Saint Christopher in the Amazon: Child Sorcery,
Colonialism, and Violence among the
Southern Arawak
Fernando Santos-Granero, Smithsonian Tropical
Research Institute
For reasons that ba?e anthropologists, Ash?ninka shamans consistently blame chil-
dren, especially young girls, when life-threatening illnesses strike adults. In the
past, these sorcerer-children . . . were attacked with what an observer otherwise
sympathetic to Ash?ninkas calls ??merciless fury.?? (Brown and Fern?ndez????: ??)
Abstract. The killing of alleged children sorcerers has been widely reported among
the Arawak of eastern Peru. Accusations of child sorcery multiplied at junctures
of increased outside pressures marked by violence, displacement, and epidemics.
Mythical foundations for this belief are found in the legend of Saint Christopher
and the Child Christ. Appropriated through mimetic image in colonial times, the
tale of this ??plague saint?? was transformed into the myth of a cannibalistic giant
and his evil infant son. The notion that children could become potent witches was
reinforced in postcolonial times by epidemics a?ecting mostly adults. An example
of mimesis gone wrong, the belief in child sorcery is one of those unforeseen and
tragic products of the colonial encounter.
Child sorcery?meaning sorcery as practiced by children?and the killing
of alleged children sorcerers have been widely reported among four of the
six Arawak-speaking peoples of the Selva Central region of eastern Peru:
the Yanesha and the three dialect groups known by the collective term
Ashaninka, the Ashaninka proper, the Asheninka, and the Nomatsiguenga
(see Figure ?).1 For the purposes of this article I shall use the term South-
ern Arawak to refer collectively to these four groups. The Yanesha and the
Perene Asheninka abandoned the killing of children sorcerers around the
????s (Smith????:???); theNomatsiguenga, around the????s (Shaver and
Dodd ????: ???). Among the Ashaninka and the Pajonal Asheninka, the
Ethnohistory ??:? (summer ????)
Copyright ? by the American Society for Ethnohistory.
??? Fernando Santos-Granero
Figure ?. Map of Arawak-speaking peoples of eastern Peru. Drawing by Fernando
Santos-Granero.
execution of children accused of sorcery was still practiced until the mid-
????s (Eichenberger ????: ???; Weiss ????: ???), but later on, accusations
seem to have subsided, for this practice is scarcely mentioned, if at all, in
the ethnographic literature of the ????s and ????s.
Although missionaries, travelers, and government o?cials have re-
ported child sorcery, no one has attempted to explain it or inquire about
its origins. It has simply been assumed that the killing of children witches2
constitutes an expression of the savageness of Amazonian Indians and
should be vigorously condemned. Anthropologists working in the Selva
Central region, homeland of the Southern Arawak, have generally avoided
the subject; they have been of little help in understanding this phenomenon.
Saint Christopher in the Amazon ???
When doing ?eldwork among the Yanesha, I myself opted not to inquire
about a practice that had already been abandoned and that seemed to be
so much at odds with a society consistently described as ??peaceful?? and
??docile?? (Santos-Granero????: vii?viii).While suspecting that it was not a
??traditional?? precontact practice, I was as ba?ed as my predecessors as to
how it might have originated and how to explain it. In this article I attempt
to answer these and other related questions.
This essay has been organized in three parts in order to reproduce
as faithfully as possible the di?erent stages in my inquiry. First, I present
what we know about this practice. On the basis of the scrutiny of historical
sources, ethnographic literature, and oral information, I attempt to answer
four basic questions: (?) How do children become sorcerers? (?) How does
child sorcery work? (?) What kinds of children are more often accused?
And (?) How are children sorcerers punished? Second, I try to identify the
origin of this practice through an examination of the historical documen-
tation on the Southern Arawak. Here I address two questions: (?) When
and in what context was infantile sorcery ?rst reported? And (?) Under
what circumstances did accusations of child sorcery proliferate? Finally, I
analyze the ideological referents that sustain the belief in infantile sorcery.
I shall argue that the Arawak myth that provides the ideological founda-
tions for this belief may have originated in the violent context of colonial
encounter but that it took shape in postcolonial times. Let us start, then,
by examining the ethnographic background.
Ethnographic Background
The Southern Arawak believe that witchcraft is related to the activities of
an evil chthonic personage known as Yosoper by the Yanesha (Smith ????:
???) and as Korio?piri by the Ashaninka (Weiss ????: ?????), who is con-
ceived of as ??father?? and ??ruler?? of all demons.3They distinguish two types
of sorcery: that produced by human beings and that produced by non-
human agents (Weiss ????: ??????; Smith ????: ?????; Santos-Granero
????: ??????). Predominant among the latter are demons, evil spirits, and
the malignant spiritual essences of trees, of rocks, and of certain animals,
particularly ants, termites, bees, and wasps. Demons, spirits, and essences
cause illness by corporeal or eye contact, whether during vigil or in dreams.
Ants, termites, and wasps, generally considered to be the helpers of de-
mons and devils, cause it by burying or taking to their nests leftovers of
the food consumed by their victims, such as small bones, manioc ?bers,
and ?shbone, or bodily substances, such as hair, scabs, sweat, or excre-
ments. Human beings, irrespective of gender and age, can also practice
??? Fernando Santos-Granero
witchcraft. However, until the ????s, persons accused of being sorcerers
were mostly children, both tots and teens. Known as amase?et? among the
Yanesha and m?ci, machi, or matsi among the Ashaninka, children become
sorcerers when they are very young. The Ashaninka believe this happens
when the children are approached in dreams by the soul of another human
witch or by a demonic bird or insect, who appear in a child?s dreams in
human guise (Weiss ????: ?????). These evil beings place a bone, thorn,
palm-leaf sliver, or the like in the child?s hand and then knock it o?. The
object falls and becomes buried in the ground, at which point someone
falls ill.Teachers of witchcraft visit their innocent disciples again and again.
With the passage of time the child takes a more active part in witchcraft ac-
tivities. Their demonic teachers tell them to kill speci?c individuals, liken-
ing the victims to game animals, particularly, agoutis. They also give the
children human ?esh to eat until they develop a taste for it. In time, chil-
dren sorcerers begin to dream that they bury things to make people ill, thus
becoming conscious of their powers to bewitch. Children can also learn
sorcery through contact with other children who have already become sor-
cerers. Similar beliefs are reported for the Nomatsiguenga, whose children,
it is said, become witches after receiving secret instructions from tsiric?ti,
a sparrow-like bird, or from other malignant spirit birds (Shaver and Dodd
????: ???).
According to the Yanesha, a child becomes a sorcerer when another
adult or child witch rubs him or her with a special plant or when a
child paints him- or herself with the juice of that plant (Smith ????: ???).
The juice penetrates the child?s heart, endowing him or her with powers
to bewitch. A second way of becoming a witch is when a curved-billed
hummingbird, considered to be one of the mystical auxiliaries of practicing
evil shamans, ?ies over or in front of a child. Some authors have suggested
that children sorcerers ??may be innocent of evil intentions and may be-
witch unwittingly?? (Weiss ????: ???) or that they are used by the chthonic
ruler and his earthly demons as ??innocent victim(s) to propagate their evil??
(Smith ????: ???). However, all of my informants insisted that this is not
the case: that even though children do not become sorcerers of their own
free will, once they do and become aware of it, they use their powers con-
sciously, to cause harm, illness, and death.
Like evil ants, termites, and wasps, children witches cause harm by
burying scraps of food and bodily excrescence from their victims. The
Ashaninka say that this is done in the child?s dreams (Weiss????: ???).The
Yanesha claim that children sorcerers meditate angrily about their victims,
prompting their animal helpers, such as ants, to do the burying for them
(Smith ????: ???). Herbalists?aparta? (Yanesha) or shipokantaseri (Asha-
Saint Christopher in the Amazon ???
ninka)?or shamans?pa?llerr (Yanesha) or seripiari (Ashaninka)?are the
only specialists that can identify children sorcerers.They do so by perform-
ing a divinatory ritual involving the chewing of coca leaves and the sucking
of tobacco juice, or by inducing patients to dream about their mystical ag-
gressors (Sala ???? [????]: ???; Batlle ????: ???; Navarro ????a: ?????;
Uriarte ???? [????]: ???; Ordinaire ???? [????]: ??).
