PAPUA NEW GUINEA COUNTRY STUDY 
ON BIOLOGiCAL DIVERSITY 
edited 
by 
ni. Sekhran and S. Miller 
A study prepared by the Department of Environment and Conservation, Conservation Resource Centre, 
and the Africa Centre for Resources and Environment (ACRE) 
with funding from the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) 
"m 
First released as a public document in November 1994 
Published for mass distribution in August 1995. 
? The Department of Environment and Conservation 
All rights reserved 
Material from this publication may be freely used, but authorship must be acknowledged (see pages xi-xii for a list 
of authors). 
It is requested that a copy of all publications which draw on material contained in this report be deposited with the 
Department of Environment and Conservation, Conservation Resource Centre, P.O. Box 165, Waigani, N.C.D., 
Papua New Guinea. 
ISBN 9980 85 111 2 
National Library of Papua New Guinea 
ABCDE 98765 
Printed by Colorcraft Ltd., Hong Kong 
Cover Photograph 
Papua New Guinea is renowned for the diversity and splendour of its coral reefs. These provide a wide range of direct and indirect use 
benefits to coastal communities, and have a number of potential future uses, including possible medical applications (Bob Halstead). 
Printed on wood free paper 
CONTENTS 
AUTHORSHIP OF CHAPTERS xi 
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xiii 
LIST OF ACRONYMS xvii 
DEFINITIONS xix 
MAP 1: PAPUA NEW GUINEA SHOWING PROVINCIAL BOUNDARIES xxi 
WILDLIFE WONDERS OF PAPUA NEW GUINEA xxii 
PHOTOGRAPHS xxiii 
CHAPTER 1 
Introduction and Summary 1 
Section 1: Introduction 1 
Section 2: The Linkages Between Biodiversity Country Studies and the Convention on Biological Diversity 1 
Section 3: Abstracts of Chapters 2 to 19 4 
CHAPTER 2 
The Economics of Maintaining Papua New Guinea's Biodiversity 13 
Introduction 13 
Natural Capital: An Essential Component of the Production Function 15 
The Earth as an Interactive System: A Systems Approach to Understanding the Linkages Between 
Ecosystems and Economic Activities 17 
Ecological Pricing 22 
Gross Versus Net Values 29 
The Valuation of Biological Resources Versus Biodiversity 30 
Valuation Methods 30 
Applications of Valuation Methods 32 
Papua New Guinea's Biodiversity Country Study 33 
Some Preliminary Comments 34 
CHAPTER 3 
The Global Benefits of Conserving Biodiversity in Papua New Guinea 37 
Introduction 37 
Forests 37 
Mangroves 39 
Coral Reefs and Pelagic Marine Environments 39 
Future Discoveries 40 
Forestry Development in Papua New Guinea 
Landowner Participation in Forestry 
Forestry Practices and Logging in Papua New Guinea 
Selective Logging 
Clear-Felling 
Choice of Logging Methods 
The Impact of Logging on the Floristic Diversity of Papua New Guinea's Forests 
Forest Plantations and Diversity of the Vegetation 
The Effect of Logging and Plantations on Animal Biodiversity 
Clear-Felling for Large-Scale Agricultural Projects 
Selective Logging 
Portable Sawmill Operations 
Status of Research 
Conclusions 
156 
158 
159 
159 
159 
160 
160 
161 
162 
163 
163 
165 
165 
166 
CHAPTER 10 
Fisharies in Papua New Guinea 169 
Introduction 
The Fisheries of Papua New Guinea 
Commercial Fisheries 
Artisanal Fisheries 
Subsistence Fisheries 
Sports Fisheries 
Estimates of Coastal Fisheries Production 
Aquaculture and Mariculture 
Fisheries Habitats 
Threats to Aquatic Resources, Habitats and Biodiversity 
Discussion and Conclusions 
169 
170 
170 
174 
179 
180 
180 
181 
181 
181 
184 
CHAPTER 11 
The Natura of the Human Threat to Papua New Guinea's Biodiversity Endowment 187 
Classification of Activities 
The Problem of Regional Diversity 
Evidence of Pre-Colonial Ecology 
Attitudes Towards 'Development' and 'Conservation' 
Population Growth, Migration and Resettlement 
New Technologies and New Consumption Patterns 
Social Differentiation and Political Authority 
187 
189 
190 
192 
194 
195 
197 
CHAPTER 12 
Direct Productive Use Values for Papua New Guinea's Biodiversity 201 
Introduction 
Major Issues 
Forest Resources 
Timber 
Ecotimber 
Fuel Wood 
Handicrafts 
201 
202 
204 
204 
205 
206 
206 
vu 
Fruits, Nuts and Wild Plant Foods 207 
Other Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPI 207 
Exudates: Resins, Gums and Latex 207 
Aromatic Oils 209 
Candlenut Oil 209 
Tannins 209 
Rattan 210 
Orchids 210 
Sago, Nipa and Coconut Palms 211 
Mushrooms 211 
Bamboo 211 
Multipurpose Tree Species 212 
Insects and Other Wildlife 214 
Coastal, Marine and Aquatic Resources 217 
The Crocodile Skin Industry 217 
Fisheries 221 
Other Products 223 
Biodiversity Prospecting 223 
Medicines 223 
Germplasm Collections of Food Crops 224 
Genetic Erosion of Crop Species 226 
Unknown Future Uses 226 
Integrated Conservation and Development (ICAD) 226 
Opportunities,Problems and Constraints in the ICAD Process 228 
CHAPTER 13 
The Subsistance Values of Biodivarsity in Papua Naw Guinaa 231 
Introduction: A Caution 231 
How Extensive Is the Subsistence Sector? 231 
What Are the Subsistence Activities? 234 
Agriculture 234 
Hunting and Gathering 235 
Fishing 240 
Traditional Medicines 240 
Other Subsistence Uses 242 
What Changes Are Occurring in the Subsistence System? 242 
How Are Subsistence Activities Valued in the National Accounts? 243 
Food Production 243 
Collection of Firewood 245 
Services of Owner-Occupied Dwellings 245 
Expansion of Food Gardens for Own-Account Production 245 
Construction of Equipment for Own-Account Production 246 
Conclusion 246 
CHAPTER 14 
Tha Indiract Use Values Darived from Biodivarsity Sarvicas in Papua Naw Guinea 273 
Introduction 273 
The Biodiversity Existence: Ecosystem Stability Hypothesis 273 
Biodiversity Services 274 
Atmosphere and Water Quality Control 274 
VIH 
Hydrological Cycles 274 
Carbon Cycles 275 
Climatic Regulation 275 
Nutrient Retention and Cycling 275 
Soil Development and Conservation 277 
Mangroves in the Coastal Zone 278 
Services Provided by Coral Reefs 278 
Ecological Linkages Between Species in Papua New Guinea's Rainforests 278 
Plant-Plant Interactions 278 
Plant-Animal Interactions 279 
Frugivory 279 
Nectivory 281 
Insectivory 281 
The Value of Human Activities Underpinned by Biological Services 282 
Agriculture 282 
Ecotourism 285 
The Utility Value of Varirata National Park 286 
The Dive Industry 292 
The Value of a Shark 294 
Sport Fishing 297 
Conclusions 297 
CHAPTER 15 
Climate Change and Sea-Level Rise: The Costs of Ecological Degradation 299 
Introduction 299 
The Implications for Papua New Guinea of Climate Change 299 
Key Issues 302 
CHAPTER 16 
Human Health and Ecological Loss in Rural Papua New/ Guinea 305 
Introduction 305 
Malaria 306 
Arboviruses 307 
Sexually Transmitted Diseases and AIDS 307 
Enteric Diseases 308 
Nutrition 308 
CHAPTER 17 
Capturing Global Values for Biodiversity to Enable Conservation in Papua New Guinea 309 
Introduction 309 
Are Financial Transfers Defensible? 309 
Voluntary Contributions 312 
Involuntary Contributions 314 
Existing Funding Mechanisms 315 
Global Environment Facility 315 
Other Donor Support 316 
IX 
CHAPTER 18 
The Attachment of Spiritual and Cultural Values to Natural Resources in Papua New Guinea 318 
Introduction 319 
The Melanesian Knowledge Base and Attachment to Natural Resources 319 
Traditional Knowledge and Traditional Conservation in Papua New Guinea 320 
Case Study; The Mekeo 321 
The Environment as a Source of Mystical Powers 322 
The Future: Whither Tradition? 322 
The Penetration of Christianity 322 
The Colonial Administration 323 
School Curricula 323 
Commercialisation of the Rural Economy 323 
Preservation of Traditional Knowledge 324 
CHAPTER 19 
Integrated Envjronmentel and Economic Accounting in Papue New Guinea 325 
Introduction 325 
Double Entry and National Income Accounting 326 
Extending National Income Accounts 328 
Estimating Consumption by Aggregating Defensive Expenditures 328 
Social National and Environmental Accounting 329 
See the Difference SEEA Makes! 329 
Why Go to and Beyond SEEA? 331 
Green Accounts for Papua New Guinea 331 
Green National Accounts 332 
Cost Estimates of Environmental Degradation 33B 
These Estimates Are Significant Achievements 337 
How Can One-Off Become Always? 338 
CHAPTER 20 
Overview of Current Conservation-Oriented Policies, Legislation and Interventions 339 
The Papua New Gui?ean Constitution 339 
Conservation Legislation 339 
International Conventions and Treaties 341 
Conservation Initiatives in Papua New Guinea 342 
Integrated Conservation and Development Projects in Papua New Guinea 349 
Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area 349 
Lak Conservation Area ' 350 
Lasanga Islands Conservation Project 351 
Hunstein Range Conservation and Development Project 351 
Community Resource Conservation and Development Project 351 
Kikori River Basin Integrated Conservation and Development Project 351 
Oro Butterfly Conservation Project 352 
Lakekamu-Kunimaipa Basin Project 352 
Other Conservation Initiatives 353 
National Sustainable Development Strategy (NSDS) 353 
National Forest and Conservation Action Program (NFCAP) 353 
Non-NFCAP Projects 358 
Environmental Management for Western Papua and the York Straits 358 
Marine and Coastal Resource Management Project 358 
CHAPTER 21 
Expanditure on Biodiversity Conservation in Papua Naw Guinea 361 
Introduction 361 
Classification and Response 361 
Explanation of the Matrix 363 
Economic Incentives 364 
National Government and Donor Expenditures 364 
Biodiversity Expenditure by Non-Government Organisations 366 
Expenditure by the Mining Companies 367 
Biodiversity Expenditure in Papua New Guinea;  An Overview 368 
Final Comments 369 
Appendix 21.1: Organisations Whose Environmental Expenditure Was Directly or Indirectly 
Incorporated in the Tables 371 
Appendix 21.2: The Financial Information Matrix 372 
Appendix 21.3: Public Expenditure between 1992 and 1995, Including Extra Budgetary 
Donor Funded Projects 373 
SOCIOECONOMIC REFERENCES FOR CHAPTERS 1 - 5 AND 11 - 21 375 
BIOLOGICAL REFERENCES FOR CHAPTERS 6   10 407 
AUTHORSHIP OF CHAPTERS 
The Papua Now Guinea Country Study on Biological Diversity should be referenced as follows: 
Sekhran, N. and Miller S. (eds.), 1994. Papua New Guinea Country Study on Biological Diversity. A Report to the 
United Nations Environment Program, Waigani, Papua New Guinea, Department of Environment and Conservation, 
Conservation Resource Centre; and Nairobi, Kenya, Africa Centre for Resources and Environment (ACRE). 
When quoting from individual chapters, authorship should be acknowledged. Designated authors contributed most 
or all of the material in the chapters, but the editors have modified chapters and moved text between chapters to 
produce an integrated document. Chapters should be referenced as follows: 
CHAPTER 1 
Sekhran, N. and Miller, S., 1994. 'Introduction and Summary', op. cit. 
CHAPTER 2 
Sekhran, N., 1994. The Economics of Maintaining Papua New Guinea's Biodiversity', op. cit. 
CHAPTER 3 
Beehler, B., 1994. 'The Global Benefits of Conservation in Papua New Guinea', op. cit 
CHAPTER 4 
Gumoi, M., and Sekhran, N., 1994. 'An Overview of the Papua New Gui?ean Economy: The Implications for Conservation', 
op. cit. 
CHAPTER 5 
Holzknecht, H., 1994. 'Papua New Guinea's Land Tenure, Land Use and Biodiversity Conservation', op. cit. 
CHAPTER 6 
Miller, S., Hyslop, E., Kula, G., and Burrows I., 1994. 'Status of Biodiversity in Papua New Guinea', op. cit.. 
i CHAPTER 7 
Miller, S., Osborns, P., Asigau ,W., and Mungkage, A.J., 1994. 'Environments in Papua New Guinea', op. cit. 
5 CHAPTER 8 
Levett, M., and Bala A., 1994. 'Agriculture in Papua New Guinea', op. cit. 
I CHAPTER 9 
?i 
I Louman, B., and Nicholls 8., 1994. 'Forestry in Papua New Guinea', op. cit. 
i 
Xlt 
CHAPTER 10 
Hair, C? 1994. 'Fisheries in Papua New Guinea' op. cit. 
CHAPTER 11 
Filer, C, 1994. 'The Nature of the Human Threat to Papua New Guinea's Biodiversity Endowment', op. cit 
CHAPTER 12 
Sel(hran, N., Saulei, S., Levett M., and Gumoi, M., 1994. 'Direct Productive Use Values for Papua New Guinea's 
Biodiversity', op. cit. 
CHAPTER 13 
Fereday, N., Sekhran, N., and Saulei, S., 1994. 'The Subsistence Values of Biodiversity in Papua New Guinea', op. cit. 
CHAPTER 14 
Sekhran N., Hedemark, M., Levett M., Hyslop, E., Gumoi M.,and Hill, L., 1994. 'The Indirect Use Values Derived from 
Biodiversity Services in Papua New Guinea', op. cit. 
CHAPTER IB 
Sekhran, N., 1994. 'Climate Change and Sea-Level Rise: The Costs of Ecological Degradation, op. cit. 
CHAPTER 16 
Sekhran, N., and Jenkins, C, 1994. 'Human Health and Ecological Loss in Rural Papua t\iew Guinea', op. cit. 
CHAPTER 17 
Sekhran, N., 1994. 'Capturing Global Values for Biodiversity to Enable Conservation in Papua New Guinea', op. cit. 
CHAPTER 18 
Warakai, V., 1994. 'The Attachment of Spiritual and Cultural Values to Natural Resources in Papua New Guinea', op. cit. 
CHAPTER 19 
Clayton, M., and Sekhran, N., 1994. 'Integrated Environmental and Economic Accounting in Papua New Guinea', op. cit. 
CHAPTER 20 
Hedemark, M., and Sekhran, N., 1994. 'Overview of Current Conservation-Oriented Policies, Legislation and Interventions', 
op. cit. 
CHAPTER 21 
Van Helden, F., and Bualia, L., 1994. 'Expenditure on Biodiversity Conservation in Papua New Guinea', op. cit. 
w 
Status of Biodiversity 67 
CHAPTER 6 
STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY IN PAPUA NEW GUINEA 
Introduction 
Papua New Guinea probably harbours more than five percent of the world's biodiversity within some of the 
world's most biologically diverse ecosystems. Many of these organisms are endemic; that is, they are found only in 
Papua New Guinea or on the island of New Guinea. This chapter reviews the status of knowledge of Papua New 
Guinea's biodiversity from a taxonomic perspective, for example, by group of organism. Chapter 7 reviews the 
extraordinary range of environments which exist in Papua New Guinea. Many of the same processes that have 
promoted the evolution and maintenance of Papua New Guinea's biodiversity have also provided the diversity of 
habitats that we see today, so there is some overlap between Chapters 6 and 7. 
The term "diversity" (or biological diversity) means many things, and many measures have been proposed to 
quantify diversity (Cousins 1991; Holloway and Stork 1991; Vane-Wright et al. 1991). At least four major types of 
diversity measurement can be recognised: 
? species richness ? the absolute number of species in a given area; 
? a combination of species richness and abundance ? taking account of rarity and balance within 
the species found in a given area; 
? genetic heterogeneity ? variability within species; and 
? taxonomic distinctness - incorporating an historical (evolutionary distance) component. 
This chapter focuses on species richness because very few data are available for the other categories for Papua 
New Guinea. 
This chapter is based heavily on Volume 2 of the Papua New Guinea Conservation Needs Assessment (Beehler 
1993), which should be referred to for more detailed background, discussion, and bibliographies. We have also 
gathered data from the staff and libraries of the University of Papua New Guinea, Papua New Guinea University of 
Technology, Wau Ecology Institute, Christensen Research Institute, Bishop Museum, and elsewhere. 
In many cases, summary data are available only at the level of the island of New Guinea. In some cases, 
specialised collecting or analysis techniques have been applied only in the western half of the island of New Guinea, 
so data from Irian Jaya must be extrapolated to Papua New Guinea, In Chapters 6 and 7, the term New Guinea will 
be used to include the island of New Guinea and associated smaller islands, including all of Papua New Guinea (the 
region called Papuasia by botanists). Moreover, the Papua New Guinea biota cannot be understood in isolation 
because much of the biota is shared with Irian Jaya, the Solomon Islands, and Australia, 
Status of Biological Knowledge 
The many institutions interested in Papua New Guinea's terrestrial biodiversity have organised over 100 
expeditions to areas throughout the country (Frodin and Gressitt 1982; Allison 1991), These areas were generally 
chosen on the basis of their biological interest (for example, high diversity, high endemism, and interesting 
geography). Although major gaps remain in coverage (especially in marine environments), knowledge of Papua New 
68 Papua New Guinea's Biological Diversity 
Guinea's biodiversity is much better than that of many other tropical countries. Papua New Guinea is much better 
known than Irian Jaya for most (but not alt) organisms - a factor which complicates analyses of endemism and 
distribution patterns. 
Frodin and Gressitt (1982} presented an excellent history of the terrestrial biological exploration of New Guinea, 
extended for botany by Stevens (1989) and Frodin (1990), so only the major elements will be repeated here. 
Biological exploration of New Guinea by Western scientists started in the mid-1800s. The earliest expeditions 
collected relatively few specimens, however, and these specimens usually have relatively non-specific locality data. 
These expeditions provided the first specimens of many species that are endemic to New Guinea, but more 
comprehensive collections must be consulted to understand distribution patterns. The major period of exploration 
by foreign-based scientists occurred from about 1920 to 1950. Some of the most important work was associated 
with the first (1933-34) through seventh (1964), and especially the third (1938-39) Archbold Expeditions. Starting 
in the 1950s, local scientific institutions began to be built in Papua New Guinea and a great dea! of research was 
done by scientists in residence at those institutions. Various government departments, especially in agriculture, 
fisheries, forestry, and public health, developed research programs and scientific collections. The Lae Herbarium, 
now part of the Forest Research Institute, stands out as a major, world-class centre for botanical studies. 
Universities were developed at Port Moresby and Lae, with field research stations at Motupore Island and 
elsewhere. In 1961, the Bishop Museum established a field station at Wau. This evolved into the independent Wau 
Ecology Institute in 1972 and continues to be a centre of biological research and conservation programs. Because 
of sampling intensity, Wau has become one of the best known places in the country for terrestrial biodiversity. The 
recent establishment of the Christensen Research Institute near Madang has dramatically increased knowledge of 
marine biodiversity. 
The result of the activities in biological research in New Guinea is a host of resources within Papua New Guinea, 
and at major international research centres (especially Sydney, New York, London, Leiden, Honolulu, Canberra, 
Boston, and Bogor). GveralL a very large body of data exists, but it is scattered through scientific literature 
(journals and books) that has accumulated over the last 200 years and collections located around the globe. For 
example, it has been estimated that some 200 000 reptile and amphibian specimens (Allison 1993) and 450 000 
plant specimens (Stevens 1989) exist from New Guinea. Bringing these data together in a modern information 
management system is a major challenge, but it is possible and will provide the knowledge base for resource 
management (Miller 1993). However, even a comprehensive compilation of existing knowledge would still have 
major gaps, so additional sampling and research is desperately needed. Even for plants, the overall density of 
sampling remains poor and is one of the lowest in the Malesian botanical region (Stevens 1989; Frodin 1990). The 
tremendous geographical diversity in Papua New Guinea requires adequate samples on which to base 'analysis of 
variation within and amongst species to correctly define those species. Increasing the absolute knowledge of Papua 
New Guinea's biota will be accomplished only by improving in-country scientific infrastructure (especially 
collections) and human resources. 
The gaps in existing biological knowledge include the following (see the Conservation Needs Assessment for 
more details): many areas within Papua New Guinea have never been adequately sampled (see map and list in 
Chapter 7); many organisms that are small in size or live in habitats that are difficult to sample have been 
inadequately collected (especially fungi, soil invertebrates, and some marine invertebrates); and many of the most 
diverse organisms have never been subjected to modern taxonomic analysis (especially some insects and marine 
invertebrates). 
How can Papua New Guinea fill these gaps in knowledge of biodiversity? The most important step is to create 
an information management system within Papua New Guinea that can receive, manage, and disseminate 
biodiversity knowledge. Such a centre does not necessarily have to own and maintain all the data, but could serve a 
coordinating and networking role. Without such a centre, data that flow from national and international institutions 
is effectively lost.   The processes of the Conservation Needs Assessment and this Biodiversity Country Study 
Status of Biodiversity 69 
etter 
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demonstrated how difficult it is to find biodiversity information on   Papua New Guinea within the country. 
Additional processes needed are: 
? strengthening national institutions involved in biodiversity and their human resources; 
? collaborative projects with international research centres to make Mew Guinea data available; and 
? additional field surveys, taxonomic research, and ecological research. 
National Species Diversity, Endemism, and Status 
Table 6.1 summarises knowledge of major taxonomic groups of organisms. Classification in the table generally 
follows Parker 11982) with the use of five kingdoms (Margulis and Schwartz 1988). Some artificial categories of 
convenience are used (tor example, marine molluscs). Freshwater categories generally include brackish water 
dwellers. Because data are often available for New Guinea rather than Papua New Guinea, we have specified 
which figure is provided. For some marine invertebrates, faunal data are only available for specific regions (for 
example, Madang, Motupore Island, or the Torres Strait). 
