds rear up and snap theirbills when I approach, hissing as I draw nearer, and half opening theirwings so as to give themselves a deceptively bulky appearance. Theyare still as harmless as before." At 37 days of age, "both adults were
PACIFIC HORNED OWL 337present, flapping about from tree to tree and hooting in protest, thenest was empty."At another nest in the top of an oak, says Sumner (1929), one 36-day-old owlet "jumped out and flew 100 yards" across the canyon.The two "remaining young are quite aggressive, snapping bills, puffingout feathers, and half spreading their wings in the inverted manner socharacteristic of juvenile owls. They sway from side to side withfiercely glaring eyes, and when closely approached throw themselvesupon their backs and strike out viciously with their talons, winch arecapable of inflicting painful scratches. As soon as I withdraw a fewyards, however, they stand upright, hesitating for just a moment asthey look about with craning necks, and then commence to flap andhop rapidly toward the nearest cover."In a copy of his manuscript notes sent to us, Mr. Sumner says thatwhen he climbed to a nest a "young owl about ten days old greeted me.When put down on the ground in the afternoon sun, at 3 p. m., itpanted even though the wind was blowing. Two weeks later thisyoung owl was about quarter grown, with immature plumage feather-ing out all over, bearing on its tips the downs." He says, too, that thenest was becoming foul from old food, bones, fur, and excreta. Afterthe young left the nest, this family kept together for some time.They roosted in the same thicket of low willows for at least two weeks,although Mr. Sumner scared them out every day, and other men soonbegan using a tractor about 200 feet from the roost. For a detailedstudy of this subject, the reader is referred to three important papers byE. Lowell Sumner, Jr. (1929, 1933, and 1934).The Pacific horned owl, like other horned owls, deposits at the nestvarious kinds of prey for the young. At first this prey may remain forsome time, but after the young are ten days old, this food is cleaned upevery day. A list of such prey from many different nests includes:Meadow mice, wood rats, pocket rats, pocket gophers, ground squir-rels, brush rabbits, young and adult cottontail and jack rabbits, kill-deers, shrikes, flickers, jays, band-tail pigeons, coots, and green-wingteals, with rabbits making up fully half of this prey. The item ofground squirrels is interesting because it indicates daylight hunting tocapture them.Plumages.?The plumages and their development are approximatelythe same as for other subspecies.Food.?The Pacific horned owl destroys many obnoxious forms oflife. In addition to the list just given, stomach analyses have addedmany additional kinds of mice, Jerusalem crickets, and even scorpions.Dixon (1914) says:An accurate account of food found in the nest at the time of the various visitsgives us the following: parts of two brush rabbits, three wood rats, and five pocketrats. On only one occasion was there any indication of these owls feeding upon
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other birds, that being a small bunch of quail feathers at the base of the cliff, and Iam sure that birds form but a very small percentage of their food. Otherwise wewould undoubtedly have found some evidence in the line of feathers in or aroundthe nest. From all my observations of this pair of birds, extending over a longseries of [thirteen] years, I would say that they were far more a benefit to the farmerand orchardist than a menace, in spite of the unfavorable reputation this speciesgenerally bears.Of course, this owl will occasionally pick up chickens. On thatpoint Grinnell and Storer (1924) tell us: "The Pacific Horned Owl has areputation for feeding on poultry, particularly in outlying communitieswhere the fowls are in the habit of roosting in the trees in the barnyard.Mr. George Smith, our packer, told us that in his experience a hornedowl would not ordinarily pounce directly down on a sleeping hen, but
'would alight on a limb where a number of chickens were roosting.Then it would crowd against the birds until the one on the oppositeside was forced to fly,' whereupon the owl would also take wing andcatch its prey when the latter was in motion."Behavior.?Horned owls have the curious habit of puffing out theirfeathers when intruders are near, so much so that many persons thinkthey are always that way. But E. L. Sumner, Jr., writes us that"Bubos are like screech owls in that when undisturbed their feathers lieflat, their ears stick up higher (by comparison), and they look slimmerand less birdlike. This one was roosting on a slanting limb of a densewillow over water, and after I had sat still for half an hour, it lost fear ofme and lost its original puffed-out appearance."Although I have found Pacific horned owls so averse to leavingtheir nests that I could almost touch the nests before they wouldleave, Grinnell and Storer (1924) say:Horned owls, wary birds more often heard than seen, usually will not permit ofclose approach. It seems probable that in detecting the presence of people theydepend fully as much on hearing as on sight. At Lagrange, Mr. Dixon triedseveral times to get near a horned owl heard regularly on several successive even-ings in a certain steep-sided, tree-clothed ravine. Keeping entirely out of sighthe tried to approach behind a ledge of rimrock; but the owl, seeming to hear hisfootsteps, flushed while he was some distance away and still completely out ofsight. These owls begin to stir about at dusk and at that time are wont to takecommanding positions on the bare tops of dead trees whence they can watch orlisten for prey and detect the distant approach of enemies. Their activity extendsthroughout the night and until late dawn.There has been some discussion as to the territory concept of thesebirds, and Dr. Loye Miller (1930) reaches the following conclusionsafter many experiments: "Bubo hoots from a point within his chosenterritory. Within that territory he generally responds quickly tothe note of a supposed invader. Calls from without his estates donot bring him to the spot though they may rouse him to send out hisown challenge. The male bird is the more aggressive and is recog-nized by the deeper voice and more regular cadence. * * * When
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re-acting to the invader, the owl is not disturbed by people. * * *There is honor (or fear) among thieves, for each bird seems to re-spect the other's territory."We do not usually think of horned owls as able to swim, yet Sumnersays in his notes, of young Pacific horned owls not yet normally outof their nests: "When I arrived at the nest on April 20, 1931, theyoungster, then 30 days old, backed up with snapping beak, so hardand fast that he tumbled from the nest, bounced off the wooden rim ofmy canvas platform beneath, struck a branch belowT , rebounded fromthere to another branch, and landed with a splash in Mud Slough.For five or six whole minutes he crouched half submerged in the water,looking about from side to side but not attempting to swim. By andby the young owl began to shiver, making little ripples by his quaking,and after a minute or so of this, and with a couple of preliminaryglances behind at the willow from which he had fallen, he turned, andwTith his wings (I couldn't see his feet) struck out strongly, using theleft one more than the right because he was making a right turn, andheaded for a stranded branch lying just above water level. When hereached it, he hooked first his beak over it and then tried to grasp itwith his claws and scramble up, but it was 5 inches thick, with theunder side in wTater, and he could only make it with one claw, so hehooked his beak over the edge and hung there shivering, with everynow and then another attempt for 10 minutes or so. Several minuteslater the young owl, by frantic efforts, at last clambered up upon thelog and stood there, very wet beneath, and very quiet. The nextday the youngster went off the nest onto the canvas platform, front-ward this time, and then, standing on the edge, looked, hesitated, anddeliberately jumped down with flapping wings into the water andimmediately oared across to the opposite shore." Mr. Sumner laterthrew another similar youngster into the water. It seemed not inthe least put out, but, after a slight pause upon landing in the water,swam to shore, using his legs more than his'wings, perhaps because hemight have been able to touch bottom. "At another nest the youngjumped into the water when I was still 10 feet from the tree andfloated for at least 5 minutes down the stream without moving amuscle except to turn its head and stare at me. I left him standingin the water, apparently little perturbed."Voice.?Vocal efforts are much like those described for other sub-species. Sometimes several owls join in making night hideous. Atsuch times it is easy to tell that some individuals have weak, femininecalls while others have much more deep, bass-toned, and boomingones. While the voices of different owls are variously pitched, anyone bird calls all night in the same pitch. Late in winter or early inspring, before nesting begins, horned owls often call all night long.
340 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMEnemies.?Although horned-owl nests are sometimes found witheggs punctured and broken, and either crows or ravens may be theculprits, there are so comparatively few crows in California that mob-bing by them is not at all a common feature. Here, the owls aresometimes mobbed by smaller birds. E. L. Smnner, Jr., writes usabout a Pacific horned owl nest: "There were linnets nesting in fullsong, English sparrows present, and a pair of kingbirds, making aperfect hubbub, but the owls were undisturbed in their midst untilthe female owl flushed and perched in the tree, when the kingbirdsvociferated, orioles called, and the owl was actively attacked by theformer. The last I saw of the owl, when she took flight under theattacks of the kingbirds as they clapped their bills with each dive,was when she was flying straight away with the two kingbirds in hotpursuit and one of them about to alight on her back."Huey (1913) says: "As the old bird left the nest (two miles downthe Sweetwater River from Dehesa) a pair of Red-bellied Hawks setout in pursuit. One continued to chase the old owl, while the otherhawk returned and robbed the nest of one of the young owls. Thiswas torn to pieces and eaten in a nearby tree." A week later anotheryoung owl had disappeared from this nest.It is conceivable that fly parasites may cause death among at leastthe young owls. Stoner (1934) says: "I have been puzzled severaltimes when collecting eggs of the Pacific Horned Owl to find in thenest many shiny black seed-like objects about the size of, or a littlelarger than, grains of rice. These were especially evident in the loosesand about the eggs when they are laid on the shelf of a cliff. Theyhad very much the appearance of seeds. * * * Mr. McAteekindly informed me that they were puparia of bird flies (Hippobos-cidae). Large flat flies are often found on Owls and I suspect thatthese are adults of these same 'seeds'."But man and his doings are the greatest destroyers of Pacifichorned owls. In addition to directly robbing nests and killing theowls, man plows much ground and thereby destroys and drives awayrodents, the common food of western owls. He also chops down treesand thereby decreases the number of nesting sites. Also, Grinnelland Storer (1924) tell us that "Mr. Donald D. McLean says that ahorned owl taken 8 miles northeast of Coulterville was captured in arabbit snare on the ground. At Aspen Valley we found the mummifiedremains of a horned owl impaled on a barbed wire fence. One wingwas broken and literally wrapped around the middle wire of the fence.Evidently the owl had hit the fence while in flight and its struggles toget free had but fixed its feathers more firmly on the barbs of the wire.Winter.?Hunt (1918) says: "On the night of January 29, 1918, aShort-eared Owl was perched on a rock which crops from the steepgravelly slope" on the campus at Berkeley. Suddenly the dark form
DWARF HORNED OWL 341
of a horned owl "pounced upon it and crunched it into a gravellycrevice of the ledge. * * * For a few moments there was a lively-tussle and a great beating of soft wings on rocks. * * * Thenthe talons of the Horned Owl closed on the breast of the Short-eared,at once piercing the vitals. * * * The Horned Owl, bearing thebody of its victim in its claws, flew across the canyon toward a groveof eucalyptus trees." It devoured the breast and other portions.BUBO VIRGINIANUS ELACHISTUS BrewsterDWARF HORNED OWLHABITSThis, the smallest race of the North American horned owls, is confinedto the peninsula of Lower California, Mexico, apparently about as farnorth as latitude 30, beyond which it seems to intergrade with pacificus.It was originally described by William Brewster (1902) as "similarto Bubo virginianus saturatus, but very much smaller." Later Dr.H. C. Oberholser (1904) characterized it as "similar to Asio magel-lanicus pacificus, but very much smaller." Dr. Oberholser, however,goes on to explain this discrepancy by saying: "In elachistus there aretwo very distinct phases, one light, the other dark. Mr. Brewster'stype is an example of the latter, which seems to be the more common."Three of Mr. Brewster's adult birds were of this dark phase, but thefourth was much paler, which he thought due to wear and fading.Mr. Brewster (1902) says of the haunts of this owl: "Mr. Frazarfound this Owl nearly everywhere from the coast to the tops of thehighest mountains, but not commonly except on the Sierra de laLaguna, where as many as three or four were often heard hooting atonce. Mr. Belding had a similar experience, rarely meeting the birdin the low country, whereas it was 'frequently heard and occasionallyseen' at the higher elevations. Its preference for the mountains isdoubtless due to the fact that they afford the only extensive forestsof large trees which exist in this region."Nesting.?Walter E. Bryant (1889) says: "On the peninsula oppositeMagdalena Island, I found in a giant cactus a bulky nest of sticksupon which could be seen two young. At Comondu, an owl of thisgenus was several times seen at the opening of a small cave high upon the cliff."There is a set of three eggs in the Thayer collection, taken by ChesterC. Lamb on January 31, 1924, at Juan Marcos, Lower California.The bird flew from what was probably an old Harris's hawk's nest,only 12 feet from the ground, in a mesquite tree. The nest was com-posed of large sticks and was lined very neatly with grass, rootlets,and dried stems. The eggs were fresh.
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J. Stuart Rowley writes to me that he took only one set of twoeggs of the dwarf horned owl, nearly ready to hatch, from a cavityin a cliff at San Fernando on April 19, 1933. He found another neston May 8 in a crotch of an immense tree near Mira Flores. This wasapparently an old nest of Audubon's caracara; it contained one half-grown young.Eggs.?The eggs of the dwarf horned owl are like those of the otherraces but smaller, of course, than those of the larger races. The meas-urements of nine eggs average 53.3 by 43.7 millimeters; the eggs show-ing the four extremes measure 56 by 45.5 and 47.5 by 40.9 millimeters.Behavior.?Mr. Rowley says that the owls at San Fernando werevery shy, and he tried in vain to collect the parents of that set. Thefemale always left the nest as he approached by climbing over therocks where concealment was impossible. He witnessed on anotheroccasion an interesting performance, which he describes as follows: "Iwas concealed near a pool of water, collecting nighthawks, when I sawa horned owl perch on the top of a cardon, about 100 yards distant.This individual, undoubtedly the male, started calling and in a fewminutes was joined by another bird, undoubtedly his mate, on thetop of another arm of the same cardon. The first bird continued hishooting and proceeded to bow up and down in rhythm with each hoot,accentuating the last hoot and bow of each performance. This lastedfor several minutes intermittently until I broke the silence of theevening with a shot at a nighthawk, whereupon both owls left."BUBO VIRGINIANUS HETEROCNEM1S (Oberholser)LABRADOR HORNED OWLHABITSWhen Dr. Oberholser (1904) named this large, dark race of thehorned owls, he described it as "like Asio magellanicus saturatus, butbill larger; posterior lower parts paler; feet lighter colored and lessheavily spotted; upper parts with usually less ochraceous. * * *Although by authors heretofore referred to saturatus, the Labradorbird differs from that form as detailed above, and its characters,though not as strongly marked as are those of some of the other races,are yet sufficient for recognition by name, particularly in view of awidely separated range. Although, of course, nearest saturatus, thedifferences may be readily appreciated in a good series."As birds from Newfoundland, of which we have a good series inCambridge, are not sufficiently different to warrant recognition innomenclature, Newfoundland is now included in the range of thisrace, as are also northern Ungava and Nova Scotia. Dark-coloredhorned owls, occasionally taken in winter in New England and
LABRADOR HORNED OWL 343Ontario, which were formerly reported as saturatus, are now recog-nized as migrants from the range of heterocnemis.Lucien M. Turner says in his unpublished notes: "So far as myown experience was concerned, I found the horned owl to be com-paratively rare in the Ungava district. From intelligent and trust-worthy sources, I have learned that this species of owl is quite com-mon near the head of Hamilton Inlet and the southern portion ofLabrador. The character of that region would indicate a greaterabundance of birds of prey than in the sparsely wooded district ofUngava."Nesting.?Walter Raine (1896) reports a nest found at SandwichBay, Labrador, April 17, 1895, and the label says: "The nest wasbuilt in a spruce 15 feet from the ground, and made of twigs andcoarse grass." There is a set of two eggs in the Thayer collection,taken at the same place by the same collector on May 1, 1896, with thefollowing data: "Nest made of sticks and weeds in tip of a spruce."I have two sets of three eggs each in my collection, one from Hope-dale, Labrador, and one from Grand Lake, Newfoundland, but nodescription of the nests came with them.Major Bendire (1892) quotes Henry Reeks on a Newfoundland nest,who says: "The only nest that came under my observation was builton the ground on a tussock of grass in the center of a pond. Thesame nest had been previously occupied for several years by a pairof Geese (Bernicla canadensis)."In Florida, in Texas, and in Newfoundland, the great horned owlhas been reported as nesting on the ground. J. R. Whitaker hassent me the following interesting notes from the latter locality: "OnApril 1, 1922, I crossed over on the ice to an island in Junction River.Part of this island is covered with a thick growth of spruce, and therest is more or less barren ; on this bare part stands the stump of whatmust have been a large pine tree, about 15 feet high. * * * Floodshave washed the soil away from under the roots of the old stump,leaving it standing on a tripod of roots. The snow was piled up allaround, except on one side; as I approached and was quite near, agreat horned owl scrambled out and flew to a pine tree about 30 yardsaway, where it was joined by the male bird; both of them snappedtheir bills loudly and hooted at me. I looked under the stump, andthere on the frozen ground, surrounded by snow, lay the eggs. Therewas no nest, only about half a dozen owl's feathers. The bird hadmade quite a beaten track going in and out. Directly after the thawcame, the nest was submerged under 2 feet of water. The owls thenmoved a distance of about 300 yards and laid a second clutch under aprostrate dead pine, which had rolled from the top of a very steep,sandy bank and lodged about halfway down; the roots held the buttend up about 12 inches; stones and soil had rolled down the hill and
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filled all the back part of the log up level, making a snug cavern forthe nest. Here the owls had evidently nested for years, as therewas a large accumulation of pellets and bones of muskrat and rabbit.There was no nesting material but these old beaten down pellets andbones. It is hard to conjecture why these birds chose to nest on theground when, within less than a mile, there are several good nestingplaces which were frequented regularly a few years ago, when thebird was much more plentiful than it is at the present time."This ground-nesting habit is not universal in Newfoundland, how-ever, for while I was there in 1912 I was told by reliable guides of twonests of this owl on broken-off tops of pine trees. The only placeswhere I saw this owl were the heavily timbered regions along thestreams.Eggs.?The Labrador horned owl apparently lays either two orthree eggs. These are similar to the eggs of other horned owls butseem to average slightly larger than those of virginianus. The measure-ments of 17 eggs average 56.2 by 47.4 millimeters; the eggs showingthe four extremes measure 60.7 by 46.7, 56.3 by 48.3, 53.9 by 46.3,and 54.3 by 45.2 millimeters.This owl evidently does not differ in general habits from other racesof the species. Mr. Turner had an experience with one that seemed toindicate that horned owls have a keen sense of smell. He had a lot ofsmall birds, wrapped in papers and hung up in a cloth bag; the owlfound the bag, tore it open, and devoured over a dozen of the birds.This is one of the northern races that might be expected to makeextensive fall and winter migrations in seasons when its northern foodsupply becomes scarce; and so it undoubtedly does, for it has beenoccasionally taken in winter in Ontario and various parts of New Eng-land. On the south coast of the Labrador Peninsula, we saw no evi-dence of horned owls in May and June, but we were told by the resi-dents that they were not rare on the coast in winter. Ptarmigansflock to the coast of Labrador in winter but retire to the interior insummer, and their movements seem to be followed by a correspond-ing flight of horned and snowy owls. On the northeast coast of Labra-dor, however, no such migration seems to take place, for we were toldthat horned owls are fairly common there at all seasons, in all suitabletracts of heavy timber.BUBO VIRGINIANUS ALGISTUS (Oberholser)ST. MICHAEL HORNED OWLHABITSThis race, which is supposed to breed on the coast region of north-western Alaska, from Bristol Bay to Kotzebue Sound, was describedby Dr. H. C. Oberholser (1904) as "similar to Asio magellanicus lago-
NORTHWESTERN HORNED OWL 345phonus, but much paler throughout ; the lower parts less heavily barred
;
the legs and feet not so conspicuously mottled. * * * This sub-species of Asio magellanicus really much more resembles occidentalis orpacificus than it does its nearest geographic relative, lagophonus; but isnot identical with either. From occidentalis it may be separated by itsdarker upper surface, particularly the wings, and by its somewhatless heavily barred lower surface; while from pacificus its larger size,less ochraceous face, and the paler ochraceous of the upper surface willserve for differentiation."Nearly all we know about the habits of this owl is contained in thefollowing account of it by Dr. E. W. Nelson (1887):Throughout the entire wooded part of Northern Alaska the present bird is foundextending its range in autumn to the open treeless shore along Bering Sea andportions of the Arctic coast. In several instances at Saint Michaels I found themperched on our wood-pile in the evening, late in autumn, and saw others, now andthen, using for a lookout the upright stacks of drift-wood we had placed abovehigh-tide mark for winter use. When traveling at night along the Yukon in mid-winter I have frequently heard the hollow notes of these owls echoing from theblack recesses of the spruce forests which wall in the river down to within ahundred miles or so of its mouth. This sound, with the sharp bark of a fox, orthe much rarer cry of a hare as it is caught by a lynx, or, rarer still, the long-drawnhowl of a wolf, are the only noises that greet the ear of the weary traveler.Nesting.?Dr. Nelson (1887) says: "Near Fort Yukon Kennicottfound them breeding on April 10, and describes the nest as a very largestructure made of dry spruce branches placed in a spruce tree standingamid a dense growth of other trees of its kind. This date, however,is probably somewhat earlier than usual, as would appear from thesize of the young which I have seen brought to the sea-coast by thefur traders, which were not half grown by the middle of June."Eggs.?I have been able to locate only six eggs of this owl, threesets of two eggs each. The measurements average 55.5 by 47 milli-meters; the eggs showing the four extremes measure 55.8 by 48.5,55.1 by 49.4, and 55.5 by 45.4 millimeters.Food.?Dr. Louis B. Bishop (1900) says that, on his trip down theYukon, "owl pellets, some of them remarkably large, containing chieflybones of rabbits, ground squirrels, and red squirrels, were found ingreat abundance, especially at Caribou Crossing and on Windy Island,Lake Tagish, but the most careful hunting failed to disclose the owls."BUBO VIRGINIANUS LAGOPHONUS (Oberholser)NORTHWESTERN HORNED OWLHABITSIn naming and describing this race, Dr. H. C. Oberholser (1904)says: "This subspecies differs from pacificus in its larger size; darkerupper and lower parts, the latter more heavily barred; more strongly13751?38 23
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mottled legs and feet; darker and more rufescent facial disk." Thisrace is nearer in color to saturatus than to any other race, but it is notquite so dark ; there is also more ochraceous and rufous in the face andelsewhere in lagophonus.It occupies an adjacent range in the mountainous interior, north-ward to the interior of Alaska. Dr. Oberholser (1904) says, however:
"It is possible that I err in referring to lagophonus the Alaskan speci-mens of Asio from the timbered region, for it may well be that theselarge birds are but the dark phase of algistus, yet in so far as the ma-terial now available shows, save in one single instance, the differencein plumage is correlated with change of area, the lighter birds beingconfined in a general way to the Barren Grounds." As horned owls aretimber loving birds, it hardly seems likely that they would be anythingmore than wanderers on the Barren Grounds; and they most certainlymust breed in the timbered regions. For this reason, I have treatedall the records from northern Alaska as referable to algistus.Nesting.?W. Leon Dawson (Dawson and Bowles, 1909) says:
"Nesting begins earlier than in the case of any other resident species,and fresh eggs may be looked for by the third week in February,whatever the state of the weather. Hollows in trees are sometimesused, and if so, receive no lining; but old nests of hawk, magpie, orcrow are more commonly employed."On March 9, 1887, in Yakima County, he says: "I took a set of twoeggs well incubated, from an old nest of Swainson's Hawk, forty feethigh in a giant balm tree. A few weeks later I came upon a set of four,laid by the same bird, in an old Crow's nest in a neighboring poplargrove; and again, a month later, a set of two in another Crow's nestnot a hundred feet away. These last I spared, for one does not alwayscontest the rights of motherhood, even in tigers."Major Bendire (1892) says that "quite a number nest in the wind-worn holes in sandstone and other cliffs, small caves in clay and chalkbluffs," and "in some localities on the ground."Eggs.?The northwestern horned owl evidently lays two to foureggs, which are indistinguishable from the eggs of other horned owls.The measurements of 11 eggs average 54 by 44.5 millimeters; the eggsshowing the four extremes measure 57.1 by 44.4, 52 by 46, 51 by 44.2,and 52 by 43 millimeters.Food.?Mr. Dawson (1909) writes: " The food of the Horned Owl inEastern Washington consists of rabbits, and all the various rodentswhich infest meadows and sage, together with birds of many sorts,especially grouse. They easily cultivate an acquaintance with thepoultry-yard, and if well fed, become so fastidious that they will havenothing but the brains of a fowl. Naturally, this epicurean taste isresented by intelligent ranchers, and the day of the Horned Owl isslowly waning."
NORTHWESTERN" HORNED OWL 347Behavior.?The following incident, related by Mr. and Mrs. ThomasT. McCabe (1928), illustrates the strength and vitality of this greatbird:On or about June 1, 1927, one of us knocked a Great Horned Owl {Bubo virgini-anus) out of the lower branches of an aspen with a charge of small shot. Theslow, wheeling fall, with open wings, was characteristic of a dead bird, so thegunner took his time and was rewarded by an hour's search, several large second-aries, and no owl. In another case, on November 4, 1927, the junior author wasmore fortunate and brought in perhaps the most superb owl we have seen in thisland of owls, splendid not only in size and general condition, but covered with ablanket of pure white fat of a depth which would have been surprising on thefattest of waterfowl. By chance we skeletonized this specimen, and found that,at some earlier date, the ulna had been completely shattered for a length of aboutan inch and a half, and had knit, at a somewhat false angle, in a large, perforatedbony mass. The principal metacarpal bone had also been smashed, and had knitin a similar way. The probability that this was the missing owner of the second-aries was very strong. Such a condition presupposes other "ills we know not of",for the side and back must have been badly peppered. The owl had been able tomaintain life without flight for a considerable length of time, in spite of theabundant coyotes, and either kill some prey under the same conditions or endurean amazing fast and still regain its superb condition within one Bhort northernsummer.Dr. H. C. Oberholser (1904) described a race from the coast of Cali-fornia which he named icelus, but which has never been recognized inthe A. O. U. Check-List; he described it as resembling pacificus, "butvery much darker particularly on the upper parts." The type wastaken at San Luis Obispo, Calif., on November 29, 1891, and wasevidently a winter migrant, as this locality is well within the breedingrange of pacificus. Dr. Louis B. Bishop tells me that icelus is a per-fectly good race, much like lagophonus, but smaller, breeding fromTillamook County, Oreg., southward along the coast region to Mon-terey County, Calif., and ranging north to Thurston County, Wash.,and south, in winter, to Los Angeles County, Calif. He has 21specimens in his collection, from the above and intermediate localities,which are uniformly referable to this race.Dr. Bishop (1931a) has recently described a new race from Victoria,British Columbia, which he names Bubo virginianus leucomelas; hesays that it is "similar to B. v. lagophonus, but with the ochraceousreplaced with grayish white throughout the plumage, except for alittle pale ochraceous in the interscapular region. Though collectedin the breeding range of B. v. saturatus its relationship is nearerlagophonus, as it replaces the sooty black of the former with the moregrayish black of the latter?almost Ridgway's 'blackish brown (2)'.The abdomen is more distinctly barred than in either of these racesand the pale markings are more profuse above. The tarsi and toesare heavily spotted and barred with black on a grayish white ground."The type was taken near Victoria on January 19, 1927, where it was
348 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMdoubtless a winter migrant only. In addition to the type, two othersabout typical and five more, variously intermediate with subarcticus,were taken in that general region. Dr. Bishop thought that it mightbreed east of the coast range in northern British Columbia, near wherethe ranges of lagophonus and subarcticus approximate; and he nowtells me that H. S. Swarth since found it breeding there.BUBO VIRGINIANUS OCC1DENTALIS Stonemontana horned owlPlate 78HABITSContributed by Milton Philo SkinnerI should call the Montana horned owl rather unsuspicious, at leastin such a place as the Yellowstone National Park where I knew itbest. Sometimes I would see them watching me as I rode past themon horseback. Apparently they were attracted by lights, perhapsthrough curiosity, for I would frequently see them by the headlightof my auto, acting in such a way as to indicate that the light itselfwas an attraction. Several times I have had them visit my campand circle about, above the campfire, or alight in a nearby tree.Lewis and Clark killed a Montana horned owl in western NorthDakota on April 14, 1805, probably the first one of this subspecies tobe secured by a white man. Later, others found them rather commonin many places. Williams (1926) says they were still quite numerousin North Dakota at that time.Spring.?Over much of their range Montana horned owls do notmigrate. In the Yellowstone Park most of them usually disappear inOctober and return in March. But this park is all high, mountainouscountry, and the movement is more or less forced by deep snows andlack of food. Probably these birds, in such regions, move up anddown with the seasons, without its being an actual migration.Nesting.?The Montana horned owls in Colorado, Wyoming, andIdaho, at least, often make their nests inside of old magpie nests, andstill oftener lay their eggs on the tops of these bulky balls of twigs.Bergtold (1928) says they breed up as high as 11,000 feet above sealevel in Colorado. And Sclater (1912) says: "In Colorado the HornedOwl is a fairly common resident, breeding over nearly the whole ofthe State from the plains up to timber line, according to Drew, andwandering up to 13,000 feet in the fall."One pair had a nest on an old magpie nest, 20 feet above ground, ina grove of cottonwood trees about 3 miles east of Aurora, Colo.,according to Leon Kelso (1929a), in 1925, and in similar places nearbyin 1926 and 1927. These nests were in rather a public place, but the
MONTANA HORNED OWL 349owls slowly became tamer and less disturbed by the autos andpicnickers below them.Rockwell (1908) gives a good description: "The nest was a badlydilapidated magpie's nest from which all the top had weathered awayexcept a portion which shielded the bird from the north, leaving arather flat platform of sticks not unlike an old hawk's nest, and wassituated about 15 feet from the ground in a small cottonwood treeabout 8 inches in diameter. The depression of the nest cavity wasquite shallow and was unlined except for a thin layer of leathers fromthe parent's breast, upon which, together with some dead leaves andsimilar trash the egg wTas deposited."Lowe (1895) says that "here in Pueblo County, where diminutivejunipers struggle for existence among the limestone hillsides, andwhose branches, unlike those of the gigantic sycamores, sweep theground rather than the sky, Bubo virginianus [occidentalis] nests at avery low height. It is unusual to find a nest higher than twenty feet,and fifteen feet is about the average, while twelve feet and even eightare not infrequently noted. Nesting sites of birds very often appearto be governed by surroundings. Thus it will be seen that theWestern Horned Owl, when nesting in a locality like the above, iscompelled to build very low." Other naturalists have noted thisalso. Sillovvay (1901) says:As the female was thus abroad, it was necessary for me to climb to each sus-pected nest, not knowing the precise site; and guided by my experience withBubo in Illinois, where sycamores grow tall and Bubos nest high, I ascended toseveral that were conspicuously high. At length, having examined all the likelysites, I concluded that the occupied nest must be an insignificant affair in the topof a slender tree. Pushing through the thicket to reach the tree, I discovered alarge lean-to nest against the trunk of a small tree, the distance of the structurefrom the ground being only ten feet. * * * I scrambled up the trunk fromsheer force of habit, and ah, there were two eggs.Seemingly, Montana horned owls do not often make nests of theirown. Even when it comes to material added to an old nest, there isquite a bit of variation as to presence of any nesting material at all.V. L. Marsh writes us of a nest where the eggs were lying upon thebare, rocky material of the site without any other material of anykind. In places these birds make their nests on the ground. Cam-eron (1907) says that this owl "nests indifferently in the river valleysor pine hills. A pair of Hoot Owls reared their young on my ranchin Custer County for many years, repairing the same nest, often buta storm swept fragment, each spring in the same box-elder tree.Almost before winter is fairly over (about third week of March)the female begins to lay. * * * While one of the pair is on thenest, the other sits silent in a tree, its plumage assimilating so closelyto the bark, whether box elder or willow, as to render the bird invisibleeven when the tree is leafless." Mr. Bent (1907) has noted that
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"the deserted nests of the larger hawks were sometimes occupied byHorned or Long-eared Owls." And he also says that one pair usedone of the old heron nests in the great blue heron rookery on SkullCreek, Saskatchewan. These adopted nests include those of red-tailed hawks, Swainson's hawks, ferruginous roughlegs, and in factall hawks that build nests of sufficient size and proper character.Apparently Montana horned owls nest at all heights above the groundup to 70 feet. The hawk nests they use average about 40 feet abovethe ground. Higher than that, they must be in sheltered places moreor less out of the wind.In the Yellowstone National Park these birds nest in March, on thetops of stubs or thick trees, and at least once a pair nested in a nichein a cliff near Gibbon Falls. On June 25, 1917, I found a desertednest on the top of a 20-foot stub standing alone in a little embaymentfacing east, in the fir forest above Mammoth, and overlooking anopen mesa and the Gardiner Valley beyond. These owls came backagain and again for many years to this old nest until a wind of un-usual strength toppled the old stub over. Sometimes the old birdwould refuse to leave the nest even when stones and sticks actuallystruck the nest below her. In spite of the reputation of horned owlsfor ferocity, these were devoted mates, and were actually affectionateto each other, as well as to their young. The nests I found in theYellowstone were all in the mountains where there were no magpienests to serve as bases.Wolfe (1912) found an unusual nest in western Kansas, in a largehole in a clay bank. On March 24, 1910, a female owl was in thishole, which was 2 feet deep, and the eggs in a slight depression, withno lining. Wolfe (1912) also says that in western Kansas, the nestsare usually in holes and fissures in limestone ledges along the streams.On March 25, 1909, "after a great deal of climbing and looking intomany holes and crevices ; we at last located a nest containing one egg.The nest was in a crevice in the face of a cliff about forty feet up.The crevice was parallel to the base and perhaps ten inches wide.* * * It [the egg] was lying in a depression nearly round and four-teen inches in diameter by seven inches deep, and contained no lining.From all appearances and the amount of debris, bones and etc., lyingnear the nest, this site had been used for many generations and byconstant use the depression had been worn in the solid rock. Neitherof us touched the egg or put our hands in the crevice, hoping tosecure a complete set later. During our stay at the nest we did notsee either of the birds. April 8, we returned, * * * but thenest had been deserted." Of another nest, Wolfe (1912) says: "Acareful search was begun and resulted in flushing a female from anest containing two eggs. This nest was * * * situated in avery open place, being on a ledge not over eight feet up. The eggs
MONTANA HORNED OWL 35 \were in a depression over two inches deep hollowed out of the sandon the ledge."Eggs.?This subspecies usually has two and often three but rarelyfour, white eggs. The measurements of six eggs average 54.8 by 46.3millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremes measure 56.5 by 48.2,53 by 45.5, and 54.6 by 45.3 millimeters.Strange to say, the earliness, or tardiness, of the season seems tohave little to do with the actual laying of the eggs. My experiencehas been that the period of incubation is 28 days, usually performed bythe female, although the male sometimes takes her place temporarily.But Cameron (1907) says the male sits alternately with her, andshares the duties of incubation. On the other hand, Sclater (1912) saysthat incubation is "undertaken entirely by the female." Sometimes,while the female is on the nest, the male will be close by and may evenbe found crouching on the nest beside his mate (Treganza, 1914).While their eggs are still unhatched, the adults do not ordinarily resentintruders. Rockwell (1908), of Colorado, writes: "A week later[March 17] we returned. * * * The owl evidently heard us and asshe raised up we could plainly see her head above the rim of the nest.We promptly got our cameras into action and after making a coupleof exposures from the ground, climbed a tree about 25 feet from thenest. * * * This did not seem to frighten her, but when we got halfway up a tree within 15 feet of the nest the old bird flopped off thenest and out of sight. An examination of the nest revealed two eggsin which incubation had begun. The nest contained many morefeathers than on the previous week."Donahue (1923) says of a Kansas pair: "Clyde was almost up to thenest before the old owl flew off. * * * The male soon came slidingthrough the woods from up the draw, and joined its mate in protesta-tions in the form of beak clickings and deep 'Whooo-hoooos' from treesaround about."Wolfe (1912) says that he took two sets of eggs, one of four onMarch 24, 1910, and just one month later two eggs that were notquite so large. And I think I am correct in writing that it is usual forthe second set of eggs to be both fewer in number and somewhatsmaller in size. Sclater (1912) says that: "Gale found it a most per-sistent layer; he took three sets of eggs from the same pair of birds;the sets numbered four, three and two respectively, and the nest-sitewas changed each time."Young.?With the arrival of their young, the parents become fiercer,and may later boldy attack any person approaching the nest. Cook(1926) says that he found a nest tree, "an easy one to climb and Iwas making fairly good progress toward the nest and had gottenwithin about six feet of it, when the unexpected happened. Mrs. Owlwho had perched on a tree nearby to watch the proceedings, suddenly
352 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMswooped down upon me, striking me such a blow on the top of the headthat my cap was knocked off and for a moment it made me wonderwhether I was going up or coming down. In order to avoid a secondattack I had to wave my arms frantically about my head, as I now hadno covering on my head a second attack might have proved much moreserious * * * when I looked into the nest there were two nicelittle owlets, doing their best to back away from me." Neilson (1930)writes: "I still carry scars on my arms received in repeated attacks bya pair of old birds when I was engaged in securing pictures of theyoung in the spring of 1921. Their method of attack was to launchthemselves from a tree and fly straight for my face and only once didthey attempt their attack from behind and my stockman's jacket wasall that saved my neck a severe laceration. Knocking them to theground once or twice seemed only to make them more determined."Making use of the dates for fresh eggs already given and adding28 days, we may look for young owls as early as the middle of February,in Kansas, to the last of April, in Manitoba. Some owlets have beenfound in their nest as late as July 10, but these were, no doubt, fromsecond settings.Cameron (1907) says that the owlets are so pugnacious "that thestrongest finally drives the others from the nest to occupy a branchnear, where they pretend to fight but avoid the real issue by twirlinground and hanging head downwards by their scansorial feet."By the time the youngsters are two months old they are as largeas the adults. About that age they learn to fly and then leave the nest.After that, although they may fly to neighboring trees, they sometimeskeep in the vicinity of the nest for as much as a month longer, beforefinally leaving.Warren (1911) records that at one nest with three young therewere: "As a food supply, the hindquarters of a cottontail rabbit, apocket gopher (Thomomys), and three young Pinyon Jays, just aboutlarge enough to leave the nest. The heads of these latter weremissing." Donahue (1923) says of a nest containing three veryyoung owls, that there were "several parts of rabbits in the nestcavity, also a freshly killed Bobwhite." Later, he found flickerfeathers there.Plumages.?Owlets just out of their eggs are blind and so nearlynaked that they look like pink featherless lumps of flesh. They arethen about as weak and helpless as birds can be. But in a few hours,possibly as soon as dry, the white down shows. Five days laterwhite pinfeathers have started. The eyes open when they are aboutone week old, and at that age the eyes are brown. At ten days ofage the white down covers the body, and the pinfeathers that havebeen growing under the down begin to show. During the next weekchanges are quite rapid. About the twelfth day, the previously
MONTANA HORNED OWL 353
white plumage begins to acquire a brownish tinge, and the owletsbegin to snap at intruders, perhaps in imitation of their parents.At this stage the owlets are about the size of pigeons. Pinfeathersappear at edges of wings and tail and grow rapidly, while down stillcontinues over considerable areas. At 20 days of age the color ofthe iris changes from brown to yellow, getting brighter and clearerday by day; feather marking begins to appear. Ear tufts appearwhen the birds are 20 or 25 days of age. After this the remainingtufts of white down gradually get soiled, and the general color of theowlet grows buffy on body and wings as more and more feathersdevelop. Warren (1911) secured an owlet on May 10, 1901, atPaonia, Colo., that was presumably 41 to 45 days old, and says:
"It stands about twelve inches high. The body plumage is mostlydown, but the wing and tail feathers are well grown, and about halfout of their sheaths. The ear tufts usually stand up about one-halfinch but sometimes three-quarters of an inch. The feet and legsare thickly covered with a yellowish or light buffy down. Thewhole of the body down, both above and below, is barred similar tothe adult, and is fully two inches thick on the breast. This down isa light yellowish brown, but light gray on the tips. The wing covertsare brownish yellow, with dark, nearly black, bars a quarter of aninch wide. The primaries and secondaries are as dark as the barsof the coverts, with still darker bars. The tail similar. The facemarkings and feathers are just beginning to show." At two monthsof age, the young owls are full grown and a trifle lighter in colorthan adults, perhaps still retaining a few tufts of down on the endsof some of their feathers. Grinnell, Dixon, and Linsdale (1930)weighed "a male and a female from near Termo [northeastern Cali-fornia], October 11 and 12, 1924, at 1160 and 1184 grams, respectively."Food.-?About 11 a. m. of a cloudy day, while riding in the Yellow-stone Park, I saw a Montana horned owl fly low across a high moun-tain prairie and finally alight on a sage 2 feet high, hop to one side,catch a ground squirrel, and fly off with it to a nearbj7 thick grove oflodgepole pine. At other times I have found the remains of snow-shoe rabbits, caught by these owls, on the hot-spring formation atMammoth. Like other subspecies described, the Montana hornedowls eat various kinds of mice, rabbits, rats, skunks, ground squirrels,pocket gophers, prairie dogs, an occasional bird, and unprotectedchickens that sleep out.Grinnell, Dixon, and Linsdale (1930) record, of the pair taken nearTermo, that "the stomach of the male contained one red-shaftedflicker and one meadow-mouse. The female had eaten a Californiajay and a bushy-tailed woodrat."Cameron (1907) says: "They were observed to kill half grown tur-keys belonging to J. C. Braley, of Terry, in the summer of 1902. The
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season's menu for our own particular owlets consisted, however,mainly of cotton-tail rabbits, two of which have been seen in thenest at one time. I once saw a young jack rabbit in the nest." Andhe also observes that one nest was once supplied with a long-earedowl and a sharp-tail grouse, but during the time that the young weregrowing no other birds were eaten at the nest.Merriam (1891) has recorded that one killed at Saw Tooth Lake,Idaho, on September 30, 1890, had in its stomach, "two PocketGophers (Thomomys), one White-footed Mouse (Hesperomys), oneField Mouse or Vole (Arvicola), and a new species of Phenacomys."So far as economic value is concerned, this owl, like the other west-ern subspecies, seems more destructive of obnoxious forms of life thanof game and poultry. Donahue (1923) says: "In this instance atleast, though there was a chicken farm within a half mile from thenesting site, poultry formed not a single part of the food fed to theyoung. As far as I was able to find out and discover, with the excep-tions of the bobwhite and the flicker already spoken of, the food ofthe great horned owl [and three young ones] consists wholly of cot-ton-tail rabbits." Warren (1911) adds even more valuable testi-mony for the owl: "While staying at Gaume's ranch in the north-western part of Baca County, the last of May, 1905, a pair of HornedOwls had two young in a hole or small cave in the sandstone bluffswhich formed the back of the corrals. * * * I estimated thisas thirty feet above the bottom of the bluff, and ten below thetop. * * * The people at the ranch told me the owls had nevermolested their poultry though there were many chickens of all sizesand ages running about everywhere below the nest."Mr. Kelso records an instance near Aurora, Colo., where Englishsparrows built a nest in the interstices of the owls' bundle of sticks.He (1929b) also says that "Desert Sparrow Hawks, Lewis Woodpeck-ers, Red-shafted Flickers and Magpies nesting in the immediatevicinity were not disturbed, to my knowledge, although individualsof those species were brought to the young owls for food."Rockwell (1908) sums up:It has been said and possibly it is true that the Horned Owl is the most destruc-tive of North American birds, but even if this be true, it is certainly a fact thatwhat damage the comparatively few individuals of the species, to be found inany given locality, really do is not sufficient to brand them as a natural menace,and the amount of good they do in destroying small rodents should certainly bea strong point in their favor.But when all other arguments for a sweeping bird protection fail to convince,we can always fall back on the fundamental fact that Nature knows how to con-duct her affairs very well and if those who are over-anxious to exterminate anycreature regarding whose economic usefulness there is a question would rest fromtheir labors of carnage and let the natural laws take their course, the ultimateresults would probably be fully as satisfactory. * * * Why not let a wiseNature of which man is but an insignificant part rule without our interference?
MONTANA HORNED OWL 355He says also that the early date of nesting, and the quiet and retiringways of the birds at that period, probably account "for the way inwhich these birds withstand constant persecution, not only fromhunters but from ranchmen as well, for every farmer seems to feel it asolemn duty to do his share toward exterminating the entire owlfamily."Behavior.?I found these owls in all parts of Montana and Wyomingfrom the lowest elevations up to at least 8,000 feet above sea level,but much commoner in the lowlands. At night they are apt to comeout into the open valleys and meadows; but during daylight theyusually keep more or less concealed in the thick foliage of lodgepolepine, limber pine, fir, spruce, cottonwoods, or aspen groves. Theyare, therefore, never far from wooded regions in daytime unless thereare caves to hide in. During daylight they are apt to perch on limbsclose to the trunks of the trees ; but at dusk, I see more of them perchedon isolated dead trees, dead stubs, or telephone poles. I have alsoseen them, on cloudy days, perched momentarily on low sage bushes,or even at times on the ground of grassy knolls. Of course, I haveseen still more of these birds at night; but on at least one occasionI saw one flying just above the forest trees, in the bright sunlight.Once I saw a pigeon hawk, a western red-tailed hawk, and a Mon-tana horned owl all in the same dense thicket; but I never could findout why they were together. At one of my camps a horned owl, ashort-eared owl, and a screech owl came flying about camp atdifferent times the same evening, but they did not appear togetherat any time.In Yellowstone Park these horned owls seem actually to like thehot-spring and geyser areas. I often saw them in the forest coveringthe old part of the hot-spring formation at Mammoth, apparentlyliving there at all seasons. Possibly this was due to the trees therebeing very thick and heavy and having good nest sites. Also, therewere large numbers of ground squirrels, mice, and young rabbitsnearby. On August 8, 1927, I found an owl roost in a grove of thicktrees on the river bank half a mile below the Sentinel Geyser at thelower edge of the world-renowned Upper Geyser Basin.Although the birds generally threatened me when near the nest,they were usually silent when they really meant to attack. Then theydived with a swift, sure rush that was deadly in its silent power.When they struck, the blow from their fist was painful and theirclaws would cut through all but the heaviest padding. Once I foundtwo coats, a heavy sweater, a vest, and two heavy woolen shirts toolight, and the owls drew blood from my neck and shoulder. Afterdelivering a blow, the attacking owl would continue its swift, levelflight beyond me for a hundred feet before swinging to the left andupward to return for another attack. Both the males and thefemales delivered these blows, but I thought the larger's attack, and
356 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMtherefore likely the female's, was a little the more frequent andvicious. The viciousness of the attacks seemed to increase with theincrease in age of the nestlings. V. L. Marsh writes us: "On April 22,I made an attempt to get to the nest. I was stretched out on theface of the cliff when the female swooped down and drove a pair ofsharp claws into the back of my horse-hide coat. About 15 feet behindher came the male, but he veered off past me as I let out a loud yell.I don't know why I had that leather coat on, but I always wore itafter that."Although the Montana horned owl normally roosts during the dayin thick tree foliage, Kelso (1930) says: "A trait that I had notobserved before in these birds was their roosting among the grassesand weeds on the damp ground below the trees during the hot daysof June."Voice.?The Montana horned owl has the usual note of hornedowls, a loud, mellow Whoo-hoo-hoo-oo-oo, a stirring night sound thatis ever thrilling to lovers of the wilder aspects of nature.Once, while I was in camp at the upper end of the Slough Creekmeadows in Yellowstone Park, a Montana horned owl came andalighted, at dusk, on a tall fir, where it went through the motions ofhooting, although no sound issued from its beak. Most of the timeits horns lay back on its head, but once or twice it erected them. Ido not think that it saw me, but it kept turning its head to lookaway from me down the open valley. At another time, I heard anadult owl on a dead lodgepole pine utter a whistling cry.When the old birds dived at me, they snapped their bills and hissedwhile still some distance away. This snapping was an angry, threat-ening sound easily heard when the coming birds were still a hundredfeet away. Kelso (1930) has given an excellent account of sounds ata nest: "On March 23 [1923], the female was sitting. * * * At7:35 p. m., the male came to the nest and a conversation of deepwhoo-whoo's followed, lasting for ten seconds or more. Also one ofthe birds uttered a shrill chee-chee-chee call." [The young werehatched during the third week of April.]On the night of April 27, the female was hovering the young. At 7:00 p. m.a muffled chee-chee began coming from the nest, with, occasionally, a harsh raspingnote. After about five minutes, the mother owl arose, stood on the edge of thenest for a second, and then flew away over an open field to the south, uttering therasping call as she went. The notes of the young bird became louder and morecontinuous, resembling the cheeping of a young chick. At 8:05 p. m. the motherreturned, evidently with some article of food, for the owlet was silent from thenon. * * * While watching the nest May 28, one of the parents was seen toalight on it at about 9:00 p. m. * * * After a few minutes the adult flewdown the creek. The young owl called after it a rasping peerahhh and the parentanswered by the same note. This calling and replying continued about fiveminutes, the sounds varying in length and sharpness, sometimes amounting to ascream. A parent once uttered a whistling whee-whee note. A short period of
MONTANA HORNED OWL 357
silence passed and then both parents were heard in a tree near the nest, holdinga confused conversation, one uttering the whoo and the other giving erreeuh callsaccompanied by a loud snapping of the beak. The latter was evidently thefemale. * * * Another of her calls was a series of sharp tchi-tchi-lchi sounds,ending in a harsh screech.Enemies.?On one occasion, as a Montana horned owl flew offthrough a lodgepole forest, I heard a pine squirrel scolding it. OnMay 24, 1916, I heard a western robin chirping rapidly in some ever-greens. When I got there I found two owls perched in the flexilispines. So far as I could see they were neither injuring nor molestingthe robin in any way. Crows are not common over much of the rangeof the Montana horned owl and there is little mobbing of owls by them.Fall.?Little is known of any seasonal movements. Still, W. RaySalt banded two horned owls at Rosebud, Alberta, on May 23, 1930.One was shot at Antelope, Mont., 400 miles distant, on January 8,1931. The other was caught at Carbon, Alberta, 30 miles in anexactly opposite direction, on July 1, 1931. While these two recordsshow an apparent migration, in two different directions, yet we mustremember that young owls tend to wander widely after leaving thevicinity of the nest. Still, after this allowance is made, there aremany other Montana horned owls that remain much closer home thanthese two did. Possibly there is a movement south by the mostnorthern birds, just as I observed a movement down from the highestaltitudes in the Yellowstone.Winter.?While I do not think that any number remain all winterin the Yellowstone Park, on one occasion I found where one had caughta pine squirrel on the snow, although the squirrel had attempted todig down into the snow and escape. On another winter day I foundthe trail of a snowshoe rabbit ending abruptly where there were printsof an owl's wings on either side. In this case there was no indicationthat the rabbit had known of the owl's approach, no sign of a struggle,and very little blood. Evidently the rabbit had been seized andcarried off before it knew the owl was near. This picking up of itsprey is very different from the heavy blows struck at enemies. Sofar as I know, these heavy blows are not used at prey.Kelso (1930) says: "During the winter of 1928-29, two WesternHorned Owls (Bubo virginianus pallescens) were repeatedly observedto be ranging along a cottonwood-bordered creek a few miles east ofAurora, Colorado. In the months of January and February theyoccupied widely separated parts of their territory, and neither had anyregular roosting place." But Wolfe (1912) has recorded: "During thewinter of 1909-10, I noticed that a male Western Horned Owl hadtaken up his home in a large hole in a clay bank which was usuallyused in the summer by Barn Owls." This hole was 2 feet deep, andin March Mr. Wolfe found a pair of horned owls nesting there.