A great deal of agreement exists about what kinds of persons are more
likely to be accused of sorcery. According to some sources, among the
Ashaninka the accused were mostly young and adult women and very ex-
ceptionally a boy (Ordinaire ???? [????]: ??; Rojas Zolezzi ????: ???).
Other sources claim that although both girls and boys could be accused
of being sorcerers, more often than not the accused were little girls (P?rez
Marcio ????: ???; Brown and Fern?ndez ????: ???). In general, sources on
the Ashaninka agree that the accused was ??the most defenseless member of
the community, usually a girl-child, especially if it is an orphan or captive
taken in a raid?? (Weiss ????: ???; see also Palomino Arana et al. ????: ???;
Uriarte???? [????]: ???). Another source speci?es that orphan children ac-
cused of sorcery were generally fatherless rather than motherless (Navarro
????a: ??). In turn, among adults, those most vulnerable to accusations of
sorcery were young women without husbands to defend them (ibid.; Torre
L?pez ????: ??; Weiss ????: ???).
Early reports about the Yanesha present a similar picture: diviners
and shamans tended to accuse ??orphans, widows and destitute?? (Batlle
????: ???). They generally blamed someone ??weak and defenseless, a poor
orphan, who had nobody to defend him or look after him?? (Navarro ????
[????b]: ???). However, these sources do not establish that girls were the
most prone to be accused of sorcery in as clear-cut a way as those on the
Ashaninka. Some suggest that boys and girls were equally accused (Sala
???? [????]: ???); others claim that the accused was a girl child or a woman
more often than not (Smith ????: ???; Bull?n Paucar ????: ???). I was told
that both boys and girls could be accused. Given that among the Yanesha
wrath is considered to trigger a person?s capacity for evil, grumpy children
were primary targets for accusations of sorcery. Children who were mis-
chievous, disobedient, or disrespectful toward adults were also suspected
of witchcraft, as were children who stood out because they were particu-
larly ??nice?? or ??bright?? (Sala ???? [????]: ???). In short, both among the
Yanesha and the Ashaninka the accusedweremostly children?and in some
cases adult women?with a more marked preference for girls among the
Ashaninka than among theYanesha. And among both groups, the most de-
fenseless were the most commonly accused, to wit, those who had no man
to defend them: fatherless orphans, children captives, and widows. How-
??? Fernando Santos-Granero
ever, there is plenty of evidence that nonorphans were also accused of being
sorcerers, especially when it was suspected that they were bewitching their
parents or one of their relatives (Sala ???? [????]: ???; Torre L?pez ????:
??; Bull?n Paucar ????: ??). Sometimes adults were also accused of sor-
cery; in such cases, however, the Southern Arawak believed that the ac-
cused were children sorcerers who somehow escaped detection while they
were children (Weiss ????: ???).4
Accused children were harshly punished in order to oblige them to
disclose where they had buried their deadly charms. Among the Yanesha,
they were beaten, con?ned in a small cell, su?ocated with smoke, and
starved. Once a day, amid insults and blows, they were forced to exca-
vate the dirt ?oor of the victim?s house in search of the mystical objects
they had buried (Gonz?lez ????: ???; Sala ???? [????]: ?????; Navarro
???? [????b]: ???; Uriarte ???? [????]: ???; Smith ????: ???).5 The Asha-
ninka beat them, placed them on a smoking platform, or submerged them
under water until they almost drowned, to make them confess (P?rez Mar-
cio ????: ???; Eichenberger ????: ???; Weiss ????: ???; Shaver and Dodd
????: ???). It has also been reported that accused children were tortured
until they cried, a response that was thought would make them forget what
they had learned from the demonic teachers who had taught them sorcery
(Rojas Zolezzi ????: ???). However, the Southern Arawak believe that,
because of their extraordinary powers, children witches cannot be killed
through torture (Shaver and Dodd ????: ???). They also believe that chil-
dren witches cannot starve, for they feed on the ?esh they obtain from the
victims of their mystical attacks. These beliefs serve to explain the extreme
cruelty of the punishment delivered to accused children. From the point of
view of the Southern Arawak, accused children are not real children but
evil and invincible sorcerers in disguise.
If a patient improved, the accused child could be ritually cleansed
and released. If the bewitched person died, the perpetrator was invari-
ably condemned to death. The type of execution depended on the wishes
of the victims, their relatives, and the acting shamans. Children sorcerers
could be bludgeoned (Sala ???? [????]: ???), strangled (Ordinaire ????
[????]: ??), drowned (P?rez Marcio ????: ???; Bull?n Paucar ????: ??),
shot with arrows or burnt alive (Navarro ???? [????b]: ???; Izaguirre
??????, ??:???), buried in an armadillo hole (Weiss ????: ???), or covered
with honey and tied up naked to a tree close to an anthill (P?rez Marcio
????: ???). Their bodies were burned or disposed of by throwing them into
a river.
These very cruel, and otherwise unusual, forms of execution, were in-
tended to prevent the ??shadow?? of the dead child sorcerer from staying
Saint Christopher in the Amazon ???
around and teaching the art of witchcraft to other children. The Southern
Arawak believe that human beings possess two incorporeal essences: the
soul and the shadow. The shadows of individuals who die violently are be-
lieved to stay around and haunt the living.The Southern Arawak feared that
the shadows of executed children sorcerers might join those of their de-
monic teachers, becoming one of them and eventually teaching other chil-
dren the art of sorcery (Weiss ????: ???, ???). To avoid this, they not only
disposed of their bodies, they also destroyed all their belongings (Uriarte
???? [????]: ???).6 It should be noted, however, that children sorcerers
were not always killed.7 Beginning in the ????s, it became common for ac-
cused children to be sold as servants towhite colonists or traders.This prac-
tice had the advantage of removing their dangerous presence while at the
same time obtaining much-desired Western goods (Palomino Arana et al.
????: ???; Weiss ????: ???; Brown and Fern?ndez ????: ???). Having pro-
vided an overall view of Southern Arawak child sorcery, I will now turn
my attention to the origin of this practice.
Historical Origins
The Southern Arawak were among the ?rst Amazonian indigenous peoples
of Peru to be contacted by the Spaniards. For this reason, the colonial
documentation on them is more complete than for other Peruvian lowland
peoples.8 Nevertheless, none of the colonial sources covering the period
between the ?rst contacts with the Spanish around ???? and their expul-
sion in ???? mentions that children were accused of being sorcerers and
executed for this reason. The absence of references about this practice dur-
ing colonial times is particularly notable given that the Franciscans who
missionized the region were anxious to detect and eradicate all practices
considered pagan, barbarian, or immoral. Polygamy, sorcery, ritual anthro-
pophagy, sodomy, and other practices came under their unequivocal con-
demnation and repression. The Franciscan missionaries were undoubtedly
aware that the Southern Arawak believed in witchcraft and that they had
specialized sorcerers, or brujos (see, for instance, San Antonio ????). If in-
fantile sorcery were practiced during colonial times, they would have de-
tected and reported on it. They, in fact, did so later on, after Peru?s inde-
pendence in ????. Thus, their earlier silence suggests that child sorcery was
not a pre-Hispanic practice but that it appeared and developed later, dur-
ing postcolonial times. The question, then, becomes when and under what
circumstances child sorcery emerged.
References on child sorcery among the Arawak-speaking groups of
the Peruvian Monta?a appeared for the ?rst time in the late nineteenth
??? Fernando Santos-Granero
century, during the short period between ???? and ???? (Gonz?lez ????:
???; Ordinaire ???? [????]: ?????; Carranza in Ortiz ????: ???; Her-
n?ndez in Izaguirre ??????, ??:??????). What, then, was going on in this
region that could explain the appearance of such a practice at this time?
In ????, the Peruvian government undertook the reconquest of the Selva
Central, which the Spanish had lost in???? as a result of a multiethnic mes-
sianic and anticolonialist Indian revolt. It was during this period of political
autonomy that the Southern Arawak developed their own metal industry
centered on numerous temple/ironworks (Santos-Granero ????). Between
???? and ????, the government managed to displace the Southern Arawak
from those areas closest to the Andean Highlands, founding a fort and sev-
eral small colonist towns in the region. All attempts to penetrate further
into indigenous territory, however, were met with ?erce opposition. The
colonization of the hinterland was at an impasse.
