ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN - - - - - . - - NO. 88 Coral Islands by Charles Darwin with Introduction, map and remarks by D. R. Stoddart Issued by THE PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD National Academy of Sciences--National Research Council Washington, D. C. Dzc-.:.;?i- 11, 1 ,2 Coral Islands Charles Darwin with Introduction, map and remarks by D. R. Stoddart Introduction Charles Darwin, wri t ing i n h i s Autobiography towards the end of h i s l i f e , looked back t o some of h i s e a r l i e s t s c i e n t i f i c work associated with the voyage of the Beagle, and was able t o l ' r e f l ec t with high s a t i s - faction" on "solving the probleln of coral-islands. " l During the Beagle expedition Darwin had crossed the Pacif ic Ocean, ca l l ing a t Tahit i , and then the Indian Ocean, making h i s famous observations a t Cocos-Keeling Island, and on h i s re turn home he had given a number of papers t o the Geological Society of London. h n g them was one announcing h i s theory of coral ree fs , "On cer ta in areas of elevation and subsidence i n the Pacif ic and Indian Oceans, a s deduced from the study of cora l forma- t ions , " i n which he out l ined the scheme whereby fr inging r ee f s were converted i n to ba r r i e r reefs and then in to a t o l l s by slow subsidence of the island-foundation. This was the first public announcement of the theory, and it met with a favourable response, especial ly from fa ell.^ The substance of t h i s paper was embodied, and grea t ly extended, i n the Journal and Researches 1832-1836, published i n 1839 t o accompany the o f f i c i a l account of the voyage by FitzRoy, and Darwin's ideas were given def in i t ive treatment i n the first edi t ion of The s t ructure and a s t r i b u - t ion of Coral Reefs, published i n London i n 1842.3 In h i s Autobiography, Darwin has t h i s t o say about the formulation of h i s theory: "No other work of mine was begun i n so deductive a s p i r i t a s t h i s ; f o r the whole theory was thought out on the west coast of S. America before I had seen a t r u e cora l reef . I had therefore only t o ver i fy and extend my views by a careful examination of l i v ing r ee f s , But it should be observed t h a t I had during the two previous years been incessantly at tending t o the e f f e c t s on the shores of S. America of the in te rmi t ten t elevation of the land, together with the denudation and the deposition of sediment. This necessar i ly l e d me t o r e f l e c t much on the e f f ec t s of subsidence, and it was easy t o replace i n imagination the continued deposition of sediment by the upward growth of t h i s was t o form my theory of the formation of and a t o l l s . "4 coral . To do barr ier- reef s A l l notes per ta ining t o the Introduction a r e t o be -1 - found on p. 4. The Beagle had been working on the west coast of South America i n the e a r l i e r pa r t of 1835, and it would therefore be of i n t e re s t t o know when and in what form Darwin first expressed h i s ideas. In the or iginal Diary of the voyage, he describes the e f f e c t of the s igh t of the reef- - encircled Eimeo ( ~ o o r e a ) , a s seen from Tahi t i on 17th l!Jovember 1835, and on 12th April 1836, i n h i s description of Cocos-Keeling, he plunges in to h i s theory without fur ther ado ( t h i s passage was much extended when the Diary was rewrit ten fo r publication a s Journal and Researches): " I f t he opinion t h a t the rock-making Polypi continue t o build upwards a s the foirndation of the I sd from volcanic agency, a f t e r intervals, gradually subsides, i s granted t o be true; then probably the Coral limestone must be of great thickness. Ve see cer ta in Isds i n the Pacifick, such as Tahi t i & Eimeo, mentioned i n t h i s journal, ~ ~ l l i c h are encircled by a Coral reef separated from the shore by channels & basins of st511 water. Various causes tend t o check the growth of the most e f f i c i en t kinds of corals i n these si tuations. Hence i f we imagine such an Island, a f t e r long successive in te rva ls t o subside a few fee t , i n a manner similar, but with a movement opposite t o the continent of S. America; the coral would be continued upwards, r i s i n g from the foundation of the encircling reef. In time the cent ra l land would sink beneath the l eve l of the sea & disappear, but the coral would have colnpleted its circular w a l l . Should we not then have a lagoon Island? - Under t h i s view, we must look a t a Lagoon Island a s a monument ra ised by myriads of t iny archi tects , to mark the spot where a former land l i e s buried i n the depths of the ocean . . ."5 The theory was therefore by t h i s time f a i r l y vell thought out, and i n a l e t t e r t o h i s s i s t e r , Caroline Darwin, sent f'rom Port Louis, Mauritius, on 29th April 1836, Darwin explained t h a t "The subject of coral formation has fo r the l a s t half year been a point of par t icu lar i n t e re s t t o me. I hope t o be able t o put some of the f a c t s i n a more simple and correcte point of view, than t h a t i n which they have h i ther to been considered." 2 Hence, from about November 1835, Darwin had been seriously exercised on the coral reef problem. It was on the 9th November t h a t he first caught ,s ight of "Lagoon Islands" as he cal led them, i n the Low or Dangerous (~uamotu) Archipelago, and on the 15th he arrived i n Tahiti. There he stayed u n t i l 3rd December, when the Beagle sa i led f o r New Zealand, arr iving on the 21st, and then for Australia. He l e f t Australia on 14th March fo r Cocos-Keeling, where he spent eleven days i n ea r ly April, and made h i s way home by South Africa and South America. Among the Earwin papers preserved i n the University Library a t Cambridge, there are two items e n t i t l e d Coral Islands, one i n Earwin's ---. own hand, the other a f a i r copy with corrections i n Darwin's h a d . The f i r s t is clear ly dated 1835, and it includes i n the course of the exposi- t ion, an account of Darwin's view of Moorea from Tahi t i recounted i n the Diary fo r 17th November 1835.7 There i s no mention of the Cocos-Keeling Island. It thus seems very probable t h a t Darwin wrote t h i s outl ine on the voyage between Tahi t i and New Zealand (3rd-21st December 1835), and it i s therefore a t l e a s t three months e a r l i e r , and much longer, than the Diary entry fo r 12th Apri l 1836, given above. The or ig ina l is wri t ten on sheets of