Herpetological Review 48(1), 2017 241 Herpetological Review, 2017, 48(1), 241–260. © 2017 by Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles History of Captive Management and Conservation Amphibian Programs Mostly in Zoos and Aquariums. Part I—Anurans “i haVe alWays liked FRogs. i liked theM since beFoRe becoMing a zoologist, and nothing i haVe had to leaRn about theM since has MaRRed the attachMent. i like “looks” oF FRogs and theiR outlook. and esPecially the Way they get togetheR in Wet Places on WaRM nights and sing about seX.” aRchie caRR, uniVeRsity oF FloRida PRoFessoR oF zoology (1955) intRoduction In 1989 at the First World Congress of Herpetology in Canterbury UK, prominent amphibian biologists began discussing similarities of declines in their study populations. A short time thereafter, the IUCN/SSC Declining Amphibian Populations Task Force (DAPTF) was created by Dr. George Rabb, director of Brookfield Zoo, and other biologists to create an ad hoc three-year program to see if these shrinkages were normal population fluctuations or unknown factors. One of us (JBM) was asked to become a board member and watched the evolution of our understanding over a span of 16 years that this loss was beyond natural phenomena (see Heyer and Murphy 2005 for history). At the start there was a considerable debate about whether this was a normal pattern or a suite of etiological agents requiring further study. After three years, it was clear that no cause had been found, so the DAPTF was extended indefinitely to identify reasons for these declines. Over 12,000 papers were published on amphibian conservation between 2005–2015, of which a thousand focused specifically on chytridiomycosis (Thompson Reuters 2016). Compared to the number of contributions dealing with reptiles, few papers were published on amphibians by zoo workers over the years. This deficit is changing, due to realization that amphibians are compromised and many are at serious risk of disappearing forever. Over the past two decades, a number of zoos and aquariums have supported in situ and ex situ amphibian projects. Since its establishment in 1989 through its 16-year existence, much of the financial support for DAPTF was generated from the zoo and aquarium community, either through direct donations or through contacts supplied by the staffers. These monies were critical in funding the newsletter FROGLOG by Detroit Zoological Institute (see Zippel and Snider 2001). The Amphibian Survival Alliance Seed Grant program supplied small startup grants to begin research initiatives, often in developing countries. International Coordinator Tim Halliday (pers. comm.) found that for each US dollar, 20 were generated from outside sources—an impressive return indeed. Perhaps the most important aspect was to alert the world that amphibian populations were crashing and the causes remained enigmatic. DAPTF has now been subsumed as the research arm of the Amphibian Specialist Group (ASG) of IUCN—The World Conservation Union. ASG has taken over publishing FROGLOG online and in color. This is the perfect way to follow the fluid state of amphibian conservation and research. Much progress has been made in understanding the causes of amphibian declines. Zoo Miami’s Steven Whitfield, with Karen Lips and Maureen Donnelly, published a recent review describing amphibian decline and conservation in Central America. They listed threats—habitat modification, habitat fragmentation, diseases, pollution, UV-B radiation, climate change, overharvesting, invasive species, chytridiomycosis, ranavirus, and other emerging diseases, and synergistic interaction among stressors—all of which are applicable to amphibians globally. The paper identified conservation actions—monitoring, network of protected areas, captive assurance colonies, relict populations, reintroductions, and building in-country capacity. Amphibian Ark (AArk) is an organization working to coordinate captive efforts globally and assist with capacity-building efforts, and is interacting with 64 organizations in 28 countries that are focused on conserving 115 anuran species (AArk 2016). In terms of zoos responding to the crisis, some respectable incremental progress has been made with a 57% increase in the number of species between 2007–2014 with an increasing emphasis on imperiled species (Dawson et al. 2015; Harding et al. 2016). However, just 6.7% of known amphibians are represented in zoos and this figure is woefully inadequate when compared with other classes of vertebrates, and much work needs to be done (Dawson et al. 2015). Captive programs may take time to establish, incur significant long-term costs, and face many pitfalls, including poor prioritization and difficulty raising funds for effective capacity building (Wiese and Hutchins 1994; Gratwicke et al. 2012; Tapley et al. 2015). Recent progress has been made on prioritizing amphibian conservation programs based on probability of success (Gratwicke et al. 2016), and Amphibian Ark has developed a decision-making tool to help conservation workers ZOO VIEW JAMES B. MURPHY Division Amphibians & Reptiles Smithsonian’s National Museum of Natural History, 10th and Constitution Ave NW Washington, DC 20013, USA e-mail: murphyjb@si.edu BRIAN GRATWICKE Smithsonian’s National Zoological Park and Conservation Biology Institute, 3001 Connecticut Ave NW Washington, DC 20008, USA e-mail: gratwickeb@si.edu Herpetological Review 48(1), 2017 242 conduct a needs assessment that may help steer them away from some common pitfalls (see http://www.conservationneeds.org). Many of these newly established programs need time to establish solid founder populations able to support production for release programs, but there are several examples of successful amphibian reintroduction efforts where a threat has been identified and reversed (Griffths and Pavajeau 2008). Several important papers and books—historical and recent— are noted here. J. V. Fischer (1883, 1884) published early reports of captive care of amphibians. Flower (1927, 1936) discussed memory and life spans of amphibians. One of the first accounts was by J. M. Bechstein who discussed maintaining frogs (Heichler and Murphy 2004). Water quality and facility design were addressed by Browne et al. (2007), Odum (1984), and Odum and Zippel (2008). Pough (1991) recommended techniques for captive maintenance. Gehrmann (1987, 1994) and Antwis and Browne (2009) discussed light quality. Chad Peeling (2013) suggested ways of exhibiting amphibians, based on his experience with a splendid traveling exhibit called “Frogs—A Chorus of Colors.” Behler and Behler (2005) wrote a companion book with the same name. Pramuk and Gagliardo (2008) wrote a comprehensive amphibian husbandry chapter that is a useful guide for captive management. Hiler (1985) provided an overview of the amphibian collection at the Steinhart Aquarium as an introduction to amphibian care. Honegger (1979) offered marking procedures. Griffiths and Pavajeau (2008) discussed captive breeding, reintroduction, and the conservation of amphibians. Some animal behaviorists do not believe that amphibians should live in an enriched captive environment, but an interesting paper by Michaels et al. (2014) suggests otherwise. Santiestevan and Neff (2015) described a citizen-science initiative called FrogWatch & Listen where groups of interested persons monitor anuran calls in the wild to determine density. Gagliardo et al. (2008) provided principles of rapid response for amphibian conservation, using the programs in Panama as an example. Gascon et al. (2007) published the Amphibian Conservation Action Plan. IUCN/SSC Amphibian Conservation Summit 2005 USA. Zippel et al. (2011) described