In????, the government renewed its e?orts to occupy the region. Dur-
ing the following ten years, it organized six large military expeditions to
clear the land from its native inhabitants and make way for new waves
of national and foreign colonists (Barclay and Santos-Granero ????). The
spread of foreign epidemics contributed greatly to the Southern Arawak?s
defeat.9 By ????, the military had subjugated the Arawak living along the
Andean piedmont, putting an end to a century of freedom from foreign
domination. Devastated by epidemics, and forced to abandon their settle-
ments, their ceremonial centers, and their ironworks, many Yanesha and
Ash?ninka opted to withdraw to the hinterlands.
After their defeat, the local government was transferred from military
to civilian authorities. Newwaves of colonists, including large landowners,
settled in the region, and Franciscanmissionaries began towork in the area,
founding several missions. In addition, in???? the government granted half
a million hectares to the British holders of Peruvian government bonds.The
British company promptly founded the Peren? Colony in their vast hold-
ings, devoting them to the production of high-quality export co?ee.
Notably, then, the ?rst references we have to child sorcery appeared
in a context of accelerated change characterized by military defeat, territo-
rial despoliation, technological impoverishment, epidemics, social disrup-
tion, and demographic decline. Analysis of the historical sources indicates
that periods when accusations of child sorcery proliferated alternated with
periods when accusations decreased or subsided. Accusations of child sor-
cery intensi?ed at times when renewed colonization pressures coincided
with the recrudescence of violence, accelerated economic and ideological
change, and the spread of epidemics. In most cases, these occurrences were
also associated with the emergence of indigenous movements of resistance,
Saint Christopher in the Amazon ???
frequently with messianic undertones.10 Since it would be out of the scope
of this article to discuss in detail these diverse junctures, I will only discuss
two of them very brie?y.
The ?rst juncture took place in the ????s, a?ecting ?rstly the Yanesha
of the Chorobamba Valley and, later on, the Ashaninka of the Ucayali,
Pichis, and Palcazu rivers. Among the Yanesha, it all began with combined
epidemics of yellow fever and measles that attacked them in ???? (Smith
????: ??). The Chorobamba Valley had not yet been colonized, but in ????
the Franciscans settled in the valley and founded a mission. Weakened by
the epidemic, the Yanesha o?ered no resistance to the Franciscans? pres-
ence. But in ???? a second epidemic of measles decimated those who had
agreed to live in the mission (Ortiz ????, ?:???). The ?rst reference to in-
fantile sorcery among the Yanesha was reported precisely in this context
(Gonz?lez ????: ?????).
The Ashaninka were a?ected a few years later, when in ???? an epi-
demic of smallpox swept the upper Ucayali River (Ordinaire ???? [????]:
???). Not coincidentally, the ?rst reports of child sorcery among the Asha-
ninka appeared that same year (ibid.: ?????). Three years later, in ????,
news of the arrival of a divine messenger, described as a white man dressed
in indigenous attire, spread along this same area. The Ashaninka of the
upper Ucayali, Pichis, and Palcazu rivers ?ocked to meet the messiah, who
was said to speak Ashaninka and to proclaim that ??Father Sun had sent him
with amessage, that the errant tribes should live like civilizedmen, forming
villages each with its own church?? (Brown and Fern?ndez ????: ??).
A second juncture, related to the emergence of a religious transforma-
tive movement among the Ashaninka of the Peren? River basin, took place
in the????s (Bodley????:?????). Inspired by themessianic discourse of the
Adventist missionary Ferdinand Stahl, who had arrived in the area in ????,
hundreds of Ashaninkas gathered in ???? into nucleated settlements mod-
eled after Stahl?s mission post.Movement leaders proclaimed the imminent
transformation that the existing order was to undergo: ??the dead were to
arise, all evil would be destroyed, and the believers and risen dead would
be taken to the house of God in the sky where there would be no more sick-
ness, death, or growing old?? (ibid.: ???). The movement was strengthened
by an epidemic of measles that swept the area, having a devastating e?ect
on its followers (ibid.: ???).
A second epidemic of measles a?ected the Ashaninka of the Peren?
River ?ve years later, in ????. Nearly half of the three hundred converts of
the Adventist mission of Sutziki died (Barclay ????: ?????), producing an
expected reaction against the missionaries who had inspired the previous
movement. Asserting that the white men had brought the epidemic, non-
??? Fernando Santos-Granero
converted Ashaninkas threatened to kill the missionaries and the British
settlers of the Peren? Colony if they did not abandon the region. Predict-
ably, accusations of child sorcery proliferated throughout ????, as a result
of which numerous children and adolescents were obliged to seek refuge
in the Adventist mission (Pinto in Ortiz ????: ???).
Similar junctures of mounting colonization pressures, combined with
outbreaks of epidemics, gave rise to a frenzy of accusations of child sorcery
during the ????s, ????s, ????s, and????s. At such critical times, the num-
ber of accusations increased so much that the Yanesha held collective cere-
monies in their temples to purge children, both boys and girls, suspected
of being sorcerers. They were given tobacco syrup to drink, which made
them vomit profusely, and were then secluded for a week, during which
time they had to fast, keep vigil, and abstain from sexual relations. The
ritual cleansing being over, the children were returned to their parents and
gradually reincorporated into everyday life.
In summary, the evidence indicates that child sorcery was not a pre-
Columbian Arawak practice, but a post-colonial development. Accusations
of child witchcraft multiplied at junctures of violence, epidemics, social dis-
order, and messianic mobilization and diminished signi?cantly in times of
peace and demographic recovery. The section that follows addresses how
these beliefs might have come into existence.
Mythical Foundations
Indigenous societies frequently address their social institutions and cus-
toms through their mythologies. Indian mythologies often narrate the ori-
gin, or discuss the pros and cons, of signi?cant social institutions and cus-
toms. The practice of child sorcery is no exception; it is founded upon the
myth of a gigantic divinity and his evil infant son that occurs, with slight
variation, among the Yanesha and the various Ashaninka dialect groups.
This is the only myth I know of in which a child is held responsible for
using mystical powers to kill people. It is a widely known myth. Adults
frequently tell it to their children and grandchildren in order to illustrate
the dangers posed by lack of self-control over negative emotions, such as
anger and wrath, which the Yanesha and the Ashaninka always associate
with the potential for performing sorcery (Santos-Granero ????: ???). The
following is an abridged version of the Yanesha myth.11
Ayots was one of the sons of Our Grandfather Yos, the supreme cre-
ator. He was a gigantic evil divinity, who used his mystical powers to
transform people into stones, bees, termites, and other animals. He
Saint Christopher in the Amazon ???
had a son, named Poporrona?, who looked like a child but was actually
an adult. As Poporrona? could not walk, Ayots always carried him on
his shoulders. It was Poporrona? whomade his father angry and caused
him to transform people.Whenever they saw someone, he would start
asking his father ??Who is that one over there? Who is it? Tell me. Tell
me who is it??? Angry at his son?s insistence, Ayots would tell him that
the person was a stone or an animal, and by the power of his words
would transform the person into whatever he said it was.
Ayots had a sister, who was married to Armadillo. One day
Ayots?s sister sent her son and daughter to welcome Ayots and Popo-
rrona?, who were coming to visit. When Poporrona? saw his cousins
waiting in the trail, he started asking who they were. Angered by his
insistence, Ayots transformed his nephews into a woolly spider mon-
key and an agouti.
Ayots?s sister and her husband were mad at him for transform-
ing their children, and they decided to punish him. They organized a
drinking party and urged Ayots to drink a lot. After ?ve days of drink-
ing and dancing, Ayots was exhausted. Armadillo invited him to rest
in his underground house.When Ayots fell asleep, Armadillo sneaked
out and locked Ayots within. Ayots tried to escape but he could not.
He is still there, trapped forever, and supporting the earth. Whenever
he tries to escape, he produces earthquakes.
Ayots?s son, Poporrona?, stayed with his aunt and a baby cousin.
Although he was small and did not grow, he was already an adult and
had the same transformative powers as his father. One day, while his
aunt was away, he transformed his baby cousin into rotten wood and
escaped. The people chased him. They found him bathing in a river
that his father used to dam in order to ?ood the land, kill the people
and eat them. Poporrona? was planning to do the same thing and re-
ferred to people as edible aquatic larvae.
Poporrona?s pursuers attempted to capture him. They ?rst shot
him with their bows and arrows, but they shot one another instead.
