HISTORY OF THE COCONUT PALM IN AMERICA. 
By O. F. Cook. 
INTRODUCTION. 
Many scientific text-books and works of reference support the 
popular idea that the coconut palm is specially adapted to tropical 
seacoasts and is confined to maritime regions. No other example of 
special adaptations of plants to their environments has had longer 
currency or more confident belief. Nevertheless, it seems that the 
botanical romance of the coconut, protected by its thick husk and 
floated from island to island in advance of human habitation, must 
go the way of many other pleasing traditions. What natural agencies 
have been supposed to do for the coconut is now to be recognized 
as the work of primitive man. The truth proves again to be stranger 
than the fiction. 
The coconut exists in the lowland tropics only as a product of 
cultivation. It does not plant or maintain or distribute itself on 
tropical seacoasts, and would entirely disappear from maritime local- 
ities if human care were withdrawn. The habits of the palm from 
the botanical standpoint, its significance in human history, and even 
its agricultural possibilities are misunderstood unless we are able to 
lay aside the maritime tradition. 
An outline of the evidence for the American origin of the coconut 
palm and of its distribution by human agencies has been published 
in a previous number of the Contributions.0 The present study car- 
ries the subject further in two principal directions. It brings addi- 
tional facts to show that the coconut palm was already widely dis- 
tributed in the New World before the arrival of the Europeans, and 
that it is not naturally a maritime or humid tropical species, but a 
native of drier and more temperate plateau regions in South America. 
A comparison of the habits of germination of the coconut with those 
of other related American palms shows other and very different uses 
«The Origin and Distribution of the Cocoa Palm, Contributions from the National 
Herbarium, vol. 7, pp. 257-293. (1901.) 
271 
272 CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE NATIONAL HERBARIUM 
for the characters that have been looked upon as special adaptations 
for maritime dissemination. 
The huge seed with its immense store of food materials and its 
thick fibrous husk make it possible for the coconut to propagate itself 
in the relatively dry interior localities where it appears to have orig- 
inated. The inability of the palm to withstand shade explains why 
it has been unable to establish itself as a wild plant on any tropical 
seacoast. The application of these facts to cultural problems shows 
that the possibilities of an extratropical extension of the coconut 
palm are not to be realized on seacoasts, but in interior desert regions 
where larger amounts of heat and sunlight are to be obtained. 
Though the biological evidence of the American origin of the coco- 
nut palm appears complete and adequate, recent years have brought 
to light several additional facts which mav be of use to those whose 
training and habits of thought lead them to attach great weight to 
the historical arguments of De Candolle and other writers who 
believed in the Old World origin of this palm and its dissemination 
by the sea. The reader is impressed by De Cand olle's references to 
many old and rare books, anil will naturally remain loth to believe 
that so eminent an authority could have come to an erroneous con- 
clusion, unless all the foundations of his opinions are carefully 
reexamined. 
It is important to trace and clear away any mistakes or false 
deductions which obscure the early history of cultivated plants. Mis- 
conceptions regarding the origin and dissemination of any important 
economic species tend to distort human history as well as to mislead 
botanical and agricultural investigation. It is only when we view 
the past with the right perspective that we gain correct ideas of the 
factors which control our present interests and our future progress. 
Civilization itself is based on cultivated plants, and history may be 
written with as much propriety from the agricultural standpoint as 
from the military, political, or commercial. 
Many of the plants valued by primitive man have found no place 
in our civilization, but have gone more or less completely out of use, 
either because other species of better quality or more abundant yield 
have taken their places, or because their uses have been outgrown. 
The coconut does not belong among the plants of waning importance. 
Its cultivation is being extended in many parts of the Tropics, and 
its products are rapidly gaining places in the domestic economy of 
the most civilized nations of Europe and America. The probability 
is great that the coconut palm will be recognized eventually as a food 
plant of the first rank, not merelv bv the natives of the Mai a van and 
Polynesian islands, but by the whole civilized world. 
Coconuts are an important product in Porto Rico, Hawaii, and the 
Philippines. A coconut industry has been established in southern 
COOK—TIIE COCONUT PALM IN AMERICA 273 
Florida, and is now beginning to attain considerable proportions. 
One of the Florida coconut planters is recently reported to have sold 
the crop of a single season for $15,000. There is also a possibility, 
still entirely untried, that hardy varieties of the coconut palm can be 
obtained in South America which can be cultivated in southern Cal- 
ifornia and Arizona, or even in a few spots in southern Texas where 
flowing artesian wells of warm water may make it possible to protect 
small areas from frost. 
ALLEGED INTBODTJCTION OF THE COCONUT PALM BY EURO- 
PEAN COLONISTS. 
De Candolle held the opinion that the coconut palm was intro- 
duced into South America and the West Indies by European set- 
tlers, and that it existed in pre-Spanish America only on the Pacific 
coast of the Panama region. The presence of even these coconuts 
in America was supposed to represent a recent arrival by sea from 
the Pacific islands. He says: 
The cocoa-nut abounds on the littoral of the warm regions of Asia, of the islands to 
the south of this continent, and in analogous regions of Africa and America; but it 
may be asserted that it dates in Brazil, the West. Indie?, and the west coast of Africa 
from an introduction which took place about three centuries ago. . . . 
The inhabitants of the islands of Apia were far bolder navigators than the American 
Indians. It is very possible that canoes from the Asiatic islands, containing a pro- 
vision of cocoa-nuts, were thrown by tempests or false manoeuvres on to the islands or 
the west coast of America. The converse is highly improbable. 
The area for three centuries has been much vaster in Asia than in America, and the 
difference was yet more considerable before that epoch, for we know that the cocoa-nut 
has not long existed in the cast of tropical America." 
This supposed limitation of the range of the coconut palm in ancient 
America, while not necessarily disproving its origin on this continent, 
might stand in the way of any full confidence in the American nativity 
of the species. But if it can be shown that there is adequate historical 
evidence of the existence and wide distribution of the coconut in 
tropical America at the time of the discovery, we gain a different idea 
of the status of the palm among the natives of America. De Candolle 
was able to entertain the opinion that the coconut did not exist on 
the eastern side of the American Continent before the Spanish dis- 
covery because he overlooked several important early references 
and because he relied upon the theory of an early Spanish intro- 
duction to explain the historical facts with which he was acquainted. 
No direct evidence of such an introduction has been produced, nor 
does a canvass of the references to the early accounts of America 
cited by De Candolle reveal any facts which support the assertion, 
even indirectly. There were no coconuts in the Mediterranean region 
a
 De Candolle, A., Origin of Cultivated Plants, ed. 2, pp. 430,433. (London, 1886.) 
274 CONTRIBUTIONS FfiOM THE NATIONAL HERBARIUM. 
which the Spaniards could bring to America, and they had no facilities 
for securing coconuts from the East Indies. And even if they had 
been able to arrange such an importation through their jealous com- 
petitors, the Portuguese, the time required in those days for the 
necessary sea voyages would have been too long. 
A motive for such an introduction was lacking, as well as an oppor- 
tunity. It does not appear that any of the early discoverers or 
historians were familiar with the coconut before coming to America, 
and they evidently did not become acquainted with it here as an 
important article of food or as having any other value that would 
lead them to give it their active attention and care. The agricultural 
activities of the Spanish colonists took the direction of introducing 
European plants into America, in the hope of being able to supply 
themselves with their accustomed foods. The appreciation of the 
new foods and other products of the agricultural plants that were 
natives of America and the introduction of American plants into 
Europe went on only slowly and casually. 
There is nothing to show that tobacco or potatoes reached Europe 
until after the middle of the sixteenth century. Indian corn and 
capsicum pepper were known in Germany by 1543, as described by 
Fuchs, but in both these cases it is possible to doubt whether the 
plants were post-Columbian introductions from America or pre- 
Columbian arrivals from the Orient, as indicated bv the earlv histories 
1 V 
and by their earliest European names.'1 Columbus himself began the 
introduction of European plants into America, but the only tropical 
types introduced during the period of the early discoveries appear 
to have been the varieties of bananas and sugar cane brought over 
from the Canary Islands. 
The Malayan and Polynesian islands, where the coconut is a plant 
of the first rank, were still undiscovered by Europeans, who had only 
vague rumors of the medicinal virtues of the Sax Indica, as it was 
termed in the medieval pharmacopoeia. Even in parts of the East 
Indies where the coconut palm undoubtedly existed some of the 
earlv writers make little or no mention of it. Thus in the extended 
"The history of the early introduction of American plants into Europe has been 
summarized by Dr. Seb. Killermann, in the Naturwisscnschaftliche Wochenschrift, 
vol. 24, p. 103. (March 28, 1909.) 
Doctor Killermann finds that four American plants were known in Europe before 
1543, the Indian corn, the capsicum pepper, the squash (Cucurbitu maxima), and the 
French marigold (Tagetes patula). By about the middle of the sixteenth century 
five other American plants had been recorded, two species of tobacco (cot tana 
tabaciun and A'. rustiai), the prickly pear (Opuntia), the century plant (Agave), and 
the tomato. From the second half of the century there are accounts of the bean 
(Phaseohts vulgar is and P. coccineus), the peanut, the Jerusalem artichoke (Jlclian- 
thus tuberosus), the spiderwort (Tradescantia), the nasturtium (Tropaeolum), and the 
potato. The sweet potato does not appear in this list. The first reference to its 
existence in Europe given by De Candolle is that of Clusius in 1601. 
COOK—THE COCONUT PALM IK AMERICA. 275 
account of Cochin China by an early Jesuit missionary, Borri, wliich 
follows the early discoveries of America in Churchill's Voyages, there 
is no mention of coconuts, though other plants ami their products are 
treated in detail. 
The first practical acquaintance of the Spanish with the coconut 
was gained in America, and we may believe that if they had under- 
taken to introduce the palm into the West Indies they would have 
brought the nuts from Panama instead of from the East Indies. But 
even this would have been quite outside of the objects and operations 
that are recorded in elaborate detail by the early historians. Any 
such undertaking on the part of any intelligent leader would almost 
certainly have become a matter of record. We find, however, no 
sign of interest in the plant which would render such an effort on the 
part of the Spaniards in any way probable. 
In thus alleging an early Spanish introduction of the coconut in 
America De Candolle seems to have depended entirely on an inference 
not really warranted by facts. lie argues that unless the palm were 
wild and indigenous it must have been introduced by Europeans, a 
deduction certainly unwarranted in view of the fact that numerous 
other species of native cultivated plants, such as Indian corn, sweet 
potato, cotton, capsicum, peanut, cassava, sour-sop, avocado, anatto, 
and cacao (chocolate) had been widely distributed through tropical 
America in pre-Columbian times. Like the coconut palm, most of 
these plants are still unknown in the wild state. They testify to the 
very great antiquity of agriculture in tropical America, and show the 
propriety of considering the coconut as one of many American plants 
that had been domesticated in America before the arrival of the 
Spaniards. 
EARLY ACCOUNTS OF THE COCONUT PAIM IN AMERICA. 
PETER MARTYR'S ALLUSIONS TO THE COCONTJT. 
The only suggestion of historical warrant that De Candolle gives us 
for the idea of the introduction of the coconut by Europeans is con- 
tained in this statement: 
Sloane pays it is an exotic in the West Indies. An old author of the sixteenth cen- 
tury, Martyr, "whom he quote?, ppeaks of its introduction. This probably took place 
a few yearn after the discovery of America, for Joseph Acoata saw the cocoa-nut palm 
at Porto Rico in the sixteenth century.0 
In reality Sloane does not express any such opinion as his own; he 
gives a very casual mention of an idea which he ascribes to Peter 
Martyr, the representative of the Pope at the court of Spain, who 
wrote letters about the Spanish discoveries to his friends in Italy, 
' De Candolle, A., Origin of Cultivated Plants, ed. 2, p. 430. (188(J.) 
276 CONTRIBUTIONS PROM THE NATIONAL HERBARIUM 
based on information collected from the explorers and the reports 
they sent home. Sloane says: 
Martyr says this Fruit was brought to the American Isles, but, that many wore found 
naturally in Peru, it may be doubted whether they were not brought thither by the 
natural Currents of the Sea." 
Sloane does not tell us where such a statement is to be found in 
Martyr's writings, nor does De Candolle appear to have considered 
it necessary to verify the reference for himself. A search through 
the English version of Martyr's Decades used by Sloane might have 
lessened confidence in the idea that the palm was introduced by the 
Spaniards. 
The name "coco" was not mentioned by Martyr in his accounts 
of America, though there were many references to palms, which the 
early English translator turned into '4date trees," the date being the 
only palm well known in Europe at the time. Even in the last cen- 
tury we find English travelers referring to Brazilian species of Cocoa 
as "dates," aa in the following instance: 
Still we were skirting palm-trees, among which the gra^s grew to a great height. 
One of the things we had from the Indiana yesterday was the date-palm. I la fruit 
grown in cluster;*, looking like a colossal bunch of grape*; the outer shell is thin, and 
contains a sweet, yellowish substance, of which the Indians are very fond, covering a 
nut like a filbert., with the flavour of the coconut, containing the kernel from which 
the oil is extracted.^ 
In addition to the fact that both are fruits of palms, there is a 
notable external resemblance between dates and coconuts as they 
hang in large clusters among the bases of the leaves. The only strik- 
ing difference is that of size, which is commonly disregarded in popu- 
lar comparisons. Indeed, Martyr himself was familar with the idea 
that the products of America often exceeded those of Europe in size/ 
a
 Sloane, Hans, A Voyage to the Islands Madera, Barbados, etc., vol. 2, p. 9. (1725.) 
ft Mulhall, M. G., Between the Amazon and Andes, pp. 183, 184. (London, 1881.) 
e
 Martyr did not understand that the Indian corn of America was a different 
plant from the cereals of Europe, and hence found it difficult to credit the report 
that the wheat in Santo Domingo produced ears thicker than a man's arm. 
. . . The lyke encrease enmmeth of wheate if it be sowen vppon the inountaynes 
where the colde is of sumo strength: but not in the playnes, by reason of to much 
fatnes and rankenes of the grownde. It is in manor incredible to heare, that an earc 
of wheate whuld bee bygger then a mans arme in the brawne, and more then a spannc 
in length, bearynge also more then a thousandc graynes as they all confesse with one 
voyce, and ernestly aftirme the same with othes. Yet they say the bread of the 
Ilande (cauled) Cazabbi made of the roote of hwea, to bee more holsome, because it is 
of easyer digestion, and is cultured with lesse labour and greater increase. The 
residue of the tyme which they spende not in settynge and plantynge, they bestowe 
in gathering© of golde,—Martire, Fietro, The Decades of the Newe Worlde or West 
India (1510), trans, by Richard Eden (1553), in Arber, E., The First Three English 
Books on America, p. 168. (Birmingham, 1885.) 