unlined paper 15.6 x 10.15 inches, folded once t o give pages of 7.8 x 10.15 inches. There a r e twelve Such ' sheets ' of four pages, and genera.11~ the t e x t i s wri t ten on pages 1 aad 3, with the notes t o each page of t e x t e i t h e r on the verso, o r i n the case of page 3, occasionally opposite onp .2 . In the twelfth sheet, page 4 i s a l so devoted t o t ex t . Each page of t ex t , apar t from the f i r s t , is headed "1835. Coral Islands" and the text-page number. The note-pages a re not numbered, and can be re fe r red t o as [la], [2a! ... The deta i led composition i s as follows: Sheet 1 2 3 4 Page 1 3 5 Text [ la] TJotes 2 Text Text [3a] Notes 4 Text Text [ 5a] - 6 Text Text [ 7a] - 8 Text Text [gal Notes 10 Text Text [lla] Notes 12 Text Text [ 13a] Notes 14 Text Text [ Xl5a] Notes X l 5 CblText Text U5a3 Diagrams 16 Text Text [l7a] Notes 18 Text Text [lga] Notes 20 Text Text [21a] Motes 22 Text Motes - - Notes Text, notes Notes - Notes Text The t e x t has c lear ly been wri t ten i n haste: there a re many erasures, l a t e r cancellat ions i n ink and pencil , and some repe t i t ion of notes i n the t ex t . This seems t o i d i c a G tha t - Coral Islands i s Darwin's elm f i r s t f u l l d r a f t of h i s thesry,8 and it i s qui te possible t h a t it was stimulated by h i s s igh t of Moorea and i t s encirc l ing reef,Y even though the theory had been slowly formulating since the middle of the year. The Fa i r Copy i s wri t ten on fe in t - ru led foolscap, i n un i t s of four pages, each 7.8 x 12.5 inches. A s with the o r ig ina l the t e x t is wri t ten on pages 1 and 3 of each un i t . There a r e a number of penci l led comments of a c r i t i c a l nature, some erased, i n a hand other than Darwin's (possibly FitzRoy Is), with b r i e f answers t o them i n Darwin's hand. The t e x t presented here-% i s a t r ansc r ip t of the o r i g i n d paper i n Darwin's hand, re ta in ing h i s spe l l ing and punctuation. In the absence of any e a r l i e r manuscript on h i s coral reef theory, it i s thought t o be the f i r s t f u l l statement he ever wrote. The or ig ina l and Fa i r Cop&are contained i n Volume 41 of the Damsin manuscripts a t Cambridge. ?t- TWO text-pages of the Earwin manuscript, with t h e i r running-heads and marginal notes, and with the notes re fe r r ing t o them, a re included i n one Bul le t in page. The numbers i n [I r e f e r t o the note-pages, as above. Remarks, o r other e d i t o r i a l de ta i l s , furnished by Mr. S-todWt a r e a l s o i n [ I . Eds. +M The three sample pages reproduced here, ac tua l size, a re from the or ig ina l manuscript (photos furnished by the University Library, Cambridge). I am indebted t o S i r Chazles Darwin for permission to publish t h i s paper, t o the Library of the University of Cambridge for access t o the manuscripts, and t o IvIr. P. J. Gautrey for h i s assistance. D r . Sydney Smith kindly gave me further information on the manuscript and other collections; and Lady Nora Barlow has read the manuscript and given me much encouragement. Notes - 1. The Autobiography of Charles Darwin 1809-1882. With original omissions restored. Edited by Lady N. Barlow. London, 1958, 253 p. (written i n 1876). See p. 80. 2. Charles Darwin: On cer tain areas of elevation and subsidence i n the Pacific and Indian Oceans, as deduced from the study of coral formations. Proc. Geol. Soc. London, 2, 1837, 552-554. On LyelL's response to the theory, Autobiography, 1358> pp. 83-84, and 100, and l e t t e r from Lyell t o S i r J. Herschel, May 24th, 1837, in: K. M. Lyell (edi tor) : Life, l e t t e r s and journals of S i r Charles Lyell, Bart. London, 2 vols,l88l, see Vol. 2, p. 12-13. Compare C. LyeU, Principles of Geology, 1st edition, Chapter X V I I I , Corals and coral reefs, 1832 ( ~ o l . 2, p. 283-301) (and similar accounts i n editions 2, 3, 4, and 5 ) with Chapter XVIII, Formation of coral reefs, i n Principles, 6th edition, Vol. 3, 1840, p. 366-406. 3. Charles Darwin: Journal and Researches 1832-1836. ( ~ a r r a t i v e of the surveying voyages of H i s Najesty's Ships Adventure and Beagle, between the years 1826 and 1836 . . . , Vol. 3). London, 1833, 615 p. Charles The structure and dis tr ibut ion of coral reefs. London, 1842, 214 p. 4. Autobiography, 1958, p. 98-99. See a lso Professor C. M. Yonge's essay "Darwin and coral reefs, " in: S. A. Barnett, editor, A Century of Darwin. London, 1358, p. 245-266. 5. Charles Darwinls Diary of the voyage of HMS Beagle. Edited from the MS by Lady N. Barlow. Cambridge, 1933, 541 p. See p. 400. 6. In Lady N. Barlow, editor: Charles Damin and the voyage of the Beagle. London, 1945, 279 p. See p. 137. 7. Coral Islands, manuscript, p. 4-5; compare Diary, 1933 p. 348, and Journal, 1839, p. 484-485. 8. Lady Brlow has described jottings outlining the theory in one of Damrin's f i e l d note-books, probably written i n July 1835; see Charles Darwin and the voyage of the Beagle, 1945, p. 243-244. 9. "I was much struck with t h i s f ac t [the lack of "essential .difference bet-treen encircling barrier-reef s and a to l l s" ] when viewing, from the heights of Tahiti, the d is tant island of Eimeo . . . I 1 (Structure and distribution of coral reefs, 1842, p. 46). Also reference i n note 7, above, Coral Is lands ( 1 Although I have personally scarcely seen anything of t he Coral' Is lands i n the Paci f ick Ocean. I am tempted t o make a few observations respecting them.- I n looking a t a cha r t of t he East Indian group. it w i l l be seen t h a t a d i rec t ion within a couple of Points of NW & SE i s common t o t he Western & Eastern Islands.-This l i n e is continued t o New Ca1edonia.-It is f ronted a ) by the p a r a l l e l chains of New Ireland. Solomon & Hebrides lslds.- [Perhaps the s imi la r d i rec t ion of the North p a r t of New Zealand & t h a t p a r t of New Holland, which i n i t s pos i t ion & ba r r i e r of Coral1 r e e f s is int imately connected with the South sea, may be more t h m an accidenta l coincid- ence. - C1]] Those small Islands, which s t r e t c h i n an B. W d i r ec t i on ha l f way across t he Pacifick, a r e frequently described a s being a curved p a r t of t h a t Volcanic band of Is lands which terminates Southward a t t he New Hebrides, o r more properly i n Sew Zealand.