Then they attempted to club him, but instead they clubbed one an-
other. Finally, they attempted to cut him into pieces, but they ended
upwounding themselves. Poporrona? took pity on them. He told them
that if they wanted to kill him, they had to build him a nice throne
of balsa wood, sit him there, and nail him to the ground by hammer-
ing a spike of hardwood through his head. He also told them to come
back ?ve days later. Thewarriors followed his instructions.When they
came back, in the place where they had nailed Poporrona?, they found
a tall peach palm tree heavy with fruit.
??? Fernando Santos-Granero
Variants of this myth are found among the Ashaninka and the Ashe-
ninka, where the main protagonists are Av?reri and his grandson K?ri
(Weiss ????: ??????), and among the Nomatsiguenga, where Av?reri be-
comes M?bireri and K?ri becomes Qu?r? (Shaver and Dodd ????: ?????).
All these versions present the evil divinity as a cannibal who enjoys making
people su?er. However, both the Yanesha and the Ashaninka insist that it
was the son/grandson who angered his father/grandfather with his end-
less questioning, triggering his transformative powers. The divinity?s son,
in turn, is portrayed as a child who refuses to grow but has the capacities of
an adult. He is held responsible for the evil actions of his father. The child
is said to have the same transformative powers as his father and to share his
father?s taste for human ?esh. He is depicted as being so evil that he does
not even hesitate to transform his cousins into animals, ?rst vicariously,
through his father, and later on directly, using his own powers.
Children witches partake of several characteristics shared by the evil
child of these myths. First, both are conceived of as being pseudochildren;
they may appear as children, but they are, or act as, adults. The mythical
child is an adult in disguise, one who simply refuses to grow up. Children
accused of sorcery generally act in unchildlikeways, either because they are
more clever than average or because they are de?ant or disrespectful toward
adults. Second, both have evil powers. The mythical child has the power to
transform people into objects and animals, some of which are considered
to be agents of witchcraft, such as bees, wasps, and termites. Children sor-
cerers have bewitching powers, which they use in ways similar to that of
evil bees, wasps, and termites. Third, they are cannibals. Both the mythi-
cal child and children sorcerers enjoy eating human beings, which in one
case are equated with aquatic larvae and in the other are consumed dur-
ing dreams. Finally, they are extremely antisocial and do not hesitate to kill
their kin: cross cousins or potential a?nes in one case; parents, siblings,
and other close consanguines in the other case.
The aforementioned myth is present among all Arawak-speaking
groups that believe in infantile sorcery but not among those that do not,
such as the Piro and the Machiguenga.12 This further strengthens the argu-
ment that the myth of Ayots/Av?reri constitutes the mythical referent for
the practice of child sorcery. However, the presence of the myth does not
by itself explain how the belief in child sorcery developed among the South-
ern Arawak. An answer to this problem came to me from an unexpected
source. One day, in a taxi going to the o?ce, I noticed on the dashboard a
medal of Saint Christopher carrying the Child Christ on his shoulder (see
Figure ?). The image reminded me of Ayots carrying his son Poporrona?. I
knew that the medal represented Saint Christopher, so I decided to check
Saint Christopher in the Amazon ???
Figure ?. Medal of Saint Christopher.
his hagiography. The following abridged version of the Christian legend of
Saint Christopher is based on four di?erent sources (Butler ????: ?????;
Morgan ????: ?????; Englebert ????: ?????; Woods [????] ????):
Christopher was a barbarous cannibal with the original name of Re-
probus. He had a gigantic body, an ugly face that resembled that of a
dog, and a fearful appearance. Being so strong, he decided to work for
the greatest king on earth. He sought out a powerful king and entered
his service. But he noticed that the king crossed himself each time the
devil was mentioned. Realizing that Satan was stronger than the king,
he decided to enroll in the demon?s army. One day, however, Repro-
bus saw his master tremble while passing before a cross, and he asked
himwhywas he afraid.When the devil answered that he feared Christ,
Reprobus decided to leave him in order to seek Christ.
On his way to seek Christ, Reprobus met a holy hermit. He asked
the hermit what could he do to serve Christ. The hermit showed him
a turbulent river and told him to stay there and take travelers across,
for this would be a charitable work agreeable to Christ. Thus it was
that Reprobus became a ferryman.
One stormy night a child asked Reprobus to take him across the
??? Fernando Santos-Granero
river. Reprobus lifted up the child on his shoulder, took up his sta?,
and began the crossing. As Reprobus traversed the waters, the current
grew stronger and the child heavier with each step. When he reached
the other side, he remarked to the child that it felt as if he had carried
the entire world upon his shoulders. The child revealed that hewas the
Child Christ and told Reprobus that he had borne theweights not only
of the entire world, but also of Him who had created it. To prove it
the Child Christ instructed Reprobus to plant his sta? outside his hut
and see what happened. By the next day the stick had turned into a
palm tree bearing leaves, ?owers, and fruit.
Reprobus converted to Christianity and changed his name to
Christopher or Christ-bearer. He then went to Lycia, where he de-
voted himself to convert pagans. Worried with his success, the local
king took him prisoner, ordering him to recant his new faith. When
Christopher refused to do so, the king ordered his soldiers to beat him
with rods of iron, nail him to a seat of bronze, place a red-hot iron
cross upon his head, cover himwith pitch, and set him on ?re.The sol-
diers complied, but the seat melted like wax and Christopher emerged
harmless. The king then ordered his soldiers to attach him to a strong
stake and shoot him with their arrows.They did so, but the arrows did
not reach him, except for one that ricocheted o? his skin and into the
king?s eye. Desperate, the king ordered his soldiers to behead Christo-
pher and burn his body. Before dying, Christopher prayed to God to
punish his killers. God sent an earthquake exterminating many of his
captors. The giant then asked God to grant him the grace that all who
saw his relics, or image, and had faith in him would be saved from
?re, storm, and earthquake.
Numerous parallels between the Christian legend and the Arawak
myth suggest that the myth of Ayots/Poporrona? (or Av?reri/K?ri) has been
modeled upon that of Saint Christopher and the Child Christ. Some paral-
lels are direct, like those existing between Christopher and Ayots/Av?reri
or between Christ and Poporrona?/K?ri. Other parallels are indirect (in a
crisscross fashion), like those existing between Christopher and Popor-
rona?/K?ri or between Ayots/Av?reri and the Child Christ (see Figure ?).
Attributing characteristics and actions of one personage to another, as well
as other types of inversion, are commonwhen amyth or legend passes from
one people to another.
Let us begin with a discussion of the similarities existing between the
?gures of Christopher andAyots/Av?reri. Both are gigantic personages with
extraordinary physical as well as mystical powers. Both are anthropopha-
Saint Christopher in the Amazon ???
Christopher Ayots/Av?reri
Child Christ Poporrona?/K?ri
Figure ?. Parallels between the Christian legend of Saint Christopher and the
Southern Arawak myth of Ayots/Av?reri. Diagram by Fernando Santos-Granero.
gous.Christopher is described as a barbarous cannibal; the Arawak divinity
as having a taste for human beings, which he likened to edible larvae. Both
Christopher and the Arawak divinity carried a wondrous child on their
shoulders (see Figure ?). In one case, it is an unrelated, mysterious child; in
the other case, his son or grandson. Both ?gures are killed and deprived of
their powers. A powerful king beheads the Christian saint; his brother-in-
law buries the Arawak divinity.13 They both have to bear the weight of the
earth: Christopher temporarily, while carrying the infant Jesus; the Ara-
wak divinity permanently, as holder of the earth. Finally, both ?gures are
related to earthquakes: Christopher by protecting people from them, the
Arawak divinity by producing them.
Other striking parallels also underlie relations between the Child
Christ and Poporrona?/K?ri. They are both children with extraordinary
powers. Whereas the Child Christ is presented as creator of the entire
world, the Arawak evil child is described as a re-creator, a powerful trans-
former of existing people and things. Both are adults disguised as children:
Jesus because he chooses to reveal himself to Christopher in his personi?-
cation as the Child Christ; the Arawak child because he refuses to grow up
and remains small even though he enjoys adult capacities. Both are carried
on the shoulders of powerful ?gures. The Child Christ is carried on the
shoulders of a gigantic ferryman; the Arawak evil child on the shoulders
of his father, or grandfather, a gigantic evil divinity. Finally, both vex their
bearers: the Child Christ by making himself heavy; the Arawak child by
wearing out his father/grandfather with repeated questions. The resem-
blance between the name of the Child Christ and the name of the mythi-
cal child?at least in the Ash?ninka version of the myth?reinforces the
idea that the ?gure of K?ri was modeled upon that of the Child Christ. In
e?ect, in Spanish, Christ is Cristo, a name that the Ash?ninka pronounce
as Kiristu, and that could have led to the abridged form, K?ri.
