st
c, R
ral H
Accepted 15 August 2015
Zea mays
Gran Darien
Panama
t d
ent
2011.
Aerial photography has been known as an extremely useful tool of archeological prospection for nearly one cen-
it gained increasing importance by two reasons: First the availability of high quality
been do
, 1983
1987; Parsons, 1969), Peru (Pozorski et al., 1983), Bolivia (Denevan, 2009; Plazas and Falchetti, 1981).
order with Colombia
1).
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 3 (2015) 558–564
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Archaeologi
j ourna l homepage: ht tp : / /emost extensive hydraulic system nearest Panama was located in the
San Jorge river floodplain in the Caribbean lowlands of Colombia. This
complex system of seasonal swamps, lakes and sloughs covered
In the Gatun Basin for instance, 100 km northwest of Chinina, evi-
dence of maize was found dating to around 4600 BP (Piperno, 1985).
In core samples taken at Monte Oscuro, 100 km west of Chinina, signif-the soil with fresh nutrients, and influencing microclimate particularly
humidity (Denevan, 2001; Erickson, 2008). Prior to this study, the
and Jones, 2003) and the area of Cana on the b
(Bush and Colinvaux, 1994; Piperno, 1994) (Fig.1963, 2001; Erickson, 1995, 1996; Smith et al., 1968), Venezuela
(Gassón and Rey, 2006; Zucchi and Denevan, 1979) and the Guianas
(Iriarte et al., 2010; 2012; Mckey et al., 2010). Although were present
from the Caribbean coast to the Andes (Denevan, 2001; Rostain,
2008), they all manage agrarian land in floodplains. Several drivers
have been proposed for the construction of these kinds of fields: miti-
gating high water levels in floodplains, controlling drainage, enriching
In Panama the first evidence of raised fields has been identified in
Chinina, Eastern Panama (Fig. 1). This region, known as Gran Darien,
has an archeological sequence that starts with Palaeoindian materials
found in Lake Alajuela and the Pacific entrance to the Canal (Bird and
Cooke, 1977; Ranere and Cooke, 2003), as well as data obtained in pa-
leoecological studies in the regions, such as those in the river Chagres
(Bartlett and Barghoorn, 1973; Piperno, 1985), Monte Oscuro (Piperno⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: jgmartin@uninorte.edu.co (J.G. Mart
Tomas_mendizabal@yahoo.com (T. Mendizábal), Schreg@
cooker@si.edu (R.G. Cooke), pipernod@si.edu (D. Piperno
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2015.08.018
2352-409X/© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.81; Plazas et al., 1993),
ondard, 2006; Marcos,
beginnings of landscape transformation and the first dense human oc-
cupation there between 2000 and 1000 uncalibrated years BP (Groot,1968; Parsons, 1966; Plazas and Falchetti, 19
Ecuador (Bouchard and Usselmann, 2006; GIn the Americas, raised fields have
gions, for example, Mexico (Siemensarcheological perspectives on past human societies changed in recent decades. Modern ecological problems
caused an increasing interest in landscape archeology.
In Panama, archaeobotanical and paleoecological studies were carried out by Dolores Piperno and her team,
already since the 1980s. The results of this research contributed to understanding American agricultural develop-
ment especially related to themanipulation and domestication of plants and human/environmental interactions.
However, despite this important role of the Panamanian evidence for the overall discussion of the development
of agriculture in tropical environments, there has been little data generated on agricultural practice and land use
pattern until this project.
© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
cumented in several re-
), Colombia (Broadbent,
approximately 500,000 ha (Parsons, 1966; Plazas and Falchetti, 1981;
Plazas et al., 1993). Extensive archeological research has assigned theKeywords:
Raised field agriculture
aerial photographs via internet made it quite easy to start archeological surveys even in remote areas. SecondAvailable online xxxx
tury. In recent years howeverPre-Columbian raised fields in Panama: Fir
Juan G. Martín a,⁎, Tomás Mendizábal b, Rainer Schreg
a Universidad del Norte, Barranquilla-Colombia
b Patronato Panamá Viejo, Panamá
c Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum Forschungsinstitut für Archäologie, Germany
d Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panamá
e Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama and Smithsonian National Museum of Natu
a b s t r a c ta r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 2 March 2015
Received in revised form 23 July 2015
This paper reports on the firs
Panama Province, Pacific), idín),
rgzm.de (R. Schreg),
).evidence
ichard G. Cooke d, Dolores Piperno e
istory, Washington, D.C., United States
ocumented evidence for Pre-Hispanic ridged fields in Panama (Chinina, Eastern
ified in online aerial photographs, and the results of the field work carried on in
cal Science: Reports
es.e lsev ie r .com/ jas repicant burning of the vegetation (charcoal) and increases ofweedy plants
occurs at ca 7500 to 7000 radiocarbon years BP, indicating disturbance,
most probably attributed to human occupation of the forest and the
development of slash-and-burn methods of cultivation (Piperno and
Jones, 2003:79). Maize phytoliths were found alongside a decrease in
loca
559J.G. Martín et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 3 (2015) 558–564evidence for arboreal taxa and an increase in early successional taxa
such as Heliconia, and those from the Poaceae family (Piperno and
Jones, 2003:84).
At Cana Swamp in Darien, which lies about 200 km southwest of
Chinina, more evidence of human disturbance of the rainforest was
also found with charcoal deposits, together with the continuous pres-
Fig. 1. Geographicalence of maize pollen in all levels dating from around 4000 BP until the
Spanish conquest (Piperno, 1994). Thus these studies reveal that in
the East of Panama, human groups developed productive agriculture
by 5000 to 4000 years ago. However it must be said that no palynolog-
ical studies have been carried out in the 300 km betweenMonte Oscuro
and Cana, which is situated adjacent or within the Bayano river water-
shed, a densely populated area that was home to several important
chiefdoms according to 16th century accounts (Cooke, 1984).
The archeological cultures of the Gran Darien are characterized by
the preeminence of plastic decoration and the almost total absence of
paint in most of the ceramics reported in the region (e.g. Biese, 1964;
Linné, 1929; Lothrop, 1954, 1959, 1960; Torres De Araúz, 1992; Cooke,
1976; Drolet, 1980; McGimsey, 1964; Martín, 2002a, 2002b, 2006,
2007; Mendizabal, 2004; Stirling and Stirling, 1964) and in the area to
the east of Panama City and Bayano river (Cooke, 1973; Torres De
Araúz, 1971a, 1971b, 1975; Martín and Etayo, 2006). Linné (1929) had
observed this ceramic homogeneity, and he included the Pearl archipel-
ago within the region, as did Bray much later on (1984), establishing a
maritime connection between the Panamanian and Colombian Pacific
coasts, a link that has been confirmed through more recent research in
the Pearl islands (Cooke et al., 2010; Martín and Sánchez 2007).
1. The Chinina site
Aerial photographs provided by Google show raised field structures
near Chinina, approx. 55 km east of Panama City near the estuary of the
Bayano river, a hundredmeters or so from the Pacific coast (Fig. 2). The
site is located in the Pacific coastal plain of Panama,within theHolocene
alluvial fan of the River Bayano river which is crisscrossed by smaller
water bodies, many of these of a seasonal nature (Fig. 3).The landscape today consists of pastures with small forested rem-
nants, for the last 20 years used primarily for cattle grazing. Aerial
photographs from the 1970s show that the area was covered with con-
tinuous tropical seasonal forest at that time. Given the steady wet sea-
son (May–December) precipitation of 1650 mm/year, the proximity to
the sea and groundwater conditions, the area is flooded seven months
tion of studied area.of the year. Thus, agricultural usage required a complex transformation
of the landscape.
2. The raised fields
The raised fields consist of at least 22 blocks of parallel banks and
ditches. These are about 50 m in length, 2.5 m in width and 0.6 m in
height. Between the ridges associated parallel ditches provided the
function of retaining enough water for the dry season. The whole sys-
tem is associated with a stream that flows down from northeastern
hills, and seems to be artificially channeled towards the flat plain
(Fig. 4).
The most visible ridges cover ~30 ha, Just 1500 m E-SE of the de-
scribed area, other less clear structures are visible in the aerial photo-
graphs (Fig. 3).
3. The survey in Chinina
In order to check the accuracy of the aerial photographs the site was
visited for the first time in March 2011, for ground-truthing the struc-
tures discovered in aerial photographs. They were clearly visible on
the ground.