Amphibian Ark for ex situ conservation of amphibians. Longevities may be found in Slavens (1989), and Snider and Bowler (1992). Brattstrom (1963) discussed anuran thermal parameters. Kauffeld (1942) gave tips for raising frog tadpoles at Staten Island Zoo and Smith and Paine (1989) at Buffalo Zoo. At Memphis Zoo, Kouba et al. (2009) described artificial fertilization for amphibian conservation. Maruska (1986) reviewed zoo breeding programs. Nace (1977) discussed procedures used at the Amphibian Facility, University of Michigan. Raphael (1993) presented information on medical management. Browne and Zippel (2007) offered suggestions for reproduction and larval rearing of amphibians. Martins et al. (2013) analyzed differential effects of dietary protein on early lifeΔhistory and morphological traits in Natterjack Toad (Epidalea calamita) tadpoles reared in captivity. McWilliams (2008) provided nutrition recommendations for some captive amphibian species. At National Aquarium in Baltimore, Hadfield et al. (2006) proposed successful nutritional support of amphibians. Michaels et al. (2015) studied impacts of UVB provision and dietary calcium content on serum vitamin D 3 , growth rates, skeletal structure and coloration in captive Oriental FireΔ-bellied Toads (Bombina orientalis). Verschooren et al. (2011) described the efficacy of Ultraviolet B radiation (UV-B) on growth and skeletal development of the Amazonian Milk Frog (Trachycephalus resinifictrix). Sim et al. (2010) compared oral and topical vitamin A supplementation in African Foam-Nesting Frogs (Chiromantis xerampelina) at Disney’s Animal Kingdom in Bay Lake, Florida. The late Kevin Wright at the Phoenix Zoo and Brent Whita- ker at the National Aquarium in Baltimore, published a criti- cal book, Amphibian Medicine and Captive Husbandry, cover- ing husbandry, diagnosis, and treatment of diseases. Bloxam and Tonge (1995) at Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust rightly Fig. 1. Midwife Toad (Alytes obstetricans) from Zoologie classique, ou, Histoire naturelle du règne animal by Félix-Archimède Pouchet in 1841. Roret, Paris. Be sure to read The Case of the Midwife Toad by Arthur Koestler. Fig. 2. “Batrachia” in Art Forms in Nature by Ernst Haeckel in 1904. Herpetological Review 48(1), 2017 243 noted that amphibians were acceptable candidates for breed- ing-release programs. An example is the recovery program for the Mallorcan Midwife Toad (Alytes muletensis) outlined by Ko- nig and Schluter (1991), Mallinson (1998), and Buley and Garcia (1997). Based on observations at Zoological Gardens at Halle, Hinsche (1928, 1939, 1941) recorded anti-predator behavior of various anurans directed toward snakes: death shamming, de- fense, defensive attack, and exaggerated postures. As an aside, Arthur Koestler wrote The Case of the Midwife Toad and we highly recommend this superb intellectual thriller (Fig. 1). There are a number of books and papers that are critical references for the amphibian keeper: Association of Zoos & Aquariums (2007) Amphibian Conservation Resource Manual; Coburn (1992) The Proper Care of Amphibians; Crump (2000) In Search of the Golden Frog.; Collins and Crump (2009) Extinction in our Times: Global Amphibian Decline; Duellman and Trueb (1986) Biology of Amphibians; Hall and Wake (eds.) (1999) The Origin and Evolution of Larval Forms; Heatwole (1994) Amphibian Biology; Jamieson (2003) Reproductive Biology and Phylogeny of Anura; Klingelhöffer (1955–1959) Terrarienkunde; Lannoo (2008) Malformed Frogs. The Collapse of Ecosystems; McDiarmid and Altig (eds.) (1999) Tadpoles: The Biology of Anuran Larvae; Miller (2000) Nature’s Fading Chorus: Classic and Contemporary Writings on Amphibians; Nietzke (1969) Die Terrarientiere; Noble (1954) The Biology of the Amphibia; Phillips (1994) Tracking the Vanishing Frogs: An Ecological Mystery; Ryan (ed.) (2001) Anuran Communication; Semlitsch (ed.) (2003) Amphibian Conservation; Smith and Sutherland (2014) Amphibian Conservation: Global Evidence for the Effects of Interventions; Souder (2000) A Plague of Frogs: The Horrifying True Story; Staniszewski (1995) Amphibians in Captivity; Stebbins and Cohen (1995) A Natural History of Amphibians; Vogel (1964) Reptiles and Amphibians. Their Care and Behaviour; Wells (2007) The Ecology and Behavior of Amphibians; Elke and Helmut Zimmermann (1983, 1994, 1992, 1981, 1987). J. M. Glime created an ebook with five chapters covering the relationship between anurans and bryophytes. There are many excellent photographs and information on frog taxa rarely seen: Chapter 1: Anuran Adaptations; Chapter 2: Anuran Conservation Issues; Chapter 3: Ground-Dwelling Anurans; Chapter 4: Anurans: Waterfalls, Treefrogs, and Mossy Habitats; Chapter 5: Central and South American Mossy Habitats. A unique feature is a suite of photographs with the large variety of color morphs of Darwin’s Frog. It is overwhelming to count the number of anurans at risk in the book called Threatened Amphibians of the World (Stuart et al. 2008)—page after page of beautiful animals (Figs. 2, 3, 4). We have noticed that many biologists find human interventions to save species likely to be costly and ineffective (see Dodd and Fig. 3. Some of the most beautiful plates in the history of herpetol- ogy were in August Johann Roesel von Rosenhof’s Historia Naturalis Ranarum Nostratium in two parts in 1753 and 1758. The complete life cycle of all species of German frogs and toads were contained in this book—amplexing adults, developmental stages of tadpoles, anatomy and osteology. Fig. 4. Illustration in Gotthilf Heinrich von Schubert’s Naturgeschich- te des Thierreichs. . ., published in 1869. There are several nice herpe- tofaunal drawings in this series. Herpetological Review 48(1), 2017 244 Seigel 1991). Their point is that relocation, repatriation, and translocation may be unsuccessful. If nothing is done to ad- dress these declines, the end point is certainly extinction. Card et al. (1998) asked if zoo herpetology has a future to deal with conservation issues. A good starting point is reading the Associ- ation of Zoos & Aquariums’ Amphibian Conservation Resource Manual. Chiszar and Smith (2005) and Garrett (2005) suggested approaches to develop collaborations between zoos and aca- demic institutions and Chiszar et al. (1993) and Murphy and Chiszar (1989) provided a research agenda to deal with shrink- ing biodiversity. It is inconceivable to us that restaurants still offer frog legs on menus in view of the multiple threats to anurans, yet every year the legs of 100–400 million frogs are traded internationally. Including figures for domestic farm production, an estimated 0.8–3.2 billion frogs are consumed (Gratwicke et al. 2010). When we mention to restaurant owners that serving these legs is ir- responsible and contributes to the dramatic shrinkage of some species and the spread of diseases, we are ignored. As a result, we no longer patronize these establishments. Some ethnic food markets and wholesale suppliers offer live frogs in prodigious quantities, along with many other reptiles such as lizards, tur- tles, and snakes. JBM visited a restaurant supplier in Jakarta and was astonished by the sheer number of animals available for sale. Hundreds of frogs filled large garbage cans. Virtually all had been collected in West Irian and included many taxa of interest to herpetologists and herpetoculturists. It was surpris- ing to see small New Guinea and Estuarine crocs, green tree pythons and other pythonids, a number of poorly known va- ranids, Fly River and small sea turtles, and venomous snakes. In spite of increased attention, some groups of amphibians remain virtually unknown, the most dramatic being caecilians. This