COOK—THE COCONUT PALM IK AMERICA. 277 
While most of Peter Martyr's allusions to dates give no details that 
afford a botanical identification of the palm, it must be remembered 
that there is no other palm in the West Indian region that is more 
similar to the date or any other that has economic importance 
enough to bring it to the attention of men like Martyr and his English 
translator, Eden, and lead them to reckon it among the economic 
products of the New World. Eden seems to have been more keenly 
interested in such matters than Martyr and occasionally adds infor- 
mation from other sources to his translation of Martvr, as in the fol- 
V ' 
lowing instance: 
... In these Ilandes they founde no trees knowen vnto them, but pyne app[l]e 
trees, and date trees: And those of maruelous heyght. and exceding harde, by reason 
of the greate moystnesae and fatncHse of the growndc, with continuall and temperate 
heate of the eonne, whiche endureth so all the hole yere.° 
There is no corresponding statement in the complete Latin text of 
Martyr's "Decades" published at Paris in 1587, under the title "De 
Orbe Novo." The interest of the passage is not destroyed by the 
fact that it was an interpolation, for Eden was a contemporary of 
Martyr and published his translation of the first three of Martyr's 
"Decades" before the complete edition was issued. That Eden 
understood Martyr's passages about palms to refer to the coconut can 
hardly be doubted, and there is no reason to claim that he was mis- 
taken in such instances as the following: 
This fortresse, he cauled saynt Dominikcs towre. Into this kauen, runneth a ryuer 
of holsome water, replenyshed with eundrye kyndcs of good fysshes. They affyrme 
this ryuer to haue many benefytes of nature. For, where so euer it runneth all thynges 
are excedynge pleasaunte and fruitfull: hauynge on euerv eyde, groues of date trees, 
and dyucra other of the Ilande frutea bo plenty fully, that as they sayled alonge by the 
shore, often tymes the branches therof laden with flowres and fruites, hunge boo ouer 
theyr heades, that they mighte plucke them with theyr handes.b 
The phrase "groves of date trees" is justified by Martyr's Latin 
word palmeta, which also carries an implication that the groves were 
artificial, and not mere forests of wild palms. In another passage 
wild palms that grow "of themselves" arc mentioned in direct con- 
trast with those that bear "dates" larger than those of Europe, thus 
implying again that the latter were cultivated. 
. . . They haue alao abundance of nuttes of pynetreea, and great plentie of date tree.«, 
whiche beare frutea bygger then the dates that are knowen to vs: but they are not apte 
to bee eaten for theyr to much soweraes. Wylde and baren date trees, growe of them 
selues in sundry places, the branches wherof they use for biesommes, and eate also 
the buddes of the same, c 
* 
The words nueibus pineis of the Latin original indicate that Martyr, 
as well as his translator, confused pines and pineapples. It does not 
a Martire in Arber, op. cit., p. 67, & Martire in Arber, op, cit., p. 82. 
c Martire in Arber, op. cit., p. 131. 
278 CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE NATIONAL HERBARIUM. ~ 
appear that there arc any pine trees in the Veragua district of Panama, 
to which this statement pertains, or that there are any pines with 
edible nuts in the whole Central American region. There are many 
pine fofests in Mexico, Guatemala, and Honduras, but they are not 
known to extend farther south than the latitude of Matagalpa, Nicara- 
gua. The botanical explorations of Professor Pittier in Costa Rica 
and Panama afford conclusive evidence that there are no pines in 
those countries. Professor Pittier also states that ineffectual attempts 
hav been made to introduce pines into the central plateau of Costa 
R ica. 
The word translated by Eden as "date trees" simply means palms 
(palmarum), and might possibly refer to the fruits of one of the 
Attalea palms or to those of Elaeis melanococca, though neither of 
these could be expected to have received much consideration from 
the standpoint of utility as food, or to have been planted by the 
Indians. The coconut, though hardly distinguished for sourness (ob 
austeritaiem), would certainly be a disappointment as a food in com- 
parison with the sweet fruits of the true date. Coconuts are very 
seldom eaten in the Tropics in a raw state except by children; as an 
exclusive diet they were considered very unwholesome, especially by 
the weakened, half-starved men of the Spanish expeditions. 
OVIEDO'S ACCOUNT OF THE COCONUT. 
The source of Eden's information regarding the American "dates" 
need not be sought further than in the extensive accounts by Oviedo, 
also translated by Eden and published in the same book with Martyr's 
"Decades."0 There can be no possible doubt that Oviedo was 
acquainted with the coconut palm. lie described it at length in a 
two-page chapter of his quaint Spanish, which Eden rendered into 
contemporary English as follows: 
There is bothe in the firme lande and the Ilandes a certeyne tree cauled Cocus, 
beinge a kynd of date trees and hauynge theyr leaues of the self same greatnesse as 
haue the date trees which beare dates, but dyffer much in their growynge. For the 
leaues of this Cocus grow owte of the trunkes of the tree as doo the fyngera owt of the 
hande," wreathynge thein eeluea one within an other and so spreadynge abrode. These 
trees are hygh: and are founde in great plentie in the coaste of the sea of Sur, in the 
prouince of Cacique Chiman. These date trees brynge furth a frute after this aorte. 
Beinge altogyther vnite as it groweth on the tree, it is of greater circumference then 
the heade of a man. , . . Whyle this Cocus is yet freshe and newly taken from the 
tree, they vse not to eate of the sayde earnofitie and frute: But fyrate beatynge it 
• Oviedo's original publication was an abridgment entitled, Oviedodela natural hys- 
teria de las Indiaa. (Toledo, 1526.) This was translated by Richard Eden under 
the title, The natural history of the West Indies, and published in Arber, E., the 
first three English books on America. (Birmingham, 1885.) The complete work was 
first issued at Madrid in 1851. (See footnote, p. 295.) Books 1-19 and 10 chapters of 
book 50 were published in Seville, 1535, as La hietoria general delas Indiaa. 
COOK—THE COCONUT PALM IF AMERICA. 279 
very much, and then stray nynge it, they drawe a my Ike thereof, much better and 
sweeter then is the my Ike of beastes, and of much substaunce: The which the Chris- 
tian men of those regions put in the tortes or cakes which they make of the grayne 
of Maizium wherof they make theyr breade, or in other breade as we put breade in 
porrage: So that by reason of the sayde mylke of Cocus, the tortes are more excellent 
to be eaten withowt offence to the stomake. They are so pleasaunte to the taste, 
and leaue it as well satisfy ed as thowghe it had byn dely ted wi th many delycate dysshes. 
. . . This frute was cauled Cocus for this cause, that when it is taken from the place 
where it cleaueth faste to the tree, there are scene two holes, and aboue them two 
other natural 1 holes, which altogyther, doo represente the gieature and fygure of the 
cattes cauled Mammone, that is, inunkeyn, when they crye: whiche crye the Indians 
caule Coca.a 
Eden's version of Ovieclo also affords a clue to the mystery of 
Sloane's statement regarding the introduction of the coconut into 
America, upon which De Candolle appears to have placed so much 
reliance. It was Oviedo, instead of Peter Martyr, who reported the 
planting of dates in Santo Domingo, but these were not coconuts, 
but true dates from Spain, as the context shows: 
Suche frutes as are brought owt of Spayne, into this Ilande, prosper maruelously 
and waxe rype all tymes of the yeare: as herbes of all sortes very good and pleasaunt 
to bee eaten. Also many pomegranates of the best kynde, and oranges bothe swecte 
and sower. Lykewyse many fay re Lymones and cedars: and a great quantitie of 
all such as are of sharpe, sowre, and bytter taste. There are also many fygge trees 
whiche brynge furth theyr frute all the hole yeare. Lykewyse those kynd of date 
trees that beare dates: and dyuers other trees and plantes which were brought owt 
of Spayne thyther.6 
The substitution by Sloane of Peru for Panama, in the passage 
already quoted on page 276, may have been a mere slip of the pen, or 
a typographical error, for it does not appear that coconuts have ever 
thriven in Peru, in ancient times or modern, or that Sloane had any 
warrant of fact for his statement. Finally, we have the evidence of 
the passage just quoted, to show that Sloane confused the coconuts 
that were already in America with the true dates that were brought 
by the Spaniards from Spain. The only indication of historical 
warrant given by De Candolle for his theory of the Spanish intro- 
duction of the coconut into America proves to be entirely without 
foundation. 
REPORT BY COLUMBUS OF COCONUTS IN CUBA. 
Eden's version of Oviedo definitely asserts the existence of the coco- 
nut palm in the West Indies, as well as on the continent, and Oviedo's 
larger history includes the coconut in an account of the numerous 
native species found in the island of Santo Domingo, but De Candolle 
seems to have noticed only the mention of the special abundance of 
the coconut palms on the Pacific coast of Central America, which he 
a Oviedo in Arber, op. cit., p. 225. &Oviedoin Arber, op, cit., p. 239 
51004°—vol 14, TT 2—10 2 
280 CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE NATIONAL HERBARIUM. 
contrasted with their supposed absence on the Atlantic coasts and 
islands. De Candolle alludes to Oviedo only in the following passage: 
Oviedo, writing in 1526, in the first years of the conquest of Mexico, says that the 
cocoa-nut palm was abundant on the coast of the Pacific in the province of the Cacique 
Chiman, and he clearly describes the species. This doea not prove the tree to be 
wild. Jn southern Asia, especially in the islands, the cocoa-nut is both wild and cul- 
tivated. The smaller the islands, and the lower and the more subject to the influence 
of the sea air, the more the cocoa-nut predominates and attracts the attention of 
travelers.0 
Oviedo's statement is not the only one that has to be explained if 
we are to deny the existence of the coconut palm in the West Indies 
when the Spaniards arrived. Columbus himself recorded the finding 
of coconuts on the north coast of Cuba, near Puerto Principe, only a 
little over a month after his first landing in the Bahamas. 
The Admiral got into the boat, and went to visit the islands he had not yet seen to 
the S. W. He saw many more very fertile and pleasant inlands, with a great depth 
between them. Some of them had springs of fresh water, and he believed that the 
water of those streams came from some sources at the summits of the mountains*. He 
went on, and found a beach bordering on very sweet water, which was very cold. 
There was a beautiful meadow, and many very tall palms. They found a large nut of 
the kind belonging to India, great rats, and enormous crabs. He saw many birds, and 
there was a strong- smell of musk, which made him think it must be there. This day 
the two eldest of the nix youths brought from the Rio de Mares, who were on board the 
caravel Nina, made their escape.* 
The coconut was known to mediaeval Europe only as Nux Indica, 
or Indian Nut, the.name ''coconut," though stated in dictionaries to 
be derived from Latin and Greek words meaning nut or seed, seems 
not to have been applied to the coconut till after the discovery of 
America. Other lexicographers have undertaken to derive coco 
from Spanish or Portuguese words meaning ape or ogre, an applica- 
tion which is explained by allusion to the three pits or eyes of the 
coconut which afford a grotesque suggestion of the face of a man or 
a monkey. It is quite possible, however, that the Spaniards adopted 
the word coco from the natives of the West Indies as they did many 
other names of agricultural plants, such as "mais" (Indian corn), 
"aji" (capsicum), "achiote " (anatto), "platano" (banana), "mani" 
(peanut), etc. In the case of the banana it is evident that a native 
word, closely resembling platano led the early explorers to suppose 
that the banana was the actual platano or plane tree of which the 
Spaniards of that time knew only the name as it occurs in the Bible. 
The histories written by Oviedo and Acosta both contain chapters 
explaining that the plane tree of Scripture was not the same as the 
"platano" of the West Indies. 
f l)e Candolle, A., Origin of Cultivated Plants, ed. 2, p. 431. (1886.) 
& Journal of the first voyage of Columbus, trans, by C. R. Markham, p. 80. (Hakluyt 
Society, 1893.) 
COOK—THE COCONUT PALM IN AMERICA. 281 
Markham's translation of the clause relating to the coconuts in 
Cuba is not altogether satisfactory. The Spanish version says that 
large nuts (nueces grandes) were found, rather than a single nut. 
The statement that the nuts were of the kind belonging to India 
(nueces grandes de las de India) is followed by a parenthetical idio- 
matic expression (creo que dice), as though to remind the reader that 
this was the opinion of Columbus, for which the editor of the journal, 
Las Casas, did not wish to be considered responsible. Las Casas added 
a footnote (Ilutias debian de ser, "They must have been agoutis") to 
indicate that the animals taken for rats by Columbus were agoutis, 
the large tailless rodents of Cuba. Having learned that the agoutis 
were not rats, the identity of the nuts might also be questioned, but 
no other nut has been found in Cuba large enough to be mistaken 
for a coconut. Knowing that Columbus had not in reality reached 
the East Indies, Las Casas was inclined to pass lightly over the 
evidences that had deceived the Admiral. 
We are left with no positive assurance that the large nuts came 
from the very tall palms, but botanical science affords us no ground 
for refusing to believe that the statement relates to the coconut, as 
Colmeiro has declared in opposition to a Spanish historian who con- 
sidered the large nuts as walnuts.a 
Markham's translation also omits a statement regarding the palms, 
that they were taller than any that Columbus had seen thus far, 
which may have reference to a previous mention of great numbers 
of palms (injinitas palmas) three days before at a location identified 
by Markham as Puerto de Taxamo, Cuba. If we include these 
emendations, the reference to the large nuts and its immediate con- 
text may be translated as follows: 
There was a very beautiful meadow, and many very tall palms, taller than those 
seen before; he found large Indian nuts, as he would say, and large rate, also like 
those of India, and very large crabs 
Though the presence of natives is not stated, the mention of the 
meadow indicates that the place had been cleared by human inhabi- 
tants. It appears unlikely that the native palms, even if they had 
a
 Vio Colon " muchas y altisimas palmas," asi como algunoe pinoa (Pinus ocdden- 
talis Sic, et. P. cubensis Griseb.), y despues deaqu£Ilas mencion6 las "nuecesgrandes 
de las de India," que no esadmisible perteneciesen 6 un nogal, como presumirt el 
historiador Munoz, siendo lo creible que fuesen cocos, porque no es improbable que 
el eocotero (Cocos nudfera L.) existiese en las regiones inlertropicales del Nuevo 
Mundo antes de su desoubriniiento, y asi parece demostrarlo tan significativa indi- 
caci6n.—Colmeiro, Miguel, Primeras Noticias acerca de la Vegetacion Americana, 
p. 13. (Madrid, 1892.) 
6 The Spanish text of Navarrete is as follows: 
"... habia un prado muy lindo y palmas muchas y altisimas mas que las que 
habia visto: hallo micros grandes de las de India, creo que dice, y ratones grandee 
de los de India tambien, y cangrejos grandfaimos. (Navarrete, Coleccion de loa 
Viages y Dcscubrimientoe, etc., p. 60, Madrid, 1825.) 
282 CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE NATIONAL HERBARIUM. 
existed in the forest, would have attracted the attention of the 
explorer. 
Ferdinand Columbus states that his father found ''palm (roes of 
several sorts," and mentions on a previous occasion that soino had 
"the trunk green and smooth," which may refer to the Cuban royal 
palm (Roystonea regia).a This could have no connection with the 
large nuts, for the mature fruits are only about the size of a small 
cherry. 