In June 2011, twelve days of survey were carried out. The survey
technique used was field walking on 10 Ha and target sampling in
areas with archeological potential (Fish and Kowalewski, 1990). Finds
were registered by handheld GPS device providing an accuracy of ap-
proximately 5 m.
The survey area includes three slightly different terrains: 1) the flat
coastal strip with the vestiges of the fossil fields, 2) terraces slightly
more elevated than the rest of the plain, and 3) low hills in the northeast.
560 J.G. Martín et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 3 (2015) 558–564As the terraces provide rather dry locations suitable for settlements,
the surveys tried to identify settlement areas associated with the raised
fields. Transect surveys were conducted in these areas, near the ridges
or banks, in order to detect archeological occurrences or other evidences
of ancient human activity.
The low hills in the northeast, running parallel to the coastline,
lacked evidence of past human activity despite their privileged position
and panoramic views. Fieldwalking aswell as some shovel test pits pro-
duced negative results.
In all terrains surface visibility is good because the area is currently
open to cattle grazing This has led to vegetation loss and soil degrada-
tion when heavy rains wash soil away during the 7–8 months of the
wet season.
4. Small scale excavation at the Chinina 1 field complex
Within the field system, an 11 × 1 m trench was excavated perpen-
dicular to the orientation of the ridges and ditches, in order to identify
landscape transformation by reconstructing a detailed stratigraphic
profile of these human modifications. This permitted observation of a
cross-section of a ridge and associated ditches (Fig. 5).
The idea was to cut the ridge and its respective parallel channels in
order to see the trench allowed the observation of the stratigraphic for-
mation, further confirming that the original height of the ridges must
have ranged between 90 cm or one meter in height. The height of
these features currently does not exceed 50 cm, a difference that surely
Fig. 2. Aerial photog
Google Earth 2014.originates in the strong erosion processes they have suffered over the
last centuries.
The intensity of erosion was evident. The dark soil from the top of
the ridges was washed and deposited into the channels. We took two
columns for paleoecological analysis, one in the center of the ridge
and the other in the center of the channel.
5. A nearby settlement site — Chinina 1
Survey in the surrounding area resulted in the discovery of a settle-
ment site named Chinina 1, which lies about 50 m north of the raised
fields. It was here that we identified a terrace at a slightly higher eleva-
tion (the size of the settlement is 100 × 250m), whichwas certainly ad-
equate for human occupation. Its UTM coordinates are 17P 718469E
992,601 N (WGS84 datum). Today it forms part of a pasture used for
cattle. In this area we conducted a subsurface survey (two transects)
and collected pottery sherds and lithics (fragments of metate)
(Table 1). The shovel tests (20 in total) showed a deep dark soil that
contains high levels of organic matter with ceramics (for typical forms
see Martín, 2007). It has a gritty texture, of 7.5 years 2.5/2 color, and
an average thickness of 50 cm.
6. Dating
Charcoal encrusted on the surface of a ceramic sherdwas AMS dated
to 1410 ± 30 BP (Cal BP 1350 to 1290 δ13C =−19.6%) (Beta Analytic
raph of the site.
561J.G. Martín et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 3 (2015) 558–564306,995). It was found at the bottom of the excavated ridge and proba-
bly acts as a terminus post quem for to the initial transformation of the
landscape in these coastal lowlands. Obviously we require larger and
more diagnostic samples to date the fields in the light of the discussion
about possible population displacements into the area (Fig. 5).
The small and still unrepresentative samples of sherds are quite
homogeneous in technology and style. It is assumed that this is a
household ceramic assemblage locally manufactured with good fir-
ing control and surface finishes. Red slip and some plastic decoration
match the cultural setting (or milieu) that characterizes Gran Darien
pottery production at all times (BP 1200 – 800). (Martín, 2002a, 2002b,
2007; Mendizabal, 2004).
We recovered samples of ceramics and lithics in all excavation units
studied in the settlement near the fields. One of these fragments was
sent to Beta Analytic for dating of charcoal residues on the interior sur-
face. Since it did not contain enough organic matter; the laboratory
proceeded to analyze a fragment of organicmatter included in the fabric
obtaining a date of 570 ± 40 BP (Cal BP 650 to 520 δ13C =−23.8%)
(Beta 303,616). This date coincided in time with the latest phase Gran
Darien pottery after the brief appearance and expansion of a different
polychrome tradition from the west ca 1500–1150 BP.