- [l. This sentence is dele ted i n the o r ig ina l , and the following note is given on page la:] ( a ) Again we see the same f a c t i n the northern p a r t of New Zealand; the cons t i tu t ion of which, l i k e the foregoing Islands, is e s s e n t i a l l y Volcanic. - The XE coast of Austra l ia which is f ronted by the great b a r r i e r reef & so in t imate ly connected with the Pacif ick, has a l so a NW & SE d i rec t ion . The whole shore is believed t o consis t of Grani t ic rocks; a l i t t l e wajr inland a long chain of h i l l s runs p a r a l l e l t o the coast l i n e . - ( ~ r F i t t o n ' s Appendix t o King ' s ~ u s t r a l i a ) * + + * * * * * Coral Is lands But I do not th ink t h i s i s a cor rec t view.-In each separate Archi- pelago the d i rec t ion already a luded t o is found.- This l a w p reva i l s even (a ) as f a r a s We Sandwich lsGs ( a t - Perhaps the s t rongest exception w i l l be ( b ) discovered i n the Friendly IS$ t h a t is i f these axe taken without reference t o the group of t he F i d j i s . A l l t he Islands ought r a t he r t o be considered a s so many shor t p a r a l l e l l i ne s , than the continuation of the g r ea t volcanic band which sweeps round the Eastern shores of A s i a . - I have pointed out t h i s f a c t , a s showing a degree of physical connection i n the Islands of Polynesia. Fors te r i n h i s observations i n a Voyage round the World. makes th ree c lasses f o r the d i f f e r en t kinds: - ( 1 s t ) High Islands without Coral reefs ; he two out of the Friendly adduces as Examples the Marquesas & ~ e b r i d e s . & Is; t o them may be added the Navigators [ 24 ( a ) I may even add America. - (b) Mem. the Friendly a exception of Value.- the peninsula of Cal i fornia & the shores of North f i e l d of modern disturbance. & therefore the 1835 Coral ~ s l a n d s ( 3 as described by Kotzebue. the Sandwich Ba Galapagos groups & severaLother smaller ones.- It would be a curious point t o ascertain, whether Coral grows abundantly on the shores of any of these Islands, although not forming a reef; or whether as a t the Galapagos, it may be considered a s absent.- This one f a c t would alone throw much l i g h t on the theoret ical structure of a l l the Coral formations.- We know t h a t in some parts of the World where Coral1 is abundant, as i n the West Indies true Lagoon Islands do not occur. 11. High Islands encircled by a reef, a s a picture is by a frame.- the singularity of t h i s phenomenon, the beauty & u i i t y of i t s la? (a ) e f fec t has scarcely been enough insis ted upon by Voyagers. - Forster gives an example i n Tahiti, & a l l the t rue Society Islands, the higher ones of the Friendly & New Caledonia.- I11 The low half drowned Islands, composed ent i re ly of Coral [3a] (a) It must be borne i n mind, tha t the l i n e of breakers sweeps round, a t a considerabke distance from the foot of the mountains. - The in terva l is occupied by the smooth water of the lagoon & the low a l luv ia l land. which has encroached on parts of i ts f o m r bed.- 1835 Coral Islands 4 & including a lagoon.- IV. Capt Beech y has described another class, such a s Elizabeth. Savage * Wateo Island, ra) which are composed of Coral rock, are of moderate height, & probably before the i r elevation existed as Low or Lagoon Islands.- Capt. Beechey remarks on the r a r i t y of t h i s class.- I suspect however on a more accurate knowledge. several more w i l l be added t o t h i s list. I may perhaps instance Turtle Isd. of Cook. which Forster brings forward as the best example of subterranean elevation i n the Pacifick.- With respect t o t h i s classif icat ion, it appears t o me that the dis t inct ion between the I1 & I11 division, or the high islands with reefs & the Lagoon ones, is a r t i f i c i a l . - I believe the reefs and s t r i p s of land, which compose the c i rcular Low Islands. are of the very same structure & origin with those reefs which encircle, a s with a b e l t so many of the l o f t y ones.- Viewing the E i Meo [Marginal note, same page ] (a) & Perhaps W d e n of L+. Byron 1835 Coral IS^?^ 5 fromtheheights of Tahi t i I was forcibly s tn ick with t h i s opinion.- The mountains abruptly r i s e out of a glassy lake, which i s separated on a l l sides, by a narrow defined l i n e of breakers, from the open sea.- Remove the cen t r a l group of mountains, & there remains a Lagoon IS$ - I ground t h i s opinion from the following fac t s . - There i s a general s imi la r i ty i n the two cases i n the form & s i ze of the reefs; t h e i r s t ruc ture appears - ident ical , we have scarcely fathomable water i n each case, a t a shor t distance on the outer margin; within i s a shallow Sasin more or l e s s f i l l e d up by knolls of growing Coral1 o r converted in to dry land.- I n the Lagoon 1sl+ there are some, which do not deserve t h i s t i t l e , f o r they consis t so le ly o c i rcu la r reef, of which scarcely a point projects f a8 above the water; whi ls t o thers have a more o r l e s s complete, but narrow r ing of dry land. - In the same [Marginal note, same page] ( a ) Such as the 1 s t near Turtle I. manner i n the encirc l ing reefs, although they generally a re only ornamented by a few speck formed Islands, ye t a t the f i ne Is land of Huahine E l l i s states the reef is becoming converted into dry land.- The e s sen t i a l character i n the one c lass , of a large encircled I s ld . i t s e l f dwindles away & becomes ambiguous.- We have the 2 large Islands of Raiat ia & Taha ( ? ) included i n one reef . - In such cases, a s i n Gambier IS$ so well described by Capt Beechey, where a group of small h i l l y Islands a re encircled by one grand reef, o r a s i n Whylootacke. (seen by the eagle) when one s ingle one is so s i tuated, it becomes a question i n which of the two classes they ought t o be arranged. - In the 1sd of Caledonia, as drawn on a large scale i n Krusenstern's A t l a s , the reef w i l l be seen prolonged a t each extremity. & encirc l ing the continuation, Coral IS$ beneath the water of the land. It here requires l e s s e f f o r t of imagination t o remove the cen t r a l h i l l s & t o leave a perfect lagoon IS$ - t h i s change judging from the f igure, it might be believed was ac tua l ly i n process.- The last argument which I can adduce i s the paral le l ism between the Archipelagoes of the two orders, f o r instance the l ox~ Island & the Society ones.