PARSES RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL OBJECTS IN THEUNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM.^By I. M. Casanowicz,Assistant Curator, Division of Old ^VorUl Archeology, United States NationalMuseum.INTRODUCTION.THE PABSEES.The Parsees are the descendants of the ancient Persians, who, atthe overthrow of their country by the Arabs in G41 A. D., remainedfaithful to Zoroastrianism, which was, for centuries previous to theMohammedan conquest, the state and national religion of Persia.They derive their name of Parsees from the province of Pars orFars, broadly employed for Persia in general. According to thecensus of 1911 the number of Parsees in India, including Aden, theAndaman Islands, and Ceylon, the Straits Settlements, China, andJapan, amounted to 100,499, of whom 80,980 belonged to the BombayPresidency.2 About 10,000 are scattered in their former homeland ofPersia, mainly in Yezd and Kerman, where they are Imown by thename of Gebers, Guebers, or Gabars, derived by some from the ArabicKafir, infidel.zoroaster (avesta, zarathushtea ; pahlavi texts, zartdsht ; modern persian,zaeddsht).The religious beliefs and practices of the Parsees are based on theteachings of Zoroaster, the Prophet of the ancient Iranians ; that is,those Aryans who at an unknown early date separated from the Aryo-Indians and spread from their old seats on the high plateau northof the Hindu Kush westward into Media and Persia on the greatplateau between the plain of the Tigris in the west and the valley ofthe Indus in the east, the Caspian Sea and the Turanian desert inlA brief description of part of tlie collection described in this paper appeared in theAmerican Anthropologist, new series, vol. 5,. 1003, pages 71-75, with 2 plates. Sincethen additions have been made to the collection, and as the article in the AmericanAnthropologist is, moreover, not accessible to the general public, it was deemed feasibleto give here a description of the enlarged collection with a fuller exposition of thereligious tenets and rites of the Parsees.2 .James Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, vol. 9, p. 641.No. 2432-Proceedings U. S. National Museum. Vol. 61. Art. 1 1. 1 2 PEOCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM. yol. 61.the north, and the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean in the south,surrounded on all sides by high mountain ranges, with a great saltdesert in the center.There are few authentic data about Zoroaster and his life. Con-cei-ning the age in which he lived there is wide diversity. Greekwriters assigned him dates ranging between 6,500 B. C. and 2,000B. C, while some native sources and many modern scholars place himin the seventh century B. C. But the fact that by the sixth centuryB. C. Zoroastrianism had taken root in Persia, where it did notoriginate, as evidenced from the Behistun inscription of DariusHystaspis (521-i85 B. C), which show him a worshiper of Ahura-Mazda, the supreme god of the Zoroastrian faith, and that it waswell known to the classical authors from the sixth century on as theestablished religion at least of Media, would seem to accord best withthe date of about 1,000 B. C, assumed by some scholars. The ques-tion of the birthplace of Zoroaster is also a subject of dispute, butwestern Iran, probably Atropatene, the mountainous district ofancient Media, corresponding nearly to the modern province ofAzerbaijan in Persia, is commonly believed to be the region in whichhe arose. Tradition is quite in accord that Bactria in Eastern Iran,about the modern district of Balkh in Afghanistan, was the stage ofZoroaster's life and work.Legend made of Zoroaster, as of other great religious teachers, aglorified and supernatural man. He was born in a miraculous wayby immaculate conception, his soul having been kept in the sacredHaoma plant, till God's glory had purified his mother's body. Athis birth all creation laughed with joy, while the evil demons fledaghast. When grown he was conducted by an archangel into thepresence of God and in glory unutterable received divine revelations.After seven visions he was tempted by Angra-Mainyu (Ahriman),the Evil One, who, foreseeing the discomfiture he and his creatureswere to suffer at Zoroaster's hands, first sent demon emissaries tokill him, but Zoroaster routed him by reciting the confession of faith,not to speak of rocks as big as houses that he had ready to pelt thedevils with, defiantly declaring his purpose to destroy the fiends'creation. Angra-Mainyu thereupon offered him vast possessions andearthly dominion if he renounced the good religion {daena). ButZoroaster rejects the offer and declares that he will put the devilsto flight with the apparatus of vv-orship and the holy words. There-upon the whole host, with cries of terror, precipitately flee down tothe world of darkness.What with some plausibility can be gathered from Zoroaster's ownwords and the earliest parts of the Zoroastrian scriptures, is thathe was a man of good birth, belonging to the noble family of Spitama, AET. 11. PAESEE CEREMOIs^IAL OBJECTS CASANOWICZ. 6and pure niitiire, who arose as a prophet and reformer of the oldreligion of the Iranians. At first his preaching met with much oppo-sition and for years was without eilect. But at last he succeeded inwinning the king Hystaspes (Vishtap, Gushtap, not to be confoundedwith Hystaspes, the father of Darius) for his teaching, and withhis aid converted by force in religious warfare the whole kingdom.At the age of 77 the aged warrior-prophet fell in one of these religiouswars, while fighting against the fierce Turanians?says tradition.