One of Peter Martyr s passages relating to "dates" evidently lias 
reference to the same incident of exploration of the north coast of 
Cuba by Columbus: 
And when they had at the lengtho escaped these st-rayghtcs, and were limvc roome 
into a mayne and large sea, and had savled theron for the space of foure wore niylrs, 
they espyed an other excedinge hygh mount ay lie, whyther the Admiral I resorted 
to store his shyppes with freashe water and fuel, lleare amonge rerteyne wooddes 
of date trees, and pyneable trees of exeedvng height he fownd two naline eprynges 
of freeehe water. & 
The fantastic idea of tall 'pyneable trees" arose from the failure 
of Europeans not familiar with America to distinguish between pine 
trees and pineapples. True pine trees were found in abundance in 
Cuba and Santo Domingo, as well as in Central America. European 
readers who progressed far enough to learn that pineapples had no 
relation to pine trees often went to the other extreme of supposing 
that all the early references to pines related to pineapples. Pine 
trees are mentioned in the Journal of Columbus in the same district 
with the "very tall palms" and the large "nuts of India." 
If the statement of the Journal of Columbus stood alone we might 
well hesitate to base any general conclusion upon it, but there is 
certainly no reason to deny it a place among the many other statements 
that can be reasonably interpreted only by recognizing their relation 
to the coconut. As soon as we appreciate the fact that the Spaniards 
were not acquainted with the coconut, either in nature or in name, 
before their arrival in America, it becomes apparent that the state- 
ment of Columbus is as direct a piece of evidence as we could hope 
to get, under the existing circumstances. It is not unreasonable to 
believe that he knew something of the Indian nut, and of the palms 
that produced it, considering that he spent many years of his life in 
the active quest of geographical knowledge, with especial reference 
to the Indies, which he hoped to reach by sailing west. The most 
remarkable thing about this statement of Columbus is that it should 
have been so completely overlooked by De Cam 1 o I lie and other 
writers interested in the history of the coconut palm. Even Picker- 
ing failed to include it in liis immense collection of similar facts, 
aChurchill's Collection of Voyages and Travels, vol. 2, pp. 534, 635. (London, 
1732.) 
Mar tire, in Arber, op. ci t., p. 77. (See footnote c, p. 276.) 
COOK—THE COCONUT PALM IN AMERICA, 283 
though ho refers to the /hiding of coconuts by Columbus during the 
fourth voyage, when the coast of Central America was explored.a 
In this case an error appears to have been made, which has been 
copied into some of our works of reference. The only passage that 
it seems likely to have been interpreted in this way relates to the 
seeds of the cacao tree from which chocolate is made, not to the nuts 
of the coconut palm.6 
ABUNDANCE OF COCONUT PALMS IN PORTO RICO. 
The earliest record of the coco palm in the West Indies given by 
De Candolle was that of Acosta, who visited America in the latter 
half of the sixteenth century and saw coco palms at San Juan, Porto 
Rico, from which De Candolle infers that the alleged introduction 
"probably took place a few years after the discovery of America/' 
The context of Ac-osta's allusion to the coconut at San Juan does not, 
however, support such a conjecture, since it is apparent that Acosta, 
who was a learned and careful historian, was describing the coconut 
as a notable product of the "Indies," after spending seventeen years 
in America. The coconuts at San Juan, if brought by the Spaniards, 
even from Panama, could not have been there for many decades, so 
that Acosta's mention of them is better evidence against a Spanish 
introduction than for it. 
Acosta does not say how many coco palms he saw at San Juan, but 
the chaplain of the Duke of Cumberland, who visited Porto Rico in 
1598 gives us an account of the coconut palms of that island which 
would not be inapplicable at the present day, and which precludes alt 
reasonable doubt that at the end of the sixteenth century the coco 
palm existed in Porto Rico in such size and in such numbers as to 
render incredible any recent introduction, subsequent to the arrival 
of the Spaniards. 
The body of them i.s but slender, 110 when; bigge as a man's middle, and upwards 
growing proportionably le&se, till they are ri«dn xunc thirtic or fortie foot high without 
sprig or bough, then brcake out their boughs all at once, euery one whereof ia iust like 
a goodly Ostridge feather; their 1 canes are so cunningly get together, euery one whereof 
a ". . . Eastward from the Polynesian Islands, nuts were seen by Columbus on his 
fourth voyage, in Central America (Churchill Collections)."—Pickering, Charles, 
Chronological History of Plants, p. 428. 
& For their provision they had such roots and grain as they in Ihspaniola eat, and a 
sort of liquor made of Maiz, like the English beer; and abundance of Cacao nuts, which 
in Nev: Spain pass for money, which they seemed to value very much; for when they 
were brought aboard among their other goods, I observ'd that when any of these nuta 
fell, they all stoop*d to take it up, as if it had been a thing of great consequence: yet 
at that time they soem'tl to be in a manner besides themselves, being brought prisoners 
out of their canoe aboard the ship, among much strange and fierce people, as we are to 
them, but so prevalent is avarice in man, that we ought not to wonder that it would 
prevail upon the Indians above the apprehension of the danger they were in.—Church- 
ill's Collection of Voyages and Travels, vol. 2, p. fiOG. (London, 1732.) 
284 CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE NATIONAL HERBARIUM 
alone is something like a Sedge or the leafe of a wilde Lilly. Under this bush which 
is the head of the tree, doe the Coker-mits grow, some fortie on a tree round about (lie 
Hole, Bome yard downward from where the branches breake out. These trees are a 
very great grace to the Citie of Puerto Rico, [San Juan] and very many there were 
found in it." 
Samuel Champlain, the subsequent explorer of Canada, also visited 
Porto Rico in 1599, shortly after the English expedition had sailed 
away from the island. The Spanish expedition that Champlain 
accompanied also "remained at Porto Rico about a month/' and 
came to the same conclusions as the English chaplain regarding the 
island and its palms. 
The said Island of Porto-rico is pretty agreeable, although it is a little mountainous, 
as the following figure shows. It ia filled with quantities of fine trees, such as cedars, 
palms, firs, pal mottoes, and another kind of tree which is called sombrade. . . .b 
We might remain in doubt of what palms were intended if it were 
not for a later passage in which Champlain clearly distinguishes 
between the true palm or coconut and the cabbage or royal palms 
which he calls "palmiste," but not "palm." 
Ah I have spoken of the palm, although it is a tree sufficiently common, I will here 
represent it. It ia one of the highest and straightest trees that can be poeu; its fruit, 
which is called "Indian nut," grows quite on the top of the tree, and is as large as 
the head of a man; and there is a thick green bark on the said nut, which bark being 
removed, the nut is found, about the size of two fists; that which is inside is very 
good to eat, and has the taste of young walnuts; there comes from it a water, which 
serves as a cosmetic for the ladies.« 
FIRST ACCOUNT OF THE COCONUT IN BRAZIL, 
De Candolle knew from the writings of Piso and Marcgrave that 
the coconut existed in Brazil at an early date, but he did not admit 
that the palm was present before the European settlements were 
made. He treated his evidence regarding Brazil in the same way 
as that relating to Porto Rico, to support his assumption of an intro- 
duction by Europeans. But if we go back to the original of the 
earliest statement we find nothing of this implication that the coco- 
nuts had been imported by the colonists. We learn only that the 
palms were cultivated in Brazil, as everywhere else. De Candolle's 
inference from such statements is that Piso and Marcgrave "seem 
to admit that the species is foreign to Brazil, without saying so 
positively," but these authors certainly give no intimation of any 
idea that it was introduced into Brazil by the Portuguese. On the 
contrary, they both record the native Indian names, inaiaguacuiba 
for the tree and inaictguacu for the fruit, and state that the fruit of 
o Earl of Cumberland, Voyage to the West Indies, Pure has ITis Pilgrims, vol. 4, 
p. 1173. (London, 1025.) 
b Champlain, Samuel, West Indies and Mexico, trans, by Ali< o Wilmere, p, ]0. 
(Hakluyt Society, 1859.) 
c Op. cit., p. 31. 
COOK—THE COCONUT PALM IN AMEBICA 285 
another species of Cocos native in Brazil is called inaia mira, or small 
coconut. N o suspicion is betrayed that coconuts were not one of the 
genuine products of the country, instead of a recent importation 
from abroad. The statements of later writers on Brazil and Guiana, 
such as Aublet, Martius, Spruce, Burton, and Wallace, are in entire 
accord with that of Piso and Marcgrave. They do not claim that 
the coconut is native in eastern South America, but find it widely 
distributed in cultivation. 
Piso's is not, however, the first reference to the coconut in Brazil, 
as De Candolle seems to have supposed. More direct and conclu- 
sive evidence was published nearly a quarter of a century before from 
a Portuguese friar who had resided in Brazil for the last three decades 
of the sixteenth century." This writing has also a direct bearing 
on the question of introduction by Europeans, since it contains a 
special enumeration of the plants brought to Brazil by the Portu- 
guese, The coconut does not occur in this list, but is included 
among the native cultivated plants. 
In this Brasill are many coco-nuts, excellent like those of India; these are ordi- 
narilly set, and growe not in the Woods, but in Gardens, and in their Farms. And 
there are more than twentie kindes of Palme trees, and almost all doe beare fruit, but 
not so good as the Cocos: with some of these Palme trees they couer their houses.& 
Exactly the same might have been written of the peach palm 
(Guilielma), the other indigenous palm widely cultivated in prehis- 
toric times by the Indians of South America. But since the peach 
palm did not attain a world-wide distribution no question of its 
South American nativity has ever been raised, though it has never 
been found in the wild state. 
The statements of the early historians that the coconut palms did 
not grow wild in the forest, but only where they had been planted, 
instead of supporting the idea of an introduction by the Portuguese 
colonists is better evidence to the contrary, for it becomes highly 
improbable that such a piece of history would have been omitted 
from the record. This consideration is even more conclusive in the 
case of Brazil than in that of Porto Rico, for in that island it might 
have been possible to raise the palms if the colonists had introduced 
them early and propagated them with care and diligence. But in 
Brazil there was actually no time for any multiplication and dissemi- 
nation of the palms to have taken place, for the colonization of 
Brazil by the Portuguese did not begin till after the middle of the 
sixteenth century, or less than twenty years before the arrival of 
the writer who states their abundance. 
a The manuscript of this unknown author was captured by an English sailor in 1601, 
and an English translation was published in 1625 in Purehas His Pilgrims, vol. 4, 
p. 1289. Piso's account of the coconut in Brazil was not issued until 1648. 
^Purchas His Pilgrims, vol. 4, p. 1307. 
286 CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE NATIONAL HERBARIUM 
The Portuguese are also supposed by Martius and De Candolle to 
have planted the coconut in their West African settlements, but 
for this purpose they are more likely to have brought seed from 
Brazil than from the East Indies.0 The slave trade brought about 
early and frequent communication between Angola and Brazil, and 
several travelers visited and described both countries. Martius, 
though he does not give his authorities, states that the coco palm 
was planted in the Portuguese settlements in West Africa, This 
does not prove, of course, that the coconut was unknown in West 
Africa before Portuguese times; nor on the other hand does the 
record by Marcgrave of native Congo names afford sufficient proof 
that the natives knew the palm before the time of the Portuguese 
settlements. 
The coco palm continues to be planted at the European settle- 
ments and trading stations on the West Coast of Africa, but seems 
not to have extended itself spontaneously nor to have been adopted 
in cultivation, perhaps because very few of the agricultural natives 
live on the coast. The Kroo people of Liberia, who have maritime 
habits, were reported by Doctor Vogel to have superstitious fear 
of planting coconut palms.6 This belief seems still to prevail, for 
the very large Kroo town at Monrovia, though built along the beach, 
is shaded by no coco palms. 
EARLY NOTICES OF THE COCONUT PALM IN COLOMBIA. 
The presence of coconut palms in the interior of Colombia, as 
reported by Ilumboldt and more recent writers, was also recorded by 
Cieza de Leon, who accompanied the first overland expedition 
through Colombia. Cieza de Leon came to America in 15132 as a 
boy of 14, and after passing in military camps and marauding explora- 
tions the years that lads usually spend in school he began, at the, age 
of 22, the writing of a history, "because others of more learning 
were too much occupied in the wars to write." Nevertheless, the 
writings of Cieza give us a clearer picture of the condition of the 
country and the people than do those of any of the learned historians 
«Caseava and Indian corn, capsicum, peanuts, alligator pears, pineapples, and 
doubtless other American plants, including American types of cotton, appear to have 
been introduced into West Africa by the Portuguese at very early dates, and arc now 
widely distributed in that continent. The coconut has remained of little importance 
in Africa, not being utilized as a source of oil, that of the oil palm (Elaeii?) being of 
better quality and more easily obtainable. 
f>'' The inhabitants [of Cape Talmas] believe, that whoever plants a Cocoa-palm will 
die, before it produces fruit (i. e., in about seven years). The Chief of the fishermen 
yielded at last to the entreaties of the American Governor, and put pome Cocoa-nuts 
on the ground: he then drove cattle over the spot, that he might not incur the con- 
sequences of planting and covering them with earth!"—Hooker, W. J., Niger Flora, 
p. 37. (London, 1849.) 
COOK—THE COCONUT PALM IN AMERICA 287 
like Oviedo, Acosta, ami Hernandez, and merit the high commen- 
dations bestowed by Clements R. Markham, who translated Cieza's 
writings.® 
The statement of Cieza de Leon regarding coconuts is as follows: 
. . . The site is twenty-three leagues from the city of Cartago, twelve from the 
town of Anzerma, and one from the great river, on a plain between two small rivers, 
and is sorrounded&y great palm trees, which are different from those I have already 
described, though more useful, for very savoury jxthnitos are taken from them, and 
their fruit is also savoury, for when it is broken with stones, milk flows out, and they 
even make a kind of cream and butter from it, which they use for lighting lamps. 
I have seen that which 1 now relate, and it all comes within my own experience. 
The site of this town is considered rather unhealthy, but the land is very fertile.b 
Velasco, in writing of the palms of the same region over two 
hundred years later, identifies Ciezu's reference and applies it to the 
variety of coconut called vira chorda or " butter palm." It may 
be doubted whether this is the true coconut palm or a distinct species 
which has been called Cocos butyracea. 
To treat butyracea as a distinct species docs not render it any less 
interesting, either from the botanical or the agricultural side. If the 
interior of Colombia affords other species of Cocos that are distinct 
from Cocos nucifera and yet closely related to it the question of 
origin will be still more definitely answered, and the diversity of 
types available for introduction to other parts of the world will 
appear still greater. It is evident, however, that Velasco con- 
sidered his mra chonta only as a variety of the coconut palm, since 
he includes it with three other varieties. Velasco's account of the 
coconut palms of Colombia, written about 1789, but not published till 
1844, appears to contain more original information than any other 
statement on the subject. It is evident that he took special interest 
in the palms as a group, since he describes numerous spccit's in 
detail, with their native names and uses. The parts relating to the 
coconut palms may be translated as follows: 
There are more than fifty different species of palms, all with the generic name 
Chonta. . . . The fruit, in the language of Peru is called tutu and in that of Quito 
lulum, which means egg; accordingly the fruit of any sort of palm is called chontaruro. 
a "The work of Pedro de Cieza de Leon is, in many respects, one of the most remark- 
able literary productions of the age of Spanish conquest in America. Written by a 
man who had passed his life in the camp from early boyhood, it is conceived on a 
plan which would have done credit to the most thoughtful scholar, and is executed 
with care, judgment, and fidelity. ... In arrangement, in trustworthiness, in 
accuracy, and in the value of his observations, the work of Cieza de Leon stands 
higher than that of any contemporary chronicler: and these qualities in hi* book 
are enhanced by the romantic life and noble disposition of its author."—The Travels 
of Pedro de Cieza de Leon, trans, by C. R. Markham, pp. i, lvii of the introduction. 