358 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMNYCTEA NYCTEA (Linnaeus)SNOWY OWLPlates 79-83HABITSThis great white owl, one of the largest and most powerful, enjoysa wide circumpolar distribution throughout the Arctic regions ofboth hemispheres. It breeds north of the limits of trees on theArctic tundras as far north as explorers have found suitable land thatis not covered with perpetual ice and snow, and where it can findsuitable food supply. But it is by no means evenly distributed oruniversally abundant, nor is it permanently abundant anywhere,on account of the periodic fluctuations in its food supply. At PointBarrow, for example, John Murdoch (1885) says: "Its abundance inthe spring and summer near the coast appears to depend on the pres-ence or absence of its favorite food, the Lemming, as has been notedelsewhere by Mr. Nelson. During the season of 1882 we saw noLemmings, though signs of their presence in the shape of droppings,and their skulls and skeletons in owl's castings, were numerous allover the tundra. During that season we saw but very few owls.On the other hand, in 1883, Lemmings were exceedingly plenty allround the station, and owls were proportionately abundant; scarcelya day passed without one or more being seen sitting on the tundra,generally on the top of a bank or small knoll, on the lookout forLemmings.'
'
Writing of its distribution in Alaska, Dr. E. W. Nelson (1887)says:It is more common in the northern part of the Territory, where its distributionhowever, is irregular, it being abundant at one season and almost totally unknownthe next. I was informed by Captain Smith?a well known whaling captainof that region?that he had seen as many as fifty of these birds perched in viewat one time along the abrupt coast-line of the Arctic, in the vicinity of CapeLisburne, and yet they were so shy that it was impossible to secure a singlebird. * * * The natives told me of seasons, separated by long intervals,when the lemmings have occurred in the greatest abundance, and the WhiteOwl accompanied them in such numbers that they were seen dotting the countryhere and there as they perched upon the scattered knolls.Theodore Pleske (1928) says of the haunts of this owl on theEurasian tundra:The Snowy Owl during its breeding season inhabits the alpine zone exclusively,that is to say, those parts that are quite bare of any vegetation whatever, eitherthe tops of the mountains (the tunturi of Lapland and the Pae-choi) or the plainsof the circumpolar tundra. I believe, therefore, that if these plains are quitelacking in dry hillocks or if they chiefly consist of marshy ground, the SnowyOwl does not readily breed in them and seeks more favorable situations fornesting. Evidently these hillocks are absolutely essential for the existence ofthis bird because they serve it as observation-posts over its hunting grounds.
SNOWY owl 359For hours at a time the Owls remain quietly perched on the summits of thesehillocks, and at a distance look like patches of snow; they likewise make theirnests on such hilltops of various origin. It is thus very likely that the lack ofhillocks in certain parts of the Eurasian tundra, and not the lack of food, is whatcauses the Snowy Owls to avoid certain regions as breeding places.Spring.?After a winter sojourn in southern Canada or the UnitedStates, the snowy owls generally leave for the north early in spring,but often a few may linger through spring, or even well into summer.James H. Fleming (1902) says that, after the great invasion of 1901-1902, "during March the females disappeared and were replaced inApril by the returning flight of light colored birds (males, as far asI was able to examine). A few remained about Toronto Marsh allthrough May, and a small light colored male was taken on June 7.It was in excellent condition and showed no trace of being a woundedbird."Snowy owls generally disappear from Massachusetts in April, butMr. Forbush (1927) has recorded one as late as May 20. Dr.Glover M. Allen (1903) records one taken near Concord, N. H., onJuly 15, 1897, and says: "The previous week had been extremelyhot, and the bird is conjectured to have lived in a large ice-housenear by, upon the cupola of which it was shot." Dr. Harrison F.Lewis, in some notes he sent me on birds of the Labrador Peninsula,says: "Howard H. Cleaves and I saw a snowy owl on Fright Island,in the Mingan Islands, near Havre St. Pierre, on June 4, 1927.Another individual of this species spent the summer in the vicinityof Perroquet Island, in Bradore Bay, where the thousands of nestingpuffins and razor-billed auks offered an abimdant food supply. Thisowl was seen frequently by Officer Esdras Carbonneau, who wasstationed at this point to protect the sea-bird colonies, and it wasseen also on June 28 and August 26 by Mr. Cleaves."Courtship.?Dr. George M. Sutton (1932) noted what he regardedas a courtship performance on Southampton Island, of which hewrites:From May 15 to June 20 in the vicinity of the Post I heard Snowy Owls hoot-ing, especially in the morning on the brightest days. The deep booming notesfloated across the rosy-white snow-plains from far and near, sometimes fromdozens of birds at the same time. The notes had a decidedly ventriloquialquality, so that they seemed sometimes to come from high in the air, or from theground. The air fairly throbbed with dull, thick sounds.On May 25, a beautiful day, at about ten o'clock in the morning, I countedat least twenty booming birds (probably all males) in the region about the Post.So far-carrying were the cries that I could hear also the birds across the harbor,seven miles away. I walked across the ridges back of the Post trying to locateone of the hooting birds. Finally, I found one perched on the top of a boulder,on a low ridge. To see him the better I crawled through the snow. When Igot down to hands and knees he began hooting. He lifted his head, swelled outhis throat enormously, elevated his tail comically until it stuck almost straight
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up, and gave four long, low hoots, bowing violently each time he hooted. Thenhe dropped his tail, pranced awkwardly with toes widely spread, as if surveyinghis surroundings for some sign of his mate, and hooted again. Booming voicesanswered from the ridges far and near. All at once, he spread and lifted hisgreat wings and flew off stiffly.Nesting.?The most northerly, and probably the first nest of thisowl ever recorded, was found by Major Feilden in Grinnell Land, lati-tude 82? 40', on June 20, 1876 ; it is described as "a mere hollow scoopedout of the earth and situated on the summit of an eminence which rosefrom the center of the valley" (Greely, 1888). A similar nest wasfound by Gen. A. W. Greely, near Fort Conger, Grinnell Land, onMay 25, 1882 (Bendire, 1892). Major Bendire (1892) also says:"The nests of the Snow}7 Owl are ordinarily placed on the ground,usually on the highest and driest point in the surrounding tundra.Occasionally a nesting site on a rocky ledge or a cliff is chosen. Ineither case the nest is but a flimsy affair at best, consisting, if on theground, of a slight hollow scratched out by the birds, and this is usuallylined with a little moss and a few feathers ; if on top of a ledge or a cliff,the eggs frequently lie on the bare rock, with just enough materialaround them to keep them in place and prevent them from rollingabout."Dr. Sutton (1932) records a number of nests of the snowy owl,found on Southampton Island. One was "on a bare-topped gravel-bank about three miles inland from the frozen harbor"; another was
"neatly built in the grass at the end of a rocky rise between two frozenlakes." Of the most interesting nest, he writes:I walked along this ridge for half a mile and found no sign of a nest. Further-more I noticed that the farther I went the less attention the bird seemed to payto me; so I retraced my steps. The attack was immediately resumed. I turnedoff to one side to follow the top of one of the lesser ridges. Then the female, anoticeably larger and darker bird, appeared. She flew quietly ahead of me, fellin the snow, and began a series of the most comical antics I ever saw. She liftedher wings, waddled around clumsily, lay down, got up and hobbled off, then layon her belly with her wings spread on the snow all the while whining in a feeblevoice. * * *I walked back and forth again and again, but could not find the nest. I retiredand waited for a time hoping the female would return to her eggs, but she onlystood on a rock watching me the whole time. When I took up the search again Iwalked to the end of the farthest of the low spurs which led out from the main ridge,and there, on the very top of the knoll, in a sort of basin in the six-inch snow, ac-tually lying in almost an inch of chill water, were six eggs fpl. 83]. The instant Ifound the nest the male fell to the ground, joined the female in flopping aboutwith waving wings, and delivered an amazing series of laughing barks, whichstartled me considerably. Then he flew toward me and almost struck my head.As I photographed the nest the birds made cries which sounded like heavy teethgrinding together.There was but little lining in the nest. During a recent gale much snow hadfallen and this had evidently drifted about the sitting female, so that the eggswere surrounded with a distinct rim of snow. The nest was not sheltered by any
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sort of rock or shrub. The eggs, which were decidedly soiled, proved to be nearlyfresh, and were very palatable.O. J. Murie (1929) says, of some 40 nests observed near HooperBay, Alaska:The snowy owl nested most abundantly on the high rolling tundra, but a certainnumber were found on the tide flats and others on the slopes of the Askinuk Moun-tains. In nearly all cases the birds chose a hummock for the nesting site. In afew instances a large hummock, rising prominently to a height of three or four feet,was selected, but ordinarily the nest was made on a less conspicuous rise, sometimesa very slight one. Often there were numerous other hummocks in the vicinity,many of them better defined and drier than the one containing the nest. On thehigh tundra, as well as on the tide flats, small lakes were plentiful, and the nestswere consequently located near some body of water or marshy tract, usually on along gentle slope. They were seldom found on the highest elevations. In theAskinuk Mountains nests were found on various parts of the slopes, one at leastat an elevation of approximately 1000 feet. Other nests were seen on the salt-water marsh, which was partly enclosed by two spurs of the mountains.The nest was merely a hollow scooped out of the top of the mossy knoll or mound,usually exposing the peaty earth underneath the vegetation. Normally therewas no lining, but in a few instances moss, lichens, or grass was present in thenest. This had been plucked near the nest rim. One nest had been made on asmall mound capped with tall grass. The owls had torn out enough of the grassto make room for the nest and had left the rest standing.In the Askinuk Range, three nests were found on huge granite boulders aboutfour feet high and capped with moss and other vegetation in which the nest cavitieshad been scooped out. One nest was near the base of a slope, the other two at amuch higher elevation on the upper slopes. Sometimes a second nest was foundnear the one occupied. One such nest consisted of a well-formed cavity; anotherhad been started only. These were evidently false beginnings, abandoned whenthe owls had decided on a new location.Capt. J. H. McNeile has sent me some notes on his experience withthe nesting of the snowy owl in Swedish Lapland, and also some excel-lent photographs of the nests and their surroundings ; I quote from hisnotes for June 7, 1924, as follows:"When we topped the ridge, we found ourselves looking down overa great stretch of undulating snow, with here and there a rocky crestor hillock standing out as an isolated patch of black, and with all thesurrounding mountains and distances blotted out by the powderysnow which was driving in our faces. Even the reindeer had notattempted to go up there, as the snow was lying too deep everywhere,and the only living creatures to be seen were an occasional ptarmiganor golden plover, and a pair of rough-legged buzzards whose melan-choly cries made the dreary scene appear even more dismal."The three of us separated, so as to try to hunt the black hummocksor small bare hillocks as systematically as possible, and for five hoursor more we toiled and struggled over that abominable soft snow, andnever saw a sign of a snowy owl. But luckily, at about 10 p. in., weheard a shout from Johan, a mile away to the east of us, and found he13751?38 24
362 BULLETIN 170, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMhad got a snowy owl's nest with four eggs. It was merely a scrape inthe top of just such a little rocky eminence as we had been expectingto find it on, and there were a few feathers half-buried in the lichensand fresh snow close round about the nest" (pi. 79).Eggs.?The snowy owl ordinarily lays five to seven or eight eggs,but sometimes as few as three or four, and as many as 13 have beenfound in a nest. The eggs are like other owls' eggs, but they are oftenmore elongated, to oblong-ovate. The shell is somewhat roughlygranulated and without gloss. The color is pure white or creamywhite. Bendire (1892) says: "A few corrugated lines starting a triflebeyond the center of the egg and running to the longer axis are notice-able in the majority of specimens examined by me." The measure-ments of 56 eggs average 56.4 by 44.8 millimeters; the eggs showingthe four extremes measure 60.5 by 47, 58 by 47.5, and 50.6 by 41.7millimeters.Young.?Dr. Pleske (1928) says that "the duration of incubationof the eggs of the Snowy Owl has been determined in the aviary ofFontaine as between 30 and 34, with an average of 33 days." Herefers to a set that "was found at Kotelny Island, 24 June 1902, andcontained two nestlings and eight eggs. It was collected 6 July 1902,and then consisted of nine nestlings of very different sizes and a singleegg, from which the young was on the point of hatching. During thisperiod of twelve days seven young had thus hatched out, which givesus an average of 41 hours between the hatching of each young bird."From the foregoing facts he has figured out a table showing theapproximate hatching time of each young bird, which shows "thatprecisely at the moment of hatching of the last young of the set, thefirst one had reached the age of 356 hours, that is, 15 days and 9hours." He quotes Professor Collett as follows: "As in all birds ofprey the Snowy Owl does not lay its eggs one after another at brief in-tervals but over an extended period and at irregular intervals, so thatby the time that one egg is laid, incubation will already have begunwith those laid earlier. * * * The young one hatched from thefirst egg should thus be almost completely fledged by the time the lastone is hatched. So the young covered with thick down may evidentlyshare in covering the remaining eggs, for the parents are quite busyenough with the care of raising the young which in part are alreadyhalf grown and require a considerable amount of food."Dr. Sutton (1932) says:The female alone incubates, while the male defends the nest, and feeds his mate.The period of incubation was found to be about thirty-seven or thirty-eightdays. * * *The small young are fed on mice and small birds, especially the young of shore-birds, longspurs, and buntings; and at this time of the year the owls probablydestroy more small birds than at any other season.
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* * * The young, which are helpless at first, are downy white. They slowlybecome strong enough to stand, and, when they find themselves able to crawlabout, they wander among the rocks and grass. * * * With the coming ofthe fall and winter the family-groups break up, as the individuals seek goodhunting-grounds, but the parents may remain together more or less throughoutthe winter.Mr. Miirie (1929) writes:As nearly as could be determined the incubation period is about 32 days. * * *When the young were hatched it was the female that fed them, although the maleprobably furnished the food. Her face and breast were usually bloody and be-draggled as a result of her duties at the nest, while the male's plumage was clean.* * * The longer the nest was occupied the wider and flatter became the cavity.As the young hatched and grew the nest became littered with mouse fur, birdbones, and feathers (including owl feathers). Thus the nest with this accumula-tion in many cases became a mere platform for the young until they were old enoughto scramble out and crouch in the grass near by. * * * I was surprised to finda high mortality among the young. Most of the broods numbering 7 or 8 wereeventually reduced to 4 or 5, while some were still further decimated. The factorsinvolved are hard to determine, but a number of observations were suggestive.By the middle of July rains had set in and prevailed during the remainder of theseason. During the rainy spells I found downy young, in the gray plumage,crouching in the grass, wet and bedraggled. They leave the nest when old enoughto scramble about easily and can not then be sheltered by the parents. On July6, in one nest that had been under observation, only one live bird remained andnear-by lay two others, dead. On July 15 at another nest the youngest owlet,soaked by rain, was dying. In the first instance feathers of a jaeger (probablyStercorarius parasiticus) were scattered near the nest. The owl may have killedone for food, but it is also possible that the jaeger had attempted to rifle the nest inthe owner's absence and had been caught redhanded. Earlier in the season, onMay 29, a nest was robbed by jaegers. One egg had been eaten and two or threeothers punctured, leaving an imprint of the jaeger's bill. No doubt the robberyhad been interrupted by one of the parents.Plumages.?When first hatched, and probably for the first eight orten days, the youngest owlets are covered with pure white down.But they soon begin to lose their snowy appearance, as the whitedown begins to be pushed out and replaced with dark, gray down,thick, long, and fluffy, especially on the flanks and thighs; this is "hairbrown" to "drab" and carries on its tips for some time the remains ofthe primary white down, which gradually wears away. Before thesetips have entirely disappeared, the first winter plumage begins toappear in circles of white feathers around the eyes, and on the bendof the wing; the wing quills burst their sheaths at this time, and thenfollows a general spread of white plumage on the face and wings and,later, on the body, concealing the gray down.In their first winter plumage, which is worn until the first post-nuptial molt the following summer, the young birds are much moreheavily barred everywhere, than adults of the same sex, with "olive-brown" to "clove brown"; early in the season, at least, and perhaps
364 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMlater, there is more or less of the drab juvenal down concealed underthe feathers, especially around the neck, in birds of the year.Adult males are considerably smaller than adult females and muchwhiter; the sexes can generally be recognized in life, as the femalesare usually much more heavily barred, except on the face and throat,than males. The darkest males and the lightest females are muchalike in color, but the whitest birds, sometimes practically pure white,are always males; and the most heavily barred birds are always females.Adults have one complete annual molt, beginning in July and lastinginto the early fall.Dr. Nelson (1887) refers to a highly plumaged male as follows: "Onone occasion, while traveling south of the Yukon in December, Isecured a beautiful specimen of this bird, which was nearly immaculate-milky white, with a rich and extremely beautiful shade of clear lemon-yellow suffusing the entire bird, exactly as the rosy blush clothes theentire plumage of some gulls in spring. The bird was kept until thenext morning; an examination then showed that [the] beautiful tingehad vanished and the feathers had become dead white, with barelya trace of the coloring seen the previous evening."Food.?Nearly all observers agree that in its Arctic summer homethe main food supply of the snowy owl consists of lemmings and othersmall rodents, when these little animals are abundant; but during theperiods of scarcity of lemmings and mice, which happens frequently,the owls must move or find some other food supply; and, during theirperiodic invasions of more southern regions, they have to subsist onwhatever forms of animal life they can find.Besides lemmings and various species of mice, these owls have beenknown to kill and eat hares, rabbits, ground squirrels, rats, moles,and shrews. When hard pressed for food, they will eat whatever deadanimals or birds they can find, or will attack animals caught in traps.A. L. V. Manniche (1910) writes:I often observed owls and hares sitting close to each other showing no sign ofhostility. On a certain occasion quite the reverse seemed however to be the case.One day in October I had for a while observed a Snowy Owl?an unusally bigand dark coloured bird?which had settled on a block of stone on the lowest slopeof a large rock.After three hours I approached the owl, which at last?as it seemed?veryreluctantly left its seat only to settle again soon after on another rock a littlehigher up the fell.I judged from the behaviour of the bird, that something unusual had attractedits attention and went to the spot, where the bird had been sitting, in order toexamine the place.Two Alpine Hares were sitting in a sort of cavern made by blocks of stonesrolled down; they proved very frightened and could hardly be driven off. Atlast I chased the hares out of their shelter whereupon they sat watching and nerv-ously striking the ground with their hind legs till they soon after with surprisingrapidity rushed back to the cavern. It seems evident to me, that the fright of
SNOWY owl 365the hares was caused by the owl, which had certainly made an attack on them,and was now sitting awaiting their return from the cave. * * *In the dusk and by night, when the Lemmings venture to go farther around,the Snowy Owl will hunt them, flying Kestrel-like and keeping itself on flappingwings over a certain spot before it strikes.Dr. Nelson (1887) says:The Eskimo are well acquainted with these birds and with their habits, andone man told me he had seen these owls catch the large Arctic hare by plantingone foot in the hare's back and stretching the other foot back and dragging itsclaws on the snow and ground; at the same time the bird used its wings to holdback, by reversed strokes, until the hare soon became exhausted, when it was easilykilled.On the Lower Mackenzie, Richardson relates that one of the Hudson's BayCompany's Factors, Mr. McPherson, saw one of these owls fly over a cliff andcarry off a full fledged Duck Hawk in its claws. It crossed the river to thefarther bank, where it lit on the shore to devour its prey. The parent hawkfollowed, uttering loud screams, and, darting down with great rapidity, killedthe owl with a single stroke, but whether with wing or claw could not be deter-mined. After this summary act of vengeance the falcon returned to its nest.This owl also pre3rs upon ducks, as Stejneger saw it pursue sea ducks on thereefs of Bering Island.The snowy owl has been known to kill a number of species of birds,the principal items being tender small birds to feed its young, andptarmigans and water birds in winter, when mammal food is not soeasy to obtain. The list includes grebes, small gulls, various sea birds,ducks, young geese, coots, various shorebirds, ptarmigans and othergrouse, and small passerine birds.Mr. Murie (1929) says:The food of the snowy owl varied with the character of the nesting ground.Those on the marsh in the immediate vicinity of great numbers of nesting water-birds fed extensively on birds, both old and young. Others, nesting on drierground farther from the concentration of waterfowl, maintained throughout theseason a diet consisting almost exclusively of mice. In marshy areas remains ofyoung emperor geese and cackling geese and adult old-squaws, eiders, and otherducks, were found. * * * A pair of emperor geese built their nest in themargin of a pond, not more than 50 yards from the nest of a pair of snowy owls.One goose incubated the eggs, and I frequently saw its mate swimming near by.A pair of glaucous gulls nested on an island in the same pond. The owls evidentlydid not molest them. The geese hatched out their young and left the vicinity,after which I did not have them under observation.Frank Dufresne (1922) writes:Their food during the nesting period consisted mainly of moles and groundsquirrels with only an occasional ptarmigan, curlew or plover. However, Iobserved that at this time the female ptarmigan were setting, perfectly concealed,and that the male bird lay quietly close by. It was apparent, therefore, that themore active rodents were more conspicuous and suffered thereby.As soon as the young ptarmigan hatched my observations of the snowy owlbecame a record of slaughter. I had no way of telling exactly how many wereeaten on account of the softness of the bones, but I do know that rodent regur-gitations practically ceased at this time. Ptarmigan, both old and young, became
366 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMthe mainstay of the seven pairs of owls and their combined families which I hadunder observation. I destroyed six of the nests, procuring both old birds in eachinstance, but I decided to watch the seventh nest to the bitter end, hoping to seea reversion to the rodent diet, but it was useless. After the first hatching ofptarmigan it was but seldom I found rodent signs about the nest. Game birds,instead, by the score went to satisfy the lust of these perpetual hunters. * * *I estimate carefully and with no wish to exaggerate that a single snowy owlwill destroy three hundred game birds in a year. The average conception amongthe hunters is that it is twice that many, and they may be right. I, myself, haveseen one bird kill three full grown ptarmigan within an hour.Frank L. Farley has sent me the following note: "On April 25, 1931,when driving with C. L. Broly, of Winnipeg, in the vicinity of Rosser,Manitoba, a snowy owl, carrying a crow in its claws, appeared fromthe rear, and cut across the road immediately in front of the car. Italighted in a field near a fence post and at once commenced to eat itsprey. No sooner had he taken his position than a number of crows,estimated at about 30, came flying in from the same direction as thatfrom which the owl appeared and formed a circle around the owl. Fora minute or two there was a noisy commotion, with a stretching ofnecks, but none of the crows dared approach the owl nearer than 10or 12 feet. The racket kept up for a few minutes, after which thecrows left the scene in twos and threes. Some of them headed forwoods as far distant as two miles."W. Sprague Brooks (1915) says: "Practically all the Short-earedOwls I trapped were eaten immediately by Snowy Owls so keen istheir sight."William Brewster (1925) writes: "In mid-winter, about the year1850, according to my notes, a man named Abbott, living not far fromthe post office on Upton Hill, surprised a Snowy Owl in the act ofkilling a hen directly under his barn, and dispatched it with a club, forinstead of attempting to escape, it faced him boldly, and refused torelinquish its prize. It must have been hard pressed by hunger tobehave thus rashly."Bernhard Hantzsch (1929) says: "They also catch fish and othersmall marine animals, where water places remain open, but areotherwise satisfied with every possible animal matter, even bits ofmeat refuse near human dwellings. In general, they seem to getalong quite well, since they are almost always fat. Therefore theyare hunted by the Eskimos and eaten not unwillingly."Audubon (1840) describes their method of catching fish as follows:While watching for their prey on the borders of the "pots," they invariablylay flat on the rock, with the body placed lengthwise along the border of thehole, the head also laid down, but turned towards the water. One might havesupposed the bird sound asleep, as it would remain in the same position until agood opportunity of securing a fish occurred, which I believe was never missed;for, as the latter unwittingly rose to the surface, near the edge, that instant the
SNOWY OWL, 367Owl thrust out the foot next the water, and, with the quickness of lightning, seizedit, and drew it out. The Owl then removed to the distance of a few yards, de-voured its prey, and returned to the same hole; or, if it had not perceived anymore fish, flew only a few yards over the many pots there, marked one, andalighted at a little distance from it. It then squatted, moved slowly towards theedge, and lay as before watching for an opportunity. Whenever a fish of anysize wras hooked, as I may say, the Owl struck the other foot also into it, and flewoff with it to a considerable distance.From the foregoing statements it can readily be seen that theeconomic status of the snowy owl depends on circumstances. It is avoracious feeder, a powerful killer, and is very prolific, raising largebroods of hungry young that require a large quantity of animal food.It can be a powerful force for good or evil. Where rodents areplentiful, it can do much good by keeping them in check ; but, whereowls are breeding abundantly, they can do a vast amount of damageto game birds, as shown by Mr. Dufresne (1922).Behavior.?The flight of the snowy owl is strong, steady, and directbut not rapid, as I have seen it. The long, downward stroke of thelarge wings is a rather deliberate, long sweep ; but the upward strokeis quick and rather jerky; it often sails on horizontal wings for somedistance, especially as it sweeps upward to alight on some eminence.I have found it always very shy ; I have not been able to get nearer toone than 75 or 100 yards; when with us, in winter, it is generally seeDperched in some commanding position, on a prominent rock, the topof a high bank or sand dune, or even on the roof of a building, whereI have twice seen it ; it has been known to perch on a tree, but this isa very rare occurrence. In any such position it has a good outlookand is always on the alert, turning its head from side to side, scanningthe surroundings with its great yellow eyes, looking for possible prey,or for approaching enemies; before the hunter comes within longgunshot range, it spreads its great wings and gracefully sails away toalight again at a safe distance; to chase such a watchful bird in theopen places it frequents is almost hopeless, for unless one can get ashot at it at short range, its heavy plumage and dense under down willresist anything but the heaviest shot.Several observers have referred to the shyness of this owl, even inits far northern home, where human enemies are not common. Dr.Nelson (1887) says: "North of Hudson Straits Kumlien foundSnowy Owls rather scarce during the winter, and saw them huntingduring the day, but notes their excessive shyness. This shynessappears to be characteristic of the bird throughout its northern range,and even upon the lonely and almost unknown Wrangel Island,where, upon our landing, one of these birds was seen, it arose andhastily left for the interior, although we were about 200 yards fromit when it first caught sight of us."
368 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMThe snowy owl is reported as being quite aggressive in its attackson intruders near its nest. Dr. Sutton (1932) says that, as he ap-proached a nest
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The owl came straight toward me from the adjacent ridge, until he was aboutthirty yards away. Here he abruptly turned and circled, hooting angrily. Ashe flew he sank forward heavily after every wing stroke, then righted himselfwith the downward beat of his wings, looking back oddly as he flew past, nevertaking his narrowed eyes from me. I looked all over the ridge crest, but foundonly tracks in the snow and a few loose feathers. Occasionally when I took myeyes from the circling bird he suddenly flew down at me and I could hear therush of his great wings and the sullen snapping of his beak not far above my head.It was thrilling to look into his glaring golden eyes, but I found myself hopingthat he would not strike me with his talons, which hung down menacingly.Hantzsch (1929) says: "On 16th October, while I was looking atsome Actodromus fuscicollis [White-rumped Sandpiper] with the glasson the beach at Hebron, I suddenly heard directly behind me a strongrushing of wings and a deep, angry Krohgogogok, almost like a raven,but not quite so hoarse. Turning about I espied a Snowy Owl whichhad attacked me, flew quickly about me a few more times withremarkably rapid jerking motions of the wings and at the same timeuttering its note. But when I pointed the gun at it, it disappearedquickly behind the hills."Alfred M. Bailey (1926) says that, while he was approaching a nestcontaining young, "the old male, a fine white specimen, kept circlingoverhead, occasionally making a hoarse Vho-who'. He would sailup against the wind, then circling, would dart within a few feet of us,paying special attention to my Airedale. He once struck the dogwith his talons, causing the bewildered Jerry to drop to the groundwith a bleeding ear. The speed with which the owl could drop fromthe sky on folded wings was a revelation, and time and again I foundmyself dodging from his fierce onslaught."Voice.?Already mentioned above are the "deep, angry Krohgo-gogok, almost like a raven, but not quite so hoarse" (Hantzsch, 1929),and the "hoarse who-who" (Bailey, 1926). Mrs. Celia Thaxter(1875) says: "I have never heard them cry like other owls; when dis-turbed or angry, they make a sound like a watchman's rattle, veryloud and harsh, or they whistle with intense shrillness, like a humanbeing." And Nuttall (1832) writes: "His loud, hollow, barkinggrowl, whowh, whowh, whowh, hah, hah, hah (these latter syllables withthe usual quivering sound of the Owl), and other more dismal cries,sound like the unearthly ban of Cerberus; and heard amidst a regionof cheerless solitude, his lonely and terrific voice augments ratherthan relieves the horrors of the scene."Field marks.?The snowy owl could hardly be mistaken for any-thing else. The color pattern of the white gyrfalcon, which mightbe seen under similar circumstances, is much like it, but the shapes
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of the two birds are entirely different; the falcon's wings are sharplypointed, its head is smaller, and it is slenderer in every way. Thereis no other large white bird so heavily built, with such a large roundedhead, and such broad white wings as the snowy owl.Enemies.?As with most birds of prey, the chief enemy of this owlis man; it is so conspicuous in the open country that it frequents, whilewith us in winter, that it is relentlessly pursued, as a handsome trophyto have mounted; it is one of the most popular ornaments for storewindows and barrooms. Fortunately it is so shy and so hard to killthat many escape.Dr. Sutton (1932) says: "The natural enemies of the Snowy Owlare chiefly the Arctic Fox, which steals eggs and young, whenever itcan, and the Eskimos, who not only shoot Ookpikjuak for food, butwho catch them in traps and gather their eggs in the early spring.About the Post the Husky dogs broke up several nests of SnowyOwls. * * *"On February 8 Jack Ford witnessed a remarkable combat betweena trapped fox and an owl. The great bird swooped and dashed at theunfortunate animal and tore its face open with its savage beak andclaws. The fox was nearly dead when Jack reached the spot."A. M. Bailey (1926) says that "Mr. Brower saw two PomarineJaegers kill a Snowy Owl this season near her nest. The jaegersswooped upon the flying bird forcing her to the ground and then, withrepeated onslaughts from the wing, finally killed the owl."Winter.?Although some snowy owls remain all winter in their farnorthern breeding range as long as they can find sufficient food, thereis a general southward movement in fall, which includes a majorityof the birds.A. L. V. Manniche (1910) says that, in northeast Greenland, "theSnowy Owls appeared most numerously on their autumn migrationfrom the beginning of August till the middle of October."Ruthven Deane (1902) quotes the following from a letter fromNapoleon A. Comeau:Migrations of the Snowy Owl occur almost every year along the north shore ofthe St. Lawrence River. * * * An abundant food supply seems to be thecause. They generally follow in the track of migration of other birds on whichthey prey. These are Willow Ptarmigan, the Lesser Auk, and the Murre (Urialomvia). The big migration of 1876, which you noticed, followed a very largemigration of Ptarmigans. During the present winter they have followed on animmense migration of the Lesser Auk and Murre. Some three hundred or soSnowy Owls have been shot and trapped by residents in this immediate vicinityin a section of about nine miles. I have examined the stomachs of over a hundredand have found invariably the remains of the two species above mentioned. Theowls in some cases were nothing but a lump of fat. The migration began here onNovember 25, 1901, when the first were seen, and has continued at intervals to thisdate [March 11, 1902]. The last birds are seen generally about the beginning ofMay, when they disappear entirely. This bird flies and preys by day as well as by
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night, but the greatest flights are by night. They follow the coast line, as a rule.In January of this year I saw over a hundred birds in one evening from seveno'clock to 10.30 P. M.Almost every year there is a noticeable migration of snowy owlsinto the southern Provinces of Canada during the late fall and winter.And at more or less regular intervals there have been heavy flights, orinvasions, of these birds into southern Canada and the United States.These great flights probably occurred during periods of food scarcityin the north. The principal heavy invasions were recorded during thewinters of 1876-77, 1882-83, 1889-90, 1892-93, 1896-97, 1901-02,1905-06, 1917-18, 1926-27, and 1930-31. The big flights occurredat intervals of four or five years, or multiples thereof, which probablycoincide with the periodic fluctuations in the abundance of lemmingsand Arctic hares. Considerable has been published on many of theseflights, giving data on the localities invaded and the large number ofbirds recorded, based mainly on the records of taxidermists, whoskinned, or mounted, a large proportion of the owls captured; butthese figures represent, of course, only a small part of the total migra-tion. Space will not permit recording here more than a few facts re-garding some of the more important flights.The migration of 1876-77 seems to have been confined mainly tothe eastern part of the country, but during the winter of 1889-90, ac-cording to E. S. Cameron (1907), a taxidermist in Mandan, N. Dak.,"had five hundred sent to him for preservation." The flight in 1901-02 was recorded as far west as Michigan; and J. H. Fleming (1902)estimated that somewhere between 500 and 1,000 snowy owls werekilled in Ontario that winter.The big flight of 1905-06, one of the most extensive, was fully re-corded by Euthven Deane (1906); he gathered data regarding it fromthe wide range that it covered, which included all the eastern Provincesof Canada, from Nova Scotia to Manitoba, all six New England States,New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota,South Dakota, Nebraska, Iowa, Missouri, Indiana, and Illinois. Mr.Deane received, during that winter, records of some 800 specimenstaken, showing that the flight had been quite general throughout theabove region.The winter of 1926-27 saw what was probably the most extensiveand the heaviest flight of snowy owls of which we have any record.It extended as far west as North Dakota and as far south as NorthCarolina. Dr. Alfred O. Gross (1927), who published a full account ofit, "received 2,363 records of Snowy Owls within the borders of theUnited States", the largest numbers being recorded from Michigan(592) and Maine (589), while only one each was reported from NorthDakota, Illinois, and West Virginia. During this flight, and at othertimes, snowy owls have wandered far out to sea and have alighted on
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vessels, sometimes as far as 200 or 300 miles from land. Doubtlessmany have perished thus in heavy storms or thick fogs.DISTRIBUTIONRange.?Northern parts of the Northern Hemisphere; migrationirregular or of the vagrant type.Breeding range.?In North America the snowy owl breeds north toAlaska (Point Hope, Point Barrow, Camden Bay, and probablyDemarcation Point); Yukon (Herschel Island); northern Franklin(Cape Kellet, Bay of Mercy, Winter Harbor, Fort Conger, GrinnellLand, and Cape Sheriden) ; and probably northern Greenland (ThankGod Harbor). East to probably Greenland (Thank God Harbor, Etah,Umanak, and Frederikshaab) ; Labrador (Hebron and Okkak); andQuebec (Old Fort Island). South to Quebec (Old Fort Island andFort Chimo); northeastern Manitoba (Fort Churchill); northwesternKeewatin (Ogden Bay); northwestern Mackenzie (Warren Point);and Alaska (Nulato, Hooper Bay, Ugak ^ay, and Hall Island).West to Alaska (Hall Island, Nome, Cape Prince of Wales, DiomedeIslands, and Point Hope).Winter range.?Occasionally in winter this owl will remain northnearly or quite to the limits of its breeding range, as Alaska (Bethel,Pish River, and Humphrey Point); Franklin (Bay of Mercy, PointKennedy, and Bellot Strait); and northern Greenland (BowdoinBay). On the other hand, it irregularly occurs as far south as theCentral United States. In some of the southernmost of these Statesthe records are so numerous that, while still necessarily classified asan irregular visitant, such areas must be included in the winter range.On this basis, the winter range extends north to southern Alaska,(Nushagak) ; northwestern British Columbia (Bennett) ; southwesternMackenzie (Fort Simpson); northeastern Manitoba (Fort Churchill);and southeastern Labrador (Red Bay). East to Labrador (Red Bay)
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southeastern Newfoundland (St. Johns); Nova Scotia (Sable Island,Halifax, and Yarmouth); Maine (Dover, Richmond, and Portland);Massachusetts (Gloucester, Boston, and Chatham); Rhode Island(Newport and Block Island); New York (Amagansett and MontaukPoint); and New Jersey (Elizabeth, Princeton, and Cape May).South to New Jersey (Cape May) ; rarely Delaware (Milford) ; Mary-land (Baltimore and Hagerstown); Pennsylvania (Philadelphia andrarely Connellsville) ; Ohio (Oberlin and Sandusky); Indiana (Rich-mond and Bloomington) ; northern Illinois (Danville, Philo, Urbana,and Evanston) ; Missouri (St. Louis, Saline County, and Jasper Coun-ty); Kansas (Manhattan and Ellis); Colorado (Denver); rarelysouthern Idaho (Birch Creek and Meridian); and Oregon (CampHarney, Burns, and Sheridan). West to Oregon (Sheridan and
372 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMNetarts); Washington (Westport, Seattle, and Bellingham); BritishColumbia (Victoria and Chilliwack); and Alaska (Ketchikan, Sitka,and Nushagak).Migration.-?Ornithological history has recorded many invasionsof southern latitudes by large numbers of snowy owls. While thespecies appears to make more or less regular migratory journeys, ithas been assumed that these mass movements are caused by a shortageof the lemmings and hares that constitute their normal food in thenorth. It also has been postulated that few if any of the owls thatmake the flight south ever return to their northern habitat. Un-fortunately, it is true that these fine birds are killed ruthlessly, aswitness the heavy flight of 1902 when it was estimated that no lessthan 1,000 were killed in the general vicinity of Toronto, Ontario.Nevertheless, banding records in the files of the Biological Surveydefinitely prove that at least some of the migrants not only return totheir breeding range but (more surprising) return during subsequentwinters to the same area. Many of these owls have been banded atFairdale, N. Dak., and from this work some 8 or 10 recovery recordsare available. Birds banded in winter and spring have been recap-tured in the same area during the succeeding winter and also after alapse of two or three years. One, banded in March 1930, was killedat Fort George, Quebec, about September 10, 1932.Fall migration.?Early dates of fall arrival are: Southern BritishColumbia?Chilliwack, November 12; Okanagan Landing, November23. Washington?Walla Walla, November 9; Tacoma, November 10.Oregon?Sheridan, November 30. Montana?Kalispell, October 14;Great Falls, October 16; Tom Minor Basin, Park County, October 26.Idaho?Meridian, November 23. Colorado?Denver, November 22.Manitoba?Winnipeg, September 20; Aweme, September 26; OakLake, October 28. North Dakota?Grafton, October 10; Argusville,October 26; Marstonmoor, November 5. South Dakota?-Yankton,October 27; Parkston, November 7; Lake Poinsett, November 15.Nebraska?Brunswick, November 21 ; Omaha, November 22. Minne-sota?Minneapolis, October 15; Elk Kiver, October 23. Wisconsin
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Delavan, September 22; Shiocton, October 23; Racine, October 26.Iowa-?Osage, November 13; Sioux City, November 16; National,November 19. Ontario?Toronto, October 13 ; Dunnville, October 23
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Point Pelee, October 29. Michigan?Sault Ste. Marie, September 26;Palmer, October 7; Detroit, October 29. Ohio?Austinburg, October23; Mentor, October 25; Sandusky, October 27. Indiana?Fowler,November 4; Mellott, November 4; Washington, November 5.Illinois?Chicago, November 3; Huntley, November 10; HighlandPark, November 17. New Brunswick?Grand Manan, October 20.Maine?Cape Neddick Light, October 19; Machias, November 3.Vermont?Vergennes, October 20; Cornwall, November 13. Massa-
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chusetts?Amherst, October 12; Cape Ann Light, November 2;Town Creek, November 4. Rhode Island?Newport, November 1;Warren Island, November 9; Woonsocket, November 10. Connecti-cut?Stamford, September 18; New Haven, October 17; Hartford, No-vember 10. New York?Rochester, October 26 ; Garden City, October29; Buffalo, November 1. New Jersey?Jones Island, CumberlandComity, October 26; Morristown, November 16; Orange, November19. Pennsylvania?Towanda, October 25; Philadelphia, October 30.Maryland?Allegany and Garrett Counties, November 25.Spring migration.?Late dates of spring departure are: Pennsylva-nia?Erie, April 13. New Jersey?Elizabeth, April 1. New York
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Hamburg, March 22 ; Lockport, March 29 ; Bronx, April 5. Connecti-cut?Waterford, March 18; Branford, April 15. MassachusettsPittsfield, March 21; Amesbury, April 3; Boston, April 15. MaineAuburn, March 7; Dover, March 10; Manchester, March 11. NewBrunswick?Scotch Lake, March 29. Illinois?Milford, March 10;Park Manor, March 16; Philo, March 19. Indiana?Crawfordsville,March 12 ; Richmond, March 17 ; Valparaiso, March 31 . Ohio?Char-don, March 1 ; Scioto River, April 8 (one was taken at Rayland, May9, 1909). Michigan?Detroit, April 14; Sault Ste. Marie, April 23(unusually late dates here are June 4, 1922, June 10, 1924, May 21,1926, and June 8, 1928). Ontario?Kingston, March 18; Sault Ste.Marie, April 2; Toronto, April 6 (unusually late date is June 7, 1902).Iowa?Remsen, March 28; Webb, April 6; Galbraith, April 18.Wisconsin?Berlin, March 1; Racine, March 25; Madison, April 5.Minnesota?Hallock, April 9; Heron Lake, April 15 (unusually latedate is Litchfield, June 3, 1890). Nebraska?Ogallala, April 1. SouthDakota?Pitrodie, April 7; Aberdeen, April 12. North DakotaWesthope, April 3; Argusville, April 14; Larimore, April 12. Mani-toba?Winnipeg, April 20; Margaret, April 28; Shoal Lake, May 2(unusually late date is Aweme, May 21, 1923). SaskatchewanIndian Head, April 20. Colorado?Denver, April 10. MontanaBillings, March 23. Washington?Westport, April 14. SouthernBritish Columbia?Okanagan Landing, March 29.Casual records.-?The snowy owl has been seen or taken on severaloccasions south of the winter range above outlined. Among theserecords are the following: Two were shot at Bass Cove, Bermuda,in the autumn of 1843; one was shot on Ireland Island on November29, 1853; and two were noted (one taken) in the autumn of 1875.One was killed at Fort Pulaski, Ga., on February 8, 1931. In SouthCarolina there are several indefinite records, some of which dateback to the time of Audubon, but one was taken near Winnsboroon November 28, 1908, and one was reported from Chester in Decem-ber 1886. They were reported as "abundant" at New Bern, N. C,on November 30, 1876; a speciman was collected in Pamlico County
374 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMon December 4, 1897 ; one was taken in Granville County on January7, 1902; and another was recorded from Nash County late in Novem-ber 1909. One was collected at Mill Creek, Randolph County,W. Va., on January 10, 1927.According to the Louisiana Department of Conservation, there aretwo specimen records for that State, one killed at Baton Rouge andthe other at Bayou Des Allemands (date of collection not available foreither case). One was taken at Bardstown, Ky., in 1810; a secondwas seen in that area about 1905; while a third was noted at BowlingGreen in February 1892.In Texas one has been recorded from near San Antonio about 1850,and another was shot at Austin during the winter of 1876. In 1896five were recorded from California, one being taken in the San Fran-cisco Bay area on December 2; another was reported from ChulaVista, San Diego County, during the same month; while about thattime three others were noted in Sonoma County. During the lastdecade of the last century one was "winged" and kept alive as a petfor several years in Santa Cruz County. One specimen was takenDecember 26, 1908, at Eureka; another was taken at Trinidad onNovember 17, 1916; while a third was captured about the same dateat Mattole.Egg dates.?Arctic Alaska: 20 records, June 1 to 29; 10 records,June 12 to 24, indicating the height of the season.Arctic Canada: 10 records, May 25 to June 24; 5 records, June 16to 21.Southampton Island: 9 records, May 25 to June 30.SURNIA ULULA PALLASI ButurlinSIBERIAN HAWK OWLHABITSThis bird replaces the European hawk owl, which has stood on ourlist for many years, as a rare straggler into Alaska. Since the Siberianbird has been described and given a name, as subspecifically distinctfrom the European bird, it naturally follows that pallasi is the racethat should occur in Alaska. It is of very rare occurrence, however,as only two records have been reported. The first record is basedon a bird, one of three observed, taken by Lucien M. Turner (1886)near St. Michael, Alaska, in October 1876. Mr. Turner writes:The first bird of the kind that I saw was brought to me by a native, who obtainedit in the bushes near the southeast base of Shaman Mountain, near the Redoubt.An Eskimo dog stole the bird and destroyed it before I could get it away. Thesecond specimen was procured by me. I was ascending a gravelly point of landon the northeast end of the island, when a native who was with me called myattention to the bird, sitting in a clump of rank grass. I had no gun with me;the native assured me that the bird was not vicious. I seized the bird with my
AMERICAN HAWK OWL 375hands; and, while examining it, the soil and grass beneath me gave way, and whileattempting to prevent myself from sliding down hill the bird got away from meand flew off. The third example was brought to me by a native. The skin waspreserved, but has been lost in some unaccountable manner. * * *The natives assert that it is a resident and breeds in the vicinity of St.Michael's; also that it is a coast bird, i. e., not going far into the interior; and thatit can live a long time in winter without food, as it remains for days in the pro-tection of the holes about the tangled roots of the willow and alder patches.Evidently Turner's specimen was not permanently lost, for Ridg-way (1914) says: "The specimen on which the record was originallybased is now before me; and, while it shows as conspicuous whitespotting on the pileum as the European and Siberian form, in othercharacters it seems not to differ from the American bird, and I thinkit had better be considered an abnormal example of the latter."In a later footnote he adds: "It is not unlikely that the Alaskanspecimen (from St. Michaels) above referred to may belong to theEastern Siberian form; indeed Hartert thus places it."The 1931 Check-List adds another record of a bird in the collectionof Dr. Louis B. Bishop, from "Bethel Island." There is evidentlyno such place as Bethel Island. Dr. Bishop writes to me that thisbird, a male, was collected by A. H. Twitchell, on November 5, 1914,probably near Bethel, Alaska. He tells me that he has compared thisbird with specimens of ulula, caparoch, and pallasi and came to theconclusion that it is "far nearest to the Siberian" race, "but the brownis of a slightly paler shade."There is a very marked difference between the Old World birds andthe American, the European and Siberian races both being muchwhiter, with much more extensive white spotting on the pileum andnape, and with white predominating on the under parts. But, inthe series I have examined, it is difficult to see any great differencebetween the European and the Siberian races.Hartert (1920) admits that the difference is very slight; and Ridg-way (1914) says: "As to the claims of the bird from northeasternAsia to subspecific rank, I am not able, with the very small seriesavailable, to see that it differs from the European bird."SURNIA ULULA CAPAROCH (MUller)american hawk owlPlates 84, 85HABITSThe North American race of this circumpolar species is widelydistributed across the continent, breeding throughout the timberedregions of Canada and from Alaska to Newfoundland and wanderingin winter into the Northern United States. It is similar to the typical,European race (S. u. ulula), "but coloration much darker, the black
376 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMand brown areas and markings not only darker in color but moreextended, the whitish ones correspondingly reduced in extent; pileumwith black predominating, and scapulars with the white areas muchbroken by bands of blackish brown, and barring on under partsdenser" (Ridgway, 1914).Swainson and Richardson (1831) give us the earliest account of theAmerican hawk owl, saying: "This small Owl, which inhabits theArctic Circle in both continents, belongs to a natural group, that havesmall heads destitute of tufts, small and imperfect facial disks, audi-tory openings neither operculated nor much exceeding those of otherbirds in size, and considerable analogy in their habits to the diurnalbirds of prey. * * * It is a common species throughout thefur-countries from Hudson's Bay to the Pacific, and is more frequentlykilled than any other by the hunters, which may be partly attributedto its boldness and its habit of flying about by day."A. D. Henderson (1919), writing of the haunts of the hawk owl,which he finds breeding quite commonly near Belvedere, Alberta,says: "To the north lies the great northern forest of poplars, spruce,pine, birch, tamarac, willow, alder, etc., which, broken only bysmaller prairies, burns, and muskegs, extends north to the limit oftrees. * * * The particular haunt of the Hawk Owl is in themuskegs and here they can usually be found perched on some deadstub watching for prey."Nesting.?Bendire (1892) writes:Mr. W. H. Dall, of the U. S. Coast Survey, found a nest of this species, contain-ing six eggs, on the top of an old birch stub about 15 feet from the ground, nearNulato, Alaska, May 5, 1868. The eggs were lying directly on the rotten wood,and the male was sitting on them. Climbing to the nest, the bird dashed athim and knocked off his cap. * * *According to Mr. B. R. Ross, it nests occasionally in cliffs, but its usual nestingsites are probably natural cavities in trees, where they are obtainable, but whensuch are wanting open nests placed on the decayed tops of stumps or among thelimbs of thick and bushy conifers are used.Roderick MacFarlane (1908) says: "This bird is not uncommon inthe region of Anderson River, although only four nests were discoveredthere some forty years ago. They were all built on spruce pine treesat a fairly high height from the ground, and were constructed of smalltwigs, branches, and lined with dry grasses and moss."Dr. Joseph Grinnell (1900) found two nests in northern Alaska; ofthe first, he says: "On April 26th I located a pair of Hawk Owls whichby their restlessness indicated a nesting site near by. The nest wasfinally found, but there were as yet no eggs. It was in the hollowend of a leaning dead spruce stub about ten feet above the ground.The dry rotten-wood chips in the bottom were modelled into a neatly-rounded depression."Of the other, he writes:
AMERICAN HAWK OWL 377
After a half-hour's search through a heavy stretch of timber, I located thebird perched at the tip of a tall live spruce, partly hidden by the foliage. ThenI began an inspection of all dead stubs and trees in the vicinity. I had given uphope of finding a nest and had started on, when, by mere chance, I happened tocatch sight of a hole in a dead spruce fully 200 yards away. A close approachshowed a sitting bird which afterwards proved to be the male. Its tail was pro-truding at least two inches from the hole, while the bird's head was turned sothat it was facing out over its back. When T tapped the tree the bird left the nest,flew off about thirty yards, turned and made for my head like a shot. It planteditself with its full-weight onto my skull, drawing blood from three claw-marksin my scalp. My hat was torn and thrown twelve feet. All this the owl did withscarcely a stop in its headlong swoop. When as far the other side the courageousbird made another dash, and then another, before I had collected enough witsto get in a shot. The female, which was evidently the bird I had first discoveredon lookout duty, then made her appearance, but was less vociferous. The nestcontained three newly-hatched young and six eggs in various advanced stages ofincubation.A. D. Henderson (1919 and 1925) has found a number of nestsof the hawk owl in the muskeg country near Belvedere, Alberta. Allhis nests were in natural cavities or in enlarged woodpeckers' holesin dead stubs. A nest found on April 1, 1915 (pi. 84) is described asfollows:"The seven eggs were slightly incubated and were in the hollowtop of a dead tamarac or spruce stub as shown in the picture. Thenest was about ten feet from the ground and hollow about ten inchesdeep. The eggs rested in a hollow in the crumbled rotten wood at thebottom of the hole. There was no nesting material but this rottenwood and a few feathers."Of another nest, found on April 4, he says: "The seven eggs couldbe seen through an old Flicker's hole almost on a level with them.They rested on a few rotten chips and feathers and lay on top of drymoss and grasses with which the old Flicker's nest had been filled up,likely by a squirrel."One nest was "about forty feet up in the broken top of a tamaracstub"; another "nesting stub was a large leaning balsam poplar aboutthirty-five feet high, standing near a muskeg"; still another "wasevidently an enlarged hole of the Pileated Woodpecker, and is theonly instance in which I have seen a nest that was not in the brokentop of a stub." He has found this owl nesting in old crows' nestsseveral times.I have a set of seven eggs in my collection, collected by SamuelAnderson for the Rev. W. W. Perrett, near Island Harbor Bay,Labrador, on May 7, 1914. The nest was in a rotten stump about5 feet from the ground And there is a set of five eggs in the Thayercollection, taken by E. Herbert Montgomery at Lance au Loup,Labrador, on May 3, 1899. This nest was "a mass of sticks and moss13751?38 25
378 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMin the top of a dead tree 15 feet from the ground." Both sets of eggswere fresh.Eggs.?The American hawk owl lays three to seven eggs, the latternumber quite frequently, and rarely as many as nine. The eggs varyin shape from oval to elongate-oval, the color is pure white, and theshell is smooth and slightly glossy. They closely resemble the eggsof the short-eared owl. The measurements of 51 eggs average 40.1by 31.9 millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremes measure43.3 by 31.2, 40 by 34, and 36.5 by 30 millimeters.Young.?The period of incubation does not seem to have beendefinitely determined; this would be a difficult matter, as the eggsare laid at some intervals, and incubation begins as soon as the firstegg is laid. The nest that Dr. Grinnell (1900) found
?
contained three newly-hatched young and six eggs in various advanced stages ofincubation. The downy young, although their eyes were still tightly closed andthey were very feeble, uttered a continuous wheedling cr}r , especially if the treewere tapped or they were in any way jarred This could be heard 20 feet awayfrom the base of the tree. The nest cavity was evidently an enlarged woodpecker'shole. The wood was very much decayed and soft, so that it has been an easymatter to enlarge the entrance. The entrance was 14 feet above the snow, andthe nest proper was about three inches below that. The cavity was lined with amixture of feathers and bits of the rotten wood. The feathers were all apparentlyfrom the breast of the female parent. The female bird (the male not at all,although he was sitting on the nest when it was found) had the whole breast andabdomen, from the upper end of the breast-bone to the vent, entirely bare offeathers; also on the sides up to the lateral feather tracts, and through these forabout one inch on both sides under the wings; also down the inside of the thighsto the knees. This was the most extensive feather divestment I ever saw in anyspecies. The skin of this area was very thick and glandular, emitting a wateryfluid on the inside when squeezed, and filled with distended blood vessels andBorne fat. This is obviously a warmth-producing organ. The feathers removedfrom it were evidently mostly used in the nest lining.Although both sexes share the duties of incubation, it is evidentfrom the above that the female does most of it. While one parent isincubating, the other remains on guard in the vicinity to guard thenest most aggressively. And Dr. A. K. Fisher (1893b) says that
"after the young leave the nest the family generally remain togetheruntil the following spring."L. L. Snyder (1928) writes: "The notes of the young birds aredecidedly like those of the broad-winged hawk, except thitt the high-pitched, hissing sound ascends slightly towards the end. An adultwas observed hunting mice for its flying young along a creek bed atCamp 33. The hissing calls of its four or five young could be heardfrom as many directions, unquestionable reminders to the parent thatthey were there, and hungry. The parent, leaving its perch in theopen, gently settled for an instant in the grassy edge of the creek androse with a meadow mouse in its feet. One of the young was quieted,
AMERICAN HAWK OWL 379but before the parent could serve the rest, this young one resumed itscalling."Plumages.?I have not seen the downy young of the hawk owl, orany very small young, showing the development of the juvenalplumage. In a half-grown young, in juvenal plumage, the upperparts are largely "snuff brown" or "cinnamon-brown"; the feathersof the crown and hind neck are tipped with pale grayish buff, givinga frosted appearance; the back and scapulars are indistinctly tippedwith the same color; the under parts are pale buff, or buffy white,shaded across the chest and barred elsewhere with "Verona brown",or sooty brown; the facial-disk feathers are dull whitish, tipped withblack; the thighs and lower abdomen are still downy, pale buff, andfaintly barred. Before the young bird is fully grown, late in Juneor in July, the wings and tail are grown, and the first winter plumagebegins to appear on the back and on the sides of the breast; the drabcrown, with its gray tips, is about the last of the juvenal plumage tobe replaced by the first winter plumage. This is much like the adultplumage, but there is less white spotting on the upper parts, thebarring on the under parts is a more reddish brown, and the tail is morebroadly tipped with, white.Adults have one complete molt in summer and fall.Food.?Dr. Fisher (1893b) says: "The food of this Owl variesconsiderably at different times of the year. In summer it feeds onthe smaller mammals, such as mice, lemmings, and ground squirrels aswell as insects of various kinds, while in winter, when the snow is deepand its favorite food is hidden, it follows the large flocks of ptarmigansand subsists on them."Dr. Coues (1874) says: "It feeds chiefly upon the field mice (Arvi-colae) which swarm in the sphagnous vegetation of arctic lands; alsoupon small birds, grasshoppers, and other insects."A. D. Henderson (1919) writes: "On one occasion when loadingsome hay cocks, which had been left out and snowed under, a HawkOwl followed us around the meadow looking for mice as the cockswere lifted. Once it perched on the hayrack itself. On anotheroccasion, when driving to Edmonton, I noticed one which had justcaught a large white weasel or ermine. I wanted the weasel and triedto scare it into dropping it by shooting, but there was nothing doingand it flew away with its prize."Elsewhere (1925) he says: "Mice and weasel are the only animalsI have seen captured by the Owl, and the former seem to be the sourceof its principal food supply. I have seen them with portions of varyinghare and Sharp-tailed Grouse, but those were probably remnants fromthe meal of some animal or larger bird of prey." Forbush (1927)says that "it has been seen to kill and carry off a Ruffed Grouse."