Endemism refers to species unique to a certain area. Endemism tends to follow biogeographic boundaries 
determined by geographic factors and evolutionary history. It is important to note that biogeographic boundaries do 
not correspond with the political boundaries of Papua New Guinea. The western half of the island of New Guinea is 
the Indonesian State of Irian Jaya. The island of Bougainville is part of Papua New Guinea, but is biogeographically 
most similar to the Solomon Islands. The same conflict between biogeographic and political boundaries arises 
across the Torres Strait between the southern part of Papua New Guinea and the northern tip of Queensland, 
Australia (Kikkawa et al. 1981). Another factor which affects apparent endemism is the level of study which has 
taken place on particular taxonomic groups, for example, the relatively visible bird species are well-documented, 
whereas only limited information exists on many invertebrates. Thus, some organisms are known only from a 
particular place simply because they have not yet been identified elsewhere. At individual sites, high species 
diversity (absolute number of species) does not necessarily correlate with high numbers of endemic species. 
Additional information on species which are endemic to Papua New Guinea may be found in the Conservation Needs 
Assessment report and maps. 
As noted previously, there is a vast literature on the biota of New Guinea, but it is scattered in an array of 
books and journals in many languages. Outside of the vertebrates, there are very few synthetic papers which 
review entire groups for any particular region of interest. We have used the Conservation Needs Assessment and 
literature that could readily be gathered to construct Table 6.1. We have not undertaken a detailed assessment of 
the scattered data in the taxonomic literature (tor example, Papua New Guinea records within taxonomic studies on 
a world basis). This would produce a great deal of data and should be done, but it will be a time consuming activity. 
Ewers (1973) provides a window on a small part of the taxonomic literature. A search of the computer database 
version of Biological Abstracts showed some 4 000 papers on biology (including ecology and some medical subjects) 
of New Guinea from 1970 to 1994, an average of some 166 titles per year. This is, in fact, an underestimate, 
because it undersamples the taxonomic literature (for example. New Guinea records within monographs covering 
larger areas). There is also a vast number of additional records that are found only in collections and have never 
been mentioned in the literature. These, too, could be compiled into a very useful database by gathering data from 
the collections in Papua New Guinea and combing the major museums and herbaria of the world for Papua New 
Gui?ean specimens. 
70 Papua New Guinea's Biological Diversitv 
Viruses, Bacteria, and Algae 
Very poor data are available for unicellular organisms such as viruses and bacteria outside of those with direct 
economic importance in agriculture (Shaw 1984; Muthappa 1987) and the health of humans and domestic animals. 
Algae, both freshwater and marine, are poorly documented beyond a few studies lespecially Vyverman 1991a, 
1991b). 
Fungi 
Shaw (1984) listed 2 390 fungi from Papua New Guinea. Hawksworth (1994 personal communication) 
suggests a ratio of 1:6 between vascular plants and fungi. Using a conservative estimate of 15 000 vascular plants 
yields an estimate of 90 000 fungal species. Lichens, which are symbiotic combinations of fungi and algae, were 
reviewed by Streimann (1986) and Lambley (1991). Bryophytes, the mosses and liverworts are the subject of 
active research that has not yet been synthesised (Grolle and Piippo 1984; Piippo 1994). 
Protozoans 
Protozoans are almost entirely unstudied, with the exception of marine foraminifera, which have been censused 
at Motupore Island (57 species ? Haig 1979) and Madang (182 species ? Langer 1992). 
Plants 
The vascular plants probably include 15 000 to 20 000 species of ferns and flowering plants. There is a recent 
list of genera (Hoeft 1992), but modern species-level treatments exist for only a small portion of the flora (for 
example, Womersley 1978; van Royen 1980; Henty 1981). Most of Papua New Guinea is within the region covered 
by the ongoing Flora Matesiana project. The overall status of knowledge of plants has been reviewed recently by 
Johns (1993), Stevens (1989), and Frodin (1990). Orchids are particularly diverse, with well over 3 000 species 
(van Royen 1979; Howcroft 1992). Seagrasses and seaweeds are important in marine ecosystems. 
Invertebrates 
Knowledge of the taxonomy and distribution of invertebrates in the New Guinea area is much less focused than 
is the case for vertebrates. The information to a large extent reflects the interests of individual taxonomists who 
have worked on particular groups often in circumscribed areas. The marine invertebrates, other than molluscs and 
crustaceans, are very poorly known. Some groups have been studied at Motupore Island and Laing Island, and many 
are now under study at Madang, but much remains to be done. A large number of animal phyla are represented by 
marine invertebrates that are effectively unknown in Papua New Guinea but are probably major components of the 
marine biodiversity. The situation can be illustrated with corals, based on studies in progress at Madang by D. 
Potts and colleagues. 
The total number of coral species in Papua New Guinea is unknown although about 300 species have been 
reported. No established coral taxonomist has worked extensively in New Guinea, and serious scientific collections, 
suitable for assessing biodiversity, are extremely limited. The only intensive study of a single site by an experienced 
coral taxonomist listed 285 living species from Motupore (Veron and Kelley 1988). On the north coast, four 
collections have been made near Madang (J. Oliver in 1988; B. Hoeksema in 1992; J. Pandolphi; and D. Potts in 
1994); an extensive study at Laing Island is now being published (Claerebout); and largely undescribed collections 
have been made by geologists working on uplifted fossil reefs of the Huon Peninsula. Veron (1993) recognises more 
J 
Status of Biodiversity 71 
than 650 reef-building coral species in the entire central Indo-Pacific region (northern Australia to Japan), based 
mainly on his own work in Australia, Japan and the Philippines.   Most have ranges from Australia to Japan. 
Although he includes only one Papua New Gui?ean site (Motupore), it is likely that most of these species also exist 
in Papua New Guinea and that other undescrtbed species are also common. Thus, the total number of reef-building 
coral species in Papua New Guinea is likely to be at least 700 (D. Potts, personal communication, 1994}. 
Yet, coral biodiversity in Papua New Guinea may be much greater than 700 species. Despite their abundance, 
large size, and geological and biological importance, coral taxonomy is very poorly known. The world has only seen 
about 25 serious coral taxonomists over the last century, and most of these have been geologists more concerned 
with fossils than living forms. Species recognition is notoriously difficult even for experts, and especially in the 
most diverse genera and families (for example ,4cA?7/7or3, Montipora, Pontes, and Faviidae). There has been a strong 
tendency to group morphologically similar forms into a relatively small number of highly variable species with 
cosmopolitan distributions (for example, nearly 300 species of world Pontes were described before 1900, but only 
about 30 are now accepted). Recent genetic work demonstrates that species names are not being applied 
consistently in adjacent localities and that some presumably widely distributed "cosmopolitan" species may consist 
of suites of locally endemic species (Potts, in preparation). Independent taxonomic studies of the same individual 
corals using live tissues, genetics, micromorphometrics, and traditional skeletal morphology show that the 
traditional characters have the least ability to discriminate species consistently (Potts et al. 1993). For these and 
other reasons, it seems likely that future coral taxonomy will recognise many more species than at present, and that 
many will be endemics restricted to local regions such as Papua New Guinea. Thus, total Papua New Gui?ean coral 
biodiversity may exceed 1 000 reef-building species, with a similar number of smaller, cryptic, often deepwater 
species of non-reefbuilders (which have never been seriously collected anywhere in Papua New Guinea). 
Studies of other invertebrate groups, such as sea pens (Pennatulacea), nudibranchs, and crustaceans indicate 
that the Madang lagoon and vicinity may have the highest species richness of any site in the world. Hoeksema 
(1993) found this was also true for mushroom corals (Fungiidae). He found 36 of the 42 species previously 
described worldwide, and also described a new species. It is also likely that other species exist in the area. 
Moreover, as with corals, genetic data are calling into question the entire concept of shallow water "cosmopolitan" 
species in many invertebrate groups (for example, jellyfish ? Greenberg et al., in press). 
Other faunal studies on marine invertebrates include sponges (25 common species from Motupore Island - Kelly 
Borges and Bergquist 1988), various coelenterate groups (Bismarck Sea - Bouillon 1984; Bouillon et al. 1986; 
Pages et al. 1989), sea anemones (18 species in Madang vicinity - Fautin 1988), octocorals (83 species from 
Bismarck Sea - Verseveldt and Tursch 1979), and echinoderms (177 species from Torres Strait - Clark 1921 ). 
Some work has been done on marine crustaceans (crabs, etc.), but much work remains to be done. Morgan 
(1988) reported 198 species of marine and freshwater decapod crust?cea from the Madang region. Marine 
molluscs are probably better known than most other invertebrates because of the popularity of their shells with 
collectors. However, the existing knowledge is superficial and does not penetrate the very high diversity that exists 
in Papua New Guinea. A popular guide to shells of Papua New Guinea includes 950 species (Hinton 1979), but 
there are more than 800 prosobranch gastropods (snails) alone in New Guinea (Wells 1990), 268 of which are found 
at Motupore Island (Signer et al. 1986). Ongoing studies of nudibranchs in Madang Lagoon have recorded at least 
600 species and are expected to reach an eventual total of 700-800 species (T. Gosliner, personal communication). 
The status of terrestrial, freshwater, and brackish molluscs (mostly snails) was reviewed by Cowie (1993). 
Some 650 species have been described but they are in great need of synthetic revision and many species remain 
unknown. 
Terrestrial and freshwater invertebrates other than insects and molluscs have been very poorly sampled and 
studied. Several recent studies include earthworms (at least 42 species - Easton 1984; Nakamura 1992), leeches 
(at least five species - Van der Lande 1994), flatworms (Sluys and Ball 1990), and onychophorans (seven species 
W' 
72 Papua New Guinea's Biological Diversity 
- Van der Lande 1993). Freshwater decapod crustaceans (crabs, crayfisti, etc.) include at least 87 species, with at 
least 31 endemic species (Eldredge 1993). Nematodes, except those that parasitise crops, livestock, and humans, 
are almost unknown in Papua New Guinea, although there must be a very large number of species. Freshwater 
rotifers include at least 135 species, all widespread outside Papua New Guinea (Segers and De Meester 1994). 
Information on New Guinea insects and related terrestrial arthropods is in drastic need of collation, and the 
quality and quantity of knowledge is uneven for different groups. Generally, levels of diversity and of endemism are 
high amongst the insects. The New Guinea fauna is primarily derived from the oriental region, but Australian 
elements are present also, especially in southern savannahs. The general status of knowledge of insects in Papua 
New Guinea was reviewed by Miller (1993). The bibliography by Gressitt and Szent-lvany (1968) has been the only 
broad attempt to synthesise knowledge of Papua New Gui?ean insects, although reviews exist for some groups (for 
example, flies in Evenhuis 1989). Given ratios of the New Guinea fauna to the world fauna for groups that are well 
known, rates of description of new taxa, and the size of the Australian insect fauna (CSIRO 1991), there may be 
300 000 species of insects in New Guinea, but this figure may be high or low by 100 000 species. Despite the 
relatively small area, Papua New Guinea ranks twelfth amongst world nations in terms of endemism of large 
butterflies (Papilionidae, Pleridae, Nymphalidae, 56 of 303 species are endemic) (Sisk et al. 1994). The mites of 
New Guinea are very poorly known, but have the potential for being a megadiverse group. 
Fishes 
Existing knowledge of the fishes of New Guinea has been well synthesised in field guides (Allen 1991; Allen and 
Swainston 1993) and in a checklist IKailola 1987-1991), but more research remains to be done. There are well over 
3 000 fishes in the region, including over 300 found in freshwater. The native freshwater fish fauna is derived 
from the marine fauna, and primary freshwater ostariophysian fishes are absent with the exception of Scleropages 
spp. (Roberts 1978; McDowell 1981). All species naturally occurring in freshwater are either diadromous or 
descendants of marine families. This has been noted to have an adverse effect on species diversity and fish stock 
abundance resulting in low fisheries yields (Coates 1985). Of the 329 species occurring in freshwater in New 
Guinea (Allen 1991), 13 species are non-indigenous, and about 102 species are believed to have a marine larval 
stage and are relatively widespread outside New Guinea. This leaves 214 native fish species that are limited to 
freshwater, of which 149 (70%) are endemic to New Guinea. Two closely related families are unique to Australasia 
- Melanotaeniidae (Rainbowfishes) and Pseudomugilidae (Blue-eyes), and this fauna further differs to that of other 
continental tropical regions which are dominated by cichlids and primary division Ostariophysan fishes (carps, barbs, 
loaches, characins, and catfishes). The Ostariophysan assemblage is represented in New Guinea-Australia only by 
plotosid and anid catfishes. All the freshwater fishes except the lungfish [Neoceratodus], bony tongues 
[Osteoglossus], and possibly galaxiids are considered to be derived from marine ancestors. 
The freshwater ichthyofauna can be clearly divided into two Zoogeographie regions. Freshwater bodies to the 
south of the central cordillera have an ichthyofauna closely allied with that of northern Australia, reflecting a 
former land connection. While several of those species with diadromous habits can be found in both southern and 
northern rivers, the fish permanently inhabiting freshwater in the north are invariably different species from those in 
southern water bodies. Apart from the land barrier formed by the central cordillera, northern rivers are much 
younger than southern rivers. Of those fish families common to both northern and southern rivers, species diversity 
is invariably lower in the north (Coates 1987b). 
Amphibians 
Of the three orders of amphibians, neither caecilians nor salamanders occur in Papua New Guinea. Frogs (Anura: 
five families) are well represented, with 197 species described at present, and new species being recognised as 
current research proceeds   (Allison 1993).   The five families are: Bufonidae (the introduced cane toad. Bufo 
Status of Biodiversity 73 
marinus], Hylidae, LeptodactyJidae, Microhylidae, and Ranidae (Allison 1993}. Not all species are aquatic - a large 
number are forest dwellers which burrow beneath the surface, or live beneath the leaf litter. The majority of 
species are endemic to either Papua New Guinea or the island of New Guinea. A southern group having its origins 
from Australia can be recognised, as can a group of species originating from the Solomon Islands to the south-east 
of Papua New Guinea. The surrounding islands have, in general, a depauperate amphibian fauna in comparison with 
the adjacent mainland. Much taxonomic work remains to be done, and the rich variation in specialised habitat 
requirements which is already known, suggests that many more species are yet to be described. The only toad in 
Papua New Guinea [Bufo marinus] is a classic example of a poorly planned biological control introduction. 
Reptiles 
The reptilian fauna of New Guinea consists of representatives of all four main groups. The turtles and tortoises 
(Chelonia), number thirteen species in total, seven associated with freshwater and six with marine habitats (Allison 
19931. Three freshwater species are endemic in the broad sense, of which one, Chelodina parkeri, is restricted to 
the Fly River system. 
The bulk of the reptiles are lizards (Squamata) with approximately 195 species of lizards and 98 species of 
snakes (Allison 1993). Most of the lizard species (71%) belong to the family Scincidae with the Agamidae and 
Gekkonidae both represented by more than ten species. The overall endemism is about 60 percent. The snakes 
belong to seven families, all of which are shared with Australia. Among the snakes, the level of endemism is 
considerably less than that found for lizards. At least 32 species (33%) can be considered endemic to the island of 
New Guinea and northern Australia. 
There are two described species of crocodile in Papua New Guinea ? the New Guinea or freshwater crocodile 
{Crocodytus novaeguineae] and the saltwater crocodile [Crocodylus porosas). Both species are still found in 
relatively large numbers and are heavily exploited for hides and meat. However, freshwater crocodile populations 
along the south coast probably represent an undescribed species (Allison 1993: 165). 
Birds 
The birds of Papua New Guinea are relatively well studied compared to other animals (Beehler et al. 1986; 
Coates 1985, 1990; Osborne 1987), and show a high degree of endemism. To date, a total of 762 species of bird 
have been recorded from Papua New Guinea, of which 405 (53%) are endemics (Papua New Guinea Bird Society 
Checklist, in preparation). This figure is higher than some other recent figures (for example, 725 species in New 
Guinea - Beehler et al. 1986; and 740 species in New Guinea - Coates 1985-1990) because of the inclusion of 
vagrants, taxonomic changes, and additional islands covered. Of these endemics, 289 (39%) are confined to 
mainland Papua New Guinea and/or the D'Entrecasteaux group of islands. Sixty (8%) are endemic to the Bismarck 
Archipelago and/or Admiralty Islands with nine of these extending into the Solomon Islands. Thirty (4%) are 
endemic to the Solomon Islands. Thirty-eight species are shared between Papua New Guinea and Northern 
Queensland while the 357 non-endemics are generally more widely spread. On a world basis, Papua New Guinea 
ranks fifth in terms of the number of restricted-range bird species and seventh in the number of endemic bird areas 
as mapped by the International Council for Bird Preservation (Bibby et al. 1992). 
Mammals 
Papua New Guinea is impoverished in terms of the range of mammalian orders compared to South-East Asia 
(nine orders of mammals found there which are lacking in Papua New Guinea). At least two of the existing four 
mammalian groups ? marsupials and rodents - show a high degree of endemism.  However, with 187 indigenous 
w 
74 Papua New Guinea's Biological Diversity 
mammals (Flannery 1990; Menzies 1991), the New Guinea region has only slightly fewer mammal species than 
Australia, although the surface area of the former is approximately ten percent that of Australia. In addition, some 
24 marine mammals (cetaceans! and the dugong occur within Papua New Gui?ean waters (extrapolated from 
distribution maps in Jefferson et al. 1993). 
Approximately 71 species of marsupials have been recorded from the New Guinea area, of which 60 (84%) can 
be considered as endemics (not occurring in Australia). Two species of monotremes occur in New Guinea and the 
long-beaked echidna [Zaglossus] is endemic to the island of New Guinea. Seventy-five bat species belonging to six 
families are known. Rodents, belonging exclusively to the Muridae, have radiated extensively in the New Guinea 
region. 
Overall Species Diversity 
Estimates of the total number of species in the world vary tremendously, especially because estimates of insects 
range from several million to fifty million. Briggs (1994) presented an estimate of 12 300 000 terrestrial species 
and 200 000 marine species. However, Briggs did not include fungi, which would number about 1 500 000 species 
(250 000 vascular plants x 6, following Hawksworth), yielding a world total for multicellular species of 
approximately 14 000 000. 
What is the total number of species in Papua New Guinea? No exact figure can possibly be determined, but a 
very rough estimate can be derived in two ways. In some of the the better known groups of organisms (for 
example, flowering plants, and birds), about five percent of the world's species occur in New Guinea. This is 
remarkable in itself, given that New Guinea has less than one percent of the world's land area. Five percent of the 
putative world figure of 14 000 000 is 700 000. This is likely on the high side, because Briggs (1994) probably 
overestimates the number of insect species (Basset et al. 1995). Alternatively, working up from the species, 
numbers in Table 6.1 yield about 90 000 fungi, 20 000 plants, 5 000 invertebrates, 300 000 insects, and 4 000 
vertebrates for something more than 400 000 species. However, this does not take into account the probably 
large, but totally unknown, numbers of nematodes and mites. A reasonable working estimate for total species 
numbers in New Guinea is in the range of 300 000 to 500 000 for fungi, plants, and animals. The major problems 
in this estimate come from the megadiverse groups - fungi, nematodes, insects, and mites. These statistics are for 
New Guinea as a whole ? most of these species (probably at least two-thirds) will occur within Papua New Guinea, 
but it is impossible to guess how many. 
If approximately 400 000 species occur in New Guinea, how many of these are endemic? Statistics vary 
tremendously between groups (see Table 6.1), from very low for many marine groups to fairly high for many 
vertebrates. Vascular plants are likely 60 percent endemic (Johns 1993). However, endemicity will be much lower 
for Papua New Guinea, because of biotic overlap with Irian Jaya, Australia, and the Solomon Islands. 
Conservation Status of Species 
Table 6.2 lists species that are legally protected or recognised as threatened by Papua New Gui?ean laws, 
CITES or the lUCN. Animals are organised by phylum, class, and order, then alphabetically by genus and species. 
lUCN status data come from Collar et al. (1994) for birds, and Groombridge (1993) tor other animals. Important 
background information on lUCN status can also be found in Thornback and Jenkins (1982, mammals), Seri (1992, 
mammals), Groombridge (1982, reptiles), and Wells et al. (1983, invertebrates). The birds follow the new lUCN 
criteria (Mace and Stuart 1994; Collar et al. 1994): Extinct (Ex), Extinct in the wild (Ew), Critically endangered (c), 
Endangered (En), Vulnerable (V), Data deficient (D), and Near-threatened (N). The other groups follow the traditional 
lUCN categories (for example, Wells et a!. 1983): Extinct (Ex), Endangered (E), Vulnerable (V), Rare (R), 
Indeterminate (I), and Insufficiently known (K).  Marsupials listed as potentially vulnerable by Seri (1992; see also 
Status of Biodiversity 75 
'"'Cl, soJ 
"3fed ffof 
ea and tfief 
ging to si]f| 
^w Guineal 
3f insects] 
^' speciesi 
0 speciesi 
lecies off 
id, but af 
sms (Un 
Ttiis isl 
It of the i 
)robalily^ 
species, ; 
14 cool 
robablyr j 
species :] 
oblems^ 
are for ? 
juinea, ; 
s vary; 
many' 
lower ? 
I     ,   igg2-.vj) were upgraded to vulnerable by Groomsbridge et al. (1993).   Species in the lUCN categories 
Tied as indeterminate, insufficiently known, data deficient and near-tfireatened are not included unless they are 
'isted by Pap"^ New Guinea or CITES.   Latin and English names generally follow Beehler and Finch (1985, 
ih'^H I Fiannery (1990, mammals) and Allen (1991, fishes).  Three birds protected by Papua New Gui?ean law do 
t artuallv occur in Papua l\lew Guinea - Goura cristata. Circus melanoleucus and Astrapia nigra (Coates 1985: 
A 
1% 304 1990- 543, 546; Beehler, personal communication, 1994). Chapter 20 reviews national legislation, as 
II as international conventions and agreements that provide for the management and protection of Papua New 
r inea's biological diversity (see also Seri 1992). The listing of entire higher taxa under CITES makes them rather 
rffficult to tabulate ? there are probably over 3 000 species of orchids in Papua l\iew Guinea, all recognised under 
CITES Appendix 11, although many remain unknown to science. 