(Hakluyt Society, 1864.) 
&Op. cit., p. 68. 
288 CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE NATIONAL HERBARIUM. 
Jlatuta chonta, that is, the largest of all pal ma. Its nut (coco) in commonly as large 
as the head of a man, covered with a tow which is the best kind for gun wads. The 
white marrow is very good, thick as a finger, and from it, by pressure, is extracted a 
very rich and sweet oil. The milky liquid is also sweet, refreshing, and good to 
drink, and from the nuts are made large vessels to hold liquors and for other purposes. 
Suni chonta is the palm with the long nut, slightly smaller than the preceding. It 
has the same properties and the tree is a little smaller, 
Vira chonta, the palm with buttery fruit, It is as high as the preceding, but much 
more slender and with narrow leaves. The fru it is somewhat small#r, almost spherical, 
with little or no firm marrow, and the milk so thick that after a little beating it coagu- 
lates into a very rich butter for eating or lighting. It is peculiar to the River Cauca, 
on the confines of the province of Popayan, where the Spaniards first discovered it in 
1545, one of them, the historian Chieca de Leon, describing it. It is thus seen how 
lightly a thousand falsehoods are written by some, like Francisco Hernandez, native 
of Mexico, who in his Latin history asserts that cocos were brought by the Spaniards 
from the East Indies to the West. At their first entrance into South America they 
found very old palms full of fruit, which never occurs until after the age of 16-20 
years with these large kinds of cocos. 
Yurac chorda, the palm which yields the white coco, not only the marrow but all 
the shell being white, and this, being very thick, is made into cups for chocolate 
with embossed work. The meat is not very good and the tree rather small. * * * 
Almost all of these palms are from the province of Maynas, and some of them from 
Guayaquil and Popayan.'1 
Velasco does not give any definite citation of the books of Her- 
nandez, and may not have known them at first hand. In reality, 
Hernandez does not seem to have said that coconuts were brought 
from the East Indies. He states that coconuts were not found in 
New Spain (Mexico), but he reports at the same time that they were 
abundant in the West Indies as well as in the East, so that the idea 
of an introduction by the Spaniards is rather denied than affirmed. 
Velasco's reference to the use of the small shells of the yurac chonta 
for embossed work may have interest in connection with the photo- 
graph of the carved shell of a small coconut shown in plate 53, figure 1. 
The specimen from which this photograph was taken was presented 
to the writer, some years ago by Gen. E. A. Lever, of New Orleans, 
having been found by him in a grave in the Chiriqui district of 
Panama in digging for the gold ornaments and pottery that are 
often found in the prehistoric graves of that region. 
ECONOMIC STATUS OF THE COCONUT IN TROPICAL AMERICA. 
While the early records appear sufficient to establish the existence 
of the palm in the New World at the time of the early discoveries, 
they certainly do not indicate that it was a food plant of primary 
importance in any part of tropical America, unless it were along the 
Pacific coast of Panama and Costa Rica. If the coconut had had 
any such prominence among the Caribs and Arawacks of the West 
Indies as among the Polynesians and Malays of the East it is incredible 
« Velasco, J., llistoria del Reino de Quito, vol. 1, pp. 52-5*4. (Quito, 1844.) 
Corilr, Nat. Here, V..\ *4 Plate 53. 
Fig. 1.—Carved Coconut Shell. 
From a ftravt* in tlieChiriqiti ilisirii*i of I'muiim. ;Nuiurul size.) 
F*g, 2.^Dried Cotyledons of Coconuts. 
Brought by Dr. ftHviinl I'tUtuer from the n <»f At-n;nili ,i where they are railed 'nwoimt 
(mauzaiia* tie eueo} iNiituraC size.) 
COOK—THE COCONUT PALM IS AMERICA 289 
that we should not have had much more numerous and extended 
reports of it during the period of discovery. The lack of more 
adequate accounts does not appear so surprising if we consider that 
even at the present day the coconut is not an economic plant of the 
first rank in tropical America; that is, it is nowhere of such cardinal 
importance as in the tropical islands of the Pacific. 
Outside of a few districts where commercial plantations of coco- 
nuts have been established, the status of the coconut among the 
natives of tropical America remains to-day much the same as it 
appears to have been at the time of the discovery of America by 
Europeans. Coconut palms are found on all the coasts and prin- 
cipal islands, planted more or less abundantly as the inhabitants of 
the different regions happen to be more or less civilized. 
People too backward in civilization to have settled abodes do not 
undertake the cultivation of long-lived tree crops like the coconut. 
The more primitive tribes of Indians either have no agriculture at 
all, or a merely nomadic form of agriculture that utilizes only annual 
or quick-growing crops, which are planted every year in new clear- 
ings instead of upon the same stationary farm as in the temperate 
regions. A reason for this nomadic system of agriculture that gen- 
erally prevails in forested tropical regions of low elevation is found 
in the fact that it is much easier to clear a new tract of land every 
year by cutting and burning than to pull up the weeds that invade 
cleared land or to maintain the fertility of the soil under continued 
clearing and cropping. It is only when people have reached the 
next stage of agricultural development and maintain permanent 
clearings and gardens, as among the Polynesian and Malayan inhab- 
itants of the islands of the Pacific and Indian oceans, that the coco- 
nut and other tree fruits become regular, staple products. Else- 
where, as among the tropical Indians of America and the natives of 
Africa, the coconut remains only secondary and exceptional, planted 
occasionally in the larger villages or towns that happen to be located 
near the coast, but nowhere attaining any serious or indispensable 
importance. 
At the present time the progress of the West Indian coconut 
industry, if not the actual existence of the palm in this region, appears 
to be threatened by a serious disease, which enters the terminal bud 
and kills the palm. Investigations of this disease indicate that it is 
due to a bacterial parasite, which appears to be spreading very 
rapidly.® 
« Home, W. T., La, Enfermedad do Ioh Cocoteroa, Bole (.in Oficial do la Secretaria 
de Agrieultura, Industria y Comercio, vol. 3, p. 1. (1907.) The ltud Rot and Some 
other Coconut Troubles in Cuba, Bull. 15, Estacion Central A^ronomica do Cuba. 
(1908.) 
Johnston, J. II., The bud rot of the coconut palm, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 
Bureau of Plant Industry, Circular 36. (1909.) 
290 CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE NATIONAL HERBARIUM. 
The meat of the ripe nut, for which coconuts are imported into 
temperate countries, is not the part most valued, in the tropics, but 
the "milk" of the unripe nut. On many of the coral islands of the 
Pacific, where there are no springs or other supplies of water, the 
natives could not survive without the milk of the coconut. In Porto 
Rico and elsewhere in America the coconut is also valued chiefly as 
the source of a beverage, but where fresh water is as abundant as in 
the West Indies the milk of the coconut is a luxury rather than a 
necessity. The unripe nuts are carried to the towns and sold as a 
beverage, like lemonade or soda water in temperate regions. 
The meat of the coconut has little more importance in the American 
tropics than in the United States, being used mostly for pastry and 
confectionary, and not as a staple article of diet. Even the oil of the 
coconut which serves so many culinary and other domestic purposes 
in the East Indies is almost unknown in the American tropics. The 
extraction of the oil and its use in cooking are said to be practiced in 
British Honduras and in Trinidad, but by European residents rather 
than bv the natives of the country. There are no such multitudinous 
applications of the shells, husks, fibers, leaves, sap, and all other 
parts of the palm as in the East Indies. 
On the west coast of Mexico, according to Dr. Edward Palmer, use 
is made of the so-called "coconut apple" 0manzana de coco), in reality 
the swollen cotyledon of the germinating nut. The cotyledon gradu- 
ally absorbs the food materials stored in the meat of the nut, at the 
same time increasing in size till it fills the whole cavity of the shell. 
The fleshy part of the cotyledon is said to have a pleasant, sweetish 
taste, and to be much more delicate and more readily digestible than 
the meat itself. The coconut "apples" are also dried and are sold 
in the native markets in this condition. Plate 53, figure 2, shows a 
photograph of two dried cotyledons of the coconut. There is noth- 
ing to show whether the use of the cotyledon represents a native cus- 
tom in Mexico or was imported from the Pacific Islands, where it 
also exists. The making of fermented drink called "tuba" from the 
sap of the palm appears to have been introduced into the vicinity of 
Acapulco from the Philippines, as indicated by the presence of the 
Filipino names. 
An additional reason why the culture of the coconut palm was not 
flourishing in the West Indies at the time of the discovery is found 
in a fact of history. Columbus and other earlv explorers made 
repeated statements to the effect that the inhabitants of the islands 
were everywhere at war with the Caribs, the seafaring cannibals who 
preyed upon the more peaceable agricultural natives of the islands. 
The fear of the Caribs kept the natives from living near the coasts. 
COOK—THE COCONUT PALM IN AMERICA. 291 
Even when the lands along the coast were extensively cultivated, as 
described by Columbus in Hayti, it was difficult to find people or 
houses.® One of Peter Martyr's letters to the Pope gives an account 
of the Caribs and reflects the impression of the early explorers regard- 
ing the havoc wrought by them in the West Indies. 
Theyr common meate, is Ages, Tucca, Maizhtm, Hniiatn, with miche other rootes 
and frutes of treea, and also suche fysshe as they vse in the Ilandes and other regions 
of these prouinces. They eate mans fle>hc but peldome, by cause they nice to not 
often tymes with ^trangiers, except they goo fnorth of theyr owne dominions with a 
mayne armye of purpose to hunt for men, when theyr rauenynge appetite pricketh 
them forwarde. For thev abstevne from them nelues, and eute none but suche as 
they take in the warres or otherwyse by chaunce. But suerly it is a miserable thynge 
to heare howe many myriadea of men these fylthy and vnnaturall deuourera of mans 
fles^he haue consumed, and lefte thou^andes of moste fayreand frutfull Ilandes and 
regions desolate wit how to menne: By reason wherof owre men founds so many 
llandea whiche for theyr fay renew and frutefuliies^e myght seemc to bee corteyne 
earthly Paradv^es, and yet were vtterly voyde of men. Hereby yowre holynesse may 
consider howe pernitious a kyndc of men this is.6 
With such enemies to pounce upon them from the sea it is easy to 
understand that the coconut palm could not be popular among the 
coast-dwelling natives of the West Indies after the Carib invasions 
began. To plant coconut palms, or even to allow them to grow 
where they could be seen from the sea, would only invite the attacks 
of the cannibals by showing them where their human prey could be 
found, 
THE PALMS OF COCOS ISLAND. 
Another piece of definite evidence regarding the habits and history 
of the coco palm comes from a small island in the Pacific Ocean 
about 300 miles to the west of Panama. The name Cocoa Island 
was given by the early navigators because of the abundance of 
coconut palms found on it. Since the coming of the Spaniards, 
however, the island has not been inhabited and the coconut palms 
have almost completely disappeared. Prof. II. Pittier, who visited 
Cocos Island in May, 1898, and again in February, 1902, in the 
interest of the Costa Rican Government, reports that the palms 
that now abound on Cocos Island are not coconut palms, but belong 
to the genus Euterpe. Some of the American palms that have been 
referred to Euterpe have a superficial resemblance to coconut palms, 
a
 He believed that the villages must be at a distance from the sea, whither they went 
when the ehips arrived; for they all took to flight, taking everything with them, and 
they made smoke-Hignala, like a people at war.—The Journal of Columbus, trans, by 
0. R. Markham, p. 104, HakluytSociety, 1893. 
b Martire in Arbor, op. cit., p. 159. (See footnote, p. 276, above.) 
292 CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE NATIONAL HERBARIUM 
but they belong in reality to a distinct group, much more related to 
the Cuban roval palm than to the coconut." 
Excepting a few planted very recently by a treasure seeker living 
on the island, the only coconut palms found by Professor Pittier 
were a small cluster near the southwestern end, on a bench so pro- 
tected by rocks and breakers that landing from the sea is quite 
impracticable. The mountains visible from the anchorages at the 
other end of the island are clothed with the Euterpe palms, not 
with coconut palms. The treasure seeker had brought coconuts 
from Punt-arenas, Costa Rica, and planted them at Wafer Bay, but 
these were found to be different from those already growing on the 
island. Some of the latter had also been planted recently at Chat- 
ham Ray. 
l)e Candolle refers to Dam pier as having found an abundance of 
coco palms on Cocos Island and looks on their presence on an unin- 
habited island so close to the American continent as an additional 
reason for believing that the shores of the New World might have 
been stocked by sea-borne nuts from t he archipelagoes of the Pacific. 
It has been shown in the previous paper that Dampier did not visit 
this Cocos Island, and that the "island of cocos" to which Dampier 
referred was near the coast of Colombia. It was not, as De Candolle 
supposed, the Cocos Island of modern maps.6 
From the preceding facts it might be inferred that Cocos Island 
had been misnamed as a result of mistaking the Euterpe palms for 
coconuts, but there is historical evidence to justify the name. 
Although Dampier, as before stated, (lid not visit Cocos Island, we 
have an authentic account by Wafer of the existence of large num- 
bers of coconuts on this island in 1GS5. Wafer was at one time 
Dampier's first officer, and his "Travels" are often bound with 
Dampier's "Voyages." This may explain De Catidolle's citation 
of Dampier's statement as applying to the modern Cocos Island. 
Though Wafer was not a botanist, his account of the coconuts of 
Cocos Island is too circumstantial to permit us to doubt that coco- 
nuts existed in abundance in his day. 
Our men being tolerably well reeover'd, we stood away [from Ihe Gulph of Ama- 
pallaj to the Southward, and came to (lit; Island (,'ocos, in 5 De%. If> Min. N. Lat, 
'Tis Mi called from its Coco-Nuts. wherewith 'Iin plentifully ator'd. 'Tis but a small 
Island, yet a very pleasant, one: For the Middle of I he Island is a steep Hill, Bur- 
rounded all about, with a Plain, declining to the Sea. This Plain, and particularly 
« The resemblance lies in the shape and position of the leaves when seen at a little 
distance. The crown of leaves of the royal palm does not resemble that of the coco- 
nut, because the leaflets are inserted at different angles along the midrib, but this is 
not the ease in the Porto Rico mountain palm {./lcm/a montimla) nor in the still 
more graceful tc/'tuTa or halaule (Plcchs aweniana) that adorns the summits of many 
limestone mountains in eastern Guatemala. 
''Contribution* frurn the I . S. .National Herbarium, vol. 7, pp. 2<!4,2G5. (1901.) 