(Plate 1.) TUB .SACRED LITERATURE OF THE PARSEBS.The oldest and original Zoroastrian literature goes under the gen-eral name of Avesta or Zend Avesta, which is rendered, " text " or" law " and commentary. It consists of the following divisions : 1. Yas?ia, the chief liturgical work and the oldest and most sacredpart of the Avesta, including as it does the 6-athas, hymns or psalmscomposed in an older dialect, some of which may have been com-posed by Zoroaster himself.2. Visparad, containing minor litanies, invocations to the variouschiefs of the spiritual and terrestrial creation.3. Yashfs, invocations and hymns to the ancient Iranian divini-ties and heroes.4. Khorcla Avesta, or Little Avesta, comprising minor liturgicaltexts, as the Nyaishes and Gahs, or the five daily prayers, theAfringans, or benedictions, etc., a kind of extract from the Avestafor laymen.5. Vendidad, a code of religious and civil laws and precepts, akind of Zoroastrian Pentateuch.^Besides the Avesta scriptures, the language of which is akin toSanskrit, the Parsee religious literature includes many works of alater date written in other languages, chiefly in Pahlavi. Amongthese are the Dinkard, the Bundahish, the historical account of thereformer-king Ardeshir, the vision of Arda Viraf in his journeythrough heaven and hell, a crude forerunner of Dante, and hisDivina Commedia, etc. ZOKOASTRIAN THEOLOGY.The supreme figure in Zoroastrianism is Ormuzd {Ahura-Mazda,"Wise Spirit," properly "Lord Wisdom"), the all-wise Lord, theGod, who made heaven and earth and all that is therein, who gov-sThe present Avestti. which equals perhaps one-tenth of the Bible in extent, is believedto be but a small remnant of the original Zoroastrian sacred literature which was lor.tduring the invasions of Persia by Alexander the Great (330 B. C.) and the Arabs(641 A. D.). According to the Arabian chronicler Tabari (died 923 A. D.) the Persiansacred scriptures were ir.scribed on 12,000 cowhides, and Hermippus, a Greek philosopherof the third century B. C, credits Zoroaster with the composition of 2,000,000 verses. 4 PEOCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM. vol.61. eriis everj'thing with wisdom, righteousness, and goodness. Asso-ciated with him in the government of the world as his ministers arethe Amshaspands {Amesha Spentas^ "Immortal Holy Ones"): 1,Vohu Mano, good mind (the good principle, the idea of good thatworks in man, inclining him to what is good) ; 2, Asha, right (asconformity to the moral law and order) ; 3, Kshathra, the wislied-for kingdom (the Kingdom of God) ; 4, Armaiti, devotion (humblepiety, reverence for the Divine) ; 5, Haurvatat, welfare or perfec-tion; and 6, Amertat, immortality. With these six, to make up thesacred seven, Sraosha, the genius of obedience, of " faithful hear-ing," is sometimes joined. They were at first mere attributes of God,or personified qualities and ideals of human character in the likenessof God; later certain specified parts of the world were put undertheir care; they were also assigned to different days and months,and each has a peculiar flower and color.Besides the Amshaspands, who are termed the " children " ofOrmuzd, or may be designated as archangels, the Avesta mentionssome minor spiritual beings of the celestial hierarchy, such as theYazatas (modern Izads) , " worshipful or holy ones," ordinary angels ; the Fravashis^ protecting spirits, who help men in battle and accom-pany souls to the next world, and some mere abstractions, as Arshtat,watchfulness; Parendi^ riches; Ashi^ rectitude, etc.Over against the realm of law and righteousness {asha) , ruled byOrmuzd and his beneficent ministering spirits, is the sphere of theLie (druj) and wickedness, dominated by Ahriman {Angra-Mainyu," enemy spirit") at the head of the daevas^ a body of malevolent andharmful powers. The relation of the opposing powers is variouslyrepresented in the different parts of the Zoroastrian scriptures. Inthe earlier Avesta (the Gathas) two primeval principles or causes oflight and darkness, of life and death, of good and evil, personified inSpenta-lSIainyu, the Holy Spirit of Ahura-Mazda, and Angra-Mainyu, respectively, are assumed, both being subordinate to andunited in Ahura-Mazda. As they met they produced life and unlife,determining how at last there should be for the wicked the worststate, and for the righteous the "best mind." Zoroaster is made tosay : " In the beginning there was a pair of twins, two spirits, each ofa peculiar activity. These are the good and the base in thought,word, and deed. Choose one of these two spirits. Be good, not base.AVhen the two spirits came together at the first to make life and death(not life) and to determine how the world at the last shall be for thewicked the worst life, for the holy the best mental state." In theyounger Avesta (especially in the Bundahish) the distinction be-tween the Holy Spirit and God is not preserved, both being identified,so that the opposition thenceforth stands between Ahriman and ART. 11. PARSEE CEREMONIAL OBJECTS?CASANOWICZ. 5Ormuzd, and the conflict between them is extended from the moralsphere?the antithesis of good and evil as a fact in human life?tothe physical realm. The ethical dualism hardened into a theologicaldualism. Over against Ormuzd stands Ahriman as an evil being ofsupernatural power at the head of the host of malevolent spirits, thecause of all that is evil and noxious in the world. Each of theamshaspands has for an opponent some archfiend (Akemmano, An-dra, Saurva, Taro-Maiti, Tauru, Zairirica, and Aeshma (r=Asmodeus,Tobit iii, 8; vi, 15). Below these stand the daevas, drujes, pairikas(peris), yatus, etc. Unceasing warfare goes on between these oppo-site powers. Ormuzd makes: Ahriman mars. The one dwells inendless light, the other in eternal darkness. To Ahriman are at-tributed the creation of all evil things. He created the killing coldof winter and the intemperate heat; serpents, locusts, ants, rapine,and lust; magic and witchcraft; pride, doubt, and unbelief; evilspirits, demons, and men of devilish character, beasts of prey andnoxious vermin ; floods and droughts ; and the nine hundred andninety-nine diseases the flesh is heir to are Ahriman's inventions.The dualism implied in the Zoroastrian doctrine is saved from be-ing a dyo-theism in so far as Ahriman is never the equal of Ormuzd.Ahriman is neither omniscent nor almighty. He possesses only"backward knowledge"; he can not foresee. Hence, he is always toolate in his machinations. Moreover, Ormuzd's limitation of power ismerely temporary. Ahriman is coeval with Ormuzd but not co-eternal. His doom is fixed. At the last judgment his creatureswill perish and he himself will be banished from the regeneratedearth.