paper is divided into two parts; the first covers anurans and the second will cover salamanders and caecilians. We fol- low the taxonomy outlined in Amphibian Species of the World (Frost 2016). histoRy oF anuRan studies “those Who caRe FoR the study oF aMPhibia and RePtiles—the heRPetologists, to giVe theM theiR scientiFic title—haVe neVeR been nuMeRous; but Most oF theM haVe been seRious students. one Reason FoR the Fact that this bRanch oF natuRal histoRy is not VeRy PoPulaR, is a PReJudice against cReatuRes soMe oF Which aRe claMMy and cold to the touch, and soMe oF Which May be Poisonous. PeoPle Who delight in keePing neWts oR FRogs, toRtoises, oR snakes, aRe, as a Rule, consid- eRed eccentRic.” hans gadoW (1901) The Reverend Gregory Bateman (1897) had a love affair with these fascinating animals, “The Batrachians are exceedingly interesting creatures, and most of them will live for a very long time in a properly arranged Vivarium. As a rule, they are more easily provided with food than many of the Reptiles, and they do not require so much artificial heat, when any, as the latter animals.” In his study of menageries, Loisel (1912) mentioned a few references to amphibians in captivity: some amphibians in the Menagerie of the Museum of Natural History in Paris in 1839 had a large center exhibition section called “Aquarium Hall,” containing freshwater fishes and amphibians (see Murphy and Iliff 2004 and Murphy 2009 a,b); 24 amphibians in Menagerie of the Imperial Cabinet of Natural History in Vienna around 1847; three species in Kyoto Zoo in Japan in 1908; some amphibians in Amsterdam Zoo in 1908; Breslau Zoo in Germany had 79 amphibians of 14 species in 1909; 122 amphibians representing 25 species in 1910 at Rotterdam Zoo; 10 species of amphibians in Gizeh Zoo in 1911; some amphibians at Philadelphia Zoo in 1911; Hannover Zoo had a collection of 16 amphibians numbering seven species in 1911; Schönbrunn Menagerie in 1912; European amphibians at Frankfurt Zoological Garden; Copenhagen Zoo had a small terrarium for amphibians; Carnegie Aquarium in Edinburgh and Blackpool Tower Aquarium, and zoos in Bristol, Paignton, and Belfast, United Kingdom (Schomberg 1957). Alfred Leutscher in Vivarium Life. A Manual on Amphibians, Reptiles and Cold-Water Fish (first published in 1952) noted, “Toad Hall …A name like this speaks for itself—a house for amphibians, from which there is no escape, such as may occur in the walled reptiliary. Such a house was made and used for many years by the British herpetologist, Mr. L. G. Payne, and proved to be an excellent community centre for a variety of frogs and toads, tree frogs and salamanders” (Fig. 5). Jon Coote (2001) provided a history of captive maintenance before the 20th century. Murphy and McCloud (2010) followed the evolution of keeping captive amphibians and reptiles, as well as another paper written the same year listing dealers who specialized in selling herpetofauna over many years. Toads (Bufonidae) comprise one of the largest families of frogs that fill the conservation spectrum from invasive pests to highly endangered animals. Hugh Quinn (1980) and associates (Harwell and Quinn 1982; Quinn and Mengden 1984; Mays and Peterson 1996) reproduced the endangered Houston Toad (Anaxyrus houstonensis) at Houston Zoo, which included medical management and reintroduction—their current 1200 sq ft facility produced 600,000 eggs for release into the wild in 2015 as part of a Species Survival Plan (SSP) (Houston Zoo 2016; see also Conway 1985). Taylor et al. (1994) reviewed causes of mortality in the captive population of the endangered Wyoming Toad (Anaxyrus baxteri) at Cheyenne Mountain Zoo. Browne et al. (2006) used hormonal priming, induction of ovulation, and in- vitro fertilization for these toads and the Memphis Zoo produced 1700 tadpoles by artificial fertilization which were released in Wyoming. Burton et al. (1995) offered experiences on managing these animals at the Cheyenne Mountain Zoo, and multiple zoos now participate in an SSP providing offspring for ongoing field release trials (Polasik et al. 2015). Boreal Toads (Anaxyrus boreas) are also managed by the Colorado Division of Fish and Wildlife and partner zoos like the Cincinnati Zoo working together to develop assisted reproduction methods for this species (see Roth et al. 2010). The toads are being bred for field releases— USGS biologists developed an adaptive management framework to identify numbers required for successful release trials in the presence of continued threats like Bd (Muths et al. 2014). Satellite colonies were started at Sacramento Zoo and Chaffee Zoological Gardens to conserve the Yosemite Toad (Anaxurus canorus) according to Martin (1991). Paine et al. (1989) explained the AZA SSP recovery program for the Puerto Rican Crested Toad (Peltophyrne lemur), which is supported by many zoos, but genetic rescue was required because of inbreeding (Beauclerc et al. 2010). Africam Safari in Mexico has had some success with a captive assurance colony of Large-crested Toad, Incilius cristatus and has begun releases (Hernández Díaz 2013). Vogt (1974) from Krefeld Zoo, Burchfield (1975) from Gladys Porter Zoo, Smith and Fischer (1975) from Los Angeles Zoo, and Pawley (1988) from Brookfield Zoo reproduced the Blomberg Toad (Rhaebo blombergi) from Colombia. Herpetological Review 48(1), 2017 245 La Marca et al. (2005) described catastrophic population declines and extinctions in Neotropical harlequin frogs (Bufonidae: Atelopus), a genus now showing only remnants of a once common frog clade (Fig. 6). Several centers in Latin America work on conservation breeding programs. In Ecuador, the Centro Jambatu de Investigación y Conservación de Anfibios and the Balsa de Sapos at the Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador and the Centro de Conservación de Anfibios at Zoo Amaru have extensive captive Atelopus breeding programs. In the Panama Amphibian Rescue and Conservation Project, there is a partnership involving the Smithsonian Institute, Houston Zoo, Cheyenne Mountain Zoo, and Zoo New England and there are two facilities in Panama that maintain captive assurance colonies of five of the extant Atelopus species in that country; a sixth species, Atelopus chiriquiensis, has not been seen since the 1990s and is feared extinct (Gratwicke et al. 2016). Zippel (2002) described the breeding program for the Panamanian Golden Frog (Atelopus zeteki) as part of Proyecto Rana Dorada, an in situ conservation initiative involving a number of zoos and outside herpetologists; the US population of Atelopus zeteki is thriving under the management of the Maryland Zoo in Baltimore. Estrada et al. (2013) edited The Golden Frogs of Panama (Atelopus zeteki, A. varius): A Conservation Planning Workshop, which provides a detailed roadmap for a diverse group of stakeholders to cooperate on captive breeding goals, research, and education activities needed to restore golden frogs in the wild. Becker et al. (2011, 2014, 2015) unsuccessfully applied probiotic skin bacteria to A. zeteki to control Bd, but in the process much was learned about the frog skin microbiome. DellaTogna (2015) examined structural and functional characterization of the Panamanian Golden Frog spermatazoa. Cikanek et al. (2014) evaluated group housing strategies for the ex-situ conservation of other species of Harlequin Frogs (Atelopus spp.) using behavioral and physiological indicators. Daly et al. (1997) noted the absence of tetrodotoxins in a captive-raised harlequin frog (A. varius); while the primary disease threat has not abated, such a loss of toxicity for an aposematically colored frog may pose additional challenges for reintroduction projects. The