380 BULLETIN" 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMBehavior.?The hawk owl has been well named, for in appearanceand habits it is said to resemble some of our smaller diurnal birds ofprey; its flight is swift and graceful, suggesting that of the hawks; and,when it is perched on the top of some tree or stub, in broad daylight,it has sometimes been mistaken for a hawk. It has also been calledthe "day owl", because of its conspicuous diurnal habits; it probablyhunts more extensively by day than any of our other owls, except,possibly, the short-eared and the pygmy owls. William Brewster(1925) says of one that he watched fly away: "His flight over thePond was perfectly straight, exceedingly swift, and very graceful.Except when set during brief intervals of gliding, his wings were beatenceaselessly and rapidly, with much the same nervous, quivering motionas that characteristic of the Duck Hawk. They, with the con-spicuously wedge-pointed tail, looked long and shapely as did the bodyalso, doubtless because its contour plumage was compressed byfriction with the air. Altogether he seemed a well-proportioned,handsomely-modelled and pleasingly graceful bird when thus viewedin flight, albeit no less displeasingly awkward and ungainly than thefirst Hawk Owl, while on its perch."Ernest T. Seton (1890) says: "Its favorite localities appear to bethe half-open woods and park lands, and it is usually seen perchedon the top of the bushes and trees. In passing from one tree to another,it commonly throws itself headlong downwards nearly to the ground,along which it skims towards the next tree, aDd on nearing its goalrises with a graceful aerial bound to the topmost perch offered."Quoting from the manuscript of C. W. Nash, he says further: "Itsflight, particularly through the low bushes and scrub, closely resemblesthat of the Sharp-shinned Hawk ; it skims along noiselessly close to theground, frequently alighting on the top of a bush, from whence it willdart on a mouse or other prey. It also frequently rises high in theair and hovers over the ground, remaining stationary over one placefor some time, exactly like a kestrel or our own Sparrow Hawk."The most striking feature in the behavior of the hawk owl is itstameness, boldness, or utter lack of fear, perhaps largely due to itslack of familiarity with human beings. It has repeatedly shown noconcern when closely approached and has even been captured byhuman hands.Lucien M. Turner (1886) writes: "I once observed a bird of thisspecies sitting, during a bright day, on a post. I approached the birdto within a few feet. It squatted, then stood up, and seemed readyto fly at any moment. I went within six feet of it, and it then settleddown as if to take a nap. I retired and threw a stick at it to make itfly. I shouted and made other noises, and only after several attemptsto dislodge it did it fly."Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway (1905) say:
AMERICAN HAWK OWL 381Mr. Dresser, who had ample opportunities of observing the Hawk Owl in NewBrunswick, where he found it by no means uncommon, describes it as a true dayOwl. It was often seen by him hawking after prey in the strongest sunshine, orseated quietly blinking on the top of an old blasted tree, apparently undisturbedby the glare of the sun. In its general appearance and particularly in its flight, itappeared to him to have considerable affinity to the Sparrow Hawk. In NewBrunswick it affected the open plains or so called blue berry barrens, where theopen country is covered with low bushes and an occasional scathed tree. Itwould sit on one of these trees for hours in an upright hawk-like position, occa-sionally hunting over the ground, like the Kestrel of Europe, in search of smallfield-mice. It showed but little fear, and could easily be approached withingun-shot. When shot at and missed, it would take a short flight and return toits former perch. On one occasion, Mr. Dresser, firing at one with a rifle, cut thebranch close under the bird, which returned almost immediately to anotherbranch, was a second time missed, and finally fell under a third shot.The experience of Dr. Dall and Dr. Grinnell, related above, and thefollowing account by Mr. Henderson (1919) all show that the hawkowl can put up a vigorous fight in defense of its nest: "As I climbedthe stub she charged and knocked my heavy Stetson hat off andstruck me several times on top the head and quite hard. Once sheput her claws through my shirt and scratched the skin. I had towatch her continually and wave her off when she charged, alwaysstraight at my head, as I was cutting out the side of the stub to get apicture of the nest and eggs. The mate appeared on the scene soonafter I commenced work, but did not attack like the other."Voice.?Mr. Henderson (1925) says: "The calls of this Owl are atrilling whistle, mita-wita-ivita, etc., which is the love call of the male.I have never heard it uttered by the female. It is one of the signs ofearly spring, being first heard in February and through March andApril. Other calls are squee-rick or quee-ick, wike or rike, and wherr-u."Lee Raymond Dice (1920) writes: "Notes and calls are numerousand quite varied, but all seem quite musical. Kr-r-r-r-e-e-eep, a lowrapid rattle rising to a cry is often heard. Wur-a-wur-a (rapid) andkuk-a-wuk (very low) were given by a male on March 25 while hewas seated in a dead spruce."C. B. Horsbrugh (1915) says: "My specimen gives voice to amelodious whewp, oop, oop, oop, oop, oop, generally at dusk." AndMr. Seton (1890) says that "it sometimes utters a rolling whill-ill-ill-ill-loo, somewhat like the cries of the Long-eared Owl." It seemsto be a versatile vocalist.Field marks.?The hawk owl is a medium-sized owl, with a roundedhead, without ear tufts, and with a long, graduated tail, which itoften jerks up and down while perched and sometimes holds it up atan angle. It is very dark above and transversely barred across thebreast and abdomen. In flight it resembles the falcons, and showsrather short, pointed wings. It often sits with its body inclinedforward, or sits upright like other owls.
382 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMWinter.?Hawk owls usually spend the winter well within theirbreeding range, even as far north as Alaska and the fur countries.But, on rare occasions, shortage in the northern food supply forceslarge flights of these owls southward for a limited distance. One suchmemorable flight occurred in 1884, of which William Brewster (1885)writes:Although the months of October and November, 1884, do not seem to havebeen characterized by any special meteorological phenomena, they will be longremembered by ornithologists and collectors throughout Northern New Englandfrom the fact that they brought to this region a flight of Hawk Owls altogetherunparalleled in any previous year of which we have definite records. The inroadseems to have begun late in October and to have lasted nearly through November.It apparently extended over most of Northern Maine and New Hamsphire, but Ihave no evidence that it reached Massachusetts. Some idea of the abundance ofthe birds may be had from the fact (for which I am indebted to Mr. Manly Hardy)that a single taxidermist in Bangor, Maine (Mr. Bowler), received no less thantwenty-eight freshly-killed specimens in the course of a few weeks. Most of ourBoston taxidermists also had from three to six each (all from Northern Maine orNew Hampshire) , and at Lake Umbagog, Oxford County, Maine, I secured four,shot respectively Oct. 25, Oct. 31, Nov. 15, Nov. 16.These figures doubtless represent but a small proportion of the total numberkilled, for in the region over which the birds spread few persons are aware that anOwl has any commercial value, although every one shoots the despised bird atsight. Thus for every one preserved a dozen were probably thrown away. Asinstancing this, I quote the following from a short note in 'Forest and Stream',signed Ned Norton, and dated at Colebrooke, N. H., Dec. 1:?'Hawk Owls camethree weeks ago in greater numbers than ever seen before. Farmers' sons havebeen killing them all over the country.'Frank L. Farley writes to me, from Camrose, Alberta: "The hawkowl has become exceedingly rare during the past 25 years. Thewinter of 1896-97 witnessed a real invasion of these owls into centralAlberta, when in one day's drive I counted as many as 30 of the birdsas they hunted over the prairie, or perched on the tops of trees andhaystacks watching for mice."DISTRIBUTIONRange.-?The northern parts of North America.Breeding range.-?The American hawk owl breeds north to Alaska(Jade Mountains, Bettles, Coldfoot, and Fort Yukon); Yukon (LaPierre House); Mackenzie (Fort Good Hope, Fort Anderson, andLake Hardisty); northern Saskatchewan (Fond du Lac); probablynorthern Manitoba (Lake Du Brochet); northern Quebec (FortChimo and Whale River); and Labrador (Okak). East to Labrador(Okak and Nain) ; probably Newfoundland (Nicholsville) ; and south-ern Quebec (Lochaber). South to southern Quebec (Lochaber);Ontario (Lake Temiskaming, probably Cochrane, and probably St.Ignace Island); northern Michigan (Isle Royale); probably northern
AMERICAN HAWK OWL 383Minnesota (Cook County, Koochiching County, Roseau County,and Norman County); east-central Saskatchewan (Hudson Bay Junc-tion) ; central Alberta (Glenevis and Jasper House) ; possibly Montana(Madison River and Summit); possibly northern Idaho (StanleyButte); British Columbia (probably Laurier Pass, Rapid River,McDame, Quartz Creek, and Atlin); southwestern Yukon (nearWhitehorse); and southwestern Alaska (Lake Clark and probablyChulitna River). West to Alaska (probably Chulitna River, RussianMission, Kotlik, Nulato, Nome River, and Jade Mountains).Winter range.?At this season the hawk owl has been recorded northto Alaska (Bethel, Toklat River, and rarely Fort Yukon); rarelyMackenzie (Fort Confidence); Manitoba (rarely Grand Rapids,Kalevala, and Winnipeg); northern Ontario (Martin Falls); Quebec(rarely Lake Mistassini and Godbout); and Labrador (Cartwright).East to Labrador (Cartwright) ; rarely New Brunswick (Scotch Lake)
;
rarely Maine (Bangor); and rarely Massachusetts (Salem, Lynn,Brookline, Sandwich, and Chatham). South to rarely Massachusetts(Chatham); rarely Rhode Island (West Greenwich Center); rarelyConnecticut (New Haven); rarely Long Island (Bayridge); rarelyNew Jersey (Middlesex and Mercer County); rarely western NewYork (Conquest and Rochester); rarely southern Ontario (Torontoand Mount Forest); rarely southern Michigan (Port Huron andDetroit); rarely Wisconsin (Lake Koshkonong and Meridian); Min-nesota (St. Paul, Elk River, and Marshall County); northeasternNorth Dakota (Joliette and Grafton); Montana (Summit, Nyack,Kalispell, and Fortine); rarely Washington (Martin); and southernBritish Columbia (Victoria). West to British Columbia (Victoria)and Alaska (Nushagak and Bethel). As will be surmised from thisoutline, the hawk owl is irregular in the southern parts of the winterrange and not infrequently it is entirely unobserved over periods ofseveral years.Migration:?This species is not regularly migratory, and but littleis known of its movements. Occasionally it will appear in regionssouth of its breeding range in relatively large numbers, as during thewinter of 1884, when a notable flight visited New England. It alsowas fairly common in 1922-23.Fall migration/?Some early dates of fall arrival are: Nova Scotia
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Sable Island, October 9. Maine?Machias, October 27; Bangor,October 28. New Hampshire?Lake Umbagog, October 25. Ver-mont?Cornwall, November 2; Derby, November 11. Massachu-setts?Middleboro, November 29. Ontario?Ottawa, October 9;Toronto, October 18. Michigan?Sault Ste. Marie, September 27.Minnesota?Itasca Park, September 15 ; Roseau County, September 25.Spring migration.?Some late dates of spring departure are: Min-nesota?St. Paul, May 21 (unusually late). Michigan?Sault Ste.
384 BULLETIN 170, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMMarie, April 29. Ontario?Ottawa, April 5 (unusually late, May 5).Massachusetts?Sandwich, March 25. Vermont?Wells River, March4. New Hampshire?Colebrook, April 20. Maine?Van Buren,April 16.Casual records.?According to Reid (1884) one was "seen" at St.George, Bermuda, date unknown. This record is considered doubt-ful. On three different occasions (December 26, 1884, March 10,1885, and January 28, 1886) the hawk owl was reported from MountCarmel, Audrain County, Mo., but as no specimen from that Stateis known, these observations also must be considered doubtful.One was shot at Raymond, Nebr., in November 1891; there are afew records for northern Illinois, and one was captured near Oberlin,Ohio, about 1880. Other records for Ohio, as well as one for Indiana,are considered unsatisfactory. Several hawk owls, collected in theBritish Isles, have been identified as the American form.A closely related subspecies, the Siberian hawk owl, Surnia ululapallasi, is found in eastern Siberia. Two specimens collected inAlaska, one at St. Michael, in October 1876, and the other at Bethelin November have been identified as of this race.Egg dates.? Alaska and Arctic Canada: 10 records, April 28 toJune 14; 5 records, May 4 to 17, indicating the height of the season.Alberta: 38 records, April 1 to June 4; 19 records, April 13 to 28.Labrador and Newfoundland: 6 records, May 3 to June 20.SPEOTYTO CUNICULARIA HYPUGAEA (Bonaparte)western burrowing owlPlates 86, 87HABITSOn the wide, open, treeless plains and prairies, west of the MississippiValley, and from southern Canada south into Mexico, this curiouslittle owl is, or was, widely distributed even as far west as the PacificStates. It loves the virgin prairies and the unbroken plains but doesnot take kindly to cultivated land; consequently the encroachmentsof agriculture have greatly restricted its former range ; it is now foundordinarily only in the few scattered places where primitive conditionsstill remain, untouched by the hand of man.Much foolish nonsense has been broadcast by careless observers, orromancers, about the home life of these birds and their happy familyrelations with prairie dogs and rattlesnakes. No intelligent naturalistnow believes any such fantastic stories as have been told, and perhapsbelieved by some. Dr. Elliott Coues (1874) has explained the basisfor these yarns, and given us the actual facts, in the following wellchosen words:
WESTERN BURROWING OWL 385
First, as to the reptiles, it may be observed that they are like other rattlesnakes,dangerous, venomous creatures; they have no business in the burrows, and areafter no good when they do enter. They wriggle into the holes, partly becausethere is no other place for them to crawl into on the bare, flat plain, and partly insearch of Owls' eggs, Owlets, and puppies, to eat. Next, the Owls themselves aresimply attracted to the villages of the prairie-dogs as the most convenient placesfor shelter and nidification, where they find eligible ready-made burrows, and arespared the trouble of digging for themselves. Community of interest makes themgregarious to an extent unusual among rapacious birds; while the exigencies of lifeon the plains cast their lot with the rodents. That the Owls live at ease in thesettlements, and on familiar terms with their four-footed neighbors, is an un-doubted fact; but that they inhabit the same burrows, or have any intimatedomestic relations, is quite another thing. It is no proof that the quadruped andthe birds live together, that they are often seen to scuttle at each other's heels intothe same hole when alarmed; for in such a case the two simply seek the nearestshelter, independently of each other. The probability is, that young dogs oftenfurnish a meal to the Owls, and that, in return, the latter are often robbed of theireggs; while certainly the young of both, and the Owls' eggs, are eaten by thesnakes. In the larger settlements there are thousands upon thousands of burrows,many occupied by the dogs, but more, perhaps, vacant. These latter are thehomes of the Owls. * * * It is strong evidence in point, that usually thereare the fewest Owls in the towns most densely populated b}' the dogs, and con-versely. Scarcity of food, of water, or some obscure cause, often makes the dogsemigrate from one locality to another; it is in such "deserted villages" that theOwls are usually seen in the greatest numbers. I have never seen them so numer-ous as in places where there were plenty of holes, but where scarcely a dog remained.Courtship.?Mrs. Irene G. Wheelock (1904) says: "While thecourtship of these queer birds lacks the grotesqueness of that of thesage grouse, it has some features no less amusing; after watching apair, you will conclude, as I did, that the sofa-pillow caricatures arenot far from the truth. Sitting as close together as possible on topof their chosen burrow, they converse in soft love notes not unlike afar-away 'kow-kow-kow' of a cuckoo; at the same time caressingwith head rubbings and billings."Nesting.?I have never seen any such large colonies of burrowingowls as those referred to above, and doubt if there are many such left.I have seen only scattering, isolated pairs in North Dakota, Saskatche-wan, Arizona, and California. The first nest I dug out was in an oldbadger hole under a road in North Dakota, on June 13, 1901 ; the nestwas in a cavity, 6 inches high by 8 inches wide, about 30 inchesunderground; the burrow was about 6 feet long; it and the nest wereprofusely lined with finely chipped, dry horse droppings. This lining,which usually shows at the entrance of the burrow, seems to be char-acteristic of occupied nests. Dry chips of cow dung are often used forthe same purpose. W. Leon Dawson (1923), in three instances, foundthe tunnels lined copiously with wings of the black tern. He says that,in California, "whenever food is plenty and the ground inviting,Burrowing Owls are likely to form little colonies, ten or a dozen pairsbeing found in a stretch of two or three acres."
386 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMMajor Bendire (1892) gives the following comprehensive accountof the nesting habits:When not disturbed, the same burrow is used from year to 37ear; in such a caseit is cleaned out and repaired, if necessary. In different localities their choice inthe selection of nesting sites varies somewhat. At Fort Lapwai, Idaho, they gen-erally selected a burrow on a hillside with a southerly exposure, while at WallaWalla their nests were always found in burrows on level ground. At CampHarney, Oregon, where the Burrowing Owls were not very common, one under alarge basaltic bowlder seemed to be a favorite site with them, and here they en-croached upon the timber in the foothills of the Blue Mountains. At FortCuster, Montana, I found them mostly on level ground, generally bottom lands,and always at the outskirts of a prairie dog village. On the Pacific coast theburrows of the ground squirrel are more often used for nesting sites, and occa-sionally those of badgers, which are quite common in some sections. If one ofthe former is selected, it has first to be considerably enlarged, and which requiresa good deal of patient labor on the part of the Owls to accomplish. While sta-tioned at Fort Lapwai I had an opportunity to see an Owl at work enlarging andcleaning out a burrow. The loosened dirt was thrown out backward with vigor-ous kicks of the feet, the bird backing gradually toward the entrance and movingthe dirt outward in this manner as it advanced. These burrows vary greatly inlength and depth, and are rarely less than 5 feet in length and frequently 10 feetand over. If on level ground they usually enter diagonally downward for 2 or 3feet, sometimes nearly perpendicularly for that distance, when the burrow turnsabruptly, the nesting chamber being always placed above the lowest part of theburrow. If in a hillside it will frequently run straight in for a few feet, and thenmake a sharp turn direct to the nesting chamber. At other times the burrowfollows the curves of a horseshoe, and I have more than once found the eggs insuch a burrow lying within 2 feet of the entrance and close to the surface of thehill on a trifle higher level; where, had it been known they could have been reachedwith little trouble. These burrows are generally about 5 inches in diameter,and the nesting chamber is usually from 1 foot to 18 inches wide. After theburrow is suitably enlarged, especially at the end, dry horse and cow dung isbrought to the entrance of it, where it is broken up in small pieces, carried in andspread out in the nesting chamber which is usually lined with this material to athickness of 1 or 2 inches, and I have never found any other material in the nest.In California, however, they are said to line them occasionally with dry grasses,weed stalks, feathers, and similar materials. On one thing most observers agree,namely, that their burrows invariably swarm with fleas.Dr. A. K. Fisher (1893b) says: "Among the mammals whose de-serted burrows are used by this bird may be mentioned prairie dogs,spermophiles, woodchucks, viscachas (South America), wolves, foxes,badgers, skunks, and armadillos. It will be seen from this extensivelist that the Owl seldom wants for a home, as one or more of the abovespecies are found in some part of its range. Various authors havestated that the bird sometimes excavates a burrow for itself, butthere is no ground for the statement, for in no instance has it beenobserved in the work of excavation."In addition to the usual materials mentioned above, these owlssometimes line their burrows with the remains of their food and avariety of other rubbish. Dr. Coues (1874) says, of a nest reportedto him by Dr. C. S. Canfield: "In the passage leading to it there were
WESTERN BURROWING OWL 387
small scraps of dead animals, such as pieces of the skin of the antelope,half dried and half putrified; the skin of the coyote, etc.; and near thenest were the remains of a snake that I had killed two days before, alarge Coluber ? two feet long. The birds had begun at the snake'shead, and had picked off the flesh clean from the vertebrse and ribsfor about one-half its length; the other half of the snake was entire.The material on which the young birds rested was at least threeinches deep."Mrs. Florence M. Bailey (1928) writes: "At one nest entrance nearRoswell, Mr. Bailey noted a great abundance of dry horse manure,some corn cobs, charcoal, tufts of cow hair, bits of hide, pieces of bone,a child's woolen mitten, a piece of calico, and other rags, shore larkand other bird feathers, and bits of insects. Part of this materialwas evidently the remains of food. The rest may have been collectedon the principle that Rock Wrens apparently mark their nest hole ina cliff full of holes, as a matter of convenience; or, if prairie dogs everenter each other's burrows, the door plate may be to prevent un-pleasant mistakes. The smooth brown ejected pellets are easilypicked up around the burrows."While driving across the prairie in Cochise County, Ariz., on April26, 1922, we saw a burrowing owl sitting on the mound at the en-trance of its burrow, close to the road ; on digging it out we found theburrow to be semicircular, measuring 9 feet around the curve butonly 5 feet in a straight line from the entrance to the nest cavity,which was only 10 inches below the surface. The female was sittingon nine fresh eggs.Eggs.?Bendire (1892) says:The number of eggs laid by the Burrowing Owl varies from six to eleven. Fromseven to nine are more often found, while sets of ten and eleven are not especiallyrare, and Mr. Walter E. Bryant, of Oakland, California, found one of twelve nearCarson, Nevada. The eggs are usually found in a single layer and disposed inthe form of a horseshoe. On two occasions in extra large sets, I found them placedon top of each other.It is astonishing how they manage to cover them all, but they do, and it is rareto find an addled egg. * * *The eggs of the Burrowing Owl, after they are washed, are pure white in color,but as taken from the burrow they are ususally much soiled by the excrement ofthe numerous fleas inhabiting these domiciles, and bear then no resemblance towhite. They are much more glossy than most Owls' eggs and are usually roundedovate in shape. The shell is close grained and smooth, but in some sets it isstrongly granulated.The measurements of 214 eggs in the United States NationalMuseumaverage 31 by 25.5 millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremesmeasure 34 by 27, 31 by 28, 28 by 25, and 32 by 24 millimeters.Young.?Major Bendire (1892) says that "both parents assist inincubation, which lasts about three weeks, and but a single brood israised in a season. A second, and somewhat smaller set is frequently
388 BULLETIN 170, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMlaid in the same burrow or in another close by, if the first eggs aretaken."Grinnell, Dixon, and Linsdale (1930) observed an interesting habitof young burrowing owls, of which they say:When the burrow had been dug out two-thirds of the way to the end, a buzzingscreech was heard that seemed so nearly like a muffled rattle of a rattlesnake thatit was hard to feel sure that there was no snake in the burrow. As the diggingproceeded this noise was heard more and more clearly. Finally the terminalcavity was opened up, disclosing only the six young owls. Their main defensewas the utterance of the rasping, penetrating, rattling hiss, nearly like the angrybuzz of a rattlesnake when disturbed on a warm day. The bill clicks which wereproduced less frequently than the rattling notes were reather weak. The latterutterance was deterrent in our case; might it not be so as regards carnivores thatdig out or enter burrows such as the burrowing owls inhabit? Badgers, coyotes,weasels, and possibly such rodents as marmots and ground squirrels might thus bedeterred from molesting the owls.John McB. Robertson (1929) gives the following account of themethods employed in feeding the young, after they were large enoughto come out of the nest:The young owls were usually in a compact group on the highest part of themound, while the adult, only one adult being observed, had several lookout sta-tions, the nearest one being the top of a pile of baling wire and other junk on thealkali flat, and the others were fence posts at various distances from the burrow.The usual program was as follows: The adult, frequently looking skyward,sighted some flying insect passing over, launched out in pursuit, climbing ratherlaboriously upward at a sharp angle and sometimes spirally, often to a height of150 feet or more, and on overtaking the flying prey seized it with one foot. Thencame a pause during which the prey was transferred to the beak, then a longglide, on set wings, directly to the nest. The young, on seeing the adult comingwith food, rushed down the slope toward it, and then turned and rushed back asthe adult passed over their heads to alight on the highest point of the mound.Then came a scuffle that would have done credit to a football game. However,actual possession of the coveted morsel seemed to be respected, and the luckyyoungster was allowed to devour it at leisure. After a brief pause the adultreturned to a vantage point to watch for more game. * * *As the young grew older and learned to fly they sometimes flew toward and inter-cepted the adult before the burrow was reached; this was successful only in caseswhere the adult flew close to the ground after making a low, or a ground, capture.The adults sometimes ate the prey themselves, and in this case it was sometimesheld up to the beak with one foot while the bird stood on its perch.On one occasion a weasel appeared, crossing the pasture, and was immediatelyassaulted by the owls. The young were flying quite well at this time and theyjoined in the attack, hovering over the scurrying weasel and swooping at it frombehind with extended claws. The weasel paused and faced them at times and thenhurried on; I could not be sure that they actually struck him, but they came closeenough to do so. Birds from other families joined the fun, and at one time therewere ten owls in the air together. The weasel was escorted about one hundredyards before the chase was abandoned.Plumages.?The newly hatched young burrowing owl is but scantilycovered, on the feather tracts only, with grayish-white down, basally
WESTERN BURROWING OWL 389dusky; bare skin shows between the feather tracts, even after thejuvenal plumage has begun to grow. This first plumage seems toappear almost simultaneously on all the feather tracts and on thewings and tail. By the time the young bird is half grown it is competelycovered with the distinctive juvenal plumage. In this plumage, thecrown, hind neck, and back are plain, dull, grayish brown to buffybrown, most grayish on the head; the wing coverts are mostly lightbuff, but the rest of the wings and the tail are like those of the adult ;the under parts and upper tail coverts are pale buff and unspotted,with a suffusion of "wood brown" across the upper chest. This plum-age is worn until July or August, when a complete molt of the contourplumage begins on the sides of the breast, the scapulars, and wingcoverts; this molt is completed in September, when the first winter,or practically adult, plumage is acquired.Adults have a complete annua] molt in August and September.Many birds show so much fresh plumage in spring that I suspectthey may have a partial prenuptial molt of the body plumage, thoughI have not been able to detect it. The wear and tear on the plumage,owing to subterranean life, might well make such a change desirable.Food.?The burrowing owl is unquestionably one of our most bene-ficial birds of prey, for it destroys very few small birds, mainly to feedits young, and it subsists almost entirely on insects and injuriousrodents, which it destroys in enormous numbers. Fortunately mostranchmen and farmers appreciate this fact and do not persecute it.Its insect food includes grasshoppers, locusts, beetles, Jerusalemcrickets, mole crickets, black crickets, caterpillars, dragonflies, andvarious other insects, many of which it catches on the wing. MajorBendire (1892) says:They hunt their prey mostly in the early evening and throughout the night,more rarely during the daytime. As soon as the sun goes down they becomeexceedingly active, and especially so during the breeding season. At such timesthey are always busy hunting food, and go and come constantly, and they mayoften be seen hovering suspended in the air like the Sparrow Hawk, locating theirprey or darting down noiselessly and swiftly, and grasping it with their talonswithout arresting their flight an instant. The actual amount of food a pair ofthese birds require to bring up their numerous family, generally averaging eightor nine, is something enormous. Each Owl will eat fully its own weight in twenty-four hours, if it can get it.Dr. Fisher (1893b) says that "of 32 stomachs examined, 3 containedsmall mammals; 3, lizards; 3, scorpions; 1, a centipede; 30, insects;and 1 was empty." In his table of stomach contents, he recordsseven stomachs that contained between 40 and 60 locusts and otherinsects each, and he says that "this little Owl will chase and devourgrasshoppers until its stomach is distended to the utmost."Next in importance come the mammals, including mice, rats, andground squirrels of various species, young prairie dogs, young cotton-
390 BULLETIN 170, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
tails, pocket gophers, chipmunks, shrews, and even bats. To test theability of these owls to kill ground squirrels, Major Bendire (1892)experimented with a pair he had in captivity; he writes:I fed a pair of these Owls four live full-grown Townsend's ground squirrels inone day, besides the carcasses of five small birds that I had skinned, and wasastonished at the ease and celerity with which these rodents were killed and thesmall amount of resistance they made. I watched the proceedings through asmall hole in the door. As soon as a squirrel was turned loose in the room withthe Owls, one of them would pounce on it, and, fastening its sharp talons firmlyin the back of the squirrel, spread its wings somewhat, and with a few vigorousand well-directed blows of its beak break the vertebras of the neck, and before itwas fairly dead it commenced eating the head. This was always eaten first andis the favorite part. Next morning there was but little left of squirrels or birds,and the two Owls had certainly eaten considerably more than their own weightin the twenty-four hours.C. E. McBee (1927) reports large numbers of mice found in burrowsof these owls near Kiona, Wash.; one burrow contained 25 mice and3 sage rats, another 15 mice and 2 sage rats, and others lesser numbers;in examining a number of their nests, he found only one bird, ayoung dusky horned lark. Among the birds taken, horned larksseem to be oftener reported than any other species. F. A. Patton(1926), writing from South Dakota, says: "In examining these bur-rows I found about the entrance, and down in the burrows, quantitiesof feathers of the Desert Horned Lark, mostly wing and tail feathers.Digging into the burrows I would find from four to six partly eatenlarks, mostly young birds just flying; also usually a less amount ofpartly eaten field mice. Not a burrow did I find but showed evidencethat more than fifty per cent of the food of these owls were larks, whichwere being killed by the thousands."Feathers, or other remains, of least sandpiper, black-headed gros-beak, western meadowlark, Bell's vireo, and various sparrows, orother small birds, have been found in or about the burrows, but mostobservers agree that they form only a small part of the total food.Bendire never found any bird remains in any of the many burrowsthat he examined.Various miscellaneous items enter into the food of the burrowingowl, such as lizards, snakes, frogs, toads, salamanders, fishes, scorpions,centipedes, and myriapods. Paul Thompson writes to me that hehas found the remains of a cecropia moth, two forewings and head,at the entrance of a burrow, and that the remains about burrowsnear ponds and creeks consist largely of crayfishes. In one case hefound a wing and a leg of a burrowing owl at the entrance of a burrow
;
this owl may have been killed on a nearby road and brought to theburrow to be eaten.A comprehensive study of the food habits of burrowing owls innorthwestern Iowa has recently been published by Errington andBennett (1935).
WESTERN BURROWING OWL 391BeJiavior.?As an exception to the rule, stated in my opening para-graph on this species, it is interesting to note that Clinton G. Abbott(1930), when he came to San Diego in 1921, found burrowing owlsliving
?
in well-settled parts of the city. A certain individual roosted daily in a peppertree in front of the Central Y. M. C. A., almost in the heart of the business dis-trict. On El Cajon Boulevard, which was a well-traveled thoroughfare even inthose days, Burrowing Owls could often be seen perched on the side-walk curb.They lived in the culvert drains under the intersecting streets.The paving of this boulevard has driven these birds away, and the Y. M. C. A."Billy" has gone, yet in spite of San Diego's present 150,000 population BurrowingOwls still subsist wherever there is any extent of vacant land. In quiet streetsthey can sometimes be seen hawking about the arc-lights at night and settling onthe pavement below?probably in pursuit of moths. On Reynard Way, which isa short-cut between down town and the Mission Hills residential district, theseOwls are common, because many of the sloping lots on each side have not yet beenbuilt upon. Even in broad daylight a "Ground Owl" may often be seen standingupon some advertising sign, apparently unconcerned at the passing stream ofautomobiles.Dr. Coues (1874) has given a far better word picture of this curiousowl than I can write, as follows:As commonly observed, perched on one of the innumerable little eminencesthat mark a dog-town, amid their curious surroundings, they present a spectaclenot easily forgotten. Their figure is peculiar, with their long legs and short tail;the element of the grotesque is never wanting; it is hard to say whether they lookmost ludicrous as they stand stiffly erect and motionless, or when they suddenlyturn tail to duck into the hole, or when engaged in their various antics. Boltupright, on what may be imagined their rostrum, they gaze about with a blandand self-satisfied, but earnest air, as if about to address an audience upon a subjectof great pith and moment. They suddenly bow low, with profound gravity, andrising as abruptly, they begin to twitch their face and roll their eyes about in themost mysterious manner, gesticulating wildly, every now and then bending for-ward till the breast almost touches the ground, to propound the argument withmore telling effect. Then they face about to address the rear, that all may alikefeel the force of their logic; they draw themselves up to their fullest height, out-wardly calm and self-contained, pausing in the discourse to note its effect upon theaudience, and collect their wits for the next rhetorical flourish. And no distantlikeness between these frothy orators and others is found in the celerity with whichthey subside and seek their holes on the slightest intimation of danger.Dr. Fisher (1893b) says: "The flight is rather laborious, irregular,and somewhat jerky, and is seldom of long duration. The bird rarelyrises high in the air, but passes noiselessly along the ground, and whenalighting drops very much after the manner of the woodcock." Ishould hardly call the flight laborious or jerky; it seemed to me quitestrong and easy, and I was always impressed with the large expanse ofwing on such a small body. About its breeding grounds it makesonly short flights at low elevations from one perch to another, keepinghardly more than a short gunshot range from the intruder. The factthat it nests on several islands off the Pacific coast, and that it has
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alighted on ships at sea, shows that it is capable of prolonged flights.It is usually seen perched on the level ground, or on the little eminencesat the entrances of burrows, more from necessity than choice; but Ibelieve that it prefers to perch on fence posts, wire fences, low bushes,or even trees where these are available, selecting the best lookoutpoints it can find. Some observers have reported it as shy, especiallyon bright, sunny days, but I have generally found it rather easy toapproach; once on a dull, cloudy day I was able to crawl up to within afew feet of one and photograph it at short range.Burrowing owls seem to have a curious habit of following a movinganimal, perhaps to secure whatever small game may be stirred up by it.Aldo Leopold (1923) mentions one that "made a daily practice of
'pursuing' a bird dog when the dog was turned loose for exercise nearthe golf links of the Albuquerque Country Club. * * * Whenthe dog first appeared on the owl's range, he would chase the owl fora short distance. When this was over, the owl would chase him fordistances up to 150 yards, flying about five feet behind and above himas the dog hunted." E. S. Cameron (1907) says that "in summerthese owls have a habit of making short flights along the wire fencesin front of horses, perching on the wires until approached quite close."Voice.?The vocal performances of the burrowing owl are not veryelaborate and consist mainly of two very different notes, the cacklingalarm note, cack-cack-cack-cack, given as it darts into its hole or fliesaway, and the so-called love song, a rapidly uttered, cooing note, givenin the spring on its nesting grounds. Claude T. Barnes says in hisnotes: "As I approached, the languid owl flew to a nearby post utter-ing occasionally a raucous twit, or twut, twut, twut." Bendire (1892)writes:They appear to be mated when they make their first appearance in the earlyspring, and I believe remain paired through life. At this season, where they areabundant, and they are generally found in little colonies of several pairs at least,their peculiar love note can be heard on all sides about sundown; it reminds memore of the call of the European Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus) than anything else, amellow sonorous and far-reaching 'coo-c-o-o', the last syllables somewhat drawnout, and this concert is kept up for an hour or more. These notes are only utteredwhen the bird is at rest, sitting on the little hillock surrounding its burrow. Whileflying about, a chattering sort of note is used, and when alarmed a short shrill
'tzip-tzip.' When wounded and enraged it utters a shrill scream and snaps itsmandibles rapidly together, making a sort of rattling noise, throws itself on itsback, ruffles its feathers, and strikes out vigorously with its talons, and with whichit can inflict quite a severe wound.Field marks.?The burrowing owl could hardly be mistaken foranything else. It is the only small owl that habitually lives on theground in open places ; the short-eared owl is much larger and frequentsgrassier places. A small owl, with very long legs, a very short tail, acompact, rounded head and yellow eyes, is sure to be a burrowing owl.Its curious bobbing habit also is distinctive.
WESTERN BURROWING OWL 393Enemies.?Burrowing owls have few natural enemies, though rattle-snakes doubtless destroy some eggs and young. Dr. J. F. Brencklesuggests in his notes that the nests may sometimes be invaded by catsand says that "the highway seems a favorite feeding ground, and,with the bright lights and speed of cars, many are killed or wounded."Undoubtedly many are killed by the indiscriminate use of carbondisulphide in campaigns against ground squirrels; no distinction ismade between the holes occupied by squirrels and those in which theowls are nesting; all the holes are poisoned and sealed, thus killingmany a family of owls, the farmer's best friends.Migration.?Throughout the more northern portions of their rangeburrowing owls are more or less migratory. Bendire (1892) says:"In Washington, Idaho, and Oregon, they appear to migrate aboutthe beginning of November and sometimes earlier, returning to theirsummer homes in the early part of March. At any rate, withoutactually examining any of their burrows during the winter months,to ascertain their presence, I never saw one of these birds, as far as Ican remember, sitting in front of these at such times, and I have livedwhere they were very common and certainly would have noticed oneoccasionally if actually about."Dr. J. F. Brenckle, who has banded some 300 burrowing owls nearhis home in Northville, S. Dak., has sent me some interesting notes onhis returns. Many of the returns were of birds killed on highways atnearby points, and one was killed on a railroad track. Of the moredistant returns, one was found wounded on a highway near Royal,Nebr., on October 1, 1931; one was captured at Gunter, Tex., onJanuary 7, 1932; one was taken at Edmond, Okla., on December 12,1932; and one was captured at Willow, Okla., on April 4, 1933. Evi-dently some of these owls indulge in extensive migratory movements.Winter.?Apparently some of these little owls remain on theirnorthern breeding grounds all winter, for Dr. G. S. Agersborg (1885),referring to "southeastern Dakota", says: "In the winter as many astwenty of these birds may be found nestling together in one hole.They are always at such times abundantly supplied with food. Ihave found at one time forty-three mice and several Shore Larksscattered along the run to their common apartment. They forage infine weather and retreat to their dirty adobes when cold weatherthreatens."Dr. Coues (1874) quotes Townsend as saying: "I found both theprairie-dogs and the Burrowing Owls abroad and very active on pleas-ant days in December and January, on the plains of Western Kansas,although the temperature often fell nearly to zero (Fahrenheit) duringthe nights following. I was also assured by old residents of the plains13751?38 26
394 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMthat both these animals are frequently seen abroad during pleasantweather throughout the winter."DISTRIBUTIONRange.?North America to southern Canada, parts of the WestIndies, Central and South America.Breeding range.?The burrowing owl breeds north to southernBritish Columbia (Okanagan); southern Saskatchewan (Many IslandLake, Crane Lake, Rush Lake, Moosejaw, and Indian Head); andsouthern Manitoba (Oak Lake, Riding Mountain, Portage la Prairie,and Kildonan). East to Manitoba (Kildonan); Minnesota (SwiftCounty, Montevideo, and Sherburn); Iowa (Granville, Paton, Ashton,and Wall Lake) ; eastern Nebraska (Neligh, Horth Loup, and Wilber)
;
Kansas (Portis, Garden Plain, Harber, and Medicine Lodge); Okla-homa (Fort Reno, Norman, and Mount Scott) ; western Texas (Bon-ham and Austin); southeastern Florida (Fort Drum, Fort Thompson,Hialeah, and Miami); Bahama Islands (Eleuthera, Cat Island, andGreat Inagua); Dominican Republic (Monte Cristi, Sosua, Santiago,Tubanos, Bani, and Beata Island); Lesser Antilles (Nevis, Antigua,and Guadeloupe); probably British Guiana; Brazil (Para, Bahia,Campos, and Itapetinanga) ; Uruguay (Cerro Largo, Rocha, andMaldonado); and Argentina (La Plata, Dolores, Cape San Antonio,Bahia Blanca, Rio Negro, and Cape Espiritu Santo). Sooth to south-ern Argentina (Cape Espiritu Santo); and Chile (Rio Imperial).West to Chile (Rio Imperial, Molina, Coquimbo, and La Serena);Ecuador (Puna Island, Santa Elena, and Concepcion) ; Panama(Chiriqui); Guatemala (San Jose, Duenas, and San Geronimo);Oaxaca (Tehuantepec) ; the "plains of Colima"; Revillagigedo Islands;Baja California (San Jose del Cabo, Mira Flores, Todos Santos, ElRosario, Cedros Island, and Calexico); California (San ClementeIsland, San Nicolas Island, Santa Rosa Island, Alcalde, ParaisoSprings, Alameda, Oakland, East Park, Alton, and Tule Lake);Oregon (Mud Creek, Silver Lake, Corvallis, Scio, and The Dalles);Washington (Yakima Valley, Cheney, and Riverside); and BritishColumbia (Osoyoos Lake and Okanagan).The range as above outlined is for the entire species, which has,however, been separated into several geographic races and is, moreover,discontinuous. For example, in the Eastern United States the onlyregion where the species is found regularly is in southern Florida, whichis occupied by the Florida burrowing owl (Speotyto c. floridana).This form also is found on the Bahama Islands. The Hispaniolanburrowing owl (S. c. troglodytes) occurs chiefly in Haiti and theDominican Republic; the Guadeloupe burrowing owl (S. c. guade-lowpensis) and the Antigua burrowing owl {S. c. amaura), both ofwhich are probably now extinct, are confined to a few islands of the
AVESTERN BURROWING OWL 395Lesser Antilles; and the birds of the Revillagigedo Island group, offthe west coast of Mexico, has been named #. c. rostrata. The typicalform S. c. cunicularia is South American.The western burrowing owl (S. c. hypugaea) occupies the NorthAmerican portion of the ranges, except for Florida. It is migratoryin the northern areas, and in some parts of Central America itapparently occurs only as a winter resident.Winter range.?As stated above, this species is migratory only in thenorthern parts of its range. It will occasionally remain throughoutthe winter almost to the limits of the breeding range but ordinarilyat this season it is found north to California (East Park, St. John, andChico) ; southern Arizona (Parker and Tucson) ; southern New Mexico(Mesilla Park, Tularosa, and Carlsbad); Texas (Lipscomb, Decatur,and Corsicana) ; and southern Florida (Miakka Lake, Istokpoga, andFort Drum).Spring migration.?Early dates of spring arrival are: Kansas (maywinter rarely in southern part)?Wellington, March 22; Wichita,April 7; Ellis, April 8. Nebraska (winters rarely)?Beatrice, March24; Valentine, April 6; Antioch, April 8. Iowa?Sioux City, March20; Ashton, April 22. South Dakota?Fort Pierre, April 5; Forest-burg, April 6; White River, April 15. North Dakota?Marstonmoor,April 7; Jamestown, April 10; Argusville, April 20. Minnesota
?
Sherburn, April 18. Manitoba?Margaret, April 14 ; Aweme, April 24.Saskatchewan?Indian Head, April 24. Colorado (winters rarely)Grand Junction, March 23; Loveland, March 28; Denver, April 14.Utah?Salt Lake County, April 17. Wyoming?Wheatland, March12 ; Laramie, April 15. Idaho?Meridian, March 5 ; Deer Flat Refuge,March 18. Montana?CorvaUis, April 15; Billings, April 21; FortCuster, April 25. Nevada (may winter rarely)?Carson City, April26. Oregon (winters rarely)?Camp Harney, March 13; KlamathLake, March 31. Washington (may winter rarely)?Walla Walla,March 1; North Yakima, March 7; Prescott, March 19. BritishColumbia (winters rarely in extreme southern part)?Okanagan,April 2 ; Osoyoos Lake, April 6 ; Penticton, April 15.Fall migration.?Late dates of fall departure are: Washington(may winter rarely)?North Yakima, October 1; Grays Harbor,October 19. Oregon (winters rarely)?Cold Springs, October 14.Nevada (may winter rarely)?Overton, November 22. MontanaBig Sandy, September 14; Fort Benton, September 20. Idaho, DeerFlat Refuge, November 1; Meridian, December 14. WyomingHutton Lake, October 5; Midwest, October 7; Wheatland, November2. Colorado (winters rarely)?Boulder County, October 13; JacksonCounty, October 26; El Paso County, November 2. ManitobaTreesbank, September 25; Oak Lake, October 4. North DakotaStump Lake, September 29; Jamestown, October 1. South Dakota
396 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMForestburg, October 1; Harrison, October 18. Iowa?WoodburyCounty, October 5. Nebraska (winters rarely)?Gresham, Septem-ber 15; Spalding, September 24; Chadron, October 1. Kansas (maywinter rarely in southern part)?Wichita, October 24; Cimarron,November 30. Oklahoma (may winter rarely)?Arnett, October 7;Fort Sill, October 10.The migration of these owls is perhaps more graphically portrayedby three cases of individuals marked with numbered bands. One wasbanded at Northville, S. Dak., on July 1, 1931, and recaptured atRoyal, Nebr., about October 1, 1931; the second, banded at WestKildonan, Manitoba, on July 31, 1926, was shot at Spalding, Nebr.,on September 24, 1927; the third, also banded at Northville, S. Dak.,on June 27, 1931, was retaken near Gunter, Tex., on January 7, 1932.Casual records.?On several occasions the burrowing owl has beentaken outside of its normal range. Among these are the following:About half a dozen specimens have been taken in Louisiana (ChenierTigre, March 6, 1918, and December 10, 1925; Grand Isle, one onApril 22 and two on April 27 ; Baton Rouge, March 11, 1933). Appar-ently all these belonged to the western subspecies. A specimen col-lected on Blakely Island, opposite Mobile, Ala., on February 3, 1912,is the Florida race. A specimen was taken in Porter County, Ind.,on April 16, 1924; one was captured alive on Wolfe Island, Ontario,in the fall of 1894; on October 22, 1918, one came on board a navalvessel off Hampton Roads, Va.; one was reported from New YorkCity in August 1875; one was collected at Newburyport, Mass.,on May 15, 1875; and a specimen was found dead at Dover, N. H.,about February 20, 1922.Probably the most northern occurrence is a nonbreeding malecollected on July 8, 1921, ten miles north of Poplar Point, Manitoba.Egg dates.?Florida: 52 records, March 22 to May 21; 26 records,April 4 to 23, indicating the height of the season.California: 41 records, April 1 to June 17; 21 records, April 14 toMay 2.Colorado and Kansas: 11 records, March 29 to July 1; 6 records,May 14 to June 2.Dakotas: 7 records, May 1 to June 13.SPEOTYTO CUN1CULARIA FLORIDANA Ridgwayflorida burrowing owlPlates 87-89HABITSRidgway (1914), although he originally described this owl under theabove name, treats it in his latest work as specifically distinct from thewestern bird, and applies the name Speotyto floridana floridana to the
FLORIDA BURROWING OWL, 397birds of Florida and the Bahamas. He describes it as "above darkerand much less buffy brown than in any of the forms of S. cunicularia,with the spotting dull white instead of more or less buffy; ground colorof under parts much less buffy (dull white, buffy only on thighs andunder wing-coverts) ; under wing-coverts spotted with brown, at leasttoward edge of wing ; tarsus less extensively feathered, the featheringshorter; wing and tail averaging much shorter than in S. cuniculariahypogaca and bill larger."The home of this owl is on the prairies of central and southernFlorida. One naturally associates burrowing owls with the westernprairies and open plains, and so it is not surprising that these birds areto be found on the wide, open spaces in the flatter portions of Florida.On my first visit to Florida I drove for many miles over the extensiveprairies that lie between the marshes of the upper St. Johns River andthe east coast and was greatly impressed with their many reminders ofthe western plains; there was the broad expanse of flat grassland,stretching away nearly to the horizon, where distant clumps of treessuggested the tree-claims or the timber belts along the western streams;only the scattered palmetto hammocks broke the illusion; rovingbands of wild cattle, with an occasional picturesque cowboy roundingthem up, a stray upland plover, then on its way north, the numeroussloughs and ponds, and frequent glimpses of sandhill cranes, all addedto the picture. The great Kissimmee Prairie, which I visited later,furnishes even more congenial homes for burrowing owls and cranesin its vast expanse of flat grassy plains.Charles J. Pennock, who has had considerable field experience withthese owls, has sent me some very elaborate notes on them; as to theirhaunts, he says: "These almost treeless tracts may vary in size froma few acres to several square miles, may be a disconnected series ofopen moors or fieldlike tracts, or they may be a chain of larger orsmaller prairies, with sloughs, hammocks, or ponds intervening.Wherever found nesting, they are quite sure to be on the higher,drier, opener, and least fertile places. So little above the under-ground water table is much of the country that these birds frequentthat a very short distance, even a few rods, may determine thepresence or absence of Speotyto, for, where the ground drops to adepression, a pond may be formed, or, failing that, scrub palmettosor other coarse plants may grow, among which the owls do not findcongenial abiding places. Even the presence of an occasionally usedroadway across a prairie may make the difference to these birds, andit is quite usual to find them located on the borders of such paths or,as I have seen more than once, their domiciles on the very shoulderof the road, between the side ditch and the wheel track. No doubtsuch sites mean a drier nursery, for they are not infrequently delayedin their home building by rains in March."