- Moreover, t h i s paral le l ism is found i n the d i rec t ion of the longer ax i s of the oval f igure, which is so frequent i n the enc i rc l ing ree fs & low Island:- One i s teznpted t o extend s t i l l fu r ther t h i s s im i l a r i t y & t o believe t h a t there i s no difference between the ree f which encirc les an Island, & those extraordinary b a r r i e r s of Coral, which f ron t f o r so many leagues the coast of Austral ia & I believe the r\?orthern shore of Brazi l . - The high encirc led Isds. a re composed of various geological formations: no Coral IS$ doubt ancient Volcanic rocks a re most abundant, but i n Tahi t i M. Hoffman found Granite. M r . E l l i s s t a t e s . t h a t i n several of the Society 1sCS Granite, Hornblendic rock, Limestone & rock with Garnets i s found. Fors ter i n New Gal-edonia describes the prevalent rock under the name of Gestele s te in , which I believe t o be Mica S la te . - Hence we may f e e l secure ( i f any dogbts could have been enter ta ined) t h a t these enc i rc l ing r ee f s a r e not b u i l t on the c r e s t s of submarine Craters.- I f the proofs of the i den t i t y i n nature of the two kinds of reefs , a r e considered a s conclusive, i n a l i k e manner, there i s no necess i ty t h a t the Lagoon Isd. should be based on such Craters. This view w i l l I think, generally be more sa t i s fac tory , it removes the d i f f i c u l t y of the irrrmense s i ze of t he Lagoons f a r exceeding any known Crater: & explains the extreme i r r egu l a r i t y of f igure . exemplified i n the Radack Coral 1sCS & Ralix groups, described by Kotzebue. Whether we look a t these Is lands . a s having formerly enc i rc led high land, o r r e s t i n g on the brim of a Crater , [I] it appears t o me, we must admit, t h e theory of Jlr Lyell, t h a t t h e i r present s t ruc tu re i s owing t o a s e r i e s of small depressions.- I f t he ground on which the Lithophytes have hilt t h e i r ed i f i c e s has not subsided. it must have remained s t a t i ona ry o r been elevated. [It being allowed t h a t the Coral1 animal can f l ou r i sh only a t a small depth. it (a) follows, on the first supposition, t h a t a l l t he su5marine mountains within t h i s l i m i t had the samy height & tha.t not one r a i s ed i ts head ( a ) above the l e v e l of t he s e a . [ 2 ~ ] On the second supposition. of a s e r i e s of elevations; these movements over a l a rge t r a c t of ocean, ceased. & never exceeded the limits already pointed out . - Now, these consequences from the two suppositions, a r e so very improbable: ( f o r i f they a r e not so,we [l. Marginal note:] Vol I1 Chapt: X V I I I [2. This sentence is dele2ed i n the o r ig ina l , and t he following note is given on page ga:] ( a ) On the f i r s t of these suppositions. it being allowed. t h a t t he Coral animal can only f l ou r i sh a t a small depth, it follows t h a t submarine mountains, on which t he Coral is nov growing. reached within t he l i m i t s of such depth, t he surface, bu t y e t t h a t not one peak ever r a i s ed i t s head above t h i s l eve l . - might expect t o f i n d somewhere a t r a c t of country with mountains of an equa l height) t h a t t o my mind the evidence of subsidence t he only remaining supposition i s demonstrative.- No doubt the four th c l a s s of Islands, t h e r a i s ed Coral rock, is an argument on t he o ther slde; but t h e i r acknowledged r a r i t y appears t o me a proof t h a t they ought r a t he r t o be considered a s exceptions o r i r r e g u l a r i t i e s i n the prevai l ing movement. If a gradual upheaval was i n progress here, a s on the shores of S, America. the C o r a l ~ r o u l d afford a more palpable and l a s t i n g evidence, than could be expected under any o ther circumstances.- Capt. FitzRoy has discovered an i n t e r e s t i ng t r a d i t i o n amongst the Low Islanders, t h a t t he a r r i v a l of t h e f i r s t Ship. was followed not long afterwards by a grea t inundation which destroyed meny people.- Earthquakes are occasionally experienced here; a t Tah i t i the re happened one which was believed t o have fo r e to ld the a r r i v a l of the first Missionaries. c o r a l IS$ 11 I looked i n vain on the shores of Tah i t i f o r any s o r t of evidence of a consequent r i s e . - In the Polynesian t r ad i t i ons ( ~ l l i s e s Researches ) the re a re accounts of deluges, which evident ly were accompanied by Volcanic phenomena.- The d i f f i c u l t y i n understanding the cause of a reef of l i v i n g Coral, being separated by channels o r lakes from the land. has not a s ye t . been attempted t o be removed. The only explanation. which I can offer . i s (a) ch ie f ly conjectural . a - when a t Tah i t i I examined the ree f . - I found on (B) the ex te r io r margin, a s o l i d broard [s ic] (30-50 yards?) mound of Coral ( A ) rock, s t r i k ing ly resembling an a r t i f i c i a l (but low) breakwater. on which the surf bea t with violence.- The surface of the mound i s compact & ( C ) smooth. - It is s l i g h t l y curved & dips towards the ins ide o r smooth water of the Harbor. Owing t o the sur f . I could not examine the outer margin; I am t o l d it cons i s t s of [ l l a ] ( a ) It r e s t s on a be l i e f t h a t the species of Coral, most efficient i n building a reef , f lour i sh be s t when immersed i n the surf of the ou te r breakers, & t h a t t h e i r grov-th i s checked by sediment & f resh water brought down from the cen t ra l land.- 1835 c o r a l IS' 12 smooth ledges of l i v i n g Coral, & t h a t i t s general inc l ina t ion is great : - It is only on r a r e occasions, when there happens t o be very l i t t l e sur f - - 8 a low t i d e t h a t the l i v i n g - p a r t s can be seen. Rot unfrequently a f t e r gales of wind, t he ledges (probably overhanging) a re torn up & i n enormous masses thrown far up on t he reef: By t h i s ineans a l so the Natives know the ex t e r i o r margin i s thus const i tu ted. The cen t r a l pa r t of the breaknater i s e n t i r e l y dead; on i ts surface the chief production is an encrusting i na r t i cu l a t e Corall ina. The sea: breaking v io len t ly on the outer margin, continuouslypmps over i n sheets the water of i t s waves.- hence the surface is worn smooth & gently declines towards the lagoon.- I w a s assured t h a t on the r a r e occasions, al luded to, the cen t r a l p a r t i s exposed, uncovered t o the rays of the sun, & t h a t t h i s invariably k i l l s (a) the animal, & leaves the Lithophyte dead rock. (a> [12a] ( a ) There must however be some process by which the mound is repaired: i f once worn away so deeply as always t o be covered by the water, the case becomes a t once similar t o the outer par ts ; perhaps t he Corall inas & other small Masine productions may pro tec t the surface.