Kihansi Spray Toad (Nectophrynoides asperginis) from Tanzania is endangered. The Wildlife Conservation Society and zoos in Detroit, Baltimore, Oklahoma City, Toledo, and Buffalo have been involved in a recovery and captive breeding initia- tive. Even though there has been successful reproduction to the third generation, parasitism of the founders and low survival rate of the offspring have been discouraging (see Lee et al. 2006 and Krajick 2006 for description of program). Repatriation and reintroduction attempts began in 2012, but the species is still not secure in the wild due to parasitism and low survival (Tap- ley et al. 2015). The Mallorcan Midwife Toad (Alytes muletensis) was rediscovered in the wild in 1980. The Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust and Barcelona Zoo, Spain began to study these anurans in captivity and in the field (Tonge and Bloxam 1989; Buley and Garcia 1997; Roca et al. 1998; Buley and Gonzalez 2000). KraaijeveldΔSmit et al. (2006) studied the effects of captive breeding of this toad and the fitness of reintroduced species. They summarized their findings: “The results suggest that relatively high levels of heterozygosity and important fitness attributes can be maintained for a few generations in breeding programs for threatened species despite small numbers of founders and the absence of natural selection. Nevertheless, both fitness and heterozygosity may eventually start to deteriorate in the long term, and this may have implications for reintroduction strategies.” Recent progress has been made in the A. muletensis field conservation programs and to date it is the world’s only successful example of eradication of the chytrid fungus (Bosch et al. 2015). Poison-dart frogs have been zoo exhibit amphibians for many years, due to bright colors, hardiness, and diurnal activity (Wagner 1987; Fig. 7). Large numbers were imported by pet wholesalers during the 1960s but the employees were often unaware and shocked upon learning that these amphibians required living prey, rather than the tropical fish flake food they offered in piles. In Tierpark Berlin, Dathe and Dedekind (1991) explored the care and breeding of Venezuelan Tree Climbers (Mannophryne trinitatis) and at Edinburgh Zoo, Blake (1990) outlined cage design. At Sedgwick County Zoo in Kansas, Grow (1980) described husbandry of the Orange-Striped Poison Dart Frog (Phyllobates vittatus). At Berlin Aquarium, Lange (1981) described the program of the Green-and-Black Poison Fig. 5. Japanese Toad from Honzozusetsu by Shunzan Takagi ca. 1852. Fig. 6. Albert Günther was hired at the British Museum in 1857. He was the founder of “Zoological Record.” Harlequin Frogs (Atelopus varius) from Günther’s Biologia Centrali Americana: Reptilia and Bathrachia in 1885–1902. Herpetological Review 48(1), 2017 246 Dart Frog (Dendrobates auratus), resulting in 32 clutches with 173 frogs successfully reared. Knepper (1993) produced the Azure Dart-Poison Frog (Dendrobates tinctorius) at Chaffee Zoo in California. At Ueno Zoo in Japan, Fujitani et al. (1998) propagated the Amazonian Poison Frog (Ranitomeya ventrimaculata). At Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust, Preece (1998) described captive management and breeding of poison- dart frogs. At National Aquarium in Baltimore, Jack Cover and his associates have published many significant papers on the care, maintenance, and reproduction of poison-dart and hylid frogs (e.g., Cover 1992; Cover et al. 1994), and Stoskopf et al. (1985) discussed iodine toxicity. Dugas et al. (2013) provided carotenoid supplementation to enhance reproductive success in captive Strawberry Poison Frogs (Oophaga pumilio). In the Cologne Zoo journal Zeitschrift des Kölner Zoo, Zimmermann and Zimmermann published many reports on the biology, captive breeding, and conservation of poison dart frogs (see Zimmermann and Zimmermann 1994). A spectacular new book has been recently been published that will be of considerable value to zoo and aquarium workers (Kahn et al. 2016). This tome covers common names, taxonomic comments, identification and description, identification and description of larvae and froglets, similar species, alkaloid profiles, natural history and ecology, calls and vocalizations, reproduction, distribution, threats and conservation status. The frog images by Ted Kahn are phenomenal, some of the finest examples we have ever seen. Academic and zoo biologists have studied amphibian toxins, discovering that the toxins of dendrobatids are the result of dietary preferences. Captive-reared individuals denied that critical diet, such as formicine ants, are non-toxic (see Daly et al. 1992, 1994), thus presenting a significant deficit if reintroduction is attempted. The Cali Zoo in Colombia has partnered with other zoos to create a conservation breeding center for Lehmann’s Poison Frog Oophaga lehmanni, the Golden Poison Frog Phyllobates terribilis, Yellow-striped Poison Frog Dendrobates truncatus, and three different morphs of Harlequin Poison Frog Oophaga histrionica (Furrer and Corredor 2008). At Houston Zoo, Odum et al. (1983) used hormones to stimulate breeding and rearing of White’s Tree Frog (Ranoidea caerulea), a species commonly kept in the private sector and zoos, and Bradley and Wright (2000) described captive care and breeding of this tree frog (Fig. 8). A specimen at Dallas Zoo was still alive after 19+ years. Miller (1983) noted breeding of the Red-Eyed Tree Frog (Agalychnis callidryas). Fenolio (1996) described captive reproduction of the Orange-Legged Monkey Frog (Pithecopus hypochondrialis). Augustine (2011) described the endangered Lemur Tree Frog (Agalychnis lemur) egg and tadpole development at Bronx Zoo. This species has been bred at Paignton Zoo in Devon, England by incorporating a rain chamber using a water pump and timer system to make it rain every few hours during the day to simulate the wet season. A total of 18 tadpoles have become full froglets. The Honduras Amphibian Rescue and Conservation Center works with the Henry Doorly Zoo & Aquarium in Omaha, Nebraska on critically endangered Exquisite Spike-thumb Frog (Plectrohyla exquisita), the Cusuco Spike-thumb Frog (Plectrohyla dasypus), and the Mossy Red-eyed Frog (Duellmanohyla soralia). One of the most depressing anuran stories centers on the spectacular Rabb’s Fringed-Limbed Treefrog (Ecnomiohyla rabborum) which is now likely extinct. This large gliding treefrog was discovered and named in honor of George and Mary Rabb in 2008 (Mendelson et al. 2008). The last living representative, a male named “Toughie,” died at the Atlanta Botanical Gardens on 26 September 2016 and was thought to be at least 12 years old. Tissues were sent to San Diego Zoo’s “Frozen Zoo.” At the Daytona Expo some years ago, JBM and colleagues were sitting beneath a covered hotel driveway watching a hurricane roar through the city. A young woman was bemoaning that the only herp she had wanted was a Cuban Tree Frog (Osteopilis septentrinanalis) to put in her frog terrarium but none were available for sale. She was disappointed as she had traveled a considerable distance to Florida by car but to no avail—an unsuccessful return trip sans frog would be a long, unhappy drive indeed. A few moments later, an adult Cuban Tree Frog Fig. 7. Poison-dart frogs from “Proceedings of the Scientific Meetings of Zoological Society of London.” Between 1861–1929, a continu- ous series of lovely drawings were produced by Zoological Society of London. Fig. 8. White’s Treefrog (Litoria caerulea) from Journal of a Voyage to New South Wales…of Non Descript Animals, Birds, Lizards… by John White in 1790. An individual lived for over 19 years at Dallas Zoo. Herpetological