398 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMThis would seem to indicate that these owls always select high, dryground for their nesting sites; but Samuel N. Rhoads (1892) found alarge colony in soil that had previously been very wet, "a continuouscolony, three miles long, of breeding Owls. The retreating waters ofthe adjoining slough had left a margin of flat, grass-grown sand, ofvarying width, between the swamp and the saw palmettoes, andextending indefinitely in the direction of the stream. This formedthe breeding ground of several hundred pairs of Owls."W. P. Owen writes to me that he and H. H. Bailey have noticed
"the moving of the burrowing owl from its accustomed habitat, thegolf courses, to the dairy pastures", in Dade County.Nesting.?Probably no such large colonies as that referred to aboveexist today. W. J. Hoxie wrote to me of visiting a large desertedcolony on the St. Johns Prairie in 1893, where the remains of the oldtowns were strikingly apparent for miles in groups of from six to twentyon all sides; "the mounds, being constructed of the deeper subsoil,long resisted the encroachment of the vegetation and stood bare andsunscorched." Mr. Pennock says: "On but one occasion did I finda close community; then there were six or eight pairs nesting on arestricted tract of not exceeding four or five acres. * * * On onlya single occasion, did I find these birds occupying a burrow, otherthan of their own excavation. This burrow, from its location, size,and form, was unquestionably the work, originally, of the highlandtortoise or 'gopher', so called by the residents."Other observers all agree that these owls excavate their own bur-rows, mainly because the "gophers" are seldom found on the prairiesfrequented by the owls, and because there are very few burrowingmammals to be found in the same region. Occasionally, a desertedburrow of a fox or a skunk may be occupied, but these are generallyin thick cover, which the owls do not like.Most of the burrows that I have seen have been widely separated,single nests; but once, while hunting with Mr. Pennock in CharlotteCounty, we found five pairs of owls nesting within the space of a fewacres. This was on March 5, 1925, and the owls had not laid in theonly burrow we dug out, though the burrow and nesting chamberwere apparently finished; the hole ran downward at a sharp angle for15 or 20 inches, and along at that depth, with one slight turn in it,for about 6 feet. Mr. Pennock says that the burrows vary in lengthfrom 5 to 9 feet, and are usually shallower than those of the westernburrowing owl, from 14 to 20 inches below the surface of the ground.Sometimes they are quite straight, but often they make one, or rarelytwo, abrupt turns. He says that sometimes the eggs are placeddirectly on the bare earth, but usually some material is used as bed-ding, grass cut to short lengths, rarely some hair or feathers, and oncea lot of shredded newspaper; more frequently small pieces of dry
FLORIDA BURROWING OWL 399horse or cow manure are used, sometimes in considerable quantities;once more than half a peck of finely broken cow manure was takenfrom one cavity.Referring to the colony described above, Mr. Rhoads (1892) says:With three exceptions all of the twenty burrows I explored were dug in themoist, sandy margin of the slough, from twenty to one hundred feet down thegentle, grassy slope between the thickly fringed palmetto bank and the water'sedge. The more recently constructed burrows were invariably nearer the water,owing to the greater ease of digging in the wet sand. In these cases the burrowthroughout its entire length would just graze the lower surface of the thin sod,occasionally even penetrating it, causing, in such an event, its abandonment. Ifnot abandoned, one of the myriad roving cattle would be likely soon to set foot onit and break through, or a sudden shower might fill it with water.Eggs.?The Florida burrowing owl lays four to eight eggs, usuallyfive or six. The eggs are indistinguishable from those of the westernbird. The measurements of 50 eggs in the United States NationalMuseum average 32.4 by 26.9 millimeters; the eggs showing the fourextremes measure 34.3 by 28, 33 by 29, 28.6 by 25.4, and 30.8 by 25millimeters.Young.?Incubation is shared by both sexes, and probably lasteabout three weeks. Mr. Rhoads (1892) says: "The voracity of theyoung is phenomenal. I kept seven, of different ages, in a tin boxfor several days. Beside eating everything, fresh or putrid, that wasoffered, they attacked and devoured each other. I was forced to killthe three remaining cannibals to preserve them."Plumages.?The plumage changes of the Florida burrowing owlare apparently similar to those of the western bird. Mr. Pennocksays, in his notes: "In coloring the adult female is decidedly morerufous on the back than is the male, and the spots on the breast andbelly of the male are more sharply defined, rather darker with moredistinct margins. This is not often sufficiently pronounced to beapparent in the single bird at rest. In flight, the deeper, brownishtinge on the back of the female will at times, in certain lights, becomeevident. In a series of birds, with males and females separated, thedifference becomes clearly marked."Food.?According to Mr. Pennock, the food of these owls consistslargely of night-flying beetles; "when shot early in the morning, theirstomachs are usually well filled with such food. Other food notedwas remnants of a crab, a small decapitated snake, and parts of afrog", found about the entrances to burrows.Mr. Rhoads (1892) writes:When the nest contained young, the mound and burrow were strewn with therejected remains of their food, but, strange to say, there was no evidence thatthe young or old ejected the pellets so peculiar to rapacious birds. If they haddone so we certainly should have found them. Among these remains weredetected the legs and elytra of various grasshoppers and coleoptera, skulls of a
400 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
very small rodent, skulls and backbones of fish, one of which was six inches long,the skins of snakes, the dried body of a lizard, frogs and crayfish, and feathersof four or five species of birds, noticeable among which were those of the CubanNighthawk, Bobolink and Savanna Sparrow.Behavior.?Mr. Pennock says: "The flight is more undulating thanthat of any other bird I know, a series of abrupt, sweeping rises andswinging drops, rarely making a flight of more than 40 or 50 yards,often swinging back to, or near, their home-site, or more frequentlydropping down to another burrow entrance, perhaps not over 20 or30 yards distant." He thinks that this second burrow may be ahaven of refuge in time of trouble, as the owls often have two burrowsin use, one for nesting and one for a resting place.I have always found the Florida burrowing owl rather tame andeasily approached; others have had the same experience with it.Once I lay for half an hour within 8 feet of one, as it stood on itsmound, preening and oiling its plumage, as a shower was threatening ;I even saw it pinch its oil gland ; its small bill seemed rather awkwardfor preening. Although it seemed to be very alert, it paid little atten-tion to me, but kept turning its head quickly in all four directions,looking for prey; two or three times it darted off and caught someinsect, either on the ground or in the air, giving a little cry as it started
;
on returning, it spread its feet widely apart and landed on its moundwith a little slide. Once it gaped, half closed its eyes, and dozed for afew moments.As a rule these owls are very gentle, though they will put up quitea fight when handled; but Mr. Rhoads (1892) says: ''The anxiety ofthe old males whose young are being threatened is so great that I havehad them strike my cap awry while digging, and in general the conductof the females in comparison is shameful. * * * Where four orfive pairs were living close together the males would combine theirattacks upon me and the females would retire together to some secludedspot and have a talk."Frederic H. Kennard (1915) writes:On approaching an inhabited burrow, if one or both of the owners were notalready in sight, they very quickly appeared; and standing bolt upright on theirlittle mound of sand at the mouth of the burrow, would courtesy gravely to me,until on my nearer approach, they would fly off onto the prairie, perhaps fifty ora hundred feet, where they would continue their courtesies, uttering at the sametime their calls, Whit, whit-whit, a long and two short notes: or Whit-whit, who-who-who-who-whit, two short notes followed by a stutter, a little lower in tone butending with a short sharp whit at the end; or Whit-whit, who-who-who-who-who,two short whits, followed by the stutter. Often instead of flying they wouldrun over the prairie, reminding me of the Robins one sees on the lawn, whichafter standing upright and still, suddenly bend forward and run.Bendire (1892) says that "after the breeding season is over, theFlorida Burrowing Owl is said to disappear for a time from its usualhaunts, but where it goes is not positively known." ,
ROCKY MOUNTAIN PYGMY OWL 401Enemies.?Bendire quotes J. F. Menge as saying that "many oftheir nests are yearly destroyed by skunks and opossums, who seem tobe very fond of the eggs." Mr. Hoxie tells me that it has been quite acommon practice for the cowboys to shoot these owls, as being detri-mental to the cattle business; the only reason for this is that a horseor a cow may occasionally break a leg by stepping into a burrow whilerunning. It would hardly seem that there are enough of the holes tocause much damage in this way, but, sad to relate, any wild creaturethat interferes in the slightest degree with man's interests has to besacrificed. GLAUCIDIUM GNOMA PINICOLAROCKY MOUNTAIN PYGMY OWLHABITSContributed by Milton Philo SkinnerThe pygmy owl well deserves its name, for it is scarcely as big as abluebird, and not nearly so large as a robin. It is a hardy, darkgrayish-brown, little fellow, and it lives at all seasons of the year uponits favorite mountain ranges in the Western United States and Canada.Still, severe winter storms may cause it to seek lower altitudes,temporarily. Although it is seldom found far from trees, it some-times perches on trees or bushes isolated from the rest of the forest.This is the most eastern of the several subspecies of the pygmy owl.It has not often been reported; yet it seems to be quite abundant.Its small size, its ability to hide in the forest, its many ways andhabits so unlike other owls, and its general resemblance to other,commoner, birds tend to confuse the observer even when the pygmyowl is seen. Most curious in an owl is its habit of carrying its tailsticking out at a perky angle (Winson, 1926a).Nesting.?Nothing is known of the courtship activities precedingthe nesting of this subspecies, and not much of the actual nestingitself. As a rule the nest is in the abandoned hole of woodpeckersranging in size from the hairy woodpecker up to, and including, theflicker. Apparently the Rocky Mountain pygmy prefers a site 8 to20 feet above ground. The eggs are laid upon the bare woodenbottom of the nest hole, although at times there are feathers and pineneedles present. I do not know whether this scanty material isintentionally placed in position, or just accidentally falls there. Onthe other hand, Major Bendire (1892) found a nest at Fort Klamathwhere "the cavity was well filled with feathers of various kinds",indicating that here was an attempt at actual nest building. Datesof fresh eggs range from May 10 to the end of June; and, judged fromthese, only one brood a year is raised. Incubation appears to start assoon as one egg has been laid. Apparently nesting localities may be
402 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUManywhere within tree limits, from 5,000 feet to 10,000 feet above sealevel.Aretas A. Saunders (1921), speaking of Montana, says: "Theonly definite knowledge of the nesting of this species in the stateis the record of a nest and newly hatched young found on BridgerCreek, Gallatin County, by Mr. Thomas in June, 1909."In Colorado these nests have been recorded by W. G. Smith, W. H.Bergtold, and Charles F. Morrison. In this State at least, nestingtrees have been at comparatively high altitudes above sea level.Mrs. Bailey (1928) records nesting in New Mexico in old woodpeckerholes in trees and stumps.Although the locality is at the extreme western limit of the range ofthis subspecies, Major Bendire (1892) has given us a fine series ofnotes from Fort Klamath, Oreg.During an absence once from Fort Klamath on official matters, one of my menfound on June 10, 1883, a burrow occupied as a nest by the true Glaucidiumgnoma, which at the time it was first discovered must have contained eggs.* * * The nesting site used was a deserted Woodpecker's excavation, in abadly decayed but still living aspen tree and was about 20 feet from the ground;the cavity was about 8 inches deep and 3)4 wide at the bottom. * * * Whenthe nest was shown me [June 25] I had it examined, and, much to my disgust,found it to contain four young birds about a week or ten days old. * * * Thecavity was well filled with feathers of various kinds, and contained besides theyoung, the female parent and a full grown Say's chipmunk {Tamias lateralis),that evidently had just been carried in, as it had not been touched. The cavitywas almost entirely filled up by the contents mentioned.Perhaps, when further observations have been made, nesting will befound to be even more like californicum than now seems to be thecase.Eggs.?Major Bendire (1892) has recorded that four is the usualnumber of eggs to a set. Mrs. Bailey (1928) says "three or four,white or whitish" eggs, in New Mexico. Edward A. Preble (1930)adds that there are usually "three or four white eggs, a little over aninch in length, and about the size of robins' eggs." As to shape,pygmy eggs are much more nearly round than most other eggs.[Author's note: The measurements of 21 eggs average 26.6 by23.2 millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremes measure 29 by24 and 25.4 by 22.3 millimeters.]Young.?The young owlets hatch out, as a rule, in June or early inJuly. They then remain in the nest about four weeks longer, duringwhich time they are carefully looked after by the mother, althoughthe father may bring food to his family at times. Sometimes quitelarge prey, considering the size of the owls, is brought to the nest.Plumages.?So far as known, the first plumage is much like theadult plumage, except that it is grayer and not spotted. When theyoung leave the nest the head is gray and contrasts with the browner
ROCKY MOUNTAIN PYGMY OWL 403
color of the back. There are a few faint spots on the forehead butnone on the rest of the head; no spots on the other upper parts, oron the brown of the sides of the breast. Later, spots gradually appea rin all these places as the bird grows older.This owl is known to molt late in August or early in September.Mrs. Bailey (1928) says: "It was in the midst of its molt at the time-September 3?its head, body, and yellow feet being pin-feathery,its wing quills only partly new. It was an immature female."Food.?Probably the Rocky Mountain pygmy owl feeds on all thesmaller mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and larger insects liv-ing within its range. All varieties are attacked at times and eaten.Still, it is quite likely that mice and large insects are oftener eatenthan any other items. Aside from the variety of its food, the mostastonishing thing about its diet is the comparatively large size of someof its captures, both mammalian and avian. For the pygmy owl ismore savage and more courageous than many species of birds. Sinceit is a daylight hunting bird, its victims are such as would naturallybe secured at that time. Mrs. Bailey (1928) says: "One takenby Mr. Ligon had its stomach packed with the flesh and hair ofmice. * * * A Rocky Mountain Pygmy Owl taken by Mr. Baileyin Santa Clara Canyon at sundown had a meadow mouse in its stomachand gray fur in its claws. * * * One of the Pygmies was heardby Mr. Birdseye at night high up in the San Francisco Mountains,but three specimens taken by him on the Negrito and Frisco Riverswhen discovered were sitting out in the broad sunshine, and thestomach of one was filled with grasshoppers, proving that it had beenhunting in daylight."Major Bendire mentions one that had seized a large pocket gopher;and I have already quoted his finding an adult Say's ground squirrel,fully twice the size of the adult pygmy, in a nest. E. L. Arnold(1932) says: "This afternoon [November 30, 1932] I found a pigmyowl apparently unable to fly. Upon investigation I found that hehad a mole caught in his claws and was unable either to extricate themole or rise with his burden into the air." This inability, or ratherfailure, of the pygmy, to release prey that seems too big for it hasbeen noted also by other observers. There have been several in-stances where the rapacious little pygmy has been found dead besideits prey. Edward A. Preble (1930) writes: "Its powers can not bemeasured by its size, for it has been known to overcome groundsquirrels of twice its [own] bulk."While this subspecies does not seem to be so much of a bird destroyeras californicum, there are few birds smaller than twice its own sizethat it will not attack. As a rule it seems to grasp at least its avianvictims by the neck. Edward A. Preble (1930) writes that "its stand-ing with the small forest birds is indicated by the jeering, excited
404 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMcompanies that gather when an Owl is discovered in its daytimeretreat in some shady evergreen." Later on, under my subheading
"Winter", I am giving several instances of pygmies preying on Englishsparrows. Major Bendire (1892) speaks of a pygmy "breakfastingupon a Western Tree Sparrow." H. C. Johnson notes that one Utahstomach was "literally gorged with English sparrows." Dr. J. C.Merrill, as quoted by Bendire (1892), says: "One captured February21 had just struck at a robin and was struggling with it on the ground."H. H. Kimball (1925) writes that "Mr. Bently of Portal Ranger Sta-tion, Chiricahua Mts., Ariz., found a female Gambel Quail graspedby the neck with both sets of claws by a small owl, the quail stillwarm", January 21, 1925. W. L. Sclater (1912) says that one attacked
"a Quail, and on other occasions it has been known to pounce on aLong-crested Jay and on chickens."In spite of this destruction of small birds by the Rocky Mountainpygmy, so great is its appetite for mice, grasshoppers, and largeinsects generally, that it is classed by Dr. A. K. Fisher (1893b) as
"beneficial in its ways and habits." Dr. W. H. Bergtold (1928), withmany additional observations to help him to a verdict, says that it is
"probably beneficial as a whole." Dr. Fisher lists lizards as a favoritefood in some places. Major Bendire (1892) mentions one at FortKlamath that occupied a willow branch over a stream for the purpose,he thought, of watching for frogs.Dr. Elliott Coues (1874) speaks of the pygmy's fondness for insects.He says that specimens secured at Fort Whipple, Ariz., had theirstomachs "filled with fragments of grasshoppers and beetles, some ofwhich were yet scarcely altered by digestion, showing that theymust have been very recently captured. Each of the birds was killedabout noon."Behavior.?When one reads through the literature about this owl,he is at once struck with the divergent views of the different observers.Dr. Coues (1874) gives us a very interesting early account of thisbird on the basis of two specimens obtained at Fort Whipple. Hesays, frankly, that he is not very familiar with it, and he then givesa summary of habits as he surmises they will be found to be. Howdifferent this bird has proved to be from these early surmises ! In thefirst place, although ornithologists most familiar with the pygmy saythat it is common, it is astonishing how few are the actual referencesto it. Dr. H. E. Anthony writes me in the letter dated October 5,1933: "I think that probably these little owls may be more abundantthan most casual observers imagine because they may be in low treesand bushes and are mistaken, when they fly out, for robins, thrushes,or common species. When they are not flushed they sit so tight thatthe eye does not pick them up readily." Perhaps another reason forthe pygmy's escaping general notice is its preference for the daylight
ROCKY MOUNTAIN PYGMY OWL 405hours. Of course, it is easier to see a daylight-loving bird ; but one issimply not looking for an owl then, and so fails to recognize it. Thefirst observers did not credit this owl with any diurnal habits butspoke of hearing it at night and of accidentally seeing it at dusk.It was not until several years had elapsed that its true habits wereknown. As a matter of fact, it is as daylight loving as most smallbirds are; but, like them, the Rocky Mountain pygmy is more activeearly in the morning and late in the afternoon. This subspecies is alover of the forests, especially the pine forests of the mountains. Andyet Major Bendire shot a female on "February 5, 1875, in the vicinityof Camp Harney, Oregon, at least 5 miles from the nearest timber.It was perched on a large bowlder lying at the foot of a basalticcliff." But this was evidently an exception, rare with this bird.Because it lives in the coniferous forests, it is easy for this small owlto remain hidden, especially as it has the habit of sitting quietly uprighton a limb, close to the trunk of the tree. Since most of its food iscaught in the open, and about meadows, it is more often found in thetrees near a sizable opening. In fact, I have no records of its occur-rence in a heavy, dense forest, far from an opening of some land.Mrs. Bailey (1918) writes:It should be looked for mainly in the pines and on dead trees. Althoughdiurnal, this tiny owl is more commonly seen at dusk or in the early morning inSeptember or October around the border of the prairie patches on the west sideof [Glacier] Park. Mr. Bryant writes: "On a fine sunny day the pygmy owlwill often perch on the topmost twig of some tall larch, and morning and eveninggive a peculiar but pleasing sort of whistle." The white-headed lumberjack [orRocky Mountain jay] "can mock them perfectly," he says, and he adds, "Manytimes when I thought I was about to collect a pygmy I have come face to facewith the jack."Major Bendire (1892) says there are "never more than one at atime." But Mr. Henshaw, as quoted by Major Bendire in the samework, "found the Pygmy Owls quite numerous in the southern RockyMountains, and states that they are rather sociable in disposition,especially during the fall months. He says he has imitated their calland readily lured them up close enough to be seen." In fact, thissubspecies can be easily decoyed by imitating its call.In the Yellowstone Park, I found pygmy owls tame, unsuspicious,and given to perching on the tips of low trees in semiopen places, oncold mornings at least. At such times, they seem to be enjoying thewarmth of the rising sim. Then, there is nothing to indicate the bird'sprowess as a hunter, nor the terror that it must often bring to a multi-tude of the smaller forms of life.P. A. Taverner (1926) says: "An extraordinary and interesting littleOwl. It is largely diurnal, and so small that one naturally expectsit to have a gentle and unassertive disposition. This, however, is farfrom being the case. If the reaction of the small woodland birds to
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its presence is any evidence, this little raptor, no larger than many ofthem, must be one of their worst enemies. Its friends would call itcourageous and determined; its enemies, ferocious and blood thirsty."Mr. and Mrs. E. R. Arnold, of Yellowstone Park, had the goodfortune to keep one for a few days in winter, and wrote in the mimeo-graphed Nature Notes from Yellowstone Park: "This little fellow wasquite friendly. * * * His demeanor was that of dwarf membersof many families?decidedly pompous and self-sufficient. * * *When our old cat walked sedately into the room, the cat crouchedlow and 'froze,' all the time making nervous little sounds and thePygmy turned his head so far around we felt he must wring his ownneck."The flight is not at all owllike but more on the order of the sparrowhawk, or even more like a shrike's. The pygmy watches from anelevated perch for prey below it and pounces down upon it. Whengoing from perch to perch, it flies like a shrike, dropping from itsperch, buzzing along just above the ground, and rising sharply to itsnew perch. Its flight is more noisy than other owls. Perhaps someof these peculiarities are due to the diurnal habits of the RockyMountain pygmy.Voice.?The majority of the notes uttered by this pygmy are de-cidedly musical and hence not at all like other owls'. Most hearershave noted the resemblance of its commonest notes to the cooing ofthe mourning dove. My own experience has been that while thenotes are short and repeated like a dove's, and there is at least asuggestion of the dove's rolling effect, still the pygmy's notes aresomewhat sharper, and each note more distinct, than the dove's.When Theodore Roosevelt and John Burroughs first heard one ofthese owls in the Yellowstone National Park, they could not at firstbelieve that it was an owl. Roosevelt (1904) says: "We had seen apygmy owl no larger than a robin sitting on top of a pine in broad day-light, and uttering at short intervals a queer, un-owllike cry." Bur-roughs (1906) wrote: "It was such a sound as a boy might make byblowing in the neck of an empty bottle." Mrs. Bailey (1928) says thenote of an immature female "was a long whistle followed by a cuckoo-like cuck, cuck, cuck, cuck, cuck."The pygmy owl seems to be most vocal during the spring and earlysummer months, although a few individuals may continue throughoutthe summer. Dr. Mearns (1890) says: "Its pleasant note washeard in the pine-trees overhead nearly every night while I was explor-ing the San Francisco group of mountains." Major Bendire says thenotes were heard "usually shortly after sundown." On the other hand,all other observers that mention the time of day say that the notesare uttered during daylight, preferably early in the morning or late inthe afternoon.
ROCKY MOUNTAIN PYGMY OWL 407Charles F. Morrison, of La Plata County, Colo., is quoted by MajorBendire as having heard only a faint squeak from this owl. Mr. Sillo-way (1903) says: "When flushed, they uttered a faint shrill whistlingcall. One of the family, the female in charge of the youngsters, ut-tered a low cooing whistle, in low pitch."Enemies.?As a rule the small birds pay little or no attention to thepresence of a pygmy owl near them; but there are a few recordedexceptions. Mrs. Bailey (1923) writes that "the little owl was beingmobbed by bridled titmice." At a later date Mrs. Bailey (1928) says:
"In the Sacramento Mountains Mr. Ligon has discovered two by thehummingbirds fighting them, and finds that the juncos also oftenbetray the presence of the little Owl, perched knot-like, on a limb."C. A. Allen, quoted by Dr. A. K. Fisher (1893b), says: "There werefighting the Owl one pair of Tyrannus verticalis, one pair of Bullock'sOrioles, one pair of Bewick's Wrens, three Banded Tits (Chamaeafasciata), one pair of Pipilo oregonus, one pair of P. crissalis, andabout twenty Blackbirds (Scolecophagus cyanocephalus) . The bravestbirds were the Bewick's Wrens and Bullock's Orioles, which kept dart-ing at the Owl's head as it sat on the ground devouring a youngBlackbird."I have myself several times found this little owl by investigating thewherefor of a screaming mob of jays; and Dr. Mearns (1890) has givenanother instance of this method of finding them: "It is more apt to bediscovered by its spiteful little enemies, the Pygmy Nuthatches, thanby ornithologists, and I am indebted to these little birds for most ofmy specimens. * * * Another captured at Banghart's Station,in Chino Valley, while surrounded by belligerent Plain Titmice in aCottonwood hedge."Winter.?In winter the pygmy owl seems even more abundant inthe Yellowstone National Park than it does in summer I then seethese little owls, from January to May, on the tips of small cedars, orlow limber pines, or dead lodgepole pines, all fluffed out into ballsand apparently enjoying warm sunbaths. Usually, at such times,they face toward the sun. At intervals, especially when disturbed,they turn their heads this way and that with quick, nervous jerks.Generally they are very tame and permit me to ride my horse directlyunder them even when they are only a few inches above me in a lowcedar. I have heard that it is easy under such conditions to catch thedrowsy pygmy in one's hand, although I have never tried it myself.But Mr. Winson (1926a) writes: "On cold winter days in the sunshineit is possible to catch one 'napping', or so dull that by waving onehand in front of it to hold its attention, and bringing the other handup from behind, it may be picked off its perch, furious and snappy."Mr. and Mrs. E. E. Arnold (1930), of Tower Falls Kanger Station,Yellowstone Park, say: "During a recent three weeks stretch of sub-
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zero weather a tiny owl could be found almost any hour of the day,perched on a beam conveniently overlooking the grain bin in the barn.This little fellow was quite friendly and allowed us to take him intoour kitchen once or twice when we?merely cold-blooded humans
?
considered 34 degrees below zero too cold for even a diminutive owl,clothed warmly in feathers from the top of his head to the sharp clawson his miniature feet. He was quite patient with us and allowed us tomeasure and photograph him, but he spurned some small pieces of rawmeat." Soon the door was opened and he was allowed to fly back tothe barn. Later in the same article they tell us that "it is a certaintythat not a single mouse has been seen inside the barn since the depar-ture of our interesting little guest."Dr. Sclater (1912) tells us that the pygmy owls winter in the foothillsand on the neighboring plains of Colorado, although often summeringin the mountains. Dr. W. H. Bergtold (1928), also, says that althoughin the mountains in summer, they are more common on the plains ofColorado in winter. Norman deW. Betts (1912) gives an interestingitem: "This small owl was fairly common in the city of Boulder fromthe first week of January to the middle of February, 1912. One birdwas found dead and others were observed in various parts of the city;the number of individuals of course may not have been over three orfour, as they were observed singly. On two occasions (at 8 a. m.)I saw this owl feeding on a bird about the size of an English Sparrow.They appeared to be active at all times of the day." In Utah thepygmy owls have acquired the habit of visiting at least the smallercities. H. C. Johnson (1903) writes: "The capture of a pygmy owlin the streets of American Fork, Utah, a few days ago excited someinterest but was not the first occasion of its kind. Two or threeyears ago I had one similarly caught (by a boy with his hands) and ondissection I found it literally gorged with English sparrows. * * *The bird is not uncommon among us in winter and is attracted in townby the most natural thing in the world?food."DISTEIBUTIONRange.?Western North and Middle America; nonmigratory.The range of the pygmy owl extends north to northern BritishColumbia (Doch-da-on Creek, "Second Cabin", and Willow River) ; andMontana (Sun River, Bridger Canyon, and the mountains near RedLodge). East to (mountains near Red Lodge) ; Wyoming (probablyJackson); Colorado (Estes Park, probably Boulder, Ute Pass, andWet Mountains) ; New Mexico (Willis, Santa Fe Mountains, Glorieta,San Pedro and Cloudcroft); Chihuahua (Colonia Garcia); Tamaulipas(Galinda); Chiapas (Comitan); and Guatemala (Choctum, Coban, andVolcan de Fuego). South to Guatemala (Volcan de Fuego, Duenas,
ROCKY MOUNTAIN PYGMY OWL 409and Panajachel); Guerrero (Omilteme and Vente de Zopilote);Michoacan (Mount Tancitaro and Patamban); Colima (SierraNevada); Jalisco (La Laja, Las Penas, Volcan de Nieva, and Guada-lajara); Nayarit (Sierra Madre); and Baja California (Mira Flores).West to Baja California (Mira Flores, Sierra de la Laguna, andComondu); California (Escondido, Pasadena, Carpinteria, Little SurRiver, Santa Cruz, Nicasio, Mount Sanhedrin, Humboldt Bay, andCrescent City); Oregon (Fort Klamath, Elkton, Newport, probablyOcean Park, and Tillamook); Washington (probably Grays Harbor,Lake Crescent, and Bellingham Bay) ; and British Columbia (CowichanLake, Port Moody, and Doch-da-on Creek).The range as above outlined is for the entire species, which has,however, been separated into several geographic races, or subspecies.The typical form {Glaucidium gnoma gnoma) occurs only in themountains of northern and central Mexico, south to Guatemala(according to Griscom, 1932, typical gnoma is not found in that,country, and he recognizes two local races, G. g. cobanense and G. g.griseiceps). The Rocky Mountain pygmy owl (G. g. pinicola) isfound throughout the Rockj' Mountain region from Montana south tosouthern Arizona and extreme eastern California; the coast pygmyowl (G. g. grinnelli) occupies the Pacific coast portion of the rangefrom (casually) southeastern Alaska south to Monterey County,Calif.; the Vancouver pygmy owl (G. g. swarthi) is found only onVancouver Island, British Columbia; the California pygmy owl(G. g. californicum) occurs from San Diego County, Calif., north tonorthern British Columbia, except for the humid coastal strip; andHoskins's pygmy owl (G. g. hoskinsi) is found only in southern BajaCalifornia.Casual records.?A specimen of the pygmy owl was taken nearCalgary, Alberta, sometime previous to 1901, and one was reportedas seen near Sedgewick on November 8, 1913. A specimen wascollected on Dall Island, Alaska, on August 24, 1920, and there areseveral records for the vicinity of Wrangell. It seems probable thatthis owl may be a more or less regular resident of southeastern Alaska.[Author's note: Frank L. Farley writes to me as follows: "Thatan incursion of pygmy owls took place, during the winter of 1932-33,into western Alberta is very evident. Francis Beebe, of McLeodValley, obtained a pygmy owl on November 14 and another onDecember 17, 1932. Dr. William Rowan received two pygmy owlsfrom Phoenix, Alberta, one on November 11, 1932, and another onJanuary 10, 1933."]Egg dates.?California: 10 records, April 24 to June 28; 5 records,May 1 to 19, indicating the height of the season.Arizona: 9 records, May 19 to June 14.13751?38 27
410 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMGLAUCIDIUM GNOMA CALIFORN1CUM SclaterCALIFORNIA PYGMY OWLPlates 90, 91HABITSContributed bt Milton Philo SkinnerCalifornia has a variety of the pygmy owl that is browner in colorthan the Kocky Mountain form. With reference to this brownerform, Dr. Louis B. Bishop (1931b) has published a very interestingpaper. He gives important data to prove his contention that pinicolais but the gray male and californicum is the browner female of thesame subspecies. But, since I am following the latest A. O. U. Check-List, I am here giving a life history of each subspecies as it has beenrecorded up to the present time. The California form is not a dense-forest lover; but, on the other hand, it is not usually found very farfrom trees of some kind. In the humid coast region of northern Cali-fornia, this form is replaced by the coast pygmy owl. C. W. Michael,resident for many years in the Yosemite Valley, says: "One of themost interesting birds of the Yosemite Valley is the little pygmy owl.He is a tiny fellow, not much larger than the English sparrow. Hishead is round and without ear tufts. His yellow eyes have a wiseand friendly look. His posture when perched is rather erect, and histail appears very short. His white breast is marked with clear blackpencilings, and his brownish gray back is checkered with small whitedots."Courtship.?One day, as Mr. and Mrs. C. W. Michael were watchinga pygmy owl, they heard it give a long, trilling note. "Evidentlythis call was meant for the ears of his mate for almost immediately hewas joined by a second owl. The birds snuggled together shoulder toshoulder in an affectionate attitude, and while in this position theburden carried by the first bird was passed to the newcomer. Thesecond bird, which we took to be the female, at once proceeded topluck the feathers from the vireo." Since this was on June 2, 1927,it was probably one of the last affectionate "snugglings" of the court-ing season. Two years later, on the morning of April 20, 1929, Mr.Michael saw another pygmy disappear into "a deserted woodpeckerhole. As I stood waiting for the owl to reappear there came thefamiliar soft, fluttering trill of notes. Directed by the sound a secondowl was soon located. This second owl was perched on a branchabout ten feet from the nest hole. Again came the soft quaver ofnotes, and this time as if in answer to the message the bird in the holepoked his head out. After gazing about for a moment he left the holeand flew to the calling bird. On fluttering wings he hesitated overthe perching bird and then settled gently to accomplish the supreme
CALIFORNIA PYGMY OWL 411
embrace. The perched bird received the caress without protest.The mating act completed, the male bird snuggled close to his mate ina most affectionate manner." All during this love scene nearby juncosand other small birds kept up a constant chatter of protest; a protestthat was ignored by the courting pygmies.Nesting.?In California this subspecies is found in the forests allalong the Sierra Nevada. South of Santa Cruz it is also found in thecoast ranges. It is not a resident of the great central valleys, nor ofthe desert ranges, although it is possible that it might occur on thehighest desert mountains, if wooded. It nests almost exclusively inwoodpecker holes if available, especially the old nesting sites of theCalifornia woodpecker. Mr. Michael tells me that all the nests hehas found, except one, were in such holes. Under such conditionsit might seem as if there would be more or less conflict between thetwo. On the contrary, they seem to get along well together, althoughother species of woodpeckers fight these owls. And the owls retaliateby eating both adult and nestlings of sapsuckers and woodpeckers,other than the California. As a rule this owl selects a site for a nestnear a meadow, or opening. It is easy to account for this markedpreference, because of the pygmies' preferred foods, mice and grass-hoppers, that live in the open. Again, I have often been impressedwith the scarcity of small bird life away from these openings, espe-cially in the Sierra Nevadas. So even the small birds that are preyedupon during nesting time are then more numerous in the open mead-ows and in the thickets along their edges. Furthermore, the firstfood that will be hunted by the young is apt to be grasshoppers foundonly in the open.Mr. Michael says: "The female does the incubating; the male doesthe hunting and brings in the food. When the male arrives withfood he perches near the nest hole and calls to his mate in a softwavering trill. The female comes forth, joins her mate, acceptshis offering and retires to the nest hole to dine at leisure. Owingto the predacious habits of the pygmy owl, and to his success as ahunter, the immediate neighborhood of his nest always becomesdestitute of small bird life. The bird student knowing his districtwell could almost sense the presence of the pygmy owl by the scarcityof small bird life. In justice to the pygmy, however, it must be ad-mitted that he shows a strong preference for mice, except during hisnesting season." Some of these Yosemite pygmies, at least, willnest in the immediate vicinity of houses. Mr. Michael writes methat of three nests found during the spring of 1927, one was directlyacross the road from his bedroom window. Although the majorityof egg settings are complete before June first, only one brood israised each year, so far as I know.
412 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMF. C. Holman (1926) speaks of a nest discovered in the YosemiteValley on May 19, 1925:[The nest] was located in a cavity of a black oak standing within seventy feetof the highway and close to the LeConte Lodge. The entrance was about fourinches in diameter, a circular hole some thirty feet from the ground, where thebase of a small lateral branch had decayed away in a large upright dead limbThe nest within was somewhere well below the entrance.There was little difficulty in distinguishing the two birds of the pair, as thebreast plumage of the female was of a darker shade, and her tail shorter, evidentlyworn so by the confines of the nest. As incubation was only then in progress, itwould seem too short a period in which to be thus affected, and the fact might betaken to indicate an earlier nest. Later the tail acquired its normal length.* * * He seldom went near the hole, and generally refrained from alightingin the tree, but called from a nearby oak grove, the lower fringe of growth thatcovers the talus slope from the cliffs. She often responded promptly from thehole, flying toward his general direction and, when definitely located, darting athim, seizing the offering in an apparent clash of wings, and either remaining to eatit or, as the case might be, carrying it back to the hole. Sometimes her exit wouldbe delayed, obviously due to her inability to catch the sound [of his call], andoccasionally she was obdurate and refused to appear.Since Leo K. Wilson (1925) also describes a nest in an oak atLeConte Memorial Lodge, it is probable that it was the same nest,but he gives additional details. He said: "On June 10 the birds wereunder observation for a period of about three hours. During that timethe male came three times to the nest hole with food for the settingfemale. * * * At the fourth trip the female refused to come tothe mouth of the hole to receive the offering of the male. The malekept up an incessant calling, that, in spite of its low tone, could beheard for some fifty or sixty yards. After waiting about five minutesthe bird flew."J. A. Munro's (1919) experience in British Columbia is much likethese in California, except as to kind of tree and size of brood, forhe says: "The only nest I have found was in an old woodpecker'shole, thirty-five feet above the ground in a western larch. There wereseven downy young in this nest. This was in a thick forest of Murraypine, Douglas fir, and western larch, where they were more plentifulthan in the yellow pine stands at lower altitudes." This nesting notefrom Mr. Munro is the only one I have for this subspecies from thatpart of the habitat north of Fort Klamath at the Oregon-Californialine. No doubt this subspecies also nests in the central part ofWashington and Oregon as well as in California.J. C. Braly (1930) says: "On May 21, 1930, 1 was hunting * * *near Fort Klamath, Klamath County, Oregon. While passing througha grove of unusually large quaking aspen trees at the edge of themarsh, I noticed an old flicker excavation about twelve feet from theground in one of the largest aspens. Upon striking the tree, a PigmyOwl (Glaucidium gnoma californicum) flushed." This nest seems to
CALIFORNIA PYGMY OWL 413have had the largest opening of any, except the one described byMessrs. Holman and Wilson, and it is notable also for its nearness tothe ground. An account of a nest found by George H. Ready, in apoplar [probably a black cottonwood] is given by W. A. Cooper (1879)as occurring "two miles from Santa Cruz on the San Lorenzo River."This nest, unlike those previously noted, was not in the mountains,but was comparatively near the Pacific Ocean and not high above it.O. W. Howard, as recorded in the Nidiologist, vol. 2, p. 153, also, founda nest near the ocean at Carpinteria, Calif., but gives us no clue as toits height above sea level. Mr. Howard's nest, found in the summerof 1895, was especially interesting because it was "in a hollow sycamoretree, six feet from the ground."George Willett (1912) gives an account of another nest in a syca-more, found by F. S. Daggett, that was maintained for at least threeseasons prior to 1896, near Switzer's Camp in the Arroyo Seco, LosAngeles County. While Switzer's is actually in the mountains, thealtitude of this location was probably not very high. This record isinteresting, for it indicates that these pygmies sometimes nest forseveral successive seasons in the same hole. Another lowland nestwas recorded by Mr. Sharp (1907): "A pair of these diminutiveowls were found nesting at Escondido by the late J. M. Hatch in1895 and 1896. The nests were in oaks not far apart both being inhollow, nearly horizontal limbs with openings allowing access to thenest from either side." The eggs were well incubated and hence werenot disturbed. "Mr. Chas. Schnack who was with Mr. Hatch whenthe second nest was found tells me the owls had a curious trick offlattening themselves out on a branch so that it was almost impossibleto tell them from the branch itself." Mr. Swarth (1910a) writes ofa nest from southern California, found on June 28, 1894, this time ina dead pine in Bear Valley, and probably another in a yellow pine, inthe San Bernardino Mountains.While all the several nests in the Yosemite Valley were in oaktrees, and there are records of nests in oaks in other sections, it isevident that California pygmy owls may nest in several differentkinds of trees. They nest at altitudes varying from sea level to 6,000feet above, and mostly in the Transition Zone, with a few in UpperSonoran Life Zone. The average height above the ground is 40 feet,although varying from 6 to 75 feet.Probably the list of nests observed by myself and by other workersnumbers as many as 50, but in only one case has nesting materialbeen observed and mentioned. George H. Ready, as quoted by W. A.Cooper (1879), speaks of "stirring up the nest which was made oftwigs." Still, he does not say that the twigs were actually placedthere by the birds. The nest holes examined by myself often containparts of leaves, pine needles, and trash, but I think this material,
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which has never been abundant, merely falls there accidentally asI believe is the case with the Rocky Mountain subspecies, also. Someof it may have been carried into the nest by adhering temporarilyto the pygmies' plumage; but I have never seen, nor heard, of anynesting material intentionally carried into the hole by the adults.Eggs.-?The average number of eggs in a clutch, for this subspecies,is three or four; but J. A. Munro, as already quoted, found sevenyoung in one nest. J. C. Braly (1930) says that on May 21, 1930,in his Fort Klamath nest, there were "six beautiful white eggs, slightlyadvanced in incubation." Apparently eggs are laid from May 5to shortly after June 1, and incubation starts immediately after thefirst egg is laid. The eggs are white, short oval, and probably approacha sphere as closely as do the eggs of any American bird. So far asI know from my own experience, they are never tinted or marked inany way; but Oliver Davie (1889) says that Ready's Santa Cruzeggs had a "scarcely perceptible yellowish tinge." Actually theyare much like the eggs of the mourning dove, although a little larger.[Author's note: The measurements of 24 eggs average 29.6 by24.3 millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremes measure 31.5 by24.5, 30.9 by 25, 28 by 24, and 30.7 by 23.3 millimeters.]Young.?Since incubation apparently begins with the laying of thefirst egg, the emergence of the owlets may be spread over a day or two.In the Yosemite Valley, where I became acquainted with this sub-species, the first young pygmies hatch about May 25. They are blind,helpless, and almost naked. Like so many other very young birds,they seem all head and stomach, with a thin, scraggly neck connectingthe two. The mother bird removes all egg shells and undesired debrisfrom the nest. During the time that the young remain in the nest,and for a short time afterward, she does most of if not all the feeding
;
while the male parent brings food to the mother for both her own useand for the owlets. At first most of this food consists of small birds;later, mice and other small mammals are added. Dr. H. C. Bryantwrites me in a letter dated October 7, 1933: "One outstanding memoryis that of a parent standing on a limb near the entrance to the nest,holding a fence lizard. When this bird felt that all was safe, it enteredthe nesting cavity, carrying its prey." The nest referred to was inthe Yosemite Valley. As a rule the male bird decapitates and partlyskins the food before passing it over to the female. After the younghave been fed inside for about three weeks, the mother sometimescoaxes them out on a limb to eat. At first, they remain more or lessquietly on the limb; but, after they have acquired more confidence,they move along the limbs, or hop from one to another. A few daysof this and the owlets begin to try short nights. During early flights,they may miss the desired perch. In that event, they alight lowerdown, and then scramble back up limb by limb.