??? Fernando Santos-Granero
Figure ?. Saint Christopher by Peter Paul Rubens, ???????.
Saint Christopher in the Amazon ???
Other similarities are shared in a crisscross fashion between Christo-
pher and the Arawak mythical child. Both are pursued by people whowant
to kill them but cannot because both enjoy mystical powers. In the case
of Christopher, they try to beat him with iron rods and shoot him with
arrows; in that of Poporrona?/K?ri, they try to club him, shoot him with
arrows, and cut him into pieces. Both personages are bound to a seat and
impaled by their pursuers. Christopher is tied to an iron seat, and his head
is pierced and burned with a red-hot iron cross; the Arawak child is tied to
a balsa wood throne and impaled with a spike of hardwood. Finally, both
?gures are associated with the miraculous ?owering of a palm tree. In the
Christian legend Christopher?s sta? is transformed by the Child Christ into
a palm tree bearing leaves, ?owers, and fruit as a sign of his divine ori-
gin and extraordinary powers (see Figures ? and ?). In the Arawak myth
it is the evil child who surrenders his extraordinary powers, allowing his
pursuers to impale him and transforming himself into a peach palm tree
(Bactris).
Although fewer in number, there are also some crisscross parallels be-
tween the Child Christ and Ayots/Av?reri. Both are conceived to be sons of
a supreme creator: Christ is the son of God the Father; the Arawak divinity
is the son of Our Grandfather Yos. In addition, both support the earth.
The Christian legend tells us that the Child Christ carried the weight of the
world. In the religious iconography of Saint Christopher, the Child Christ
is frequently portrayed carrying a globe or jeweled sphere representing the
world (see Figures ?, ?, and ?). The Arawak divinity, in turn, was deprived
of his evil powers and locked underground, assuming the burden of sus-
taining the earth on his shoulders.
Structural Transformations and the Mimetic Faculty
In colonial America, native mythologies and Christian hagiography cross-
fertilized much more widely than previously acknowledged. In some in-
stances, colonial agents adapted Amerindian myths to Christian tra-
ditions in order to further their evangelization projects. As Th?r?se
Boysse-Casagne (????) has recently shown, Spanish priests and chroni-
clers resorted to the legends of the Apostles Saint Thomas and Saint Bar-
tholomew to understand, reformulate, and in a way ??Christianize?? the
Andean myths of the gods Tunupa and Viracocha. Morphological and
thematic similarities between Christian hagiography and Amerindian my-
thology ??generated syncretic productions of archaic style, which were as-
sumed to be indigenous, but were not?? (ibid.: ???). By way of contrast,
it was the Amerindians who adopted, reformulated, and ??Indianized?? the
??? Fernando Santos-Granero
Figure ?. Saint Christopher by unknown German artist, ????. In Laus Virginis.
Bohemian manuscript from the John Rylands Library, Manchester, U.K.
Saint Christopher in the Amazon ???
Figure ?. Saint Christopher by unknown Peruvian artist, circa????s. At the Cathe-
dral of Cuzco, Peru. Photo by Fernando Santos-Granero.
??? Fernando Santos-Granero
legend of a popular Christian saint among the Southern Arawak.14 How-
ever, the legend of Saint Christopher and the Arawak myths underwent im-
portant alterations, not the least of which is the transmutation of the infant
Jesus from the benign and compassionate son of God to a malignant and
sel?sh child sorcerer. These remain to be explained.
Two questions must be answered here. First, why did the Arawak of
eastern Peru adopt the legend of Saint Christopher? And, second, why did
its central characters experience such substantial transmutations along this
process? In seeking answers to these questions, I shall appeal to Claude
L?vi-Strauss?s structuralist theory of myth as well as to Michael Taussig?s
theoretical propositions around mimesis and alterity.
I suggest that the Southern Arawak were drawn to the legend of
Saint Christopher because the Franciscan missionaries claimed that this
saint could protect them against misfortune. Statues and paintings of Saint
Christopher often bore the inscription ??Whoever shall behold the image of
Saint Christopher shall not faint or fall on that day.?? During the Middle
Ages it was believed that if a person saw an image of Saint Christopher
she or he would be shielded from ill fortune all day. This included threats
from ?ood, ?re, tempests, and earthquakes (Butler ????: ??; Morgan????:
??). Saint Christopher was invoked not only as protection against general
misfortune but, more speci?cally, also as a safeguard against plagues (But-
ler ????: ??). Together with Saint Roch and Saint Sebastian, they were the
most popular ??plague saints?? of the medieval period (Brown et al. ????:
???) (see Figure ?). For these reasons, large statues or paintings represent-
ing the saint were ??usually placed in publick wayes, and at the entrance of
Towns and Churches?? (Browne ???? [????], ?:xvi). This customary prac-
tice was introduced and preserved in Peru; to this day a huge painting of
Saint Christopher adorns one of the lateral naves of the Cathedral of Cuzco,
facing the entrance door (see Figure ?). This same practice must have also
been preserved in the missions that the Franciscans founded among the
Southern Arawak.We know that their churches were modest, but they had
numerous images of saints. In ????, the temple of the mission of Quimiri
had eleven statues, eleven large paintings, and numerous engravings, ac-
cording to church inventories (Rodr?guez Tena ????, vol. ?).
We know that recurring epidemics a?ected the Southern Arawak dur-
ing the colonial period (Santos-Granero ????). Following European folk
beliefs, the Franciscans most probably taught the Yanesha and the Asha-
ninka to invoke Saint Christopher as protection against misfortune and,
particularly, to guard them against plagues. This would explain why the
Yanesha and the Ashaninka were attracted to the legend of Saint Christo-
pher. It does not explain, however, why they adopted and adapted the
Saint Christopher in the Amazon ???
Figure ?. Saint Christopher, Saint Roch, and Saint Sebastian by Lorenzo Lotto,
circa ????.
legend as their own. Here is where Taussig?s magic of mimesis comes in.
Elaborating upon Sir James George Frazer?s ideas on ??sympathetic magic??
and Walter Benjamin?s re?ections on ??mimetic practices,?? Taussig (????:
xiii) de?nes the mimetic faculty as ??the nature that culture uses to create
a second nature, the faculty to copy, imitate, make models, explore dif-
ference, yield into and become Other.?? The magic of mimesis consists in
having the replica share in, or acquire, the power of that which it repli-
??? Fernando Santos-Granero
cates. In other words, through the act of mimesis, ??the copy [is granted]
the character and power of the original, the representation the power of the
represented?? (ibid.: xviii). Although mimesis is a human faculty present in
all times and places, the mimetic faculty has especially ?ourished in con-
texts of colonial and neocolonial domination, where the colonized strive to
appropriate magically the power of the colonizers.
Mimesis ?nds expression in magical contexts through various ways:
by making and manipulating artifacts that imitate powerful things or
beings, by replicating their bodily movements and gestures, or by induc-
ing and manipulating mental images of powerful things or beings. In other
words, the magician?s art of reproduction is put to work producing both
tangible and intangible replicas (ibid.: ??). For Taussig, what is important
here is not the means by which the power of the replicated is captured;
rather, it is the fact that ??this power can be captured only by means of an
image?? (ibid.: ??).
The adoption of the legend of Saint Christopher should, in my opin-
ion, be interpreted as an act of mimesis within a much larger process in
which the Southern Arawak mimed the colonial agents, their objects, ges-
tures, and rituals, in the hope of appropriating their power. Numerous
examples of such a process, most of them related to the Franciscan mis-
sionaries, exist. Particularly striking is the example of the Yanesha priestly
leader of the temple of Palmazu, an important pilgrimage center sheltering
the stone ?gures of three important native divinities (Santos-Granero ????:
?????). In the early twentieth century, after attending Sunday school for
a whole year in the Franciscan mission of Quillazu, the Indian priest went
back to his ceremonial center. There, according to a Franciscan chronicler,
he practiced before his idols ??the external acts of the religious ceremonies
that he had seen performed, to the point of simulating with compunction
the reading of a book made of bird feathers?? (Bailley-Maitre ???? [????]:
?????). The Yanesha priest not only mimed the Catholic Mass and the
Bible, but he also imitated the act of reading. In other words, rather than
attempting to appropriate the Christian deity, he strove to obtain through
mimesis the magical power of Christian ritual performances and objects.