7. Phytolith analysis
Preliminary studies of phytoliths from raised field contexts were
undertaken by Piperno using standard techniques (Piperno, 2006).
A total of 10 soil samples taken, 5 from the canal and 5 from the
Fig. 3. Detailed locaridge were analyzed. Phytolith content was fair to good in four of
the five canal deposits and very poor in all the ridge samples. No fur-
ther discussion is possible for the latter. The five canal samples came
from depths of from 20 to 60 cm. Some interesting changes in phyto-
lith frequencies were observed from the bottom to the top of the
canal sequence. At 60 cm, the bottom-most sample, phytoliths are
uncommon. Grass and arboreal phytoliths were observed, but in in-
sufficient quantities to be statistically meaningful. No crop plant
phytoliths were observed. Freshwater diatoms in the genus Aulacoseira
(formerly Melosira) were present along with sponge spicules, indi-
cating a moist soil environment with some standing water. Phytolith
content continues to be fairly low at 50 cm. However, grasses begin
to dominate the assemblages and Aulacoseira and sponge spicules
become common.
At 40 cm,more than 90% of the phytolith assemblage is composed of
grasses,many of which show signs of burning, and the early succession-
al herbaceous plantHeliconia, also burned, is present. At this level,maize
phytoliths were detected, most of them from the leaves of the plant and
a few phytoliths from cobs were present. Aulacoseira and sponge spic-
ules were abundant.
At 30 cm phytoliths from maize continue to be present. Grass fre-
quencies decline to 61% although many still exhibit signs of burning
and 35% of the assemblage is from arboreal species. These patterns indi-
cate a lessening human influence on the field areas. The top-most sam-
ple analyzed from20 cmhas an assemblage indicating a little- disturbed
tropical forest with N90% arboreal phytoliths, 3% palms, and 2% grasses.
No crop plants including maize are present. Phytoliths exhibiting signs
tion of Chinina.
Table 1
Artifacts recovered during the survey in Chinina 1.
Shovel test Coordinates Ceramics Lithics
Surface 17P 718472E 992,596 N 2
S01 17P 718444E 992,599 N 38
S02 17P 718453E 992,599 N 59
S03 17P 718461E 992,601 N 45
S04 17P 718468E 992,601 N 26
S05 17P 718478E 992,600 N 13
S06 17P 718490E 992,601 N 109
S07 17P 718499E 992,599 N 8
S08 17P 718509E 992,600 N 26
S09 17P 718515E 992,601 N 4
S15 17P 718476E 992,621 N 8
S16 17P 718479E 992,611 N 21
S17 17P 718479E 992,600 N 32
S18 17P 718479E 992,591 N 18
S19 17P 718479E 992,580 N 27
S20 17P 718479E 992,570 N 12
Trench 1 17P 718469E 992,601 N 24
Total 470 2
562 J.G. Martín et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 3 (2015) 558–564of burning were not observed. This sample appears to reflect abandon-
ment of the fields and vegetation regeneration at the site.
As in other pre-Columbian raised field systems recently investi-
gated in the Neotropics (e.g., Iriarte et al., 2010; Whitney et al.,
2014) maize appears to have been a primary crop grown. No other
crop phytoliths were observed although additional phytolith work
should be undertaken.
Fig. 4. Chinina's ridges. Microtopographic features visible on the ground and interpreta-
tions of field clusters.
Fig. 5. Trench profil8. Discussion
Though novel, the evidence for ridged fields in seasonally flooded
low-lying areas of eastern Panama is not surprising. Firstly, cultural in-
teractions between this region and the Caribbean plains of Colombia
are documented for the last ~2000 years of the Precolumbian Era. The
earliest metalwork in radiocarbon-dated Panamanian mortuary fea-
tures (Bray's Initial Style) vouches for northern Colombian antecedents
(Bray, 1984; Cooke et al., 2000, 2003a, 2003b) although it is not possible
in most cases to distinguish Colombian and Panamanian manufacture.