Review 48(1), 2017 247 flew through the air and stuck to her face. After the initial shock, she emptied her popcorn box, peeled the frog off her cheek, and happily returned to her room with her new pet. Banks et al. (2008) outlined procedures for captive management and breeding of Romer’s Tree Frog, Liuixalus romeri. In the early 1990s, a signiΔcant portion of the range of this species was threatened by the construction of the new international airport in Hong Kong. Melbourne Zoo, Australia, partnered with the University of Hong Kong to establish a captive breeding program as part of a broader conservation initiative to secure the species in the wild. Large numbers of frogs were successfully bred at both facilities, underpinning the success of subsequent releases. At San Diego Zoo, Schafer (1981) described her techniques for rearing the Asiatic Tree Frog (Polypedates leucomystax). Wildenhues et al. (2011) described captive management and reproductive biology of Orlov’s Treefrog (Rhacophorus orlovi), including larval description, color pattern variation, and advertisement call. Paine and Weinheimer (1984) discussed tube-feeding. Gagliardo et al. (2010) observed captive reproduction of the Horned Marsupial Frog (Gastrotheca cornuta), and a success- ful founding population continues to grow in Panama at the El Valle Amphibian Conservation Center (Gratwicke et al. 2016). Centro Jambatu de Investigación y Conservación de Anfibios and the Bolsa de Sapos in Ecuador is producing surplus captive-bred Gastrotheca riobambae and has successfully used assisted repro- duction methods with this species (Cadena Quevedo and García Romo 2012). At Dallas Zoo, amphibian keeper Thomas Jordan (1969) successfully kept a diverse collection of treefrogs including three male Spiny-Headed Treefrogs (Anotheca spinosa; Fig. 9), a small group of Giant Monkey Frogs (Phyllomedusa Fig. 9. David Dennis, co-founder of SSAR with Kraig Adler, illustrated William Duellman’s Hylid Frogs of Middle America. From top to bot- tom—Hyla miliara, Hemiphractus panamensis [=Hemiphractus fas- ciatus], Anotheca spinosa. All plates are offered for sale by the Society. Fig. 10. Blue-and-yellow Leaf Frog (Phyllomedusa bicolor) from Mu- saeum Schlosserrianum by Johannes Schlosser and Pieter Boddaert in 1768–1772. Be sure to read “Frog secretions and hunting magic in the upper Amazon: Identification of a peptide that interacts with an adenosine receptor” by John Daly et al. 1992 (full citation in Litera- ture Cited). Herpetological Review 48(1), 2017 248 bicolor; Fig. 10) and Orange-Legged Leaf Frogs (Pithecopus hypochondrialis), a couple of Fairy Treefrogs (Charadrahyla chaneque), Red-eyed Treefrogs (A. callidryas), Common Mexican Tree Frog (Smilisca baudinii), Shovel-headed Tree Frog (Tripirion spatulatus), Colorado River Toad (Incilius alvarius), Red-spotted Toad (Anaxyrus punctatus), Green Toad (Anaxyrus debilis), Malayasian Narrow-mouth Toad (Kaloula pulchra), Red-belly Toad (Melanophryniscus stelzneri), Boulenger’s Tree Toad (Pedostibes hosii), several species of African Reed Frogs (Hyperolius), Harlequin Frogs (Atelopus varius, A. chiriquiensis, A. cruciger, A. senex, A. zeteki), Golden Frog (Ranoidea aurea), Marnock’s Frog (Eleutherodactylus marnockii) and a number of other North American species. A number of Woodhouse’s Toads (Incilius woodhousei) and Gulf-Coast Toads (I. nebulifer) lived peacefully throughout the year with a number of small US desert lizards in a large outdoor planted display at Dallas Zoo. During winter months, they all hibernated, often together, within rock crevices. Beginning in spring, when male toads began calling upon emergence and continuing until late fall these anurans basked throughout the day on flat rocks in direct sunlight. Temperatures on rock surfaces reached over 120°F (49°C) yet the toads rarely moved into shaded areas unless food was being offered. Although toad core temperatures were not taken, one possibility was to elevate body temperatures to deal with disease issues such as Bd (see Karavlan and Venesky 2016). It was unexpected that these toads would congregate around food pans with lizards, all taking advantage of the hordes of hymenopterans gliding in to feed on fruit. Neither lizards nor frogs appeared to be stung. At Dallas Zoo, an adult pair of Eleutherodactylus inoptatus from Hispaniola laid egg jelly masses annually. The tails of embryos appeared to adhere to the jelly mass about midway during development. Froglets emerged but were difficult to feed. The Philadelphia Zoo maintains nine assurance colonies of endangered endemic Haitian Eleutherodactylus, and over 1500 individuals have resulted. Hill et al. (2010) described captive reproduction of Gaige’s Rain Frog (Pristimantis gaigeae). Two specimens of Tungara Frog (Engystomops pustulosus) lived well over seven years at Dallas Zoo. Fig. 11. Horned frog (Ceratophrys aurita) in Abbildungen zur naturge- schichte Brasiliens by A. P. M. Wied-Neuwied in 1822–1831. Horned frogs use pedal movements to lure prey. See text. Fig. 12. Frog metamorphosis from Dissertation sur la generation et les transformations des insectes de Surinam in 1717 by Maria Sibylla Merian. Fig. 13. Heinrich Rudolf Schinz, Professor of natural history at University of Zürich, published detailed illustrations of anuran reproduction in 1833. Herpetological Review 48(1), 2017 249 Murphy (1976) and Radcliffe et al. (1986) observed pedal luring in horned frogs (Ceratophrys calcarata and C. ornata) (Fig. 11). It had made little sense that such heavy-bodied frogs could capture agile treefrogs and other quick prey, but one day JBM noticed an anole trying to get into the horned frog tank. The frog brought a hind limb over the dorsum toward its mouth and vibrated digits, which looked very much like living grubs. Horned frogs lured vertebrates susceptible to the deception such as frogs and small lizards but ignored invertebrates. As reported by Radcliffe et al. (1986), observations on Odontophrynus and Caudiverbera revealed that neither exhibited behavior that could be construed as luring. Schalk et al. (2014) discussed the diet of the frogs of the Ceratophryidae. Johnson (1984) bred the Bell’s or Ornate Horned Frog (Ceratophrys ornata) without hormones. Honegger et al. (1985) discussed reproduction using hormonal injections, development and analysis of male call, and breeding of this frog. Zippel (2006) described biology, husbandry, and oviposition in the Surinam Toad (Pipa pipa), and Weygoldt (1976a, 1976b) reported on the biology and reproduction of the related P. carvalhoi. Sclater (1895) and Bartlett (1896, see also Scherren 1905:212) observed breeding of Pipa surinamensis, P. americana (now P. pipa) at London Zoo. Two of the most impressive examples of early drawings of anuran metamorphosis were published by Maria Sybilla Merian and Heinrich R. Schinz, professor of zoology at University of Zürich (Figs. 12, 13). The Ueno Zoo has reproduced Surinam Toads (Shibuya 1978). George Rabb from Brookfield Zoo has published on sound production, fighting, mating behavior, development, and general reviews on pipid frogs (Rabb 1960, 1969, 1973; Rabb and Rabb 1960, 1963; Rabb and Snedigar 1960). One potentially serious disease possibility is the broad availability of Dwarf Clawed Frogs (Hymenochirus) and African Clawed Frogs (Xenopus) offered for sale in pet shops. There is a real possibility that more of these frogs may be released into the wild. Xenopus has already been introduced into parts of the USA, Mexico, Indonesia, Chile, and Europe. Another issue is animal welfare as some pet shop employees are unaware that these frogs require living prey and as a result, these amphibians may be seriously emaciated and near