CALIFORNIA PYGMY OWL 415C W. Michael, with exceptional opportunities to watch pygmyowls, tells me that "when the young come along the male continuesto do the hunting, and while the young remain in the nest he usuallybrings in small song birds. As the young grow more vigorous hebrings in more substantial food, in the form of lizards, chipmunks,and field mice. It is an interesting sight to see a mother pygmy owlperched on a limb and surrounded by her young, encouraging eachin turn to tear off a bite of meat from the chipmunk she holds in hertalons. The pygmy owls nest early, and the young birds are usuallyready to leave the nest by the first or second week of June." On oneoccasion, when the male had passed a vireo to his mate, "she held thebody of the vireo under her feet and then reaching forward she pluckedthe large feathers one by one. For ten minutes she was very busy,and there was a constant rain of feathers drifting down from herperch. While plucking feathers she appeared also to be mauling andbeating the body. Finally when the feathered morsel was properlyprepared she flew to another oak, and, as we watched, she disappearedinto an old woodpecker hole drawing her burden in after her. Andthen there were squeals and squeaks as though a family of vigorousyoung were fighting for their breakfast." On "June 5 we were againat the pygmy owl's nest. The nest was silent and nothing was seenof the old birds. A little after nine there came the faint, flatterednotes that announce the arrival of a bird with food. The notes seemedto come from a nearby oak, but nothing was seen of the old birds. Sofar as the owls themselves were concerned this completed the recordfor the morning. The conclusion was that the young owls had grownup and had abandoned the nest on this hot day, but were still beingfed in the neighborhood."In another nest in the Yosemite, the owlets were much later inleaving the nest. F. C. Holman (1926) says of this:The first evidence that the young were receiving solid food was on June 10[1925], when the female carried a lizard to the nest. As far as observed, the malenever took part in feeding the young. No pellets or refuse of any kind could befound under the tree.On June 21 a young bird appeared at the opening, and it was soon apparentthat there were no others. From that time on to July 1, when the nest was desertedit sat daily at the entrance. During the following days the bird remained near athand, and gradually worked up the talus slope. The young bird appeared fromthe first fully developed, with no immaturity noticeable in the plumage. Itwas never fed at the entrance, but was first crowded back out of sight by themother. On one occasion when she was away, and the young one sat there asusual, the male arrived with food and alighted in a neighboring tree. The youngbird showed no recognition of the frequent calls; in fact the two acted as thoughoblivious of each other, and nothing took place during the half-hour they wereunder observation.Dependence on the adults for food does not last long. Soon afterleaving the nest the young, probably taught by* the parents, learn to
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catch grasshoppers in the meadows. From that point on their huntinggradually extends to larger and larger game as the young owls getolder, stronger, and more skillful.Plumages.?The first plumage of this subspecies resembles that ofthe Rocky Mountain form. Mr. Dawson says that: "Immature birdsare darker and reddish brown above; the tone of the head is grayer,inclining to slaty, in decided contrast to back; spotting much reduced,nearly confined to forehead and wings." Since what little differencethere is between young and adult is not ordinarily capable of detectionin the field, Mr. Dawson probably had specimens in hand for compari-son in order to make the above distinction. H. S. Swarth (1910a)speaks of three young birds secured June 28, 1894. "The youngbirds have lost the natal down, except where a few filaments cling tofeather tips, and are in the juvenal plumage, but with stubby wings andtail. The body plumage is much as in adults, but the top of the headis plain drab gray, in marked contrast to the brown dorsum, with afew partly concealed white spots on the anterior portion. There aresome slight, apparently sexual, differences observable. The two youngfemales are of about the same size, and are appreciably larger than themale. In the former the brown of the upper parts is of a more reddishcast, approaching Vandyke brown, while in the latter it is darker, morenearly Prout brown." It is not known just when the adult plumageis assumed. Probably, as with the Rocky Mountain pygmy, thechange is gradual. Still, I think the changes all take place before thefirst winter begins.There is one notable peculiarity of the adult plumage called to myattention by Mr. Michael when he told me of watching one of theseowls one winter day. "With a lightning movement he would turn hishead halfway around, presenting the back of his head to us. And aswe watched this wonderful head, which appeared at times to turncompletely about, we got the impression that the owl was doublefaced ; for when he turned away his face we saw a second face on theback of his head?a white beak and closed eyes under beetling brows.Close scrutiny showed this beak to be a white feather and the eyebrows and eyes produced by an arrangement of feathers. Neverthe-less, this make-believe face was a very good one, and we wondered ifnature had bestowed this second face upon the little owl to fool hisenemies. With two faces the pygmy owl can really look one way whileappearing to look the other way. Neither his enemies nor his poten-tial victims can be sure just which way he is looking, all of which isto the advantage of the blood-thirsty little demon. He is like theteacher who hides his eyes behind dark glasses?the scholars can nevertell just which way those eyes are looking."Food.?Mr. and Mrs. Michael have studied these little owls so muchthat I cannot do better than give their experiences here, although some
CALIFORNIA PYGMY OWL 417
of this material has already appeared in the Yosernite Nature Notes:"We first became acquainted with the pygmy owl during the winterof 1920-21. We camped this winter on the south side of the valleyin the shadow of the great south wall, and naturally our daily ramblesoften took us across the valley to the sunlit slopes about the mouthof Indian Canyon. Our favorite spot to eat lunch was at the base ofa great yellow pine that stood back of the government barns. Thistoo was the favored section of at least one pygmy owl and for a reason.During the day wide doors in the loft of the barn stood open and be-yond these doors was food in plenty for the Pygmy. Life was easy forthe little owl for whenever his appetite stirred him to activity he couldglide through the open barn doors and choose a mouse to his liking.More than once we saw him dive into the barn and always he soonappeared with a mouse in his talons. From the human point of viewthe mouse is a destructive agent, therefore the pygmy owl as anexpert mouser is a beneficent bird. But, unfortunately, the pygmyowl does not confine his murderous attacks to mice alone; he also hasa taste for song birds. Twice we happened to see Pygmy strike downand carry off a Sierra junco, and once we saw him skillfully pluck apine siskin out of the bare branches of an alder tree. While we weregazing up into the branches of a tall Kellogg oak, a willow woodpeckerflashed into our range of vision. Our eyes naturally followed thewoodpecker, which flew to a nest where he fed the occupant withoutentering the hole. This action would indicate that either the youngwere well grown or that the female bird was being fed by her mate.The woodpecker flew away at once, and we sat down to await hisreturn that we might learn whether or not young birds were being fed.We had not long to wait. In less than a minute a strange bird flewto the nest hole. At first we were puzzled; the new arrival appearedto be struggling to get into the hole. Soon, however, we realized thathe was tugging violently in an effort to withdraw his head from thehole. The struggle continued. There was no sound. Perhaps aminute passed and then the bird withdrew his head and in his bill heheld a woodpecker. With the limp body of his victim he fluttereddown to a lower branch. Now perched on the branch with the victimheld in place by strong talons, the pygmy owl (for this the bird provedto be) proceeded to tear away feathers from the throat, apparentlyto make sure that his victim was dead, for in a moment he flew toanother perch, this time carrying the woodpecker in his talons. Soonhe flew a little farther and attempted this time to gain a toe-hold atthe entrance of another woodpecker hole. His burden was too muchfor him (the woodpecker was almost as large as the owl), and he wasforced to flutter down to another perch. Here the owl rested amoment, took a new grip on his victim, and flew upward into thecedar boughs opposite the nest hole he had so recently visited. Now
418 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMhe managed to cling to the rim of the hole, and going head first hedid contrive to drag the dead woodpecker after him. Having had agood look at the victim we were inclined to believe that it was ayoung male willow woodpecker, full-feathered and about ready toleave the nest. So far as we could tell the parent woodpecker onreturning did not discover his loss, at least he made no outcry."Another time a pygmy was found surrounded by Sierra juncos.Apparently he had just caught a mouse on the ground and killed it.When the owl flew up to a blackberry branch, "the juncos followedand, ringing him as before, pelted the owl with emphatic words. Whenthe owl remained motionless for two minutes the abusive chorus sub-sided to a few clicks. Heartened by the near silence the owl plungedhis face into the skull of his victim to gnaw at the brains. At hismovement the junco chorus became as loud as ever, and the owl pausedand looked sharply about. After 15 minutes of this play the juncosseemed to have enough and the greater part of the flock took flight,only a handful remaining to hector the owl, and these soon followedtheir mates. Left in peace the little owl pulled the mouse from ablackberry thorn upon which it was impaled and, flying to the ground,resumed his epicurean feast. That it is the custom for many creatureswho prey upon field mice to eat only the head, we know, as we oftencome upon the headless torso of a mouse during our rambles aboutthe valley."On June 2, 1927, the Michaels found another pygmy: "That blood-thirsty little owl that hunts his prey in the broad light of day. In histalons he held the prostrate body of a vireo. Carrying his victim, in aseries of short flights, with pauses to rest between, he worked his wayupward into the topmost branches of a tall Kellogg oak. When hereached the summit branches he paused again, and then we heard aseries of high-pitched whinnying notes carried along on an even toneand so rapid that they seemed to vibrate. This trill was much like thetrill call of the Sierra chickaree, only softer and lighter." This wasevidently a call, for the female owl soon appeared.Still another pygmy, seen one cold gray morning in April, had amouse clutched close to the perching limb: "The tail and lower limbsof the mouse hung down and the owl was leisurely tearing the skinfrom its head and shoulders. Soon the pygmy was ripping into theflesh and from time to time he raised his head and appeared to smackhis lips over a bloody morsel. The little owl controlled his appetite;he did not appear ravenous but ate slowly in the manner of a gentleman,with many a pause between bites. Twice during his meal he utteredsoftly a single hollow note, and we wondered if his mate might not bewithin hearing, possibly tucked away in her chosen nest hole. Noth-ing, however, was seen of the mate, and when we finally left theneighborhood the little killer dozed, with the remains of his victim still
CALIFORNIA PYGMY OWL 419
clutched tightly in his talons." In these accounts it will be notedthat the pygmy does not swallow hair, feathers, and bones; and thereis therefore no indigestible material to be expelled as pellets so charac-teristic of larger owls.No doubt many of us have, like the Michaels, been introduced topygmies by their mouse-catching. Mr. Dawson (1923) gives a par-ticularly interesting account: "All at once the bird whirled backwardand launched himself, like a bolt from a crossbow, at a mouse somesixty feet away across the road. Seizing the 'wee, timorous, cowerin'beastie' at the very entrance of his hole, the bird maintained its graspupon it with both feet, and supported itself against the rodent's strug-gles by wings outstretched upon the ground. Not until the squeakingsof the victim had quite ceased did the captor rise and disappear b}rrapid flight into the wood." Similar to the Rocky Mountain pygmy,this California pygmy often pounces on rather large mammal preythat drags its captor along with it before succumbing to the onslaught.This interesting habit is hinted at in the last quotation, but it is evenbetter brought out by Major Bendire (1875):Sergeant Smith shot it today [December 14, 1874], while he was out hunting onthe mountains north of the camp. He caught it in the act of trying to get awaywith a large sized wood-mouse, or gopher. The mouse was on the end of a pinelog, when the little owl suddenly dropped down on it, out of a pine tree standingclose to the log, in which it had been sitting, about twenty feet from the ground,and fastened its claws in its back. The mouse ran nearly the length of the log,about twenty-five feet, carrying the owl on its back, the latter appearing perfectlyunconscious about where the mouse was going with her, keeping her head turnedin the opposite direction. The time occupied in getting to the other end of the logtook nearly two minutes. * * * The unconcerned, business-like manner inwhich the owl allowed itself to be carried by the mouse till the latter should bepretty well exhausted, before killing it outright, shows that this was by no meansthe first it had caught [in this way].One interesting fact, already given in the Michael quotations, isthat the pygmy does not always consume all its larger prey. Mr.Wilson (1925) writes of this with reference to a snake. He says:"The tit-bit, which in this case was a small snake about a foot inlength, was carried in the bird's talons to the new position [in a pine30 feet from its nest] * * * The owl began to tear the snake tobits, holding it in the meantime with its talons while it tore the fleshwith its beak. Without finishing the animal, it suddenly flew offtowards the rim of the valley, leaving the half-devoured body of thesnake hanging on the limb of the pine." David D. Keck (1925)tells of a chipmunk that was partly eaten: "This owl was varyingthe customary fare of mice and reptiles with a full-grown TahoeChipmunk. The victim was half eaten when we approached, but thediner dropped the remainder and, giving us a resentful survey, flewaway to a more secluded place." Ernest D. Clabaugh (1933) gives
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us a few additional items on the pygmy's fare: "A California PygmyOwl when collected was found to have in its claws, a freshly killedCassin Purple Finch (Carpodacus cassinii), of which the head andpart of the entrails had already been eaten."But the Michaels go a step farther and not only speak of the pygmieseating the head first, but also record a distinct habit of storing awayfood for future use. They say: "A mouse at a meal was too muchfor him, and yet with mice to be had for the taking he would notwaste what he could not eat. After eating off the head and shoulderof the mouse he would carefully store away the hind quarters in somesecret niche in the neighboring wood. These stores we believe wereput away against the emergency, and we doubt if he ever fell backon these stores while fresh kills were to be made. Another incidenttending to bear out the theory that the pygmy owl does not alwaysreclaim his cache came to our notice recently. It was on the morningof November 29; we had wandered down the valley to learn whatbirds were present after the severe storm. As we moved along abear trail close to the river a glint of blue in the underbrush caught oureyes. Perched silent and motionless were two blue-fronted jays.They appeared to be gazing fascinated at some object hidden fromour view. We moved forward and a pygmy owl rose from the groundcarrying with effort a full-grown meadow mouse. The owl came toperch on a low branch a few feet away. The jays followed, stillsilent, and alighted within two feet of the owl. Now the strange thingabout the whole affair was the behavior of the jays. Usually whenjays, or for that matter other lands of birds, discover an owl they atonce set up a great commotion, attracting all the birds of the neigh-borhood, and with the coming of the birds a mob scene is enacted.We concluded that the jays knowing that the owl could not consumethe mouse at one sitting, were waiting for their share of the spoils."F. C. Holman (1926) gives us a fine summary of the food habits ofa nestful of pygmies in the Yosemite Valley, saying:Between the day the nest was discovered, May 19, and July 1, an interval offorty-three days, nineteen identifications were made of the food material broughtby the male and received by his mate. The list consists of eight lizards, five birds,and six small mammals, apparently mice. While this may represent fairly themain diet, it should be borne in mind that our occasional inability to recognizethe prey was particularly applicable to smaller objects. The lizards were easilydistinguished with their long dark tails hanging down behind the owl when atrest, and even more conspicuous when in flight.Of the birds, the first to be recognized was a warbler, probably a female Cala-veras, and later, on June 19, a male Calaveras was carried into the hole. On the27th a fledging of some small kind was noted, and on the following dajr , anotherof a larger species with noticeably long legs, and too immature to have left itsnest. * * * The male was dedicated to the chase and would leave imme-diately after delivering his plunder. Naturally his arrivals were extremely irre-gular. The best record noted was on June 7 when, besides an early call, hebrought in between 7 a.m. and 2 p.m. two lizards and two mice.
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I have before me the analysis of 10 stomachs, taken at all seasonsof the year and at several well-scattered localities. In general, theyconfirm field data already given in this article and show that althoughsmall birds may be freely caught during the pygmies' nesting time,during the remaining nine months of each year food is largely insects,small mammals, lizards, and even small snakes.As to the economic status of this subspecies, we find the statementsof W. R. Lord (1913) and a few others that it is actually beneficial.I have no accounts of poultry killing, and Mr. Lord (1913) says it is
"altogether harmless in respect to poultry." No doubt the Cali-fornia pygmy owl can kill small game birds, but as yet direct evidenceis lacking. The worst charge against it is that it eats valuable smallbirds. This is attested to by Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway (1905),Bowles (1906b), Dawson (1909), Munro (1919), and Taverner (1926).Their statements, however, are general ones, and may in some casesbe repetitions of each other. Among the small birds (summarizedfrom quotations already given) known to be caught are marsh wrens,sparrows, juncos, kinglets, purple finches, Calaveras warblers, tow-nees, Tolmie warblers, willow woodpeckers, vireos, blackbirds, andpine siskins. Summing up all available information, we may saythat the food habits of the California pygmy owl appear beneficialduring nine months of the year, but the record is marred by exten-sive small-bird killing during the other three months. Until moredamaging evidence comes to light, the accused should be given thebenefit of the doubt, and not be condemned.Behavior.?This small owl has a well-earned reputation for courage,fearlessness, and fine hunting ability. Many ornithologists even goso far as to speak of it as "bloodthirsty", "a fiend", "a villain", and
"rapacious." But it would seem better to reserve such severe termsfor an intentional evil-doer. I do not know that any one accuses thisowl of killing more than it needs. When it finds its prey, it strikesquickly and fearlessly. It does not cause needless suffering. As Mr.Michael says: "He lives by the law of Nature. Every living thinglives at the expense of some other living thing. In many forms oflife the process is roundabout; in the case of the pygmy the stepbetween victor and victim is quite direct. Should there evolve aform of life devoid of enemies, this form would sooner or later crowdevery other form from the face of the earth. This scheme of Naturein having one form of life five at the expense of some other form isthe process employed to maintain its balance. And in this balanceeach form of life has its place in the scheme of things, its particularniche to fill."As with the Rocky Mountain pygmy, the California form was notat first recognized as a daylight species. But Mr. Michael says thathis "observations over a number of years in Yosemite Valley seem to
422 BULLETIN 170, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMindicate that the pygmy owl is a bird of strictly diurnal feeding habits."F. C. Holman (1926) says: "There was nothing to indicate any noc-turnal activity of the owls ; in fact during the three months from May1 to August 1 not a single call at night was heard. An early callsoon after daybreak was not uncommon, and the last was never laterthan at dusk. During the latter half of June, the female spent muchof her time in the trees near the nest, often roosting on a certain highdead branch." On the other hand, there are several reputable ob-servers who state they have heard pygmies as late as 10 o'clock, atleast.After eating its food, the pygmy often selects a prominent perchin the sun and grooms itself as carefully as any other small bird would.It may even doze while taking its beloved sunbath. I have heardsome arguments that, if this owl be diurnal, it would not sleep indaytime. But I think that this is going too far, and that this owldoes nap at times during daylight. This may occur at any time ofthe year. The sunning perch may be at the top of living, or dead,trees or bushes, at heights varying from 6 to 30 feet. In winter,when such trees and bushes are free from leaves, the pygmy mayselect a sunning perch within the branches of willows, sycamores, orother deciduous trees. While I am not positive about the matter, Ibelieve that these pygmies roost at night in otherwise unused wood-pecker holes, even during summer.Mr. Dawson (1923) gives some interesting data on these owls:Save to the few initiates, a meeting with this fascinating little fiend must comeas a happy accident. Fiend he is from the top of his gory beak to the tips of hisneedle-like claws; but chances are you will forget his gory character at sight andcall him "perfectly cunning", just because he is tiny and saucy and digagL Lookyour fill when fate brings him your way, for like the wind, his royal owlets fiittethwhere he listeth, and you cannot tell whence he comes nor whether he will comeagain this twelvemonth. When my moment of privilege came, this pocket editionof the powers that prey stood out boldly and unequivocally upon the topmostsplinter of a wayside stub in a northern forest, and challenged attention. Thegnome gave his back to the road, and now and then teetered his tail, which wasotherwise set at a jaunty angle, nervously, as though there was something on hismind. But this preoccupation did not deter the Owl from bending an occasionalsharp glance of scrutiny upon the birdman.* * * We never should have noticed him if we had not been looking up-ward, intent on early pussy willows, amongst which he sat, calmly, at the heightof a dozen feet. There is always a curious impersonality about the gaze of thislittle owl. Even when he does look in your direction (and he does not flatter youby constant attention by any means), he does not appear to focus on you at all.Perhaps this is a trick of the eye, or else arises from its unlikeness to that of otberowls. For although the atmosphere on this occasion was full of light, the bird'spupils were dilated to the utmost, and the irides were mere yellow rims.In spite of its usual boldness and fearlessness, this pygmy owl iscautious at times. H. C. Bryant says that a parent with a fencelizard paused at the nesting tree and looked around carefully. It did
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not enter the nest until it had satisfied itself that there were no enemiesin the neighborhood.As is the case with the Rocky Mountain pygmy, this subspecieshas the flight of a shrike, with the same peculiar wing beat. Its speedis fair. The flight sound is not muffled by softened wing linings butresembles that of an ordinary bird in this respect. Like the shrike,it is apt to fly by a series of short flights with resting pauses at favoritelookouts. After alighting it may work itself up through the tree,limb by limb, to a higher branch, or even to the top. Although theflight in other respects is not owllike, a pygmy has the usual big-headed appearance of other owls. On August 26, 1933, I saw one inthe Sequoia National Park early in the morning. It was flying about20 feet above ground, and this particular bird reminded me somewhatof a large flying bat. I have also heard it said that this flight re-sembles that of a falcon. With all these comparisons, it is smallwonder that the pygmy is deceiving and that it is less often recordedthan its common occurrence justifies.Ou November 16, 1925, Joseph Grinnell, Tracy I. Storer, JosephMailliard, Eugene Law, and Mrs. Law were gathered at Mr. Law'shome in Altadena, Calif. There they saw such an unusual sight thatI think it deserves quoting. Joseph Mailliard (1926) says:A few feet below us and some ten feet away was the bath?a shallow Indianmortar?beneath a bush. The pigmy owl (Glaucidium gnoma, subspecies cali-fornicum in all probability) was thoroughly enjoying itself, unconscious of thegroup of fascinated watchers. The owl was wading about in the water, whichwas not over an inch and a half deep, sometimes ducking its head and then shak-ing off the water that rolled down its back, then again dipping forward so as tobathe its abdomen and breast. At times it would slowly turn around, seeminglynot quite decided just what to do next, or it would stand still for a few secondsand then switch its tail sideways in the water with a remarkably quick action.Once it stood still with its back toward us for some little time, now turning itshead on one side until looking directly backwards, then snapping its head aroundanteriorly to the other side until the posterior limit of action was reached, all withsuch rapidity that our eyes could scarcely follow the movement. During thistime, some five or six minutes, the owl kept its feathers so fluffed out as to make itappear to be much larger than it actually was.Meanwhile, in timid wonder, there was gathered around the bather anothergroup of spectators?Valley Quail, Anna Hummingbirds, Gambel Sparrows,Golden-crowned Sparrows, Spurred Towhees, Anthony Brown Towhees, AudubonWarblers, Pallid Wrentits and possibly other birds, all in characteristic attitudeswatching the proceedings with suppressed excitement, with the hummingbirdspoised on wing in front of the bath.Finally, apparently deciding that it had done its duty in the ablutionary line,the little owl flew up to a bare branch three or four feet above the water andperched there, wagging its tail from side to side, possibly to shake off any remain-ing water. In about half a minute it flew into the upper part of a large oak treenear by, where it remained for some minutes before finally flying over and pitchingdown the edge of the bluff behind the house, followed by some twenty of the avianobservers of its recent bathing activities.
424 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMVoice.?Mr. and Mrs. Michael have been very generous withmaterial on the pygmy's notes and calls. Early in the morning of aMay 4 they "caught the single hollow whistled note of an owl. Thesound seemed to come from directly overhead." On the morning ofJune 2, 1927, they found a pygmy hopping up to the topmost branchesof a tall Kellogg oak, where it gave a trilling note. Another time theyspeak of a single note given while eating as recorded herein undernotes on feeding. Of another occasion, they say: "The song of thePygmy Owl is a series of mellow notes, rolled along at an even pitch.The first stream of notes comes rapidly in a sort of a low rolling trill.Then comes a pause and three notes each separated by a distinctpause. In print the song might be represented as follows: o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o oo oo oo. The characteristic feature, thetouch that gives charm and beauty to the theme, is those long hesitat-ing pauses between the last three notes. There is also a ventriloquisticquality to the voice of the pygmy, and the least turn of his head ap-parently changes his location. Therefore a singing bird is very hardto locate, for his song comes from one direction and then from anotherdirection." The song just described seems to be the standard vocaleffort of summer, and perhaps it may be used at other seasons also.Grinnell and Storer (1924) describe this same song when they write:In the Yosemite Valley, the voice of the California Pigmy Owl was heard morefrequently than that of any other nocturnally active bird. * * * A regularconcert beginning at early dark and lasting until dark, [was] given on the eveningof October 10, 1914. * * * Two birds about 300 yards apart were answeringone another, and at one time a third was heard in the distance. The calls con-sisted of a slow trill, rather mellow, but not so mellow nor of such full quality as inthe call of the California Screech Owl?more like the slow roll of the flicker. Thistrill would continue some seconds, then came a pause, then one note, an equalpause, and a second note. In one instance a third note was added. The strikingcharacteristic was the pause after the trill, followed by the two detached notes.Once three far-separated notes were heard, not preceded by any trill. The fol-lowing syllables, if uttered while one whistles, seem to represent the pigmy owls'usual song: too-too-too-too-too-too-too-too; toot; toot; toot.Mr. Dawson gives still another description in his Birds of Cali-fornia:The Pygmy Owl "sings" in a small hollow voice, klook-klook-klook look look looklook look look, with an effect for tempo something like that produced by theaccelerating rebound of a tiny wooden mallet, struck on resonant wood, in qualitysomething between this and the pectoral quaver of the Screech Owl. * * *Even more characteristic of the bird's presence in the forest is a weird, tollingnote, ventriloquial, elusive, and most marvelously penetrating. At some dis-tance it meets the ear as a mellow rounded tddk or tdddok, for it must not be con-ceived too short, nor yet as other than a monosyllable. At close quarters, how-ever, one detects a premonitory sibillation, and at the end a gurgling, muffledring. The whole becomes then (si)poolk(ngh), and it may be best imitated by awhistle which is conscientiously modified by attendant grimaces. Nor is it easyto exaggerate the penetrating character of this sound. When I first ran it down,
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I left camp with the expectation of encountering its author somewhere within ahundred yards. I followed the siren call through a fringe of woods, across a bitof prairie, through a swamp, over a wooded hill, and into the depths of the forestbeyond, where, at the summit of a grim fir tree, at a height of two hundred feet,and at a distance from camp of more than one mile, I made out the instigator of thepleasant exercise. * * *Coming south for the winter of 1912-13 Mr. Brooks amazed us by his masteryof this woodland cry * * *. Not only will the Owls themselves respond tothe cry and hurry forward, astonishment and perplexity written in every line, butall the song-birds rally also. It is the master call of the woods, as effective inCalifornia as the Screech Owl quaver is in the East.J. A. Munro (1919) also comments on the pygmies answering animitation of their notes. He says:This is the easiest of the owls to call. They will come readily at any time ofthe day, and from long distances to an imitation of their call. They approachthe caller with short flights from one tree-top, to another slightly nearer. Whenin a tree directly over the caller's head, a further call will bring them down to thelower branches, often within a few yards. Often two or more will come fromdifferent directions. * * * They are usually followed by an excited crowd ofChickadees, Nuthatches and other small birds, and keep darting at the owl aslong as it is in the open. When answering the call, they usually sit in a con-spicuous position, at the top of a tree or on a dead branch.Lyman Belding compares the note of the California pygmy owl tothat of the yellow-billed cuckoo with which he was very familiar.Charles W. Bowles (1912) speaks of an observed difference in thenotes of the two sexes, the male's note being a very high pitched,staccato affair, the female's being similar but lower, softer, and moreliquid. F. C. Holman (1926) gives some additional particulars whenhe says: "The only note of the female [at a Yosemite nest in May-June 1925] was a soft twitter used indiscriminately, as when in protestto noisy pugnacious neighbors or when on the wing flying to her matein response to his summons. His call invariably announced food,and was the well known whistle of a single note given three times,rarely four, and the interval before repeating, of variable duration,extending into minutes. On one occasion only was the long trillingcall heard, and possibly it might have come from some other memberof the tribe."Fall.?Although the California pygmy owl is ordinarily a residentthroughout its range, it does sometimes make considerable move-ments in fall. Wyman and Burnell (1925) say that this subspecies is
"at lower levels in winter" than in summer. But I think all thesemovements are sporadic, rather than regular, and that they are onlyindulged in by certain individuals, or during exceptional weather. Ifthis idea be true, we can hardly call these pygmies truly migratory.Enemies.?Throughout its range the California pygmy is subject tothe tormenting and "mobbing" of gatherings of all sorts of smaller13751?38?28
426 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMbirds. For instance, Mr. and Mrs. Michael tell of a nest in the Yo-semite Valley found during the spring of 1927: "When the owls beganto bring food to their young a number of robins that lived in thevicinity kept me informed as to their goings and comings. Loudlythe robins, and very often they were joined by other birds, protestedthe arrival of the owls." Another time, on the morning of April 20,1929, Mr. Michael's attention "was attracted by the evident excite-ment among a mixed gathering of small birds. Sierra juncos wereuttering their scolding 'click notes' and California purple finches wereprotesting vociferously, while three or four California woodpeckerslooked on with but a mild show of interest. Sure enough, as wassuspected, the birds were berating a pygmy owl that was perched inthe bare branches of a Kellogg oak. While I looked on, the owltook wing, and with a dozen or more small birds in close pursuit itflew a hundred yards and again came to perch in a Kellogg oak."Summing up his experiences, Mr. Michael says that "all small birdshate the pygmy owl. When a pygmy is discovered all the small birdsof the neighborhood band together and do their combined best tomake his life miserable. They curse and revile him, but do not dareto strike; a bird with two faces, four eyes, and a fighting heart is alittle too tough to tackle."Leo K. Wilson (1925) says: "While it was eating a small snake, aPygmy Owl was discovered by a Modoc Hairy Woodpecker. Im-mediately this bird approached the little owl, which ruffled up hisfeathers much like his cousin, the great horned owl, is wont to do.Apparently this had the desired effect, for the woodpecker promptlyflew to another part of the tree." Taylor and Shaw (1927) recordinteresting news when they say: "J. B. Flett writes of a tragedy thatoccurred at Longmire during November, when a pigmy owl alightedin a fir tree near his cottage. 'I heard a battle raging outside andwent out to find one owl dead and a flock of 8 or 10 camp robbers(Perisoreus obscurus griseus), led by a Steller jay (Cyanocitta stelleristelleri), chasing another one into the woods.' " Grinnell and Storerrecord (1924) that on December 10, 1914?a creeper was heard squeaking emphatically, with its attention fixed on thelower branches of a yellow pine. Presently a pigmy owl disclosed its presence bytaking flight. * * * Near El Portal, on December 6, 1914, a pigmy owl wasobtained through the assistance of solicitous song birds. A bevy of fully fifteenruby-crowned kinglets was buzzing like bees about the foliage of a tree, eachuttering its ratchet-like call, and flitting hither and thither in the most perturbedmanner. While the observer was watching, a pair of plain titmouses joined thegroup, and soon there flew out a pigmy owl, quickly followed by a good part ofthe excited congregation.This last experience at El Portal closely parallels several of my own,where I have found a pygmy secluded in dense evergreens, my atten-tion first being attracted through the cries and excitement of flocks of
CALIFORNIA PYGMY OWL 427Steller jays. In these cases the little owls were so well hidden that Iwould never have found them if I had not investigated the reason forthe crying mobs of jays. Several times I have heard of the jayskilling the owls just as Taylor and Shaw have recorded.Dawson, Allan Brooks, Munro, and Taverner all bear witness tothe efficiency of the imitation of the pygmy's cry in calling all sortsof small birds about the imitator. P. A. Taverner (1926) gives aparticularly interesting story of such a gathering. He says:Pause anywhere in its haunts, and whistle an imitation of its call?a half whistle,half spoken 'cook-cook,' followed by hollow, woodeny, staccato whistles suc-ceeding each other slowly at first, but with a gradually accelerated tempo, andevery small bird within hearing will come to investigate. The Nuthatches,hanging head downward, waving their heads like pendulums, and pointing theirstraight, upturned bills first to one side and then to the other, quanking as theydo so. The Chickadees, 'dee-deeing,' their beady eyes twinkling with curiosity.Buzzing, squeaking, excited Hummingbirds will hum angrily around. Sparrows,Wrens, Vireos, Warblers, Jays, and many others, hurry with anxious cheeps tothe spot, from the deep tangles of the brush, the middle thicket of the branchesoverhead, or even the topmost tip of the giant yellow pines, and press in excitedreview about the alarum. * * * If another Pygmy Owl hears the call, itcomes immediately to challenge the intruder, sometimes two come together, findin each other the opponent they were seeking, and join in furious if elf-like combat.In addition to the mobs of jays, pygmies have other killing enemiesto fear. Mr. Michael's notes tell of one that attacked a weasel,apparently more through the love of a fight than otherwise. Un-fortunately for the daring little pygmy, the weasel managed to turnand eventually got a deadly hold, so that the owl was killed duringthe death struggle. I have noticed that the pygmies and the Douglassquirrels seem to be habitual enemies. I do not know that I haveever seen the owl catch or kill one of these squirrels (comparable tothe red squirrels of our eastern States), but I have seen many attemptsto do so. And I have sometimes found a Douglas squirrel violently
"sassing" the owl when the owl seemed to be merely attending to itsown business. Laurence M. Huey called my attention to the factthat both Mr. Richardson (1906) and Mr. Daggett (1913) recordedspotted owls, taken in the mountains near Los Angeles, that had eacheaten a pygmy owl as examination of their stomachs showed.Winter.-?While the California subspecies generally spends thewinter in the same habitat as in summer, severe winter conditionsmay affect the abundance of the owls' prey and thereby cause theowls to seek temporarily a lower elevation where food might be moreabundant. Mr. Michael tells of at least one pygmy owl that livednear the barns of Yosemite in winter for the sake of the mice. Inwinter the pygmies roost at night in old woodpecker holes, at least inthe Yosemite Valley. Mr. and Mrs. Michael say that on "April 22,1929, there came a cold gray morning with intermittent snow flurriesduring the afternoon. In spite of the weather we went over to the
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owl tree to see if the pygmies were at home. We were lucky. Oneof the owls was in plain sight among the leafless twigs. He was allhunched up, and with his feathers puffed he looked almost as broad ashe was long. The morning of February second was grayed by a highcloud cap that covered the sky. On the ground lay the light fall ofsnow of two days previous. The scramble of blackberry vines oppo-site the village school had rid itself of most of the snow and here wasstaged for us a little drama. We were attracted thither, while onour morning walk, by an excited chorus of Sierra juncos. About50 juncos perched around on the thorny cover, and as a bird uttereda crisp note, which was repeated by his fellows and swelled into staccatochorus, he flecked his tail casting a gleam of white. Suddenly oureyes picked out among the vines upon the ground the desperado thatthe birds reviled: a pygmy owl squatted over a dark object held inhis talons. At this moment the dark object moved and the owl struckit a fierce blow with his bill, and at the owl's movement the chorus ofclicks doubled in volume. This seemed to annoy the owl, andgrasping his victim firmly in his talons he flitted up onto a thornyblackberry branch 3 feet above the ground. Turning his head thisway and that the owl seemed annoyed and confused. He faced usand his deep set eyes glowed black and wrathful." Although thejuncos gathered about and abused him, the little owl fed first on thebrains and later on the flesh. The juncos stayed for 10 or 15 minutesand then gradually left, leaving the pygmy to finish his meal.GLAUCIDIUM GNOMA SWARTHI GrinnellVANCOUVER PYGMY OWLHABITSContributed by Milton Philo SkinnerThis race of pygmy owls inhabits Vancouver Island and the adjoin-ing parts of the mainland of British Columbia. Elsewhere thepygmy owls of British Columbia are the coast pygmy owls in the humidcoast forests, and the California pygmy owls farther inland where theclimate is drier and more severe. The Vancouver form is describedby Dr. J. Grinnell (1913) as darker colored throughout than theCalifornia form, inclining to bister on the back and with white mark-ings reduced. It is smaller than the Rocky Mountain form and verymuch darker and browner. In habits the Vancouver bird resemblesthe coast race.Courtship.?John K. Lord had the good fortune to see a pair ofthese pygmies courting and his description (1866) differs somewhatfrom the observations already given for the California pygmy owl. Hesays: "In the evening twilight the owls again come out of their holeand take erratic flights around their abode, chasing each other up
VANCOUVER PYGMY OWL 429and down the plain, and performing all kinds of inexplicable ma-noeuvres. Occasionally they settle on the ground, but never long ata time."Nesting.?Like the California race, the Vancouver pygmy owl makesits nest in a tree hole, preferably in an oak in an opening, or at leastat the edge, of the forest.Eggs.?The eggs are described by Mr. Lord (1866) as follows:"Early in May two small eggs were laid, white in color, round andvery rough on their surface, a large knot-hole in the branch of thetree having been selected as the nesting-place. Nothing of any kindwas used as a lining, the eggs being deposited on the bare wood."Food.?So far as noted, food is largely insects, chiefly grasshoppers,crickets, large beetles, and occasional butterflies. When captured,the prey is held down with one foot while the beak tears at the softerparts. Mr. Lord (1866), "never observed them to capture an insectwhile on the wing, and a very small quantity of food seemed to supplytheir wants." H. S. Swarth (1912) speaks of securing only two speci-mens on Vancouver Island. The first bird was secured about teno'clock in the morning, when its stomach contained only a few feathers."The second was taken September 22. * * * This was in themiddle of the day and the bird's stomach contained a large dragonfly, evidently just swallowed, sufficient evidence of diurnal hunting."Behavior.?This pygmy owl is a common resident throughout itshabitat, both on the lowlands and in the mountains. That it isabundant on Vancouver Island can be readily inferred from J. A.Munro's note (1919) that he called up four at one time. But inspite of this, the Vancouver pygnvy seems to be more timid and of moresolitary habits than the other races. Mr. Lord (1866) says that theyspent their time "hiding among the thick foliage of the oak or pine,except when feeding. In the first morning twilight the owls were upand in motion, hungry after a whole night's fasting. As soon astheir hunger is satiated they return to the tree (an oak-tree), cuddlingclose together, and doze away the greater part of the day. In theevening twilight the Owls again come out of their hole. As soon asit became dark they retired to their nest, and there apparently passedthe night." Mr. Lord's notes indicate that this form is more addictedto the twilight than are the other races. Still, other ornithologistshave noted its activity during the daytime.The flight of this Vancouver pygmy has been described as similarto that of a sparrow hawk. Evidently, then, its flight is much likethat of the California bird. According to Mr. Lord, the flight seenby him was somewhat irregular and erratic, but this eccentricitymight have been due to the influence of the courting season.Voice.?Its notes are very much like those of the California formin most respects. Major Brooks (1917) says that: "The rolling
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whistle of this owl is the greatest of all aids to the collector in the west.An imitation of this, or the single call note, brings every small birdright up to you, even from the tops of the gigantic firs. It alsobrings up any Pygmy Owl that may be in the vicinity, and I once hadone of these come down and carry off an Olive-sided Flycatcher thatI had brought down from the treetops and shot." H. S. Swarth(1912) observes that near Errington, in September, "that it was notheard calling until September would seem to indicate that the callnote is not given very frequently during the summer months. Thenotes were heard most often about dark, but also quite frequentlyduring the day."Enemies.?H. S. Swarth (1912) writes: "I was clambering over amass of windfall by the edge of a lake in the woods when the agitationof some chickadees at the other end of the tangle attracted my atten-tion. At first there was nothing to be seen, but finally a pigmy owlflew out and lit on a nearby limb."GLAUCIDIUM GNOMA GRINNELLI RidgwayCOAST PYGMY OWLHABITSContributed by Milton Philo SkinnerThis form inhabits the humid coast district of California (north ofMonterey County), Oregon, Washington, British Columbia (exceptVancouver Island), and southeastern Alaska. It is described asbrowner than the California pygmy, varying from deep snuff brownto verona brown. Although its habits are much like the races alreadydescribed, any subspecies that lives in the heavy redwood, cedar, andfir forests of the Pacific coast is almost sure to have striking charac-teristics of its own. Where these giant trees occur, this little fellow isso fond of them that it actually prefers to remain in the high foliageand seldom comes down to the ground. This is particularly interestingbecause the other forms notably prefer the lower foliage of trees andbushes.Nesting.?H. W. Carriger (1895) describes four nests from north-western California, somewhat east of the heavy coast forests. Allwere in white oak trees?three in the main trunks, 14 to 20 feet aboveground, while the fourth was in a branch 25 feet above ground.Though Mr. Carriger does not say so, it seems likely that these wereold woodpecker holes, 2 to 3 inches in diameter. Upon examinationthe cavities were all found to be about 6 inches inside diameter, butvaried from 5 to 18 inches in depth. No nesting material was foundin any of the cavities, but the bottom of the deepest "was well filledwith bones and pieces of beetles' wings, which goes to show that ithad probably been used in previous years" as well, The adult birds
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were remarkably fearless. Of one case Mr. Carriger (1895) says:
"While the nest was being chopped open both birds were very noisy,and often approached within a few feet. The nest contained fiveeggs in which incubation was highly advanced. While taking theeggs from the cavity the female tried repeatedly to enter." Perhapsthis extreme boldness was due to the "highly advanced" stage of incu-bation. A. Calderwood, Jr. (1889) found a nest in a stub, in whatlooked like an old nesting site of woodpeckers, five feet above theground.Apparently the nesting habits of this subspecies, so far as we know,are similar to those of the California pygmy owl. While the nestscited above were all comparatively low, and in oaks, it is possiblethat nests may be placed higher where different species of trees areavailable.Eggs.?The average number (five) of eggs, in the six sets known tome, is somewhat larger than with other kinds of pygmy owls. Thenumber in each set varies from three to six. Possibly the examinationof a larger and more representative series would reduce the averagegiven above. The date of fresh eggs in northwestern California variesfrom April 26 to May 10, averaging about May 5. J. C. Braly writesme in a letter dated September 20, 1933, that the eggs of the coastsubspecies are larger and less round than those of the California pygmyowl. They average about 30 by 24 millimeters.Plumages.?Little is definitely known of the plumage changes. Itis presumed that these follow the same general plan as with the RockyMountain and California subspecies. There is at least a fall molt.Chester C. Lamb shot a male in Humboldt County, Calif., on Septem-ber 28, 1921, that was partially molted, with but few pinfeathers thenon its throat.Food.?The food of this subspecies is much like that of the Cali-fornia pygmy owl. James Moffitt writes me that a female killed byhim on February 27, 1922, had the remains of four crickets in herstomach. H. W. Carriger (1895) notes that this subspecies "is activein pursuit of its prey in the early morning hours. Lizards and theseveral varieties of beetles seem to be its favorite food. One of thebirds was met one morning bearing a lizard in its claws." ThomasD. Burleigh (1929) says that one "was caught after it had lolled aRusty Song Sparrow and was trying, without much success, to carryit away." C. H. Townsend, who was in Humboldt County fromNovember 15 to December 17, 1885, writes (1887) that this bird maybe seen "engaged in its search for small birds, upon which it seems tosubsist largely, flying close to the ground along the borders of tulemarshes. It doubtless kills marshwrens and small sparrows, as suchbirds were often noticed near the hunting grounds of the owl. One
432 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMPygmy Owl, which I shot, had a freshly killed snowbird {Juntooregonus) in its claws."Behavior.?In most of their ways the individuals of this subspeciesthat live in semiopen country, in the lower foliage and bushes of theTransition Zone closely resemble the California pygmy owls. But inthe great forests of Douglas firs, cedars, and sequoias (redwoods) ofthe coast forests, and also in the Transition Zone, the coast pygmyowls change some of their habits in at least a few ways. JamesMoffitt, who has a camp 6 miles southwest of Boonville, MendocinoCounty, Calif., has generously given us many valued notes of hisobservations. He says: "Redwood is the predominate tree of thenumerous creek bottoms and north-facing hillsides. Douglas fir alsogrows here but attains its greatest development on the summits.Tan-bark oak is a common associate of both. The altitude at mycamp is about 900 feet above sea level, and the steep hills rising toeach side of the creek are probably 600 to 700 feet higher. Sincecalling is doubtless a good indication of activity in this species, Ijudge that the birds are not nocturnal in habit, but are crepuscularat all seasons and partly diurnal throughout the year, increasing activ-ity by day in spring. I have often called these little owls into treesover my head by mimicking their note, to find invariably that theyoccupied elevated situations in the redwoods a hundred feet or moreabove the ground. Repeated calling to which the bird usually an-swered and a change of my location resulted in the owl followingme, but always remaining high in the trees. They seem loath toforsake the protection of the heavily foliaged upper zones of the red-woods, and in no case was I able to call a pygmy owl down from theupper regions of these trees. I believe that the pygmy owls of Men-docino County are permanently resident to a rather limited area,because year after year, and at any season of the year, their calls areheard from almost the same situations. I am in the habit of takingearly-morning rides and walks from my camp, particularly in thedeer-hunting season in August and September, and I usually startsuch trips at dawn. I have thus learned the favorite localities of atleast four pairs of pygmy owls, and it is indeed seldom that one orboth of these birds' calls are unheard when these places are visitedon an early morning ride. The favored resorts of these four pairs ofbirds are in the vicinity of my camp, but each is at least a quarterof a mile from its closest neighbor. I have never heard pygmy owlscalling in the intervening territory, and this would indicate that thebirds have a very limited range. The owls that frequented my campseemed to range in the trees immediately bordering the creek for adistance of about 400 yards along the watercourse, but apparentlythey seldom, or never, extended their range far from the sides of thecreek, as their calls were never heard in the hillside trees bordering the
COAST PYGMY OWL 433stream at a distance farther than 100 yards from it. Another pairranges on the summit of one of the higher peaks of the vicinity, risingdirectly from my camp, and not more than half a mile distant. Herethey appear to be restricted to the heavy Douglas-fir growth of alimited area on the summit. Still another pair is established halfwayup a north-facing hillside south of camp, where they appear to belocalized within narrow limits. I have never heard pygmy owls inthe live, blue, and Kellogg oak woods of the south-lying hillsides thatpresent Upper Sonoran associations. Apparently this owl is strictlya Transition Zone species in Mendocino County." It should be notedthat these Mendocino birds prefer the upper foliage and that theyseem to be wild and wary.The flight is like that of the Rocky Mountain and California pygmyowls already described, but it has been observed that in flying at leastone coast pygmy owl kept its tail widely spread.Joseph Mailliard (1922) says of the bathing of the coast pygmyowl: "On September 28, 1921, while camping at the easterly end ofKneeland Prairie, Humboldt County, California, in company withMr. Chester C. Lamb, the latter came in from a tramp in the woodswith the report that he had seen a Coast Pygmy Owl (Glaucidiumgnoma grinnelli) taking a bath. He described the bird as standing onthe edge of a small cattle trough beside the trail and going through theprocess of ablution in about the same manner as any other bird.The trough was full to the brim and the little owl was dipping anddabbling in the water, finally shaking itself and preening its feathers."Voice.?The notes of this subspecies are much like those of theCalifornia pygmy owl, having the same whistling, trilling, ventriloquialtones. James Moffitt says: "The pygmy owls call more frequently inspring than at other seasons of the year, when it is not uncommon tohear their whistling note throughout the morning and early in theevening. At other seasons the calls are mainly uttered from aboutdawn for two or three hours, after which the birds are quiet until latein the afternoon, when calling again commences about two hoursbefore dark. The birds seem rarely to call at night. So far as ob-served by me, calls are always uttered by the bird when it is at restand never when on the wing. I am unable to distinguish any differ-ence in the quality of the call notes of pygmy owls, and since pre-sumably both sexes call, their voices are alike."Enemies.?Mr. Moffitt tells me that he has never known these owlsin Mendocino County to have their whereabouts disclosed by otherbirds mobbing them, as I have recounted for the other subspecies.But he adds that this may be because these owls range so high in theredwoods that such disturbances would not be noted from the ground.He also adds: "The pair of pygmy owls that frequented the creek bymy camp for six years is apparently not in evidence this spring, 1933.
434 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMTheir former range is now occupied in part by a pair of northernspotted owls (Strix occidentalis caurina). It may be that the largerbirds drove the pygmy owls to new haunts." But I am a littledoubtful of this last observation when I recall the finding of remainsof pygmy owls in the stomachs of southern Californian spotted owlsas already recorded under the California pygmy owl. And the quota-tion below, from H. W. Carriger, leads me to wonder if the screechowl, also, preys on the pygmy. I recall that Dr. T. S. Roberts (1932)gives the screech owl an unsavory reputation in this respect. Mr.Carriger (1895) says of one of his nests, known to have been used bypygmy owls that when opened: "a California Screech Owl was foundwithin. It was presumably a male which had selected the PygmyOwl's nest as a hiding place during the daytime. It had apparentlyoccupied the cavity for some time."Winter.?Dr. Cooper, as quoted by Dr. Elliott Coues (1874) writes:"On the 1st of November, 1854, I observed it among a flock of Spar-rows, which did not seem at all frightened by its presence. Forsome time I thought it was one of them, though its large head andowl-like flight seemed to me strange. It was plainly diurnal inhabits, not seeming to seek any shelter from the sunshine. Itsstomach contained only insects, and it is probable that it does notoften attack birds." Probably the latter observation is true of thewinter season. Because these birds seem to be less often seen inwinter than individuals of at least the Rocky Mountain and Cali-fornia subspecies, there is a lack of winter observations, but H. W.Carriger (1895) says: "One rainy day in October two were met sittingside by side in the low limbs of a laurel tree, and they retained theirposition until the limb was forcibly shaken, and then flew to anotherportion of the tree." Mr. Carriger's observations were made inSonoma County, and probably not in a redwood belt as Mr. Moffitt'swere. GLAUCIDIUM GNOMA HOSKINSI BrewsterHOSKINS'S PYGMY OWLHABITSThis little pygmy owl is found only in the Cape region of LowerCalifornia, Mexico, from latitude 27? N. southward. The type wastaken by M. Abbott Frazar in the Sierra de la Laguna, on May 10,1887.William Brewster (1888) named it, and described it as "similarto G. gnoma californica but smaller and grayer, the forehead andfacial disc with more white, the upper parts less distinctly spotted."Robert Ridgway (1914) describes it as "very similar in general colora-tion to G. g. gnoma, but streaks on under parts browner (less blackish)
FERRUGINOUS PYGMY OWL 435and band across throat much paler brown; wing shorter and taillonger."About all we know of the habits of this owl is contained in thefollowing account by Mr. Brewster (1902):This little Owl was discovered by Mr. Frazar on the Sierra de la Laguna, whereit frequents the largest pines and oaks on the top and sides of the mountain. Itappears to be rather common, for several were heard calling almost every nightin May and early June.
"Their notes resemble the syllables cow, cow, cow, repeated a number of times."Only three specimens were secured. One of these was followed after dark andshot while in the act of calling; another was started from some thick brush in thedaytime; and the third, also shot by daylight, was sitting in a tree surrounded bya noisy and excited mob of little birds, chiefly Baird's Juncos. During Mr.Frazar's autumn visit to the Sierra only one of these Owls was heard, on the nightof November 30. Probably they do not call freely at this season. Hoskins'sOwl is apparently not confined to the Cape Region, for Mr. Bryant reports thathe "shot a male at Comondu, March 22, 1889."GLAUCIDIUM BRASILIANUM RIDGWAYI SharpeFERRUGINOUS PYGMY OWLHABITSThe northern race of this South American owl ranges north intothe Lower Rio Grande Valley in Texas and into southern Arizona.It was first added to our fauna by Major Bendire (1892) who "tookseveral in 1872 in the heavy mesquite thickets bordering RillittoCreek, near the present site of Camp Lowell, in the vicinity of Tucson,Arizona. The first specimen was taken January 24, 1872, showingthat it is a resident throughout the year; other specimens were obtainedduring the following spring and summer."Ridgway (1914) describes it as similar to the typical race, 6. b.brasilianum, of Brazil, "but lighter in color and averaging rathersmaller." It has two very distinct color phases and an intermediatephase, which is a combination of the two extremes. He gives fulldescriptions of the three color patterns, which he designates as agrayish-brown phase with white tail bands, a grayish-brown phasewith rufous tail bands, and a rufescent phase.Nesting.?George B. Sennett (1889) says: "On May 2, 1888, mycollector took an adult female and one egg of this Owl at Canon delCaballeros, near Victoria, Tamaulipas, Mexico. The locality ishigh and at the base of the more precipitous mountains. The nestwas in a hollow tree, and contained but a single fresh egg."Major Bendire (1892) mentions a set of four eggs received by Mr.Sennett and taken within our boundaries: "The latter were foundon May 3, 1890, and were apparently fresh. The nesting site wasa Woodpecker's hole in a mesquite tree, about 10 feet from theground, in thick woods near Brownsville, Texas."
436 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMM. French Gilman (1909) found a nest of the ferruginous pygmyowl near the Gila River, Arizona, of which he writes:The only complete set found contained four eggs, and was discovered by seeingthe bird leave the nest while I was a short distance from the tree and before anyalarming demonstration had been made. She was very shy about returning to thenest. After returning, she hesitated some time before venturing into the hole,and when she did enter, she came out at once for a look around. At my firstmovement she hastily left the nest again, and when she came back her mateaccompanied her. This nest was a deserted Gila Woodpecker's hole 20 feet fromthe ground in a cottonwood tree. While they are sitting on a tree in plain sightthey are not shy, but when in a hole they are very timid, afraid of being capturedI suppose. A few times I have seen a head stick from a hole but every time thebird got out before I could approach very near.George F. Breninger (1898) says: "Among the growth of cotton-wood that fringes the Gila and Salt rivers of Arizona this Owl is ofcommon occurrence. * * * its nest is usually an abandonedwoodpecker's hole, which is used from year to year. No lining is used,and the three or four white spherical eggs are laid upon the bottom ofthe cavity, without any material being added either for the comfort ofthe setting bird or for the fledglings. Nidification in this valley usuallytakes place about the 20th of April."Eggs.?The ferruginous pygmy owl lays ordinarily three or four eggsand occasionally five. Bendire (1892) writes: "Compared with eggs ofGlaucidium gnoma californicum, the shells are apparently much thicker,and are rather coarsely granulated, considering their small size, con-siderably more so than the egg of Micropallas whitneyi, and they arenot as glossy as the latter. The texture of the shells is decidedlydifferent from that of the eggs said to be those of the California PigmyOwl. In none of the specimens before me are the peculiar puncturesor pittings noticeable and purporting to be characteristic of the eggsof the preceding species. In fact, the reverse is rather the case, mostof the specimens showing a few slight protuberances on their surface."The eggs are pure white and shaped like the eggs of the other smallowls. The measurements of 50 eggs average 28.5 by 23.2 millimeters;the eggs showing the four extremes measure 30.5 by 23.3, 29 by 24.5,26.5 by 23, and 29.4 by 21.6 millimeters.Plumages.?I have been unable to learn anything about the downyyoung, or the sequence of plumages and molts of this little owl. Ridg-way (1914) says that the young are "similar to adults, but pileumwithout distinct (if any) streaks."Food.?On the authority of Carl Euler, Major Bendire (1892) says:According to this authority, small as the Ferruginous Pigmy Owl is, it has beenknown to carry off young chickens, and he was informed by the natives that iteven attacked Jacii hens {Penelope), a bird of greater size than domestic fowls.It was stated to him that the little Owl fastened itself under the wings of the latter,gradually tearing it to pieces, and wearing it out and eventually killing it. I amaware, from personal observations, that some of our small Owls are the peer, asfar as courage is concerned, of the noblest Falcon ever hatched, but I should not
FERRUGINOUS PYGMY OWL 437quite care to father that story. Carl Euler says, further, that in captivity, whenfed on birds, it always carefully removed all the larger feathers from the carcassbefore beginning its meal.Mr. Gilman (1909) says of one he had in captivity: "She freely atethe bodies of small birds collected, and was properly patriotic in thatshe showed a savage delight in assimilating English Sparrows. I kepther about six weeks and her appetite improved all the time, any smallfry being grist for her mill. She usually began eating at the head, andwhile she ate freely in the daytime, she disliked being watcht ather meals."Behavior.?Mr. Gilman (1909) writes:At Agua Caliente I heard one of these owls hooting repeatedly one hot day, andinvestigating, found two hummingbirds busily attacking him as he sat in a mes-quite tree. I began to look for his mate and soon saw a promising looking GilaWoodpecker hole some seven feet up in a palo verde tree. Wishing to capture Mrs.Pygmy if she were at home I softly crept to the tree and stept up on a low branchin order to reach the hole. At the first noise the bird attempted to leave, but ahand clapt over the hole stopt her. A big handkerchief was thrust down the holewhile I enlarged it sufficiently to insert my hand and arm. When my handreached the bottom I thought it was in contact with a live wire, and I was absolutelysure I had "grabbed a live one."When the hand was withdrawn the owl came along quite easily. One claw wasthru the nail of my little finger, another imbedded in big finger, while her beak wasthrust deep into my thumb. Blood was running from all three wounds, and thebird hung on like a bulldog. It took no little diplomacy to remove her withoutforming an entangling alliance with the other hand, but she was finally safe in ahandkerchief. I will back one of these owls in a rough and tumble fight withanything twice the size.Mr. Breninger (1898) says:Unlike other members of the Owl family this species feeds largely during thedaytime. I have had them pounce down upon and carry away wounded birds aslarge as robins. * * * They can be seen perched out on some exposedsituation surveying the ground beneath, and nothing seems to pass unnoticed.With eyes that never sleep and pluck that never diminishes until death, it is aformidable foe even to the large rodents that burrow in the sands and alluvialdeposits of the river bottoms.Not long since I came upon a single individual seated upon a leafless limbof a cottonwood tree. Being prompted to learn how close an approach the owlwould allow without seeking other quarters, I came within a few feet of beingdirectly beneath the bird when a quail flew up near my feet. With a hunter'sinstinct my gun came to my shoulder and the quail fell some thirty or forty yardsoff. The shot did not disturb the owl in the least. After securing the game Ithrew it beneath the owl; its eyes were at once turned groundward, and its gazeupon the lifeless form of the quail was so intent that I succeeded in climbing towithin five feet of the bird before its eyes were turned toward me; then, with a fewerratic jerks of its tail, it flew to another tree where it soon called up its mate.Voice.?Major Bendire (1892) says: "Its call, according to mynotes, is 'chu, chu, chu', a number of times repeated, and mostfrequently heard in the evening. According to Mr. F. Stephens, itsnote is a loud 'cuck', repeated several times as rapidly as twice each
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second. He further states that at each utterance the bird jerked itstail and threw back its head. Occasionally a low 'chuck', audible foronly a short distance, replaced the usual call."Again he says that Carl Euler "gives its call note as 'khiu, khiu.'Apparently none of us here mentioned agree on the call note of thisOwl, and I leave it to the reader to take his choice."DISTRIBUTIONRange.?South and Central America and the Southwestern UnitedStates; nonmigratory.The range of the ferruginous pygmy owl extends north to Arizona(New River, Tucson, and Fort Lowell) ; and southern Texas (Lometaand Brownsville). East to Texas (Brownsville); Tamaulipas (Mata-moros, Rio Cruz, Rio Martinez, Forlon, and Altamira); eastern SanLuis Potosi (Valles) ; Vera Cruz (San Jose Acateno, Presidio, Otatitlan,and Catemaco); Yucatan (Tunkas and Chichen-Itza) ; QuintanaRoo (Cozumel Island and Camp Mengel); southeastern LesserAntilles (Trinidad) ; British Guiana (Mount Roraima) ; eastern Brazil(Cajetuba Island, Maranhao, Ceara, Bahia, Sapitiba, and RioTacutu); and Argentina (Parana). South to Argentina (Parana,Santiago del Estero, and Rosario de Lerma); and Chile (Valdivia).West to Chile (Valdivia); Peru (Arequipa, Pisco, Lima, Cajabamba,and Tumbez); Ecuador (Babahoyo, Vinces, and Yaguache); Panama(Calobre); Costa Rica (Cartago, Alajuelo, and Bolson); Nicaragua(Chontales); Honduras (Segovia River); Guatemala (Naranjo andDuenas) ; Oaxaca (Huiltepec and Tequisistlan) ; Guerrero (Acapulco)
;
Michoacan (La Huacana); Nayarit (San Bias); Sinaloa (Esquinapa);Sonora (Caborea and Sonoyta); and Arizona (Sacaton, Phoenix, andNew River).The range above outlined is for the entire species, which has, how-ever, been separated into two geographic races. The typical form(Glaucidium brasilianum brasilianum) is South American, whileGlaucidium b. ridgwayi is found in Central America, Mexico, and theSouthwestern United States.Egg dates.?Texas: 8 records, March 28 to May 28.Mexico: 6 records, April 22 to May 6.MICROPALLAS WHITNEYI WHITNEYI (Cooper)WHITNEY'S ELF OWLHABITSPlate 92The type race of Whitney's elf owl is now restricted to southernArizona, southwestern New Mexico, Sonora, and a narrow belt alongthe lower Colorado River in southeastern California.