- This revised version of the sketch on Darwin's page 11 occurs on a separa te piece of paper i n s e r t e d i n the F a i r Copy. The hole reef may be described, a s consist ing of two par ts : the outer margin of the Breakwater, the s o l i d p a r t of which is higher than a l l the r e s t , & a t r a c t of very shallow water which varys i n width from LOO yards t o a mile. I n t h i s low p a r t there a re l i t t l e narrow t v i s t i n g channels & holes of deep water, & on the other hand many points. where the Coral reaches t o the surface. It i s i n t h i s s t i l l water where a n observer as has often been described, may watch the f i s h gliding amongst groves of variously coloured Corals. This p a r t of the reef seldom o r never i s d i rec t ly joined to the shores: but there i s l e f t channels & harbors where a Ship can anchor i n a f ine Sandy bottom.- I imagine it i s the f resh water & sediment brought do1.m. which helps t o prevent these spaces being f i l l e d up & likewise perhaps the cause tha t these r ee f s a r e seldomer ( a ) converted in to s t r i pes of dry land. than i n the Lagoon lsdS- In the shallow par t s the most abundant kind of Lithopbytes, a r e stony & branching, generas ( a s ) . Also Fungia G Caryophillia p3a ] ( a ) ' . e n such does happen. t ha t p a r t close within the breakwater would from the fragments t h ro~m over it, be soonest changed.- there a l so the water i s pure & f i t f o r the growth of some kinds of Coralls. - 1835 co ra l lsd 14 Showing them t o some i n t e l l i g e n t natives I tms assured t h a t such kinds never grow on the outside of the reef o r compose so l id reefs . - From t h e i r descriptions. I imagined the prevalent kinds, so s i tua ted a re such as Pori tes . Millepora. & some Meandrina & Astrea. Anyhow they appeared t o consider t h a t there i s a wide distincti.on in the two cases. A~alogy. from the habi ts of a l l other marine animals would lead one t o suppose t h a t the same species would not f lour i sh in two such d i f fe ren t l oca l i t i e s , as the foam of furious breakers. & shallow placid lakes. If t h i s opinion should be granted. it would be very important; we might i n fe r t ha t those species. which bui ld the external so l id wall, the hipaest & most perfect p a r t of the Coral1 rock, w i l l only f lour i sh where the waters break violently. M. Quoy & Gaimard, s ta te , " tha t the species, which constantly formed the most extensive banks, belong t o the genera. Meandrina, Caryophyllia. & Astrea" & t h a t the Saxigenous polypi increase most considerably i n shallow & quiet water. I am not aware whether they suppose, these same species form the outer par t s of the reefs . n. marginal note:] D. L. Beche With respect t o the r a t i o of increase I have a few remarks to of fe r . - In the greater number of the Lagoon IS* from the arguments already used, it i s clear no movement of elevation has taken place.- Now Capt. Beechey 'remarks, t h a t the s t r i p s of dry Coral, divested of any loose sandy materials heaped upon them are r a r e ly elevated more than 2 f t above the l eve l of the sea. Now whatever t h i s elevation may be, it i s clear, t h a t the highest point of the l i v ing Coral rock is i n any IS$ as high or higher than the dead. Because the dead. l ived under s imilar circumstances ZC may have s ~ f f e r e d degradation.- Now t h i s quanti ty i s so much higher than the l eve l of the ocean & therefore than the waters of the Lagoon, which must afford the newes t approximation t o judge by.- Hence the Coral, which has formed the s t r i p s of dry land, could not have been cherished by those quiet waters, but ra ther i n the turbulence of the breakers, where a surface above the mean l eve l . would never remain uncovered & exposed t o the rays of the sun.(^)- In those cases where t rue Coral rock i bove the l e v e l of the Lagoon. fa7 (a) the land must have increased oui-mards; but as it appears from the extreme depth. beyond the reef , t h a t t h i s can hardly be a general process. I suspect t ha t Coral rock may often be d i f f i c u l t t o be distinguished from a rock of cemented fragments.- Besides the greater absolute height of the Coral which grows i n the surf, it mst be remembered, t ha t yearly gales of wind, t ea r o f f large fragments, some of which a re tossed on the reef & others must f a l l down in to the surrounding depths. Yearly the Polypus has t o replace t h i s damage.- On the other hand, within the lagoon a l l de t r i t u s accumvlates, & if as according t o M. Quoy and Gaimard. the Coral grows there a l so most rapidly; how comes it t h a t the Lagoon is not more commonly f i l l e d up? This i s the more surprising. if we look at the e n t i r e section of a Lagoon Island in Capt. Eeechey. & see how t r i f l i n g the inequali ty of the foundation X X X [xl5a:] (x) This conclusion perfect ly agrees with what was v i s ib l e i n the reef of Tahit i . [ x l ~ c : ] ( a ) a s appears t o have been the case. on the IS'? on which Capt. Beechey found the remains of the wreck of the Matilda so very singularly s i tuated. [TIote on verso of Leaf 11 i n Fa i r Copy:] Inser t t h i s a s a note s t a t i ng my previous formed opinion. Note - May not earthquake waves be occasional agents?- May not the wreck of the Matilda have been thrown inshore by a great wave?- Such an event happening once i n a century- as a t Lima o r Concepcion - would hardly be known t o the few Europeans who have y e t examined Polynesia. XXX Iw5c 1 r e a l l y is. And we must a l so bear i n mind t h a t arguments can be advanced t o show t h a t the subsidences must happen a f t e r long in te rva l s . - such as few proportionate numbers of submerged c i r cu l a r reefs; & again the quanti ty - of d e t r i t u s heaped up on the dry Coral.- The general tenor of the fore- going facts , strongly urges me t o believe t h a t the Coral, most e f fec t ive i n forming the so l i d reef , w i l l only f lour i sh near t o the break of the Sea.- I w i l l not pretend t o conjecture concerning the cause of t h i s predi l ic t ion, whether the motion of the f lu id , o r the quant i ty of insolvedC1l air. i s favourable; o r whether the l i g h t and heat, which must pervade s t i l l shoal water i s injur ious t o the grow-bh of t h e i r Species.- [l. In the Fair Copy, insolved i s rendered intangled.] 