We know that the Yanesha and the Ashaninka also mimed the cross, the
religious medals that the missionaries wore as a sign of devotion, and even
parts of the Franciscan habit, such as the hood, preserving these tokens long
after they shook o? Spanish domination in????. I argue that together with
these elements, the Southern Arawak mimed the legend and image of Saint
Christopher and the wondrous child so prominent in missionary discourse
and church iconography.
However, mimesis alone does not explain how a narrative about a
Saint Christopher in the Amazon ???
saintly ?gure who carried the Child Christ and had the power to pro-
tect people against misfortune and plagues became the myth of a male?c
divinity with a wondrous son who use their evil powers to transform
people. A plausible answer is provided by one of the central tenets in the
structuralist analysis of myth. L?vi-Strauss (????: ?) argues that each myth
within a group of myths is ??simply a transformation, to a greater or lesser
extent, of other myths originating either in the same society or in neighbor-
ing, or remote societies.?? Transformations may be experienced at the level
of the myth?s code, de?ned by L?vi-Strauss as the particular interrelation-
ship between a myth?s constitutive elements. Or they may be experienced
at the level of the myth?s message, de?ned as the content of such elements.
The most common type of transformation is that by inversion, whereby the
attributes of the characters of a myth, or the sign of their interrelationships,
are transformed into its opposite.
L?vi-Strauss is not very explicit as to what causes these transforma-
tions. In some places he suggests that they result from material changes,
such as a strong demographic decrease (????: ???), or by moving to a new
environment (????: ??). More often than not, however, L?vi-Strauss re-
gards these transformations as an intrinsic property of mythical thought
itself. Like the actions of a bricoleur, mythical thought elaborates struc-
tured systems by combining and recombining odds and ends, past events,
personal experiences, and fragments of other systems, altering them in
terms of form or content (L?vi-Strauss ????: ?????). Here, I argue that
in elaborating new myths, mythmakers combine these odds and ends and
infuse them with meaning in accordance with contemporary societal and
philosophical issues and perceptions. I suggest that, in this case, the in-
version experienced by the benevolent ?gures of Saint Christopher and the
Child Christ responds to changing indigenous perceptions of the causes of
the violence and population disorder resulting from the colonial encounter.
The historical sources indicate that after repeated contact with the
Spanish, the Southern Arawak became persuaded that it was the Francis-
can missionaries who had brought with them all kinds of misfortune, in-
cluding dwindling supplies of game and ?sh and crop failures. In ????, a
Franciscan missionary reported that the ??diabolical Enchanters or Sorcer-
ers???the Arawak shamans and priests?greatly hindered the missionaries?
evangelical work by disseminating the idea that they were also responsible
for introducing the ??mortal epidemics?? that consumed them (San Antonio
????: ??). Most probably, after su?ering the disastrous e?ects of foreign
epidemics, the Southern Arawak readily came to suspect that rather than
warding o? epidemics, Saint Christopher and the Child Christ were actu-
ally introducing these plagues into their lands.15 Among the Yanesha and
??? Fernando Santos-Granero
the Ashaninka misfortune is never accidental; it is the work of witchcraft.
This cultural premise, which preceded contact with the Spanish, helps to
explain how Christopher and the Child Christ were reinterpreted as evil
agents of sorcery. As a result of both historical experience and the struc-
tural properties of mythical thought, the legend of Saint Christopher was
transformed, establishing a basis for the belief in child sorcery.
The question remains as to why the transformed Child Christ be-
came more prominent than the transformed Christopher in the Arawak
myth. Why, in fact, did its transmutation lead to the belief in child sor-
cery? An answer to this query, I suggest, lies in the patterns of morbidity
and mortality that characterized the various epidemics a?ecting the South-
ern Arawak peoples. The most recurrent and lethal epidemics menacing
indigenous peoples during colonial times were smallpox and in?uenza
(Santos-Granero ????: ?????). In postcolonial times these two diseases
continued to ravage the Southern Arawak, but four new epidemics were
added: measles, chickenpox, yellow fever, and malaria (see note ?). Some
of these diseases had a greater impact upon infants and children than upon
adults. This is true of smallpox, in?uenza, malaria, and yellow fever.
Smallpox and in?uenza are particularly fatal to children and the
elderly. It is reported that death rates from smallpox are ??higher for
infants, children, elderly people and pregnant women?? (Carlson ????).
In eighteenth-century Europe, the case-fatality rate (deaths per ???,???
cases) associated with smallpox varied between ?? percent and ?? percent
for the total population but was as high as ?? to ?? percent among chil-
dren younger than ?ve years of age (Barquet and Domingo????). In?uenza
attacks people of all ages, but its mortality rate is also higher among ??the
very young, the very old, and those with poor immunity?? (Medinfo ????).
Malaria and yellow fever have the greatest impact upon children. In re-
gions where malaria is endemic, people are continuously infected so that
they either die or come to tolerate the disease. However, children who have
not yet acquired resistance, and pregnant women whose natural defense
mechanisms are reduced, are much more vulnerable (???/??? ????). Yel-
low fever also takes a heavier toll among children. In times of epidemics,
the case-fatality rate of yellow fever for unimmunized adults is around ??
percent, whereas it is as high as ?? percent for children (??? ????).
In contrast, measles (rubeola) and chickenpox (varicella) cause more
fatalities among adults than among children.Measles is a highly contagious
viral disease that attacks both children and unimmunized adults. However,
it is asserted that the ??risk of death from measles is higher for infants and
adults than for children?? (????????a).Thus, whereas infants under the age
of two years and adults over twenty years of age have a ?? to ?? percent
Saint Christopher in the Amazon ???
chance of complications and death, schoolage children have a ? to ? per-
cent chance of serious complications (???? ????). In turn, it is reported
that ??complications as well as fatalities from varicella are more commonly
observed in adults than in children?? (??? ????). In fact, researchers have
found that the case-fatality ratios in healthy adults are thirty to forty times
higher than among children aged ?ve to nine. Another source asserts that
adults ??are twenty-?ve times more likely to die from chickenpox than chil-
dren?? (???? ????b).
Most of the epidemics a?ecting the Southern Arawak during colo-
nial times caused more fatalities among children than among adults. Of the
sixteen great bouts of epidemics reported in the Selva Central region be-
tween ???? and ????, eight were outbreaks of smallpox, two of in?uenza,
one of measles, and the rest were undetermined (Santos-Granero ????b:
?????). In contrast, most of the epidemics occurring in postcolonial times
a?ected adults rather than children. Of the ?fteen epidemics reported be-
tween ???? and ????, eight were of measles and at least one of the two re-
ported smallpox epidemics may have actually been an outbreak of chicken-
pox (see note ?). It is very probable that this new type of epidemic began
to a?ect the Southern Arawak in the late eighteenth century, after the Juan
Santos uprising, when numerous Andean Indians, runaway African slaves,
and poor Spaniards joined the rebels.
The bewilderment at the survival of children in postcolonial times and
the connection between this phenomenon and the belief in infantile sorcery
are preserved in Yanesha oral history. In a narrative I collected in ????, a
severe epidemic of measles swept a small settlement located at the con?u-
ence of the Iscozacin and the Palcazu rivers sometime in the ????s. Those
persons who escaped the illness abandoned the settlement and went to live
in the forest.When they came back, they found everybody dead, except for
the only survivor, a baby boy who was sucking his dead mother?s breasts.
Convinced that the baby was responsible for causing the evil plague, the
returnees killed him.16
According to my analysis, the transmutation of the legend of Saint
Christopher took place in three stages. In a ?rst stage occurring during
colonial times?from the ?rst contacts with the Franciscans in???? to their
expulsion in ?????the Southern Arawak must have mimed the legend in
the hope of appropriating the saint?s power to avert the foreign diseases
that were decimating them. As historical experience suggested that it was
the missionaries who were bringing all kinds of misfortune, including the
??mortal plagues,?? the perception of Saint Christopher and the Child Christ
changed profoundly. From being conceived of as mystical beings who pro-
tected them against misfortune, Saint Christopher and the Child Christ
??? Fernando Santos-Granero
came to be perceived by the Yanesha and the Ashaninka as evil beings who
wrought mishap and disease upon their people.