death. Michaels et al. (2015) of the Zoological Society of London successfully bred the evolutionarily distinct Lake Oku Clawed Frog, Xenopus longipes, from Cameroon; this species has experienced enigmatic mortality events in the wild (Blackburn et. al. 2010). From the Duisburg Zoological Garden in Germany, Gewalt (1977) covered catching, transport, and keeping of the rare Goliath Frog (Conraua goliath). Gillespie et al. (1988/1989) sexed Goliath Frogs by laparoscopy at the Cincinnati Zoo. Herrmann (2003) and Herrmann and Herrmann (2002) discussed conservation challenges. Herrmann and Edwards (2006) discussed skittering locomotion. Because these frogs are nervous and are capable of jumping long distances—sometimes injuring themselves in captivity—several innovations for maintaining them have been developed. At Brookfield Zoo, an individual lived for over four years in a large semi-aquatic tank with the pool of water at the front glass. At Ft. Worth Zoo, strips of rubberized cloth were hung as a barrier throughout the enclosure should the frog leap. At Amsterdam Zoo, an adult was kept in an aquarium only slightly larger than the frog. Gupta (1998) offered observations on ranid reproduction (Figs. 14, 15). During the period of ca. 1920–1960s, thousands of live Northern Leopard Frogs (Rana pipiens) and other ranids were collected annually by biological supply companies. These amphibians were sent to high school and college biology classes where they were immobilized by inserting a thin metal rod or dissecting needle into the brain and spinal column, a procedure known as brain pithing. The frog remains living due to respiration through the skin but without cerebral control, allowing it to be dis- sected while observing its beating heart, and expansion and con- traction of its lungs. Each student or group of students received a dissecting tray and a packet of tools with dissecting needle, tweezers, scissors, and scalpel and was given a live frog. Naturally, many students were squeamish and felt that the procedure was inhumane. Fortunately, this practice is now rarely used in class- rooms, due in part to strong anti-dissection sentiments in the 1980s. The number of frogs sacrificed over the years was astound- ing. There are estimates that 75–80% of US schools engaged in this practice (Semlitsch 2003). At Smithsonian National Zoological Park (SNZP), studies are ongoing on the Lowland Leopard Frog (Rana yavapaiensis) to elucidate genetic responses to Bd with the goal of determining host responses to the fungus (Savage and Zamudio 2011; Savage et al. 2016). The Calgary Zoo is involved in a long-term monitoring project with the Northern Leopard Frog (Rana Fig. 14. George A. Boulenger was a leading taxonomist in his time and published many books such as the British Museum catalogues, and Tailless Batrachians of Europe in 1896–1897. Shown here is Agile Frog (Rana dalmatina). Fig. 15. Two additional examples of fine artwork supported by Zoological Society of London—Golden-lined Frog tadpole (Rana chalconota) and Red-eared Frog (Rana erythraea). Herpetological Review 48(1), 2017 250 pipiens). The Oregon Spotted Frog (Rana pretiosa) reintroduction program involves four participants—Woodland Park Zoo, Oregon Zoo, Northwest Trek Wildlife Park, and Cedar Creek Correctional Center in Washington. Over 5400 specimens have been released. The Atlanta Botanical Garden’s newly established Center for Southeastern Conservation is formalizing a regional plant conservation network for the Southeast USA. Regionally, the Garden has worked with partners to increase the number of Georgia’s rare Carolina Gopher Frogs (Rana c. capito) in the wild by collecting fertile eggs, raising them to small froglets in captivity, and releasing them to a protected habitat. In 2016, the San Francisco Zoo and Gardens and partners planned to reintroduce 4000 tadpoles and 500 adult California Red-Legged Frogs (Rana draytonii) in Yosemite National Park, part of that species’ historical range but not been observed there for the last half century (AZA Connect 2016). Shiihara and Samejima (1995) propagated Ishikawa’s Frog (Rana ishikawae) at Nagasakibana Parking Garden, Kagoshima, Japan. Their paper includes photographs of the enclosure, egg masses, tadpoles, and metamorphs. Other anurans threatened with extinction have been reproduced in captivity. Bourke (2010) described Darwin’s Frog (Rhinoderma darwinii) captive rearing facility in Chile (Fig. 16). At Alfred Koenig Museum in Bonn, Germany in 1989, Wolfgang Böhme showed JBM a large planted terrarium in an unheated greenhouse that housed all sizes of frogs, certainly a successful breeding program. Fenolio et al. (2011) reviewed conservation status of the Chile Mountains False Toad (Telmatobufo venustus) and mentioned assurance colonies of Darwin’s Frogs at National Zoo in Chile and Atlanta Botanical Garden. One of the two described species (Rhinoderma darwinii) has declined across parts of its traditional range, particularly in the north, and the second described species (R. rufum) has not been seen since the 1970s and is presumed extinct, possibly due to chytridiomycosis- related declines (Soto-Azat et al. 2013a, 2013b). At least two in- country captive breeding programs exist in Chile and one of them that is associated with the National Zoo and the Austral University is keeping tabs on the spread of emergent infectious amphibian disease across southern Chile (Danté Fenolio and William Lamar, pers. comm.). Another high priority in the Andean region of Bolivia and Perus is the critically endangered Lake Titicaca Frog (Telmatobius culeus). Once common, this species has crashed precipitously. There have been a few captive-breeding programs around the lake but these have been relatively unsuccessful. The Denver Zoo has been involved in studying population estimates using distance sampling and swabbing frogs for DNA analysis of Bd. Should an expanded future program be envisioned, an excellent template is provided by Genova (2011). Other congeners are at risk, such as the Acancocha Water Frog (Telmatobius jelskii). Jessica Deichmann and Ed Smith from SNZP have been surveying populations over four seasons as part of the initiative called Monitoring Biodiversity: Lessons from a Trans- Andean Megaproject (Alonso et al. 2013). Recently, a new frog (Telmatobius mendelsoni) was named in honor of Joe Mendelson at Zoo Atlanta for his sustained efforts to save amphibians (De la Riva et al. 2012). Like others in this genus, this species is rapidly declining and the shrinkage has been associated with outbreaks of Bd. Arturo Muñoz Saravia from Museo de Historia Natural Alcide d’Orbigny in Cochabamba, Bolivia sent an urgent email to amphibian biologists in October 2016 updating the dire situation regarding Telmatobius. Probably the last male individual of T. yuracare exists in captivity although several trips to find females were unsuccessful. He contacted Dr. De La Riva and it seems that this is the situation for all the Telmatobius from mountain cloud forest habitats where previously these frogs were common but now appear to be gone. Madagascar has a megadiverse assemblage of frogs, many of them threatened and the recent discovery of the amphibian chytrid fungus there means that existing captive collections and knowledge of their care assumes heightened importance, even though chytrid-related declines have not been confirmed (Andreone et al. 2008; Bletz et al. 2015). Several unsettling overviews of the anuran future there have been published: Andreone and Luiselli (2003), Andreone (2005), Mattioli et al. (2006), Andreone et al. (2006), Garcia et al. (2008), Lötters et al. (2011), and others. The Mitsinjo captive breeding facility