*The Parsees protest against the imputation of dualism to theirtheological system. The primeval principles of good and evil (Vo-humano and Akemmano, or Spenta-Mainyu and Angra-Mainyu),the Parsees claim, were, though opposed to each other, united inevery existing being, even in Ahura-Mazda himself, and by theirunion produced the world of material things and of spiritual exist-ences, while the Dastoor (high priest) Rastamji declares: "Byangra-mainyu nothing is meant but man's evil spirit or thought.Man receives from Ahura-Mazda the gifts of superior powers, abuses * " The dualism of Zoioastrianism is an attempt to accouut for the evil of the presentworld, physical as well as moral, upon the premises of an ethical theism which can notadmit that God is the author of any kind of evil. But because God is almighty as well asperfectly good, it can as little admit that evil, even In hell, is a permanent factor in theuniverse. The Zoroastrian theologians were concerned with the solution of the ethicalproblem rather than with the remoter problem which their solution raised. The evilspirit appears on the scene lilje a diabolua ex machina ; whether he was eternal they donot seem to have asked, nor would they probably have been much disturbed if their logichad carried them to that conclusion, for since they did not define God metaphysically asthe infinite and eternal, but as the good, an eternal devil would not thereby become God."(George Foot Moore, History of Religions, New York, 1913, vol. 1, p. 405.) 6 PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM. vol.61.them, and by abusing causes all moral and physical disturbances inhimself and in the condition of the world he lives in."^ There isno question that the modern Parsees are monotheists.ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS.Zoroastrianism is a religion of struggle and exertion. The cardi-nal doctrine that the world is a great battle field, on which beneficientpowers ceaselessly contend with baleful forces is one of the hingeson which the entire system of Zoroastrian ethics turns. Man is nota passive spectator of this war on whose issue his fortune in timeand eternity depends, but a combatant in the thick of the fight.Every man, being treated as a free agent, is by his own choice ar-rayed under one banner or the other, contending for the good worldor the bad.The moral teachings of Zoroaster are summed up in the triad:good thoughts, good words, good deeds {humata, hukhta^ hvarsKta;contrast: du^hmata^ duzhukhta, duzhvarshta) . Character lies notin overt act alone, but in the inner springs of conduct. The virtuesinculcated n:iay be comprised in general terms as purity alike of bodyand soul, uprightness, humility, obedience, peaceableness, charity, andbenevolence. In addition to these good qualities particular stress islaid upon truthfulness and the faithful keeping of one's word andpledge. " Never break an agreement, O Spitama, neither one thatyou make with a wicked man nor with an upright man of your ownreligion; for an agreement holds with both wicked and upright."Next to falsehood and deceit making debts is to be shunned, for thatleads to lying and fraud."The tilling of the soil, the reclamation of waste land by rootingout w^eeds and thorns, and extending irrigation to make grain andfruits grow is part of jDractical religion. " Who makes glad the earth?He who plants the most grain, grass, and fruit trees, who bringswater to a field where there is none and draws it off where there istoo much. . . . How is the Mazdaean religion nourished? By zealous-ly sowing grain. He who sows grain sows good. . . ." The usefulanimals, especially cattle and dogs, are to be kindly treated, well fedand cared for; cruelty and neglect are grave sins, wanton killingof cattle a crime. On the other hand, the destruction of beasts ofprey and noxious vermin is a highly meritorious act. B Rastamji Eduljl Dastoor Peshotan, Zerathushtra and Zarathushtrianism in the Avesta.Leipzig, 1006, p. 159 ; compare also Dosabhai Framjl Karaka, History of the Parsis,London, vol. 2, p. 187; Martin Haug, Essays on the Sacred Language, Writings, andReligion of the Parseos, Bombay, 1862, p. 258."Compare Herodotus, book 1, ?? 136 and 138 : " Beginning with the age of 5 years to20,. they [the Persians] instruct their sons in three things: to ride, to use the bow, andto speak truth. ... To tell a lie is considered by them the greatest disgrace ; next tothat, to be in debt, and this for many reasons, but especially because they think that onewho is in debt must of necessity tell lies." ART. 11. PAKSEE CEREMONIAL OBJECTS CASANOWICZ. 7Zoroastrianism did not ignore the body for the elevation of the souLPhysical culture was extolled, and it allowed generally a whole-souledenjoyment of life. Wealth and a large family are signs of virtue. "Hewho has children is far better than he who is childless ; he who hasriches is far better than he who has none. ..."''The Parsees, constituting one of the smallest religious communitiesin the world, occupy a most prominent place among the several na-tionalties and religious sects of India, and exemplify in their life thetrue worth of the teachings of the great Prophet of Iran. They up-hold the best of the tenets of the old faith with regard to religiousobservations. They are distinguished by temperance, purity of life,energy, enterprise, and capacity, and their reputation for benevolenceand generosity toward all men is world-wide.THE HEREAFTER, OR ESCHATOLOGY IN ZOROASTRIAN THEOLOGY.God's righteous rule involves the idea of judgment and retribu-tion, and Zoroastrian eschatology provides a judgment both forthe individual and for the world. The judgment of individualstakes place at death, in which each man's destiny is determined byhis religion and by his thoughts, words, and deeds in this life. Afterdeath the soul lingers three days and three nights near the body.During these intervening days the soul of the pious tastes " as muchof felicity and joy as the entire living world can taste," and thesoul of the wicked tastes " as much of misery as the entire livingworld can taste." On the fourth day at dawn the soul sets out onits journey to the place of judgment at the chinvat bridge. To therighteous comes a perfumed breeze wafted as it were from the south,while the wicked is struck by a cold blast as out of the demonicnorth, laden with foul stench. At the bridge ^lithra, Sraosha, andRashnu sit in judgment.