In a second stage?between ???? and ?????during the period in
which the Southern Arawak regained their autonomy, the transformation
of the legend of Saint Christopher into the myth of Ayots/Poporrona? (or
Av?reri/K?ri) must have been completed. This established the basis for the
belief that children could possess evil powers. It is worth noting that from
???? to at least ????, the Yanesha and Ash?ninka were led by Juan San-
tos Atahuallpa, a converted highland Indian leader, who merged Andean,
Christian, and Amazonian religious notions to create and re-create his
sacred genealogical background and to persuade his followers of his mes-
sianic mandate (Zarzar ????). It is probable that the transformation of the
legend of Saint Christopher took place during this period in which the new
type of epidemics began to a?ect the Southern Arawak and in which Juan
Santos began to reinterpret the basic notions of the Catholic doctrine on
the basis of Andean and Amazonian religious ideas.
In a third stage, during early postcolonial times?beginning in?????
the survival of children in the midst of ravaging epidemics de?ed explana-
tion. It was a small step to the belief that, like the wondrous child of the
myth, some children could use their evil powers to bewitch, that is, to in-
?ict illness and death. The evil powers of the mythical child?the child in
disguise?became vested on children who did not behave as children?the
extremely bright, the unruly, the mischievous, and the disrespectful. Thus
the notion that children could possess evil powers overlapped with earlier
beliefs in adult sorcery, giving ?nal shape to the belief in child sorcery.We
can de?ne this process as one of mimesis gone wrong: those instances in
which the mystical power that the colonized wrested from the colonizers
by means of the magic of mimesis turned against them, putting at risk their
existence and very survival.
Epilogue
The phenomena of child sorcery, and the killing of children sorcerers, are
not exclusive to non-Western societies. In ????, Dr. Charles Mackay (in
Chamberlain ????: ???) condemned the burning and killing of children
witches in Great Britain as one of the most extraordinary ??popular delu-
sions?? of the not-so-distant past. Whether, among the Southern Arawak,
this ??delusion?? resulted from a combination of structural transformation
of myths and mimesis gone wrong, as I suggest here, is something we will
never know for sure. Similarly, few possibilities exist of ever knowing for
certain why infantile sorcery did not develop elsewhere in Amazonia.What
Saint Christopher in the Amazon ???
is undeniable, however, is that among the Southern Arawak the belief in
child sorcery is one of those unforeseen and tragic products of the colo-
nial encounter. Tragic because in their eagerness to exorcise colonial vio-
lence the Southern Arawak turned against themselves, unleashing violence
against their children?s bodies and, through them, against the body politic
at large. Tragic, also, because this practice has resurfaced in recent times,
causing extreme violence and distress among these remarkable peoples.17
Notes
An earlier draft of this article was presented at the Symposium ??Violence and Popu-
lation: Bodies and the Body Politic in Indigenous Amazonia,?? organized by Bar-
tholomew Dean and me on the occasion of the Ninety-Seventh Annual Meeting of
the American Anthropological Association, held in Philadelphia on ??? December
????. I wish to thank Anne-Christine Taylor and Egbert G. Leigh for their skeptical
comments, which forced me to ?nd new?and I would like to believe more per-
suasive?arguments to support my hypothesis. I would also like to thank Olga F.
Linares for her comments and suggestions on how to improve the manuscript, as
well as for her patience in editing my English.
? TheYanesha, also known as the Amuesha, live along the Oxapampa,Villa Rica,
Cacaz?, and Palcazu River valleys and in the highlands of Metraro and Yu-
rinaqui. The Ashaninka, formerly known as the Campa, are divided into the
Ashaninka proper, inhabiting the Lower Peren?, Pichis, Ene, and Tambo rivers;
the Asheninka, occupying the Upper Peren? River and the grassy uplands of the
Gran Pajonal; and the Nomatsiguenga, living in the areas of Pangoa, Sanibeni,
Anapati, and Kiatari.
? I use the terms children sorcerers and children witches indistinctly, for I argue that
Evans-Pritchard?s (????: ?????) distinction between witch and sorcerer based
on the Azande material does not apply here. Arawak children accused of magi-
cally harming others share the characteristics of both Azandewitches (??a person
whose body contains . . . witchcraft substance and who is supposed to practice
witchcraft??) and Azande sorcerers (??anyone who possesses bad medicines and
uses them in rites of sorcery??).
? It has been suggested that the ?gures of Yosoper and Korio?piri have been mod-
eled on that of Lucifer, the fallen angel of the Christian tradition (Smith ????:
?????; Weiss ????: ?????).
? This would explain why some sources assert that adult women, namely, orphan
youngwomen andwidows, were also accused of sorcery (Ordinaire???? [????]:
??; Navarro ????a: ??; Torre L?pez ????: ??; Weiss ????: ???).
? Some contemporary observers noted that it was impossible not to ?nd this kind
of object in an indigenous house where all kinds of things are thrown onto the
dirt ?oor. Others accused the patient?s relatives of having planted these objects
(Sala ???? [????]: ???).Weiss?s informants (????: ???) ??insisted that these ma-
terials are not simply discarded refuse, but rather are found tied or wrapped in
a leaf, or otherwise show evidence of being specially prepared.??
? Both among the Yanesha and the Ashaninka the execution of children sorcerers
??? Fernando Santos-Granero
was carried out during a grand nocturnal celebration in which large amounts of
manioc beer was consumed (Izaguirre ??????, ??:???; Navarro ???? [????b]:
???; Palomino Arana et al. ????: ???). The relatives of the deceased and the sha-
man who had treated him or her organized this celebration. It is not clear what
was the objective of this feast. One source asserts that they ??celebrate the death
of the one who had brought misfortune to the tribe,?? that is, the child witch
(Uriarte???? [????]: ???). But some pages ahead it is asserted that they celebrate
??the death of the innocent [child accused of sorcery] and that of the person who
died?? (ibid.: ???). In other words, they seem simultaneously to have the traits
of a funerary ritual in honor of the deceased and those of a cleansing ritual on
behalf of the community.
? If the accused belonged to a family di?erent from that of their accusers, their
parents sometimes tried to defend them or to smuggle them to the nearest
mission post. We know that since at least ?,??? Franciscan missions became
refuges for children accused of sorcery (Izaguirre ??????, ??:?????). In ????,
the Franciscans founded the mission of Puerto Ocopa on the Lower Peren?
River with the express purpose of rescuing abandoned orphan children or chil-
dren condemned to death for sorcery (Ortiz ????: ???). The Adventist mis-
sions established along the Peren? River beginning in ???? also became places
of refuge for alleged children witches (P?rez Marcio ????: ???).
? The following is a list of some of the numerous historical sources and works
on the colonial history of the Arawak of eastern Peru: C?rdoba Salinas ????
[????]; San Antonio ????; Rodr?guez Tena ????; Biedma ???? [????]; Amich
???? [????]; Pallares and Calvo ????; Ma?rtua ????, ????; Izaguirre ?????
?; Fuentes ????; Loayza ????; Valc?rcel ????; Tibesar ????, ????; Ortiz ????,
????, ????, ????, ????; Varese ????; Lehnertz ????; Castro Arenas????; Smith
????, ????; Camino ????; Santos-Granero ????, ????, ????, ????, ????a,
????b; Renard-Casevitz ????, ????, ????; Renard-Casevitz et al. ????; Zarzar
????; Zarzar and Rom?n ????).
? The following is a list of the epidemics reported for the Selva Central region
between the mid?nineteenth and the mid?twentieth century.
???????: Combined epidemics of yellow fever and smallpox ravage the
Yanesha of the Huancabamba and Chorobamba valleys (Smith ????: ??).
????: Epidemics of measles a?ect the Yanesha converts of the mission of
Quillaz?, in the Chorobamba valley, which was founded that same year
(Ortiz ????, ?:???).
????: An epidemic of smallpox sweeps the Upper Ucayali River, a?ect-
ing the Conibo but also the Ashaninka living in this area (Ordinaire ????
[????]: ???).
???????: Severe outbreaks of malaria decimate the Yanesha and the Asha-
ninka of Chanchamayo valley and the Upper Peren? River (Ortiz ????,
?:???, ???; Ortiz ????, ?:???).