has built extensive capacity and a large, prolific assurance colony of Golden Mantellas (Mantella aurantiaca) (Edmonds et al. 2012) and has experience breeding several other species of native frogs, including Mantidactylus betsileanus, whose tadpole dietary preferences are described by Soamiarimampionona et al. (2015). Scheld et al. (2013) also studied Mantidactylus betsileanus at Cologne Zoo. At Association Mitsinjo, Edmonds et al. (2016) reproduced the treefrog Booophis pyrrhus. With the cooperation of Université d’Antananarivo, Département de Biologie Animale, and the Parc Botanique et Zoologique de Tsimbazaza, Segev et al. (2012) described reproductive phenology of the Tomato Frog, Dyscophus antongili, in an urban pond of Madagascar’s east coast. De Vosjoli and Mailloux (1990) outlined the husbandry and propagation of the Malagasy Tomato Frogs, Dyscophus antongilii and D. insularis. Yoshimi et al. (1996) maintained and bred the unusual Solo- mon Island Leaf Frog (Cornufer guentheri) at Woodland Park Zoo in Seattle, Washington. Narayan et al. (2009) worked to propagate the endangered native Fijian frog Cornufer vitianus. The plan was to develop methods for supplementing populations in the wild. In 2004, a captive propagation program was instituted at Kula Ecopark, Sigatoka, Fiji. Only a single froglet was reared after three years. Two years later, a more intensive program was undertaken Fig. 16. Illustration from Historia fisica y politica de Chile… by Claude Gay in 1844–1871. Darwin’s Frog is near extinction. Herpetological Review 48(1), 2017 251 between the University of the South Pacific (USP), Kula Ecopark, and the community on Viwa Island. The aim of this program was to create an outdoor enclosure to mimic natural habitat condi- tions so the frogs could exhibit natural breeding behaviors. A total of 39 froglets was reared after one year using this approach. Maintaining healthy captive collections of New Zealand native frogs (Leiopelma spp.) has been challenging for a number of reasons (Butler 1992; Bell 1985; Holyoake et al. 2001). From 2000 to 2004, approximately 252 wild Leiopelma were collected and brought into captivity at Canterbury University for captive propagation and research. In late 2005–2006, the 154 remaining frogs from Canterbury University were split by species and sent to different institutions. All L. archeyi went to Auckland Zoo, L. hochstetteri to Hamilton Zoo, and L. pakeka went to the University of Otago, Dunedin and Zealandia (previously Karori Sanctuary) in Wellington. In December 2006, 16 additional L. archeyi obtained from the Whareorino Forest were sent to Auckland Zoo and 12 to the University of Otago. Shaw and Holzapfel (2008) recorded mortality and Shaw et al. (2012) suggested fluorosis as a probable factor in metabolic bone disease. Shaw (2014) improved captive maintenance techniques, which have been successful. Sharbel and Green (1989) discussed captive maintenance as well. Australia has a long history of amphibian conservation and responding to chytridiomycosis, and researchers and conservation workers have developed considerable capacity, including in captive assurance efforts. Their experiences are well summarized by Tyler (1996), Scheele et al. (2014), and Skerratt et al. (2016). Zoo Victoria works on captive assurance colonies of Baw Baw Frogs (Philoria frosti) (Scheelings 2015). Byrne and Silla (2010) recommended hormonal induction of gamete release and in-vitro fertilization in the critically endangered Southern Corroboree Frog, (Pseudophryne corroboree). The Taronga Zoo has maintained captive populations of Northern Coroborree Frogs since 2010, and release trials from a captive assurance colony have shown that captive supplementation can help population persistence, even in the presence of chytridiomycosis (McFadden et al. 2016). The Taronga Zoo and Zoo Victoria have also been heavily involved in developing captive breeding and conservation plans for several endangered Litoria species (McFadden et al 2008; Scheelings 2015). Banks et al. (2014) give a detailed account of the captive propagation of Stuttering Frogs (Mixophyes balbus). At Melbourne Zoo, Birkett et al. (1999) kept and reared the Roseate Frog (Geocrinia rosea). Gollmann (1995) bred the Australian frog Neobatrachus sudelli. Ivanyi (1989) reproduced the Black-Eared Frog (Leptodactylus melanonotus) at Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum. Gibson and Buley (2004) described foam nests on land, terrestrial tadpoles, and obligatory oophagy in the endangered Montserrat Mountain Chicken (Leptodactylus fallax) at Jersey Zoo. This taxon is almost extinct due to Bd. The species is found on Montserrat and Dominica but has virtually disappeared from both places (Hudson et al. 2016). Two frogs were collected in the wild in separate locations on Montserrat and were relocated to a site for breeding purposes by Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust, while others were bred at the Zoological Society of London. Tapley et al. (2015) describe metabolic bone disease issues and how UV supplementation resolved them. Unfortunately, field releases have been unsuccessful, even though field treatments with the anti-fungal drug itraconazole extended survival time from 49 to 124 weeks (Hudson et al. 2016). One day, a husband and wife team driving an eighteen-wheel- er semi-trailer truck wanted to donate a group of Fire-Bellied Toads (Bombina bombina) to the Dallas Zoo. The frogs that had been traveling with them for many years. The small plastic con- tainer, which was the housing, was attached to the dashboard, held in place with Velcro. Each time they stopped at a restau- rant or motel, the container was peeled off the truck and carried by them indoors so the amphibians would not overheat or en- counter cold temperatures. Amazingly, there were egg masses, tadpoles, froglets, and adult frogs living together. Of course, the couple suffered separation anxiety but they were assured that the group would soon go on exhibit. It turned out to be a most inter- esting exhibit on frog development. Its success was remindful of William Conway’s seminal papers (1969, 1973) on how to exhibit a bullfrog. caPtiVe and Medical ManageMent Why are there declines? In 2004, Stuart et al. published a paper containing sobering information: 1) amphibians are more threatened and are declining more rapidly than either birds or mammals; 2) although many declines are due to habitat loss and overutilization, unidentified processes threaten 48% of rapidly declining species and are driving species most quickly to extinction; 3) declines are nonrandom in terms of species’ ecological preferences, geographic ranges, and taxonomic associations and are most prevalent among Neotropical montane, stream-associated species; 4) hundreds of species now face extinction over the next few decades; 5) four families are particularly impacted: gastric-brooding frogs (Rheobatrachidae, now extinct), “typical” Neotropical frogs (Leptodactylidae), true toads (Bufonidae), and mole salamanders (Ambystomatidae). This information is still current. Reichenbach-Klinke (1961) discussed amphibian disease in his book Krankheiten der Amphibien. Allan Pessier and associates from the Amphibian Diseases Laboratory at the San Diego Zoo have published a number of papers on amphibian maladies (Pessier et al. 2002, 2009, 2013, 2014; Baitchman and Pessier 2013; Rodríguez and Pessier 2014). Gentz (2007) described medicine and surgery at Albuquerque Zoo. Hadfield and Whitaker (2005) provided recommendations for emergency medicine and care. Wright (1996) and Wright and Whitaker (2001) provided an overview of husbandry and medicine, and Rundquist (1993) presented