^ Rashnu weighs the merits and demeritsof the departed on an "undeceiving" golden scale, and his fate isdecided according to the result of the weighing, whether the goodworks or the bad ones tipped the scales. Thereupon the soul has tocross the chinvat bridge, which is spanning the abyss of hell. Tothe good soul it appears to be nine spear-lengths, or even a parasang(between three and four miles) wide, lead by a fair maiden?the 7 Zarathustrian doctrine is the first serious attempt to conform material interests andduties with the spiritual needs and longings of mankind, and to reconcile the temporalwith the eternal, by regarding the former as reflecting and preparing for the latter. Thereligious root-idea of Zarathushtrism, when first distinctly expressed, which, as historyshows, has not remained fruitless, ia tliat the life of the pious is a sacred labor andstruggle, cor.stantly directed against the evil and impure in what we are wont to dis-tinguish as the world of nature and that of the spirit, in order that both may at lastbe thoroughly purified?in short, that every pious man,, according to his abUity, is afellow-worker with God." (C. P. Tiele, Elements of the Science of Religion, Edinburghand London, 1897, vol. 1, p. 192.)8 Parallel to Minos, Aeacus, and Rhadamanthus, the three judges of the dead, inGreek mythology.20107?22?Proc. N. M. vol. 61 12 8 PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM. vol.61.embodiment of his good deeds and pious observances, and guidedby the good dogs, who keep watch over the bridge. Through thethree forecourts of good thoughts, good words, good deeds the soulpasses into the "infinite light," or "light eternal" (Garonmana,"house of songs"), the abode of Ahura-Mazda with the archangelsand the spirits of the just, where it is regaled with angels' food andset on a richly adorned throne. "Forever and everlasting theyremain in all glory with the angels of the spiritual existenceseternally."Very different is the lot of the wicked. A demon lassoes hissoul with his evil noose and drags him to the bridge, where Eashnuwith his balances detects all his wickedness. His evil ways con-front him in a foul hag whose ugliness is the expression of hischaracter. He finds no helper, becomes frightened on the hair-broad bridge and tumbles down into the abyss. Through the vesti-bules of evil thoughts, evil v^^ords, evil deeds he arrives in the" infinite darkness," the " home of the Lie " (druj) , where the Avickeddead surround him, the demons mock him, and Angra-Mainyu bidsbring him loathsome and poisonous food. "And until resurrectionhe must be in hell in much misery and torments of many kinds."If the good deeds are equal to the bad ones he goes to the place called"equilibrium" (Hamesfakan). The suffering here is slight, beingonly a change from cold to heat, inclement cold and burdensomeheat following one after the other.But hell is not eternal, and the bliss of souls in heaven and theirtorments in hell are not the final state of mankind. When thepresent world age is at an end there will be a great assize and ageneral judgment for all mankind. According to Zoroastrian cosmicchronology the whole drama of the world will be played out in acycle of 12,000 3'ears, divided into four periods of 3,000 years each.The first 3,000 j^ears is the period of purely spiritual existences, asmodels ?f the future types of things. In the second period Ormuzdcreates the material world. In the third Ahriman breaks into thecreation of God. This is the age of human history characterized bythe conflict between the rival powers of good and evil. At the begin-ning of the fourth period (anno mundi 9,000) Zoroaster appears,and at its close the great consummation begins. Saoshyant, theSavior, born miraculously of a pure maiden from the seed of Zoro-aster Avhich was hidden for thousands of years in the Seistan lake,in which she bathes, will appear, and all the dead will be raised,their bodies being reconstituted of their original materials. Therisen dead will be assembled in one place and will know one another ; the deeds of all will be manifest. Then the righteous and the wickedwill be separated, the former going to heaven, while the latter arecast into hell to be punished in the body for three days, certain mon-sters of iniquity being subjected to exemplary sufferings. When this AHT. 11. PAESEE CEREMONIAL OBJECTS CASANOWICZ. Vis over, the fire will melt the metal in the mountains till it over-pours the whole world and makes it pure. To the righteous it will belike warm milk; to the wicked it will be like molten metal. Sao-shyant then sacrifices the ox Hadhayous, and of his marrow andthe juice of the Haoma is prepared the ambrosia which is given tothe righteous as the food of immortality. All men become of onespeech. Those who died old are restored to the age of forty, and ifyoung to that of fifteen.^ Ahriman and his hordes of evil spirits willhe conquered and slain, or driven unresisting into outer darlmess.Hell itself is purified by the molten metal and added to the earth.And in this enlarged world, where there will be no more ice and nomore mountains, which had been created by the evil one, men are tobe immortal, and to live forever united with their families and rela-tions, but without further offspring, in pure and peaceful bliss.