WHITNEY'S ELF OWL 439The type specimen was secured by Dr. J. G. Cooper on April 26,1861, near Fort Mojave, on the Arizona side of the Colorado River;it has since been taken on the California side of the river. The typeremained unique for 11 years until Major Bendire (1892) found itnear Tucson, Ariz., of which he says: "On April 20, 1872, whilepushing my way through a dense mass of willows in the Rillitto Creekbottom, I saw one of them perched in the thicket and shot it. Al-though I had made considerable noise, it allowed me to approachquite close and did not seem to be disturbed by my intrusion into itsretreat. I took several others subsequently, most of them shortlyafter sundown, by carefully watching for the point from which theyuttered their call notes. When they find themselves observed theysit quite erect and perfectly motionless, and may in such a positionbe easily mistaken for a part of the limb on which they are perched."The chief haunts of the elf owl are the low, hot, dry Lower Sonoranplains of the river bottoms and the adjacent tablelands in southernArizona. Here, at least, is its center of abundance, where it is thecommonest owl and one of the commonest birds. These plains arescantily covered with a low growth of mesquite and creosote bushes,mixed with various small cacti and chollas, among which the toweringcandelabra of the giant cactus, or saguaro (Cereus giganteus), stand likepicturesque sentinels widely scattered over the hard, stony ground.But these tiny owls are not wholly confined to these plains, for theyhave been found elsewhere in that vicinity. Berry Campbell (1934)writes: "In the minds of most ornithologists, there is no use in lookingfor these owls outside of the sahuaro cactus belt. This error hadprobably delayed their discovery elsewhere. Surely it is a mistaketo believe that they are limited, for, as mentioned above, they arethe most abundant of the owls in the Pefia Blanca area. That theynest here there can be no doubt, for number 2164 is a juvenile stillin down. As I was stalking it, the parent came up and fed it." Hehad already referred to the Pefia Blanca area as "characterizedchiefly as Upper Sonoran grassland. Only in the favorable localitiessuch as in ravines and the larger canyons and on the north facingslope are brush and trees to be found. However, as the country isquite broken, these situations are common enough to make a fairstand of live oak, walnut, and sycamore possible."We found the elf owl breeding quite commonly in the broken,higher, country around Sabino Canyon, where we collected six sets ofeggs on May 23, 1922. The nests were all in the saguaros, whichwere growing all over the slopes, as well as in the valleys among mes-quites, creosote bushes, various chollas, and palo verdes. At thatseason the desert colors were at their best ; the saguaros were crownedwith white blossoms, the palo verdes were great bouquets of yellowflowers, a blaze of brilliant color, the ocotillos were tipped with ver-
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milion, the various chollas blossomed in different colors, the prickly-pears glowed with great yellow blossoms, and along the desert trailstwo species of rainbow cactus were masses of gorgeous flowers, darkcrimson with white centers and magenta with j^ellow centers.A. J. van Rossem (1936) found elf owls in the cottonwood grovesalong the Santa Cruz River, at a point some 14 miles from the nearestgiant cactus; he "saw at least a dozen birds within half a mile", onMay 14, where they were doubtless breeding; this locality is "nearly40 miles from the extensive groves" of giant cactus near Tucson,where we found them breeding.Nesting.?The abundance of the elf owls in the region describedabove can be appreciated from the fact that we collected 15 sets oftheir eggs in the parts of three days, May 21, to 23, 1922, that we wereable to devote to the saguaro plains, and much of this time was takenup with other things. The nests, with one exception, were all in thegiant cacti, in old or abandoned holes made by Gila woodpeckersand Mearns's gilded flickers. Nearly all these giants had one or moreof these holes, and many of them were fairly riddled with them.Most of the holes were from 15 to 20 feet up, within eas}'- reach fromour 18-foot ladder, but some were lower and some as high as 30 feet.One old veteran giant cactus, from which I took one of my sets, hadbeen visited off and on by my companion, Frank C. Willard, since1904; during that period he had taken from its numerous holes theeggs of desert sparrow hawk, saguaro screech owl, elf owl, ash-throatedflycatcher, Arizona crested flycatcher, Lucy's warbler, Gila woodpecker,Mearns's gilded flicker, and cactus wren; on one day he found bothwoodpeckers and the elf owl nesting in it at the same time ; I think itholds the record for all this popular resort.The prominent ribs of the giant cactus are armed with rows of long,stiff, sharp spines, so that climbing them is a painful process; but,from a ladder, it is easy to chop out the holes, as the pulp is not muchharder than watermelon rind. Woodpeckers find it easy to excavatetheir holes in this pulp, which largely accounts for, the popularity ofthe saguaros as nesting sites. The sap that exudes from the freshcuts soon hardens around the entrance hole and around the walls ofthe cavity, forming a hard, firm nesting box, which lasts for manyyears, furnishing an ideal home for any of the various species thatprefer to nest in these cactuses. I have seen skeletons of these giantslying on the ground, in which all the pulp had disappeared, leavingonly the hard ribs intact and the gourd-shaped shells of the nestingholes still retaining their shape.Two surprises that we encountered illustrate the overcrowdedcondition and the competition for nesting sites in this populouscommunity. One day, we saw an elf owl looking out of a hole in agiant cactus and took a photograph of it. On climbing up to it, we founda saguaro screech owl sitting on a set of three elf owl's eggs. On
WHITNEY'S ELF OWL 441another day, as we were entering the mesquite forest, between thesaguaro plain and the Santa Cruz River, we saw a Gila woodpeckerfly out of a hole, about 15 feet up in a mesquite stub; the bird, whichwas a male, made such a fuss that we felt sure that his mate must besitting on a set of eggs in that hole. Mr. Willard climbed up, choppedout the hole, and, much to our surprise, pulled out a female elf owland three of her eggs. I killed and skinned both of these birds andam sure of the sexes. Whether the owl had eloped with the gaywoodpecker, or whether she had driven him from his newly madehome, or whether the woodpecker was trying to take possession ofthe hole for his family, I will leave it to the reader to decide.Clyde L. Field writes to me: "I have taken eggs of Whitney's elfowl on the east slope of the Santa Catalina Mountains, Ariz., at anelevation of 4,800 feet, and in the Santa Rita Mountains, Ariz., at6,100 feet. I took a bird from a hole in which she would likely soonhave laid. The nests were all in sycamore trees, there being no giantcactus for miles. Mesquites were growing nearbv. Once, when I wascamping in a dry creek, an elf owl could be heard throughout the night.The sound seemed to come from a sycamore some hundred feet away.In the morning a dead stub was noticed in the tree, in which a Gilawoodpecker had nested for several seasons. After much hard workI enlarged the hole and found the owl. It was too early for eggs,also for the woodpecker. Three weeks later I returned. The wood-pecker had moved up the creek. An Arizona crested flycatcher hadmoved into the woodpecker's nest and sat on four eggs. The owlwas still at home and also had four eggs. I collected both sets. Tendays later I again looked in on them. The flycatcher had taken theowl's home and had three eggs. The owl was using the flycatcher'sold nest but had not laid yet. From watching three elf owls' nests, wefound that they lay every other day."Several other accounts of the nesting habits of the elf owl have beenpublished, but they do not differ materially from the accounts givenabove. Mr. Gilman (1909) found one nesting in a woodpecker'shole in a cottonwood tree. Although it may show a preference forthe giant cactus, it apparently will nest in any other suitable hole inany kind of a tree within its habitat.Eggs.?Major Bendire (1892) says: "From two to five eggs are laidto a set, but the most common number found is three. Of thirty-eightsets taken by Mr. F. Stephens, who found the first eggs of this species,twenty-four sets contained three each, twelve sets contained four,and two sets five eggs. * * * The eggs of the Elf Owl are purewhite in color and oval in shape, the shell is finely granulated, and whilesome specimens are rather glossy, the majority are only moderatelyso." The measurements of 50 eggs average 26.8 by 23.2 millimeters ; the13751?38 2?
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eggs showing the four extremes measure 29.9 by 25, 26 by 22.3, and25.9 by 22 millimeters.Young.?Major Bendire (1892) says: "One of the parents is alwaysat home after the first egg is laid, and frequently both. The maleassists in incubation, which lasts about two weeks." Nothing seemsto be known about the care of the young, their development, or theirhabits, except that they are attended and fed by their parents forsome time after they leave the nest.Plumages.?I have seen only one downy young of the elf owl; itwas well covered with pure-white down; they are said to be about asbig as a man's thumbnail, when first hatched.In the juvenal plumage the upper parts generally are "drab", moregrayish on the pileum; the pileum is nearly, or quite, immaculate,the back is finely and inconspicuously barred with dusky and "ochra-ceous-tawny", the under parts are grayish white, heavily mottled,spotted, or finely barred with dusky, and without any, or very little,pale buff or brown; the tawny and white face pattern of the adult isonly faintly indicated, and there is no buff on the throat; the wingsand tail are as in the adult. This plumage seems to be worn foronly a short time, as a more or less complete body molt produces,during June and July, a plumage that is practically adult. Thecomplete, annual molt of adults seems to take place in September andOctober. Ridgway (1914) recognizes two color phases, the commoner,gravish phase, and a browner phase.Food.?The food of the tiny elf owl seems to consist almost entirelyof various insects and their larvae, such as crickets, grasshoppers,beetles, caterpillars, centipedes, and other small fry. Two that Mr.Gilman (1909) had in captivity "freely ate what few crickets andgrasshoppers I could secure for them, but refused to eat small birds."Mr. Campbell (1934) found in the stomachs of two of these owls five largebot fly pupae, one Hemiptera, and one vinegarroon. Apparently thislittle owl is not so savage and aggressive as the pygmy owls, and it doesnot often attack birds, though feathers have been found in its stomach.Behavior.?The elf owl is decidedly nocturnal in its habits, remainingconcealed during the daytime in some convenient hole, or, morefrequently, in some dense thicket or under cover of thick foliage,where it sits motionless and is not easily discovered. I have beentold that it does not live in the holes in the saguaros except in thenesting season, but we know very little about its habits at other seasons.In the evening twilight these owls become very active, and may be seenflying about, or may be easily located by their peculiar notes. Theyare sometimes seen flying about the campfire, probably chasing theinsects that have been attracted by the light. William Brewster(1883) quotes the following from field notes of Frank Stephens:I was walking past an elder bush in a thicket when a small bird started out.Thinking it had flown from its nest I stopped and began examining the bush, when
WHITNEY'S ELF OWL 443
I discovered a Whitney's Owl sitting on a branch with its side towards me and onewing held up, shield fashion, before its face.I could just see its eyes over the wing, and had it kept them shut I might haveoverlooked it, as they first attracted my attention. It had drawn itself into thesmallest possible compass so that its head formed the widest part of its outline.I moved around a little to get a better chance to shoot, as the brush was very thick,but whichever wa}- I went the wing was always interposed, and when I retreatedfar enough for a fair shot I could not tell the bird from the surrounding bunches ofleaves. At length, losing patience, I fired at random and it fell. Upon going topick it up I was surprised to find another, which I had not seen before, but whichmust have been struck by a stray shot.Mr. Brewster (1883) goes on to say: "Rather curiously both of thesespecimens proved to be adult males. It is by no means certain, how-ever, that the males are not to a certain extent gregarious during thebreeding season, for on another occasion two more were killed from aflock of five which were sitting together in a thick bush."Voice.?Mr. Brewster (1883) says: "They had several different notes,one of which sounded like the syllable churp; while another was a lowtw-jur r r r. These cries were heard at all times of the night, butoftenest in the early evening and again at daybreak."Mr. Gilman (1909) says of his captive owls: "During the day theyremained very quiet, but at night made a choice assortment of noises,which, as I kept them in my room, were very entertaining, especiallyabout midnight. One note very much resembled that of the WesternBluebird, and another sounded like the squeak concealed in a rubberdoll."Field marks.-?This is the smallest of all our owls, far smaller thanthe screech owls found within its range, and even smaller than thepygmy owls, from which it also differs in having a much shorter tail.It is a short, chunky little bird, with a round head. It is less likely tobe seen abroad in the daytime than are the pygmy owls.DISTRIBUTIONRange.?Southwestern United States and Mexico; nonmigratory.The range of the diminutive elf owl is north to Arizona (Fort Mojave,Big Sandy River, Prescott, Fort Whipple, Oracle, and probably FortBowie); southwestern New Mexico (Redrock and Silver City); andsouthern Texas (Chisos Mountains, Hidalgo, and Brownsville).East to Texas (Brownsville) ; and Puebla (Tehuacan). South to Puebla(Tehuacan); and southern Baja California (Mira Flores). West toBaja California (Mira Flores, San Bernardo Mountain, Todos Santos,and Comondu); Sonora (Querobabi and Magdalena); southeasternCalifornia (Bard and Duncan Flats); and Arizona (Batamote Well,Sacaton, New River, and Fort Mojave).This species of the elf owl has been separated into three races:Whitney's elf owl (M. w. whitneyi), the typical race, occupies the
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southwestern part of the range, except southern Baja California,being found in southeastern California, Arizona, New Mexico and theMexican State of Sonora. The Texas elf owl (M. w. idoneus) occupiesthe valley of the lower Rio Grande in Texas, and from there south toPuebla, Guanajuato, and the Valley of Mexico. Sanford's elf owl(M. w. sanfordi) is found only in the southern part of Baja California.Egg dates.?Arizona: 28 records, May 3 to June 9; 14 records, May22 to 26, indicating the height of the season.MICROPALLAS WHITNEYI IDONEUS RldgwayTEXAS ELF OWLHABITSThe Texas elf owl occupies a range quite remote from that of theArizona bird, in the lower Rio Grande Valley of Texas and thencesouthward well into Mexico. Robert Ridgway (1914) describes it as
"similar to M. w. sanfordi in grayness of upper parts and absence ofdistinct cinnamoneous blotches on under parts, but under parts withmore white and with markings darker."The type was taken by F. B. Armstrong, while camped 5 miles fromHidalgo, Tex., on April 5, 1889, and apparently it has not been takennorth of our boundary since. Mr. Ridgway had only two specimenswhen he named and described the race. Nothing seems to have beenpublished about its habits.MICROPALLAS WHITNEYI SANFORDI RidgwaySANFORD'S ELF OWLHABITSIn southern Lower California, south of about latitude 23?40' N.,this race is separated by a wide gap from the elf owl of Arizona, andit has been given the above name. Mr. Ridgway (1914) describes itas "similar to M. w. whitneyi, but much grayer above and (in the grayphase, at least) with much less of cinnamon-buff on face and little ifany rusty brown or cinnamon on under parts; gray phase with groundcolor of upper parts between mouse gray and hair brown, withoutdistinct, if any, darker vermiculations ; brown phase similar in colora-tion to the grayer phase of M. w. whitneyi but slightly darker; wingaveraging decidedly shorter, tail averaging longer."William Brewster (1902) says: "Mr. Belding asserts that he foundthe Elf Owl 'common, if not abundant' at Miraflores in 1882, andthat he also met with it in 'the mountains' in 1883, but it 'appeared tobe less common here than in the cactus regions' at lower levels."I can find nothing in print about the nesting or other habits of thisowl, which probably do not differ materially from those of other elf owls.
LITERATURE CITEDAbbott, Clinton Gilbert.1930. Urban burrowing owls. Auk, vol. 47, pp. 564-565.1933. Closing history of the Guadalupe caracara. Condor, vol. 35, pp. 10-14.Agersborg, Gabriel Smith.1885. The birds of southeastern Dakota. Auk, vol. 2, pp. 276-289.Aiken, Charles Edward Howard, and Warren, Edward Royal.1914. The birds of El Paso County, Colorado. Colorado College Publ.,sci. ser., vol. 12, no. 13, pt. 2, pp. 497-603.Allen, Arthur Augustus.1924. A contribution to the life history and economic status of the screechowl (Otus asio). Auk, vol. 41, pp. 1-16.Allen, Arthur Augustus, and Knight, H. K.1913. The duck hawks of the Taughannock Gorge. Bird-Lore, vol. 15,pp. 1-8.Allen, Francis Henry.1904. The great gray owl near Boston. Auk, vol. 21, p. 278.Allen, Glover Morrill.1903. A list of the birds of New Hampshire. Proc. Manchester Inst. Artsand Sci., vol. 4, pp. 21-222.Allen, Joel Asaph.1869. Notes on some of the rarer birds of Massachusetts. Amer. Nat.,vol. 3, pp. 505-519, 568-585, 631-648.American Ornithologists' Union.1910. Check-list of North American birds. Ed. 3.1931. Check-list of North American birds. Ed. 4.Anthony, Alfred "Webster.1906. Stray notes from Alaska. Auk, vol. 23, pp. 179-184.Arnold, E. L.1932. Leaves from our diaries. Yellowstone Nat. Park Nature Notes.vol. 9, p. 58.Arnold, Marguerite Lindsley, and Arnold, Edward R.1930. The rare pigmy. Yellowstone Nat. Park Nature Notes, vol. 7, p. 6.Ashworth, Charles.1928. California owls. Oologist, vol. 45, pp. 153-154.Attwater, Henry Philemon.1892. List of birds observed in the vicinity of San Antonio, Bexar County,Texas. Auk, vol. 9, pp. 229-238.Audubon, John James.1840. The birds of America. Vol. 1.Austin, Oliver Luther, Jr.1932. An interesting great horned owl capture. Bird Banding, vol. 3, p. 33.Bailey, Alfred Marshall.1926. A report on the birds of northwestern Alaska and regions adjacent toBering Strait. Condor, vol. 28, pp. 121-126.
445
446 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMBailey, Alfred Marshall, and Niedrach, Robert James.1933. The prairie falcon. Amer. Forests, vol. 39, pp. 356-358, 384.Bailey, Florence Merriam.1902. Handbook of birds of the Western United States.1918. Wild animals of Glacier National Park: The birds.1923. Birds recorded from the Santa Rita Mountains in southern Arizona.Pacific Coast Avifauna, no. 15.1928. Birds of New Mexico.Bailey, Harold Harris.1906. Ornithological notes from western Mexico and the Tres Marias andIsabella Islands. Auk, vol. 23, pp. 369-391.1922. Owl food. Oologist, vol. 39, p. 164.1932. Modern bird homes in south Florida. Oologist, vol. 49, pp. 8-9.Bailey, Vernon.1905. Scraps from an owl table. Condor, vol. 7, p. 97.Baird, Spencer Fullerton; Brewer, Thomas Mayo; and Ridgway, Robert.1905. The land birds of North America.Bangs, Outram.1894. Another record of the breeding of the saw-whet owl (Nyctale acadica)in eastern Massachusetts. Auk, vol. 11, pp. 77-78.1899. A new barred owl from Corpus Christi, Texas. Proc. New EnglandZool. Club, vol. 1, pp. 31-32.1930. The screech owls of eastern North America. Auk, vol. 47, pp. 403-404.Barbour, Thomas.1923. The birds of Cuba. Mem. Nuttall Orn. Club, no. 6.Beaupre, Edwin.1922. The duck hawk. Canadian Field-Nat., vol. 36, pp. 33-35.Beekman, Orland E.1918. In California. Oologist, vol. 25, pp. 76-77.Belding, Lyman.1890. Land birds of the Pacific district. Occ. Papers California Acad. Sci.,vol. 2, pp. 1-274.Bendire, Charles Emil.1875. Notes on seventy-nine species of birds observed in the neighborhood ofCamp Harney, Oregon. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 18, pp.153-168.1877. Notes on some of the birds found in southeastern Oregon, particularlyin the vicinity of Camp Harney, from November, 1874, to January,1877. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 19, pp. 109-149.1892. Life histories of North American birds. U. S. Nat. Mus. Spec. Bull. 1.Bent, Arthur Cleveland.1907. Summer birds of southwestern Saskatchewan. Auk, vol. 24, pp. 407-430.Bergtold, William Harry.1928. A guide to Colorado birds.Betts, Norman deWitt.1912. Notes from Boulder County, Colo. Auk, vol. 29, pp. 399-400.Bicknell, Eugene Pintard.1919. The short-eared owl breeding on Nantucket. Auk, vol. 36, pp. 284-285.Bishop, Louis Bennett.1900. Birds of the Yukon region. North Amer. Fauna, no. 19.1931a. Three apparently undescribed owls. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington,vol. 44, pp. 93-96.1931b. Sexual dichromatism in the pygmy owl. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington,vol. 44, pp. 97-98.
LITERATURE CITED 447Bishop, Sherman Chauncey.1925. Notes on the mating habits of the sparrow hawk. Auk, vol. 42,pp. 268-269.Blackwelder, Eliot.1919. Notes on the summer birds of the upper Yukon region, Alaska. Auk,vol. 36, pp. 57-64.Bolles, Frank.1890. Barred owls in captivity. Auk, vol. 7, pp. 101-114.Bond, Richard M.1936a. Speed and eyesight of a pigeon hawk. Condor, vol. 38, p. 85.1936b. Some observations on the food of the prairie falcon. Condor, vol. 38,pp. 169-170.Bonnot, Paul.1921. Sparrow hawk captures swallow. Condor, vol. 23, p. 136.1928. An outlaw barn owl. Condor, vol. 30, p. 320.Bowles, Charles Warren.1912. An elevated camp. Condor, vol. 14, pp. 196-199.Bowles, John Hooper.1906a. The Kennicott screech owl. Condor, vol. 8, pp. 143-144.1906b. A list of the birds of Tacoma, Washington, and vicinity. Auk, vol. 23,pp. 138-148.1916. Notes on the feeding habits of the dusky horned owl. Oologist, vol. 33,pp. 151-152.1917a. Notes on the Kennicott's screech owl (Otus asio kennicotti) in thePuget Sound region. Auk, vol. 34, pp. 422-427.1917b. The winter migration of 1916-17 in the Northwest. Condor, vol. 19,pp. 125-129.1918. Northern owls again visit Washington. Condor, vol. 20, p. 45.Bradford, Charles H.1930. A record set of Pacific horned owl. Oologist, vol. 47, pp. 18-20.Bralliar, Floyd.1922. Knowing birds through stories.Braly, John Claude.1930. Nesting of the California pigmy owl in Oregon. Condor, vol. 32,p. 304.Breninger, George Frank.1898. The ferruginous pigmy owl. Osprey, vol. 2, p. 128.Brewster, William.1879. The terns of the New England coast. Bull. Nuttall Orn. Club, vol. 4,pp. 13-22.1881. Breeding of the Acadian owl (Nyctale acadica) in Massachusetts.Bull. Nuttall Orn. Club, vol. 6, pp. 143-145.1882a. On Kennicott's owl and some of its allies, with a description of aproposed new race. Bull. Nuttall Orn. Club, vol. 7, pp. 27-33.1882b. Notes on the habits and changes of plumage of the Acadian owl{Nyctale acadica), with some additional records of its breeding inMassachusetts. Bull. Nuttall Orn. Club, vol. 7, pp. 23-25.1883. On a collection of birds lately made by Mr. F. Stephens in Arizona.Bull. Nuttall Orn. Club, vol. 8, pp. 21-36.1885. Hawk owls in New England. Auk, vol. 2, pp. 108-109.1888. On three apparently new subspecies of Mexican birds. Auk, vol. 5,pp. 136-139.1891. Descriptions of seven supposed new North American birds. Auk,vol. 8, pp. 139-149.
448 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMBrewster, William?Continued.1902. Birds of the Cape region of Lower California. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool.,vol. 41, pp. 1-241.1907. Aggressive screech owls. Auk, vol. 24, pp. 215-217.1925. The birds of the Lake Umbagog region of Maine. Bull. Mus. Comp.Zool., vol. 66, pt. 2, pp. 211-402.1936. October farm. (From the Concord journals and diaries of WilliamBrewster, edited by Smith Owen Dexter and Thomas Barbour.)British Ornithologists' Union.1915. A list of British birds.Brockway, Arthur William.1918. Large flight of great horned owls and goshawks at Hadlyme, Connect-icut. Auk, vol. 35, pp. 351-352.Brodkorb, Pierce.1928. Notes on the food of some hawks and owls. Auk, vol. 45, pp. 212-213.Brooks, Allan.1900. Notes on some of the birds of British Columbia. Auk, vol. 17, pp.104-107.1909. Some notes on the birds of Okanagan, British Columbia. Auk,vol. 26, pp. 60-63.1917. Birds of the Chilliwack district, B. C. Auk, vol. 34, pp. 28-50.1926. Notes on the status of the Peale falcon. Condor, vol. 28, pp. 77-79.1929. Pellets of hawks and owls are misleading. Canadian Field-Nat.,vol. 43, pp. 160-161.1933. Some notes on the birds of Brownsville, Texas. Auk, vol. 50, pp.59-63.Brooks, Winthrop Sprague.1915. Notes on birds from east Siberia and Arctic Alaska.Brown, Nathan Clifford.1906. A familiar sparrow hawk. Bird-Lore, vol. 8, pp. 48-50.Brown, William James.1912. Unusual nesting site of the pigeon hawk in Newfoundland. OttawaNat., vol. 26, pp. 70-71.Bryan, William Alanson.1903. The short-eared owl taken far out at sea. Auk, vol. 20, pp. 212-213.Bryant, Harold Child.1918. Evidence in the food of hawks and owls in California. Condor, vol.20, pp. 126-127.Bryant, Walter (Pierc)E.1887. Additions to the ornithology of Guadalupe Island. Bull. CaliforniaAcad. Sci., vol. 2, pp. 269-318.1888. Birds and eggs from the Farallon Islands. Proc. California Acad.Sci., ser. 2, vol. 1, pp. 25-50.1889. A catalogue of the birds of Lower California, Mexico. Proc. Cali-fornia Acad. Sci., ser. 2, vol. 2, pp. 237-320.Burleigh, Thomas Dearborn.1929. Notes on the bird life of northwestern Washington. Auk, vol. 46,pp. 502-519.Burns, Franklin Lorenzo.1915. Comparative periods of deposition and incubation of some NorthAmerican birds. Wilson Bull., vol. 27, pp. 275-286.Burroughs, John.1906. Camping and tramping with Roosevelt.
LITERATURE CITED 449Cahn, Alvin Robert, and Kemp, Jack Theodore.1930. On the food of certain owls in east-central Illinois. Auk, vol. 47,pp. 323-328.Calderwood, A., Jr.1889. Nesting of the pigmy owl. Oologist, vol. 6, pp. 110-111.Cameron, Ewen Somerled.1907. The birds of Custer and Dawson Counties, Montana. Auk, vol. 24,pp. 241-270.Campbell, Berry.1934. Bird notes from southern Arizona. Condor, vol. 36, pp. 201-203.Carpenter, Frederic Howard.1883. Screech owls breeding in confinement. Ornithologist and Oologist,vol. 8, pp. 93-94.Carriger, Henry Ward.1895. The California pygmy owl. Nidiologist, vol. 2, pp. 172-173.Carroll, James Judson.1900. Notes on the birds of Refugio County, Texas. Auk, vol. 17, pp.337-348.Carter, John Darlington.1925. Behavioi of the barred owl. Auk, vol. 42, pp. 443-444.Cassells, Elsie.1922. White gyrfalcon in Alberta. Canadian Field-Nat., vol. 36, p. 58.Chapman, Frank Michler.1894. On the birds of the island of Trinidad. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.,vol. 6, pp. 1-86.1899. Report on birds received through the Peary expeditions to Greenland.Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 12, pp. 219-244.1908. Camps and cruises of an ornithologist.Clabaugh, Ernest Dwight.1926. Notes on the food of the California screech owl. Condor, vol. 28,pp. 43-44.1933. Food of the pigmy owl and goshawk. Condor, vol. 35, p. 80.Clark, John Nathaniel.1887. A favorite nest. Ornithologist and Oologist, vol. 12, p. 135.Clay, Charles Irvin.1911. The spotted owl in northern California. Condor, vol. 13, p. 75.Cleaves, Howard Henderson.1910. Barn owls nesting in New York City. Bird-Lore, vol. 12, pp. 225-230.Cohen, Donald Atherton.1903. Some observations on the nesting habits of the prairie falcon. Condor,vol. 5, pp. 117-121.Cook, George L.1926. Notes on the western horned owl. Oologist, vol. 43, p. 18.Coolidge, Philip Tripp.1906. Notes on the screech owl. Auk, vol. 23, pp. 48-55.Cooper, James Graham.1870. Geological survey of California. Land birds, vol. 1.Cooper, William Alvord.1879. Notes on the breeding habits of the California pygmy owl (Glaucidiumcalifornicum) with a description of its eggs. Bull. Nuttall Orn. Club,vol. 4, pp. 86-87.Cory, Charles Barney.1888. The European kestrel in Massachusetts. Auk, vol. 5, p. 110.
450 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMCoues, Elliott.1861. Notes on the ornithology of Labrador. Proc. Philadelphia Acad. Nat.Sci., 1861, pp. 215-257.1874. Birds of the northwest. U. S. Geol. Surv. Terr. Misc. Publ. no. 3.Cram, William Everett.1901. An aerial battle. Bird-Lore, vol. 3, p. 175.Culver, Delos Everett.1919. Duck hawks wintering in the center of Philadelphia. Auk, vol. 36,pp. 108-109.Daggett, Frank Slater.1913. Another instance of cannibalism in the spotted owl. Condor, vol. 15,pp. 40-41.Davie, Oliver.1889. Nests and eggs of North American birds. Ed. 3.Dawson, William Leon.1897. A preliminary list of the biTds of Okanogan County, Washington.Auk, vol. 14, pp. 168-182.1903. The birds of Ohio.1914. The people's bread. Condor, vol. 16, p. 27.1923. The birds of California. Vols. 2 and 3.Dawson, William Leon, and Bowles, John Hooper.1909. The birds of Washington. Vol. 2.Deane, Ruthven.1902. Unusual abundance of the snowy owl (Nyctea nyctea) in New Englandand Canada. Auk, vol. 19, pp. 271-283. -1906. Unusual abundance of the snowy owl (Nyctea nyctea). Auk, vol. 23,pp. 283-298.Decker, Frank Russel.1912. The Kennicott screech owl in Washington. Oologist, vol. 29, pp. 225-226.Decker, F. R., and Bowles, John Hooper.1930. The prairie falcon in the State of Washington. Auk, vol. 47, pp. 25-31.DeGroot, Dudley Sargent.1927. The California clapper rail, its nesting habits, enemies and habitat.Condor, vol. 29, pp. 259-270.DeMille, John Blakeney.1926. Birds of Gaspe County, Quebec. Auk, vol. 43, pp. 508-527.Densmore, Mabel.1924. A young short-eared owl playing "possum." Bird-Lore, vol. 26, pp.403-404.Dice, Lee Raymond.1918. The birds of Walla Walla and Columbia Counties, southeasternWashington. Auk, vol. 35, pp. 40-51.1920. Notes on some birds of interior Alaska. Condor, vol. 22, pp. 176-185.Dickey, Donald Ryder.1914. The nesting of the spotted owl. Condor, vol. 16, pp. 193-202.Dippie, George Frederick.1895. Nesting of Richardson's merlin. Oologist, vol. 12, pp. 135-136.Dixon, James Benjamin.1914. History of a pair of Pacific horned owls. Condor, vol. 16, pp. 47-54.Dixon, Joseph.1908. A family of young duck hawks. Condor, vol. 10, pp. 198-200.Donahue, Ralph J.1923. The nesting of a great horned owl. Oologist, vol. 40, pp. 135-136.
LITERATURE CITED 451Drew, Frank Mayo.1885. On the vertical range of birds in Colorado. Auk, vol. 2, pp. 11-18.DuBois, Alexander Dawes.1923. The short-eared owl as a foster-mother. Auk, vol. 40, pp. 383-393.1924. The nuptial song-flight of the short-eared owl. Auk, vol. 41, pp.260-263.Dufresne, Frank.1922. The snowy owl?destroyer of game. Bull. Amer. Game Prot. Assoc,vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 11-12.Dunn, Harry H.1899. The Pacific horned owl. Oologist, vol. 16, pp. 116-118.1901. The spotted owl (Syrnium occidentale) . Oologist, vol. 18, pp. 165-167.Earl, Thomas Mason.1934. Observations on owls in Ohio. Wilson Bull., vol. 46, pp. 137-142.Eaton, Elon Howard.1910. Birds of New York. New York State Mus. Mem. 12, vol. 2.Eaton, Warren Francis, and Curry, Haskell Brooks.1924. Richardson's owl in Vermont in summer. Auk, vol. 41, pp. 155-156.Eckstorm, Fannie Hardy.1902. A description of the adult black merlin (Falco columbarius suckleyi).Auk, vol. 19, pp. 382-385.Edwards, Helen McCurdy.1932. Behavior of a Florida screech owl. Bird-Lore, vol. 34, pp. 130-131.Eifrig, Charles William Gustave.1906. The great gray owl. Ottawa Nat., vol. 20, pp. 79-81.1907. American goshawk (Accipiter atricapillus) versus man and barredowl. Auk, vol. 24, pp. 437-438.1909. Winter birds of New Ontario, and other notes on northern birds.Auk, vol. 26, pp. 55-59.Ekblaw, Sidney Everetts.1919. Nesting of American long eared owl. Wilson Bull., vol. 31, pp. 99-100.Emerson, William Otto.1885. California mottled owl. Ornithologist and Oologist, vol. 10, pp. 173-174Errington, Paul Lester.1930. The pellet analysis method of raptor food habits study. Condor,vol. 32, pp. 292-296.1931. Winter-killing of barn owls in Wisconsin. Wilson Bull., vol. 43, p. 60.1932a. Studies on the behavior of the great horned owl. Wi'son Bull., vol.44, pp. 212-220.1932b. Technique of raptor food habits study. Condor, vol. 34, pp. 75-86.1932c. Food habits of southern Wisconsin raptors. Parti: Owls. Condor.vol. 34, pp. 176-186.1933. Food habits of southern Wisconsin raptors. Part 2: Hawks. Condor.vol. 35, pp. 19-29.Errington, Paul Lester, and Bennett, Logan Johnson.1935. Food habits of burrowing owls in northwestern Iowa. Wilson Bull.,vol. 47, pp. 125-128.Evermann, Barton Warren.1882. American barn owl. Ornithologist and Oologist, vol. 7, pp. 97-98,109-110.1913. Eighteen species of birds new to the Pribilof Islands, including fournew to North America. Auk, vol. 30, pp. 15-18.
452 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMFarley. John Austin.1924. Food habits of owls. Auk, vol. 41, p. 156.Feilden, Henry Wemyss.1872. The birds of the Faeroe Islands. Zoologist, ser. 2, vol. 7, pp. 3210-3225, 3245-3257, 3277-3294.Ferguson, Alfred Ludlow, and Ferguson, Henry Lee.1922. The fall migration of hawks as observed at Fishers Island, N. Y.Auk, vol. 39, pp. 488-496.Finley, William Lovell.1906. The barn owl and its economic value. Condor, vol. 8, pp. 83-88.Fisher, Albert Kenrick.1893a. The Death Valley Expedition. Part 2: (1) Birds. North Amer.Fauna, no. 7.1893b. The hawks and owls of the United States in their relation to agricul-ture.1907. Hawks and owls from the standpoint of the farmer. Biol. Surv.Circ. 61.Fisher, George Clyde.1919. A note of the long-eared owl (Asio wilsonianus). Auk, vol. 36, p. 109Fleming, James Henry.1902. Further notes on the snowy owl in Ontario. Auk, vol. 19, p. 400.1907. Birds of Toronto, Canada. Part 2: Land birds. Auk, vol. 24,pp. 71-89.1916. The saw-whet owl of the Queen Charlotte Islands. Auk, vol. 33,pp. 420-423.Forbush, Edward Howe.1927. Birds of Massachusetts and other New England States. Vol. 2.Fowler, Frederick Hall.1931. Studies of food and growth of the prairie falcon. Condor, vol. 33,pp. 193-201.Frazar, A. M. [=Marston Abbott].1877. The mottled owl as a fisherman. Bull. Nuttall Orn. Club, vol. 2, p. 80.Fuertes, Louis Agassiz.1920. American birds of prey. Nat. Geogr. Mag., vol. 38, pp. 460-467.Ganier, Albert Franklin.1931. Nesting of the duck hawk in Tennessee. Wilson Bull., vol. 43, pp. 3-8.1933. Water birds of Reelfoot Lake. Journ. Tennessee Acad. Sci., vol. 8,no. 1, pp. 65-83.Gilman, Marshall French.1909. Some owls along the Gila River in Arizona. Condor, vol. 11, pp. 145-150.Gladstone, Hugh Steuart.1910. The birds of Dumfriesshire.Goddard, T. Russell.1935. Notes on colour variation and habits of short-eared owls. BritishBirds, vol. 28, pp. 290-291.Goelitz, Walter Adolph.1916. A strange nesting of the barred owl and red-shouldered hawk. WilsonBull., vol. 28, pp. 105-106.Goss, Nathaniel Stickney.1878. Breeding of the duck hawk in trees. Bull. Nuttall Orn. Club, vol. 3,pp. 32-34.1891. History of the birds of Kansas.
LITERATURE CITED 453Grayson, Andrew Jackson.1872. On the physical geography and natural history of the islands of theTres Marias and of Socorro, off the western coast of Mexico. Proc.Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 14, pp. 261-304.Greely, Adolphus Washington.1888. Report on the proceedings of the United States Expedition to LadyFranklin Bay, Grinnell Land. Vol. 2.Green, Charles deBlois.1916. Note on the distribution and nesting-habits of Falco peregrinus pealeiRidgway. Ibis, 1916, pp. 473-476.Greene, Earle Rosenbury.1930. Duck hawk wintering in Atlanta, Ga. Auk, vol. 47, p. 418.Grimes, Samuel Andrew.1936. Great horned owl and common black snake in mortal combat. FloridaNat., vol. 9, pp. 77-78.Grinnell, Joseph.1900. Birds of the Kotzebue Sound region, Alaska. Pacific Coast Avifauna,no. 1.1908. The biota of the San Bernardino Mountains. Univ. CaliforniaPubl. Zool., vol. 5, pp. 1-170.1913. Two new races of the pigmy owl from the Pacific coast. Auk, vol. 30,pp. 222-224.1915. A new subspecies of screech owl from California. Auk, vol. 32,pp. 59-60.1928a. A new race of screech owl from California. Auk, vol. 45, pp. 213-215.1928b. A distributional summation of the ornithology of Lower California.Univ. California Publ. Zool., vol. 32, pp. 1-300.Grinnell, Joseph; Dixon, Joseph; and Linsdale, Jean Myron.1930. Vertebrate natural history of a section of northern California throughthe Lassen Peak region. Univ. California Publ. Zool., vol. 35,pp. 1-594.Grinnell, Joseph, and Storer, Tracy Irwin.1924. Animal life in the Yosemite.Griscom, Ludlow.1932. The distribution of bird-life in Guatemala. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat.Hist., vol. 64.Gross, Alfred Otto.1927. The snowy owl migration of 1926-27. Auk, vol. 44, pp. 479-493.Hagerup, Andreas Thomsen.1891. The birds of Greenland.Hallman, Roy Cline.1929. A nest of great horned owls. Florida Nat., vol. 2, pp. 99-100.Hantzsch, Bernhard.1905. Beitrag zur kenntniss der vogelwelt Islands.1929. Contribution to the knowledge of the avifauna of north-easternLabrador. Canadian Field-Nat., vol. 43, pp. 11-18, 31-34. (Trans-lated by M. B. A. and R. M. Anderson.)Harlow, Richard Cresson.1912. The breeding birds of southern Center County, Pennsylvania. Auk,vol. 29, pp. 465-478.Harris, Harry.1919. Birds of the Kansas City region.Hartert, Ernst.1920. Die Vogel der palaarktischen Fauna.
454 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMHartshorn, Harold Ira.1918. Sparrow hawk and starling. Bird-Lore, vol. 20, p. 225-226.Hasbrouck, Edwin Marble.1889. Summer birds of Eastland County, Texas. Auk, vol. 6, pp. 236-241.1893. Evolution and dichromatism in the genus Megascops. Amer. Nat.,vol. 27, pp. 521-533, 638-649.Hawes, C. A.1881. Bubo virginianus. Ornithologist and Oologist, vol. 6, pp. 26-27.Helms, Otto.1926. The birds of Angmagsalik. Meddel. om Gr0nland, vol. 58, no. 4.Henderson, Archibald Douglas.1915. Nesting of the great gray owl in central Alberta. Oologist, vol. 32,pp. 2-6.1919. Nesting of the American hawk owl. Oologist, vol. 36, pp. 59-63.1923. Further notes on the nesting of the great gray owl. Oologist, vol. 40,pp. 126-127.1925. With the early breeders. Oologist, vol. 42, pp. 50-57.Henderson, Junius.1927. The practical value of birds.Hendricks, George Bartlett.1935. A duck hawk attacks four people. Auk, vol. 52, p. 446.Henninger, Walter Friedrich, and Jones, Lynds.1909. The falcons of North America. Wilson Bull., vol. 16, pp. 205-218.Henshaw, Henry Wetherbee.1875. Report upon the ornithological collections made in portions of Nevada,Utah, California, Colorado, New Mexico, and Arizona, during theyears 1871, 1872, 1873, and 1874. Wheeler's Rept. Expl. Surv.West 100th Merid., vol. 5, pp. 131-507.Hine, James Stewart.1919. Birds of the Katmai region. Ohio Journ. Sci., vol. 19, pp. 475-486.Hix, George Edward.[n. d.] The birds of prey. Privately published.Holland, Harold May.1923. Young sparrow hawks. Bird Lore, vol. 25, pp. 185-186.1926. Who would have thought it of Bubo? Bird-Lore, vol. 38, pp. 1-4.Hollister, Ned.1908. Breeding of the Acadian owl in Newton County, Indiana. Auk, vol.25, p. 221.Holman, F. C.1926. Nesting of the California pigmy owl in Yosemite. Condor, vol. 28,pp. 92-93.Horsbrugh, Charles B.1915. Ornithological notes from the Alix and Buffalo Lake districts, Provinceof Alberta, Canada. Ibis, 1915, pp. 670-689.Houseman, J. E.1894. Nesting habits of Richardson's merlin. Oologist, vol. 11, pp. 236-237.Howard, Ozra William.1895. [Nest of California pygmy owl.] Nidiologist, vol. 2, p. 153.1902. Nesting of the prairie falcon. Condor, vol. 4, pp. 57-59.Howe, Reginald Heber, Jr.1902. Notes on various Florida birds. Contr. North American Orn., vol. 1,pp. 25-32.
LITEKATURE CITED 455Howell, Alfred Brazier.1912. Notes from Todos Santos Islands. Condor, vol. 14, pp. 187-191.1916. Some results of a winter's observations in Arizona. Condor, vol. 18,pp. 209-214.Howell, Arthur Holmes.1932. Florida bird life.Hudson, William Henry.1892. The naturalist in La Plata.1920. Birds of La Plata.Huey, Laurence Markham.1913. Nesting notes from San Diego County. Condor, vol. 15, p. 228.1926a. Notes from northwestern Lower California, with the description ofan apparently new race of the screech owl. Auk, vol. 43, pp.347-362.1926b. Bats eaten by short-eared owl. Auk, vol. 43, pp. 96-97.1931. Skunks as prey for owls. Wilson Bulletin, vol. 43, p. 224.1932. Note on the food of an Arizona spotted owl. Condor, vol. 34, pp.100-101.Hunt, Richard.1918. The tragical addition of a new bird to the campus list. Condor, vol.20, pp. 125-126.Huxley, Julian Sorell.1923. Essays of a biologist.Jackson, Mrs. P. N., and Carleton, Geoffrey.1931. Screech owl and canary. Bird-Lore, vol. 33, p. 259.Jackson, Ralph Waldo.1925. Strange behavior of great horned owl in behalf of young. Auk, vol.42, p. 445.Jacobs, Joseph Warren.1920. Two species of birds use one nest. Oologist, vol. 37, p. 36.Jacot, Edouard Cesar.1931. Notes on the spotted and flammulated screech owls in Arizona. Con-dor, vol. 33, pp. 8-11.Jay, William.1923. Long-eared owls wintering at Evansburg, Pa. Auk, vol. 40, p. 533.Jensen, Jens Knudsen.1923. Notes on the nesting birds of northern Santa Fe County, New Mexico.Auk, vol. 40, pp. 452-469.Jewett, Stanley Gordon.1926. The prairie falcon in the Willamette Valley, Oregon. Condor, vol. 28,p. 98.Job, Herbert Keightley.1908. The sport of bird study.Johnson, H. C.1903. Pigmy owl in town. Condor, vol. 5, p. 81.Jones, Fred Minson.1934. The long ears of the pine grove. Oologist, vol. 51, pp. 38-39.Jung, Clarence Schram.1930. Notes on birds of the delta region of the Peace and Athabasca Rivers.Auk, vol. 47, pp. 553-541.Kaeding, Henry Barroilhet.1905. Birds from the west coast of Lower California and adjacent islands.Condor, vol. 7, pp. 134-138.
456 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMKeck, David Daniels.1925. Pigmy owl eats chipmunk. Yosemite Nature Notes, vol. 4, p. 84.Kelso, Leon.1929a. Notes on the western horned owl. Bird-Lore, vol. 31, pp. 113-115.1929b. The English sparrow and the western horned owl. Condor, vol. 31,p. 128.1930. Some night observations on the western horned owl. Condor, vol. 32,pp. 126-127.Kennard, Frederic Hedge.1915. The Okaloacoochee Slough. Auk, vol. 32, pp. 154-166.1923. An owl's egg in the nest of a western red-tailed hawk. Auk, vol.40, p. 125.Keyes, Charles Rollin.1906. Prolific duck hawks. Auk, vol. 23, pp. 99-100.1911. A history of certain great horned owls. Condor, vol. 13, pp. 5-19.(Reprinted in: Smithsonian Inst. Report for 1911, pp. 395-405, 1912.)Kimball, Henry Hungerford.1925. Pigmy owl killing a quail. Condor, vol. 27, pp. 209-210.Kitchin, Edward Alexander.1919. Nesting of the short-eared owl in western Washington. Condor, vol.21, pp. 21-25.Kleinschmidt, Otto.1917. Nomenklatorisches und Systematisches. Falco, vol. 13, pp. 9-10.Knight, Ora Willis.1908. The birds of Maine.Koelz, Walter.1929. On a collection of gyrfalcons from Greenland. Wilson Bull., vol. 41,pp. 207-219.KUMLIEN, LUDWIG.1879. Contributions to the natural history of Arctic America, made in con-nection with the Howgate Polar Expedition, 1877-78. U. S. Nat.Mus. Bull. 15.1899. Habits of young short-eared owls. Osprey, vol. 3, pp. 69-70.Kumlien, Ludwig, and Hollister, Ned.1903. The birds of Wisconsin.Labitte, Andre.1932. Reproduction du faucon cresserelle. L'Oiseau, new ser., vol. 2, p. 373.Lacey, Howard.1911. The birds of Kerrville, Texas, and vicinity. Auk, vol. 28, pp. 200-219.Laing, Hamilton Mack.1935. Notes on the black pigeon hawk. Auk, vol. 52, pp. 305-307.Lamb, Chester Converse.1927. The birds of Natividad Island, Lower California. Condor, vol. 29,.pp. 67-70.Langille, James Hibbard.1884. Our birds and their haunts.Law, John Eugene.1915. A remarkable flight of sparrow hawks. Condor, vol. 17, p. 131.Lawrence, Alexander George.1932. New Manitoba nesting records. Free Press Evening Bulletin, Winni-peg, May 27, 1932.