There is a considerable lack of concordance between the listings of Papua New Guinea, CITES, and lUCN ? 
both in species included and their status.   Except for the lUCN bird list (Collar et al. 1994), there is little or no 
?''li'*'" gaffent survey data backing up the listings.   Except for the birds and marsupials, there has been very little 
'', consultation with managers or biologists in Papua New Guinea in formulating the CITES and lUCN lists.   All the 
\f>'^' lists, especially the  lUCW  one,  are  very  uneven  and heavily  influenced  by  information  that  is  available 
t *' ' ppportunistically.   While this can be useful, the taxa that are absent may simply be absent because of lack of 
^' information, not lack of conservation problems. Even for mammals, many of the listings are based on data that are 
.-1 over 20 years old (for example, comments in Seri 1992). 
?^k 
^%',i'- 
?fe" 
aws,1 ^^^K^^-i 
icies. i ^^If -'-''* 
'tant '? I^^K ?'?'^'^ 
992, . ^ ^^^^B^ 
m] I^^HS^J^ 
1(0,1 ^ ^^^^S?? 
onal 1 ^ ^^^^^ 
(R), ^^BH^ 
also! ^ ^^^^B 
Care should be taken to promote opportunities for conservation through farming or ranching (Parsons 1991). 
For species that are endangered by habitat loss, the best way often to protect them in Papua New Guinea is to get 
local people to value the species and therefore the habitat. Thus, it is important that protected species listing and 
permitting processes are flexible enough to allow for the sale of individuals cultivated by appropriate means. The 
permit system that has worked for crocodile farming, should be considered for application to other organisms, 
including birdwing butterflies. Once a species has been listed as 'protected' under F'apua New Gui?ean law, there 
does not seem to be an efficient mechanism for permitting trade (or delisting, if necessary). In summary, lists of 
threatened species are useful as a starting point, but need continual refinement based on modern field surveys and 
other assessments by experts. 
According to the lUCIM criteria applied in the Birdlife International World Checklist of Birds (Collar et al. 1994), 
31 Papua New Gui?ean endemic birds are listed as threatened, including the Victoria Crowned-pigeon (Goura 
Victoria], Southern Crowned-Pigeon (Goura sciieepmaken), New Guinea Harpy Eagle (Harpyopsis novaeguineae], and 
three species of Bird of Paradise. These are important species from the conservation standpoint, both as indicator 
and flagship species. A further 32 endemics are listed as near-threatened while 20 others are listed as data 
deficient, despite birds being the best known faunal group in Papua New Guinea. The status of monotreme and 
marsupial mammals in Papua New Guinea was recently reviewed by Seri (1992). However, comprehensive survey 
data are available for only a very few species of any animals. Even the best known threatened invertebrate species 
in Papua New Guinea, the Queen Alexandra's Birdwing Butterfly {Troides atexandra?] and the Menus Green Tree 
5m\ (Papusty/apuicherri/na) have not been the subject of adequate status surveys (Miller 1993; Cowie 1993). 
Creating a list of rare or threatened plants for Papua New Guinea would be very difficult. Many species are 
known from only one or a few collections. Their "rarity" relates more to lack of sampling or taxonomic attention 
than to actual conditions in the field. Some of the actual narrow endemics might be threatened by forestry or 
mining, but others are totally protected by inhospitable remoteness. The same problem applies to most 
invertebrates. Some orchid populations have suffered from overcollecting, and sandalwood and ebony may be 
endangered by overexploitation (J.R. Croft, personal communicatmn, 1994). 
It IS wor!h noting that all tliB birdwing butterflies formarly placed in the genus Ornithoplera are now placed in the genus Troides (Hancock 
'983; Miller 1987(. 
76 Papua New Guinea's Biological Diversity 
Role of CITES on Papua New Guinea's Biodiversity Endowment 
Papua New Guinea signed the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species ICITES) in 1976. 
Detailed data on the volume of export trade of CITES listed organisms by species or derivative product are not 
available for recent years. General data on tfie volume of export of crocodiles and butterflies are discussed in 
Chapter 12. In 1992, only 11.4 percent (8 464 specimens) of the butterflies exported through the Insect Farming 
and Trading Agency were CITES listed (P.B. Clark, personal communication, 1994|. Most exports of CITES listed 
crocodiles and butterflies are from ranches, so presumably the trade is sustainable, but detailed data are not 
available. There is anecdotal evidence that illegal exports are taking place in regard to orchids (Kores 1977; 
Bandisch 1992), butterflies, reptiles, and birds, but no firm statistics are available. In some cases, it is clear that 
wildlife was exported from New Guinea without proper permits, but it is not clear if it originated in Papua New 
Guinea or Irian Jaya. 
Ex-Situ Conservation Infrastructure 
Organised ex s/tu conservation programs in Papua New Guinea are limited to a relatively few species. However, 
there are significant genetic resources maintained by various institutions (see also Chapter 12). The largest 
botanical garden is the National Botanical Garden in Lae (also the site of the national herbarium). Smaller botanical 
gardens exist at the University of Papua New Guinea (Waigani) and elsewhere. A major living collection of orchids is 
maintained at the Lipizauga Botanical Sanctuary, Mount Gahavisuka (Goroka). Germplasm collections of 
agricultural cultivars exist at various research sites around the country (for example, Bourke 1985; Levett et al. 
1985; Sowei 19921. The Insect Farming and Trading Agency (Bul?lo and elsewhere) maintains butterfly colonies 
and, along with Wau Ecology Institute, Christensen Research Institute, and Unitech, encourages butterfly ranching 
thoughout the country. Several small collections of captive vertebrates exist, with the largest at Wau Ecology 
Institute. Crocodile farms exist throughout the country. The Department of Agriculture maintains cultures of 
microbes for research and identification. Some species are maintained at zoos and botanical gardens outside of 
Papua New Guinea. 
There are several significant collections of voucher specimens that are crucial to documenting biodiversity within 
the country (frodin 1985; Sakulas 1985). The national herbarium is at the Forest Research Institute, Lae, but 
smaller herbaria are held at Wau Ecology Institute, Christensen Research Institute, University of Papua New Guinea, 
Unitech, and the Department of Agriculture. Two national insect collections exist at the Department of Agriculture 
(Konedobu) and at the Forest Research Institute (Lae). Smaller insect collections are maintained at Wau Ecology 
Institute, Christensen Research Institute, and various agricultural research stations. Vertebrate collections are 
maintained at the National Museum, Department of Environment and Conservation, Department of Fisheries, Wau 
Ecology Institute, and Christensen Research Institute. 
Flagship Species 
Flagship species are those which may serve to generate support for conservation action from which a broader 
component of biodiversity would benefit. Usually flagship species are endemic to the area, and often are threatened 
in a conservation sense. The uniqueness of the monotreme and marsupial mammals is such that a number of 
species could serve as flagship species (for example, Zaglossus bruijni, Dendrolagus dorianus, D. goodfellowi, and D. 
scottae). Another is the Dugong (Dugong dugon). 
The Victoria Crowned-Pigeon [Goura victoria). Southern Crowned-Pigeon [Goura scheepmal<en], Vulturine Parrot 
[Psittrichas fulgidus], and New Guinea Harpy Eagle [Harpyopsis novaeguineae] could draw attention to the effects 
of lowland rainforest destruction by logging. Birds of Paradise are recognised worldwide as being almost wholly 
New Gui?ean. The Ribbon-Tailed Bird of Paradise {Astrapia mayen), Black Sicklebill [Epimachus fastuosas), Goldie's 
Status of Biodiversity 77 
Bird of Paradise [Paradisea decora), and Blue Bird of Paradise [Paradisea rudolphi) are all attractive and tiave 
international appeal. 
Possible reptile fiagsfiip species include the turtle (Carettachelys insculptal; the barred python (Liaisis boa); 
Boelen's python (Python boeleni}; Varanus salvadori, probably the longest lizard in the world; V. prasinus, the green 
monitor, with its striking colourations; Corucia zebrata, an unusual sl<ink species with a prehensile tail, which may 
be the largest skink species in the world; and frogs of the family Microhylidae, which are unusual in being terrestrial 
breeders with unusual habits. 
Among fish, the Pseudomuqilidae (for example, Pseudomuqil connieae] and Melanotaenidae (for example, 
n/lelanotaenia lacustris), which are endemic to the Australia-New Guinea region, are obvious candidates for flagship 
species. A number of colourful coral reef fish species could attract attention to the extensive reefs of Papua Mew 
Guinea. 
Flagship invertebrate species must include the birdwing butterflies (Troides, formerly Ornithoptera] and, in 
particular, T. alexandrae which is the largest butterfly in the world with a wingspan in excess of 25 centimetres. 
Other possibilities include the wee\ii\ (Gymnopbo/us //chen/ferj, which has well-studied mutualistic relationships with 
a variety of plants and animals, and the Manus green tree snail fPapustyla pulcherimmaj. 
Population Status of Species at Risk 
Because of the high biodiversity of Papua l\lew Guinea and the logistical difficulties of field surveys, detailed 
information on population sizes, over time, is available for only a few species. Crocodiles are perhaps the best 
known example in Papua New Guinea (Goldstein 1991). Once threatened with extinction by hunting for the skin 
trade, they are now managed in the wild and also in captivity. Seri (1992) provided recent data on selected 
mammals, and the Conservation Needs Assessment provides additional examples and references. 
Saltwater and freshwater crocodile populations declined during the late 1950s and 1960s, through 
indiscriminate hunting. In 1969, the Crocodile Trade (Protection) Act (Chapter 213) was implemented which, to 
protect breeders, placed a ban on trade in skins greater than 51 centimetres belly width. This halted any further 
decline in crocodile numbers, as indicated by a steady export level during the 1970s. The Act also allows for the 
control of the crocodile industry on a systematic basis. Regulations under this Act control crocodile farming and the 
purchase and export of skins. In 1981, a ban was placed on trade in skins smaller than 18 centimetres. This ban 
was established because Papua New Guinea was in a position to ranch crocodiles on a large scale. By 1984, 
although the number of skins exported was the same as in previous years, 30 percent were from ranched animals 
and consequently were of higher grade and greater size. Both species of crocodile are listed in Appendix 2 of CITES 
which means that they are regarded as vulnerable, but trading is allowed to continue. For many years, Papua New 
Guinea has been the only country allowed by CITES to trade in C. porosas. In 1982, extensive monitoring of both 
species commenced especially in the Ambunti District of East Sepik Province. 
Invasive and Introduced Species 
Non-indigenous species represent a major economic threat. Other than a few of the most important agricultural 
pests, data do not exist to address these issues in any detail. The recent report prepared for the United States 
(OTA 1993) provides ample examples of the problems and solutions. 
The aquatic plants - water hyacinth [Eichhornia crassipes] and salvinia [Salvinia molesta] ? have been major 
problems in the Sepik River and elsewhere, illustrating the damage that invasive non-indigenous species can cause, 
and the potential of biological control (see Box B.I).   Introduced freshwater fish provide another case study of 
78 Papua i\lew Guinea's Biological Diversity 
positive and negative environmental aspects of introductions. The recent establishment of the apple snail in the Lae 
area (Laup 1991) also underscores the importance of pest exclusion and detection programs (Kanawi et al. 1994). 
Other species have been introduced for bioiogical control of agricultural pests and weeds. The early history of 
biological control introductions in Papua New Guinea is reviewed by Wilson (1960)- Modern biological control 
programs against insects, snails, and weeds in Papua New Guinea are reviewed by Waterhouse and Morris (1987). 
While biological control programs can be very beneficial, poorly implemented programs can have serious impacts on 
non-target organisms (Howarth 1991). 
Herington (1977) reviewed animal species that are known to have been intentionally introduced to Papua New 
Guinea for agriculture, hunting, and biological control. Some data on insect introductions for biological control was 
compiled by Wilson (1960) and Waterhouse and Norris (1987), but documentation for non-indigenous insects 
remains very poor. There has not been a thorough review of non-indigenous plants in Papua New Guinea, although 
many are included in the review of weeds by Henty and Pritchard (1975), Box 6.2 summarises non-indigenous 
animals in Papua New Guinea, but there is no comprehensive program for monitoring the presence of non-indigenous 
species. Therefore, general statistics on distribution, population sizes and rates of change, environmental impacts, 
as well as the effectiveness and costs of control measures, are not available. 
Box 6.1: Invasive Aquatic Weeds: Salvinia [Salvinia molesta] and Water Hyacinth [Eichhornia crassipes). 
Two aquatic weeds, Salvinia molesta and Eichhornia crassipes, are now widespread in the low-lying wetlands of 
Papua New Guinea. Salvinia molesta was first recorded in Papua New Guinea in 1977 at Wau, and on the Sepik 
River where it was probably introduced in 1971-72 (Mitchell 1978-1979, 1979). By 1979, salvinia covered 80 
square kilometres and the physical impact of the weed was reflected in the decline in fish catches, crocodile 
hunting, and sago gathering, and also in the disruption to the lives of Sepik villagers. People in a number of villages 
were unable to reach markets to sell produce and children were prevented from attending school (Mitchell et al. 
1980; Coates 1982, 1987a). A control program was instituted in 1979 (Thomas 1979), and physical, chemical, 
and biological control methods were tested (Thomas 1985). Biological control using the South American weevil 
Cyrtobagous salviniae was spectacularly successful (Thomas 1985; Laup 1985; Thomas and Room 1986). The 
initial development of the weevil population introduced in 1982 was nitrogen limited (Room and Thomas 1985, 
1986a, 1986b), but once established on plants enriched with fertiliser, the populations became self-sustaining. By 
June 1985, the weevil had destroyed an estimated two million tonnes of weed which had covered 250 square 
kilometres. The local people have now resumed their former lifestyles (Thomas and Room, 1986). Eichhornia 
crassipes was first recorded in 1962 when it was found near Bul?lo in old gold mining dredge ponds. Despite 
warnings (Mitchell 1978-1979; Osborne and Leach 1984), it has become widespread throughout lowland areas of 
Morobe, Madang, and East Sepik Provinces, and has recently spread to the wetlands west of Port Moresby, in 
Central Province. It has also been reported from Manus, New Ireland, North Solomons, West New Britain, Eastern 
Highlands and Western Provinces (Laup ig86a|. Attempts at biological control using the weevil Neochetina 
eichhorniae have produced some promising results. This weed now covers the majority of Waigani Lake and has 
severely disrupted the once productive fishery based on Oreochromis mossambica. Pistia stratiotes is widespread 
throughout the lowlands of Papua New Guinea, and although it is a weed tn other parts of the world, it has not 
reached weed proportions here (Laup 1986b). The same is true of Hydritia verticillata which has only been recorded 
near Wau, Madang, Port Moresby, and at Lake Kutubu (Leach and Osborne 1985). 
Introduced Freshwater Fish In Papua New Guinea 
Twenty-one species of freshwater fish representing 19 genera, 11 families, and all six continents have been 
introduced into Papua New Guinea for various reasons (West 1973; West and Glucksman 1976; Glucksman et al. 
Status of Biodiversity 79 
1Q76)   The reasons include sport, aquaculture, ecological manipulation, control of pests, ornamentation, and 
nrovement of subsistence welfare.  Most introductions have been unsuccessful or were never released into the 
Id   Nine to eleven are thought to be established in Papua New Guinea (Allen 1991; Osborne 1993).   Of the 
iiccessful introductions, most have had a negligible impact as either food fishes or in the control of mosquitoes 
lullen 1991)- Oreochromis mossambica is an exception as it now provides the major subsistence source of protein 
to villagers living along the Sepik River, and it was, prior to infestation of the lake with water hyacinth, the basis of 
a thriving commercial fishery on Waigani Lake near Port Moresby. 
Allen (1991) regards most of the earlier introductions as having had a negative impact through competition for 
soace and limited food resources, or by feeding on the native species. Even the popular Oreochromis mossambica 
has adversely affected the environment, creating turbid conditions in formerly clean lakes and overcrowding the 
indigenous fauna because of its prolific breeding. On the positive side, the number of established introductions is 
relatively few, and Allen (1991) states that the Fly River appears to be free of introductions. Coates (in litt.), 
however, indicates that common carp (Cyprinus carpi?) occur in the Fly River and, furthermore, that he recorded the 
climbing perch [Anabas testudineus] from the Fly River in 1985. 
Four major negative effects may result from fish introductions in Papua New Guinea: 
? pr?dation and competition ? introduced species can lead to a reduction in native fish diversity 
either through competition for a common resource or through increased pr?dation pressure; 
? introduction of parasitic or pathenogenic organisms, not previously found in the region, to native 
fish species; 
? stunting, particularly in cichlids. (Introduced fish species may undergo explosive population expansion 
resulting in precocious maturity and reproduction. This, in turn, leads to a habitat filled with large 
numbers of small fish which encroach on the living space of indigenous species); and 
? environmental effects, particularly in common carp and tilapine cichlids. 
The introduced species may alter the habitat to such an extent through their activities that native species are 
unable to survive. 
Two species of trout. Salmo trutta and Oncorhyncbus my/dss, have been introduced into the highland regions of 
Papua New Guinea, with an introduction of Salvelinus fontinalis having been unsuccessfully attempted. Only 
Oncorhychus mykiss seems to have become established and widespread. Their potential impact, weli-recognised in 
Australia and New Zealand, is as predators and competitors with native fish species, but as Allen (1991) notes, as 
most introductions have taken place above 2 000 metres in Papua New Guinea where there are few native fish 
species, their impact on other fish is likely to be minimal, but they will have an impact on other species and on 
general stream ecology. 
The Cyprinidae dominate the ichthyofauna of other tropical regions and Cyprinus carpi? has been widely 
introduced throughout the world. This species is well-established in the Sepik system in Papua New Guinea and is 
also found in certain Southern Province rivers. The species is known to increase water turbidity, and directly and 
indirectly destroy rooted vegetation. This is often accompanied by a decline in native fish populations and spread 
and build-up of carp populations (see Cadwallader 1978; Taylor, Coutney and McCann 1984). 
The family Poeciliidae are live-bearing ovoviviporous fishes originating in Central and Southern America. Two 
species -Poeciiia reticulata and Xiphiphorus hellen' - are somewhat localised within the country, whereas 
bambusia affinis introduced for its supposed ability to control mosquitoes, is more widely distributed.   All three 
species have been recognised as having a detrimental effect on small surface feeding native fish species belonging 
0 the genera Melanotaenia, Pseudomugil. Craeterocephalus and Retropinna in Queensland.  Members of the same 
w 
80 Papua New Guinea's Biological Diversity 
four genera also occur widely in Papua New Guinea lArthington et al. 1981). Introduction of two or more poecilid 
species into the same mater body would seem to have a synergystic effect upon the disappearance of small surface 
dwelling native species (McKay 1984). There is little evidence to support the view that poecilids are more capable 
of controlling mosquito populations than native surface dwelling species. The possibility that Gambusia may be 
associated with introduced parasitic species in Papua New Guinea is currently under investigation (see also 
Mungkaje 1986). 
Introduction of the Mozambique tilapia, Oreochromis mossambicus, into Papua New Guinea is relatively well- 
documented (Glucksman et al. 1976) and appears to have been based upon 250 fish brought to Port Moresby in 
1954 from either Malaya or Java. Within the next five or so years the species became established in rivers in the 
vicinity. At present this species is widely spread throughout the country with particular importance in the Sepik 
system (Coates 1985). In that river system, it has been shown to constitute between 30 to 50 percent of the 
weight of gill net catches. Recent studies in rivers in the Port Moresby region (Kawei and Menzies, unpublished; 
Hysiop, Mala and Soare 1994) have shown that this species in conjunction with the Gourami, Trichogaster 
pectoralis, make up the bulk of catches, in the lower reaches of the Angabanga River, Oreochromis mossambicus 
constituted between six to 90 percent of the fish catch by weight (Hysiop et al. 1994). The Mozambique tilapia 
was also noted by Berra et al. (1975) as the species collected from most localities in the Laloki River. 
Nelson and Eldridge (1991) and Macioiek (1984) document introductions of Mozambique tilapia throughout the 
Pacific Basin and note its propensity to dominate native fish faunas and its poor acceptance as a food fish in 
various places including Kiribati, the Cook Islands, and Guam. In Fiji, the species is considered as a pest because of 
its tendency to dominate ichthyofaunas to the exclusion of native species and the trend towards stunted 
populations. Allen (1991) associates the species with increasing turbidity levels because of their feeding method, 
and domination of bottom space by nest building males. The ability of this species to switch its dietary habits 
according to its habitat means that it is very likely to compete with native fish species in a range of locations. 
Moreover, the response of the tilapia population to fluctuations in environmental conditions is to mature early and 
reproduce out of season resulting in a rapid build up of numbers which, because of limitations of food/space never 
attain significant size. The implications of this are twofold - tilapia rarely reach marketable size in sufficient 
numbers, and native species may be edged out because of pressure for food and/or space. 
The family Belontiidae contains two species of gourami ? Trichogaster pectoralis and T. trichopterus. The 
former is widely distributed, particularly in Central and Gulf Provinces. Two studies (Kawei and Menzies, 
unpublished; Hysiop et al. 1994) have shown this species to be extremely abundant in Southern Highlands Province 
rivers. Hysiop et al. (1994) quantified the contribution of T. pectoralis to the catch from the lower Angabanga 
River at between three and 82.5 percent by weight. In many places, especially in areas of swamp, this species in 
conjunction with 0. mossambicus constituted the entire catch. Furthermore most individuals of both species were 
of small size (five to six grams), perhaps indicative of stunting. 
The family Anabantidae is characterised by possession of an accessory air breathing organ, which enables 
species to tolerate low oxyg?nation and periods out of water. Anabas testudensis, the Indian climbing perch, has 
been introduced into Papua New Guinea from Irian Jaya and the spread of this species has been the subject of 
various press releases from the Department of Fisheries and Marine Resources. The earliest record of the species is 
from 1976 in the Morehead River. Present observations indicate that it is widespread throughout the Fly/Ok Tedi 
system and also the lower Strickland River. It seems to be particularly abundant in shallow weedy habitats (Hysiop 
et al., unpublished). Anecdotal evidence indicates that Anabas may cause the death of predatory fish species, file 
snakes and even crocodiles by becoming lodged in the pharynx of these species by means of its spines on the 
opercula and fins. 