^"THE COLLECTION.1. Fire urn.?Brass, nickel-plated. The Zoroastrian ritual consistsmainly in the tending of the sacred fire and in the offering of Haoma.On account of the former part of the worship the Zoroastriaris arefrequently denominated "fire worshipers." The Parsees reject thisimputation with indignation. They pay reverence, not worship, tofire as bearing by reason of its brightness, activity, purity, and incor-ruptibility the most perfect resemblance to the nature and perfec-tions of the supreme God, and therefore as his most adequate symbol.All the elements, as the pure creatures of Ahura-Mazda, are investedby the Zoroastrians with sanctity, but fire especially was consideredas the earthly form of the heavenly light, the eternal, infinite, divine,the first creature of Ahura-Mazda, and in the Avestan scriptures, " Accordins to another version, vegetarians are raised young, and the eaters of flesh asof middle age.1" Mohammedan eschatology has borrowed much from the Zoroastrian. The conscienceof the departed is in the Mohammedan version personated in a male figiire in place ofthe female of Zoroaster's system. " To the good a man with beautiful face comes, ele-gantly dressed and perfumed, .and says : ' Be joyful in that which made thee so ; this isthe day which was promised thee.' Then the dead person says to him : ' Who art thou,for thy face is perfectly beautiful?' And the man replies: 'I am thy good deeds.' Tothe wicked a man with a hideous countenance comes, shockingly dressed and of a vilesmell, and says : ' Be joyful in that which makes thee miserable, for this is the day whichwas promised thee.' Then the dead man says: ' Wlio art thou? Thy face is hideousand brings wickedness.' He says : ' I am thy impure deeds.' " The balance (mizan) isheld by the angel Gabriel and is so vast in size that its two scales, one of which haugsover paradise and the other over hell, are capacious enough to contain both heaven andearth. The bridge which is laid over hell, and named by the Mohammedans Cirat (prop-erly, road, path), is finer than a hair and sharper than the edge of a razor and beseton each side with briars and hooked thorns. The good will pass with wonderful easeand swiftness, like lightning or the wind, Mohammed leading the way, while the wickedwill miss their footing and fall down into hell which is gaping beneath them. (T. P.Hugh, Dictionary of Islam, 1885,. pp. 79, SO, 543, and 544.) The bridge of separationhas also a parallel in the log over which the American Indian has to come to get to thehappy hunting grounds. If an Indian has been virtuous (that is, brave) the log letshim over, but otherwise he can not pass over it, but slips into tlie foul swamp neverto emerge. 10 PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM. vol.61.called his son. " I sacrifice to thee, Fire, son of Ormuzcl, and to allfires and all waters and to all plants, for they are all made by God."The Parsee temple {dar-i-mihr or agiaris) is divided into two parts:(1) the adaran^ or place of fire, is a small domed room where the fireis kept burning in a metal urn resting on a stone stool {adasht),with a metal tray hanging from the dome (taj) ; (2) the isishu-gah^a large quadrangular room, divided by small channels (pavls), whichis used for the celebration of ceremonies. According to the qualityof the fire kept within, three grades of temples are distinguished:1, Attash-dagdah, in which the ordinary fire preserved in a firetemple or even in houses and used in sacred ceremonies is kept; itmay be touched both by priests and laymen; 2, Attash-adaran. Theconsecration of the fire requires great ceremonies ; the utmost care istaken in watching it and keeping it perpetually burning ; it may notbe touched by any one but by priests ; 3, Attash-hahran, the highest ofall. The consecration of the fire entails heavy expenses and a longseries of ritual for a year or more. The sacred fire is constantlywatched by priests who have undergone the highest purifications.Its extinction would be regarded by the Parsees as a great calamity.Non-Zoroastrians are excluded from any fire temple.The fire in the fire temple is purified in the following manner:Over a fire taken from various places of manufacture, to which, ifpossible, fire caused by lightning is added, a perforated metal traycontaining small chips of fragrant sandal-wood is held until thechips are kindled by the heat. After a new fire is in this mannerproduced from the impure one, the latter is taken away, dispensed,and extinguished. Again, by means of the heat of this first new fire,another bundle of sandal-wood is ignited, and another fire is pro-duced from it, and the first new fire is then taken way, dispersed,and extinguished. Each of the new fires is treated in the samemanner until the ninth is reached, which, " being derived from theimpure one through seven intermediate fires, more and more distant)from the original impurity, represents the fire in its native purity."The fire in the t-cmple is guarded from every kind of pollution ; is fedwith scrupulously selected wood (the Parsees in Bombay use sandal-wood) ; the priest wears a thick veil, called padcm, over his nose andmouth that his breath may not fall on the fire, his hands are encasedin long gauntlets and the wood is handled with tongs. Five times aday, at the canonical hours (gahs), the priest cleans the room,washes the stone stools on which the fire urn rests, and puts freshwood on the fire. Height, 13^ inches ; diameters, 11^ and 7^, inches.?Bombay, India. (Plate 2, fig. 2, Cat. No. 216051, U.S.N.M.)^^ " Fire altars, not nccessai-ily in temples, were erected all over ancient Iran. Earlyreliefs and coins show tlie king standing before a fire altar under the open sky. Butfrom the Achaemenian times on there were shrines in which the sacred flre was keptburning as at present. AKT. 11. PAESEE CEREMONIAL OBJECTS CASANOWICZ. 