LITERATURE CITED 457Lawrence, George Newbold.1874. The birds of western and northwestern Mexico, based upon collectionsmade by Col. A. J. Grayson, Capt. J. Xantus, and Ferd. Bischoff,now in the Museum of the Smithsonian Institution, at Washington,D. C. Mem. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 2, pp. 265-319.Lawrence, Robert Hoe.1892. Further notes on birds of Gray's Harbor region, Washington. Auk,vol. 9, pp. 352-357.Lawson, Ralph.1930. The stoop of a hawk. Bull. Essex County Orn. Club, 1930, pp. 79-80.Leigh, A. Geoffrey.1911. On the development of a young kestrel. British Birds, vol. 4, pp.298-303.Leopold, Aldo.1923. The 'following' habit in hawks and owls. Condor, vol. 25, p. 180.Lewis, Harrison Flint.1922. Notes on some Labrador birds. Auk, vol. 39, pp. 507-516.Ligon, James Stokley.1926. Habits of the spotted owl (Syrnium occidentale) . Auk, vol. 43, pp.421-429.Lindsay, Robert Vince.1928. A Richardson's owl at Toronto. Canadian Field-Nat., vol. 42, p. 209.Lippincott, Joseph W.1917. The barn owl's voice. Bird-Lore, vol. 19, p. 275.Little, Robert.1931. Great horned owl, Bubo virginianus. Cardinal, vol. 3, pp. 17-18.Lord, John Keast.1866. The naturalist in Vancouver Island and British Columbia.Lord, William Rogers.1913. Birds of Oregon and Washington.Lowe, Willoughby Prescott.1895. Low nesting sites of Bubo. Nidiologist, vol. 2, p. 169.Lyon, William Isaac.1922. Owl kidnaps young flickers. Wilson Bull., vol. 34, pp. 230-231.MacFarlane, Roderick Ross.1891. Notes on and list of birds and eggs collected in Arctic America, 1861-1S66. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 14, pp. 413-446.1908. List of birds and eggs observed and collected in the North-west Terri-tories of Canada, between 1880 and 1894. Through the MackenzieBasin, by Charles Mair.Macoun, John.1909. Catalogue of Canadian birds. Ed. 2.MacSwain, J.1908. A catalogue of the birds of Prince Edward Island. Proc. and Trans.Nova Scotia Inst. Sci., vol. 11, pp. 570-592.Magee, Michael Jarden.1932. A gyrfalcon (Falco rusticolus candicans) at Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan.Auk, vol. 49, pp. 216-217.Mailliard, Joseph.1922. A pigmy owl bathing. Condor, vol. 24, pp. 31-32.1924. Autobiography of Joseph Mailliard. Condor, vol. 26, pp. 10-29.1926. A California pigmy owl bathes. Condor, vol. 28, p. 171.13751?38 30
458 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMManniche, Arner Ludvig Valdemar.1910. The terrestrial mammals and birds of north-east Greenland. Meddel.om Gr0nland, vol. 45, no. 1, pp. 1-199.Mathew, Murray Alexander.1882. Two kestrels laying in the same nest. Zoologist, vol. 6, pp. 267-268.May, John Bichard.1927. Nestling sparrow hawks. Bull. Northeastern Bird-banding Assoc,vol. 3, p. 20.1935. The hawks of North America.McBee, C. E.1927. Notes on the food of the burrowing owl. Murrelet, vol. 8, p. 48.McCabe, Thomas Tonkin, and McCabe, Elinor Bolles.1928. Notes on certain injured birds. Condor, vol. 30, pp. 190-191.McIlwraith, Thomas.1894. The birds of Ontario. Ed. 2.McLean, Donald Dudley.1930. The speed of flight in certain birds. Gull, vol. 12, no. 3.Mearns, Edgar Alexander.1890. Observations on the avifauna of portions of Arizona. Auk, vol. 7,pp. 45-55.1892. A study of the sparrow hawks (subgenus Tinnunculus) of Americawith especial reference to the continental species (Falco sparveriusLinn.). Auk, vol. 9, pp. 252-270.Merriam, Clinton Hart.1877. A review of the birds of Connecticut, with remarks on their habits.Trans. Connecticut Acad., vol. 4, pp. 1-150.1882. List of birds ascertained to occur within ten miles from Point de Monts,Province of Quebec, Canada; based chiefly upon the notes ofNapoleon A. Comeau. Bull. Nuttall Orn. Club, vol. 7, pp. 233-242.1890. Results of a biological survey of the San Francisco Mountain regionand desert of the Little Colorado in Arizona. North Amer.Fauna, no. 3.1891. Results of a biological reconnoissance of south-central Idaho. NorthAmer. Fauna, no. 5.1898. Syrnium occidenlale caurinum, a new owl from the Puget Soundregion. Auk, vol. 15, pp. 39-40.Merrill, James Cushing.1878. Notes on the ornithology of southern Texas, being a list of birdsobserved in the vicinity of Fort Brown, Texas, from February,1876, to June, 1878. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 1, pp. 118-173.Michael, Charles Wilson.1933. The California spotted owl in Yosemite Valley, California. Condor,vol. 35, pp. 202-203.Millais, John Guille.1892. Game birds and shooting-sketches.Miller, Alden Holmes.1935. Some breeding birds of the Pine Forest Mountains, Nevada. Auk,vol. 52, pp. 467-468.Miller, Loye.1928. The sahuaro screech owl in California. Condor, vol. 30, p. 192.1930. The territorial concept in the horned owl. Condor, vol. 32, pp. 290-291.
LITERATURE CITED 459Miller, Richard Fields.1923.. The saw-whet owl in spring at Philadelphia, Pa. Auk, vol. 40, p. 124.Minot, Henry Davis.1877. The land and game birds of New England.Munro, James Alexander.1918. Short-eared owl (Asio flammeus) eating birds. Auk, vol. 35, p. 223.1919. Notes on some birds of the Okanagan Valley, British Columbia. Auk,vol. 3G, pp. 64-74.1929. Notes on the food habits of certain Raptores in British Columbia andAlberta. Condor, vol. 31, pp. 112-116.1936. Asiatic gyrfalcon in Okanagan Valley, British Columbia. Condor,vol. 38, p. 172.Murdoch, John.1877. The pigeon hawk (Falco columbarius) at sea. Bull. Nuttall Orn.Club, vol. 2, p. 79.1885. Report of the international Polar expedition to Point Barrow, Alaska.Part 4: Natural history.Murie, Olaus Johan.1929. Nesting of the snowy owl. Condor, vol. 31, pp. 3-12.Neilson, James Alexander.1930. Western great horned owl. Oologist, vol. 47, pp. 53-54.Nelson, Edward William.1887. Report upon natural history collections made in Alaska. U. S.Signal Service, Arctic ser., no. 3.1903. Descriptions of new birds from southern Mexico. Proc. Biol. Soc.Washington, vol. 16, pp. 151-160.Nicholson, Donald John.1926. Horned owl shrewdness and ferocity. Oologist, vol. 43, p. 14.1928. The Audubon caracara of Florida. Oologist, vol. 45, pp. 2-8.1929. The Audubon caracara. Florida Nat., vol. 2, pp. 67-69.Norton, Arthur Herbert.1907. Recent capture of a jerfalcon at Portland, Me., and review of localrecords of the group. Journ. Maine Orn. Soc, vol. 9, pp. 18-20.1928. Watching a pair of great horned owls. Maine Nat., vol. 8, pp.^3-16.Nuttall, Thomas.1832. A manual of the ornithology of the United States and Canada.Oberholser, Harry Church.1904. A revision of the American great horned owls. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus.,vol. 27, pp. 177-192.1915. Critical notes on the subspecies of the spotted owl, Strix occidentalis(Xantus). Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 49, pp. 251-257.1922. Notes on North American birds, XI. Auk, vol. 39, pp. 72-78.Ogilvie, Fergus Menteith.1920. Field observations on British birds.Osgood, Wilfred Hudson.1901. Natural history of the Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia.North Amer. Fauna, no. 21, pp. 7-38.Paton, E. Richmond.1917. Some notes on the breeding-habits of the merlin. British Birds,vol. 11, pp. 29-30.Patton, F. A.1926. Burrowing owls, horned larks. Oologist, vol. 43, p. 14.
460 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMPeabody, Putnam Burton.1899. Richardson's owl. Bird-Lore, vol. 1, pp. 190-192.1907. The prairie falcons of Saddle-back Butte. Condor, vol. 9, pp. 180-184.Pearson, Thomas Gilbert; Brimley, Clement Samuel; and Brimley,Herbert Hutchinson.1919. Birds of North Carolina.Pemberton, John Roy, and Carriger, Henry Ward.1915. A partial list of the summer resident land birds of Monterey County,California. Condor, vol. 17, pp. 189-201.Peters, James Lee.1926. The North American races of Falco columbarius. Bull. Essex CountyOrn. Club, 1926.1931. Check-list of birds of the world. Vol. 1.Peyton, Laurence Gorham.1910. Nesting of the spotted owl in northeastern Los Angeles County,California. Condor, vol. 12, pp. 122-123.Phillips, E. Cambridge.1908. Birds. In: A history of Herefordshire, vol. 1, pp. 13-148.Pierce, Wright McEwen.1915. Miscellaneous records from southern California. Condor, vol. 17,pp. 166-167.Pleske, Theodore.1928. Birds of the Eurasian tundra. Mem. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 6,no. 3, pp. 107-485.Potter, Julian K., and Gillespie, John Arthur.1925. Observations on the domestic behavior of the barn owl Tyto pratincola.Auk, vol. 42, pp. 177-192.Preble, Edward Alexander.1902. A biological investigation of the Hudson Bay region. North Amer.Fauna, no. 22.1908. A biological investigation of the Athabaska-Mackenzie region.North Amer. Fauna, no. 27.1930. Our owls in fable and fact. Nature Mag., vol. 15, pp. 143-148, 188-189.Purdie, Henry Augustus.1879. MacFarlane's gerfalcon (Falco gyrfalco sacer) in Maine. Bull. NuttallOrn. Club, vol. 4, pp. 188-189.Racey, Kenneth.1926. Notes on the birds observed in the Alta Lake region, B. C. Auk,vol. 43, pp. 319-325.Raine, Walter.1896. Nidification of the dusky horned owl. Auk, vol. 13, p. 257.Rawson, Calvin Luther.1883. Among the Buteos. Ornithologist and Oologist, vol. 8, pp. 17-18.Red Eagle, Chief.1929. A glimpse of owl life. Bird-Lore, vol. 31, pp. 261-262.Reed, Bessie Price.1925. Growth development and reactions of young great horned owls. Auk,vol. 42, pp. 14-31.Reed, James Harris.1897. Notes on the American barn owl in eastern Pennsylvania. Auk,vol. 14, pp. 374-383.Reid, Savile Grey.1884. The birds of Bermuda. U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 25, pp. 163-279.
LITERATURE CITED 461Rhoads, Samuel Nicholson.1892. The breeding habits of the Florida burrowing owl (Speotyto cuniculariafloridana). Auk, vol. 9, pp. 1-8.Richardson, Charles Howard, Jr.1906. Cannibalism in owls. Condor, vol. 8, p. 57.Ridgway, Robert.1870. A new classification of the North American Falconidae, with descrip-tions of three new species. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia,vol. 22, pp. 138-150.1876. Ornithology of Guadeloupe Island, based on notes and collectionsmade by Dr. Edward Palmer. Bull. Hayden U. S. Surv. Terr.,vol. 2, pp. 183-195.1877. United States geological exploration of the fortieth parallel, vol. 4.Part 3: Ornithology, pp. 303-667.1878. Three additions to the avifauna of North America. Bull. Nuttall Orn.Club, vol. 3, pp. 37-38.1880a. Revisions of nomenclature of certain North American birds. Proc.U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 3, pp. 1-16.1880b. Description of the adult plumage of Hierfalco gyrfalco obsolelus.Bull. Nuttall Orn. Club, vol. 5, pp. 92-95.1886. A nomenclature of color for naturalists.1887. A manual of North American birds.1889. The ornithology of Illinois. Vol. 1.1912. Color standards and color nomenclature.1914. The birds of North and Middle America. Part 6.Roberts, Thomas Sadler.1932. The birds of Minnesota. Vol. 1.1936. Great gray owl, Scotiaptex nebulosa nebulosa, nesting in Minnesota.Journ. Minnesota Orn., vol. 1, pp. 65-66.Robertson, John McBrair.1925. Further notes on screech owls at Buena Park. Condor, vol. 27, pp.35-36.1929. Some observations on the feeding habits of the burrowing owl. Con-dor, vol. 31, pp. 38-39.Rockwell, Robert Blanchard.1907. Some Colorado notes on the Rocky Mountain screech owl. Condor,vol. 9, pp. 140-145.1908. Nesting of the western horned owl in Colorado. Condor, vol. 10,pp. 14-17.1909. The use of magpies' nests by other birds. Condor, vol. 11, pp. 90-92.Rockwell. Robert Blanchard, and Blickensderfer, Clark.1921. Glimpses of the home life of the saw-whet owl. Nat. Hist., vol. 21,pp. 628-638.Roosevelt, Theodore.1904. Wilderness reserves. In: American big game and its haunts.Rowan, William.1921-22. Observations on the breeding-habits of the merlin. British Birds,vol. 15, pp. 122-129, 194-202, 222-231, 246-253.Rubey, William Walden.1927. Barred owls nesting in box near Washington, D. C. Bird-Lore, vol.29, pp. 408-409.Rtjhl, H. D.1926. Banding barred owls. Wilson Bull., vol. 38, p. 175.
462 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMSaunders, Aretas Andrews.1913. Some notes on the nesting of the short-eared owl. Condor, vol. 15,pp. 121-125.1921. A distributional list of the birds of Montana. Pacific Coast Avifauna,no. 14.Saunders, William Edwin.1907. A migration disaster in western Ontario. Auk, vol. 24, pp. 108-110.Saxby, Henry Linckmyer.1874. The birds of Shetland.SCHI0LER, ElLER LeHN.1931. Danmarks fugle. Vol. 3: Rovfugle.SCHORGER, ARLIE WlLLIAM.1926. Richardson's owl (Cryptoglaux funerea richardsoni) in Cook County,Minnesota. Auk, vol. 43, p. 544.Schuster, Ludwig.1928. Hirstbeobuchtungen in beitrage zur Fortpflanzungs biologie der Vogel.SCHUTZE, ADOLPH EMIL.1904. Nesting habits of the caracara. Condor, vol. 6, pp. 106-108.Sclater, William Lutley.1912. A history of the birds of Colorado.Scott, William Earl Dodge.1886. On the avifauna of Pinal County, with remarks on some birds of Pimaand Gila Counties, Arizona. Auk, vol. 3, pp. 421-432.1892. Notes on the birds of the Caloosahatchie region of Florida. Auk,vol. 9, pp. 209-218.Seebohm, Henry.1883. A history of British birds.Sennett, George Burritt.1878. Notes on the ornithology of the lower Rio Grande of Texas. Bull.U. S. Geol. and Geogr. Surv., vol. 4, pp. 1-66.1879. Further notes on the ornithology of the lower Rio Grande of Texas.Bull. U. S. Geol. and Geogr. Surv., vol. 5, pp. 371-440.1889. First description of the egg of Glaucidium phalaenoides, ferruginouspygmy owl. Auk, vol. 6, pp. 70-71.Seton, Ernest Thompson.1890. The birds of Manitoba. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 13, pp. 457-643.1911. The Arctic prairies.Sharp, Clarence Sauger.1907. The breeding birds of Escondido. Condor, vol. 9, pp. 84-91.Sherman, Althea Rosina.1911. Nest life of the screech owl. Auk, vol. 28, pp. 155-168.1913. The nest life of the sparrow hawk. Auk, vol. 30, pp. 406-418.Silloway, Perley Milton.1901. A handsome little owl. Oologist, vol. 18, pp. 85-S7.1903. Additional notes on summer birds of Flathead Lake.Simmons, George Finlay.1915. On the nesting of certain birds in Texas. Auk, vol. 32, pp. 317-331.1925. Birds of the Austin region.Smyth, Ellison Adger, Jr.1912. Birds observed in Montgomery County, Virginia. Auk, vol. 29,pp. 508-530.Snyder, Lester Lynne.1928. A faunal survey of the Lake Abitibi region, Ontario. Contr. RoyalOntario Mus. Zool., no. 2.
LITERATURE CITED 463Soper, Joseph Dewey.1918. Flight of horned owls in Canada. Auk, vol. 35, pp. 478-479.Sprunt, Alexander, Jr.1932. The barn owl (Aluco alba pratincola) at sea. Auk, vol. 49, p. 86.Stearns, Y/infrid Alden.1883. New England bird life. (Edited by Elliott Coues.)Steidl, John.1928. Sparrow hawk killing young chickens. Auk, vol. 45, p. 503.Stejneger, Leonhard.1885. Results of ornithological explorations in the Commander Islands and inKamtschatka. U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 29.Stephens, Frank.1892. Notes on Syrnium occidentals Auk, vol. 9, pp. 392-393.Stockard, Charles Rupert.1905. Nesting habits of birds in Mississippi. Auk, vol. 22, pp. 146-158.Stoner, Emerson Austin.1934. A parasitic fly on horned owls. Oologist, vol. 51, pp. 4-5.Strecker, John Kern, Jr.1894. The breeding habits of Audubon's caracara. Nidiologist, vol. 2, p. 6.Sugden, John William.1928. A nest site of the western horned owl in Utah. Condor, vol. 30,pp. 324-325.Sumner, Eustace Lowell, Jr.1928. Notes on the development of young screech owls. Condor, vol. 30,pp. 333-338.1929. Comparative studies in the growth of young Raptores. Condor, vol.31, pp. 85-111.1933. The growth of some young raptorial birds. Univ. California Publ.Zool., vol. 40, pp. 277-307.1934. The behavior of some young raptorial birds. Univ. California Publ.Zool., vol. 40, pp. 331-362.Sumner, Florence Anne.1933. Young sparrow hawks and a screech owl in the same nest. Condor,vol. 35, pp. 231-232.Surface, Harvey Adam.1904. The economic value of our native birds. Zool. Quart. Bull. Penn-sylvania Dept. Agr., vol. 1, no. 4.Sutton, George Miksch.1926. Long-eared owl capturing ruffed grouse. Auk, vol. 43, pp. 236-237.1927. Ruffed grouse captured by a screech owl. Wilson Bull., vol. 39, p. 171.1928. The birds of Pymatuning Swamp and Conneaut Lake, CrawfordCounty, Pennsylvania. Ann. Carnegie Mus., vol. 18, pp. 19-239.1929a. Does the great horned owl have a poor memory? Wilson Bull.,vol. 41, pp. 247-248.1929b. Insect-catching tactics of the screech owl (Otus asio). Auk, vol. 46,pp. 545-546.1932. The birds of Southampton Island. Mem. Carnegie Mus., vol. 12,pt. 2, sect, 2.Swainson, William, and Richardson, John.1831. Fauna Boreali-Americana. Vol. 2: Birds.Swann, Harry Kirke.1925-1936. A monograph of the birds of prey.
464 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMSwarth, Harry Schelwaldt.1904. Birds of the Huachuca Mountains, Arizona. Pacific Coast Avi-fauna, no. 4.1910a. Miscellaneous records from southern California and Arizona. Con-dor, vol. 12, pp. 107-110.1910b. Two new owls from Arizona. Univ. California Publ. Zool., vol. 7.pp. 1-8.1912. Report on a collection of birds and mammals fiom Vancouver Island.Univ. California Publ. Zool., vol. 10, pp. 1-24.1913. Note on the Guadalupe caracara. Condor, vol. 15, pp. 228-229.1916. The sahuaro screech owl as a recognizable race. Condor, vol. 18,pp. 163-165.1924. Fall migration notes from the San Francisco Mountain region, Ari-zona. Condor, vol. 26, pp. 183-190.1930. Notes on the avifauna of the Atlin region, British Columbia. Condor..vol. 32, pp. 216-217.1933. Peale falcon in California. Condor, vol. 35, pp. 233-234.1935. Systematic status of some northwestern birds. Condor, vol. 37,pp. 199-204.Taverner, Percy Algernon.1919a. The birds of Red Deer River, Alberta. Auk, vol. 36, pp. 1-21.1919b. Birds of eastern Canada.1926. Birds of western Canada.Taverner, Percy Algernon, and Swales, Bradshaw Hall.1907. The birds of Point Pelee. Wilson Bull., vol. 19, pp. 39-53, 82-99.1911. Notes on the migration of the saw-whet owl. Auk, vol. 28, pp.329-334.Taylor, Henry Reed.1888. Nesting of the pigeon hawk. Ornithologist and Oologist, vol. 13, p. 185.1894. A day with the Raptores. Nidiologist, vol. 2, p. 4.Taylor, Walter Penn, and Shaw, William Thomas.1927. Mammals and birds of Mount Rainier National Park.Terrill, Lewis McIver.1931. Nesting of the saw-whet owl (Cryptoglaux acadica acadica) in theMontreal district. Auk, vol. 48, pp. 169-174.Thaxter, Celia.1875. Among the Isles of Shoals. Atlantic Monthly, vol. 25, pp. 204-213.Thayer, John Eliot, and Bangs, Outram.1908. The present status of the ornis of Guadaloupe Island. Condor, vol.10, pp. 101-106.Ticehurst, Claud Buchanan.1932. The history of the birds of Suffolk.Townsend, Charles Haskins.1887. Field notes on the mammals, birds, and reptiles of northern California.Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 10, pp. 159-241.Townsend, Charles Wendell.1905. The birds of Essex County, Massachusetts.1918. Ipswich bird notes. Auk, vol. 35, pp. 182-185.1920. Supplement to the birds of Essex County, Massachusetts.1925. Richardson's owl at Grand Manan, New Brunswick. Auk, vol. 42,pp. 131-132.1926. Findings in pellets of barn owl. Auk, vol. 43, p. 544.1930. Pursuit and capture by birds of prey. Bull. Essex County Orn. Club,1930, pp. 55-61.
LITERATURE CITED 465Treganza, Antwonet.1914. Glimpses of bird life in Utah. Oologist, vol. 31, pp. 146-150.Truesdale, Fred.1910. Prairie falconing. Oologist, vol. 27, p. 52.Tufts, Robie Wilfrid.1925. Nesting of Richardson's owl. Canadian Field-Nat., vol. 39, pp. 85-86.Turner, Lucien McShan.1886. Contributions to the natural history of Alaska. Part 5: Birds.Tuttle, Henry Emerson.1920. The screech owl. Bird-Lore, vol. 22, pp. 265-269.Tyler, John Gripper.1913. Some birds of the Fresno district, California. Pacific Coast Avifauna.no. 9.1923. Observations on the habits of the prairie falcon. Condor, vol. 25, pp.90-97.Urner, Charles Anderson.1921. Short-eared owl nesting at Elizabeth, N. J. Auk, vol. 38, pp. 602-603.1923. Notes on the short-eared owl. Auk, vol. 40, pp. 30-36.1925. Notes on two ground-nesting birds of prey. Auk, vol. 42, pp. 31-41.Ussher, Richard John, and Warren, Robert.1900. The birds of Ireland.Van Rossem, Adbiaan Joseph.1936. Notes on birds in relation to the faunal areas of south-central Arizona.Trans. San Diego Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 8, pp. 121-146.Vennor, Henry George.1S76. Our birds of prey, or the eagles, hawks, and owls of Canada,Verrill, Alpheus Hyatt.1905. Additions to the avifauna of Dominica.Ward, William B.1934. Owls on a Louisiana highway. Auk, vol. 51, p. 236.Warren, Benjamin Harry.1890. Report on the birds of Pennsylvania.Warren, Edward Royal.1911. Some Colorado horned owl notes. Condor, vol. 13, pp. 153-156.1916. Notes on the birds of the Elk Mountain region, Gunnison County,Colorado. Auk, vol. 33, pp. 292-317.Wayne, Arthur Trezevant.1910. Birds of South Carolina.Wetmore, Alexander.1933. The eagle, king of birds, and his kin. Nat. Geogr. Mag., vol. 64.pp. 43-95.Wheelock, Irene Grosvenor.1904. Birds of California.Whitfield, Mrs. C. J.1934. A screech owl captured by a snake. Condor, vol. 36, p. 84.Whittle, Helen Granger.1923. Richardson's owl (Cryptoglaux funerea richardsoni) in Cohasset, Mass.Auk, vol. 40, pp. 325-326.Widmann, Otto.1907. A preliminary catalogue of the biros of Missouri.Wilkinson, G. Norman.1913. Horned owl killing a skunk. Bird-Lore, vol. 15, p. 369.
13751-38 31
466 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMWillard, Francis Cottle.1909. The flammulated screech owl. Condor, vol. 11, pp. 199-202.1916. Nesting of the band-tailed pigeon in southern Arizona. Condor, vol.18, pp. 110-112.Willett, George.1912. Birds of the Pacific slope of southern California. Pacific CoastAvifauna, no. 7.Williams, H. V.1926. Birds of the Red River Valley of north eastern North Dakota. WilsonBull., vol. 38, pp. 91-110.Wilson, Leo K.1925. Pigmy owl feeds his wife. Yosemite Nature Notes, vol. 4, p. 47.Wilson, Ralph R.1925. Screech owl and martins nest in same box. Bird-Lore, vol. 27, p. 109.Winge, Herltjf.1898. Gr0nlands fugle.Winson, John William.1926a. Mephistopheles in feathers. Rod and Gun, vol. 28, p. 274.1926b. Noble birds of prey. Rod and Gun in Canada, vol. 27, p. 756.Witherby, Harry Forbes, and others.1924. A practical handbook of British birds.Wolfe, Lloyd Raymond.1923. Richardson's owl in New York. Auk, vol. 40, pp. 693-694.Wolfe, Ray.1912. The western horned owl in western Kansas Oologist, vol. 29, pp.222-224.Wood, John Claire.1907. The short-eared owl and Savanna sparrow breeding in Wayne County,Michigan. Auk, vol. 24, pp. 97-98.WORTHINGTON, WlLLIS WOODFORD.1893. Short-eared owl nesting on Plum Island, New York, Auk, vol. 10,p. 301.Wright, George Melendez.1932. A bat-eating sparrow hawk. Condor, vol. 34, p. 43.Wyman, Luther Everet, and Burnell, Elizabeth Frayer.1925. Field book of birds of the Southwestern United States.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 1
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 2
July 20, 1932. C. T. Dalgety.About two months old.
Swedish Lapland, June 2, 1932. C. T. Dalgety.Downy young in nest.Young Gyrfalcons.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 3
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 4
.r
?^"O J
? - <i S13 UJC >ns ?
-S 50 <=g - uI 3
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 5
Dragoon Mountains, Ariz., April 8, 1922.Nesting site in right-hand peak.
Mojave Desert, Calif., April 17, 1929. Nesting site in crevice.Prairie Falcon.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 6
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 7
m? - ^
.
'*...*-? J
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE
Twentv-three davs old.
San Joaquin Valley, Calif. F. H. FowlThirty-three days old.Young Prairie Falcons.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 9
ft
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 10
Adams County, Colo., June ly3S. Adult and young.
Weld County, Colo., May 1931 A. M. Bailey and R. J. Niedrach.Courtesy Chicago Academy of Sciences and Colorado Museum of Natural History.Albino adult.Prairie Falcons.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 11
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 12
Picturesque nesting site.
Taughannock Falls, N. Y., May 10, 1925.Adult brooding.Duck Hawks.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 13
Southern California. W. \[. Pierce.Nest of Duck Hawk.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 14
Near Dartmouth, N. H.. June 13, 1931. C. A. Proctor.Female feeding youm
Near Dartmouth, N. H., June 29, 1931. Fledgling.Duck Hawks. C. A. Proctor.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 151
Near Dartmouth, N. H., July 8, 1931.Last young about to leave. C. A. Proctor.
Near Dartmouth, N. H., June 2, 1931. C. A. Proctor.Male brooding.Duck Hawks.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 16
Eskimo Island, Quebec Labrador, June 7, 190V.Two Views of Nest of Eastern Pigeon Hawk. A. C. Bent.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 17
Matane County, Quebec, Julj 2. L932.Downv
'
I p3ail, Xc I, Tun. 19, L912 Xes: unci.Eastern Pigeon Hawk.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 1{& :>-
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 19
<?
*
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 20
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 21
Hernando County. Fla., April V'. L92S.Nest site of little sparrow Hawk. A. C. Bent.
Vero Beach Road, Fla., March SO, 1936. W. A. SmitlNest site of Audubon's Caracara.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 22
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 23
Osceola County. Fla., February 25, 1935.Nest seven feet up in saw palmetti S. A. Grimes.
Osceola County, Fla., February 25, 1935.Young in ju venal plumage.AUDUBON'S CARACARA. S. A. Giimes.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 24
WMF **i^
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 25
Cameron County, Tex., May 24, 1923. Nesting site. A. C. Bent.
Osceola County, Fla., March 16, 1935. Adult.AUDUBON'S CARACARA. S. A. Grimes.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 26
.
' : t$
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 27
Near Savannah, Ga. I. k. INesting site in steel box below the light.
Westville, X. J., May ". 1924. J. K. INesting site in abandoned water tower.Barn Owl.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 28
West Haven, Conn., November 20, 1912. H. K. Job.Adult.
San Bernardino County, Calif., April 2, 1916.Xest in tree cavity, cut open.Barn Owl. \V. M. Pierce.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 29
VVestville, N. J., Maj 7, L924.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 30
San Jose, Calif., March 12, 1928.Nest in window casement of a tower. G. B. Pickwell.
San Jose, Calif., April 5, 1928 G. B. PickweliAdult with pocket gopher for the young.BARN OWLS.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 31
Crane Lai - wan, June : . 1 OS. A. C. Bent.Nest of Long-eared Owl in Old Nest of Ferruginous Roughleg.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 32
Xest in old crow's nest.
Near Kansas City, Mo. Brood of downy young.LONG-EARED OWLS. A. H. Cordier.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 33
Hennepin C S. A. Grimes.Fledglings at different ages.
** r*
Hennepin County, Minn., June 1921. S. A. IYoung in defense reaction.LONG-EARED OWLS.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 34
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 35
Near Winnipeg. Manitoba. A. G. I awn ceAdult on nest.
Salt Lake City, Utah, May II, 1929. Defense reaction.LONG-EARED OWLS. r.w.su
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 36
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 37
Teton County, Mom., June 13, 1918.Short-eared Owl's Nest in Wheat stubble. A. I). DuBois.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 38
Utah County, Utah, April 24, 1926. R. G. Bee.
Estlin, Saskatchewan. W. A. Goelitz.Nests of short-eared owls.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 39
-ft
^ '? " --Ma
Teton County, Mont., June 13, 1
19 ?^'
"%
A. I). DuBois.Adult on nest.
Teton County, Mont., June 2 : . 1 A. D. DuBois.g of different ages.Short-eared Owls.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 40
Delta. Manitoba, May 23, 1927. A. B. Gresham.Large downv yount
2j : -* I
? w v#fc*.Marthas Vineyard, Mass., May 25, 1899.Young in juvenal plumage.Short-eared Owls. O. Diirfee.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 41
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 42
Middleboro, Mass., March 23, 1902. 0. Durfee.Where the author was trapped.
Taunton, Mass., May 2, 19C Adult on nest.Nesting of Northern Barred Owls.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 43
Taunton, Mass., April 8, 1905.NESTS OF NORTHERN BARRED OWLS. A. C. Bent.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 44
Wayne County, Micl J. B. Purd>Nest of Northern Barred Owl.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 45
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 46
Genesee County, Mich., May 3, 1927. B. East.Of different ages.
Bridgewater, Mass., May 26, 1924.YOUNG NORTHERN BARRED OWLS.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 47
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 48
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 49
Duval County, !'l.... M S. A. < 'Adult at nest.
Duval County, Fla., February 5, 1931.Nests of Florida barred owls.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 50
'-4; v^4mft*7
w.WV"?'TV.-\'entura County, Calif., April 1, 1929.Adult on nest, lower center.
Canyon nesting site.Nesting of California spotted Owl.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 51
?#- ?j^-
New Mexico, April 9, 1925. 3Mexican spotted Owl and nest.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 5:
Claremont, Calif. W. M. Pierce.
New Mexico. J. S. Ligon.Spotted Owls.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 53
.Near Belvedere, Alberta, March 23, 1913. A. I). HenderNesting site and Nest of Great Gray Owl.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 54
\
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 55
Near Fairbanks. Alaska, June 23, 1922Courtesy U. S. Biological Survey. O. J. Murie.Nesting site of Great gray Owl.
Ne Winnipeg, Manil vl 'A 1932. A.G.Lawrence.YOUNG RICHARDSON'S OWLS IN JUVENAL PLUMAGE
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLAT E 56
f
'
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 57
Taunton, Mass., April 10, 1911 C. S. Day interviewing the owl.NESTING SITE OF SAW-WHET OWL.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 58
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 59
Chambly. Quebec, July 9, 1927 L. M. Terrill.Ten to twenty-one davs old.
Lac La Nonne, Alberta, June 25, 1924, In juvenal plumage.Young saw-whet owls. R. II. Ranch.
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U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 62
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U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 63
Orange County, Fla., April 14, L932. W. H. Nicholson.NESTING STUB AND OPENED NEST OF FLORIDA SCREECH OWL
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 64
Pensacola, Fla. Nesting site in low stub.
Oak Lodge, Fla., April 24, 1902.Nesting site in dead palmetto.Nesting of Florida screech Owl.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM
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Claremont, Calif., May 5, IS F.. L. Sumner, Jr.Recentlv hatched.
it, Calif., M Averaging 30 days old.YOUNG PASADENA SCREECH OWLS.
U. S NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 68
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Taunton, Mass., March 4, 1906.TWO VIEWS OF SAME NEST OF GREAT HORNED OWL. A. C. Bent.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 70
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Mount Vernon, Iowa. C. R. Keyes.NESTING SITE AND NEST OF GREAT HORNED OWL.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 71
Nashville, Tenn. H. S. Vaughn.Nest in Cumberland River bluffs.
Branchport, Nest on a cliff.Nests of Great Horned Owls. V. Burtch.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 72
Raynham, Mass., April 14, 1907. A. C. Bent.Two to four days old.
Middleboro, Mass., April 14, 1907. Averaging about nine days old.Young Great Horned Owls. A. C. Bent.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 73
Raynham, Mass., May 12, 1907.Young on ground, averaging about 30 days old. A. C. Bent.
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U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 74
Middleboro, Mass., May 5, 1907 A. C. Bent.Young in nest, about four weeks old.
Mount Vernon, Iowa. C. R. Keyes.Young 41, 43, and 45 days old.Great Horned Owls.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 75
Duval County, Fla., February 15, I 1 S. A. Grimes.Adult on nest.
Duval County, Fla., April 9, 1930.Young about ready to leave nest.Great Horned Owls.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 76
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U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 77
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U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 79
Swedish Lapland, June 7, 1924.NEST SITE AND NEST OF SNOWY OWL. J. II. McNeil
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 80
Swedish Lapland, June 11, 1924. J. H. McNeile.Nest of snowy Owl.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 81
Southampton Island. G. M. Sutton.Nest surrounded by snow.
Nome, Alaska. A. M. Bailey.Young in white natal down.snowy Owls.
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irunswick, Maine, November 21, 1926. A. O. Gross.PAIR OF CAPTIVE ADULT SNOWY OWLS, FEMALE ABOVE. MALE BELOW.
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 84
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 170 PLATE 85
Belvedere, Alberta, June 22, 1924.Young in juvenal plumage. R. H. Ranch.
Sault Ste. Marie, Mich., September 27, 1926.Captive adult.American Hawk Owls. K. Christofferson.
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Bassinger, Fla., March 20, 192S. A. C. Bent.Adult on nest mound.
Nesting site.Florida Burrowing Owl. D. J. Nicholson.
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Osceola County, Fla., April 15, 1932. W. H. Nicholson.Adult on nest.
Osceola Cou W. II. Nicholson.Young in ju venal plumageFlorida Burrowing Owls.
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Brownsville, Oreg. L. L. Haskin.Young in juvenal plumage.
Dayton, Wash. S. H. Lyman.Captive adult.California Pygmy Owls.
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Dayton, Wash. S. H. Lyman.CAPTIVE ADULT CALIFORNIA PYGMY OWL.
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INDEX
Abbott, C. G., 136.on burrowing owl, 391.Abbott, Samuel, 217.acadica, Crvptoglaux acadica, 228Nyctala, 242.acadica acadica, Cryptoglaux, 228.acadica brooksi, Cryptoglaux, 242.acadica scotaea, Nyctala, 242.aesalon, Falco, 8G.Falco aesalon, 90.aesalon aesalon, Falco, 90.aesalon insignis, Falco, 95.aesalon pallidus, Falco, 95.aesalon subaesalon, Falco, 90, 95.Agersborg, G. S., on western burrowingowl, 393.Aiken, C. A., 201.Aiken, C. E. H., on Aiken's screech owl,276, 277.on California spotted owl, 207.Aiken, C. E. H., and Warren, E. R.,on Aiken's screech owl, 276.aikeni, Otus asio, 261, 270, 274, 275.Aiken's screech owl, 275.alba pratincola, Tyto, 140.albescens, Strix varia, 201.alfred-edmundi, Falco, 90.algistus, Bubo virginianus, 321, 344, 346.Allen, A. A., on eastern screech owl,248, 251, 253.Allen, A. A., and Knight, H. K., onduck hawk, 51, 55.Allen, C. A., on Rocky Mountain pvgmyowl, 407.Alien, F. H., on eastern screech owl, 256.on eastern sparrow hawk, 113, 116.on great gray owl, 216.on northern barred owl, 194.Allen, G. M., on snowy owl, 359.Allen, J. A., on duck hawk, 47.Allen, R. P., viii.alleni, Strix varia, 197.Syrnium nebulosum, 201.aluco, Strix, 174.amaura, Speotyto cunicularia, 394.American barn owl, 140.American hawk owl, 375.Ames, Mrs. J. W., 254.anatum, Falco peregrinus, 12, 42, 43, 68.Anderson, Samuel, 377.Anthony, A. W., 271, 272.on Richardson's owl, 225.Anthony, H. E., on Rocky Mountainpygmy owl, 404.Aplomado falcon, 96.Appleton, J. S., 335.Arctic horned owl, 328.Armstrong, F. B., 96, 444.
Arnold, E. L., on Rocky Mountainpgymy owl, 403.Arnold, E. R., viii.Arnold, Mr. and Mrs. E. R., on RockyMountain pygmy owl, 406, 407.Arnold, M. L., viii.Ashworth, Charles, on Pacific hornedowl, 335.Asiatic gyrfalcon, 15.asio, Otus, 286.Otus asio, 259, 263, 265. 277Scops, 266.Strix, 243.asio aikeni, Otus, 261, 270, 274, 275.asio asio, Otus, 259, 263, 265, 277.asio bendirei, Otus, 262, 266, 267, 280281.asio brewsteri, Otus, 262, 266, 280.asio cardonensis, Otus, 285.asio cineraceus, Otus, 262, 274, 276, 282283, 285, 287.asio fioridanus, Otus, 259, 261, 263.asio gilmani, Otus, 262, 274, 282, 285,286, 287.asio hasbroucki, Otus, 261, 278.asio inyoensis, Otus, 273, 274.asio kennicotti, Otus, 262, 267, 270, 280.asio macfarlanei, Otus, 262, 267, 270,277.asio maxwelliae, Otus, 262, 270, 276.asio mccalli, Otus, 261, 265, 278, 279.asio naevius, Otus, 243, 259, 261, 263,265, 272.asio quercinus, Otus, 262, 281.asio xantusi, Otus, 262, 284.Asio flammeus flammeus, 169.magellanicus lagophonns, 344.magellanicus pacificus, 341, 342.wilsonianus, 153.Attwater, H. P., on short-eared owl, 177.Audubon, J. J., 43, 60, 153, 300.on duck hawk, 54, 55.on Florida barred owl, 198.on northern barred owl, 194.on saw-whet owl, 237.on snowy owl, 366.on white gyrfalcon, 4, 7.auduboni, Polyborus cheriway, 127, 137.Audubon's caracara, 127.Austin, O. L., Jr., on great horned owl,307.Badger, M. C, on California spottedowl, 204.Bagg, Egbert, 230.Bailey, A. M., on snowy owl, 36S, 369.Bailey, A. M., and Niedrach, R. J., onprairie falcon, 24, 27, 33, 35.467
468 BULLETIN 170, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMBailey, Mrs. Florence M., on Aplomadofalcon, 97.on desert sparrow hawk, 121.on fiammulated screech owl, 294.on Mexican screech owl, 275.on prairie falcon, 29, 30.on Rocky Mountain pygmy owl,402, 403, 405, 406, 407.on saguaro screech owl, 284.on western burrowing owl, 387.on western horned owl, 324, 326.Bailey, H. H., 398.on eastern pigeon hawk, 79.on Florida screech owl, 264, 265.on long-eared owl, 166.Bailey, Vernon, 387, 403.on prairie falcon, 31.on western horned owl, 326.Baird, S. F., Brewer, T. M., and Ridg-way, Robert, 31.on American barn owl, 145.on American hawk owl, 380.on California pygmy owl, 421.on duck hawk, 53.on fiammulated screech owl, 293.on great gray owl, 214.on great horned owl, 299.on long-eared owl, 153.Baker, E. C. S., on kestrel, 103.Bancroft, Griffing, viii, 126.Barigs, Outram, on saw-whet owl, 230.on screech owls, 259.on Texas barred owl, 201.Bangs, Outram, and Thayer, J. E., onGuadalupe caracara, 137.barbata, Scotiaptex nebulosa, 219.Barbour, Thomas, on Audubon's cara-cara, 133, 134.Barn owl, American, 140.Barn owls, 140.Barnes, C. T., on western burrowingowl, 392.Barnes, R. M., viii.Barred owl, Florida, 197.northern, 182.Texas, 201.Baynard, O. E., 126, 198.Beaupre, Edwin, on duck hawk, 50.Beck, R. H., 209.on Guadalupe caracara, 136.Beebe, Francis, 409.Beekman, O. E., on Pacific horned owl,335.Beetz, Johan, on eastern pigeon hawk,76.Belding, Lyman, 341.on California pygmy owl, 425.on California spotted owl, 202.Bendire, C. E., on Aiken's screech owl,276.on American barn owl, 140, 142,149.on American hawk owl, 376.on Aplomado falcon, 96, 97.on Audubon's caracara, 132, 133.on black gyrfalcon, 11, 12.on black pigeon hawk, 84.on California pygmy owl, 419.
Bendire, C. E., on California spottedowl, 202.on duck hawk, 49.on eastern pigeon hawk, 72.on eastern screech owl, 243, 245,246.on eastern sparrow hawk, 108.on ferruginous pygmy owl, 435, 436,437.on fiammulated screech owl, 292.on Florida barred owl, 198, 199, 200.on Florida burrowing owl, 400, 401.on Florida screech owl, 264.on great horned owl, 296, 300, 302,311.on Labrador horned owl, 343.on long-eared owl, 156, 157, 163,164, 166.on MacFarlane's screech owl, 277,278.on Mexican screech owl, 274.on Mexican spotted owl, 211.on northwestern horned owl, 346.on prairie falcon, 24, 30, 32, 33, 38.on Richardson's owl, 222.on Rockv Mountain pygmy owl,401, 402, 403, 404, 405, 406, 407.on Rocky Mountain screech owl,271, 272, 273.on saguaro screech owl, 283, 284.on saw-whet owl, 229, 230, 234, 239.on short-eared owl, 171, 172.on snowy owl, 360, 362.on Texas screech owl, 266.on western burrowing owl, 386, 387,389, 390, 392, 393.on western horned owl, 323.on Whitney's elf owl, 439, 441, 442.bendirei, Falco columbarius, 70, 82, 88,89.Megascops, 277.Otus asio, 262, 266, 267, 280, 281.Bennett, C. W., 47.Bennett, L. J., and Errington, P. L., onwestern burrowing owl, 390.Benson, H. C, 96.Bent, A. C, on eastern sparrow hawk,109, 115.on Montana horned owl, 349.on prairie falcon, 20, 24, 35, 37.Bergtold, W. H., 402.on Montana horned owl, 348.on prairie falcon, 23.on Rockv Mountain pygmy owl,404, 408.Betts, N. deW., on Rocky Mountainpygmy owl, 408.Beyer, G. E., 300.biarmicus feldeggii, Falco, 18.Bicknell, Eugene, on short-eared owl,177.Biological Survey, U. S. Bureau of, viii,66, 83, 98, 152, 176, 197, 200, 212,215, 241, 262, 321.Bird, M. C. H., 102.Birdseye, Clarence, 403.Bishop, L. B., 155, 280.on Aiken's screech owl, 277.
INDEX 469Bishop, L. B., on barred owls, 201.on California pygmy owl, 410.on California screech owl, 267.on eastern sparrow hawk, 108.on Hasbrouck's screech owl, 280.on horned owl from Victoria, B. C,347.on northern barred owl, 186.on Rocky Mountain screech owl,272.on St. Michael horned owl, 345.on screech owl, 285, 286.on Siberian hawk owl, 375.Bishop, S. C, on eastern sparrow hawk,107.Black gyrfalcon, 10.Black pigeon hawk, 83.Blackwelder, Eliot, on dusky hornedowl, 332.Blickensderfer, Clark, and Rockwell,R. B., on saw-whet owl, 232, 234.Bolles, Frank, on great horned owl, 315.on northern barred owl, 188, 190,192, 193, 195.Bond, J. A. W., on merlin, 93.Bond, R. M., on eastern pigeon hawk,78.on prairie falcon, 34, 35.Bonnot, Paul, on American barn owl,147.on eastern sparrow hawk, 113.borealis calurus, Buteo, 89.Bowles, C. W., on California pygmyowl, 425.Bowles, J. H., on black pigeon hawk, 84.on California pygmy owl, 421.on dusky horned owl, 331, 332.on Kennicott's screech owl, 267-270.Bowles, J. H., and Decker, F. R., onprairie falcon, 19-21, 23, 29, 30, 33,35, 38, 39.Bradford, C. H., on Pacific horned owl,335.Bralliar, Floyd, on eastern sparrowhawk, 114.on great horned owl, 296.Braly, J. C, on California pygmy owl,412,414.on coast pygmy owl, 431.Brandt, H. W., on Audubon's caracara,129, 133.on great horned owl, 301.on spotted screech owl, 288, 290.on Texas screech owl, 265.brasilianum, Glaucidium brasilianum,435, 438.brasilianum brasilianum, Glaucidium,435, 438.brasilianum ridgwayi, Glaucidium, 435.Brenckle, J. F., on western burrowingowl, 393.Breninger, G. F., on ferruginous pygmyowl, 436, 437.Brewer, T. M. (See under Baird, S. F.)Brewster, William, on Aiken's screechowl, 276, 277.on American hawk owl, 380, 382.
Brewster, William, on California screechowl, 266.on dwarf horned owl, 341.on duck hawk, 59.on eastern pigeon hawk, 77, 79.on eastern screech owl, 254.on eastern sparrow hawk, 107, 115.on great horned owl, 317.on Hoskins's pygmy owl, 434, 435.on long-eared owl, 158, 162.on MacFarlane's screech owl, 277.on northern barred owl, 194.on Richardson's owl, 225.on San Lucas sparrow hawk, 124.on saw-whet owl, 231, 236, 237.on short-eared owl, 175, 178.on snowy owl, 366.on Whitney's elf owl, 442, 443.on Xantus's screech owl, 284.brewsteri, Otus asio, 262, 266, 280.Brewster's screech owl, 280.Brimley, C. S., 245.Brockway, A. W., on great hornedowl, 318.Brodkorb, Pierce, on eastern sparrowhawk, 113.on short-eared owl, 175.Broley, C. L., on duck hawk, 61.Brooks, Allan, 326.on Aplomado falcon, 97.on black gyrfalcon, 14.on California pygmy owl, 427.on Peale's falcon, 68, 69.on prairie falcon, 39.on Vancouver pygmy owl, 429.Brooks, W. S., on snowy owl, 366.brooksi, Cryptoglaux acadica, 242.Brown, Herbert, on saguaro screechowl, 283, 284.Brown, N. C, on sparrow hawk. 117.Brown, W. J., 88.on eastern pigeon hawk, 72, 78.on Richardson's pigeon hawk, 87,88.Brown, W. W., 137.brunnescens, Strix varia, 201.Bryan, W. A., on short-eared owl, 176.Bryant, H. C., on California pygmyowl, 414, 422.on prairie falcon, 32.on sparrow hawk, 113.Bryant, W. E., 387.on dwarf horned owl, 341.on Guadalupe caracara, 136, 137,138, 139.on short-eared owl, 182.Bubo virginianus algistus, 321, 344, 346.virginianus elachistus, 321, 341.virginianus heterocneinis, 320, 342.virginianus icelus, 320, 347.virginianus lagophonus, 321, 345.virginianus leucomelas, 347.virginianus occidentalis, 321, 328,348.virginianus pacificus, 321, 333, 345,347.virginianus pallescens, 321, 322, 357.
470 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMBubo virginianus saturatus, 321, 330,341-343, 346, 347.virginianus subarcticus, 320, 321,328, 348.virginianus virginianus, 295.virginianus wapacuthu, 320, 321.Bull, D. B., viii.on Asiatic gyrfalcon, 15-17.Burleigh, T. D., on coast pygmy owl,431.Burnell, E. F., and Wyman, L. E., onCalifornia pygmy owl, 425.Burns, F. L., on short-eared owl, 172.Burroughs, John, on Rocky Mountainpygmy owl, 406.Burrowing owl, Florida, 396.western, 384.Burton, W. F., on dusky horned owl,333.Buteo borealis calurus, 89.Butler, A. W., viii.Calm, A. R., and Kemp, J. T., on long-eared owl, 166.on short-eared owl, 175.Calderwood, A., Jr., on coast pygmyowl, 431.California pygmy owl, 410.California screech owl, 266.California spotted owl, 202.californicum. Glaudicium gnoma, 402,409, 410, 434, 436.calurus, Buteo borealis, 89.Cameron, E. S., on long-eared owl, 165,166.on Montana horned owl, 351, 352,353on prairie falcon, 27, 29-31, 39.on snowy owl, 370.on western burrowing owl, 392.Camn, R. D., on Audubon's caracara,129.Camobell, Berry, on swotted screechowl, 289.on Whitney's elf owl, 439, 442.candicans, Falco rusticolus, 1,17.Canfield, C. S., 386.Cantwell, G. G., on saw-whet owl, 235.caparoch, Surnia ulula, 375.Caracara, Audubon's, 127.Guadalupe, 136.Caracaras, 1.Carbonneau, Esdras, 359.cardonensis, Otus asio, 285.Carleton, G., and Jackson, Mrs. P. N.,on eastern screech owl, 252.Carpenter, F. H., on eastern screechowl, 243, 254.Carriger, H. W., on coast pvgmy owl,430, 431, 434.Carriger, H. W., and Pemberton, J. R.,on prairie falcon, 30.Carroll, J. J., on western horned owl,323.Carter, J. D., on northern barred owl,195.Cassells, Elsie, on white gvrfalcon, 6.Catesby, Mark, 243.
caurina, Strix occidentalis, 208, 210,434.caurinum, Syrnium occidentale, 209.Cerchneis sparverius isabellinus, 125.Chapman, F. M., on gyrfalcons, 3.cheriway, Polyborus cheriway, 135.cheriway auduboni, Polyborus, 127, 137.cheriway cheriway, Polyborus, 135.cineraceus, Otus asio, 262, 274, 276, 282,283, 285, 287.Clabaugh, E. D., on California pvgmyowl, 419.on California screech owl, 267.Clark, J. N., on great horned owl, 300.on nest of hawks and owls, 298.on northern barred owl, 186.Clarke, C. H. D., viii.Clarke, Eagle, 105.Clav, C. I., on northern spotted owl,209.Cleaves, H. H., 359.on American barn owl, 144.Coast pygmy owl, 430.cobanense, Glaucidium gnoma, 409.Coffin, R. L., 47.Cohen, D. A., on prairie falcon, 31, 39.Collett, Robert, on snowy owl, 362.columbarius, Falco, 89, 90.Falco columbarius, 70, 85, 86, 88,89.columbarius bendirei, Falco, 70, 82, 88,89.columbarius columbarius, Falco, 70, 85,86, 88, 89.columbarius richardsoni, Falco, 82, S3,86, 89.columbarius suckleyi, Falco, 70, 82, 83,89.Comeau, N. A., 225, 233.on snowy owl, 369.Cook, G. L., on Montana horned owl,351.Cooke, W. W., 270.Coolidge, P. T., on eastern screech owl,944Cooper, J. G., 37, 439.on coast pygmy owl, 434.on prairie falcon, 33.Cooper, W. A., on California pygmyowl, 413.Cory, C. B., on kestrel, 99.Coues, Elliott, on American hawk owl,379.on coast pygmy owl, 434.on eastern pigeon hawk, 75.on eastern sparrow hawk, 107.on great horned owl, 315.on prairie falcon, 24, 32.on Rockv Mountain pygmy owl,404.on short- eared owl, 170.on western burrowing owl, 384,386, 391, 393.Cram, W. E., on eastern sparrow hawk,115.Crook, Crompton, viii.Cross, William, 217.