Several features are shared by introduced fish species in Papua New Guinea which increases their chances of 
survival and proliferation over those of indigenous species: 
Status of Biodiversity 81 
? the lack of radiation/specialisation of the native ichthyofauna ensures that introduced species 
which are often "generalists" can find a niche to establish themselves in the community; 
? superior environmental tolerance: most successful introduced fish species are able to tolerate a 
wide range of conditions, such as low oxygen levels, via adaptations including accessory air breathing 
organs and tolerance of low levels of dissolved oxygen; 
? enhanced reproductive capacity allowing rapid population build up: the Poecilidae are all live 
bearers (ovoviviporus) ensuring a high survival rate of offspring as young are produced at an advanced 
stage. High fecundity occurs. For example, a five kilogram carp may produce one million oocytes 
(Merrick and Schmida 19841. Early non-seasonal maturity and mouth brooding of eggs in tilapia and 
gouramis ensures good survival of offspring and fast increase in population size; 
? dispersal abilities: carp, Mozambique tilapia, climbing perch and gouramis can survive out of water 
for some time if kept moist, allowing them to survive transportation between water bodies by humans. 
Others have high tolerance of salinity enabling spread between water bodies; 
? ecological adaptability: opportunistic feeding behaviour and omnivory are typical of most introduced 
freshwater fish species in Papua New Guinea; and 
? aggressive behaviour, gambusia and male oreochromis possibly harass other fish species. 
The freshwater fish fauna of Mew Guinea is particularly susceptible to the effects of introduced fish species 
because of the lack of specialisation. Nine species of introduced fish are widely established in Papua New Guinea 
and, while there is limited direct evidence to substantiate the case, these species have resulted and are likely to 
result in loss of biodiversity in the freshwater ichthyofauna. Other prominent examples of deleterious effects from 
non-indigenous species in Papua New Guinea include the cane toad [Bufo marinus), the African giant snail [Achatina 
f?lica], water hyacinth [Eichhomia crassipes], and salvinia {Salvinia molesta). 
Box 6.2:      Animals Introduced to Papua New Guinea (based on Kerington 1977; Eldredge 1994). 
Although general statistics on non-indigenous animals in Papua New Guinea are not readily available, there are data on 
the various species of molluscs, insects, fish, amphibians, birds, and mammals that have been introduced. The following 
summary is based on Herington (1977) and Eldredge (1994). 
MOLLUSCS (Eldredge 1994; Mead 1961,1979; Hadfield et al. 1993) 
Giant African snail [Achatina f?lica), introduced during Japanese times; well-established. 
Predatory snail [Gonaxis quadrilateralis], New Britain, New Ireland; status unknown. 
Predatory snail (Gonaxis kibweziensis), status unknown. 
Predatory snail [Euglandia rosea], introduced in 1958. 
Freshwater snail (reported as Pomacea lineata, but probably P. canal/culata]. 
Unidentified pearl oysters (probably Pinctada maxima), 1 000 shells from Kuri Bay, Western Austalia to 
Port Moresby in 1977. 
INSECTS (See Wilson 1960; Herington 1977; Waterhouse and Norris 1987 for data on biological control 
introductions). Only more recent introductions are listed here. Many additional introductions have probably not 
been recorded in the formal literature. 
82 Papua New Guinea's Biological Diversity 
Parasitic fly (Sturmiopsis inferens), introduced from India in 1981 to control sugarcane borer (Sesamia 
grisescensj; probably not established; Ismay and Dori 1985. 
Parasitic flies (Trichopoda pennipes and Trichopoda pilipes), introduced from Hawaii in 1977 and 1980- 
1981 to control green stink bug (Nezara viridula); probably not established; Ismay and Dori 1985. 
Parasitic wasp (Apanteles flavipes), introduced from India in 1981 to control sugarcane borer {Chilo 
terrenellusi; Ismay and Dori 1985. 
Parasitic wasp (Paraceraptrocerus nyasciusi, introduced from Queensland in 1981 to control white wax 
scale [Ceroplastes destructor!; Ismay and Dori 1985. 
Parasitic wasps (Opius importatus and 0. phaseolil introduced from Hawaii in 1980-1981 to control 
beanfly (Ophiomyia phaseoh]; Ismay and Dori 1985. 
Parasitic wasp (Trissolcus basalisj, introduced from Western Australia in 1978 to control green uegetable 
bug (Nezara viridula); Ismay and Dori 1985. 
Psyllid (Heteropsylla spinulosaj, introduced in 1992 to control the weed Mimosa invisa; Kuniata 1993. 
FISH (Allen 1991) 
Freshwater fishes?26 species introduced (15 established); most notably - two species of tilapia, common carp, 
mosquito fish. 
? Blenny (Petroscirtes breviceps) found in continuous flow bilge water at Port Moresby; from Northwestern 
Australia. 
AMPHIBIANS (Allison 1993) 
? Marine toad (Bufo marinusj to Papua New Guinea in 1937 from Hawaii and Australia (Zug et al. 1975). 
BIRDS [also imported, ducks, geese, turkeys, pigeons, and cage birds] (Lever 1987; Coates 1990) 
? Red jungle fowl (5a//?/s5?a//??/ 
? House sparrow (Passer domesticus, unsuccessful, 1976). 
? Common starling (Sturnus vulgaris, considered vagrants from Australia). 
? Common myna (Acridotheres tristis, Bougainville). 
MAMMALS (Lever 1985; Flannery 1990) 
? 
Domestic dog (Canus familiarisj. 
Domestic pig (Sus scrofa}. 
? Domestic cat (Felis catus). 
? Timor deer (Cervus timor/ensisj. 
? Axis deer (Axis axis, restricted/. 
? Fallow deer (Dama dama, may be extinct). 
? Water buffalo (Bubalus bubaiisj. 
? Domestic cattle (Bos (aurusj. 
? Domestic Horse (Eguus caballusj. 
? Domestic goat (Capra hircusj. 
? Polynesian rat (Battus exulansj. 
? Black rat (Battus rattus, confined to lowlands). 
? Brown rat (Rattus norvegicus, from major seaports). 
? Ricefield rat (Rattus argentiventer, rare, few records). 
? Himalayan rat {Rattus nitidus, from Vogelkop). 
? House mouse [IVIusmusculus, serious pest). 
Table 6.1; Stological Divsrsity ? Major Taxonomic Groups of Organisms 
If data are not available for Papua New Guinea, they are provided for New Guinea or a small region (for example, ^Aada^? Lagoon) 
Some taxanomic categories overlap and some are artificial. 
 MUNBEROFSPECieS 
MAJOR 
CO 
00 
OQ 
CO 
Tabis 6.1; Biological Diversity - Major Taxonomic Groups of Organisms 
If data are not available for Papua New Guinea, they are provided for New Guinea or a small region (for example, Madang Lagoon). 
Some taxanomic categories overlap and some are artificial. 
CO 
-o 
CD 
as 
v> 
?im??m????????? 
?Hiilil 
BfA(ogic?('DiVsrsity ? Major Taxonomic Groups of Organisms 
ff??af?tarehot avai?able for Papua ^ew Guinea, they are provided for New Guinea or a small region (for example, Madang Lagoon). 
Some taxanomjc categories overlap and some are artificial. 
CO 
CD 
oo 
Table 6.1: Biological Diversity - Major Taxonomic Groups of Organisms 
If data are not available for Papua ^ew Guinea, they are provided for New Guinea or a small region (for example, Madang Lagoon). 
Some taxanomic categories overlap and some are artificial. 
OS 
o' 
o 
?a 
o' 
o? 
a 
?s' 
L 
Tabla 5.1: Biological D?varsity - Major Taxonomic Groups of Organisms 
If data are not available for Papua New Guinea, they are provided for New Guinea or a smalt region (for example. Madang Lagoon). 
Some taxanomic categories overlap and some are artificial. 
tinm ^ ?ass 1??NBH?CS??EC?ES? 
KINGDOM GROUP SUBGROUP 
COMMON 
NAIVE 
NG 'i? 
REOKlNALn      NO. % PNG REFERENCE KNOWN EST.           KNOWN EST. 
Echino- 
d?rmata 7 7 177 
Ctark1921 
Torres Siratt 
Hemi- 
chordata ? 7 
Tunicata 7 7 
Animalia/ 
Chordata Agnatha 7 7 
Chondri- 
chthyes Sharks, etc. 91 Kailola 1987-81 
Osteich- 
thyes All Bony Fishes 2 055 3 000 
Kailola 1987-91, Allen 1991, 
Ailen & Svwainston 1993 
Strictly 
Bony Fishes 214 149 70 NG Alien 1991 
Amphibia Anura Frogs 193 7 115 60 PNG Allison 1993 
Reptiiia Crocodylia Crocodiles 3 7 1 7 NG Allison 1993 
Testudines Turtles 13 7 3 23 PNG Allison 1993 
Sauria Lizards 184 7 39 32 PNG AJIison1993 
Serpentes Snakes 98 7 32 33 PNG Allison 1993 
A\?s Birds 644 7 76 12 PNG Beeh 1er 1993 
t^mmalia 
Vbrin? 
htammals ? 25 0 0 PNG Jefferson et al. 1993 
Uirnmals: 
Mirsuplals 71 60 84 NG 
J. Menzles pers. com m. 
Beehler1993 
Mini m als: 
Monotremes 2 1 50 NG 
J. Menzles pers. conim. 
Beehler1993 
CO 
00 
Table 6.1: Biological Divarsity ? Major Taxonomic Groups of Organisms 
If data are not available for Papua New Guinea, they are provided for New Guinea or a small region {for example, Madang Lagoon]. 
Some taxanomic categories overlap and some are artificial. 
oo 
CD 
S 
a 
CD 
OS 
cs 
Z3 
Protsctsd Spec'tas and Species at Risk 
Key to Tabre 
Category Abbreviation 
?PaDua New Guinea Fauna Act 
CITES 
I 
n 
iUCN 
Definition 
Protected.   Taxa declafed protected under the Fauna (Protectt?n and Control) Act 
Restricted    Taxa not declared protected but restricted for trade under the Fauna (Protection and Control) Act 
because or internationaj market demand and trad^ional utiJisation witl^in Papua New Guinea 
Convention on international Trade in Endangered Speeres of Wild Fauna and Flora 
Appendix I listing (species in which international commercial trade is prohibited) 
Appendbt II listing (species In which international commercial trade is only authorised under permit). 
See tew for explanation 
aa 
00 
CD 
3. 
OO 
CO 
TabiB 6.2: Protected Species and Species at Risk CD 
Order Common Name Scientific Name Status Fauna Act CITES lUCN 
Jnatrlced Tube-nosed Bat 'aranvctimene raptor R 
TUit Bat teralopox anceps "E 
.eaaer FIvina Fox teropus mahaaanus 
?r? 
?fenia Juciona Jugong duqon P 1966-73 [ -V? 
?acea ;ei Whale iaiaanoptera boreelis ? -R"      - r V 
lue Whale ialaenoDtera mi/sculus R 1 E 
"m Whale iaiaenoptera physalus R 1 V 
Humpback Whale iotjaptera nov&anoliae R ?~r   " V 
?odentia ?iluwe Rat ^attus^iluwsnsis ?~Fr   ? 
ockKMellina Rat Xonuromys barbatus R    1 
Hrds v??ii?i?iiiii?Kii?iiiKS?iS ?W?S???ifiV?;.;*: !0mAmi:^?0;?}:mt}?? 
itfuthiontforme? Southern Cassovvarv lasuarfus casuarius ?*   "R"'  ' V      11 
"V?11 northern Cassowary Zasuarius unappendlculatus R 
?focdtariif ormes ?ck-s Petrel ^tsnxJroma becki c    1 
leinroth's Shearwater 'utnnus heinrofhi E 
?iconiiformes Sreat Earet zqretta alba  p  1566-73 
.fttie Earet zaretta aanetta 
,_p 
" TseB"-73" 
ntermediate Earet zqref?a intermedia P 1966-/"a 
llack-necked Stork zDhipoiort?vnchus asiaticus -      --R-     ???1 
'alconiformea ew Britain Soarrowhawk Acclpiter bractivurus II V 
mitator SDarrowtiawfc Accipiter imitator It ? 
?latv-faacked Goshawk ticclpiter luteoschiataceus II N 
purney'? Eagle Aquila aumeyi R       j n -Ji 
Wedoe-tailed Eaole ?guila audex ^"R         1 II 
BwamD Harrier Circus aervqinosus (appraxirrtans) R ?ir- 
Pied Harrier (not in PNG1 Circus melanoleucus R 11 
BDotted Marsh-Harrier Circus spilonotus 
-     ,^,, 
, "11 " 
Chestnut-shouldered Goshawk Accipiter bueraersi N D 
trovwi Falcon =a/eo beriqora R II 
Australian Kesti?l -aleo cenchnMos ?R 11 
Australian Hobby =a/co lonalDOfjnis R "11 ? 
'erearine Falcon Fa/co porearinus R 1 
1  oriental Hofaoy ?aleo sevefTJs R~ ir 
Vhite-bellied Sea-Eagle iaiiaeetus leucoaaster R 11 ([ 
?anford's Eagle iaiiaeetus sanfordl -.-   -j^ .- N ^   J 
lew Guinea Harcv Eaale iarovopsis novaeouir^eoe P 1966-73 11 ? ?    V~"~| 
ew Britain Buzzard -lenicopemls irtfuscata II jl 
.itHe Curlew 'Jumenlus minulus R~ '?w 
>?Pfe? ?and/on tiallaetus P 1966-73 ? 1 
Hiseriformes ;al\qdori's Teal Anas waialuansis P -T9ss^rr~ V 
?rutfofmea rolaa Grus rubicunda R 
Voodforrfa Rait \?esoclopeus woodfordi E 
^lumbifomiea 'ellow-leooed Pioeon Columba pallldlceps ^     C~ 
Vestem Crowtwd Pioeon (not in PNG) Goura cristata P 1966-73 11 
k)uthern Crowned Pigeon Goura scheeomaker? f> "   TSBB^TT [1 v 
Victoria Crowned Pifloon  Soura victoria ,.   ?5,   . 1966-73 11 . ,.v_, 
'heasant Pioeon Ot?dipbaps nobllis R^ 
?afttaeiformea ?aouan Kinq-Parrot Allstsrvs chlopoptefus II 
^ed-v?nfled parrot Aorosmfctus ?ytfipjptwv? '11     ! 
CD 
Cl>_ 
o" 
o 
CO 
n' 
tu 
CD 
OS 
"^ 
TabiB 6.2: Pratactsd Spscjas and Spscies at Risk 
W???? 
Order Common Name Scientific Name Status Fauna Act CITES 1UCN 
jolomons Cockatoo Cacat?a ducorpsi 11 
iutphuf-crested Cockatoo Cacat?a qalerita R II 
)lue-eved Cockatoo Oacatua ophthatmica n --^ 
.ittle CofeHa Oacatua aastinator 11 
?ardi?al Loiv OhalcoDsltta cardinalis M 
rown Lory Chalcopsltta duivenbodei 11 
Sreater Streaked Lorv ChalcoDSitta scintillata ""     Il 
osechine's Lorikeet Charmosvna ioseffnae 11 
)uchess Loril(eet Charmosvna mamarslhae II N 
teek's Lorikeet ::haiTnosYna meekl II 
Streaked Lorikeet charmosvna multistriata n - ?? N     - 
>apuan Lorikeet ::haiTnosyna paoou R 11 
;ed-flanked Lorikeet 'Charmosvna piacentis n 
.ittle Red Lorikeet Charmosvna pulchella II 
?ed-ehinned Lorikeet Charmosvna rubriautaris II 
?ed-fronted Lorikeet Zharmos^na rubronotata 11 
'vqmv Lorikeet Charmosvna wilhalminae n 
iciectus Parrot ?ctecfos rorafus II 
led-clieekod Parrot ieoffrovus aeoffrovi n 
Song Parrot leofTrovus hoteroclltus il 
Mue-collared Parrot jgoffrovus simplex II 
?apuan Hanaina Parrot -oriculus aurantiifrons 11 
Usmarcks Hangina Parrot -oriculus tener II N 
Vhite-naced Lorv -orius albidinuchus II N 
itresemann's Lorv .orius amabilis 1! 
Eastern Biack-caooed Lorv .orius hVDOinochrous n   " 
l/estern Black-capped Lorv .orius lorv II 
?ed-breaated Pvomv-Parrot WcPDpsitta brviinii II 
?reen Pvamv-Parrot Miciopsltta f?nschii II 
'ellow?apped Pvamv-Parrot ^icnaosltta keiensis ?   Il 
(leek's Pvam^Parrot Wcropsitta meeki II 
luff-faced Pyamv-Parrot Wcmositta pusio li 
'ellow-biiled Lorikeet VeoDS/ffac??S musschenbrvekii H 
3ranae-billed Lorikeet ^gopsittacus Dullicauda II 
Souble-eved Fia-Parrot CvcloDsitta diophthalma II 
Jranae-breasted Fiq-Parrot Cvclopsitta autielmiterti II 
'lum-faced Lorikeet OtBopslttacus arfaki II 
>alm Cockatoo ^robosciaer aterrimus P 1990 1 N 
>uskv Lorv 'seucteos fuscata n ? " 
irehm'sTioer-Parrot ='sittacella brehmii 1! 
Aadaras/s Tiaer-Parrot 'sittacella madaraszi II 
Etriaifomes  
tedeat Tioer-Parrot 'sittacella modesta        II 
>ainted Tiaer-Parrot =s??ace(/a picta 
.aroo Fia-Parrot ^sittaculirostrls desmarasW 
Edwards' Fia-Parrot 'sittaculirostris ecHvarrfSH R 
?oldie's Lorikeet ^sitteuteles aoldiei 
iulturine Parrot "slttrichas fulaidus R V 
?ainbow Lorikeet 
Fearful Ow<  
Trichoolossus haematodus 
Me-iasin .totomonens/s V 
CO 
m ^* c M 
O 
CD 
m 
CO 
Table 6.2; PratBctsd Specias and Species at Risk ro 
03 
Order Commor Name Scientific Name status Fauna Act CITES lUCN 
larkinq Ov\^ V/nox connivens n   " 
?olomons Boobook Minox iacauinoti II 
fenus Boobook \lmox mesKi II 
Southern Boobook Minox novaesaelandiae ?   II 
Jew Britain Boobook Ninox odiosa II 
iufou? OvJ V/nox rvfa 11 
lismarck Boobook V/nox solomonis 11 
'aouan Bootjook V/nox theorrtacha II 
iarn OvJ Tvto alba II 
Soiden OvJ 'Yto aurantia II V 
srass OA4 'Yto capensis II 
ianus Masked-Ov\^ 'yto manusi II V 
?lasked Owil 'vto novaehollandiae II 
;ootvOv\( "V?o tenebricosa ?    II 
'aouan Ha'Ak-OM Jroalaux dimoroha II 13 
poraciformes Aoustached Kinofisher flcionodes bougainvillei V 
Jvth'a Hornbill ?hvtceros plicatus P 1990 
'asseriformea (Sturnidae) Vhite-eyed Starlirq ^DOlonis bninneicaoilla E~ 
Paradisaeldae) 'omba Boviertjjrd \whboldia sanfordi R 
?ibbon-tailed Astraoia astrapia mavori P ^re66-73 11 V 
jDlendid Astraoia astrapia splendidissima P 19SS-73 II 
iteohanie's Astraoia is(rao>a steohaniae P '1966-73 ?   II 
^rfakAitrapia (not in PNG) istrapia niara P 1966-73 II 
?othschiid'3 Astrapia astrapia rothschiidi P 1966-73 II 
<ina Bird-of-Paradise Cicinnunis moius P ?    1966-73" "    n   " 
Crested Bird-of-Paradtse Cnemoo/ii/us macareaorii P 1965-73 ti 
iaanifioent Bird-of-Paradise Zicinnurus magnif?cus P 1966-73 ?   II 
iuff-tailed Sicklebi zpimachus albsrtisi P 1966-75 II 
>a<e-billed Sicklebi 1 zpimachus bnjijnii ?   II N 
lack Sicklebilt -.pimachus fastuosus P 1966-73 II V 
rovMi Sicklebi II zpimactius moYori P 1966-73   " "   II 
'ellow-breasted Bird-<j4-Paradlse .oboparadisea sericee P 1966-73 11 ? 
iuoerb Bird-of-Paradise .ophorhina supertja P 1966-73 11 
.oria'a Bird-of-Paradlse ^nemoDhilus loriae P "  1966-73 "   II 
flacGredor"? Bird-of-Pafadise AacQraaona oulchm P 196S-/3 II V 
slossv-mantled Manucode Aanucodia atra P 1966-73 11 
?rinkle-coKared Wanucode Aanucodia clialvbata P 1966-/3 n   " 
^url-crested Manucode Kanucod/a comiii P 1966-73 II 
obi Manucode aanucodia lobiensis P 1966-73 11 
'rumoet Manucode 'Aanucodia keraudnanii P 1966-73 II 
Short-tailed Paradiaalla 'aradiaalla brmicauda P 1966-^ '   II 
Greater Bird-of-Paradise 'aradisaoa apoda P 1966-73 II 
?oldie's Bird-of-Paradise ^aradisaea decora P 1966-;3 ?I V 
.esser Bird-of-Paradise 'a/ad/saea minor P 1966-73 II 
?moeror Bird-of-Paradise 'aradisaea ouiliolmi P ""1966-73 "   II u 
lacKiiana Bird-of-Paradise 'aradisaea raoa/ana P 1966-73   1 "   11 
lue Bird-of-Paradise 'aradisaoa rudolphi P 1965-73 11 V 
:arola's Parotia 'arof/a camlae P 1966-73 II 
lelena Parotia ''arotia hetanae P 1966-73 II 
Lawea' Pargtia 1 Parotfa /atves/t 1 H 'i!*b-/J N 
CD 
S 
C3 
CD 
CO 
n 
Tabla 6.2: Protacted Spacies and Spac?as at Risk 
HMMI 
Order Common Name Scientific Name status Fauna Act      CITES lUCN 
Wahnes' Parotia "arotia wahnesi P 1966-73 II V 
Una of Saxonv Bird-of-Paradise ?^aridoohora alberti ?    P 1966-73 II 
laanrficant Riflebird Claris maailicus P 1965-73 II    ??? 
vwlvB-wred Bird-of-Paradiae Seleucidis melanoleuca P 1966-73 II     ?? 
Svlviidae) ?W River Graaabird ?eaalunis albolimbatus V 
^fleliI>haa'ldael .ono-bearded Melidectes telidectes Br?nceos V 
Pittidae) Superb Pitta 'Itta suaer?ja V 
ilack-^aced Pitta =*/?fa anervthra V 
Rhioiduridae) Aanus Fantail ^hioidura semirvbra V 
Rilonorhynchidae) Nre-maned Bowerbird ?ericulus bakeh R 
?lame Bowsrbird Ser?C?ilus aunaos R V 
Reptiles ?^mm.i^f?m 
?rocodylia ?iew Guinea Freshwater Crocodile ::focodvlus novaouineae  R II V 
ialtv\ater Crocodile ^rocodvlus porosus R II V 
>aur?a 'rehensile-tailed Skink Oonjcia zebrata R II 
Mould's Mortitor /aranus aouldii R II 
ianaro? Monitor /aranus indicus R ?    n ? 