112. Fire ladle.?Brass, nickel-plated. The sacred fire and all that isconnected with it must not come into contact with anything that maydefile it. A ladle is therefore used for putting wood chips into thefire urn. Length, lU inches.?Bombay, India. (Plate 2, fig. 1, Cat.No. 216053, U.S.N.m!^)3. Fire tongs.?Bvi^ss, nickel-plated. Used for picking up thewood chips of the sacred fire which would be defiled if touched withthe hands. Length, 13^ inches.?Bombay, India. (Plate 2, fig. 3.Cat. No. 216052, U.S.N.M.)4. Sprigs of the Haoma Plant.?The Haoma (Sanskrit, soma,Pahlavi and Persian, horn), also called moon-plant and swallow-wood, of the milkweed family, Sacrostemma hrevistigma {Asclepiasaclda) . To the juice expressed from its stems were attributed inspir-ing and healing properties, and it played an important part in theritual and sacrifices of ancient India. It was personified and deifiedand worshiped as a god by the Hindus. In the Parsee ritual thehaoma is one of the offerings made in the service of the Yasna. theprincipal of Zoroastrian liturgy, which is recited or chanted by twopriests, known as the Zaoti and Rathvi, before the sacred fire. Thetwigs of the secred plant are washed and purified while reciting aprayer, then laid aside in a metal box for at least thirteen months andthirteen days before using in the ceremony. Under elaborate cere-monies the twigs are pounded in a mortar, the expressed juice ismixed with milk and holy water and strained. The draft thus ob-tained concentrates in itself all the virtues of plants, animals, andthe waters. It is drunk sacramentally by the priests in the course ofthe service, and is administered to the dying as a " draft of immor-tality." The " green haoma " of this world is a type of the " whitehaoma" {hao77ia-i-saphid) of the gaokorena-tree, the emblem of im-mortality. In addition to the haoma the pomegranate and the bar-som (Avesta, haresman) are used in the ceremony. The barsom con-sists of twigs or sprays of a certain plant or, where these are notobtainable, as in winter, of brass rods, from five to thirty-five, tiedin a bundle and held by the priest at a certain point of the sacrifice.Besides the sacred plants the offering comprises small cakes (drana),peculiarly marked, goats' milk (shir), an egg and melted butter(ghee). These are also eaten by the officiating priests in the courseof the service.The true Zoroastrian sacrifice, the Parsees say, is the offering ofgood thoughts, good words, and good deeds.?Yezd, Persia. (Cat.No. 231789, U.S.N.M.) Gift of A. V. Williams Jackson.5. Offering tray.?Brass, nickel-plated. Used in the service of theAfringans, which are prayers from the Khorda-Avesta (see above,p. 3) recited only by priests. They are recited on a carpet spreadon the floor on which are placed, either in a metal tray or on plantain 12 PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM. vol.61.leaves, the choicest fruits and the most fragrant flowers of the season,and glasses filled with fresh milk, pure water, wine, or sherbet.These prayers are recited either with the object of expressing remera^brance of the souls of the departed or with that of invoking the helpof the protecting spirits. Diameter, 17^ inches; depth, 1^ inches. ? Bombay, India. (Plate 3, Cat. No. 216054, U.S.N.M.)6. Offeiing tray.?Brass, nickel-plated. Similar to the preceding,No. 5, only smaller in size. Diameter, 12-^- inches ; depth, If inches.Bombay, India. (Cat. No. 21G055, U.S.N.M.)7. Sudra.?Every Parsee?male or female, f)riest or layman?mustbe invested between the ages of seven and fifteen with two articles ofdress, called sudra (Avesta, anabdata) and the Kusti (Avesta.aiwyaonghanem) . The former is an undershirt of muslin, linen orgauze and is worn next to the skin ; the latter is a girdle made up ofseventy-two threads of white wool, representing the seventy-two chap-ters {has) of the Parsee scriptures, in the sacredness of v,diich theneophyte is figuratively bourid. The investiture with these twosacred garments, called Navzot., which somewhat corresponds to theChristian ceremony of Confirmation, takes place under elaboratesolemn ceremonies and is the first important religious ceremom' per-formed over a Parsee child, consists of two parts: the Nahan andthe Navzot proper. The nahan is the religious ablution. The candi-date is made to sit on three or more stones either in a temple or onthe ground floor of the house and is washed by the priest with con-secrated urine of bulls {viirangY^ and holy water, while reciting cer-tain holy texts. When the w^ashing is done, the candidate is dressedin a pair of trousers and cap with a white clean linen sheet wrappedround the upper part of the body. Pie or she is then conducted intothe room where the navzot proper is to be performed. The candi-date is made to sit on a flat stool facing the east, the emblem of light.The officiating priests take their place on a rich carpet spread onthe floor, while the guests sit around on chairs. A fire is kept burn-ing with sandalwood, frankincense, and other pure fragrant sub-stances. The priests as well as the candidate recite the Patet., thatis, the confession of sins and repentance. After this the candidate isrequired to hold the sudra Avith both hands, and the chief priest, plac-ing his own upon them, causes the candidate to recite the Zoroastrianconfession of faith (Kahna-i-din) : " Most true, full of wisdom andgood is the religion which God has sent through Zoroaster to thisworld. This is the religion of Ahura-Mazda brought to man byZoroaster." Then with the recitation of certain holy texts the chiefpriest removes the linen sheet and puts in its place the sudra. The " Bun's or cow's urine was thought to possess great purifying and medicinal qualitiesand an antiseptic for demonic Infection. It is called in the Avesta gaomeza, rahlavi andPersian, gomez, and when consecrated by special prayers, nirang. ABT. 11. PARSEE CEREMONIAL OBJECTS CASANOWICZ. 