suggestions for future veterinary investigations. Densmore and Green (2007) provided an overview of diseases. Elkan (1976) discussed pathology. Burns from the Louisville Zoo (1995) offered suggestions for the humane euthanasia of reptiles, amphibians, and fish. Stetter and Cook (1994) presented normal and pathological ultrasonographic anatomy of amphibians. King et al. (2011) published on radiographic diagnosis of metabolic bone disease in captive bred Mountain Chicken Frogs (Leptodactylus fallax). Brazaitis and Watanabe (1982) recommended the Doppler, a new tool for amphibian hematological studies. Stetter et al. (1996) used isoflurane anesthesia in amphib- ians and compared five application methods. Upton et al. (1992) discovered testicular myxosporidiasis in the African Flat-backed Toad (Bufo maculatus). Miller et al. (1992) documented an out- break of disseminated chromoblastomycosis in a colony of Ornate-horned Frogs, and Teare et al. (1991) published on phar- macology of gentamicin in the Northern Leopard Frog (Rana pipiens) at SNZP. Maslow et al. (2002) reported an outbreak of Mycobacterium marinum infection among captive snakes and bullfrogs. Reports have documented M. ranae (fortuitum) and M. Herpetological Review 48(1), 2017 252 xenopi infection in a frog and toad. A later report described an outbreak of mycobacterial infection among wild Bolivian frogs. The detection of mycobacteria among captive animals in zoos and/or aquaria raises many questions about treatment. Drake et al. (2010) treated 13 Tomato Frogs (Dyscophus antongilii) with Red Leg Disease. This disease is a severe, and usually acute, bacterial infection of amphibians. Its name derives from hemorrhages of the leg (often the inner thigh) as a result of septicemia. Other parts of the body and internal organs may be affected. Ackermann and Miller (1992) diagnosed chromomycosis in an African Bullfrog (Pyxicephalus adspersus). Suedmeyer et al. (1997) discovered chromomycosis in a Marine Toad (Rhinella marina) at the Kansas City Zoo. Duncan et al. (2004) saw renal myxosporidiasis in Asian Horned Frogs (Megophrys nasuta). At SNZP, pathologist Don Nichols was instrumental in documenting respiratory diseases and cutaneous chytridiomycosis (Nichols 2000, 2003; Nichols et al. 1996, 1998, 2000, 2001). In 2003, Nichols published an article in Herpetological Review describing his difficulties in isolating a new pathogenic fungus first seen in California Arroyo Toads (Anaxyrus californicus) in 1991 and that was responsible for a fatal skin disease in frogs and toads. Until then, no chytrids had ever been recognized as pathogens in vertebrate animals. This devastating organism is now known as Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (or Bd)—“frog chytrid of dendrobatids.” This fungus has caused marked declines of wild populations of anurans in Australia, New Zealand, North America, South America, Africa, Europe, and Central America. Increasing evidence from Australia and Central America supports the hypothesis that the pattern of amphibian declines and extinctions, especially the wave-like pattern in Central America, is due to the spread of the chytrid fungus through tropical forests. Fites et al. (2013) found that this fungus paralyzes lymphocyte responses, suggesting that evasion of host immunity may explain the virulence of this pathogen. Harris et al. (2009) found that skin microbes prevent morbidity and mortality. Whittaker and Vredenburg (2014) provide an excellent overview of chytridiomycosis. Cutaneous chytridiomycosis has been implicated as a major cause in global amphibian declines. Young et al. (2007) provided strategies to deal with amphibian chytridiomycosis for captive management and conservation. Augustine and Neff (2016) de- termined the prevalence of this pathogen and Ranavirus at Long Branch Nature Center in Arlington, Virginia. Ellison et al. (2014) described the vigorous immune response countered by pathogen suppression of host defenses in the chytridiomycosis-suscepti- ble frog Atelopus zeteki. Evans et al. (2012) provided a description of an exhibit at SNZP about the Panama Amphibian Rescue and Conservation Project to highlight a conservation response to the chytrid crisis in Panama. Miller et al. (2008) described infection with ranavirus, Bd, and Aeromonas in a captive anuran colony. Spitzen-van der Sluijs et al. (2011) found that clinically healthy amphibians in captive collections and at pet fairs were a poten- tial reservoir of Bd. Claunch and Augustine (2015) provided a morphological description of Spindly Leg Syndrome in Golden Mantella (Mantella aurantiaca) at SNZP. This taxon is highly endangered so Steinhart Aquarium is exploring a method for reproducing this frog; over 300 have been produced and one-third of the propagules have been sent to other zoos. Driskell et al. (2009) used PCR detection of ranavirus in adult anurans from Louisville Zoological Garden. Mutschmann (1998) found evidence of Chlamydia psittaci infections in amphibians, obtained by means of a specific immunofluorescence test (IFT). McNamara et al. (1999) reported crystalline inclusions associated with vomeronasal organ pathology in Red-eyed Tree Frogs (Agalychnis callidryas). Main (1998) saw an outbreak of mucormycosis in Slender Tree Frogs (Litoria adelensis) and White-lipped Tree Frogs (Litoria infrafrenata) at Perth Zoological Gardens. Whitaker and Poyton (1993) identified and recommended treatments for protozoans in dendrobatid frogs. Garner et al. (1995) diagnosed diseases of Solomon Island Leaf Frogs (Ceratobatrachus guentheri) at Woodland Park Zoo by consulting 75 necropsy cases. At Calgary Zoo in Canada, Honeyman et al. (1992) found Bordetella septicemia and chlamydiosis in this species. Imai et al. (2009) found rhabditid nematode-associated ophthalmitis and meningoencephalomyelitis in captive Asian Horned Frogs (Megophrys montana). Graczyk et al. (1996) discovered Progressive Ulcerative Dermatitis in a captive, wild- caught South American Giant Tree Frog (Phyllomedusa bicolor) with Microsporidial Septicemia. Acknowledgments.—This contribution is dedicated to Karen R. Lips from University of Maryland and Joseph R. Mendelson III from Zoo Atlanta. Their collaborative efforts are a perfect example of a sus- tained research output between an academic herpetologist and zoo biologist. They have published many important papers on amphib- ian decline, taxonomy, systematics, biogeography, and conservation. Judith Block reviewed an early draft and made helpful sugges- tions. For various courtesies, we thank Lauren Augustine, Jon Camp- bell, Danté Fenolio, Bill Lamar, and Ray Pawley. Read “Perspectives in Conservation: An Interview with Ray Pawley” (HR47:413–416). Most of the historical illustrations in this presentation are from the collections of the Smithsonian Institution Libraries (the Joseph F. Cullman 3rd, Library of Natural History and the National Museum of Natural History Library). Special thanks to librarians Polly Lasker, Kristen Bullard, and Leslie Overstreet and Daria Wingreen from the Joseph F. Cullman 3rd Library of Natural History (SI Special Collec- tions Department). liteRatuRe cited aaRk. 2016 Amphibian Ark Website: Progress of Programs. Available online at: http://progress.amphibianark.org/progress-of-pro- grams (accessed 9/9/2016). ackeRMann, J., and e. J. MilleR. 1992. Chromomycosis in an African bullfrog, Pyxicephalus adspersus. Bull. Assoc. Rept. Amphib. Vet. 2:8–9. alonso, a., F. dallMeieR, and g. P. seRVat (eds.). 2013. Monitoring Biodi- versity: Lessons from a Trans-Andean Megaproject. Smithsonian Inst. Press, Washington DC. 429 pp. andReone, F., and l. M. luiselli. 2003. 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