3C ?C * * * * * 1835 Coral I S ~ S [respect t o the r a t i o of increase, it must be remembered, t h a t a l l the Coral. which grows within the lagoon. accumulates. whereas on the outside yearly large fragments are torn off & car r ied away. The Polypi have t o repa i r a l l t h i s damage. On the supposition t h a t the dimensions of the reef o r is land do not decrease. (which a t l e a s t w i l l be granted), the polypi must yearly repa i r t h i s darnage.Cl1 1 - If then the two following postula tes are allowed, much of the d i f f i cu l ty i n understanding the C o r d formation. w i l l I think, be removed. - ( lSt) That i n ce r ta in pa r t s of the Pacifick, a s e r i e s of subsidences have taken place; of which no one exceeded i n depth, the nuniber of f t , a t which saxigenous polypi w i l l f lour ish: & of which se r ies , the in te rva l s between the successive steps. were su f f i c i en t ly long t o allow of t h e i r growth, always bringing t o the same l eve l the upper surface of the reef . - (2nd) That those species of Lithophytes, which bu i ld the outer. s o l i d w a l l , f lour i sh [l. These two sentences deleted i n the or iginal , and t h e i r substance expanded in the two pagmmarked X 1 5 and i n [X15c], c l ea r ly added after t h i s sect ion of the t e x t was written.] 1835 Coral IS d 16 (a ) best, where the sea violently breaks. - Better t o explain my views, I w i l l take the case of an Island s i tuated i n a part of the ocean. which we w i l l suppose a t last becomes favourable t o the growth of Coral1.- The circumstances which determine the presence or absence of the Saxigenous Polypi are suff icient ly obscure, but they do not enter into t h i s discussion.- kt AB represent the slope of an Island so circumstanced & CD the level of the ocean. Then Coral1 would immediately commence t o grow on the shore (D) & would extend Sea-ward as f a r as the depth of water. would permit i ts r i s ing from the bottom.- Let t h i s point be (H).- The breadth of the reef (HD) would then depend, on the angle of inclination of the bottom.- This space might e i ther be converted into a piece of Alluvial ground, or even, from the Coral1 springing up ver t ica l ly from E & so protecting the inner space, might ex i s t as a Lagoon.- [16a] (a) This second Post: i s not so necessary as the f i r s t : as w i l l be subsequently seen.- Possibly the f a c t of the Windward side of the low Islands, where the surf generally is most violent, being the highest & most perfect. may be part ly explained by such an admission.- This reef would however essent ial ly d i f f e r from those in the South Sea, i n the depth of the water. ( I exclude any few exceptions) beyond the W a l l not suddenly becoming excessive.- I f the level of t h i s Island should remain stationasy. I cannot imagine any change.- But i f the land should be raised. (or sea sink): the outline would be a s represented by the dotted l ine . - And on the shores. a fringe of Dry Coral rock would be l e f t : This circumstance is known t o happen i n the East & West Indian IS$'- Some such fact , m y perhaps explain the double reefs found by Capt. Beechey a t Loo Choo, one of which was dead & one l iving.- Now i f we suppose the land gradua3.1~ t o subside (See Fig. 11. I have represented the water rising; the ef fec t of course is the same) the level of the sea w i l l stand a t C 1 instead of a t CD. - The Coral of the o ter w a l l favoured by the heavy surf . ( aY ( a ) w i l l soon recover i ts former level. - If t h i s process. [17a] (a) or the whole m y be supposed t o have same tendency t o grow up & recovers its former level: but t h a t the sediment &c from the land checks its growth. Coral 1 ~ 6 s i s repeated each time the sea w i l l gain on the land while. the ree f r i s e s , near ly v e r t i c a l l y on i t s f i rs t foundation.- I say near ly ve r t i c a l l y , because, m y & e v e q small por t ion removed i n f r o n t of t h e lower p a r t &. -- the building being continued upwards before i ts repa i r , t h i s must throw backwards the whole of the supers t ructure . When t he l e v e l s tands a t ( ~ 3 ) ~ the space between the r e e f s & t h e land, w i l l be more, than twice a s broard a s a t f i r s t . This space w i l l probably be occupied by a lake of water. such s t i l l water. not being favourable t o the growth of the most e f f i c i e n t species of Coral .- 1 may mention t h a t when a t first the ree f touched the shcre. i n the mouth of each stream. the re must have been a channel.- such openings. during the longest s e r i e s of depressions. would be continued & hence would generally ( a ) face the valleys, a s is observed t o be the case.a- This explanation i s r e f e r r i b l e t o those r ee f s wb.ich f r o n t a continent o r enc i rc le an I s land . - If the subsidences a r e continued, till by the encroachment of the water an Is land i s reduced from ia rge t o small & i s a t l a s t t o t a l l y submerged; d9 then there w i l l remain a t r u e Lagoon Is.- When viewing E i meo, o r t he char t of New Caledonia. I ta lked of removing the c e n t r a l mass of h i l l s , t h i s was t he process I was considering. I f the above hypothesis, a l l i t s ( b ) p a r t s considered together, is considered even as p a r t i a l l y s a t i s f ac to ry ( f o r I a m aware severa l objections can be r a i s ed aga ins t i t ) it w i l l be ~ ? o r t h while t o fol low out some of t he more extended consequences. I n those pa r t s of the world, where a genera movement upwards i s i n progress, i we ought not t o f ind groups of Lagoon Is. or t h a t c l a s s of ree f s . which enc i rc les the land a t a distance & has very deep water c lose t o the ou te r wall. How far t h i s is ac tua l l y the case I have not [lga] ( a ) These channels would generally have about the same depth as the lagoons; t h e i r bottoms being f i l l e d up with sand o r d e t r i t u s . - The ac t ion of currents would prevent t h e i r t o t a l f i l l i n g up.- ( b ) I must observe t h a t i n the e a r l y p a r t of the s e r i e s of subsidences, the re can be l i t t l e doubt t h a t t h e fresh-water Sc sediment, brought down from the c e n t r a l land, would be in ju r ious t o the growth of the Coral within the ree f . - But when a Lagoon I s land was once formed, (excepting t he prejudice caused by the accumulated sediment, a s a s l ippery foundation) we must look t o the other reasons as an explanation of t he continuation of t he inequal i ty in growth. - 1835 c o r a l isdS 20 s u f f i c i e n t da ta t o judge. I n t he Vest Indies, where proofs of recent e levat ion a r e abundant, r e e f s of these s t r uc tu r e s a r e not found. o r a t l e a s t a r e not common.