13chief priest then passes the kusti round the child's waist three times,to remind the wearer of the three cardinal virtues of the Zoroastrianreligion, namely, good thoughts, good words, and good deeds, and tiesit with four knots, two in front and two behind while chanting a shorthymn. At the first knot he says, " There is only one God, and noother is to be compared with him." At the second, " The religiongiven by Zoroaster is true." At the third, " Zoroaster is the trueprophet, who derived his mission from God." And the fourth,"Perform good actions, and abstain from evil ones." After thisthe candidate is reseated on the stool and the chief priest delivers theRosban^ a short sermon in praise of honesty, truth, and purity. Thisover, he pronounces blessings upon the candidate, throwing over hisor her head small pieces of dry fruits, such as cocoanuts, almonds,raisins, rice, etc.The investiture with the sudra and kusti initiates one into fullmembership of the Zoroastrian community, entitling to being presentin all religious ceremonies and assemblies. And after having under-gone the navzot ceremony the Zoroastrian has to put on the sudraand kusti day and night; the performance of any function of lifewithout wearing these two sacred articles of dress is considered a-sin, called " Running uncovered with sudra and kusti." The cere-mony of untying and retying the kusti {jmdyah kusti) ^ reciting ashort prayer during the process, has to be performed several timesin the day; for instance, early in the morning on rising from bed,before prayers, before meals, after ablutions, etc.If a child die before the performance of the ceremony of navzot,he is considered to have gone back to Ahura-Mazda, who gave him,as pure as he entered this world, having not reached the age of ac-countability.?Bombay, India. (Plate 4, showing the ceremony ofinvestiture with the sudra and kusti, Cat. No. 230800, U.S.N.M.)Gift of Eastamji Edulji Dastoor Peshotan Sanjana, Deputy HighPriest of the Parsees, Bombay, India.8. Costume of a Parsee.?It consists of the sudra and kusti (seeunder the preceding, No. 7), loose cotton trousers, an ample double-breasted coat of cotton, reaching to the ankles, called jama; a belt,called pichori^ made of cotton, about 1 yard wide and several yardsin length, which is folded once and passed round the waist as manytimes as its length will admit; a pair of cotton gloves; a skullcap ofcotton ; and a turban peculiar to the Parsees. It is made of figuredchocolate-colored silk, stiffened, without any rim, and has an anglefrom the top of the forehead. This costume is only used on formaland solemn occasions.The dress of the priests is the same only that it is made solely ofwhite cotton cloth, including the turban.?Bombay, India. (Plate5, Cat. No. 216056, U.S.N.M.) 14 PKOCEEDIiSrOS OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM. vol.61.9. Suit of a Parsee schoolgirl.?It consists of the sudra and kusti(for which see under No. 7) ; trousers of blue silk, richly embroidered;white silk waist, embroidered in various colors; skullcap of cotton; "and a flat, rimless hat, adorned all over with silver embroidery. ? Bombay, India. (Plate 6. showing a Parsee family. Cat. No. 4009,U.S.N.k)10. Toiver of silence (Dakhma) . ?Model of wood, painted. Therules of clean and unclean and the purifications necessary to repairwitting or unwitting infractions of them constitute a large part ofpractical religion of Zoroastrianism. It is the outcome of the beliefthat the elements, fire, water, earth, and air are the creations andsublime gifts of Ahura-Mazda, and that on the preservation of theirpurity depended the weal and welfare of the world. Uncleanlinessin the religious sense is considered a demonic contagion, and thesphere in which the presence and agency of demons is most clearlyseen is death, and here the greatest precautions must be taken. In-expiable is the sin that one commits by bringing a corps, a carcass,or any impure object in contact with the elements. If a corpse befound in the water of a well, a pond, or running stream, the water isnot fit to drink until the corpse is removed and a great part of thevrell or stream is dravrn off. A field in which a dead body is foundlying must remain fallow for a year. The ground in which a bodyhas been buried is unfit for agriculture for fifty years. Even if aman lets fall and remain on earth a bone, a nail, hair, or any likething he commits a grievous sin. The Parsees, accordingl}^, neitherburn or bury their dead nor consign them to water, but expose themon mountain heights upon the so-called toAvers of silence (dakhmas)to be consumed by vultures.The dakhma is a circular structure of stone, from 60 to 90 feet indiameter and from 20 to 30 feet in height, open at the top and re-sembling a gasometer. Inside is a circular platform paved with largestone slabs, called pavis, upon which the dead bodies are laid. Thepavis are ranged in three concentric rows, the outer being for men,the middle for women, and the inner for children. The pavis areseparate from each other by ridges, called dandas, which are aboutan inch in height above the level of the pavis, and channels are cuitinto the pavis for the purpose of conveying all the liquid matter flow-ing from the corpse and rainwater into the pit. The "heaven-sentbirds," which are always in the vicinity, swoop down upon the corpseas soon as it is exposed, and it is said that it is quite stripped of fleshin an hour or two. In the center of the platform is a pit {hhandar)about 30 feet in diameter, from which four drains lead into fourwells sunk in the ground outside of the tower. Into this pit the13 The Parsees consider it sinful to leave the head uncovered either by day or nighthence neither a man nor a female is ever without some head covering. AKT. 11. PAESEE CEREMOXIAL OBJECTS CASAaSTOWICZ. 