?eoik Monitor ^aranus karimidti R II 
imerald Monitor /aranus orasinus R "   Il 
>al\?dori's Monitor /aranus salvadorii R II 
?Dotted Tree Monitor /aranus timorensis R II 
Serpentes Sround Boa 'Zandioa asoer^ R II 
^cific Boa Zandioa carinala R "   Il 
Sreen Tree Pvthon :hondropvthon viridis R 11 
i'Alberts'Pvthon Jasis albertisii R ?   Il 
arred Pvthon Jasis boa R w 
Vater Pvthon Jasis mackloli R II 
'aouan Pvthon Jasis oaouanus R ?   Il 
amethystine Python 'vthon amethistinus R il 
ioelen's Pvthon python boelani P 1975 ' Il 
?aroet Pvthon 'vthon SDllotus R II 
"estudirtata ,oatierhead Turtle CafBffa catBtta R 1 V 
>itted-shdl Turtle ^ar^ochBlvs insculota R "K 
Sreen Turtle Zhetonia mydas R 1 E 
.eatherv Turtle Dgrmochelvs cori?cea R 1 e~ 
lawtabill Turtle :retmoch9lys Imbricata R 1 E 
"acific Ridlev .eoidocheivs oliv?cea R 1 ? 
?latback Turtle 'batatar depressus R 1 V 
5oft-8helled Turtle "e/oche?ys bibmni r      R 
'Ishes 
?luDeiformes oothed Rivor Herrinq Cluoeoldes i^aouensis R    " 
?iluriformes avlor's Catfish Mustavlon M 
(utubu Tandan OloDlotosus tombo V 
ielonrformes ?oberts River Garfish ZenacnDhootenis robertsi R~' 
rtheriniformes 0<elrod"s Rainbovrfish Zhilatherlna axelrodi T? 
lulolo RainbovJiah Zhllatherina bul?lo R 
Cailola's Mardvhead Zraterocephalus kallolae R 
<utubu Hardyhead Ztateroceohalus lacustris V 
>ima Hardyhead Zrateroceohalus oimatuae R 
?potted Rambowfish g/p??p/w/smacu/o?us 1 R 
CO 
CD 
CO 
LO 
Table 6,2: Protectid Spscias and Species at Risk CO 
-a 
Order Common Name                                       Scientific Name Status Fauna Act CITES lUCN 
'ami Riv?r Rainbowf ish                              jlossoleois Dsoudoincisus R 
lamu Rainbow/ish                                    jlosaoleols iamueos/s R 
,ake Wanam RainboiAfish                        Clossolepis wanamensis R 
Slass Blue-Eve                                            Kiunaa baltochi V 
.ake Tebera Rainbovifish                          \1elanotaenia herbertaxolrDcli R 
itricldand Rainbowfish                              ^elanofaenla ir?s R 
.ake KcitutHj Rainbov^fish                            ^elanotaenia lacustris V 
it ?untain Rainbov\fi8h                               \1a?anotaenia mont?cola R (tedi Rainbovrfish                                   He?anofaen/a oktediensis V 
>aDuan Rainbow/iah                                 Helanotaenia paouae R 
' ma River Rainbov\fish                            Haianofaen/a oimanensis ?R 
' V River RainboM/ish                                ^elanotasnia sexlineata V 
?ODondetta Blue-Eve                                   'seudomuail connteae R 
?orktail Blue-Eve                                         ^seadomuqil furoatus R 
>aska's Blue-Eve                                         ^seudomuoil oasKai V 
'erciformes lountain Gobv                                            3lossoaobius so. 3 R 
ioberfstSobv                                             jlossooobius sp. 7 V 
i untsirout Goby                                          3lossoaot>ius so. 8 ?   V 
= v River Gobv                                                StossOOOWus SO. 11 R' 
(utubu Gobv                                                slossooobias so. 12 V 
liohead Gobv                                              ilossoaobius SD-13 R  
?amu Gobv                                               ?lossoaoblus so. 14 R 
kdamson'a Grunter                                      ieohaeshis adamsoni V 
hreespot Grunter                                       ieohaostus tnmaculatus R 
?lack Moaurnda                                           ?oaumda furva V 
(okoda Moourrtda                                        SoQumda linaata R 
iastern Moaurnda                                     ?oaumtja orientalls ?    R 
Hotched Moaurnda                                      Moaurnda sollota V 
/arieoated Moaurnda                                 foaumda variaaata V 
itrioed Moaurnda                                      ^/locumda vitta V 
<aramui Gudoeon                                     Wxium?a so. 1 R 
Vau Gudoeon                                             Wxwmda so. 2 ~R 
liflhland? Gudoeon                                   Kocrumda sp. 3 R 
Aalas Gudoeon                                           itooumda sp. 5 h      R" 
(okocja Grass Perchlet                             retracontnim cau?ovltt^tus R 
nsects M?m?MffiMm??iMmmMi'mi mmm?M?MmMyX?SimM?Mmm M?mmm rn?M??mm MmmSi ?Si?a???iHsS 
.eptdoptera ?i kvueed Butterf v                                     zuploee doratta S 
kweed Butterf v                                     :uok3ea eboracl ^   R    ?" 
kw?ed Butterf v                                     :UDkieei lac?n R 
inallovbtail Butterfly                                  Iraohlum meekl R 
?wallov%tail Butterfly                                  3raDhlum men?ana R 
Svwliow?all Butterfly                                  >ap/??o moemeri V 
?vMllov\4all Butteiflv                                  '?o/fto toborol "   R 
ivtaNov^tall Butterfly                                  ^aoillo vimmeri R 
AiJkMeed Butterf v                                     ^arantlca cllntas ?R 
Ailkweed Butterf v                                     'arantlca aaramantts R 
(lilkweed Butterf v                                     'aiantlca rotundata ?  R 
m kvwed Butterf V                                     "aranUoa weisket R 
fli Invaed Butterf v                                        "rotoploea aoatala ~R  ? 
?irdv?na Butterfly                          ?   ?Trois?^ (OmltbaotefB) als(and?a&.          1 _..    f'    ^ 1SBe-73             I b 
C5 
=)' 
CD 
o' 
o 
n' 
?nmm? 
Table 6.2: Protectad Spacies and Spacias at Risk 
Order Common Name Sclenttflc Name Status Fauna Act CITES lUCN 
Sirdvung Butterfly rroides Omlthoptera) allotat P 1966-73 1) 
iirdVMng Butterfly r/o/cies Omithoptera) ctiimaera P 1966-73 ?       II 1 
iirOMng Butterfly rroides, Omlthoptera) Qoliam P 1966-73 ? 1! 
ilrdwing Butterfly Trai?os, Omithoptera) msnaonalis p 1966-73 II V 
(irdvwng Butterfly rroidos 1 omttnopleral paradisea P 1966-73 II I 
lirdwing Butterfly rroldos (Omimopteraj pnamus II 
(irdwing Butterfly iroiaes (Omithoptera) victonae ?" P 1966-73 II 
Ilrdwing Butterfly TrDi?es oblongamaculatus 11 
Cole?ptera .Ichen Weevil 3ymnopholus llcheniler V 
[^onuses ??;:?:?;:':-???K^ix??y.:-:'^ ?im?M?mm Musntm 
Btylommatophora ilanus ?reen Tree Snail ='apusty!a pulcHemma ' (1  R  
/eneroida ?outhern Giant Clam 1 ndacna cWasa ' II V 
Slant Clam I ndacna qiqas II V 
Corals 
Vntipartharra Slack Corals oji?parthana (entine order) II 
icieractina stony Corals Scleractina (entire oit?er) ? 11 
^thecata 'ire Corals Vli?lepora spp. II 
Morals Stylasteridao (entire family) "    II 
?oenothecatia Hue Corals ?ieliopora spp. II 
?tolonifera 3rgan-Pipe Corals I ubipora spp. -    II 
?lants 
bycadaceae Cycads Cycas sp. 11 
Euphort?aceae Spurges buphorbia spp. II 
kepenthaceae 'itcher Plants nepenthes spp. ? 
prchidaceae Jrchids ='aphlopec]iium spp. 1 
jrcnias 'Jtchids - ?ti amere ^    II 
CO 
o' 
U3 
CJ1 
AiisjgniQ iBai?oioig s.eauing M9|\| endej QQ 
Environments in Papua New Guinea 97 
CHAPTER 7 
ENVIRONMENTS IN PAPUA NEW GUINEA 
This chapter reviews the major environments in Papua New Guinea, to provide a context for the Biodiversity 
Country Study. Details may be found in the Conservation Needs Assessment (Beehler 1993). The environments of 
Papua New Guinea are remarl<ably diverse as well as species rich, but have been inadequately studied ecologically. 
We know that some forests in Papua New Guinea are amongst the richest in the world and coral reefs along the 
north coast may be the richest in the world for invertebrate species. However, we have only a superficial 
knowledge of the taxonomic and ecological nature of this species richness, and we do not fully understand the 
processes that produce such high richness (Stone 1993). Virtually nothing has been published on local variation in 
species richness, so it is impossible to gauge the significance of differing findings within Papua New Guinea. This 
chapter reviews terrestrial environments (primarily on the basis of vegetation), freshwater environments, and 
marine and estuarine environments. 
Papua New Guinea has an extraordinary range of ecosystems because of its geographic and geological 
complexity. This is reflected in the wide variety of its flora and fauna, many of which are endemic to either Papua 
New Guinea or the island of New Guinea. Papua New Guinea's variety of ecosystems range from mountain glaciers 
to humid tropical forests, and from swampy wetlands to pristine coral reefs. Papua New Gui?ean ecosystems are 
relatively unspoilt, and many natural habitats can still be conserved. Some areas, particularly the larger areas of 
wetlands, stijj have very low human population density (two to four persons per square kilometre). However, the 
environment, in general, is coming under increasing pressure. Terrestrial ecosystems, especially forests, are subject 
to increasing resource extraction, especially through forestry, but are also being cleared to make way for mining and 
agriculture. Freshwater ecosystems in some parts of the country are being degraded through the disposal of mining, 
agricultural, and urban wastes. The problems of freshwater systems flow downstream to the marine systems, and, 
along with additional pressures from fisheries and pollution, affect these systems. Some 97 percent of the land is 
held under customary tenure, and most rural people rely to some degree on natural resources for their livelihood 
(Powell 1976). 
Independent management of terrestrial and aquatic resources and ecosystems will always fail because, in the 
absence of consultation between these sectors, incompatible developments will always occur (Huber 1993). For 
example, land degradation will certainly impact on the adjacent aquatic habitats, but will probably also affect 
downstream communities and eventually impact on the nearshore coral reefs. Prawns may spend the bulk of their 
life-cycle in shallow waters and be harvested from the continental shelf, but the removal of mangroves threatens 
the viability of the fishery as successful recruitment is dependent upon this habitat. Typically, marine systems 
operate on broad spatial and temporal scales. In general, these processes are poorly understood, but need to be 
considered in any coastal management if conservation of biodiversity is to be achieved. Freshwater systems are 
easier to delineate but have unique difficulties related to the fact that they can be more directly impacted by local 
terrestrial disturbances, and they represent a more closed system than the marine environment. 
Terrestrial Environments 
The present diversity of Papua New Guinea's vegetation is presumably a result of variation in four factors 
(Saulei and Beehler 1993) - rainfall, altitude, soil, and history of disturbance. Annual rainfall in Papua New Guinea 
ranges from as low as 950 millimetres to as high as 10 000 millimetres (McAlpine et al. 1983). The relief of New 
Guinea is generally rugged and mountainous except in the south-west and along the banks of the lower reaches of 
the larger rivers (Lbffler 1977). Elevation ranges from sea level to over 4 400 metres. Soils range from old alluvium 
to those produced by recent volcanism or the weathering of ultrabasic rocks that comprise relict segments of 
uplifted sea floor.  Disturbance of the vegetation in Papua New Guinea is varied, commonplace, and can be both 
w 
98 Papua New Guinea's Biological Diversity 
natural and human induced. This disturbance includes periodic large fires, droughts, landslips, voicanism, frosts, and 
local annual burning, among other things (Johns 1986). The remarkable variation among this series of physical 
parameters creates the broad diversity of terrestrial habitats exhibited in Papua New Guinea. 
Most of Papua New Guinea has a relatively high annual rainfall of 2 500-3 500 millimetres. Some lowland areas 
are drier, especially in the Port Moresby area. Large areas of the highlands receive in excess of 4 000 millimetres 
annually and up to 10 000 millimetres has been recorded. There is generally little seasonality in rainfall except in 
the drier areas. Air temperatures are high throughout the year with little seasonal variation. With increasing 
altitude the absolute and average temperatures decrease and seasonal variation tends to equal or exceed the daily 
temperature range. Above 2 200 metres elevation frosts occur, but only rarely. Frosts are common over 3 000 
metres and snow occasionally falls on the higher mountains. The combination of high rainfall and temperature 
results in high humidity, cloudiness and only moderate rates of evaporation. 
There is less climatic overlap between low and high-elevation sites in the tropics than in the temperate zone, 
suggesting that a given elevational separation provides greater opportunity for diversity of habitats in the tropics 
(Smith 1988). Thus, the range of elevation in Papua New Guinea creates a remarkable array of environments 
within a relatively small area. 
The island of New Guinea has evolved into a major land area only over the past 20 million years through fusion 
and compression along the boundary of the northward moving Australian continent on the Indian Ocean tectonic 
plate and the westward moving margin of the Pacific tectonic plate. Only in the Pliocene and Pleistocene has its 
mountain ranges been uplifted to the snow line, to be glaciated extensively during the Pleistocene ice ages. While 
the current landscape of New Guinea is young in geological terms, it contains numerous accreted terranes in its 
northern half, some dating back to the cretaceous age, and many others to the Miocene age (summarised by 
Polhemus 1993). These older terranes may have provided refugia for relatively ancient organisms to persist in the 
area that later became New Guinea. This refuge hypothesis is borne out by the distributions of some apparently 
relictual organisms (Polhemus, in press). This hypothesised development of New Guinea through island arc 
accretions is reflected in present local areas of endemism (see various papers and maps in the Conservation Needs 
Assessment). 
Despite an appearance of geological youth, the biota of New Guinea has attained a diversity that appears 
equivalent to that of the much older tropical lands of South-East Asia (Gressitt 1982). The majority of the biota 
has its closest relationships with that of Asia. Although the number of genera in any given group is often less than 
would be found in Asia, the genera are often more species rich. At least for insects, the majority of genera that are 
endemic to Melanesia are restricted to, or have their species richness strongly centered in. New Guinea (Miller and 
Holloway 1991). In some groups there is also an important Australian element, facilitated by dispersal from 
Australia across the Torres Strait during lowered sea levels in the Pleistocene (Kikkawa et al. 1981). 
Several systems of vegetation classification are available (Johns 1993; 33). Here we follow the system of 
Johns (1977,1982,1993), as used by the Conservation Needs Assessment (for example, Saulei and Beehler 1993), 
but other important references include Paijmans (1976), McAlpine et al. (1983), Bellamy (1986), Bleeker (1975, 
1983, 1988), and L?ffler (1974, 1977). All such schemes represent compromises, subject to intergradation 
between vegetation types and also to variation because of local environmental conditions. Two sets of maps of 
vegetation are available: four sheets at 1:1 000 000 scale (Paijmans 1975) and 18 sheets at 1:500 000 scale 
(Papua New Guinea National Mapping Bureau). Some of these data are also available through the PNGRIS database 
system produced by CSIRG. However, these maps are all based on data more than 20 years old. A recent review 
of the various soils maps that are available showed major discrepancies amongst them (Humphreys 1991; Bourke 
1993). Another problem is that most biogeographic data are not available in consistant formats for the entire island 
of New Guinea (an exception is the vegetation map by Whitmore 1984). 
m 
Environments in Papua New Guinea 99 
An authoritatiue, synthetic biogeographic r?gionalisation of Papua New Guinea is much needed. As noted 
already, many data sets are available to support it, but they need to be correlated in a modern context (such as 
recently done for Australia by the Environmental Resources Information Network - Thackway and Cressweli 1992} 
and enhanced with more recent information when possible. If sufficient coverage of weather data is available, 
BIOCLIM programs (Busby 1991) could be powerful analytical and predictive tools for Papua New Guinea. It might 
also be useful to test the application of the Holdridge Life Zorie concept to New Guinea. The Life Zone system is a 
predictive scheme for identifying potential vegetation based on the effects of temperature, rainfall, and 
?vapotranspiration (Holdridge 1978). The system has been widely applied in Central and South America, as well as 
in Thailand (Holdridge et al. 1971), although it did not work well in a limited test at high altitudes in New Guinea 
(Smith 1975). 
Coastal Vegetation: Occurs on the succession of ridges aligned parallel to beaches; it is usually well-drained, but 
includes linear swampy depressions (swales). Vegetation ranges from pioneering herbacious beach communities, 
through beach scrub, and inland to mixed forest. 
Mangrove Forest: Coastal and riverine/tidal forests that are typically inundated daily by salt or brackish water 
These forests are most extensive in the deltas of the larger rivers primarily on the southern watershed, especially ir 
the Purari, Kikori, and Fly River deltas. The dominant canopy tree genera are Rhizophora, Avicennia, Brugiera, 
Xylocarpus, and Sonneratia Uohnstone and Frodin 1982; Percival and Womersley 1975; Woodroffe and Grtndrod 
1991; Dul(e 1992). 
Anthropogenic Grassland: Covers much of the dry hilly country along the northeast coast and is the main 
vegetation in many populated intermontane valleys. In many or most areas, these grasslands represent a disclimax 
vegetation maintained by human induced fires. Grasslands above 2 500 metres are floristically and structurally 
very different from those at lower elevations. 
Swamp Vegetation: Inundated for part or much of each year, swamp vegetation is highly variable in composition 
and structure, in part because of varying regimes and patterns of inundation. Common canopy tree genera include 
Campnosperma, Terminalia, Nauclea, Syzgium, Octomeles. Pometia, Intsia. Alstonia, Bischofia. and Palaquim. The 
canopy is often broken and open, with gaps filled by understorey broadleaf species, or palms and pandans (Taylor 
1959). 
Savannah: Mixed savannah, found in the monsoonal southwest of Papua New Guinea varies in structure and 
floristics with local relief, drainage, and the frequency of burning. Dominant trees include Eucalyptus, Albizzia, and 
Melaleuca. Melaleuca savannah is found in the southwest, but also elsewhere in the country on waterlogged plains 
and on dry hill slopes, up to 500 metres. The savannahs of monsoonal southwest Papua New Guinea have strong 
structural and floristic affinities with those of northern Australia (Gillison 1983). 
Monsoon Forest: Occurs mostly near sea level in areas with less than 2.5 metres of rain per year and a 
prolonged dry season, and is limited to areas northwest of Port Moresby, Western Province, and the Safia-Pongani 
region in the southeast. These grade into open savannah woodland. Dominant trees include Bombax, Erythrina, 
Tetrameles, Albizzia, Acacia, and Manguera. 
Lowland Tropical Rainforest: Generally below 1 000 metres and receiving more than 2.5 metres of rainfall 
annually, this forest is both taxonomically and structurally rich, but more poorly studied than most other forest 
types in Papua New Guinea. These can be split into forests below 500 metres that receive more than 3.5 metres of 
rainfall (Lowland Wet Forest) and those below 1 000 metres that receive between 2.5 and 3.5 metres of rainfall 
(Lowland Humid Forest). However, taxonomic and structural differences between the two forest types remain 
unclear (Paijmans 1970; Hyndman and Menzies 1990; Saulei and Beehler 1993; Hope and Tulip 1994). 
100 Papua New Guinea's Biological Diversity 
Lower Montane Forest: Lying between ca. 1 000 and 2 000 metres elevation, this common forest type is quite 
variable in structure and composition. Araucaria species and Castanopsis acuminatissima are commonly dominant 
components {Gressitt and Nadkarni 1978; Hyndman and Menzies 1990). This is the zone of maximum 
environmental impact from subsistence agriculture. Forests at this elevation that receive over 3.5 metres of rainfall 
annually were separated as Lower Montane Wet Forest by Saulei and Beehler (1993). 
Mid-Montane Forest: Occurs between ca. 2 000 and 2 500 metres elevation and is typically everwet (perhumid). 
Fog, mist, cloud, and nearly daily rainfall produce luxuriant growing conditions. These forests are typically rich in 
epiphytes, with broken, open, and uneven canopies. In some localities, the forest type is dominated by Nothofagus, 
Phyllocladus, other podocarps, and a series of typical montane broadleaf species (Gressitt and Nadkami 1978; 
Hyndman and Menzies 1990; Kiapranis and Balun 1993; Valkenburg and Ketner 1994). 
Upper Montane Forest: Found between ca. 2 500 and 3 200 metres, this is a complex community of primarily 
gymnospermous canopy tree species. Such forest is low canopied and structurally simple, usually heavily encrusted 
with moss or moss-like epiphytes (Grubb and Stevens 1985). 
Subalpine Forest and Grassland: Occurs on mountain tops above 3 200 metres. Subalpine forests are usually 
very species poor and are structurally simple, with a canopy height of eight to twelve metres. Usually the forest 
exhibits a closed canopy that is often dominated by a single species (often Dacrycarpus) (Smith 1975; Grubb and 
Stevens 1985; van Royen 1980) 
Alpine: The limit of tree growth is generally about 3 900 metres but varies locally. Above the tree line, shrubs 
gradually decrease in height and frequency to about 4 400 metres. Rosette and cushion herbs, mosses, lichens, and 
low ferns become progressively more abundant with altitude and largely replace grasses above 4 300 metres (van 
Royen 1980). 