At later funerary sites, such as Sitio Conte and El Caño in the central Pa-
cific coastal plains, finds of emeralds, which are not present in Panama
mineral deposits (S. Redwood, personal communication, 2014), confirm
exchange in rare Colombian elite goods (Cooke and Sánchez 1997;
Sánchez and Cooke 2000). Secondly, and more significantly to the
ridged fields at Chinina is the fact that, after ca. 1000 BP, interactions be-
tween eastern Panama and adjacent areas of Colombia appear to have
intensified with respect to earlier ceramic periods. One of these earlier
periods (1500–1150 BP) is a burgeoning and sharp expansion east-
wards towards coastal villages such as Playa Venado and Panama
Viejo and the Pearl Islands of the well-known Central Panama Gran
Coclé semiotic tradition in painted and modeled pottery, bone-work,
shell work and metallurgy (Bray, 1984; Cooke and Sánchez, 2001;
Falchetti, 1995; Martín, 2002b). This reorganization of production ande on Chinina 1.
563J.G. Martín et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 3 (2015) 558–564exchange has been attributed to expanding and intensifying social con-
tacts connectingmajor demographic foci with the production centers of
marine shells used for personal ornaments (Spondylus, Pintada, Conus
etc.)(Sánchez and Cooke, 2000). Starting about 1000 BP, however, pot-
tery styles in eastern Panama developed a strikingly different trajectory
(Cooke, 1998;Martín, 2002a, 2007;Mendizabal, 2004). Though still im-
perfectly documented, their spatial distribution corresponds grosso
modo to that of the “Cueva language”, thought to be a trade language
in a polyglot region that was used from the foot of the El Valle volcano
to the Gulf of Uraba (Romoli, 1987; Cooke and Sánchez, 2004a;
2004b). In spite of the still imperfect data base, it is not unreasonable
to suppose that agricultural system developed in the San Jorge river
were adopted at this time in eastern Panama at field systems like
Chinina's (Fig. 1).
This situation spurred the proposal of a Gran Darien culture area, the
third such “cultural interaction sphere” or “semiotic tradition zone” in
Panama after about 2500 years ago by which time decorated pottery
was widespread. The others are Gran Chiriqui in the west and Gran
Cocle in the center (Cooke 1976:122, 1984:263–265, 2005). Frontiers be-
tween these spheres were not static in time and space (Cooke, 2005;
Martín and Sánchez, 2007) conceptualized to try to order, understand
and explain the cultural diversity evident in the last 2000 years of the
Panamanian Precolumbian archeological record. Althoughmost of the re-
cent archeological data suggests that the cultural differentiation could
have taken place at least by about 2500 years ago between the Gran
Cocle and Gran Chiriqui to the west, the historical inter-relationships
with the eastern region, Gran Darien, remain to a great extent unknown,
due to the lack of research in the area and thus the concomitant lack of
local and regional ceramic chronological sequences.
There is no doubt that logging in this region and extensive cattle
raising, have started generating serious environmental problems in-
cluding loss of vegetation cover and consequent erosion processes
that are accelerating the loss of young soils. There is no denying also
that it was due to this deforestation and specialized remote sensing
techniques, that it was possible to see the fields and to identify these
human landscape transformations.
Similarly it was possible to identify a nearby area of 3 ha (Chinina 1),
with dark soil, which, considering the frequency of archeological arti-
facts, could correspond to a large household area. This site was dated
by 14C to 570 ± 40 BP which, chronologically, corresponds to the late
phase of the pre-Hispanic occupation of the so-called Gran Darien
(Martín, 2002a, 2002b). There are probably more fields like this and
other housing sites in the region, but this survey was limited to the sec-
tor whose visibility was high due to the pastures and open areas.
Although subsurface lithicswere present in low frequenciesmetates
were detected on the surface. Although it is assumed that their use was
associatedwithmaize production (Zea mays), the paleobotanical analy-
ses providesmore accurate data about the agricultural activities of these
groups.
Acknowledgments
This project would not have been possible without The Foundation
for Research on Ancient Panama (064-11 DNPH) and its Director, Dr.
Patrick Simiskey, that funded the field work.
We had the support of the National Institute of Culture of Panama
and its National Heritage Director, who authorized the investigation.
The owner of the land, Mr. Alfredo Rivas who permitted us to do the
field work there.
The inhabitants of Chinina, especially Mrs. Nicasia Jimenez and her
son Omar, who received us at their home and treated us like family.
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