- Vithin the East Indian Islands, t he shores of which a r e f requent ly . over la id with r a t s ed Coral rock, I bel ieve l ikewise they (a) a r e not found.- I n the Paci f ick I may adduce t he Sandwich IS$- It w i l l be i n t e r e s t i ng t o discover. whether those groups (our first c l a s s ) which are not protected by ree fs , but ye t have Coral1 abundant on t h e i r shores can ( B ) be proved t o have been recen t ly elevated.B- If such generally is the case, it w i l l give much probab i l i ty t o t he idea, t h a t -tihe d i rec t ion of the movemmt determines the s t r uc tu r e of the reef.- It is manifest t h a t a Lagoon Isd. might be r a i s ed s t r i f l e , by an o s c i l l a t i o n i n t he general movement v i thou t i t s character being l o s t . - This appears t o have happened [l] a t ' lhrt le IS$ (cook), which Fors te r br ings f o r ~ w d a s the be s t instance of subterranean upheaval i n the Paci f ick . - Plants a r e described on the reef a s growing on the dead Coral, whicn i s r a i s ed above the [l. marginal note: J (P. 147) [20a] ( a ) How a r e t he Ladrones (which have dead Coral on the surface)? V. Kotzebue I1 Vol. - V. some la rge Chart. Kotzebue gives no information on the subject .- Note (B ) M r . Bennet informs me t h a t i n the New Hebrides, which are thus circumstanced he found dead co ra l a t an e levat ion of 1500 f t . - Vide Wanderings i n !Jew S. Vales Coral Is. 21 reach of high water.- ye t t h i s I s l and appears t o have re ta ined i t s proper f igure . If however such movements were continued, no doubt an I s d of our four th c l a s s would be produced.- Now it i s remarkable, t h a t out of the few instances of t h i s Class given by Capt. Beechey, two of these Is lands a r e surrounded by reefs of growing Coral, but these a r e a t tached t o t he shore, not being separated by channels o r lakes of water. I a l lude t o ( a ) Henderson I described by Capt Beechey himself & Wateo by Cook. - On the opposite supposition of a general progressive subsidence i n any p a r t of the World (of course I include only those favourable t o the growth (b) of c o r a l ) we should expect t o f i nd e i t h e r o r both ;Lagoon 1sdS & the enc i rc l ing ree fs . - The archipelago of t he Society I? ( which a r e enc i rc led) & h a t of the Low IS$ occur i n t he same p a r t of the ocean. - The Friendly a Is i n a l i k e manner are divided i n t o t he same two s o r t s of groups.- A s decis ive evidence of depressions of F 21a] ( a ) V. Byron f o r s t r uc tu r e of Malden IS@- b ) V. Chart of the Barr ier of Eastern Austral ia, a r e there i n that d i s t r i c t any lagoon IS@?- Note - co ra l lsd 22 l eve l . w i l l almost always be def ic ient : a l l t h a t we can look t o is t h a t there is no evidence of an opposite tendency. Now against t h i s . a f l agran t instance. can be brought up. from M r . E l l i s ' account of the Society d Is.- He s t a t e s , t h a t on the mountains of Raiatia, Coral & ehel ls &c are found. I do not c l ea r ly understand t h a t he himself has examined i n t o the circumstances. Perhaps they may be i n t e r s t r a t i f i e d with the Lavas & only point out a very ancient e levat ion.- From the mineralogical nature of the strata i n Tahi t i I f e l t no doubt, but what they had formerly been submerged beneath the Sea. - To a l l such general views, a s these, many exceptions, may always be expected t o be found; t o ascer ta in t h e i r t ru th , a f a r more extended exminat ion of a l l the phenomena, i s absolutely necessary. I f the r e a l i t y of them should ever be proved, it would be important t o Geology. For then we might assume t h a t groilps of Lagoon lsd c lear ly shoved t h a t a chain of Mountains had there sub- [l: marginal note] V. E l l i s Vol. 1 P. 389 C22a I -sided.- And, when i n any formation there should be found, a great thiclkness composed of Coral & the genera of which resembled those, which now bui ld the reefs, we might a i so conclude. t h a t during i t s successive accumulation, the general movement, was one of depression.- Before f i n a l l y concluding t h i s subject, I may remark t h a t the general horizontal uplif'ting which I have proved has & is now ra i s ing upwards the greater p a r t of S. America & a s it would appear likewise of PI. America, would of necessity be compensated by an equal subsidence i n some other p a r t of the world.- Does not the great extent of the Northern & Southern Pacificlr include t h i s corresponding Area?- Humboldt c w r y s a similar idea s t i l l f'urther; I n the Fragmens Asiatiques, P 95. he says. "Par conse~uent l'epoque de l 'affaisement de l lAs i e occidentale coincide plutot avec ce l l e de l'exhaussement du plateau de l ' I r a n , du plateau de 1'Asie centrale, de l'Himalaya, du Kuen Lun, du Thia-n shan & de tous l e s anciens systemes de montages d i r iges de l ' e s t a I 'ouest ; peut e t r e auss i c e l l e de llexhaussement du Caucau, & du noeud de montagnes de 1'Armenie B de Erzeroum. "[I] [?. The following t ransla t ion, found on a s ingle sheet i n Darwin papers, Vol. 42, f o l i o 23, i s transcribed i n the f i n a l paragraph of the Fa i r Copy: l Humboldt (~ragmens Asiatiques Page 95) i n a similar manner considers t h a t t h e epoch of the sinking down of Western Asia coincides with the elevation of the platforms, of Iran, of cen t r a l Asia, of the Himalaya, of Kuen Lun, of Thian Chan, and of a l l the ancient systems of Mountains, d i rected from East t o Vest. Appendix: Works re fe r red t o by Charles Darwin In 'Coral Is lands ' Darwin makes reference t o some fourteen books and papers, l i s t e d below. It is probable t h a t not a l l of these were carr ied on the Beagle, and the references derive from other sources. For example, Damin did not read other languages with ease, and h i s knowledge of the work of Quoy and Gaimard almost ce r ta in ly derives from De l a Beche's 'Geological Manual.' To t race the books relevant t o the cora l work which Darwin ac tua l ly had with him during the voyage, we have the evidence of h i s own writings, i n the 'Autobiography, 'Life and Letters, ' and 'More Le t te r s ' - which together mention only Humboldt, Lyell and a "small volume" of Milton - together with the books remaining i n h i s l i b r a ry a t the time of h i s death, and l i s t e d i n the following two publications: H. V. Rutherford. 