Papua New Guinea's lowland forests tend to have moderate to high biodiversity and low rates of endemism (for 
example, most of the species are widespread, extending beyond the island of New Guinea). Endemism increases 
with altitude. Biodiversity may increase with altitude to some point of maximum diversity, but it is not clear at 
what elevation peak diversity occurs, or how it varies between major taxonomic groups. Saulei and Beehler (1993) 
suggest that Lowland Tropical Rainforest is the richest vegetation type for plants in Papua New Guinea. In a 
transect in the Hunstein Mountains, Balun et al. (1993) found that diversity of plants increased from 50 to 400 
metres, then decreased to 700 metres. For birds, Beehler (1982) found that bird species richness declines 
monotonically with altitude, with a slight plateau between 1 000 and 1 500 metres. Flannery (1990: 15) found the 
highest mammal diversity in Lower Montane Forest. Diversity of tropical insects is generally thought to increase 
with altitude into mid-montane elevations (ca. 500 to 1 000 metres) and then slowly decline, although some data 
sets show a simple decrease in diversity with altitude (Allison et al. 1993; Olson 1994). In Papua New Guinea, it 
has been suggested (Gressitt and Nadkami 1978; Gressitt 1982) that the highest insect diversity occurs between 
500 to 1 500 metres. In a study of beetles collected from rainforest canopy trees, Allison et al. (1993) found the 
unexpected result of diversity being higher at 2 100 metres than at 1 200 and 500 metres, but this may have been 
because of phonological differences between the trees. Research must continue in the relationship between altitude 
and diversity in Papua New Guinea. 
Freshwater Wetlands 
Over 80 percent of the 5 000 lakes in Papua New Guinea lie below 40 metres and most of these lakes are 
associated with large rivers and surrounded by extensive wetlands. Mangroves, brackish swamps, freshwater 
swamps and alluvial plains account for 7.5 percent of the total land area of the country but these regions are 
sparsely populated (two to four persons per square kilometre). The relief of Papua New Guinea is dominated by a 
central cordillera, north of which is a depression occupied by the Sepik River in the west and the Ramu River in the 
L 
Environments in Papua New Guinea 101 
east. To the south, in the western part of Papua New Guinea, lies a huge tract of low-lying land drained by the Fly 
t     I and Strickland Rivers.   Lowland freshwater wetlands are a mosaic of open water, herbaceous swamp, swamp 
I savannah, and woodland.  Most of the wetlands in Papua New Guinea are in pristine condition, but one has been 
markedly altered from sewage disposal and others are under threat from mine tailings disposal. While there is no 
specific legislation for wetland conservation, protection is afforded under a number of general Acts of Parliament. 
The following discussion is based on an extensive bibliography (Osborne 1988) and inventory of sites (Osborne 
1987,1993). 
Major Rivers 
As a result of the high rainfall and rugged topography, most rivers in Papua New Guinea have large flow volumes 
and high sediment loads, and are generally fast-flowing and turbulent. The Fly Platform (see Figure 7.1) is the 
largest tract of low-lying land in Papua New Guinea and is drained by the Fly and Strickland Rivers. The Fly River, 
although only 1 200 kilometres long, is so large in terms of discharge (6 000 to 7 500 m/sec) that it ranks with the 
world's great rivers (Holeman 1968; Welcomme 1985). The gradient in its lower course is extremely gentle as the 
river port of Kiunga, 800 kilometres from the sea, is only 20 metres above sea level. The river is tidal for 250 
kilometres upstream. Rainfall in the upper catchment regularly exceeds ten metres per annum, and in floods the 
river level may rise rapidly by up to ten metres. In the south, the area is gently undulating, with flat areas poorly 
drained and swampy. The middle Fly floodplain, 15 to 20 kilometres wide, is a mosaic of lakes, alluvial forest, 
swamp grassland, and swamp savannah. The river meanders extensively in this region, and in addition to tributary 
lakes, there are numerous backswamps and oxbows of variable depth depending on age. 
The Purari River (see Figure 7.1) drains the central highlands and discharges into the Gulf of Papua through an 
extensive delta (Petr 1983). The rainfall in the catchment is high, particularly on the foothills where it reaches 
eight metres per year. This high precipitation, coupled with the high run-off, give this river system an enormous 
potential for hydroelectric power generation, and a dam planned for Wabo in the foothills was projected to have an 
installed capacity of 2 160 megawatts. Possible environmental impacts of this proposed dam were assessed in 
some detail (Petr 1983), but the scheme has not been developed further. Other rivers draining to the south and east 
of the Purari include the Vailala, Lakekamu, Angabanga, Vanapa, Laloki, and Kemp-Welch. 
The Markham and Ramu Rivers (see Figure 7.1} flow through the eastern part of an intermontane trough which 
is a narrow graben zone occupied by a series of alluvial fans. These fans are formed of coarse debris derived from 
the tectonically active Finisterre and Saruwaged Ranges which rise steeply along the north-eastern margin of the 
trough. The Markham River, 170 kilometres long, flows through a wide, braided channel and has no estuary. The 
river channel is three kilometres wide at the Ramu divide and reaches its maximum width at its confluence with the 
Leron River. The Ramu River, which is approximately 720 kilometres long, has a relatively small catchment area. In 
its lower reaches, the floodplain terrain is very flat and swampy. 
The Sepik River (see Figure 7.1) with a catchment of 77 700 square kilometres is the largest river system in 
Papua New Guinea. Its discharge is reported to range between 4 500 and 11 000 cubic metres per second 
(Mitchell et al. 1980), although the river is poorly gauged. Flow was recorded in June 1988 by the Royal Australian 
Navy Hydrographie Service to be 6 500 cubic metres per second (Fox 1990). The Sepik River is navigable for about 
500 kilometres, and the main river channel is deep (over 35 metres at Angoram) as are the more recently-formed 
oxbow lakes in the lower floodplain. The river discharges directly into the sea through a single outlet, and this 
contrasts markedly with rivers in the south which invariably have extensive deltas and large estuaries. There are 
numerous (around 1 500) oxbow and other lakes associated with the Sepik floodplain. The largest of these is 
Chambri Lake (see Figure 7.2) which is shallow (maximum four metres) and has a highly variable area of up to 250 
square kilometres in the flood season. There are no large rivers on the islands off the north coast but the short, 
fast-flowing mountain streams often have high discharges. 
102 Papua New Guinea's Biologjcal Diversity 
Lakes 
Chambers (1987) surveyed the topographic maps of Papua New Guinea and counted 5 383 freshwater lakes. 
The lakes are mostly small, with only 22 having a surface area greater than 1 000 hectares. Lake Murray is by far 
the largest (64 700 hectares), some three times greater in area than the next largest (Lake Chambri) (see Figure 
7.2). However, these two lakes are both shallow: Lake Murray has a maximum depth of approximately nine metres 
and a mean depth of around five metres; and Chambri Lake has a maximum depth of approximately six metres and 
contrasts markedly with the deep caldera lakes, Wisdom (360 metres) and Dakataua (120 metres) (see Figure 7.2). 
Over 80 percent of the lakes lie below 40 metres altitude reflecting their association with the floodplains of large 
rivers. 
Two large lakes. Lake Wisdom on Long island and Lake Dakataua on West l\lew Britain (see Figure 7.2) occupy 
calderas. Lake Wisdom is surrounded by steep crater wails rising to 300 metres above sea level and the lake is 360 
metres deep, making it one of the deepest lal<es in the South-East Asia/Australia region (Bail and Glucksman 1978). 
Lake Dakataua was also formed by the post-eruptive collapse of a volcanic crater and the maximum depth of the 
lake is 120 metres (Ball and Glucksman 1980). Lake Kutubu was formed behind a dam of volcanics which erupted 
from Mt. Afuma (Osborne and Totome 1992a), 
Several lakes on the high mountains of New Guinea were formed by glacial activity, for example, Lakes Piunde 
and Aunde on Mt. Wilhelm. Numerous lakes of two basic types are associated with floodplain rivers such as the Fly 
and Sepik Rivers. Tributary lakes such as those of the Fly River basin form where the river flows on an alluvial 
ridge of material eroded from the upper catchment. Because main river deposition was more rapid than that of 
tributary streams, the tributaries became blocked, forming numerous lakes (Bosset Lagoon and Lake Daviumbu). 
Floodplain rivers also meander extensively, and oxbow lakes of variable depth, depending on age, occur within the 
floodplain. 
Biological Environments 
Freshwater Wetland Flora 
The freshwater flora of Papua New Guinea comprises eight species of Characeae, 21 species of ferns and fern- 
allies, and 130 flowering plants (Leach and Osborne 1985). Freshwater algae in Papua New Guinea have been 
poorly studied and most work has been taxonomic (Thomasson 1967; Yamagishi 1975; Watanabe et al. 1979a, 
1979b; Yamagishi and Watanabe 1979; Vyvermann 1989, 1990, 1991a, 1991b, in press). Vyverman (1991a) 
studied desmids in 145 freshwater habitats in Papua New Guinea. He identified five main assemblages: one from 
tropical lowlands, one extending from lowlands to mid-altitudes, one from mid-altitudes, and two from medium to 
high altitude waters. The dominant taxa in all assemblages were cosmopolitan, but some with restricted 
geographical distributions were recorded. The number of desmid taxa with Indo-Malaysian-North-Australian 
pantropical and paleaeotropical distribution decreased with increasing altitude while Arctic-Alpine taxa were only 
found in highland waters. 
The Herbaceous Vegetation of Lowland Wetlands 
The vegetation of the lowland freshwater swamps forms a continuous sequence from open water to tall mixed 
swamp forest, depending on the depth and quality of the water, and drainage and flooding conditions. The aquatic 
vegetation consists of free-floating, floating-leaved, and submerged plants. They occupy the shallow margins 
between open water and grass swamp, and in places cover entire lakes filling a shallow, uniform basin. Herbaceous 
communities consisting of sedges, herbs, and ferns are characteristic of stagnant, permanent, relatively deep 
swamps. Two aquatic weeds, Salvinia molesta and Eichhomia crassipes are now widespread in the low-tying 
wetlands of Papua New Guinea and are discussed in Chapter 6 as examples of invasive pest species. 
Environments in Papua New Guinea 103 
Lowland Swamp Savannah and Woodland 
Mixed swamp savannah is a transitional vegetation type between purely herbaceous swamps and swamp 
woodland, and it occurs in permanent, stagnant swamps. In addition to an herbaceous cover, there is an open layer 
of trees -Nauclea, Campnosperma, Syzygium and Melaleuca. Melaleuca swamp savannah is characteristic of the 
fluctuating backswamps of the Middle Fly and Strickland Rivers, and also occurs along parts of the monsoonal 
south and south-west coasts. Melaleuca trees form an even, open, almost pure canopy. The main species is M. 
cajuputi. In the wet season, Melaleuca swamp savannah is inundated and colonised by aquatic plants. In 
permanent swamps, the tree storey of mixed swamp woodland is generally open and ranges from low to tall. Sago 
palm ?Metroxylon saguj is widespread throughout more or less permanent swampy woodland. 
All gradations occur from stands of pure sago to woodland with a dense layer of trees and an open lower tier of 
sago. The palm grows best where there is a regular influx of fresh water. Swamp pandans occupy a habitat similar 
to that of sago palm but have a wider range. They form open to quite dense, pure stands in shallow, fresh to 
brackish, stagnant to frequently flooded swamps. Mixed swamp forest is the most common type of swamp forest. 
It generally has an open, but occasionally dense canopy. Dense stands of Campnosperma (C. brevipet/o/ta and C. 
cor/ace] are found in permanently flooded backswamps. Sago may form a dense understorey. Terminalia swamp 
forest is mainly found in North Solomons Province where Terminalia brassii grows together with Campnosperma 
and locally dominates in the canopy of open swamp forest. Low-lying, frequently flooded, bouldery and sandy 
rivers, and peat swamps with flowing waters are the habitats. 
Montane Wetlands 
Communities dominated by sedges and grasses occur above about 1 800 metres in swamps occupying 
intermontane basins, local depressions in valley floors, and seepage slopes. Many different sedges are present and 
they commonly make up most of the ground cover. Characteristic grasses are Arundinella furva, Isachne spp., and 
Dimeria spp. Phragmites karka commonly forms pure stands in seepage areas on slopes and on flat valley floors to 
over 2 500 metres. At higher elevations (upper montane zone), herbaceous communities consisting of a mixture of 
low herbs, sedges, grasses and mosses occupy depressions, fringe open water and in the higher parts of the zone, 
also occur on slopes. 
Freshwater Wetland Fauna 
Wetland invertebrates have been poorly studied and research on fish has been largely taxonomic. The native fish 
fauna is mostly derived from the marine fauna, and has been supplemented by the introduction of at least 21 exotic 
species. Two species of crocodile are found throughout the low-lying wetlands and crocodile farming is an 
important village-based activity. Amongst New Guinea's birds, 112 are waterbirds and three of these are endemic. 
Of the native mammals, only three water rats are regarded as wetland species, but introduced Rusa deer occur in 
large numbers in the Fly River area. 
The freshwater invertebrate fauna of Papua New Guinea has been poorly studied. MacArthur (1965} noted that 
numbers of species of freshwater invertebrates do not increase in the tropics. Lakes in Papua New Guinea feature 
low Zooplankton diversities, with a notable paucity of cladoceran and copepod species (McKenzie 1971; L?ffler 
1973; Bayly and Morton 1980; Chambers 1988). Dudgeon (1990) studied benthic macro-invertebrates in two 
upland streams of the Sepik-Ramu River system. He concluded that despite generalisations concerning the poverty 
of freshwater fauna in Papua New Guinea (Gressitt 1982), both Koje and Maram Creeks yielded diverse collections 
of benthic macro-invertebrates, dominated by insects. In terms of morphospecies richness, they did not differ 
greatly from stream communities in the oriental tropics. However, the composition of the fauna was rather different 
from that of oriental streams. This difference could not be attributed to the inclusion of Australian elements but 
reflected a lack of certain oriental groups and a radiation of others. For example, Meptageniidae, Ephemerellidae and 
Ephemeridae among the mayflies, Psephenidae among the aquatic beetles, and all Plecoptera were absent from the 
^^ 
104 Papua New Guinea's Biological Diversity 
Papua New Gui?ean collections, although these animals are abundant in similar streams on the Asian mainland. 
Waucorid bugs, by contrast, were well-represented and may haue occupied the vacant stonefiy-predator niche. 
The status of knowledge of freshwater insects in Papua New Guinea was reviewed by Miller (1993: 256-257) 
and Polhemus (1993). Much work remains to be done, but reliable data are available for some groups of aquatic 
insects, including dragonflies and damselflies (Order Odonata), whirligig beetles (Order Cole?ptera, Family Gyrinidae), 
and water bugs (Order Hemiptera). The status of knowledge of other freshwater groups has been reviewed 
recently for molluscs (Cowie 1993), crustaceans (Eldredge 1993), rotifers (Segers and De Mees 1994), flatworms 
(Sluys and Ball 1990), and leeches (Van der Lande 1993). 
Wet/and Degradation and Pollution 
Most of the wetlands in Papua New Guinea are still in pristine condition. The human population density in 
wetland areas, is for the most part low, and their utilisation has been largely at a subsistence level. There are a 
number of instances where wetlands have been abused or threatened, and two case histories are presented in 
Boxes 7.1 and 7.2. 
Box 7.1:  Waiganj Swamp: The History of Wetland Degradation 
Waigani Swamp comprises a number of small, shallow lakes near Port Moresby (see Figure 7.2). It is a small 
part of the extensive swamp/river system dominated by the Brown and Laloki Rivers. The main Waigani Lake is 
shallow (1-2 metres deep) with an open water area of 120 hectares, situated in a valley dominated by urban 
development. The lake is surrounded by a Phragmites karka and Typha domingensis swamp and is heavily fished for 
two introduced species ? Oreochromis mossambica and Cyprinus carpi?. In 1965, sewage settling ponds were 
established nearby, and were expanded, and now about 80 percent of the sewage from the capital city of Port 
Moresby (population approximately 200 000) enters the swamp/lake system. Major changes in the aquatic flora of 
this system have occurred over the last 30 years (described from a series of aerial photographs by Osborne and 
Leach 1983). 
From 1942 to 1956, Waigani Lake was dominated by emergent vegetation and there was very little open water. 
Between 1956 and 1966, this emergent vegetation was replaced by dense stands of floating-leaved plants 
Nymphaea spp. and Nymphoides indica. Following this period, the increase in sewage effluent disposal correlates 
with a decline in floating-leaved plants, and by 1974 only a few small stands remained. By 1978, no floating-leaved 
plants could be found in the main lake and their decline in Waigani Lake was accompanied by a regression of the 
surrounding reed swamp. This latter decline has continued (Osborne and Leach 1983; Osborne and Totome 1992b). 
Osborne and Leach (1983) suggested that nutrient enrichment of the lake was the most likely cause of these 
vegetation changes and concluded that much more research is required before tropical wetlands are used for the 
purification of waste waters. 
Timing of sewage effluent disposal into Waigani Lake correlates with elevated levels in the sediments of lead, 
sulphur, manganese, barium, calcium, sodium, and strontium (Poiunin et al. 1988; Osborne and Polunin 1988). The 
accelerated loadings of these elements may help to explain the disappearance of the swamp vegetation, and it also 
appears that the different vegetation stages may have influenced patterns of sediment geochemistry. 
Environments in Papua New Guinea 105 
Box T-2:  The Wetlands Of Western Province: Threats from Mining 
The central feature of this area is the Fly River (see Figure 7.1), which is the second largest in Papua New 
Guinea, and has a discharge of some 6 000 cubic metres per second. The river is over 1 200 kilometres long and is 
navigable as far as Kiunga, 800 kilometres from its mouth. The gradient in its lower reaches is extremely gentle as 
Kiunga is only 20 metres above sea level, and the river is tidal 250 kilometres from the sea. The Middle Fly is 
characterised by an extensive floodplain 15 to 20 kilometres wide, with a mosaic of lakes, alluvial forest, swamp 
grassland and swamp savannah. The river flows on an alluvial ridge formed by deposition of material eroded from 
the upper catchment, and as this deposition was more rapid than that of tributary streams, the tributaries became 
blocked, forming numerous tributary lakes. The river meanders extensively in this region, and In addition to 
tributary lakes, there are numerous back swamps and oxbows of variable depth depending on age. Lake Murray 
{see figure 7.2) is the largest of these habitats and lies in a shallow depression (maximum depth of seven metres) in 
the Y formed by the Strickland and Fly Rivers. 
This enormous wetland system is of high conservation value, providing a refuge during drought years for 
waterfowl from Australia. More importantly, over 40 000 people are sustained by the natural resources of the Ok 
Tedi and Fly Rivers. Consequently, the environmental impacts on these wetlands resulting from the construction 
and operation of the Ok Tedi and Porgera mines in the upper catchment of the Fly and Strickland Rivers, 
respectively, has been a cause for some concern (Pernetta 1988; Townsend 1988; Rosenbaum and Krockenberger 
1993). The Ok Tedi mine, located at Mt. Fubilan in the far west of Papua New Guinea, is now one of the largest in 
the world. Waste rock and tailings are currently dumped into the Ok Tedi, a tributary of the Fly River. 
Gold production commenced in May 1984 and copper production in March 1987. The gold circuit was closed in 
August 1988, and the mine now only produces copper. The impact of mine waste discharges has been 
characterised by increasing suspended solid levels and concomitant increases in dissolved and particulate trace 
metal levels, particularly copper {Salomons and Eagle 1990). Biologists working for the mining company monitored 
fish populations at two sites in the Ok Tedi River and one site in the Fly River (Smith and Hortle 1991; Smith and 
Morris 1992). They found that at the upstream site, catches were reduced to low levels shortly after mine 
operations commenced. In the lower Ok Tedi, there were distinct changes in the fish assemblage during the 
different phases of mine operation. At Kuambit, below the Ok Tedi-Fly River junction, mine contaminants were 
considerably diluted by the waters of the Fly River. The fish stocks at this site were also greater and more diverse 
than those of the lower Ok Tedi. Consequently, changes in the fish assemblages have been more gradual with the 
exception of a dramatic reduction in herring {Nematalosa spp.) abundance. Smith and Morris (1992) attributed the 
reduction in herrings to very high levels of cyanide recorded on 13-14 October 1986, and a subsequent inability of 
the population to recover. Smith and Hortle (1991) predicted that the greatest impact of the mine will be felt 
between 1989 and 1993 following which catches should be close to 1988 levels for the remainder of the mine's 
life. Recovery of the fishery following the cessation of mining will depend on the rate of erosion of accumulated 
mine wastes in the bed of the Ok Tedi and at the mine site, and on the availability of recruits from fish stocks in 
water bodies less seriously affected by mine discharges. Recovery may take 20 years, which together with the 30- 
year life of the mine, represents at least a 50-year disruption to the traditional lifestyles of the local inhabitants and 
to the ecology of the Fly River system (Rosenbaum and Krockenberger 1993). 
Other aquatic ecosystems have also been affected through waste disposal, and the impact of sewage effluents 
on the Waigani wetland have already been described. The principal environmental threat from the Porgera copper 
and silver mine is through tailings disposal into the Laiagap-Strickland River system (Natural Systems Research 
1988). Tailings disposal at this mine is complicated by their high mercury content. High levels of mercury in fish of 
the Fly-Strickland River systems have been known for some time (Lamb 1977; Kyle and Ghani 1982, 1984). The 
Herbert River, which drains Lake Murray into the Strickland, has been shown to reverse flow on occasions, a result 
of the flatness of the topography and marked seasonal fluctuations in the water level of Lake Murray and the 
Strickland River (Natural Systems Research 1988; Osborne et al. 1987).  This discovery indicated a pathway for 
106 Papua New Guinea's Biological Diversity 
mine wastes to accumulate in Lake Murray. Mo significant studies assessing the impacts on aquatic ecosystems of 
forest harvesting by either clear felling or s?lective logging have been carried out in Papua Mew Guinea. 
Papua New Guinea faces the dilemma of choosing between potential environmental degradation from such 
projects and the large monetary rewards that they bring. This dilemma indicates the urgent need for research into 
the general ecological functioning of wetlands in the tropics, and, more specifically, into the effects of increased 
heavy metal and sediment loadings on the Middle Fly wetlands. 