????: Epidemics of measles decimate the Ashaninka of the Pichis and Apu-
rucayali rivers (Izaguirre ??????, ??:???).
????: Pandemics of in?uenza, which a?ects the whole world, killing more
than twenty million people, also a?ects the Selva Central region.
????: Hundreds died of measles and other illnesses after gathering in the
Adventist missions of the Peren? River during the ???? messianic move-
ment (Bodley ????: ???).
Saint Christopher in the Amazon ???
????: Epidemics of measles attack the Yanesha and the Ashaninka of the
Upper Peren? region;??? out of the ??? neophytes in the Adventist mission
of Sutziki die (Barclay ????: ???).
????: New outbreaks of malaria in the Chanchamayo valley and the Upper
Peren? region a?ect the Yanesha and the Ashaninka (Ortiz ????, ?:???).
????: Epidemics of measles decimate the Yanesha and the Ashaninka of
the Upper Peren? region (Ortiz ????: ???).
????: Epidemics of measles attack the Yanesha of the areas of Ene?as and
Yurinaqui in the Upper Peren? region (Barclay ????: ???).
????: Nonidenti?ed epidemics attack the Yanesha of the Yurinaqui area in
the Upper Peren? region (Smith????: ???); an epidemic of measles kills ??
percent of the Nomatsiguenga of the Upper Pangoa and Anapati regions
(Ribeiro and Wise ????: ??).
????: Major epidemics of measles devastate the Ashaninka of the Gran
Pajonal uplands (Bodley ????: ???).
????: Epidemics of cholera andmeasles a?ect the Ashaninka of the Lower-
Peren? and Ene rivers (Rodriguez Vargas ????: ??).
?? The following is a list of the indigenous uprisings and movements of resistance
between the mid?nineteenth and the mid?twentieth century:
????: Asheninkas attack colonists settled along the Chanchamayo road
and the haciendas located in the environs of the San Ram?n Fort (Ortiz
????: ??).
????: Asheninkas make more than twenty attacks to the haciendas of the
Chanchamayo valley and engage in combat with the troops of the San
Ram?n Fort (ibid.).
????: Asheninkas attack the mail carrier and its armed escort between San
Ram?n and the army camp of Nijandaris (Ortiz ????, ?:???).
????: Attracted by the news of the appearance of an Amachegua, a white
man who claimed to be the messenger of Father Sun, the Ashaninka of the
Pichis and Ucayali rivers ?ock to the Pampas del Sacramento (Brown and
Fern?ndez ????: ??).
????: The Ashaninka, the Asheninka, and the Nomatsiguenga of the
Peren?,Tambo, and Pangoa valleys join forces to expel the priests and colo-
nists of the Pangoa mission (Izaguirre ??????, ??:??????).
????: Convoked by an Amachegua, a divine messenger who appeared in
the Pangoa valley, the Ashaninka and theYanesha rise against the colonists
in Chanchamayo, Cerro de la Sal, and the Peren? Colony (Anales ????, ?;
Sala ????: ???, ???, ???, ???).
????: Yaneshas of the Quillaz? mission, together with those from the Pal-
cazu River basin, attempt to expel the colonists from the Oxapampa valley
(Anales ????, ?).
??????: Ashaninkas attack several road camps and telegraph outposts
along the Pichis trail; they burn and loot the settlement of Puerto Yessup
on the Pichis River and destroy the mission of Cahuapanas on the Apuru-
cayali River (Bodley ????: ???).
????: Many Asheninkas and Ashaninkas from the Peren? and Tambo
valleys join a religious movement inspired on the discourse of Advent-
ist missionaries that promised the destruction of the white men and the
coming of a messiah (Bodley ????: ?????).
??? Fernando Santos-Granero
????: Asheninkas of the Peren? River attack the Adventist mission of Sut-
ziki, killing the Asheninka converts accused of collaborating with the Peru-
vians and threatening to attack the air strip of San Ram?n (Barclay ????:
???).
c. ????: The evangelical missionary Werner Bulner establishes a mission
on the Ene River, attracting people from the Satipo area, who claim he is
Itomi Pav?, the Son of the Sun (Brown and Fern?ndez ????: ?????).
????: Many Ashaninkas and Nomatsiguengas from the Satipo and Pangoa
valleys join the guerrillas of the Movimiento de Izquierda Revolucionaria
or Movement of Revolutionary Left (ibid.: ?????).
???????: In the early ????s many Ashaninkas and Yaneshas are forced to
join, or join voluntarily, the ranks of the Shining Path and theT?pac Amaru
Revolutionary Movement; beginning in ????, they start organizing them-
selves in armed self-defense groups to expel these groups from their lands,
a process that ends around ???? (Rodr?guez Vargas ????: ?????; Fabi?n
Arias and Espinosa de Rivero ????: ??).
?? This account is based on two versions of this myth that I recorded in????. Pedro
Ortiz provided the ?rst one; Esp?ritu Francisco provided the second. The myth
of Ayots and Poporrona? ends with two other episodes that I did not include
here because they are not directly linked to the subject I am discussing in this
article (see Santos-Granero ????: ???, ???).
?? In a recent article, France-Marie Renard-Casevitz (????: ?????) presents a
transcription of a version of the Matsiguenga myth of Pareni, Salt Lady, which
is intertwined with a narrative similar to that of Ayots/Av?reri. However, she
suggests that this latter myth belongs to a ??di?erent tradition?? and was prob-
ably adopted as a result of trading relations with neighboring Ashaninka.
?? Condemned children sorcerers are sometimes buried alive in an armadillo hole
(Weiss ????: ???), an act that recalls the way Armadillo punished his brother-
in-law, Ayots/Av?reri, for transforming his children into animals.
?? In lowland South America abundant evidence exists for Amerindian appropria-
tions of Christian imagery, particularly with respect to the mimetic replication
of ritual paraphernalia and knowledge in the context of native messianic move-
ments (Butt Colson????; Wright and Hill ????; Ag?ero????). In contrast, little
has been written on the appropriation of Christian myths or mythical motifs
by native Amazonian peoples and their incorporation into their own mytholo-
gies. In fact, authors studying Christian-inspired messianic movements assert
the opposite, namely that suchmovements are an ??application or practical exer-
cise?? of an indigenous myth (Carneiro da Cunha ????) or that their structure is
??organized around indigenous mythical concepts and ritual practices?? (Wright
and Hill ????:). My guess is that appropriation and ??Indianization?? of Euro-
pean myths by Amerindians is much more widespread than previously thought.
?? A similar process took place in medieval Europe after the outbreak of the Black
Plague in ????. According to Barbara Tuchman (????: ?????), ??St. Roch, cred-
ited with special healing powers, who had died in ????, was the particular saint
associated with the plague. . . . As his story spread and sainthood was con-
ferred, it was believed that God would cure of the plague anyone who invoked
his name. When this failed to occur, it enhanced the belief that, men having
grown too wicked, God indeed intended their end. . . . In a terrible reversal,
Saint Christopher in the Amazon ???
St. Roch and other saints now came to be considered a source of the plague, as
instruments of God?s wrath.??
?? The survival of children amid generalized mortality caused a deep impression
among Amerindian peoples in general. The St?:lo of the Fraser River, Canada,
have similar narratives. In one, a man comes back from a long stay in the for-
est only to ?nd that an epidemic has ravaged his village: ??All his kinsmen and
relatives lay dead inside their homes; only in one house did there survive a baby
boy, who was vainly sucking at his dead mother?s breast?? (Carlson ????). In
contrast with the Yanesha story, however, in the St?:lo narratives survival is
not associated with malignant powers and sorcery. In fact, survivors are seen
as founding ancestors, as is indicated in another St?:lo narrative in which a boy
whowas the only survivor of his village marries a girl whowas the only survivor
of hers.
?? Accusations of infantile sorcery have resurfaced with renewed strength among
the Ashaninka of the Pichis, Tambo, and Ene River valleys as a result of armed
confrontations, territorial displacement, and repeated epidemics brought about
by the presence of guerrillas belonging to the Shining Path and theTupac Amaru
Revolutionary Movement (Fabi?n Arias and Espinosa de Rivero ????: ??). In
contrast, the story of Saint Christopher has been purged from Christian tradi-
tion. The Vatican considered his hagiography to be so legendary and barbaric
that in ???? it decided to eliminate Christopher from the universal calendar of
the Catholic Church (Matz ????).
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