1908. Catalogue of the l i b r a ry of Charles Darwin now i n the Botany School, Cambridge. Cambridge, University Press, 91. Books received i n the University Library from Down House, March-May 1961. Cambridge, University Library, mimeographed (29 p. ) . Two books were pre-eminent i n h i s col lect ion: Lye l l ' s 'Pr inciples of Geology1 and Humboldt's 'Pereonal narra t ive of t rave ls t o the equinoc- t i a l regions of t he New Continent. ' The f i r s t ed i t ion of the 'Pr inciples , ' used on the voyage, is now a t Cambridge, together with ed i t ions 5, 6, 7, 9, 10 and 11, a l l from Darwin's l ib ra ry . Volume 1 (1830) is inscribed "Given me by / Capt F. R/ C. Darwin;" Volume 2 (1832), containing the chapter on cora l ree fs , has on the f lyleaf "Charles Darwin / M. Video IYoveG 1832." The copy of the 'Fersonal Narrative ' is the English t rans la - t ion by H. M. W i l l i a m s , London 1819-20, 6 volumes i n 7, and is inscribed: "J. S. Henslow t o h i s f r i end C. Darwin on h i s departure from England upon a voyage round the world. 21 sepr 1831. " Both volumes a re annotated. I n the cora l reef chapter of Lyell, "Principles, ' Volume 2, it is in te res t ing t o see t h a t the paragraph i n which "subsidence by earthquakes" is advocated t o account f o r the form of a t o l l s has been scored. In addit ion t o these works, t o which Darwin made frequent apprecia- t i v e references i n h i s l e t t e r s and 'Autobiography,' he probably a l so had with him Humboldt's 'Fragmens de g&ologie e t de climatolagie asiatiq.uesl ( h i s admiration fo r the author overcoming h i s repugnance fo r French); Captain Beechey 's 'Narrative, ' a much annotated copy being preserved i n the Cambridge collection; and Fors te r ' s 'Observations,' a l so a t Cambridge and quoted i n 'Coral Islands. ' It is c lear from 'Coral Is lands ' t h a t a number of volumes which a r e no longer i n h i s l i b r a r y were a l so taken on the Beagle : chie f ly Kotzebue ' s 'Voyage; ' E l l i s 's 'Polynesian Researches; ' Bennett 's 'Wanderings i n New South Wales;' Byron's 'Voyage;' and King's 'Narrative. ' De l a Beche's 'Researches i n theore t ica l geology, ' 1834, is i n the l ib ra ry , but not the 'Geological Manual, ' 1831, which w a s probably used during the voyage. have the evidence of FitzRoy t h a t a copy of busens t e rn ' s ' A t l a s ' was ca r r ied on the Beagle. One fur ther relevant volume i n the l ib ra ry , which may have been taken on the voyage, is P l a y f a i r ' s ' I l l u s t r a t i ons of the Huttonian Theory, ' 1802. From the point of view of 'Coral Islands, ' however, it is c lear t h a t Lyell, Beechey, Kotzebue, Fors ter and De l a Beche were Darwin's main sources, together with a co l l ec t ion of voyages and t r ave l s now forgotten. The complete l i s t is a s follows: Beche, B. T. de la . 1831. A geological manual. London, T reu t t e l and N k t z . 535 p. Bcechey, F. W. 1832. Narrative of a voyage t o the Pac i f i c and Beering's S t r a i t , t o co-operate with t h e po la r expeditions: performed i n His t h j e s t y ' s Ship Blossom, under the command of Captain F. W. Beechey, R. FJ., F. R. S. &c. i n t he years 1825, 26, 27, 28. Philadelphia, Carey and Lea. 493 p. ( T ~ F S ed i t i on i n Darwin's l i b r a ry , annotated). Bennett, George. 1834. idanderings i n New South Wales, Batavia, Pedir Coast, Singapore, and China; being the journal of a n a t u r a l i s t i n those countries, during 1832, 1833, and 1834. London, R. Bentley. Volume 1, 440 9. Volume 2, 428 p. Byron, George Anson, 7 th Baron. 1826. Voyage of H. M. S. Blonde t o the Sandwich Is lands , i n the years 1824-25. Captain the Right Hon. Lord Byron, Commander. London, John Murray. 260 p. Chamisso, Adelbert vcn. 1821. Renarks and opinion;; of the n a t u r a l i s t of the expedition: in , Ibtzebue, Voyage, Volume 2, p. 349-433; Volume 3, P. 1-318, and 331-336. E l l i s , William. 1829. Polynesian researches, during a residence of near ly six years on t he South Sea Islands; including descr ip t ions of the na tu r a l h i s t o r y and scenery of the i s l ands - with remarks on the his tory , mythology, t r ad i t i ons , government, arts, manner, and customs of the inhabi tants . London, Fisher, Son and Jackson. Volume 1, 536 p. Vohme 2, 576 p. Fi t ton, W. H. 1827. An account of some geological specimens, co l l ec ted by Captain P. P. King, i n h i s Survey of the Coasts of Austral ia, and by Robert Brown, E,sq., on the Shores of the Gulf of Carpentaria, during the voyage of Captain Flinders: in, King, Austral ia, Volume 2, p. 566-630. Fors ter , J. R. 1778. Obse,rvations made during a voyage round the world, on physical geography, na tu r a l h i s t o ry and e t h i c philosophy. Londor,, G. Robinson, 649 p. Humboldt, Alexander von. 1831. Fragmens de geologic e t de c l i m a t ~ l o g ~ e as ia t iques , par A. de Humboldt. Paris , Gide. Volume 1, 309 p. Volume 2, p. 310-640. King, P. P. 1827. Narrative of a survey of the i n t e r t r o p i c a l and western coasts of Austra l ia . Performed between the years 1818 and 1822. London. Volmie 1, 451 p. Volume 2, 637 p. Ibtzebue, Otto von. 1821. A voyage of discovery, i n t o the South Sea and Beering's S t r a i t s , f o r the purpose of expioring a north-east passage, undertaken i n the years 1815-1818, a t the expense of H i s Highness the Chancellor of the Empire, Count Romanzoff, i n the ship Rurick, under t he command of the Lieutenant i n the Russian Imperial Navy, Otto von Kotzebue. London, Longman, Hurst. Volume 1, 358 p. Volume 2, 433 p. Volume 3, 442 p. busens te rn , A. I. von. 1826-27. At las de l lOcean Pacifique dress6 par M. de Krusenstern. St . Petersbourg, 34 maps. Lyell, Charles. 1830-1033. Pr inc ip les of geology, being an attempt t o explain t he former changes of t h e e a r t h ' s surface, by reference t o causes now i n operation. London, John Murray. Volume 1, 1830, 511 p. IJolume 2, 1832, 330 p. Volume 3, 1833, 398 p. a d 109 p. Quoy, J. R. and Gaimard, J. Paul. 1824. Mgmoire sur l 'accroissement des Polypes l i thophytes considere g4ologiquement: in, Voyage antour du monde en t repr i s par ordre du Roi ... par M. Louis de Freycinet. Zoologie, par MM. Quoy e t Gaimard, M6decins de l tExp6dition. Paris, Chez P i l l e t ~ h 5 . 712 p. Chapter XV, p. 658-671. Also repr inted i n Amales des Sciences Naturelles, V I , 1825, p. 273-290.