Marine and Coastal Environments 
Papua New Guinea has a total sea area of 3 12D 000 square kilometres (Pernetta 1990), and a total coastline 
of 17 110 kilometres (Bualia and Sullivan 1990) which encompasses the coastal peripheries of the mainland and 
islands of 15 of its 20 provinces. The marine environments of Papua Mew Guinea and the organisms they support 
are surprisingly poorly studied. In general, the areas where the marine biota is understood are near the major ports 
and research centres of Port Moresby, Lae, Christensen Research Institute (CRl) in Madang, and Motupore Island 
Research Station in Port Moresby (McGregor and Huber 1993; Agardy and Pernetta 1993). Data also exist for the 
Gulf of Papua, because of its rich commercial fisheries resources and the environmental impact studies related to 
the Purari hydroelectric scheme done in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Dceanographic data for Papua New 
Guinea are scattered, largely because most of the work has been done by foreign research laboratories, mainly from 
New Zealand and Australia, while observing large-scale oc?anographie phenomena in this region (Wyrtki 1960; 
Kailola and Wilson 1978; Scully-Power 1973a, 1973b; Wolansky 1985). 
Several processes are responsible for the present distributional patterns of the different environments and their 
constituent biota. These can be classified into three broad categories: 
? geological processes, including tectonic activity, quaternary sea-level changes, and weathering, erosion and 
terrestrial run-off; 
? oc?anographie and climatic processes, including currents and wind-induced circulations; and 
? biogeographical processes, being the dispersal, colonisation and development of characteristic biota in 
response to suitable environmental and ecological conditions, 
Papua New Guinea is surrounded by three major water masses whose coherence and separation is largely influenced 
by the seabed bathymetry ? the Bismarck Sea, the Solomon Sea, and the Coral Sea (Krause 1967; Mutter 1972). 
Papua Mew Guinea is situated in a geologically very active area. Tectonic movements of the land up and down, 
together with fluctuations of sea level associated with climatic change during the Quaternary Period have given rise 
to a number of features in the coastal and marine environment of Papua New Guinea. These include the fjords 
(drowned river valleys) near Tuf i in Oro Province (Ranck and Jackson 1973), the high islands of the D'Entrecasteaux 
Islands and the Louisiade Archipelago which are remnants of the drowned extension of the Papuan Peninsula 
(Krause 1967), the raised coral reef terraces along the northeast coast of the Huon Peninsula (Zhu et al. 1988), and 
the exposure of reefal limestones of Miocene Age at Delena near Yule Island, Central Province (Perembo 1983). 
Figure 7.1:   Major Wetland Areas in Papua New Guinea. 
Q. 
^^9- 
Papuo New Guinea Wetland Inventory 
kWETLAND  ?OgMDAHY 
.MAJOR   DKAIMAaC   OlVlSlOM 
QauOING     ?TATlON   (CLOtCOl 
OkVatUO    ?T?TlON   lOP-EHl 
1. 
2. 
3, 
4, 
5. 
9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 
16, 
17. 
18. 
19. 
20. 
Allia wetland 
Empress Augusta Bay wetland 
Toriu wetland 
Natno weiland 
Rakua wetland 
Mullin's Harbour wetland 
Kemp Welch and Mori wetlanils 
Vanapa wetland 
Lakekamu wetland 
Kikori watland 
Fly River wetland 
Vanimo wetland 
Arnold River wetland 
Sepik wetland 
Ramu wetland 
Markham wetland 
Mambare wetland 
Musa wetland 
Kelaua wetland 
Malal wetland 
3 
CO 
en 
CD 
C3 
Figure 7.2:   The Major River Catchments of Papua New Guinea and Gaographical Position of Mountains and Lakes. 
Environments in Papua New Guinea 109 
Weathering, erosion, and terrestrial run-off contribute sediments and freshwater input into coastal and marine 
environments. These products either help build a habitat, or destroy or limit its development. Examples of 
depositional environments are Papua New Guinea's numerous non-calcareous sandy beaches and the deltas of the 
major river systems of the Fly, Purari and Septk Rivers. A good example of sandy beaches of this origin is along the 
northwest coast from Wewak to Vanimo; this area has been considered to have potential for beach-sand mining for 
minerals such as chromite (Wangu, personal communication). Sedimentation processes are also important to the 
maintenence of mangrove ecosystems (Woodroffe 1992). Depositton of fine muds and silts in sufficiently lighted 
estuaries or the adjacent coastal habitats of suitable salinities is conducive to the establishment and development of 
seagrass beds. The input of sediments and freshwater into the nearshore marine environment is detrimental to the 
development or maintenance of coral reefs. Waters with salinities much less than 35 percent suppress coral 
growth. Turbid waters cut off light needed by the photosynthetic symbionts (Zooxanthellae) as well as clogging 
and suffocating the coral polyps. This influence on the establishment and development of coral reefs shows in the 
absence of coral reefs near the mouths of major rivers. 
Key Environments 
The key marine environments of Papua New Guinea were briefly described in the Conservation Needs 
Assessment (Agardy and Pernetta 1993). These descriptions are incomplete, but serve as points of reference and 
as bases to plan and execute more detailed studies. Agardy and Pernetta (1993) listed the following principal 
environments: (1) reefs (fringing, barrier, and patch reefs); |2) mangroves; (3) seagrass beds; (4) sand and mud- 
accreting shorelines and intertidal flats; (5) barrier dunes and associated lagoons; (6) deltaic floodplains and 
estuarine areas; (7) sea mounts; (8) rocky shorelines; and (9) reef walls and drop-off areas of the continental slope. 
There is a vital need for a comprehensive survey of the coastal ecosystems of Papua New Guinea to provide the 
basis for resource management (see further suggestions by H/laragos 1991; Agardy and Pernetta 1993). 
With the exception of sea mounts and continental slope environments (types 7 and 9), all the other environments 
occur on the continental sheif and the coastal environments associated with its landward margin. Continental slope 
habitats occur at the seaward margin of the continental shelf, and sea mounts are usually features of the bathyal 
and abyssal environments projecting up to 1 000 metres vertically into the overlying deep waters, providing feeding 
and refuge habitats for large deepwater predatory fishes and their prey. Deepwater species such as yellowfin tuna 
[Thunnus albacares), deepwater sharks, and billfishes are examples of these large predatory pelagic species. 
Coral Reefs and Seagrasses 
Coral reefs (fringing, barrier and patch reefs) and seagrass beds are subtidal habitats that are often sympatric in 
their distribution but require environments with different oc?anographie conditions. Coral reefs occur in warm and 
well-lighted oligotrophic waters with less destructive moderate water currents which circulate and disperse any 
suspended sediments contained therein (Cahill et al. 1973; Manser 1973; Weber 1973; Moore 1982; Veron 1985). 
These currents and waves sweep the suspended material over the reef crest into the lagoon (energetically quieter 
environments) at the back reef; this basic pattern of reefal sediment sorting occurs on both barrier and fringing 
reefs (Cahill et al. 1973; Manser 1973b; Weber 1973; Haig 1988). 
Most of the reefs in Papua New Guinea are of the fringing and patch reef type (Whitehouse 1973). Extensive 
barrier reefs only occur along the south coast, around the Louisiade Archipelago, and end at East Cape on the 
eastern coast, indicating a sinking continental margin in this area (Whitehouse 1973). The northern coast and the 
islands, although not as rich in coral growth as the southern and eastern coasts (Whitehouse 1973), are dominated 
by fringing and patch reefs. There is a relative disparity in coral reef habitats in the four regions ? northern, 
islands, southern and eastern (Papua New Guinea Geological Map 1976, Scale 1: 2 500 000). 
w 
110 Papua New Guinea's Biological Diversity 
The sediments deposited in the lagoons of barrier and fringing reef systems are conducive to the establishment 
of seagrasses. Being marine angiosperms (monocots) (Larkum and Den Hartog 1989),they require the sediments for 
root establishment, anchoring and nutrient uptake (Brouns 19S6). The distribution of seagrasses in Papua New 
Guinea has been studied (Johnstone 1979, 1982), but detailed ecological studies of seagrasses and their habitats 
have been undertaken only on Motupore and Lion Islands (Brouns and Heijs 1986). 
Cora/ Biodiversity 
As discussed in Chapter 6, Papua New Guinea's coral reefs, especially those along the northern coast, may be 
the most diverse in the world. The reasons for this spectacular diversity are not clear but a possible explanation is 
as follows. The northern coast of New Guinea forms the southern margin of the Indonesian-Malaysian-Philippine 
region of global maximum marine biodiversity. The complex geological history of accretion of many small tectonic 
plates into northern New Guinea provides a mechanism for recruitment of entire biotas from other parts of the Indo- 
Pacific. As the Australian continental plate moved north towards Asia, its leading edge (now New Guinea) may 
have accumulated elements from faunas at higher latitudes. The history of prolonged geological uplift in the area 
ensures that comparable reef habitats always persisted under similar environmental conditions, even during the 
major sea-level fluctuations of the Pleistocene glaciations. Elsewhere, most reefs were on broad continental shelves 
that became dry land as sea levels fell, and local extinctions of reef faunas were widespread. As cyclones rarely 
reach this coast, forms vulnerable to physical disturbance are much more likely to persist, even on exposed outer 
reefs. Until very recently, human population densities have been very low and technology limited, so that human 
impacts have been minor. 
Papua New Guinea coral reefs are highly vulnerable to disturbance for the following reasons. Coastal human 
populations, largely retaining traditional uses of reefs, are increasing rapidly, and putting much greater demands on 
the systems. Many reefs in Papua New Guinea are very close to shore (fringing and barrier reefs) so that access to 
all parts of the reef is easy. Rapid increases in technology (boats, motors, masks, SCUBA, explosives, etc.) greatly 
increase the impact of each person on reefs. Commercial and export trades increase demands on reefs far beyond 
those of just the people living there. Physical damage from anchors, fishing gear, divers, explosives, and so on, 
simplifies the reef structure, destroys micro-habitats for many other species, and creates rubble that further 
destroys more reef habitat and reduces biodiversity further. Close proximity to land, plus limited tidal flushing of 
inshore lagoons, makes Papua New Guinea's reefs especially vulnerable to siltation and other adverse effects of 
increased run-off and erosion of land. 
Box 7.3:   Coral Reef Management: Lessons from the Caribbean 
In many ways, marine environments in Papua New Guinea are still relatively close to pristine. In this respect, 
they resemble the Caribbean when Europeans arrived 500 years ago. Since then, the Caribbean has seen prolonged 
population increases, massive habitat modification on land (for plantations, etc.), and a sequence of fisheries for 
both subsistence and export. To provide a background for planning the future management of Papua New Guinea's 
reefs, it is instructive to review the history of decline of Caribbean reefs. 
Beginning in the 16th century with the largest organisms, specialised fisheries have sequentially depleted stocks 
to levels from which they have never recovered. In turn, the Caribbean has been depleted of most large carnivores 
(for example, sharks, barracuda, and coral trout) and most large herbivores (manatees, turtles, parrot and other 
grazing fishes, conches, etc.) to the point where today, most higher levels of the food webs are largely missing in 
many regions. For example, in Jamaica, so few large fish now remain that subsistence fishing now consists almost 
entirely of netting very small fish for stews and fishmeal. While overfishing of particular species began in the 16th 
Environments in Papua New Guinea 111 
century with primitive technologies, it has accelerated exponentially ever since as technologies, populations and 
economic pressures surged. 
Virtually all Caribbean reefs are now accessible to large numbers of people on a daily basis. The problems 
became severe almost simultaneously in many parts of the Caribbean since about 1980. First, a disease killed most 
of the only remaining large herbivore species (the sea urchin Diadema) throughout the Caribbean in only eight 
months. Second, the frequency of severe hurricanes increased after several quiet decades leading to widespread 
physical damage. Third, rapidly increasing terrestrial activity (industrialisation, agriculture, forestry, tourism, 
population explosion, etc.) greatly increased adverse effects on adjacent reefs (siltation, freshwater run-off, 
pollution, sewage, nutrient input, marine construction, etc.). Hughes (1994) details the situation in Jamaica. 
In many places since 1980 (for example, Jamaica, Florida, Costa Rica, Colombia, etc.), coral-dominated 
communities have been replaced by algal-dominated communities. This has also involved loss of many species 
usually associated with corals (including many preferred food species), loss of physical habitats through bioerosion 
of coral limestones and their conversion to sediments, and major changes in turbidity, nutrient content and other 
undesirable seawater properties. The changes appear relatively stable and permanent, and the trend appears to be 
towards much simpler, lower diversity communities, probably with greatly reduced economic value and certainly 
much less aesthetic appeal for the tourist industries (SCOPE Coral Reef Biodiversity Workshop 1993). 
There is anecdotal evidence that analogous changes towards algal-dominated communities are beginning close to 
Papua New Guinea in the Philippines in r?ponse to similar processes exacerbated by the widespread chronic damage 
to Philippine reefs caused by repeated destructive fishing techniques (explosives, cyanide, sound waJJs of rocks 
pounded on bottom). If this is true, the processes that took centuries to approach completion in the Caribbean, took 
only decades in the Philippines; similar deleterious changes in Papua New Guinea could also occur in decades if it 
permits similar terrestrial and marine exploitation practices, enhanced by the most modern, large-scale technologies. 
Mudflats, Estuaries and Mangroves 
Mudflats, estuaries and mangroves are associated with areas influenced by fluvial run-off and delta formation. 
These environments are largely found in southern and northern Papua New Guinea. The principal river systems on 
the south coast are the Fly, Kikori and Purari, with smaller ones such as the Brown River/Vanapa and Kemp Welch 
River to the south east of these major river systems. The principal river systems on the north coast are the Sepik 
River and the nearby Ramu River, and the Markham River to the southeast. Extensive and well-developed mangrove 
habitats are associated with these major river systems. The most extensive of these occur along the southwest 
coast in association with the Fly, Kikori and Purari River systems (Percival and Womersley 1975; Johnstone and 
Frodin1982). 
Sandy and Rocky Shores 
Sandy and rocky shores are environments of coastlines where oc?anographie, fluvial and geomorphological 
processes are suitable. Oc?anographie conditions that change seasonally in response to local wind patterns and the 
amount of energy transfered to the coastal currents regulate where transported sediments are deposited or where 
material is eroded. On the mainland and high islands beaches form in embayments with gently sloping coastlines 
which are shaded from high-energy coastal currents. Exposed coastlines with steep slopes tend to contain rocky 
shores. On low-lying islands in the vicinity of extensive coral reefs, coastlines are predominantly covered by sandy 
beaches. The relative sizes of beaches are different on the leeward and windward sides of these islands. The north 
coast of Papua New Guinea from Wewak to Vanimo has a good stretch of sandy-shore habitats. Similar habitats 
have been documented for the coastline between Labu Tali and Busama, southeast of Lae, Morobe Province. The 
112 Papua New Guinea's Biological Diversity 
sandy beaches in this area are important nesting grounds for the leatherback turtle (Demochelys cori?cea) (Hirth et 
al. 1993). 
Summary of Conservation Needs Assessment Maps 
The following summarises the priority maps (major unknown areas, marine systems and critical watersheds, and 
the terrestrial synthesis) derived by the Coriseruation Needs Assessment, with appended accounts for each of the 
delineated areas of importance. The Conservation Needs Assessment process involved reviews of existing data on 
both organisms and habitats by national and international specialists. Team leaders then met in Madang and 
reached consensus, with the assistance of a geographic information system, on these maps. The following is taken 
verbatim from Beehler (1993), which should be seen for additional details. 
The following three maps reflect the effort at the workshop to synthesise the available information and 
complete a series of biodiversity assessments. These, then, can be presented in map form for the future use of 
biologists and resource managers concerned with the conservation of Papua New Guinea's remarkable natural 
resources. For additional data on many of the sites, the reader can refer to individual topic chapters in Volume 2 of 
the Conservation Needs Assessment Report, but a summary listing of additional supporting data appears with each 
of the three maps. These supporting data include key information on a focal area's biological richness, its 
biogeographic and ecological importance, potential threats, and supporting documentation in the literature. 
A number of points were made clear from the assessments and the workshop interactions. First and foremost 
was that there are large gaps in our knowledge of Papua New Guinea's biodiversity. Whereas birds, rhododendrons, 
mammals, and birdwing butterflies are fairly well documented, most invertebrates and most plant groups are little 
known, with many species still undescribed. Large segments of Papua New Guinea remain unstudied and thus are 
biological unknowns (highlighted in the map of unknowns featured). The marine resources, perhaps, stand as the 
least surveyed of all. 
On a more positive note, the agreement between biologists on terrestrial sites of significant biological 
importance was surprisingly high. Although there was disagreement about the detail of area boundaries, there were 
very few disagreements about the general location of Papua New Guinea's most important storehouses of 
biodiversity. We believe this signals that we have sufficient information to make informed assessments in spite of 
our recognition that there is still a great deal yet to survey and study. 
The Conservation Needs Assessment workshop also agreed that the following statement should be distributed 
with the final map: 
The Constitution of Papua New Guinea promotes equality and participation, the wise use of natural 
resources, and Papua New Gui?ean forms of development. Ninety-seven percent of Papua New Guinea is 
owned according to customary tenure. This map was prepared by biological scientists and, based on 
available knowledge, identifies areas richest in biodiversity. This map is not intended to, nor should it be 
used to, exclude any areas or any landowners from conservation programs and initiatives. When 
identifying appropriate conservation strategies and areas, local initiative is as important a criteria as 
biodiversity. 
Synthesis Map A: Major Terrestrial Unknowns 
Major areas unknown to science were delineated mainly from a combination of the mapping by the vertebrate 
and botany teams. These are the two groups for which there is a well-refined knowledge of the major geographic 
gaps in knowledge of Papua New Guinea's biodiversity. The 16 major terrestrial unknowns are shown in Figure 7.3, 
and are discussed. 
I 
I 
wmm. 
Environments in Papua New Guinea 113 
Figuro 7.3: Major Unknown Terrestrial Areas of Papua Now Guinea 
Name of classes 
Scale 1:    9000000 
Frequency 
(cells) 
Area 
(Kiti^) 
columns 
lines 
(%) 
1 :  712 
1 :  534 
unasslgned 52604 
largely unstudied 22607 
328775.00  69.9 
141293.80   30.1 
TOTAL    75211    470068.80  100.0 
T^ 
114 Papua New Guinea's Biological Diversity 
1. Bewani Mountains: The low coastal range that reaches westward to the Irian border, and the humid 
lowlands south of this range, are little studied and apparently biologically rich. Recent discoveries of two 
new mammal species, and a lowland Bird of Paradise formerly known only from Irian Jaya, support the 
idea that further survey and research are needed here. 
2. Centrat Range: The high range that rises south of the Sepik basin is little studied and largely forested. 
This area is ecologically and physiographically diverse and presumably very rich biologically. 
3. Southern Scarp Wet Zone: This is Papua l\lew Guinea's great wilderness area - lowlands, low hills, and 
old Pleistocene volcanoes, with a high annual rainfall.  It is sparsely populated and little known. Notable 
are the Kikori karst hills and prominent volcanic outliers, including Mount Bosaui and Mount Murray. 
Eastward one finds rugged wet forests that form the southern foothills of the Kubor Range and Eastern 
Highlands. These are virtually uninhabited and very wet. 
4. Finisterre Range: The highlands and hills of the western segment of the Huon Peninsula are virtually 
unstudied, but certainly comprise a significant biological resource. Alpine peaks exceeding 4 000 metres 
descend to the hilly coastal zone facing the Bismarck Sea. 
5. Lakekamu Basin/Ctiapman Range: Like the Finisterre Range, this area is relatively close to population 
centres, and yet is both little developed and virtually unknown biologically. The area includes pristine 
humid lowland forest to subalpine highland zones I > 3 000 m} in the Chapman Range, and is very rich in 
wildlife. 
6. Bowutu Ultrabasics: Rugged hills and mountains that descend to the rocky coast of IVIorobe Province. 
The area is botanically unusual and virtually unsurveyed. 
7. loma/Mambare Lowlands: An isolated lowland area that merits study. It supports a large lowland basin 
that is largely forested - comprising the largest lowland forest tract on the Papuan peninsula. 
8. Musa Basin: Important wetlands and lowland swamp forests that are unknown. 
9. Kemp-Welch River Lowlands: A remnant wetland area representative of the dry lowlands of Central 
Province. Not yet surveyed. 
10. Cloudy Mountains: An isolated range of mountains that is, as yet, unsurveyed. These form the 
southernmost mountains of mainland Papua New Guinea. 
11. Fergusson /highlands: Zoologically unsurveyed highlands on one of the most complex high islands in 
Melanesia. Mt. Kilkerran comprises a large forested massif never surveyed zoologically. One of the top 
priority zoological unknowns. 
12. West New Britain: Little known mountains and lowlands. 
13. Central and Eastern New Britain: Unsurveyed high ranges and southern scarp lowlands. The Nakanai 
Mountains comprise a large uplifted plateau (mostly > 1 000 m) in eastern New Britain whose montane 
fauna has never been surveyed (Coultas failed to collect any of the significant montane birds). The area 
constitutes the largest continuous expanse of montane forest on New Britain. 
Southern New Ireland:   Biologically unknown highlands that constitute New Ireland's most complex 
environments.  The Verr?n Range is unsurveyed and unknown, with summits higher than 2 000 metres. 
Environments in Papua New Guinea 115 
The Hans Meyer Range is the highest of any island in the Bismarcks, and still has not been surveyed 
adequately for vertebrates, 
15. Bougainville Bamboo Forests: The only known bamboo forests in Melanesia. Unstudied biologically. 
16. Mt. Takuan/Lake Lorotu: Littie-surveyed wet fiighlands forests with a Solomon Islands biota. 
Synthesis Map B: Marine Systems and Critical Watersheds 
One of the major points of tfie Conservation Needs Assessment workshop discussions was that the health of 
coastal marine ecosystems depended, in part, on the integrity of the watersheds that empty into them (see Figure 
7.4). We thus present a map that combines watersheds and coastal/marine ecosystems. We list marine priorities, 
followed by critical watersheds. 
Marine Priorities 
1. Maza/Fly Delta: Mangrove and associated nursery habitats, with seagrass beds, green sea turtle foraging 
habitats, and dugong habitat. The area is possibly threatened by overfishing and river-borne pollutants. 
2. Gulf-. Shallow intertidal and soft bottom habitats; mangrove communities that comprise important 
nursery areas for prawns, barramundi, and other commercially important species. Possible threats 
include overfishing, oil exploration, and pipeline construction. 
3. Galley Reach: Highly productive mangrove forests, wetlands, and reef. The area is threatened by 
development and exploitation because of its proximity to Port Moresby. 
4. Papuan Barrier and Lagoon: Barrier reef, coastal lagoon, and mangroves containing Hawksbill turtles, 
reef fishes, corals, and marine invertebrates. High diversity. Threatened by dynamite fishing, 
overfishing, and eutrophication from sewage effluents related to Port Moresby development. 