COOK—TIIE COCONUT PALM IN AMERICA 293 
the Valley where you go ashore, is thick set with Coco-nut Trees, which flourish here 
very finely, it being a rich and fruitful Soil. They grow also on the Skirts of the 
Hilly Ground in the Middle of the Isle, and scattereing in Spots upon the Sides of it, 
very pleasantly.0 
So much for the number and location of the palms. That this 
description does not, by any chance, apply to any other palm with 
which the coconut could be confused, even in the seventeenth cen- 
* 
turv, is shown by a further incident. 
Nor did we spare the Coco-Nuts, eating what we would, and drinking the Milk, and 
carrying several Hundreds of them on board. Some or other of our Men went ashore 
every Day: And one Day among the rest, being minded to make themselves very 
merry, they went ashore and cut down a great many Coco-trees; from which they 
gather'd the l;ruit, and drew about 20 Gallons of the Milk. Then they all sat 
down and drank Healths to the King and Queen, elc. They drank an excessive 
Quantity; yet it did not end 111 Drunkenness: But however, that Sort of Liquor had 
bo chilled and benumb'd their Nerves, that they eould neither go nor stand: Nor 
could they return on board the Ship, without the Help of those who had not been 
Partakers in the Froliek: Nor did they recover it under 4 or 0 Days Time.® 
In view of these statements the present complete, or nearly com- 
plete, extinction of the coco palm can scarcely be understood except 
as the result of the absence of human inhabitants from Cocos Island 
during the last two centuries, another example of the fact that the 
species can not compete with the vegetation of the coasts and islands 
of the humid tropics. If Cocos Island were a mere coral atoll or 
sand bar, the traditional possibility of sea-drifted coconuts could 
still be drawn upon, but it has an area of about 18 square miles and 
a mountainous surface, the highest peak rising about 660 meters. 
When the size and topography of the island are considered and the 
presence of a considerable native flora, Wafer's statements regarding 
the coconut groves on the slopes away from the sea would seem to 
point to clearing and planting by the hand of man though the apparent 
number of the palms may have been increased by confusion with the 
native species that grows on the mountains. 
That there were no inhabitants at the time of Wafer's visit does 
not prove that the island had never been occupied. Even without a 
permanent population the coconuts may have been planted and 
cared for by natives of the mainland for use during fishing expeditions, 
a plan followed in some localities in the Malay region. The serious 
disturbances that followed the arrival of the Spaniards in the Panama 
region would naturally tend to interrupt such visits. Already in 
Wafer's time the palms must have been abandoned long enough to 
conceal the evidences of human agency in planting them, for any more 
direct indications that the island had been inhabited would undoubt- 
edly have been noted. 
° Wafer's New Voyage and Description of the Isthmus of America, in Dampier'a 
Voyage, vol. 3, pp. 379, 380. (London, 1729.) 
294 CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE NATIONAL HERBARIUM. 
One of the coconuts brought back by Professor Pittier from Cocoa 
Island proved to be quite unlike the varieties grown in Costa Rica. 
It was less than half the size of the mainland coconuts and was nearly 
round, measuring 11 centimeters long by 11.5 centimeters wide. 
The "eyes" were unusually large, the fertile foramen measuring 1.8 
centimeters across. We can hardly hope to learn whether the single 
cluster of small-fruited coconut palms found by Professor Pittier 
represented the last survivors of the multitude found by Wafer. 
Whether we take this view or assume that they were brought by some 
unknown expedition or were drifted in from the sea and planted by 
accident, as coconuts have been supposed to be, the fact remains that 
no coconut palms survived in the parts of the island that Wafer 
visited and described. 
Tlie island suffered from a plague of rats at the time of Professor 
Pittier's visit, and lie suggests that these animals might have been 
responsible for the disappearance of the coconut palms. It is true 
that rats often do serious damage in plantations, making it necessary 
to belt the palms with tin to keep the pests from climbing up. But 
if the extinction of the palms is to be ascribed to the rats, they must 
be considered as a very general factor, since they arc distributed 
over the whole tropical belt where coconuts are cultivated, from 
Porto Rico to the islands of the Pacific and Indian Oceans. They 
would be as likely to interfere with the perpetuation of coconuts in 
any abandoned place as on Cocos Island. 
Ethnologists may find in this hitherto unsuspected primitive occu- 
pation of Cocos Island an additional evidence of the maritime skill 
of the Indians of the Pacific coast of tropical America, and thus be 
the more willing to consider the possibility of prehistoric communi- 
cation between the shores of the American Continent and the Pacific 
islands. The accounts which the Peruvians gave to the Spaniards 
of lands in the Pacific led to the fitting out of the expeditions of 
Mendana, Sarmiento, and Quiros. The Polynesians also had tradi- 
tions of places farther east than any existing islands. The natives 
of the Marquesas Archipelago, the group that lies nearest to Cocos 
Island and the Isthmus of Panama, told Captain Porter that the 
coconut was brought from another island to the eastward. 
The cocoa-nut tree, as I before remarked, was paid to have been brought from 
Ootoopoo, an island which is supposed by the natives to be situated somewhere to 
the windward of La Magdalena. 
None of our navigators have yet discovered an island of that name, so situated; 
but in examining the chart of Tupia, that native of the island of Ulitea who left 
there with Captain Cook on his first voyage, we find nearly in the place aligned by 
the native of Nooakcevah to Ootoopoo an island called 0otoo.a 
® Porter, D., Journal of a Cruize made to the Pacific Ocean, vol. 2, p. 139. (Phila- 
delphia, 1815.) 
COOK—THE COCONUT PALM IN AMERICA 295 
Porter notes the further fact that a native of the Society Islands 
V 
had given to Captain Cook, fifty years before, a similar name for an 
island supposed to be located to the eastward of the Marquesas group. 
Like other Polynesians, the natives of this archipelago were accus- 
tomed to sail away with their families in large canoes well provisioned 
with food and with cuttings of their cultivated plants, to discover 
and colonize new islands. An Englishman, who had lived in the 
Marquesas for several years, informed Porter that he had known of 
the departure of more than <S00 people who left "in search of other 
lands," never to return. 
As an indication that some of these expeditions from Polynesia 
reached the American Continent we may refer to the presence of the 
banana, a plant certainly native of the Old World, and also widely 
distributed in pre-Spanish America. Balboa found, on his first 
expedition across the Isthmus of Panama, a tribe of dark-skinned, 
heavily tattooed people with frizzled hair, which various historians 
have described as negroes, following a statement to that effect by 
Peter Martvr. 
There is a region not pant two dayes iourney distant from Qiuire.qim, in which they 
founde only blacke Moored: and those excedynge fierce and cruell. They suppose 
that in tyme paste certeyne blacke mores saylod I (wither owl. of Aclhmpia to rob bo: 
and that by shippewracke or eume other ehaunee, they were dryuen to those 
mountaynes." 
O vie do's much more detailed account of these people makes it 
apparent that they were not negroes. Peter Martyr's statement 
is in the nature of a casual report echoed from second-hand informa- 
tion. Oviedo's narrative was drawn up on the Isthmus where he 
arrived in 1513, the year after Balboa crossed. Tt embodies the direct 
testimony of Balboa himself and other eyewitnesses of the events of 
his remarkable expedition.6 
It is evident enough from Oviedo's account that the black frizzle- 
haired people encountered by Balboa were recent intruders and not 
ordinary Indians, but there is not the slightest indication, expressed 
or implied, that they were African negroes, who were quite unable 
to make voyages to America, either by design or by accident. The 
Kroos and other maritime tribes of West Africa use only small 
canoes and make only short voyages along the coast, usually going 
ashore to sleep. The Pacific, however, was the scene of a general 
« Marti re in Arber, op. cit., p. 139. (See footnote, p. 276.) 
ftOviedo, Hietoria General y Natural de las Indies, vol. 3, pp. 8, 126-129. (Mad- 
rid, 1851: see above, p. 278.) The reason why the facts given in this most extensive of 
the early histories oi America have not received more general consideration is doubt- 
less to be found in the fact that the work, though written in the early part of the 
sixteenth century, was not. published until the middle of the nineteenth, except, in 
the form of short extracts and abridgements, which gave small indication of the 
detailed circumstantial character of much of the information. 
§1004°—vol 14, PT 2—10 3 
296 COMTltlliUTIOKti JtKOil THE NATIONAL ilJimiAiilUM. 
maritime activity, as shown not only by the Polynesians, but by the 
dark, frizzle-haired Melanesia!! people who were extending them- 
selves to the eastward and had reached not only to Fiji and Tonga, 
but to Tahiti a and the Marquesas.'1 
The place where these frizzle-haired people were found by Balboa 
was close to the Pacific Ocean and very far from the Atlantic, Nor 
is it entirely impossible that additional present-day evidence is still 
to be obtained by careful ethnological study of the Panama region, 
where a rather peculiar clan of frizzle-haired, seafaring people still 
exists, locally called Chiricanos. They are commonly supposed to 
represent an intermixture of negroes and Indians, but are worthy 
of study as a possible remnant of Polynesian influence. 
The period in which the coconut was first carried westward across 
the Pacific was, in all probability, so extremely remote that shore 
lines and land masses may easily have been different from what 
they are now. Other low-lying islands between Cocos and the 
Marquesas group may have disappeared, but the biological and 
historical facts do not leave us dependent on such speculations for 
an assurance of human contacts between the Pacific islands and the 
coasts of tropical America. It becomes obvious that the possibility of 
communication with the islands of the Pacific may have continued 
nearly to the time of the coming of the Spaniards, and that not by 
ocean currents or shipwrecks, but by deliberate voyages of maritime 
people, whose other exploits in the Pacific show that they were quite 
capable of carrying the coconut into the Pacific, and, many genera- 
tions later, of bringing the banana back, 
THE COCONUT PALM UNABLE TO MAINTAIN ITSELF ON 
SEACOASTS. 
The disappearance of the coconut palms from Cocos Island is a 
striking example of the general fact that tlie* coconut palm is not 
only unable to establish itself on seacoasts, but is unable to persist 
after it has been planted. The greater the emphasis laid upon the 
idea that the coconut can float, and can be cast up and growr on the 
beach, the greater appears the discrepancy between the theory of 
maritime distribution and the actual facts, for the palm is not known 
to exist except as a cultivated plant in the care of agricultural people. 
That nuts are sometimes carried for long distances by the sea 
there can be no doubt; everything is carried that has a sufficiently 
low specific gravitv. A striking instance of this kind has been | i r ■ •' t h 
" Uomsunvilh1, A Voyage Round thy World {17G6-I7<>{)), trans, by John Forster, 
p. 219. (London, 1772.) 
b Quirns (1'»!)">), in Pulrymple, Historical Collection of Voyages and Discoveries, 
vol. I, ]>. G9. (London, 1770.) 
COOK—TllJi COCONUT PALM IN AMERICA 297 
personally communicated by Dr. W. E. Inksetter, of Alajuela, Costa 
Rica. A coconut, with (he husk intact, was found on the beach in 
the island of Ronsay, in the Orkney group, to the north of Scotland, 
in the winter of 1S92-93. Doctor Inksetter saw the nut and drank 
some of the milk, which was still in good condition. 
But of what advantage is such transportation if the nut encounters 
unfavorable conditions when it lands, and thus fails to germinate or 
to grow to maturity and establish its seedlings in turn? We should 
find on some tropical coast a place where the palms thrive and 
multiply, where we find old palms surrounded by flourishing young 
ones, growing spontaneously, without the aid of man, but no such 
instance has been reported, instances of floating nuts or of sup- 
posedly self-sown palms indicate th<' opposite of what they are some- 
times thought to prove, for the failure of the palms to persist is only 
emphasized by showing that opportun.il ies have been ample. There 
seems to be no authentic record of coco palms establishing and 
maintaining themselves on any tropical coast in a wild or truly 
spontaneous condition. A palm that is unable to maintain itself 
on the land has nothing to gain by having its nuts drifted about by 
the sea. 
The complete absence of coconuts from the extensive tropical 
coast line of Australia until planted by European colonists has 
already been cited as a gigantic experiment showing that the coconut 
did not establish itself without human, help, even in a place where it 
afterwards thrived in cultivation. It is known I fiat the shores of 
Australia were visited yearly by many Malay fishing boats carrying 
large (plant it ies of coconuts among their food supplies. Many nuts 
have also been found cast up on the tropical beach of Australia. 
The palms exist in large numbers on small islands in the Torres 
Straits, only ;>0 or 40 miles from the Australian coast. The contrast 
between these palm-covered islands and the palm less shores of Aus- 
tralia has made a strong impression upon eyewitnesses. 
Murray Island is about 700 feet high at its highest point, and consists of steep 
broken ground. Its whole aspect is singularly different from any part of Australia, 
since the whole of its lower portion, and a good part even of the lulls, is covered by a 
continuous grove of cocoa-nut trees. The cut-in? absence of these (rocs from every part 
of Australia is a most, striking; fact, since it its, I believe, the only country in the world 
so much oi which lies within the Tropics in which they have never been found. We 
had once or twice found cocoa-nuts on the beach, still more or less fresh; and here is 
an island, absolutely within the Great Barrier reef, completely covered by them, 
and yet neither by Flinders, King, Wickham, Stokes, or ourselves have any trees 
been discovered anywhere upon the mainland. We could perceive many natives 
oil the beach of Murray Island, as also a nearly continuous line of large dome-shaped 
298 CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE NATIONAL HERBARIUM 
huts, surrounded by fences of tall poles ornamented by large shells; everything 
shewing the natives to be a different race of beings from the Australians.'' 
The explanation of the absence of coconuts in Australia lias been 
found by all travelers in the fact that the Australian natives differ 
from those of all the Pacific islands in being nonagricultural. The 
same is true of another peculiar and very primitive people living on 
the Andaman Islands of the Indian Ocean. With them also the 
coconut palm was lacking, though their islands lie in the midst of 
the East Indies, where the coconut and its numerous varieties Jiave 
been supposed to originate and distribute themselves by sea.h 
No other inhabited tropical coasts and islands of the Pacific and 
Indian oceans appear to be without coco palms, but no other peoples 
failed to plant and care for them. Throughout this region there is 
no difference of popular opinion regarding the strict dependence of 
the coconut upon man. The idea of wild coconuts planting them- 
selves on tropical scacoasts is strictly the product of the imagination 
of authors who have written books about the Tropics without visiting 
such regions, or at least without taking into account the opinions of 
those who have first-hand familiarity with the habits of the palm. 
Throughout the South Sea islands coco-nut. palms abound, and oil may be obtained 
in various places, Some of the uninhabited islands are covered with dense groves, and 
the unfathered nuLs, which have fallen year after year, lie upon the ground in incred- 
ible quantities. Two or three men, provided with the necessary apparatus for pressing 
out the oil, will, in the course of a week or two, obtain enough to load one of the large 
sea canoes. . . . 
The coco-nut is essentially a maritime plant, and is always one of the first to make 
its appearance on coral and other new islands in tropical seas, the nut being floated 
to them, and rather benefiting than otherwise by it* immersion in the salt water/ 
The authority of Simmonds might seem to give weight to these 
statements, but no such ideas are found in the account of the coconut 
palm in that author's subsequent manual of Tropical Agriculture. 
The islands where the coconuts established themselves and accumu- 
lated in "incredible quantities'" were never specified.'1 
° Jukes, Voyage of the Fly to the Eastern Archipelago, 1S42, vol. 1, p. 132. (Lon- 
don, 1847.) 