15denuded bones are later deposited where they, under the tropical sun,crumble into dust and are then with all other remaining matterconducted through the drains to the wells. The drains are providedwith disinfectants (charcoal and sandstone) to purify the matterbefore it enters the ground so as to preserve the earth from defilement.When death is near, a priest is called in who recites the confessionof sin {patet) and sundry passages from the Avesta which affordconsolation to the dying person. If he is in possession of his senseshe himself joins in these exercises; if not, the words are repeatedin his ears. The priest puts into his mouth some drops of the haomajuice (see above under Xo. -1) as a last sacrament. When life becomesextinct the body is cleaned by first sprinkling a few drops of niraiig(for which see note to No. 7) and then washing whole with purewater. It is then laid out on the ground on which a clean sheet ofcottoil has been spread out, and wrapped in clean clothes, whichmust be old and worn, in order to admit of ready destruction. Fromthat time none is allowed to touch the corpse except the professionalcarriers of the dead {nasasalars) . Two priests standing side by side,holding a cord or piece of cloth, called the 2J<^ivand, between theirhands, recite the funeral service, called Gahaii-savayashni, which con-sists of seven chapters of the first Gatha of Zoroaster (see above,p. 3). A dog?if possible, one with "four eyes," that is, with spotsof light color above the eyes, or a white dog with yellow ears?isbrought into the chamber in which the bod}' is laid out. This cere-mony is called Sagdid " glance of the dog," and is repeated severaltimes, for the glance of the dog is a terror to demons. Fire also isbrought into the room and is fed with fragrant materials, such assandalwood, frankincense, etc., the odor of which kills the demonswherever the wind carries it. At the close of the funeral service thecorpse bearers having purified themselv^. put on white clothes andperform the kusti ceremony (see above under No. 7), place the bodyupon an iron bier, called Gehan, and the funeral procession sets out.This must take place in daytime, for it is essential that the bodyshould be exposed to the sun, and the corpse-devouring birds be pres-ent at the tower. The body is covered with a white shroud and se-cured to the bier with pieces of cloth. Four of the corpse bearers liftthe bier on their shoulders and walk toward the tower of silence.They are followed by the funeral procession, headed by priests. Allin the procession walk two and two. joined with paivand and recitingpraj'ers. When the procession reaches the tower the bier is put onthe ground and the face of the deceased is uncovered. All those whoare present take a last look at the deceased, bowing and standing at adistance of three paces. The last sagdid is performed and the bier iscarried by two nasasalars into the tower, who, removing the bodyfrom it, place it wholly uncovered on one of the pavis. The clothes 16 PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM. vol.61.which were removed from the body are thrown into a deep pit outsidethe tower, which is purposel}^ made to receive them, and left to decom-pose by heat, air, and rain. All the participants recite a last prayer,undergo a religious purification, washing their faces, hands, and feetwith nirang and water, and perform the kusti ceremony. The nasa-salars have to remain in segregation and pass through the NavshahehBarashnum purification which lasts nine days and nine nights.Eeligious services for the benefit of the deceased are kept up forthree days, during which, in the Parsee belief, the soul remains inthis world (see above, p. 7). The prayers, recited by a priest beforea burning fire fed with fragrant substance, are especially directedto Sraosha, the guide and protector of the souls. On the fourthday, on which the soul confronts the judgment at the chinvat bridge,the ZJthama ceremony is performed, when after the service the rela-tives of the deceased, if rich, give sums of money for charitable pur-poses, feed the poor, and give presents to the priests. During thistime the mourners are required to abstain from every kind of flesh.The female relatives sit on a carpet spread on the floor near the spotwhere the dead body had lain and receive visits from their femalefriends and connections. No food is prepared in the house beforethe removal of the corpse, in some families not for the three subse-quent days, it being provided for them by relatives and friends.^*The principal towers of silence in use at piesent by the Parsees areon Malabar Hill, at Bombay, India. Height, 17^ inches; diameter,28 inches; length of the platform, 48 inches; width, 40 inches. ? Bombay, India. (Plate 7, Cat. No.' 215412, U.S.N.M.)11. Toivcr of silence {Dakhma).?Model of wood, painted. Sim-ilar to the preceding, No. 10. Height, lOf inches; diameter, 29inches; length of base, 40 inches; width, 39^ inches.?Bombay, India.(Cat. No. 301554, U.S.N.M.) Presented to the Library of Congressin Washington, D. C, by Romonjee Dinshaw Petit in March, 1892,and transferred by the Library of Congress to the United StatesNational Museum. " Among orthodox Jews a mourner, both male and female, for a near relative?fatheror mother, son or daughter, brother or sister, wife or husband?is confined to the housefor seven days (hence the mourning is called Shih'ah, that is, seven), in which he sits onthe floor in stocking feet and has to refrain from manual labor or business transactions.The first meal after the funeral is prepared by a neighbor. U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM PROCEEDINGS. VOL. 61. ART. II PL. 1 Portrait of Zoroaster.For description of plate see paqe 3 U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM PROCEEDINGS. VOL. 61, ART. U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM PROCEEDINGS. VOL. 61. ART. U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM PROCEEDINGS. VOL. 61. ART. II PL. 5 PARSEE GENTLEMAN. SHOWING COSTUME.For description of plate see page 13. U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM PROCEEDINGS, VOL. 61, ART. II PL. 6 PARSEE MOTHER AND CHILDREN. SHOWING COSTUMES. 'LATE SEE PAGE U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM PROCEEDINGS, VOL. 61, ART. II PL. 7