5. Dumoulin: Reef in proximity to southern drop-off (potential upwelling). Largely unknown but contains 
populations of giant clams. 
6. R?ssel Island: Reef systems, lagoons, isolated island areas, upwelling area. Largely unknown 
biologically. Possible threats from foreign poaching. 
7. Pocklington Reef: Extensive reef system, thought to be relatively pristine; isolated by deep water from 
all other reef systems in Milne Bay. May show affinities to New Georgia reef system. 
8. Morobe Coast: Mangroves, sea walls, Leatherback turtle nesting beaches, and fringing reefs. Potential 
for community initiated conservation program. High beta diversity. Potential threats from nearby Lae 
town, especially from logging of coastal hill forests. 
9. Tufi Coastal Fjords: Coral fjords, fringing reefs, mangrove, sea walls, and thermal vents. An environment 
unique in Papua New Guinea. High potential for nature tourism. 
116 Papua New Guinea's Biological Diversity 
Figure 7.4: Critical Watersheds and Marine Ecosystems 
Scale 1: 9000000 
Name of classes Frequency 
(cells) 
Area 
(Klll2) 
I I unassigned marine 277358 
B highly significant 27639 
^ significant watershed area 46431 
I I unassigned terrestrial     28780 
1733488.00 
172743.80 
290193.80 
179875.00 
columns 
lines 
(%) 
72.9 
7.3 
12.2 
7.6 
712 
534 
TOTAL 380208 2376300.00  100.0 
.ii>.',. 
IH 
mi ii 
Environments in Papua New Guinea 117 
10. Fullerborne: Raised limestone islands, mangrove and associated nursery areas, and seagrass beds. 
Habitat and structural diversity high. Threats from large-scale timber operations. 
11. Talasea: Reef and soft bottom marine habitats. Leatherback turtle nesting beaches. 
12. Rabaul/Duke of York: Mangrove, seagrass, reef, offshore deepwater areas with vents. Threats because 
of proximity to nearby Rabaul town and timber operations in watersheds above coast. 
13. Tigak Islands: Mangroves, seagrasses, reef, and deepwater mangrove lagoon. Highly productive fishery. 
Beta diversity very high. Threats from dynamite fishing. 
14. Mussau Island: Reef systems and seagrasses. Sea turtles and dugongs. Some parts of this marine 
system are relatively pristine because of traditional practices of islanders. Threats from dynamite 
fishing. 
15. Tanga/Tabar/Feni Islands: Subsea volcanic formations, mineral rich areas, isolated island systems; may 
be very important for endangered vertebrates (sea turtles). Diverse habitats and unusual geomorphology. 
Possible threat from nearshore and offshore overfishing. 
16. Southern New Ireland: Fringing reefs. 
17. Buka: Reef-and-lagoon complex; soft bottom communities. Coral reef fishes, but otherwise largely 
unknown. Buka Channel comprises a unique habitat in Papua New Guinea. Threats from overfishing and 
poor land-use practices. 
18. South Coast Bougainville: Reefs and associated habitats; swamp forest differs from those on mainland. 
Largely unknown fauna. Selected because of presence of reef systems in proximity to deep open ocean 
waters. 
]Q. Borone Bay: Largely unknown. Unusual hydrography coupled with steep sloped shore fall-off. Threats 
from logging and mining in upland areas. 
20. Hermit Islands: Extensive, discrete, patch reefs. Sea turtles. Highly productive, fisheries rich. Reef 
areas far from population centres. Threats from overfishing and poaching. Uncontrolled tourism in 
western islands may be a potential threat. 
21. Menus Complex: Reefs and lagoon complexes, seagrass beds, seabird rookery islands. Presence of green 
tree snail, reef fishes, pelagics, sea turtles.  High beta diversity.  Reefs diverse yet highly threatened. 
Threats from dynamite fishing and phosphate mining on seabird islands. 
22. Cape Cretin: Ancient reef faces. 
23. i/itiaz Straits: Reefs. Steep land in proximity to reef areas. Threat from land-use practices. 
24. Volcanic Chain: Manam to Long Island. Volcanic islands, reef walls, sea mounts, sea turtle nesting 
beaches, upwelling areas. Pelagic fishes congregating at sea walls and sea mounts. Threats from 
overfishing and overharvest of sea turtle eggs. 
25. Madang Lagoon: Coral reefs, lagoon islands, and mangrove patches. Coral and fish species. Extremely 
well studied; species rich; high habitat diversity. Threat from commercial development in association 
with Madang town; dynamiting, and logging. 
118 Papua New Guinea's Biological Diversity 
26. Laing Island: Reef system and marine research station. Threats from dynamiting and copra plantation 
waste. 
27. Sepik Delta: Mangrove, brackish lake systems; crocodiles; highly productive; unique hydrology. Threats 
from watershed mismanagement and introduction of exotic fishes. 
28. Vokeo and Islands: Small island systems in association with deep water. 
29. Northwest Coast: Sandy beaches; fauna largely unsurveyed. Interesting current regimes and bottom 
topography; productive waters. Threats from overfishing and coastal logging. 
Critical Watersheds 
? Sepik/Fly Drainages: These comprise the two largest watersheds in Papua New Guinea. The Fly River is 
of critical importance to the health of the Gulf of Papua. The Sepik River supports a large human 
population which is dependent on the river for much of its livelihood. 
? Morobe/Waria Watershed: Important upland drainages that affect the coastal islands and reef of 
Morobe. 
? Vanapa/Brown: A compact but important peninsular river system that drains into a significant mangrove 
system. 
? MusafTopographers: A small but important watershed that affects the marine systems around Tufi. 
? West New Britain: Important to the priority marine systems of West Mew Britain. 
Synthesis Map C: Terrestrial Biodiversity 
Details on all of these priority areas appear in Volume 2 of the Conservation Needs Assessment report. 
Summaries for each follow. The map shows four categories: (1) unassigned, (2) biologically important, (3) very 
important biologically, and (4} important wetlands not included in (2) or (3) (see Figure 7.5). 
1. North Coastal Hills : Lower montane and lowland alluvial forests that are relatively poorly surveyed but 
known to be rich in Irianese specialties. The area includes the endemic fern genus Rheopteris and also 
interesting coastal limestone communities. The highlands of the North Coastal Ranges support two 
endemic species of large mammals (the Giant Glider and Scott's Tree Kangaroo), and a number of isolated 
and taxonomically distinct bird populations. 
2. Star Highlands: include pristine alpine and montane environments descending to mid-montane valleys, 
foothills, and fringing lowlands. They support a diverse montane and high altitude vegetation with many 
plant species in common with the mountains of Irian Jaya. The subalpine forests are home to a 
significant population of the globally threatened Macgregor's Bird of Paradise. The environmental 
transect from the summit heights northward to the Ai River lowlands has been documented as having the 
richest known mammal fauna in New Guinea. 
3. Central Range/Sepik Foothills: Comprise a large wilderness area with low human population and 
remarkable habitat diversity, from lowland to subalpine forest.  The area includes extensive stands of 
Environments in Papua New Guinea 119 
Agathis labillardieri, which support a highly diverse epiphytic flora. The health of the Sepik hill forests 
are important to the river and its human cultures. 
4. Upper Fly Lowlands: This area of lowland and hill forest is delimited by the Palmer River on the east and 
Irian border on the west, and the southern scarp of the central cordillera on the north. Except for the 
extensive settlements related to the Ok Tedi mine (in the west) this area comprises a large expanse of old 
growth wet rainforest that supports a small human population and is characteristic of the extraordinarily 
rich biota of the upper Fly platform. 
5. Tonda/Bulla Plain: Savannah and riverine gallery forest unique in Papua New Guinea. The large areas of 
savannah and seasonally flooded grasslands and marshes constitute a globally significant wintering 
ground for migratory waders and waterfowl both from Australia and the Palearctic. 
6. Northern Trans-Fly: Unsurveyed seasonal forest and woodland that is probably a habitat formation 
unique in Papua New Guinea. An undercollected flora closely related to that occurring in the Cape York 
Peninsula. 
7. Mount Bosavi/Aramia Watershed: An outlying Pleistocene volcano and vast alluvial plain. Virtually 
uninhabited. Proposed for national park status more than a decade ago, the forests of the great extinct 
Mount Bosavi volcano have long been recognised to be of importance to conservation in Papua New 
Guinea. The tract comprises the volcanic cone plus lower slopes to the west and southwest. These 
forests are faunistically rich and virtually undisturbed. 
8. Doma Peaks/Leiwaro Highlands:. Rich highlands environments with high scenic and biotic value. Doma 
Peaks (and Tari Gap) have been considered for national park status. These comprise a large mid-montane 
and upper montane tract of uninhabited forest that is exceedingly rich in birds of paradise. Road access 
to 3 000 metres on Tari Pass. The area includes volcanic peaks. 
9. Kikori Karst/Lake Kutubu: Unknown and unsurveyed, with a remarkable karst topography and Papua 
New Guinea's largest highland lake. Lake Kutubu supports a diverse aquatic plant flora, and eleven of the 
fourteen known fish species in the lake are endemic to it. The area also includes an enormous tract of 
tower limestone, which is botanically unknown. Limestone floras in southeast Asia are often very rich, 
and, if the Great Papuan Plateau reflects this diversity, it is most important that detailed studies be made 
of its flora. The limestone flora is poorly known from New Guinea, but it will likely include many 
undescribed species and possibly new generic records. 
10. Giluwe: The massive Giluwe shield volcano is capped by the largest contiguous expanse of alpine 
vegetation in Papua New Guinea. This is a globally-significant montane and alpine wilderness threatened 
by logging of the beech-podocarp forests of its middle and upper slopes. The area is very rich biologically, 
and contains extensive subalpine bogs. 
11. Adelbert Mountains: Threatened lower montane forests that are home to the endemic Fire-Maned 
Bowerbird, the rarest bird species in Papua New Guinea and the bird species with the most circumscribed 
geographic range known for mainland Papua New Guinea. The forests are little known, but probably 
diverse. 
12. Bismarck Highlands/Ramu Basin: From Papua New Guinea's highest summit to one of its richest lowland 
alluvial forests. The Ramu supports extensive areas of lowland rainforest (including swamp forest), some 
of which is developed on ultrabasic parent rock [with the only known locality of Lauterbachia 
(r/lonimiaceae)]. 
120 Papua New Guinea's Biological Diversity 
Figure 7.5: Important Areas for Terrestrial Animal Life, Vegetation and Wetlands 
> 
^ 
Scale 1: 9000000 
Name of classes Frequency 
(cells) 
E] unassigned 36408 
? highly significant 15202 
? very highly significant 18090 
I significant wetland 5511 
Area 
(Kin2) 
227550.00 
95012.50 
113062.50 
34443.75 
columns 
lines 
(%) 
48.4 
20.2 
24.1 
7.3 
1 : 
1 : 
712 
534 
TOTAL 75211 470068.80  100.0 
Environments in Papua New Guinea 121 
13. Kubor Highlands: High peaks and uninhabited montane forests, much on limestone capped with volcanic 
ash. A fragile ecosystem that probably contains local endemic plant species. 
14. Crater Mountain: Comprises wet lower montane forest and Pleistocene volcanoes. The Crater Mountain 
ecosystem is a Wildlife Management Area, chosen because of its large expanse of original forest and 
large populations of a diverse array of birds of paradise, including the rare Black Sicklebill [Epimachus 
fastuosas] and Blue Bird of Paradise [Paradisaea rudolpfi/). 
15. Purari Basin: Wet zone lowlands and hills that are virtually uninhabited and little studied. This includes a 
very diverse area of mangrove and swamp vegetation with lowland rainforest on small limestone hills out 
of the surrounding swamps. These evidently support many local plant endemics but are virtually 
uncollected. The area includes numerous species of P?ndanos and also a rich palm flora, particularly of 
Calamus. 
16. Finisterre Range: Papua New Guinea's youngest mountain range, with alpine highlands that remain little 
surveyed. This large montane forest tract, with a broad elevational range, from coastal hill forest to the 
treeline, supports species endemics of three birds of paradise, two honeyeaters, and a tree kangaroo. 
17. Saruwaged and Cromwell Ranges: Alpine highlands and hill tracts threatened by development. This and 
the Finisterre area support numbers of locally endemic bird and mammal species, and the only extensive 
Dacrydium forests in the Southern Hemisphere that remains unlogged. 
18. Watut Hills and Watershed: Little-studied hill country east of the central highlands area. The endemic 
plant genus Piara is recorded only from Mt. Piora and Mt. Amungwiwa. The lower reaches of the Watut 
River drainage support populations of the endemic root parasite Langsdorfia papuana, a genus otherwise 
known only from Madagascar, and Central and South America. 
19. Lakekamu Basin/Chapman Range: Includes an entirely uninhabited tract of forest that ranges from 
pristine lowland alluvial forest to upper montane forest near treeline, all within a transect of no more 
than 20 km. The lowland forest supports large populations of the Southern Crowned Pigeon, Southern 
Cassowary, and Pesquet's Parrot. 
20. Central Province Dry Zone: Savannah and monsoon forest complex with wetlands, threatened by 
development. Also includes the second largest mangrove area in Central Province. 
21. Bowutu Mountains/Kuper Range: The Bowutu Mountains comprise an area of ultrabasic montane flora, 
plus coastal, mangrove, and seagrass communities. The Kuper Range is a high coastal mountain complex 
that is virtually uninhabited and the site of a number of detailed ecological studies on birds and plants. 
22. Owen Stanley Highlands: Extensive alpine areas and vast tracts of pristine montane forests, ranging 
downward in the north to the forested loma lowlands. The Mount Albert Edward dome includes the 
largest alpine uplands in eastern Papua New Guinea, and thus is a critical montane resource. The lowland 
forests constitute a critically threatened resource in peninsular Papua, and those suggested for protection 
here may support populations of the globally threatened (and world's largest) butterfly, Troides 
alexandrae. 
23. Musa River: Little known lowland forests and wetlands. 
24. Safia Dry Zone: A low rainfall interior zone with unusual animal and plant communities. 
25. Topographers Range: An isolated volcanic cone in association with the coastal fjordlands of Tufi. 
122 Papua New Guinea's Biological Diversity 
26. Mt. Suckling: A large montane wilderness isolated from the main Owen Stanley highlands. Virtually 
uninhabited and little disturbed at this point. The Suckling massif is the only significant alpine uplands in 
the eastern peninsula, and, in conjunction with the adjacent Bonua basin, stands as a remarkably pristine 
aggregate of montane and lowland forest in easternmost mainland Papua New Guinea. 
27. Cloudy Mountains: The most southerly mountain range in Papua New Guinea. No collections are known 
from the area which urgently needs study. 
28. Goodenough Highlands: The massive central peaks of Goodenough Island are higher than any other 
mountains on New Guinea's fringing islands. The mountain forests that cloak these summits are home to 
an endemic species of forest wallaby and a bat endemic to these eastern islands. The area contains 
many botanical novelties. 
29. Fergusson/Normanby: Unusual montane habitats and (on Normanby) ultrabasic dwarf forest. Fergusson 
Island is one of Papua New Guinea's great biological unknowns, with three distinct mountain ranges, 
geothermal areas, and other natural wonders. The triok possum (Dactylopsila tatei) is a species endemic 
to Fergusson. Goldie's Bird of Paradise is confined to the forests of these two islands. 
30. Woodlark Island: Floristically unusual; the forests of the interior of Woodlark are home to the endemic 
Woodiark Cuscus. 
31. Louisiades: The flora of this archipelago has been recognised as one of extreme botanical interest with 
high rates of local endemism, particularly at the species level. It includes important stands of Diospyros 
(including an undescribed ebony} and several locally endemic species of Hopea. The forests of Tagula 
Island are home to an endemic species of honeyeater and butcherbird. 
32. Umboi Island: Umboi is the largest and richest of Papua New Guinea's north coastal islands. It is home 
to populations of large numbers of species endemic to Papua New Guinea, as well as a remarkable array 
of fruit bats (eight species). Lake Buan, in Umboi's highlands, supports one of the richest waterbird 
populations in the Bismarck Archipelago. 
33. West New Britain: Mountain and lowland forests distinct from those of the mainland. Threatened by 
large-scale timber operations. The Whiteman Range and its foothills support an important tract of 
limestone flora, surrounded by forests developed on sedimentary materials. Little is known of the area, 
but large tracts of Nothofagus forest occur on the higher plateaus. 
34. Willaumez Peninsula: A remarkable physiographic feature with Lake Dakataua, it includes a very diverse 
area of lowland rainforest on rich volcanic soils. Threatened by logging and proposed development for oil 
palm plantations. 
35. Eastern New Britain: Primarily includes the uplifted and limestone-capped Nakanai Plateau. Little 
surveyed but apparently biotically rich. Lowland rainforest and montane forest, including areas of forest 
dominated by Lithocarpus and Nothofagus developed on the limestone substrate. The largest high 
altitude area in the Bismarck Archipelago. 
36. The Baining Mountains: The high ranges of easternmost New Britain are threatened by logging activities. 
These mountains, isolated by rivers and lowlands from the Nakanai Mountains to the southwest, are 
certainly as fascinating as the latter. They have not been adequately surveyed, and are 500 metres 
higher. These mountains are surrounded by lowlands with a growing populace, and probably will be 
degraded unless action is taken soon. 
r 
Environments in Papua New Guinea 123 
37. Southern New Ireland: The Verr?n and Hans Meyer ranges are little known high ranges that merit study 
and conservation. An area with important montane and lowland vegetation. Brief initial surveys have 
shown this montane area to be very rich, with a number of bird species endemic to New Ireland. 
38. Southern Bougainville Island: Highland wet forests threatened by logging and development. This area 
includes the central and southern segments of the Crown Prince Range, from Panguna south to Lake 
Lorolu, and includes Mt. Takuan and Mt.Taraka. Where appropriate, this area extends downward 
towards the coast where good original forest prevails. Bougainville is home to many species whose 
affinities lie with the other Solomon Islands to the south and southeast. Among the many interesting 
vertebrates is the little known Bougainville Honeyeater {Stresemannia bougainvillei), representing a genus 
endemic to this island. 
39. Eastern Bougainville : Supports the largest stands of bamboos in Papuasia. A variety of vegetation 
types occur, including remnant stands of Terminalia brassii in swamp forests. Threatened by logging and 
possibly sulfur mining. 
40. Leiet Plateau: Comprises important hill and lowland rainforests, with some lower montane elements as 
well. These probably contain many plant endemics with interesting biogeographical relationships with 
Manus, the Philippines, and the Solomon Islands. Threatened by selective logging in the lowlands. 
41. Mussau Island: The interior of Mussau Island, the largest in the St. Matthias group, comprises a large 
block of rain forest. It supports seven species of birds endemic to Papua New Guinea, two of which are 
endemic to Mussau - the Mussau Rufous Fantaii [Rhipidura matthiae) and the Mussau Pied Monarch 
[Manarcha menckeii. 
42. Manus Island : The largest of the Admiralty group, isolated both from the great Bismarck islands to the 
southeast, and from mainland New Guinea far to the south. Not surprisingly, Manus's isolated fauna is 
rich in Papua New Gui?ean endemics (eleven birds, two mammals). Of these, six are endemic to the 
Admiralties. Botanically, the area includes stands of an endemic Calophyllum and Sararanga, which are 
threatened by logging activity. 
Wetland Sites Not Subsumed in the Main Terrestrial Selection 
?   Sissano Lagoon and Wetlands :   Comprise the largest coastal lagoon on the north coast of mainland 
Papua New Guinea, associated with a large wetland. 
The Middle Sepik: A huge complex of river meanders, oxbows, tributary lakes, marshes, and woodland 
swamps, both of ecological and economic importance. 
Sepik Delta/Middle Ramu: A coastal wetland/deltaic complex (Sepik) in association with a low alluvial 
meander belt of the Ramu River, the latter rich in swamp forests. 
Middle Fly: The Fly River, although only 1 200 km long, is, in terms of the volume of water discharged, 
so large that it ranks with the world's great rivers. The middle Fly floodplain, 15-20 km wide, is a 
mosaic of lakes, alluvial forest, swamp grassland, and swamp savannah. This includes Papua New 
Guinea's largest lake (Lake Murray). 
Lower Fly:  A mosaic of swamps, open water, savannah, and gallery forest.   The area has abundant 
wildlife and is an important tourist destination.   It constitutes a very important wetland both for 
124 Papua New Guinea's Biological Diversity 
migrating birds and resident waterfowl. In Australian drought years, it becomes an important refuge for 
Australian wetland birds. 
? Sirunki Wetlands: The Sirunki Basin straddles the main montane watershed divide of Papua New Guinea, 
with one segment of the wetlands draining northward into the Sepik, and the other segment draining 
southward into the Fly system. 
? Lake Tebera: One of Papua New Guinea's few lower montane lakes. Supports at least one endemic fish 
species, plus other rare fish species. 
? East Gulf Coastal Wetlands: The greater Purari delta comprises a large complex of mangroves, deltaic 
swamps, and tidal environments. 
? Mambare Wetlands: Woodland swamps and mangroves. 
? Central Province Wetlands: A series of wetlands lie northwest of Port Moresby; because of proximity to 
the capital these wetlands are under varying levels of exploitation and disturbance. They support large 
and diverse populations of waterfowl and other wetland birds. The area is particularly important as a 
dry season refuge for migrant waterfowl from Australia, and as a staging area for Palearctic shorebirds 
on their way to and from wintering areas in Australia. 
? Aria Wetlands: Northern coast of western New Britain. 
? Toriu Wetlands: On the eastern coast of the Gazelle Peninsula, comprise a large area of estuarine 
marshes and flood plains along the lower courses of the Toriu, Nesai, and Pali Rivers. Mangrove forests 
occur in the north and there are extensive areas of herbaceous swamps. 
? Bougainville South Coastal Wetlands: Important insular wetlands on the western coast of Bougainville 
island, dominated by Campnosperma brevipetiolata, Terminalia brassii, and D/letroxylon solomonensis. 
? Lakes Onim andBune: Small lakes surrounded by herbaceous wetland (not shown on Figure 7.5). 
? Ramu River at Brahman Mission: Lowland swamp forest dominated by Campnosperma brevipetiolata 
(not shown on Figure 7.5). 
? Biges River: A short coastal stream with a tidal estuary. The stream supports a diverse fish fauna (28 
species recorded) (not shown on figure 7.5).