& It is interesting to note that with the exception of a few spots, evidently planted 
by the early colonists, cocoa-nuts do not occur in the Andamans, and this is especially 
remarkable from the fact that the conditions are favorable for their propagation.— 
Safford, \V. E., The Abbott Collection from the Andaman Islands, Smithsonian Insti- 
tution, Ann. Ilep., 1001, pp. 477-4 T2, (1902.) 
c Simmonds, P. L., The Commercial Products of the Vegetable Kingdom, pp. 5(9, 
550. (London, 1854.) 
d If anything further is needed to show that Simmonds had no direct knowledge 
of the coconut palm when the earlier work was written, his fanciful statement regard- 
ing the germination and growth of the palms will certainly suffice. Almost every 
line contains a fresh error. 
"The coco-nut is usually planted as follows: Selecting a suitable place, you drop 
into the ground a fully ripe nut, and leave it. In a few days a thin lance-like shoot 
Contr, Nit. Herb V.^1. 14 Plate 54. 
r 
Fig. 1. —Coconut Palms Overhanging the. Surf at High Tide, Puerto Barrios, 
Guatemala. 
Fig. 2.—Coconut Palms Overhanging the Sea, Livingston, Guatemala. 
T1ki irniiks Ir:iTi \ ri y m i'oill;Iy unwinl t hr fvil u rrMilt u: , i ,111 ;»i t it it ni with ui h*ir \ t >n 
COOK—THE COCONUT PALM TN AMERICA. 299 
Tho conclusions of those who have considered the subject from the 
tropical standpoint and with the advantage of actual contact with 
tropical conditions, have been canvassed in the previous paper, but 
a few of their statements may bo repeated. Pickering testifies: 
. . . O. nucifera throughout the Pacific occurs only on those islands to which it has 
been carried by the natives, a fact well known to traders; was observed by myself only 
under cultivation throughout the islands of the Pacific and the Malayan Archipelago.^ 
... So invariably in its presence attributable to human operations that it has 
become a guide to the traders in seeking for natives. 
Notwithstanding that the fruit is well adapted for floating uninjured over a wide 
expanse, I have never met with an instance of a cocoa palm having spontaneously 
extended itself from island to island.6 
Other testimonies are the following: 
. . . It is to be emphasized that all coconuts are planted; the idea of a wild palm 
being as strange in Funafuti as that of a wild peach might be in England. ... I doubt 
whether, despite popular opinion to the contrary, a wild coconut palm is to be found 
throughout the breadth of the Pacific, c 
. . . From repeated observation, [in the Solomon group] I am convinced that the 
coco-nut palms will rarely grow, and certainly will not bear fruit, unless attended to 
and kept clear of overgrowing trees. 
. . . The Cingalese have a saying that Cocoa-nut trees do not thrive unless "you 
walk and talk among them," indicating that trees thrive the best when carefully 
attended to. f 
THE COCONUT PALM NOT TOLERANT OF SHADE. 
When tho traveler who lands for the first time on a tropical coast 
looks up along tho shore and sees the coconut palms leaning out 
toward the strand or actually overhanging the water, he is at once 
reminded of and confirmed in the idea of maritime distribution. (PI. 
54, figs, 1 and 2.) But if he looks further into the facts he will learn 
forces itself through a minute hole in the shell, pierces the husk, and soon unfolds 
three pale-green loaves iti the air, while, originating in the same soft white sponge 
which now completely fills the nut, a pair of fibrous roots pushing away the stoppers 
which close two hole? in an opposite direction, penetrate the shell, and strike verti- 
cally into the ground. A day or two more, and the shell and husk, which in the last 
and germinating stag*' of the nut are so hard that a knife will scarcely make any 
impression, spontaneously burst by some force within; and, henceforth, the hardy 
young plant thrives apace, and needing no culture, pruning, or attention of any sort, 
rapidly arrives at maturity."—Simmonds, op. cit., p. 555. 
The rapidity of germination and growth are entirely misconceived; only one leaf 
is produced at a time, and the first leaves are simple, not three-parted; roots do not 
come out of the holes, but grow from the young plant; the shell does not burst; the 
young palms do not thrive without care, 
a Pickering, Charles, Chronological History of Plants, p. 428, (Boston, 1879.) 
bPickering, Charles, The Races of Men, pp. 54, 323. (London, 1851.) 
cHedley, Memoir 111, Australian Museum, Sydney, p. 22. (1896.) 
d Wood ford, A Naturalist Among the Head Ilunters, p. 194. (London, 1890.) 
e Seemann, B., Popular History of the Palms and their Allies, p. 158. (London, 
1856.) 
300 CONTRIBUTIONS FliOM T11K NATIONAL HERBARIUM 
that coconuts do not grow toward the sea in order to be able to drop 
their fruits into the waves, but because this wide is bare to the sun. 
The trunks of the palms reach out toward the sea for the same reason 
that house plants turn toward the window. Many writers overlook 
this fact, but there are exceptions, as the following statement will 
show: 
. , . Wo must also tiive up the poetic fancy thai, ihe coconut tree stretches out 
towards tin1 sea because it loves the briny breeze, The tnilli is, that the tree is a 
lover of li^ht. and will bend in anv direct i<m to reach il; and as there is no obslniction ■■ ' * * 
on the sea shore it naturally bonds in that direction and would do the same if ihe open 
space were inland. S<^ sensitive is il (n shade of 1he lightest that Li instinctively 
bends away from itT and instances may be seen where the tree lias ^rown almost 
horizontally till outside the influence of the shade before it assumed its upward 
growth/* 
The better exposure to the sun goes far to explain the fact that 
coconut palms usually thrive better close to the sea. Tt is easier to 
to give coconuts the necessary exposure along the beach where the 
other vegetation is less luxuriant than a few rods farther back, and 
the beach locations where the coconuts will thrive mav be of no use 
I 
for any other crop. Coconuts are accordingly planted in many spots 
where no other evidences of agriculture appear, so that the unwary 
traveler has many opportunities to form conclusions which a little 
further investigation would dispel. 
Jt is very natural, no doubt, to assume that the coconuts rising up 
from among other vegetation or overhanging the sea from the end 
of a promontory (pi. ol, fig. LM are wild palms, but a moment's 
reflection would make it apparent that the planting of palms in such 
a place is necessarily the work of man. Coconuts might be stranded 
on a low or sloping beach, but they are not to be thrown up on high 
ground where the waves do not come. And if thev were carried in 
" v 
among the other plants they could not by any possibility have sur- 
vived. The other vegetation has to be cleared away when coconut 
palms arc planted. 
The possibility that a coconut might be stranded on a newly formed 
island and multiply in the unoccupied soil, according to the fable, 
may not be absolutely excluded, but we know that the monopoly 
would not be of long duration. The very prosperity of the palms 
would but assist, in the gathering of more fertile soil and hasten the 
ascendency of their forest-forming competitors, many of which are far 
better able than the coconut to establish themselves oil unoccupied 
shores. The game would be a losing one. with extinction in prospect 
<l Jurriiiie, \\\, Tin; Culliv:tlion of Hit! ('oconut 1'a.lm, Tropical Agriculturist, vol. 24, 
p. 151. (11)05.) 
COOK—THE COCONUT PALM IN AMERICA. 301 
at the end of a few generations, even though the coconuts arrived 
first and succeeded in establishing themselves." 
Many cultivated plants and weeds have escaped from gardens and 
adopted an independent existence in parts of the world very remote 
from their original home. The finding of such a species in a wild 
state proves that the conditions are favorable to its growth, even 
though it gives us no evidence regarding the original home of the 
species. When a plant with the prolonged, world-wide opportunities 
of the coconut fails anywhere to escape and become established, but 
remains completely dependent upon man, it seems obvious that the 
tropical coasts where man has planted it do not afford the ideal 
conditions for its existence, the conditions under which it would be 
likely to develop as a wild plant. 
Other kinds of palms afford excellent examples of intolerance of 
shade, showing that this character is shared in different degrees by 
many members of the group. An extreme case is found in Central 
American fan palms of the genus Brahea, that usually grow on preci- 
pices of limestone rock. In forested districts these fan palms are 
confined to the perpendicular walls, the only situations that afford 
them the necessary exposure to sunlight. Most of the seeds of these 
palms must fall into the forests below, but young palms are found 
only in the crevices of the cliffs. It does not appear that even small 
seedlings are developed without more light than the forest conditions 
afford. If natural selection could have rendered the species more 
a Dr. H. U. Guppy has held (Journ. Tram. Victoria Jnsl., vol. 24, p. 2(j7. 1890} 
thai the coco palm was native in the Cocos or Keeling Inland of the Indian Ocean, to 
the southwest of Sumatra, but his account is far from convincing. He admits that the 
inland had been visited by Malays before the advent of Kuropean settlers, and also (hat 
the crabs never permit the young palm seedlings to become established unless the 
nuts are well buried by the planters. 
Schimper found in his extensive studies of Malayan strand floras no instance of 
successful self-grown coconuts. (Schimpcr, A. I\ W., Die indo-malayische Strand- 
flora, 162. 1891,) Mr. W. E. Safford reports that coconuts, along with seeds of many 
other plants, are frequently drifted to the sandy windward beaches of the island of 
Guam, but that no palms grow on this uninhabited coast. 
A recent work entitled "The New Flora of the Volcanic Island of Krakatau," by 
Prof. A. Ernst, contains a photograph of a group of nearly a dozen coconut palms, 
standing well back from the strand, all of nearly the same size and at nearly equal 
distances. Reports of the early visits to the island did not show the presence of coco- 
nut palms, though many other plants had established themselves. An explanation 
of the presence of the palms away from the strand is probably to be found in the 
changes that have continued to take place in the topography of the new island, as indi- 
cated iu the following statement: 
. . . " It is obvious that the oldest strand-plants, which sprang from the seeds and 
fruits from the drift formed in the first year, have been gradually separated from the 
beach by a constantly increasing belt and that during this shifting of the shore-line 
new plant-germs were introduced with the pumice and took part in the formation 
of the present discontinuous strand-forest" (p. 69). 
302 CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THK NATIONAL HERBARIUM. 
tolerant of shade the conditions would seem to be most effectively 
arranged for bringing this about, but very little progress appears to 
have been made, in spite of the most rigorous and persistent selection 
that could well be imagined. 
Many other palms are able to germinate in places where there is 
not light enough to enable them to grow to maturity. The seedlings 
may be reckoned as shade tolerant during the early period, while they 
can draw upon the nourishment stored in the seed, but without 
access to direct light they never complete their development. Young 
seedlings of the Porto 1 vie an mountain palm (Acrista m anil cola) were 
found in great numbers near Utuado, Porto Rico, in July, 1901, in 
one of the dense forests of tabonuco (l)acryodes hexandra) that still 
crown the summits of a few of the mountains of that island. The 
young palms grow thickly over large areas, forming almost the sole 
undergrowth of the forest. Yet in spite of the vast numbers of seed- 
lings not a single adult palm could be seen. The seeds of the moun- 
tain palms are said to be brought into the forest by wild pigeons that 
prefer the lofty tabonuco trees for roosting places.® 
The African oil palm presents similar facts. The seedlings are 
tolerant of shade and very tenacious of life. They are found in vast 
numbers along the paths in the forests where the seeds arc dropped 
by the natives, who commonly use the fruits as food on their journeys. 
But in spite of the vast numbers of seedlings, mature oil palms are 
never found in the forest belt, except where natives have cleared the 
land for rice or cassava. It is easy to understand why oil palms are 
much more abundant in regions that support large native populations, 
as in Dahomey. The more frequently the land is cleared the greater 
the advantage of the oil palms over other forms of vegetation. 
In their relation to external conditions the whole natural order of 
the palms can be divided into two distinct series, those that are toler- 
ant of shade and those that are not. Many species of small palms 
live as undergrowth in the shaded depths of tropical forests, and are, 
in nature, strictly confined to such situations. The forests of tropical 
America afford numerous examples of undergrowth palms among the 
species of Chaniaedorea, (leonoma, and related genera. All of the 
large palms, those that attain the dimensions of trees, require exposure 
to the sunlight in order to complete their development. 
The palms may have been more prosperous in some former geologic 
time, but the competition of more modern and efficient types of vege- 
tation now confines them to situations relatively unfavorable for 
aThe IVrto Riran mountain palm was described a# a new gemm in JttftL (O. F. 
Cock, A synopsis of l he palmn nf Ptnlo Rico, Bulletin of the Torrey Jiotanical Hub, 
vol. 28, \k 5r>r>.) For a photograph of the tabonuco forest in which the seedling palms 
occur, we Cook, < >. F,, ami Colling C. N., Economic Plants of Porto Kico, Contributions 
IT. S, National Herbarium, vol. S, p, ];J2> pi. 34, (1903.) 
COOK—TIIE COCONUT PALM IN AMERICA 303 
other plants, where special conditions enable the palms to persist. 
Some of the North American palms that require sunlight have taken 
refuge in deserts of Mexico, while others are confined to the fire-swept 
pine barrens of Florida. A third series, represented by Thrinax and 
allied genera, occupies the exposed, precipices and crags of the dry 
limestone hills and keys of the West Indies. A fourth series is 
limited to swamps or river banks (Augustinea), and a fifth to high 
mountain summits (Acrista). With the exceptions of the under- 
growth palms and the slender rattans and similar climbing types, 
there are very few true forest species able to secure a footing or even 
to hold their own in undisturbed tropical tree growth. 
These limitations are shared by the coconut and all of its nearer 
relatives, which inhabit relatively open interior districts, rocky 
mountain slopes, and barren or exposed situations where vegetation 
of other types is comparatively sparse. Some of the species frequent 
river banks, but these are distant and rather degenerate cousins of 
the coconut. Few members of the family, if any, are natives of truly 
maritime districts. Very few palms, even of other families, are to be 
reckoned as definitely maritime plants, for while several frequent the 
seashore, such as the palmettos of Florida and the West Indies, they 
are also able to grow away from the sea. A species of Phoenix (pos- 
sibly P. reclinata), native in Liberia, is confined to the sea beach, 
occurring: onlv in the outermost zone of shrubby vegetation stunted 
o *_ f o 
by the salt spray, but this apparent preference is likely to be due to 
the fact that the sea beach affords more of the necessary exposure 
to the sun than can be obtained in the adjacent forest. 
For the want of a more distinctive term, the larger palms are called 
"trees," but they might be described more correctly as overgrown 
herbs. Their trunks are always constructed on the same general 
plan as the cornstalk or the sugar cane, consisting of a central mass of 
pith with a hard external shell, but without the true bark which 
enables the trunks of other trees to increase gradually in thickness 
after beginning their growth as slender shoots. The young coconut 
palm is under the necessity of producing many leaves at the surface 
of the ground before the trunk can attain its full diameter and begin 
its upward columnar growth. 
The two or three years that are lost before the upward growth of the 
trunk can begin are a very serious handicap in the race for existence 
among the luxuriant and tangled growth of shrubs, trees, and vines 
which promptly overrun any abandoned land in the humid Tropics. 