INDEX 471Cryptoglaux acadica acadica, 228.acadica brooksi, 242.funerea funerea, 228.funerea magna, 227, 228.funerea richardsoni, 220.Culver, D. E., on duck hawk, 58.cunicularia, Speotyto cunicularia, 395.cunicularia amaura, Speotyto, 394.cunicularia cunicularia, Speotyto, 395.cunicularia floridana, Speotyto, 394,396.cunicularia guadeloupensis, Speotyto,394.cunicularia hypugaea, Speotyto, 3S4,397.cunicularia rostrata, Speotyto, 395.cunicularia troglodytes, Speotyto, 394.Curry, H. B., and Katun, W. F., onRichardson's owl, 220.Cutting, E., 234.Daggett, F. S., 413.on spotted owl, 427.Dall, W. H., 75, 216, 222, 376, 3S1.on Richardson's owl, 225.on short-eared owl, 170.Davenport, H. S., on kestrel, 102.Davie, Oliver, on California pygmy owl,414.en eastern screech owl, 245.on Pacific horned owl, 335.Davis, C. E., 137.Dawson, W. L., on American barn owl,147, 149.on Audubon's caracara, 134.on California pygmy owl, 416, 419,421, 422, 424, 427.on California spotted owl, 203, 205.on dusky horned owl, 332.on long-eared owl, 162, 165.on northwestern horned owl, 346.on prairie falcon, 19, 21, 24, 28, 33.on saw-whet owl, 229, 237.on western burrowing owl, 385.Day, C. S., 229.Deane, Ruthven, on snowv owl, 369,370.Decker, F. R., on Kennicott's screechowl, 268.Decker, F. R., and Bowles, J. H., onprairie falcon, 19-21, 23, 29, 30, 33,35, 38, 39.DeMille, J. B., on eastern sparrowhawk, 113.Densmore, Mabel, on short-eared owl,172, 178.Desert sparrow hawk, 121.deserticolus, Falco sparverius, 121, 124.Dice, L. R., on American hawk owl, 381.on sparrow hawk, 108.Dickev, D. R., on California spottedowl,* 203, 204, 205, 206.Dippe, G. F., on Richardson's pigeonhawk, 87.Dixon, Joseph, 163, 338.on duck hawk, 52.on Pacific horned owl, 334, 335,336, 337.(See also under Grinnell, Joseph.)
Doe, C. E., viii.on Guadalupe caracara, 137.dominicensis, Falco, 121.Donahue, R. J., on Montana hornedowl, 351, 354.Dresser, H. E., on American barn owl,143, 144.on American hawk owl, 381.DuBois, A. D., on eastern screech owl,245.on eastern sparrow hawk, 108.on long-eared owl, 156, 163.on northern barred owl, 191.on short-eared owl, 169, 170, 171.Duck hawk, 43.Dufresne, Frank, on snowv owl, 365,367.Dunn, H. H., on California spotted owl,203.on Pacific horned owl, 335.Durfee, Owen, viii.Dusky horned owl, 330.Dwarf horned owl, 341.Dyer, Mrs. Julian, on southern screechowl, 260.Dvke, A. C, on northern barred owl,184.Earl, T. M., on American barn owl, 150.Eastern pigeon hawk, 70.Eastern screech owl, 243.Eastern sparrow hawk, 106.Eaton, E. H., on duck hawk, 52.Eaton, W. F., and Curry, H. B., onRichardson's owl, 220.Eckstorm, Mrs. Fannie H., on blackpigeon hawk, 85.Edmondson, 93.Edwards, Mrs. Helen M., on southernscreech owl, 260.Eifrig, C. W. G., on great gray owl, 213.on great horned owl, 308.Ekblaw, S. E., on long-eared owl, 157.Ekblaw, W. E., on white gyrfalcon, 7.elachistus, Bubo virginianus, 321, 341.Elf owl, Sanford's, 444.Texas, 444.Whitney 's, 438.Emerson, W. O., on American barn owl,140.on California screech owl, 266.Errington, P. L., on American barnowl, 150.on duck hawk, 54.on eastern screech owl, 250.on great horned owl, 301, 304, 311,313, 315, 316, 319.on long-eared owl, 160.on northern barred owl, 190.on short-eared owl, 175.Errington, P. L., and Bennett, L. J., onwestern burrowing owl, 390.Euler, Carl, on California pygmy owl,436, 438.Evans, W., on kestrel, 103.Evermann, B. W., on American barnowl, 141, 140, 150.on Tengmalm's owl, 228.
472 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMFalco aesalon, 86.aesalon aesalon, 90.aesalon insignis, 95.aesalon pallidus, 95.aesalon subaesalon, 90, 95.alfred-edmundi, 90.biarmicus feldeggii, 18.columbarius, 89, 90.columbarius bendirei, 70, 82, 88, 89.columbarius columbarius, 70, 85, 86,88, 89.columbarius richardsoni, 82, 83, 86,89.columbarius suckleyi, 70, 82, 83, 89.dominicensis, 121.fusco - coerulescens fusco - coerules-cens, 99.fusco-coerulescens septentrionalis,96.islandicus, 5.mexicanus, 12, 18.peregrinus, 42.peregrinus anatum, 12, 42, 43, 68.peregrinus pealei, 64, 67.peregrinus peregrinus, 42, 43, 64,68.rusticolus, 2, 17.rusticolus candicans, 1, 17.rusticolus obsoletus, 2, 3, 5, 9, 10,17.rusticolus uralensis, 2, 8, 10, 15.sparverius deserticolus, 121, 124.sparverius paulus, 119, 125.sparverius peninsularis, 119, 124.sparverius phalaena, 119, 121, 124.sparverius sparverius, 106.subbuteo, 88, 93.tinnunculus tinnunculus, 99.vespertinus, 100.Falcon, Aplomado, 96.Peale's, 67.peregrine, 42.prairie, 18.Falconidae, 1.Falconiformes, 1.Falcons, 1.Fargo, W. G., on eastern pigeon hawk,79.Farley, F. L., on American hawk owl,382.on Arctic horned owl, 329, 330.on great gray owl, 214.on pygmy owl, 409.on Richardson's pigeon hawk, 87.on short-eared owl, 179.on snowy owl, 366.Farley, J. A., on saw-whet owl, 234.Feilden, H. W., 360.on kestrel, 106.Feilner, John, 291.feldeggii, Falco biarmicus, 18.Fencker, 5.Ferguson, A. L. and H. L., on duckhawk, 63.on eastern pigeon hawk, 80.Ferruginous pygmy owl, 435.
Field, C. L., on Whitney's elf owl, 441.Finley, W. L., on American barn owl,147.Fisher, A. K., on American barn owl,146.on American hawk owl, 378, 379.on burrowing owl, 386, 389, 391.on eastern pigeon hawk, 75.on great gray owl, 216.on horned owl, 327.on long-eared owl, 160.on northern barred owl, 189, 192.on prairie falcon, 32, 33, 34, 40.on Richardson's owl, 221, 223.on Rocky Mountain pygmy owl,404, 407.on saw-whet owl, 233, 235.on screech owl, 250, 251, 255.on short-eared owl, 170, 174.Fisher, G. C, on long-eared owl, 165.flammeolus, Otus, 291.flammeolus guatemalae, Otus, 295.flammeus, Asio flammeus, 169.Flammulated screech owl, 291.Fleming, J. H., on great gray owl, 217.on Queen Charlotte owl, 242.on snowy owl, 359, 370.Flett, J. B., on California pygtoy owl,426.Florida barred owl, 197.Florida burrowing owl, 396.Florida screech owl, 263.floridana, Speotyto cunicularia, 394, 396.Speotyto floridana, 396.floridanus, Otus asio, 259, 261, 263.Forbush, E. H., 60.on American barn owl, 150.on eastern pigeon hawk, 75.on eastern screech owl, 251, 253,256.on great gray owl, 217.on great horned owl, 309, 312, 314,319.on long-eared owl, 166.on northern barred owl, 182, 191,194, 196.on Richardson's owl, 226.on saw-whet owl, 239.on snowy owl, 359.on southern screech owl, 260.Ford, Jack, 369.Fowler, F. H., on prairie falcon, 25-27.Frazar, A. M. (M. A.), 341, 434, 435.on eastern screech owl, 253.Fuertes, L. A., on prairie falcon, 29.funerea, Cryptoglaux funerea, 228.funerea magna, Cryptoglaux, 227, 228.funerea richardsoni, Cryptoglaux, 220.fusco-coerulescens, Falco fusco-coeru-lescens, 99.fusco-coerulescens septentrionalis, Falco,96.Gale, Denis, 20, 49, 270, 271.on Rocky Mountain screech owl,272.Ganier, A. F., on duck hawk, 48, 49.
INDEX 473Gillespie, J. A., and Potter, J. K., onAmerican barn owl, 141, 143-145, 149Gillin, J. R., viii.Gilman, M. F., on ferruginous pygmvowl, 436, 437.on spotted screech owl, 287.on western horned owl, 324, 325,327.on Whitney's elf owl, 441, 443.gilmani, Otus asio, 262, 274, 282, 285,286, 287.Gladstone, H. S., on merlin, 94.Glaucidium brasilianum brasilianum,435, 438.brasilianum ridgwayi, 435.gnoma californicum, 402, 409, 410,434, 436.gnoma cobanense, 409.gnoma gnoma, 409, 434.gnoma grinnelli, 409, 430.gnoma griseiceps, 409.gnoma hoskinsi, 409, 434.gnoma pinicola, 401.gnoma swarthi, 409, 428.gnoma, Glaucidium gnoma, 409, 434.gnoma californicum, Glaucidium, 402,409, 410, 434, 436.gnoma cobanense, Glaucidium, 409.gnoma gnoma, Glaucidium, 409, 434.gnoma grinnelli, Glaucidium, 409, 430.gnoma griseiceps, Glaucidium, 409.gnoma hoskinsi, Glaucidium, 409, 434.gnoma pinicola, Glaucidium, 401.gnoma swarthi, Glaucidium, 409, 428.Goddard, T. R., on short-eared owl, 174.Goelitz, W. A., on northern barred owl,186.Goss, B. F., on Audubon's caracara, 133.Goss, N. S., on duck hawk, 49.on great horned owl, 300.on prairie falcon, 20, 30, 32, 33.Grav owl, great, 213.'Siberian, 219.Grayson, A. J., on Aplomado falcon,97, 98.on duck hawk, 56.Great gray owl, 213.Great horned owl, 295.Greely, A. W., on snowy owl, 360.Green, C. deB., on Peale's falcon, 69.Greene, E. R., on sparrow hawk, 115.Grimes, S. A., 128.on Audubon's caracara, 132.on great horned owl, 310.Grinnell, Joseph, 381, 423.on American hawk owl, 376, 377,378.on flammulated screech owl, 294.on Pasadena screech owl, 281.on San Lucas sparrow hawk, 124.on screech owl, 273.on Vancouver pygmy owl, 428.on Xantus's screech owl, 284.Grinnell, Joseph; Dixon, Joseph; andLinsdale, J. M., on Montanahorned owl, 353.on prairie falcon, 31, 39.on western burrowing owl, 388.
Grinnell, Joseph, and Storer, T. I., onAmerican barn owl, 149.on California pygmy owl, 424, 426.on California spotted owl, 206.on great gray owl, 213, 219.on long-eared owl, 157, 161, 163,164.on Pacific horned owl, 338, 340.grinnelli, Glaucidium gnoma, 409, 430.Griscom, Ludlow, on pygmy owls, 409.griseiceps, Glaucidium gnoma, 409.Gross, A. O., 302.on snowy owl, 370.Guadalupe caracara, 136.guadeloupensis, Speotyto cunicularia.394.guatemalae, Otus flammeolus, 295.Guberelet, J. E., 39.Gundlach, Johannes, 133, 134.gyrfalco, Hierofalco, 2.Gyrfalcon, Asiatic, 15.black, 10.white, 1.Hagar, J. A., viii.on duck hawk, 43-47, 50, 52, 56-58,61, 62.Hagerup, A. T., on gyrfalcons, 5, 6.on kestrel, 99.Hahn, W. L., 228.Haight, E. M., 203.Hallman, R. C., on great horned owl,301.Hantzsch, Bernhard, on kestrel, 106.on snowy owl, 366, 368.on white gyrfalcon, 8.Hardy, Manly, 382.Harlow, R. C, on eastern sparrowhawk, 108.Harper, Francis, on short-eared owl, 170.Harris, Harry, on short-eared owl, 179.Harris, W. G. F., 297.Hartert, Ernst, 375.on Tengmalm's owl, 228.Hartshorn, H. L, on eastern sparrowhawk, 115.Hasbrouck, E. M., on Hasbrouck'sscreech owl, 279, 280.on screech owls, 250.hasbroucki, Otus asio, 261, 278.Hasbrouck's screech owl, 278.Hatch, J. M., 413.Hawes, C. A., on great horned owl, 299.Hawk, black pigeon, 83.desert sparrow, 121.duck, 43.eastern pigeon, 70.eastern sparrow, 106.little sparrow, 125.Richardson's pigeon, 86.San Lucas sparrow, 124.western pigeon, 89.Hawk owl, American, 375.Siberian, 374.Heinroth, O. A., on kestrel, 103.Helms, Otto, on peregrine falcon, 42.helveola, Strix varia, 197, 201.
474 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMHenderson, A. D., viii.on American hawk owl, 376, 377,381.on Arctic horned owl, 329, 330.on great gray owl, 214, 217.Henderson, Junius, on short-eared owl,174.Hendricks, G. B., on duck hawk, 61.Henninger, W. F., and Jones, Lynds, onprairie falcon, 29, 32, 33.Henshaw, H. W., on Aplomado falcon,98.on long-eared owl, 155.on Mexican screech owl, 275.on Rocky Mountain pygmy owl,405.Hersey, F. S., viii.heterocnemis, Bubo virginianus, 320,342.Hierofalco gyrfalco, 2.islandus, 2.Hine, J. S., on eastern pigeon hawk, 79.Hix, G. E., on prairie falcon, 33.Holboll, C. P., 5.Holland, H. M., on eastern sparrowhawk, 111.on great horned owl, 316.Hollister, Ned, on saw-whet owl, 231.Hollister, Ned, and Kumlien, Ludwig,on prairie falcon, 41.Holman, F. C., on California pygmyowl, 412, 415, 420, 422, 425.Horned owl, Arctic, 328.duskv, 330.dwarf, 341.great, 295.Labrador, 342.Montana, 348.northwestern, 345.Pacific, 333.St. Michael, 344.western, 322.H0rring, R., 90.Horsbrugh, C. B., on American hawkowl, 381.hoskinsi, Glaucidium gnoma, 409, 434.Hoskinc's pygmy owl, 434.Houseman, J. E., on Richardson'spigeon hawk, 87.Howard, O. W., 19, 291.on California pygmy owl, 413.on prairie falcon, 38.Howe, R. H., Jr., on little sparrow-hawk, 125.Howell, A. B., on American barn owl,142.on western horned owl, 326, 328.Howell, A. H., on Florida barred owl,198, 200.Howell, J. C, on Audubon's caracara,130.Hoxie, W. J., on Audubon's caracara,134.on Florida burrowing owl, 398, 401.huachucae, Strix occidentalis, 209, 210.Hudson, W. H., 169.Huey, L. M., 427.on Mexican spotted owl, 212.
Huev, L. M., on Pacific horned owl,340.on screech owl from Lower Cali-fornia, 285.on short-eared owl, 175.on western horned owl, 326.Hunt, Richard, on Pacific horned owl,340.Hurd, T. D., on California spotted owl,203.Hutchins, T., 168.Huxley, Julian, on kestrel, 101.hypugaea, Speotyto cunicularia, 384,397.icelus, Bubo virginianus, 320, 347.idoneus, Micropallas whitneyi, 444.Ingersoll, A. M., 85.insignis, Falco aesalon, 95.inyoensis, Otus asio, 273, 274.isabellinus, Cerchneis sparverius, 125.islandicus, Falco, 5.islandus, Hierofalco, 2.Jackson, Mrs. P. N., and Carleton, G.,on eastern screech owl, 252.Jackson, R. W., on great horned owl,314.Jacobs, J. W., on Pacific horned owl,335.Jacot, E. C, on flammulated screechowl, 293, 294.on spotted screech owl, 286, 287,289, 290.James, T. A., on Richardson's owl, 226.Jay, William, on long-eared owl, 166.Jensen, J. K., 294.on western horned owl, 324, 325.Jewett, S. G., on prairie falcon, 30.Job, H. K., 183, 229.on northern barred owl, 185.Johnson, H. C, on Rocky Mountainpygmy owl, 404, 408.Jones, F. M., on long-eared owl, 161.Jones, Lynds, on eastern pigeon hawk,72.on eastern screech owl, 243.on great horned owl, 296.Jones, Lynds, and Henniger, W. F., onprairie falcon, 29, 32, 33.Jourdain, F. C. R., viii, 99.on merlin, 90.on peregrine falcon, 42.Jung, C. S., on short-eared owl, 178.Kaeding, H. B., 136.Kalter, L. B., on eastern screech owl,252, 257.on eastern sparrow hawk, 115.Keck, D. D., on California pygmy owl,419.Kellogg, R. T., 98.Kelso, Leon, on Montana horned owl,348, 354, 356, 357.Kemp, J. TV, and Calm, A. R., on long-eared owl, 166.on short-eared owl, 175.Kennard, F. H., 128.on Florida burrowing owl, 400.on western horned owl, 324.Kennicott, Robert, 345.
INDEX 475kennicotti, Megaseops, 277.Otus asio, 202, 267, 270, 280.Kennieott's screech owl, 267.Kestrel, 99.Keyes, C. R., 302.on duck hawk, 51.on great horned owl, 299, 300, 304,314.Kimball, H. H., on flammulated screech,owl, 294.on Rockv Mountain pygmy owl,404.Kitchiu, E. A., on short-eared owl, 173.Kleinschmidt, Otto, on merlins, 90.Knight, H. K., and Allen, A. A., onduck hawk, 51, 55.Knight, O. W., on eastern pigeon hawk,79.on eastern sparrow hawk, 116.Knowlton, F. H., 143.Knox, S. D., viii.Koelz, Walter, on white gyrfalcon, 2, 5.Kumlien, Ludwig, 307.on short-eared owl, 175.on white gyrfalcon, 7.Kumlien, Ludwig, and Hollister, Ned,on prairie falcon, 41.Labitte, Andre, on kestrel, 101.Labrador horned owl, 342.Lacev, Howard, on Hasbrouck's screechowl, 279.on western horned owl, 323, 326.lagophonus, Asio magellanicus, 344.Bubo virginianus, 321, 345.Laing, H. M., on black pigeon hawk, 86.Lamb, C. C, 124, 341, 431.on coast pygmy owl, 433.Langille, J. H.,'256.lapponica, Scotiaptex, 219, 220.Latta, V., 222.Law, Mr. and Mrs. Eugene, 423.Law, J. E., on western sparrow hawk,117.Lawrence, A. G., on Richardson's owl,222, 223.Lawrence, R. A., on short-eared owl,176, 178.Lawson, Ralph, on duck hawk, 60.Leigh, A. G., on kestrel, 103, 104.Leopold, Aldo, on western burrowingowl, 392.leucomelas, Bubo virginianus, 347.Lewis, H. F., on eastern pigeon hawk,72.on snowy owl, 359.Lewis and Clark, 348.Ligon, J. S., 98, 294, 403, 407.on Mexican spotted owl, 210, 211,212, 213.Lincoln, F. C, viii.Linclsav, R. V., on Richardson's owl,223, '225.Linsdale, J. M. (See under Grinnell,Joseph.)Lippincott, J. W., on American barnowl, 149.Little, Robert, on great horned owl, 311.Little sparrow hawk, 125.
Lloyd, William, on Audubon's cara-cara, 132.Long-eared owl, 153.Lord, .1. K., on Vancouver pygmy owl,428, 429.Lord, W. R., on California pygmy owl,421.Lowe, W. P., on Montana horned owl,349.on prairie falcon, 23.Lucida, Strix occidentalis, 208, 209.lucidum, Syrnium occidentale, 209.Lumley, E. D., on prairie falcon, 29, 32,36, 39.lutosus, Polyborus, 136.Lyon, W. I., on eastern screech owl, 255.MacFarlane, Roderick, on Americanhawk owl, 376.on black gyrfalcon, 11.on eastern pigeon hawk, 73.on great gray owl, 214.macfarlanei, Otus asio, 262, 267, 270,277.MacFarlane's screech owl, 277.MacGregor, H. A., 179.Mackie, Alex, 222.Macoun, John, on Richardson's owl,225.on saw'-whet owl, 241.MacSw-ain, J., on screech owl, 262.Magee, M. J., on white gyrfalcon, 6.magellanicus lagophonus, Asio, 344.magellanicus pacificus, Asio, 341, 342.magna, Cryptoglaux funerea, 227, 228.Mailliard, Joseph, on California pygmyowl, 423.on coast pygmy owl, 433.on dusky horned owl, 332.Manniche, A. L. V., on snowy owl, 304,369.on white gvrfalcon, 3, 6, 8.Marsden, H. W., 137.Marsh, V. L., on Montana horned owl,349, 356.Maslowski, K. H., viii.Mathew, M. A., on kestrel, 103.maxwelliae, Otus asio, 262, 270, 276.May, J. B., on Aplomado falcon, 98.on eastern screech owJ, 254.on eastern sparrow hawk, 111.McAtee, W. L., 340.McBee, C. E., on western burrowingowl, 390.McCabe, Mr. and Mrs. T. T., on north-western horned owl, 347.mccalli, Otus asio, 261, 265, 278, 279.Scops, 2(1").Mcllwraith, Thomas, on eastern pigeonhawk, 75.McLean, D. D., 206.on cluck hawk, 59.on Pacific horned owl, 340.McMullen, T. E., viii.McNeile, J. H., on snowy owl, 361.McNeill, George, 248.McPherson, Mr., 305.Mearns, E. A., 7">.on prairie falcon, 23.
476 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMMearns, E. A., on Rocky Mountainpygmy owl, 406, 407.on sparrow hawks, 121, 124.Megascops, 272, 277.bendirei, 277.kennicotti, 277.vinaceus, 284.Menge, J. F., on Florida burrowing owl,401.on Florida screech owl, 264.Merlin, 90.Merriam, C. H., on barred owl, 189.on duck hawk, 56.on Montana horned owl, 354.on prairie falcon, 23, 31.on Richardson's owl, 225.Merrill, D. E., on desert sparrow hawk,121.Merrill, J. C, 129.on Aplomado falcon, 96.on Audubon's caracara, 132, 134.on Rocky Mountain pygmy owl,404.on Texas screech owl, 266.Mexican screech owl, 276.Mexican spotted owl, 209.mexicanus, Falco, 12, 18.Michael, C. W., on California pygmy owl,410, 411, 415, 416, 421, 425, 427.on California spotted owl, 205.Michael, Mr. and Mrs. C. W., on Cali-fornia pygmv owl, 417-420, 424, 425,427.Micropallas whitneyi, 436.whitneyi idoneus, 444.whitneyi sanfordi, 444.whitneyi whitneyi, 438, 444.Millais, J. G, on merlin, 94.Miller, A. H., on long-eared owl, 165.Miller, G. S., Jr., 230.Miller, Loye, 39.on Pacific horned owl, 338.on saguaro screech owl, 284.Miller, R. F., on saw-whet owl, 236.Moffitt, James, on coast pygmv owl,431, 432, 433.Montana horned owl, 348.Montgomery, E. H., 377.More, W., 137.Morrison, C. F., 402, 407.Morse, G. W., on saw-whet owl, 230.Munro, J. A., 242.on Asiatic gyrfalcon, 17.on California pygmy owl, 412, 414,421, 425, 427~.on long-eared owl, 157.on prairie falcon, 30.on short-eared owl, 175.on Vancouver pygmy owl, 429.Murdoch, John, 11.on eastern pigeon hawk, 75.on snowy owl, 358.Murie, O. J., on snowy owl, 361, 363,365.Murray, J. J., on great horned owl, 312.naevius, Otus asio, 243, 259, 261, 263,265, 272.
Nash, C. W., on American hawk owl,380.Naumann, J. F., 105.nebulosa, Scotiaptex nebulosa, 213, 220.nebulosa, Strix, 197.nebulosa barbata, Scotiaptex, 219.nebulosa nebulosa, Scotiaptex, 213, 220.nebulosum, Syrnium, 201.nebulosum alleni, Syrnium, 201.Neilson, J. A., on Montana horned owl.352.Nelson, E. W., 222.on black gyrfalcon, 11, 15.on eastern pigeon hawk, 78.on Labrador horned owl, 345.on Mexican spotted owl, 209.on Richardson's owl, 223, 225.on snowy owl, 358, 364, 365, 367.Nicholas, G. L., on saw-whet owl, 234.Nichols, J. T., on eastern sparrow hawk,117.Nicholson, D. J., on Audubon's cara-cara, 128.on great horned owl, 301, 302, 314.on little sparrow hawk, 126.Niedrach, R. J., and Bailey, A. M., onprairie falcon, 24, 27, 33, 35.Niles, O. E., on great horned owl, 312.Norris, J. P., 186, 203.Northern barred owl, 182.Northwestern horned owl, 345.Norton, A. H., on black gyrfalcon, 14.on great horned owl, 309, 317.Norton, Ned, on American hawk owl,382.Nuttall, Thomas, on snowy owl, 368.Nyctala acadica, 242.Nyctala acadica scotaea, 242.Nyctea nyctea, 358.Oberholser, H. C, 272.on Aiken's screech owl, 277.on dwarf horned owl, 341.on gray owls, 220.on horned owl from coast of Cali-fornia, 347.on Labrador horned owl, 342.on long-eared owl, 153, 160.on northwestern horned owl, 345,346.on St. Michael horned owl, 344.on spotted owls, 202, 208.obsoletus, Falco rusticolus, 2, 3, 5, 9,10, 17.occidentale, Syrnium, 208, 209.occidentale caurinum, Syrnium, 209.occidentale lucidum, Syrnium, 209.occidentalis, Bubo virginianus, 321, 328,348.Strix occidentalis, 202, 208, 210.occidentalis caurina, Strix, 208, 210,434.occidentalis huachucae, Strix, 209, 210.occidentalis lucida, Strix, 208, 209.occidentalis occidentalis, Strix, 202, 208,210.Ogilvie, Menteith, on kestrel, 105.Osgood, W. H., on Queen Charlotte owl,242.
INDEX 477Otus asio, 286.asio aikeni, 261, 270, 274, 275.asio asio, 259, 263, 265, 277.asio bendirei, 262, 266, 267, 280, 281.asio brewsteri, 262, 266, 280.asio cardonensis, 285.asio cineraceus, 262, 274, 276, 282,283, 285, 287.asio floridanus, 259, 261, 263.asio gilmani, 262, 274, 282, 285,286, 287.asio hasbroucki, 261, 278.asio inyoensis, 273, 274.asio kennicotti, 262, 267, 270, 280.asio macfarlanei, 262, 267, 270, 277.asio maxwelliae, 262, 270, 276.asio mccalli, 261, 265, 278, 279.asio naevius 243, 259, 261, 263, 265,272.asio quercinus, 262, 281.asio xantusi, 262, 284.fiammeolus, 291.flammeolus guatemalae, 295.trichopsis, 286.Owen, V. W., 287.Owen, W. P., on Florida burrowing owl,398.Owl, Aiken's screech, 275.American barn, 140.American hawk, 375.Arctic horned, 328.Brewster's screech, 280.California pygmy, 410.California screech, 266.California spotted, 202.coast pygmy, 430.dusky horned, 330.dwarf horned, 341.eastern screech, 243.ferruginous pygmy, 435.flammulated screech, 291.Florida barred, 197.Florida burrowing, 396.Florida screech, 263.great gray, 213.great horned, 295.Hasbrouck's screech, 278.Hoskins's pygmy, 434.Kennicott's screech, 267.Labrador horned, 342.long-eared, 153.MacFarlane's screech, 277.Mexican screech, 276.Mexican spotted, 209.Montana horned, 348.northern barred, 182.northern spotted, 209.northwestern horned, 345.Pacific horned, 333.Pasadena screech, 281.Queen Charlotte, 242.Richardson's, 220.Rocky Mountain pygmy, 401.Rocky Mountain screech, 270.saguaro screech, 282.St. Michael horned, 344.Sanford's elf, 444.saw-whet, 228.
Owl, short-eared, 169.Siberian gray, 219.Siberian hawk, 374.snowy, 358.southern screech, 259.spotted screech, 286.Tengmalm's, 228.Texas barred, 201.Texas elf, 444.Texas screech, 265.Vancouver pygmy, 428.western burrowing, 384.western horned, 322.Whitney's elf, 438.Xantus's screech, 284.Owls, 140.barn, 140.typical, 153.Pacific horned owl, 333.pacificus, Asio magellanicus, 341, 342.Bubo virginianus, 321, 333, 345,347.pallasi, Surnia ulula, 374, 384.pallescens, Bubo virginianus, 321, 322,357.pallidus, Falco aesalon, 95.Palmer, Edward, on Guadalupe cara-cara, 136, 138, 139.Pasadena screech owl, 281.Paton, E. R., on merlin, 93, 94.Patton, F. A., on western burrowingowl, 390.paulus, Falco sparverius, 119, 125.Peabody, P. B., on prairie falcon, 19,31, 38.on Richardson's owl, 225.pealei, Falco peregrinus, 64, 67.Peale's falcon, 67.Pearse, Theed, viii.on duck hawk, 55.Pemberton, J. R., and Carriger, H. W.,on prairie falcon, 30.peninsularis, Falco sparverius, 119, 124.Pennant, Thomas, 243.Pennock, C. J., on Florida barred owl,199, 200.on Florida burrowing owl, 397-400.on little sparrow hawk, 125, 127.on sparrow hawk, 116.Peregrine falcon, 42.peregrinus, Falco, 42.Falco peregrinus, 42, 43, 64, 68.peregrinus anatum, Falco, 12, 42, 43, 68.peregrinus pealei, Falco, 64, 67.peregrinus peregrinus, Falco, 42, 43, 64,68.Perrett, W. W., 377.Peters, J. L., on duck hawk, 65.on gyrfalcons, 2.Petersen, Johan, 42.Peyton, L. G., on California spottedowl, 202.Peyton, S. B., viii, 202.phalaena, Falco sparverius, 119, 1^1,124.Phillips, E. C, on kestrel, 102.Pierce, W. M., on prairie falcon, 6o.
478 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMPigeon hawk, black, 83.eastern, 70.Richardson's, 86.western, 89.pinicola, Glaucidium gnoma, 401.Pleske, Theodore, on snowy owl, 358,362.Poling, O. C, on Mexican spotted owl,211.Polyborus cheriway auduboni, 127, 137.cheriway cheriway, 135.lutosus, 136.Potter, J. K., and Gillespie, J. A., onAmerican barn owl, 141, 143-145,149.Prairie falcon, 18.pratincola, Tyto alba, 140.Preble, E. A., on Arctic horned owl,329, 330.on great gray owl, 214.on Ions-eared owl, 168.on Richardson's owl, 221, 223.on Rocky Mountain pvgmy owl,402, 403.on short-eared owl, 170.Preston, J. W., 157.on great horned owl, 302.Price, J. H., 31.Purdie, H. A., on black gyrfalcon, 14.Pygmy owl, California, 410.coast, 430.ferruginous, 435.Hoskins's, 434.Rocky Mountain, 401.Vancouver, 428.Queen Charlotte owl, 242.quercinus, Otus asio, 262, 281.Quillin, R. W., viii.Racev, Kenneth, on dusky horned owl,33i.Raine, Walter, on Labrador hornedowl, 343.Ralph, W. L., 198, 199, 200.on Florida screech owl, 264.on great horned owl, 300, 302.on saw-whet owl, 229, 230.Randall, T. E., on Richardson's pigeonhawk, 86-89.Rathbun, S. F., on black pigeon hawk,84, 85.on Kennicott's screech owl, 269.on long-eared owl, 153, 157.on prairie falcon, 35, 37.on sparrow hawk, 109.Ravens, association with prairie falcons,21.Rawson, C. L., on northern barred owl,191.Readv, G. H., on California pygmy owl,413.Red Eagle, Chief, on western hornedowl, 322.Reed, Mrs. Bessie P., on great hornedowl, 310, 315.Reed, J. H., on American barn owl, 148.Reeks, Henry, on Labrador horned owl,343.
Reid, S. G., on American hawk owl, 384.on short-eared owl, 181.Rhoads, S. N., on Florida burrowingowl, 398, 399, 400.Rice, L. D., 85.Richardson, C. H., Jr., on spotted ow427.Richardson, John, 86, 214, 215.on black gyrfalcon, 14.on Richardson's owl, 225.on snowy owl, 365.Richardson, John, vm 1, Swainson, Wil-liam, on American hawk owl, 376.richardsoni, Crvptoglaux funerea, 220.Falco coluinbarius, 82, 83, 86, 89.Richardson's owl, 220.Richardson's pigeon hawk, 86.Ridgwav, Robert, on Aiken's screechowl, 276.on American hawk owl, 376.on barred owls, 197.on black gyrfalcon, 13.on Brewster's screech owl, 280.on duck hawk, 49.on ferruginous pygmy owl, 435.on flammulated screech owl, 293.on Florida burrowing owl, 396.on Florida screech owl, 263.on gray owls, 220.on Guadalupe caracara, 137, 138.on Hasbrouck's screech owl, 278.on Hoskins's pygmy owl, 434.on Kennicott's screech owl, 267.on Mexican screech owl, 274.on prairie falcon, 29, 31, 33.on Queen Charlotte owl, 242.on Rocky Mountain screech owl,270.on saguaro screech owl, 282.on Sanford's elf owl, 444.on screech owls, 259.on Siberian hawk owl, 375.on spotted screech owl, 286, 288,289.on Texas elf owl, 444.on Texas screech owl, 265.on Whitney's elf owl, 442.on Xantus's screech owl, 285.(See also under Baird, S. F.)ridgwayi, Glaucidium brasilianum, 435.Riley, J. H., viii.Roberts, T. S., on coast pygmy owl, 434.on great gray owl, 215, 219.on prairie falcon, 19.Robertson, J. McB., on Pasadenascreech owl, 281.on western burrowing owl, 388.Rockwell, R. B., on eastern sparrowhawk, 108.on Montana horned owl, 349, 351,354.on Rocky Mountain screech owl,270-272.Rockwell, R. B., and Blickensderfer,Clark, on saw-whet owl, 232, 234.Rocky Mountain pygmy owl, 401.Rocky Mountain screech owl, 270.
INDEX 479Roosevelt, Theodore, on Rocky Moun-tain pygmy owl, 406.Rosenius, Paul, 93.Ross, B. R., on American hawk owl, 376Ross, James C, 223.rostrata, Speotyto cunicularia, 395.Rowan, William, 409.on merlin, 92, 93, 94.on Richardson's'pigeon hawk, 86, 88.Rowley, J. S., viii.on dwarf horned owl, 342.on San Lucas sparrow hawk, 125.on Xantus's screech owl, 285.Rubey, W. W., on northern barred owl.186.Ruhl, H. D., on northern barred owl,192.Russell, J. W., on short-eared owl, 179.rusticolus, Falco, 2, 17.rusticolus candicans, Falco, 1, 17.rusticolus uralensis, Falco, 2, 8, 10, 15.Ryder, George, 251.Saguaro screech owl, 282.St. Michael horned owl, 344.Salt, W. R., 357.Samuels, E. A., 47.sanfordi, Micropsias whitneyi, 411.Sanford's elf owl, 444.San Lucas sparrow hawk, 124.saturatus, Bubo virginianus, 321, 330,341, 342, 343, 348, 347.Saunders, A. A., on northern barredowl, 197.on Rocky Mountain pygmy owl,402.on short-eared owl, 172, 173, 178.Saunders, F. A., 224.Saunders, W. E., 77.on saw-whet owl, 237.Savary, W. B., viii.on Audubon's caracara, 133.on western horned owl, 324.Saw-whet owl, 228.Saxbv, H. L., on merlin, 91, 94.Scheel, H., 90.Schi0ler, E. L., on kestrel, 1C0.on merlin, 90.on peregrine falcon, 42.Schnack, Charles, on California pygmyowl, 413.Schorger, A. W., on Richardson's owl,221.Schroder, H. H., viii.Schroeder, Kujto, 130.Schuster, Ludwig, on kestrel, 103.Schutze, A. E., on Audubon's caracara,129, 133.Sclater, W. L., on Montana horned owl,348, 351.on prairie falcon, 20, 33.on Rockv Mountain pvgmy owl,404, 408.Scops asio, 266.mccalli, 265.scotaea, Nyctala acadica, 242.Scotiaptex lapponica, 219, 220.nebulosa barbata, 219.nebulosa nebulosa, 213, 220.
Scott, W. E. D., 239.on American barn owl, 112.on sparrow hawk, 108.Screech owl, Aiken's 275.Brewster's, 280.California, 266.eastern, 243.ib.mmulatcd, 291.Florida, 263.Hasbrouck's, 278.Kennicott's, 267.MacFarlane's, 277.Mexican, 276.Pasadena, 2S1
.
Rocky Mountain, 270.saguaro, 282.southern, 259.spotted, 286.Texas, 265.Xantus's, 284.Seebohm, Henry, on merlin, 91.Sennett, G. B., on Audubon's caracara,129.on ferruginous pygmy owl, 435.on Texas screech owl, 265.septentrioiialis, Falco fusco-coerules-cens, 96.Sebon, E. T., on American hawk owl,380, 381.on eastern pigeon hawk, 77.on great horned owl, 295.on long-eared owl, L65.on Richardson's owl, 220.Sharp, A. R., Jr., on northern barredowl, 187.Sharp, C. S., on California pygmy owl,413.Shaver, G. D., 269, 332.Shaw, W. A., on kestrel, 103.Shaw, W. T., and Taylor, W. P., onCalifornia pygmy owl, 426, 427.on saw-whet owl, 235.Shellev, L. O., on eastern pigeon hawk,"76.on eastern screech owl, 256.on eastern sparrow hawk, 113.on great horned owl, 307, 308, 315,317.on northern barred owl, 160, 193,194.on saw-whet owl, 234.Sherman, Althea R., on eastern screechowl, 246, 247, 248, 253.on eastern sparrow hawk, 109, 110.Short-eared owl, 169.Shufeldt, R. W., 276.Siberian gray owl, 219.Siberian hawk owl, 374.Sillowav, P. M., on Montana hornedowl, 349.on Rocky Mountain pygmy owl,407.Simmons, G. F., on Audubon's cara-cara, 127.on Hasbrouck's screech owl, 279,2S0.Skinner, M. P., viii.on California pygmy owl, 410.
480 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMSkinner, M. P., on coast pygmy owl, 430.on dusky horned owl, 330.on Montana horned owl, 348.on Pacific horned owl, 333.on prairie falcon, 18.on Rocky Mountain pvgmy owl,401.on Vancouver pygmy owl, 428.on western horned owl, 322.on western pigeon hawk, 89.Smith, George, on Pacific horned owl,338.Smith, H. A. P., on great horned owl,319.Smith, P. W., Jr., 300.Smith, W. A., 128.Smith, W. G., 271, 402.on flammulated screech owl, 292.Smyth, E. A., Jr., on eastern sparrowhawk, 113.Snowy owl, 358.Snyder, L. L., on American hawk owl,378.Soper, J. D., on great horned owl, 319.Southern screech owl, 259.Sparrow hawk, desert, 121.eastern, 106.little, 125.San Lucas, 124.sparverius, Falco sparverius, 106.sparverius deserticolus, Falco, 121, 124.sparverius isabellinus, Cerchneis, 125.sparverius paulus, Falco, 119, 125.sparverius peninsularis, Falco, 119, 124.sparverius phalaena, Falco, 119, 121,124.sparverius sparverius, Falco, 106.Speotyto cunicularia amaura, 394.cunicularia cunicularia, 395.cunicularia floridana, 394, 396.cunicularia guadeloupensis, 394.cunicularia hypugaea, 384, 397.cunicularia rostrata, 395.cunicularia troglodytes, 394.floridana floridana, 396.Spotted screech owl, 286.Spotted owl, California, 202.Mexican, 209.Sprunt, Alexander, Jr., on Americanbarn owl, 150.on duck hawk, 59.Stapleton, R. P., 61.Steidl, John, on eastern sparrow hawk,113.Stejneger, Leonhard, 365.on Asiatic gyrfalcon, 16.Stephens, Frank, 441.on California spotted owl, 206.on ferruginous pygmy owl, 437.on Whitney's elf owl, 442.Stockard, C. R., on Florida barred owl,198, 199.on sparrow hawk, 110.Stone, C. F., on great horned owl, 305,317.Stoney, C. V., 106.Storer, T. I., 423. .
Storer, T. I., and Grinnell, Joseph, onAmerican barn owl, 149.on California pygmy owl, 424, 426.on California spotted owl, 206.on great gray owl, 213, 219.on long-eared owl, 157, 161, 163,164.on Pacific horned owl, 338, 340.Strecker, J. K., Jr., on Audubon'scaracara, 130.Strigidae, 153.Strigiformes, 140.Strix aluco, 174.asio, 243.nebulosa, 197.occidentalis caurina, 208, 210, 434.occidentalis huachucae, 209, 210.occidentalis lucida, 208, 209.occidentalis occidentalis, 202, 208,210.varia albescens, 201.varia alleni, 197.varia brunnescens, 201.varia helveola, 197, 201.varia varia, 182.Stuart, E. T., Jr., viii.Stuart, G. H., 3d, viii.subaesalon, Falco aesalon, 90, 95.subarticus, Bubo virginianus, 320 321,328, 348.subbuteo, Falco, 88, 93.Suckley, George, 31.suckleyi, Falco columbarius, 70, 82, 83,89.Sugden, J. W., on desert sparrow hawk,123.on western horned owl, 324.Sumner, E. L., Jr., 140, 302.on American barn owl, 142, 144.on long-eared owl, 158, 159.on Pacific horned owl, 336, 337,338, 339, 340.on Pasadena screech owl, 281.Sumner, Mrs. Florence A., on Californiascreech owl, 266.Surface, H. A., on great horned owl, 312.Surnia ulula caparoch, 375.ulula pallasi, 374, 384.ulula ulula, 375.Sutton, G. M., on black pigeon hawk, 84.on eastern screech owl, 251, 252.on great horned owl, 312.on long-eared owl, 161.on northern barred owl, 191, 192.on snowy owl, 359, 360, 362, 368,369.Swainson, William, and Richardson,John, on American hawk owl. 376.Swales, B. H., and Taverner, P. A., oneastern pigeon hawk, 77.on saw-whet owl, 238.Swann, H. K., on Guadalupe caracara,137.on pigeon hawk, 73.Swarth, H. S., 348.on black pigeon hawk, 85.on California pygmy owl, 413.
INDEX 481Swarth, H. S., on flammulated screechowl, 291.on great gray owl, 216.on Guadalupe caracara, 137.on Peale's falcon, 70.on prairie falcon, 19, 32.on saguaro screech owl, 282, 283.on spotted owls, 209, 210.on Vancouver pygmy owl, 429, 430.on western pigeon hawk, 89.swarthi, Glaucidium gnoma, 409, 428.Syrnium nebulosum, 201.nebulosum alleni, 201.occidentale, 208, 209.occidentale caurinum, 209.occidentale lucidum, 209.Taning, A. V., 90.Taverner, P. A., on California pygmyowl, 421, 427.on prairie falcon, 25, 33, 37, 38.on Richardson's owl, 223.on Rocky Mountain pygmy owl,405.Taverner, P. A., and Swales, B. EL, oneastern pigeon hawk, 77.on saw-whet owl, 238.Taylor, H. R., on Pacific horned owl,335.on western pigeon hawk, 89.Taylor, W. P., and Shaw, W. T., onCalifornia pygmy owl, 426, 427.on saw-whet owl, 235.Tengmalm's owl, 228.Terrill, L. M., on long-eared owl, 157,166.on saw-whet owl, 231, 232, 237,239.Texas barred owl, 201.Texas elk owl, 444.Texas screech owl, 265.Thaxter, Mrs. Celia, on snowy owl, 368.Thayer, J. E., viii.Thayer, J. E., and Bangs, Outram, onGuadalupe caracara, 137.Thompson, Paul, on burrowing owl, 390.Thompson, Walcott, 155.Thoreau, H. D., on eastern screech owl,256.Ticehurst, C. B., on kestrel, 105.tinnunculus, Falco tinnunculus, 99.Tomkins, I. R., on American barn owl,142, 151.on eastern pigeon hawk, 80.on great horned owl, 301.on short-eared owl, 176.Townsend, C. H., on California pygmyowl, 431.Townsend, C. W., viii, 71.on American barn owl, 146.on duck hawk, 55.on eastern pigeon hawk, 76, 79.on long-eared owl, 160, 165.on Richardson's owl, 220.on short-eared owl, 169.Townsend, J. K., on burrowing owl, 393.Treganza, Antwonet, on Montanahorned owl, 351.
trichopsis, Otus, 286.troglodytes, Speotvto cunicularia, 394.Truesdale, Fred, 203.on prairie falcon, 24, 31.Tufts, R. W., 224.on Richardson's owl, 221.Turner, L. M., 220, 344.on American hawk owl, 380.on black gyrfalcon, 10-14.on duck hawk, 50.on eastern pigeon hawk, 80.on Peale's falcon, 69, 70.on Labrador horned owl, 343.on Siberian hawk owl, 374.on white gyrfalcon, 4, 6, 8.Tuttle, H. E., on eastern screech owl,252.TwitcheU, A. H., 375.Twomey, A. C, 214.Tyler, J. G., on Pacific horned owl, 334.on prairie falcon, 22, 24, 28, 32, 33,36, 38.on short-eared owl, 178.Tyler, W. M., viii.on duck hawk, 59.on eastern sparrow hawk, 106.on screech owl, 257.Typical owls, 153.Tyto alba pratincola, 140.Tytonidae, 140.ulula, Surnia ulula, 375.ulula caparoch, Surnia, 375.ulula pallasi, Surnia, 374, 384.ulula ulula, Surnia, 375.uralensis, Falco rusticolus, 2, 8, 10, 15.Urner, C. A., on short-eared owl, 171,172, 173, 177, 178.Ussher, R. J., on kestrel, 105.Vaiden, M. G., viii.Vancouver pygmy owl, 428.Van Rossem, A. J., on flammulatedscreech owl, 291-293.on spotted screech owl, 290.on Whitney's elf owl, 440.varia, Strix varia, 182.varia albescens, Strix, 201.varia alleni, Strix, 197.varia brunnescens, Strix, 201.varia helveola, Strix, 197, 201.varia varia, Strix, 182.Verrill, A. H., on duck hawk, 65.vespertinus, Falco, 100.vinaceus, Megascops, 284.virginianus, Bubo virginianus, 295.virginianus algistus, Bubo, 321, 344, 346.virginianus elachistus, Bubo, 321, 341.virginianus heterocnemis, Bubo, 320,342.virginianus icelus, Bubo, 320, 347.virginianus lagophonus, Bubo, 321, 345.virginianus leucomelas, Bubo, 347.virginianus occidentalis, Bubo, 321, 328,348.virginianus pacificus, Bubo, 321, 333,345, 347.virginianus pallescens, Bubo, 321, 322,357.
482 BULLETIN 17 0, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
virginianus saturatus, Bubo, 321, 330,341, 342, 343, 346, 347.virginianus subarcticus, Bubo, 320, 321,328, 348.virginianus virginianus, Bubo, 295.virginianus wapacuthu, Bubo, 320, 321.Walcott, F. C, viii.wapacuthu, Bubo virginianus, 320, 321.Warburton, Stanton, Jr., viii.Ward, W. B., on great horned owl, 318.Warren, B. H., on eastern pigeon hawk,75.on long-eared owl, 160.Warren, E. R., on Montana horned owl,352, 353, 354.on sparrow hawk, 114.on western horned owl, 327.Warren, E. R., and Aiken, C. E. H., onAiken's screech owl, 276.Wayne, A. T., on eastern pigeon hawk,80.on Florida barred owl, 201.on long-eared owl, 168.Western burrowing owl, 384.Western horned owl, 322.Western pigeon hawk, 89.Weston, A. C, 297.Weston, F. M., on Florida barred owl,200.on Florida screech owl, 264.on Southern screech owl, 259.Wetmore, Alexander, 29.on duck hawk, 56, 58.Wheelock, Mrs. Irene G., on Americanbarn owl, 147.on California screech owl, 266.on desert sparrow hawk, 122.on western burrowing owl, 384.Whitaker, J. R., on Labrador hornedowl, 343.White gyrfalcon, 1.Whitfield, Mrs. C. J., on Mexicanscreech owl, 275.whitneyi, Micropallas, 436.Micropallas whitneyi, 438, 444.whitneyi idoneus, Micropallas, 444.whitneyi sanfordi, Micropallas, 444.whitneyi whitneyi, Microi3allas, 438, 444.Whitney's elf owl, 438,Whittle, C. L., 224.
Whittle, Mrs. Helen G., on Richardson'sowl, 224.Widmann, Otto, on great horned owl,316.Wilkinson, G. N., on great horned owl.307.Willard, F. C, 48, 212, 283, 440, 441.on flammulated screech owl, 292.on prairie falcon, 30.Willard, Mrs. F. C, viii.Willett, George, on California pygmyowl, 413.Williams, H. V., on Montana hornedowl, 348.Wilson, Alexander, 153.Wilson, L. K., on California pygmyowl, 412, 419, 426.Wilson, R. R., on eastern screech owl,245.wilsonianus, Asio, 153.Winge, Herluf, on kestrel, 99.on peregrine falcons, 42.Winson, J. W., 401.on Rocky Mountain pygmy owl,407.Witherby, H. F., on black gyrfalcon, 12,13.on European merlin, 74.on gyrfalcons, 2.on kestrel, 104.on merlin, 94.on short-eared owl, 173, 174.on Tengmalm's owl, 222.Wolfe, L. R., on Richardson's owl, 223.Wolfe, Rav, on Montana horned owl,350, 351, 357.Wood, J. C., on short-eared owl, 171.Worthington, W. W., on short-earedowl, 178.Wright, G. M., on desert smrrow hawk,123.Wvlie, L. S., on western horned owl,328.Wyman, L. E., and Burnell, E. F., onCalifornia pygmy owl, 425.Wythe, Miss M. W., viii.Xantus, John, 202.xantusi, Otus asio, 262, 284.Xantus's screech owl, 2S4.o



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