Exogenous plants begin the elongation of the stem immediately after 
germination, and usually produce much longer in temodes in the shade 
than when exposed to the sunlight. Unless the human friends of the 
young coconut are at hand to keep down the other vegetation the 
period of infancy is not survived. 
304 CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE NATIONAL HERBARIUM. 
The rattans and other climbing palms that produce slender, long- 
jointed trunks sire able to outgrow other vegetation, but ail the palms 
that form thick, short-jointed trunks suffer the same disadvantage 
as the coconut. They are unable to compete with other quick- 
growing forms of vegetation that cover and smother young palms 
before they can escape by the building of trunks. 
The coconut must be reckoned among the palms that are unable 
to develop without full exposure to sunlight. The seedling plants 
attain a considerable size in locations that are partially shaded, but 
this apparent growth arises from the nourishment stored in the huge 
seed. Large amounts of sunlight appear to bo necessary to enable 
young coconut palms to make any independent growth. This intol- 
erance of shade is a fact of primary importance in the study of the 
coconut, either from the botanical or from the agricultural standpoint. 
It explains why coconuts are not able to establish themselves as wild 
plants in any of the wide tropical regions of low elevation in which 
they are cultivated. 
SOUTH AMERICAN ORIGIN OF THE COCONUT PAIM. 
As soon as we recognize that the coconut is unable to establish 
itself or even to maintain its existence on any tropical seacoast. we 
are no longer at liberty to believe that the species originated in 
maritime situations. It becomes evident that the home of the plant 
must be sought in interior localities where the young palms could 
escape competition with the more luxuriant types of tropical vege- 
tation. While we imagine that the coconut can be disseminated by 
ocean currents to any part of the Tropics, it seems hopeless to fix 
upon any particular coast line as the original home of the species, but 
when we understand that the species must have originated in an 
interior locality the problem of origin is immediately simplified and 
verv definite conclusions can be reached. 4' 
If the coconut could be submitted as a new natural object to a 
specialist familiar with all other known palms, he would without 
hesitation recognize it as a product of America, since ail of the score 
of related genera, including about three hundred species, are Amer- 
ican.0 With e<|ual confidence the specialist would assign the coconut 
"The only member of the family Coc/aceae that has an extra-American distribution 
is the African oil palm, Ekwis ffuiwotm, a species rather chicly related to the Amer- 
ican Ehmis rnelanocMxa. Even in this ease the idea of maritime distribution has 
become unnecessary. The African oil palm has been found in Brazil in un apparently 
wild state, and may have originated in that, country. Dr. F. II. Knowlton, of the 
I:. S. (ieological Survey, has showed me seeds of the African oil palm which wore 
taken from an albatross shot off the west coast of Africa by the United Stales iv-tipse 
Expedition of 1889-90. The powers of flight of the albatross arc such as to render it a 
much more effective a%ent of distribution than the ocean currents. Moreover, the oil 
palm does not behave an a littoral species, like the coconut. 
COOK—THE COCONUT PALM IN AMERICA. 305 
to South America, because, all other species of the genus Cocoa are 
confined to that continent, and lie would further locate it in the 
northwestern portion of South America, because the wild species of 
Cocos of that region are much more similar to the coconut than are 
those of the Amazon Valley and eastern Brazil. Thus, from a purely 
biological standpoint, it is reasonable to suppose that the vigorous 
and productive coconut palms reported by Ilumboldt in the interior 
districts of Venezuela and Colombia may have been growing near the 
ancestral home of the species. 
In dealing with a plant like the coco palm we can be confident that 
it originated in a definite geographical region, along with the other 
similar and related species. To suppose that the same species has 
originated in two or more remote regions is quite as absurd an idea, 
from the standpoint of modern biology, as it would be in geometry 
to talk of a plane triangle including three right angles. It might be 
a matter of difficulty and debate to determine which of the other 
species of Cocos were most nearly related to the coconut, or which 
of the other American genera of Cocaceae were most nearly related to 
Cocos, but to insist that the coconut had sprung from the unrelated 
Malayan or Polynesian palms would be altogether fantastic. Bio- 
logical facts, though seldom appearing to be as exact and invariable 
as those of mathematics, are for some purposes equally definite. 
Geometry gave us the sciences of geography and navigation, and also 
made it possible to understand the motions of the planets. Biology, 
like geometry, is a system of bearings and measurements which may 
assist us in the solutions of many problems. 
The inability of the coconut to withstand the competition of ordi- 
nary tropical vegetation makes it unreasonable to suppose that the 
species originated in any region that had a natural forest covering. 
The fact that other related palms are much more tolerant of shade 
than the coconut makes it only the more probable that the coconut 
originally inhabited open places where it could have full exposure to 
the sun; that is, a place where the conditions were unfavorable for 
other types of vegetation, but favorable for the coconut. A con- 
dition that the coconut can tolerate and that excludes most other 
vegetation is the presence of salt in the soil. Many salt deposits are 
found along the eastern side of the Andes from Colombia to Peru. 
Cieza de Leon devotes a special chapter to the native salt industry of 
Colombia, mentioning many springs, streams, and lakes in the Cauca 
Valley, and especially in the district of Anzerma where the coconut 
palms were found. 
Before I treat, of the kingdom of Peru, or leave the government of Popayan, iI mems 
to me well to give some account of the notable fountains there are in this land, and of 
the rivers of water from which they make salt., for thua the people are sustained, having 
no salt pits in these parts, and the sea being far distant. . . . 
306 CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE NATIONAL HERBARIUM. 
In the province culled Cori, which is near ihe town of Anzerina, there is a river 
which flows with considerable force, and near it there are some ponds of salt water, 
whence the Indians obtain the quantity they require, and, matin# great fires, they 
place jars of this stilt, water on them, and net the water to boil until from an arroba 
there is not left half an azumbre. Then their experience enables them to convert 
the residue into as pure and excellent salt, as is made from the salt-pits of Spain. 
Throughout the districts of Antioquia there are many of these fountains, and they 
make so much salt that they take it inland, and exchange it for gold, cotton cloth, 
and other tiling which they may require. 
Beyond the great river which flows near the city of Call, and near that of Popayan, 
towards the north, we discovered a village called Mungia. . . . 
In this village of Mungia, and in another called Cenusara, we found some other 
fountains in mountains near a river, and from these fountains the natives made so 
much salt that their houses were full of it, molded into shapes exactly like loaves of 
sugar. They took this salt by the valley of Aburra to the provinces to the eastward, 
which have not been discovered or seen by the Spaniards to this day. This salt, has 
made the Indians exceedingly rich. . . . 
In the province of Anzerma, and in all its districts, there are fountains of the same 
sort, from which they make salt. 
In the city of C'artago every citizen has his apparatus for making salt, which is pre- 
pared in an Indian village called Consota. a league from the city, where a small river 
flows. Xear the river there is a mountain out of which comes a large spring of very 
black and thick water. The water is taken from this spring and boiled in cauldrons 
until it is nearly all evaporated, when a white-grained salt remains, as good as that of 
Spain. . . . 
In the city of Popayan there are some of these fountains, especially among the 
Coconucos, but not so many, nor of such good quality as those of Anzerma and Carl ago. 
At Pasto all the salt is obtained by trading, and it is better than that of Popayan. I 
have seen many springs, besides those which 1 have now described, with my own eyes, 
but it seems to me that I have said enough to make the reader understand the manner 
of procuring salt from these springs." 
Ilerndon, who explored the upper waters of the Amazon in eastern 
Peru near the middle of the last century, mentions deposits of salt 
in numerous localities in the eastern valleys of the Andes. 
. . . At a quarter past 10 we passed the Quebrada, or ravine of Iluinagua, on the 
right. A small stream comes down this ravine, the water of which is salt. The people 
of Uchiza ascend it—a day's journey—to a salt hill, where they supply themselves 
with this indispensable article. At twenty minutes past 11 we passed another; and at 
I p. m. another, where the people of Tocathe get their salt. It. is a day's journey 
from Tocache to the mouth of the Quebrada, and another to the salt hills.6 
The hills of Piltuana, which we now soon passed, have their base immediately upon 
the river, on the right-hand side. They are about 300 feet, in height, and stretch along 
the banks of the river for a quarter of a mile. The salt shows like frost upon the red 
earth at a distance; but seen nearer the heavy rains seem to have washed away the 
loose earth and left nearly the pure salt standing in innumerable cone-shaped pinnacles, 
so that the broken sides of the hills look like what drawings represent of the crater of a 
volcano, or the bottom of a geyser. Where the hills have been excavated, beautiful 
stalactites of perfectly pure salt hang from the roof in many varieties of shapes. There 
« Cieza de Loon, pp. 124-127. (See footnote, above, p. 2R7.) 
b Ilerndon, W. L., and Gibbon, L., Exploration of the Valley of the Amazon, pt. 1, 
p. 154. (32d Cong. 2d sess., Executive No, 36, 1854.) 
COOK—THE COCONUT PALM IN AMERICA. 307 
are much higher hills back of those, that appear also to contain salt; so that there seems 
a supply here for all people and for all time.« 
We passed the salt hills of Callana Yacu, where the people of Cha.suta and the 
Indians of Ucayali and Maranon get their salt. The hills are not so high as those of 
Filluana, and the salt seems more mixed with red earth. It" crops out" on the banks 
of the river, which are shelving, and rise into gentle hills as they recede, covered with 
bushes and small trees.6 
Every year at this season the Indians of the Maranon and Ucayali make a voyage up 
the Huallaga for their supply of salt. They travel slowly, and support themselves by 
hunting, fishing, and robbing plantain patches on their wav.c 
Unfortunately, this traveler saw no coconut palms, or at least 
made no note of them, but a reference to coconuts in eastern Peru 
has boon pointed out to me by Professor Pittier in the surveys of the 
Intercontinental Railway Commission, near a place called Choros, 
on the Maranon River, at an elevation of 765 meters. 
Vegetation existed only in narrow strips along the immediate edges of the side 
streams entering the Maranon, and consisted mostly of coarse bushes and undergrowth. 
At this particular point, the natives had a small patch of sugar, and there were half a 
dozen cocoanut palms.(l 
No coconut palms are reported by the English botanist Spruce, 
who explored the region of Tarapoto in eastern Peru and ascended the 
humid valleys of the Pastasa and Bombonasa rivers on his way to 
Quito.c 
It would be reasonable to turn to these saline districts of South 
America if any attempts were to be made to definitely ascertain the 
original home of the coconut by finding it in a truly wild state. Such 
a discovery is hardly to be expected, because of the probability that 
localities suited to the spontaneous growth of coconuts would have 
attracted human inhabitants, even in very early times. We may 
hope, however, to find a series of local varieties or subspecies of the 
coconut palm in these interior localities, varieties that will be more 
hardy and vigorous than the maritime forms of the palm cultivated 
in the humid parts of the Tropics, and more likely to thrive under 
semitropical conditions. 
o Op. cit., pp. 154, 155. 
&Op. cit,, p. 16n, 
«Op. cit., p. 1(58. 
d Intercontinental Railway Commission Report, vol. 3, p. 1(5, On a previous page 
of the same series (vol. 2, p. 61) coconut palms are noted as cultivated " in a few places " 
in the Cauca Valley of Colombia. 
e
 Spruce, Richard, Notes of a Botanist on the Amazon and Andes, edited by A. R. 
Wallace, vol. 2, eh. 17. (London, 1908.) Also Kew Bulletin of Miscellaneous Infor- 
mation, ISM), p. 216. 
308 CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE NATIONAL HERBARIUM. 
DOMESTICATION OF PALMS IN ANCIENT AMERICA. 
The general acceptance of the idea that agriculture and other arts 
of civilization originated in the Old World has undoubtedly tended 
to complicate the question of the origin of the coconut palm, as 
studied by Seemann, De Candolle, and other writers on the subject. 
As the art of agriculture must have begun with the domestication of 
wild plants, it may be argued that the plants must have existed in 
the regions where domestication was practiced. The fact that the 
date, the betel nut (Areca), the Palmyra palm (Borassus), the toddy 
palm (Caryota), and the sugar palm (Arenga) were domesticated in 
the East Indies would naturally incline the ethnologist to include the 
coconut in the same list, especially if there appeared to be a differ- 
ence of botanical opinion on the question of origin. It is important, 
therefore, from the ethnological standpoint, to take into account the 
fact that several other palms were more or less completely domesti- 
cated in ancient America, some of them relatives of the coconut. 
The importance of the Old World series of domesticated palms appears 
greater because higher stages of civilization were reached in the Old 
World, but the relative importance of palms in the indigenous agri- 
culture o( America appears to be fully as great as in the Old World 
Tropics. 
DOMESTICATION OF THE PEACH PALM IN SOUTH AMERICA. 
The Indians of the northwestern part of South America—the same 
region that must be looked upon as the original home of the coconut— 
domesticated the so-called "peach palm'' (Guilielma), one of the 
numerous relatives of the coconut palm. (Pis. 55 and 50.) The 
peach palm is armed all over with long, slender, shining black spines, 
sharp as needles, but in spite of this unfriendly exterior the Indians 
have found it worthy of cultivation. Its handsome red or yellow fruits 
serve as an important article of diet among the natives of a vast region 
along the eastern slopes of the Andes, from Brazil and Peru through 
Ecuador, Venezuela, and Colombia, and even beyond the Isthmus of 
Panama in the Central American Kepublic of Costa Jtica. 
The peach palm appears to be as thoroughly domesticated among 
the Indians of South America as the date palm among the Arabs. 
Several botanical explorers of South America have described this 
palm and its importance among the Indians. The following extract 
from Alfred Kussel Wallace's "Palm Trees of the Amazon" shows 
its status in the interior districts of Brazil: 
The fruit is about the pizeof an apricot, of a triangular oval shape, and fine reddish- 
yellow colour. In most instances the seed is abortive, I he whole f mi ( hein^a farina- 
ceous mass. Occasionally, however, fruits are found containing Lin perfect stony 
seed, and they are then nearly double the usual size* This production of undeveloped 
Contr Nat rtr-l. Vol. 14, PLATE 55, 
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Peach Palms (Guilielma speciosa iw Costa Rica, 
A n lulivi-of tlit* clii'uiiuliluiiiosiicaii'il it] Sninli Alii'-; iru, Tin»t^^i luk^u u\ ilic n^iTt^ 
trf >vnui' t' ui It i ii t> Tilluf». Iu:lU \ ifl;rs, 
Cor.tr. Nat. Herb., Vol. 14. PLATE 56- 
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Peach Palm 'Guilielma speciosa' with Fruit and Seed. 
Spt'tMinons fmm tlu* cacuo cs[uic 1iI Mr, Limki 'i\ 1 ,:tpnult\ Kin Hr>n<l", i Kw-n. Ihf small 
phutQ^mpli ol atuulult treo with fruit ilusivrs wu* madi- tl £au .1 imu. (Vtfia IviaiLs 
natural si/c,) 
COOK—THE COCONUT PALM IN AMERICA. 309 
fruits may be partly duo to change of soil and climate, for l-hc tree is not found wild 
in the Amazon district, but is invariably planted near the Indians' houses, in their 
villages many hundreds of these trees may often be ween, adding to the beauty of the 
landscape, and supplying the inhabitants with an abundance of wholesome food. In 
fact it here takes the place of the cocoa-nut in the East, and is almost as much 
esteemed." 
The peach palm is one of the gregarious or cespitose species that 
send up shoots from underground root-stocks. It is regularly propa- 
gated by the use of these young shoots as cuttings, much as in the 
case of the date palm. It miglit he inferred that the culture of the 
peach palm is older than that of the date because some of the varieties 
are seedless. The propagation of plants from cuttings appears to 
represent an older system of agriculture than the raising of plants 
from seeds. Some of the more primitive Indian tribes are accus- 
tomed to grow cassava, sweet potatoes, and other root crops from 
cuttings, though they do not plant corn or beans. The celebrated 
English botanist, Richard Spruce, who spent eleven years in the 
interior of South America, was especially impressed with the agricul- 
tural importance of the peach palm among the Indians, and attempted 
to solve the problem of its origin by finding it in a wild state. 
... I tried in vain to find a root for fhis name [pijiguao] in any of the native lan- 
guages, and when I asked the people where they supposed the palm had originally 
come from they pointed westward and said, "'From the Cordilleras;" and I got a 
similar answer from the natives of the I'aupes. 
When at length I reached those Cordilleras and traveled along their eastern foot 
from 7° S. latitude lo the Kquator, I found, indeed, the Peach Palm very abundant, 
but still only in the neighborhood of habitations, and always a cultivated plant. If, 
however, I remained in as complete ignorance as before of ils true native country, I 
saw at once that the Venezuelans, along with the plant, had got also its name from the 
Andes, but travestied; for the Peruvians call it (in their native Quichua) "Pisho- 
guayo,i. e. Bird-Fruit, whence to "pijiguao" the transition is easy. . . . 
Although I am compelled to leave the native country of the Peach Palm doubtful, 
I quite expect the wild plant will still be met with in some unexplored recess of the 
Oriental Andes, perhaps with the fruit so much smaller and drier than what it has 
become by long cultivation as to be not easily recognizable. Spruce, Richard, 
Palmac Amazonicae, Journ. Linn. Soc., vol. 11, pp. Ml, 82, 1871. 
A FIBER PALM DOMESTICATED IN BRAZIL. 
Wallace also reports the domestication of another of the spiny rela- 
tives of the coconut in the interior of Brazil, not for the sake of the 
fruits, but for a fiber derived from the young leaves: 
Every part ol this palm [. 1 slrocaryum vulgare] bristles with sharp spines so as to 
render it, difficult to handle any portion of it; yet it is of great importance to the Indi- 
ans, and in places where it, is not. indigenous, is cultivated with care in their niamliocea 
fields and about tin ir houses, along with the ''Pupunha" and oilier fruit trees. Yet 
they use neither the fnni, i tie stem, nor the full-grown leaves. It is only the unopened 
% Wallace, A. R., Palm Trees of the Ama&uu and their Uses, jip. (London, 
1853.) 
310 CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE NATIONAL HERBARIUM 
leaves which they make use of to manufacture cordage, superior in fincmw, strength 
ami durability to that procured from the Mauritia Jlemasa. They .strip off the epi- 
dermis and prepare it in the sninc manner us described in the account of that species, 
but while the " nurili " is principally used for hammocks, the 1 f tueum " server i'i>r bow 
strings, fishing-nets and other purposes where finencas, combined with strength, is 
required, . . . 
The Brazilians of the Rio Negro and l.'pper Amazon make very beautiful hammocks 
of fine "tuciim" thread, knitted by hand into a compact web of so fine a texture as lo 
occupy two persona three or four months in their completion. They then sell at about 
each, and when ornamented with the feather-work borders, at double that num. 
Most of them are writ, as presents* lo Rio de Janeiro." 
The method of stripping the epidermis and of twisting it into cords 
on the naked thigh, us described by Wallace, appears to be exactly 
the same as that used among the native negroes of West Africa in 
preparing the fiber known commercially as "raffia," which is derived 
from the epidermis of the young leaves of the African wine palm 
(Raphia). 
DOMESTICATION" OF THE PACAYA PALM IN GUATEMALA. 
Another domesticated palm, not hitherto recognized as such, exists 
in the Co ban district of eastern Guatemala. It is a species of Cha- 
maedorea, locally known as paeaya. Tt is jiot grown for the sake of 
its fruits or leaves, but for the ileshv inflorescences that are cooked 
and eaten as a salad. Only the male plants furnish the edible inflo- 
rescences, this palm being diavious, like all of the species of Chamae- 
tlorea. The whole of the spadix or flower-bearing part of the inflo- 
rescence is eaten and is of very delicate texture. It compares with 
other so-called "palm cabbages'' much as cauliflower does with other 
garden cabbages, the cauliflower representing the young tender 
inflorescence of the plant instead of the fleshy leaf bud. The taste 
of the cooked pacaya is slightly bitter, but the flavor is generally 
relished, not only by the native population, but also by resident 
Europeans. 
The difficulty of obtaining cabbages from other palms is that the 
whole palm has to be sacrificed in order to obtain the small mass of 
tender edible tissue in the terminal bud. With the pacaya no such 
sacrifice is necessary. The removal of the inflorescence does not 
injure the palms, and they continue to produce a succession of crops 
during a considerable period of years. The pacava is not planted 
as a field crop, but is grown in considerable numbers as a garden 
plant, not only about Coban, but in Purulha and other towns of east- 
ern Guatemala. In the wild state it seems to be confined to heavilv 
4 
shaded, humid valleys with other related species, but it also thrives 
when planted in the open. The palm grows to a height of 1o or 20 
feet, and has a crown of very handsome, gracefullv drooping leaves. 
"Wallace, op. cit., pp. 105, 100. 
COOK THE COCO NUT PALM IN AMERICA. 311 
The smooth given trunk has a diameter of 2 or 3 inches. The un- 
opened inflorescences are about the size of a large ear of com and 
are inclosed in green spathes somewhat similar to corn husks. 
DOMESTICATION OF PALMETTOS IN MEXICO. 
One of the native arts that flourishes in many localities in tropical 
America is the weaving of hats from the fibrous leaves of various 
n 
species of fan-leaved palms related to the Florida palmetto. Those 
are not the same as the so-called Panama hats made in South America 
from the leaves of Carludovica, which is not a true palm. Large 
numbers of the palmetto hats for local use are made in Guatemala and 
Mexico, though the most advanced state of the palmetto hat industry 
is found in Porto Rico, whence large quantities have been exported 
to the United States during the last decade. \ . 
The Porto Rican hat palmetto, (nodes causiarum, does not appear 
to be regularly cultivated, though it is valued and allowed to grow 
in many places for the sake of the leaves. The largest quantity of 
these palms is found along the seabeach at a place called Joyua, on the 
west end of the island between Mayaguez and Cabo Rojo. 
Palmettos grow wild in great abundance along the Pacific coast 
of Guatemala and the adjacent district of Soconusco in the Mexican 
State of Chiapas, and their leaves are gathered in large quantities for 
the thatching of houses and the weaving of hats. The hats them- 
selves and the straw, or "paja," prepared for weaving are important 
articles of domestic commerce, carried about on the backs of the 
Indians and sold in all the native markets. To secure additional 
supplies of the material the palms are also commonly planted about 
the native towns, sometimes in considerable numbers. Even on the 
east side of Guatemala in districts where there do not appear to be 
any native pal met. toes, the Indians have planted many of them in 
their villages, as at Cajabon and San August in, near TCI Rancho, and 
at other places. In southern Mexico the planting of palmettos is 
carried still further, thousands of these palms being found in the 
larger towns of the Soconusco district. Regular field plantings of 
palmettos were seen about Comitan in southwestern Chiapas and 
again near Merida in Yucatan. Palmettos are also grown exten- 
sively at San Bartolome, Chiapas, as reported by Mr. G, X. Collins, 
though no field plantings were noticed. 
PARTIALLY DOMESTICATED PALMS. 
In addition to the palms that may be said to have been definitely 
domesticated in the American tropics, there are several others that 
may bo described as partially domesticated. Though seldom actually 
planted or cared for, they are on a distinctly friendly looting with 
51004°—vol 14f I*T 2—10 4 
312 CONTRIBUTIONS FllOM T1IK NATIONAL HERBARIUM. 
mankind, and are much more abundant in inhabited regions than in 
the undisturbed forest. 
These partially domesticated palms take advantage of the clearings 
made for the planting of corn, cassava, and other crops, and repay 
this indirect assistance bv their fruits or other parts sufficiently useful M.' JL «H 
to cause them to be tolerated, if not actually prized. Some of these 
voluntary camp followers of primitive agriculture are of distinct 
importance, so much so that they would undoubtedly be cultivated 
if they did not grow spontaneously without the need of direct assist- 
ance. Some of them are worthy of much wider consideration in 
tropical agriculture than they now receive. 
The royal palm of Porto Kico (Jioffstonea borinquena) is a tree of 
much importance to the natives of the island, a large proportion of 
their houses being roofed with the tough sheaths of the leaves of this 
palm, known in the island as "yagua." While the leaves are alive 
the sheaths form complete cylinders 4 or 5 feet long, but when the 
leaves fall the sheaths split down one side and are then cut off and 
flattened out to form larcre leathery shingles. The side walls are CTr q, O 
often made of the same material or from the hard surface layer of 
the trunk of the same plain, split up into board-like strips. 
The fruits of the royal palm are small and arc not eaten by man, 
but they have an oily flesh much relished by the pigs, so that the 
palms are generally welcomed in the pastures, where they are vastly 
more abundant than on lands where the forest is allowed to grow. 
It is claimed that the fruits dropped by each adult palm will keep a 
pig in good condition without any other food than grass. There 
can be no doubt that the royal palm is a more important species in 
Porto Kico than the coconut itself and that it is worthy of much 
wider consideration in tropical agriculture. 
The American wine palm, Acrocomia, is found in all parts of the 
American tropics, from Paraguay on the south to Porto Kico, Cuba, 
and Mexico on the north. Whether this wide distribution is due to 
natural agencies or to human assistance is not known. Several 
species of Acrocomia have been described from different countries, 
but their characters are not very distinctive, and they may prove 
to be only local variations of a single species. 
In most places the Acrocomia palms are found only about human 
habitations or in lands that have been cleared for agricultural pur- 
poses, as indicated by Wallace for (he Para region of Brazil. 
The stem of thin Iree is about -10 fee) high, strong, smooth and ringed. The leaves 
are rather large, terminal and drooping. The leaflets are long and narrow, and spread 
irregularly from the midrib, every purl of which is very spiny. The sheathing bases 
of the leaf-stalks are persistent- on the upper part of the ntem, and in young trees clothe 
it down to the ground. 
The spadicea grow from among the leaves, erect or tomewhai drooping, and are 
pimply branched. The spathes arv woody, persistent and clothed with epines. The 
Contr. Nat. H*>rh . Vol. 14. 
j / 
< -m 
\ 
/ 
V'i*"1 
a ■, 
-x : 
*4 
T! 
The Coyql Palm ^ ACROC^Mi A vinifera*, Costa Rica. 
A ivlul i w Hi i hij n n't uni I, p:irt \a 11 y < 1 in < Vi] I ral Amrrira J hr i >ln >t< \vn^ nuhV 
ar Lji * hh >1 < itk^ T >1 pi i in i hnrinim oshitc, nrur 1'in't Liuum, This slun k-* in*iKnmlly <U'scnln_iil h\ 
IT. i in Toy I a liif'il. 
COOK—THE COCONUT PALM IN AMERICA. 313 
fruit is the size of an apricot, globular, and of a greenish-olive colour, and has a thin 
layer of firm edible pulp of an orange colour covering the seed.- 
This species i% common in the neighbourhood of Pard, where its nearly globular 
crown of drooping feathery leaves is very ornamental. The fruit, though oily and 
bitter, is very much esteemed awl is eagerly nought after. It grows on dry soil about 
Pard and the Lower Amazon, but it is quite unknown in the interior.# 
The native Porto Rican species, Acrocomia media, grows spon- 
taneously in the sparse forests that occupy lands too barren and 
craggy for agricultural use, and the same is true of the Central 
American species, Acrocomia vinifera, in Guatemala and Costa Hie a 
(pi. 57). It is possible, however, that these individuals that appear 
to l)e growing wild have only escaped from cultivation through the 
accidental scattering of the seeds. 
The wine palms are well equipped to establish themselves in the 
vicinitv of human habitations. The trunks and leaves are beset 
u 
with sharp, black, needle-like spines, which protect them against graz- 
ing animals, and the crown of leaves formed by the palms while still 
quite young is thick enough to occupy the land and even to with- 
stand fire when clearings are made around it. Even after the palm 
has grown tall enough to expose the trunk the wood is so hard that 
the Indians avoid cutting it unless the palms become so abundant 
as to interfere with the lands they need for their corn or other crops. 
The accounts of the early explorers indicate that the sap of the 
wine palm was in general use as a beverage among the Indians, but 
its popularity seems to have greatly declined now that the white 
man's liquors are obtainable. The palm is cut down to obtain the 
sap, which continues to flow out of the upper end of the severed trunk 
for se veral da vs. 
The wine palms bear spherical fruits which attain a diameter of 
about 1£ inches. There is an outer layer of oily pulp with a slightly 
acid flavor, combined with a dense coating of fine fibers, that adhere 
to the wall of the nut inside. The pulp is often eaten by children 
or by adult Indians on the road, though hardly to be reckoned as a 
staple article of diet. The nut itself, without the fibers, is about the 
size of a horse-chestnut, with a hard shell like that of a coconut and 
of about the same thickness. The inclosed kernel is solid and has a 
taste like coconut meat. In times of famine these nuts are extensively 
eaten, but usually they go to waste. It is often proposed to utilize 
them for the extraction of their oil, which is said to be much like that 
of the coconut, but the problem of collecting and cracking the nuts has 
not been solved, unless it be in the Paraguay region of South America. 
It is said that the nuts are cleaned of the fiber by being eaten by 
cattle and that the kernels are becoming an article of export to 
Europe. 
a
 Wallace, A. R., Palm Trees of the Amazon and their Uses, p. 97. 
314 CONTRIBUTIONS FROM TIIE NATIONAL HERBARIUM. 
Other partially domesticated palms are found among the species of 
Attalea, known in some countries as corozo, in others as manaca. 
The Attalea palms are among the most magnificent members of the 
group and would undoubtedly be in demand for ornamental plant- 
ing if they once became known. They bear a crown of immense 
leaves, often attaining lengths of from 30 to 40 feet, and these do 
not droop as in other long-leaved palms, but spread very gracefully 
bv the bending of the long midribs. The leaves are extensively 
' */ o n *■ 
used in some localities for thatching the houses of the natives and 
for making the natives substitutes for umbrellas and raincoats. 
The fruits of the Attalea are born in enormous clusters, weighing 
200 pounds and upward (pi. 5S). Tn some species there is a pulpy 
outer husk with much the same texture and taste as in Acrocomia. In 
other species, such as Attalea cohune of eastern Guatemala and British 
Honduras, the nut has a thin drv husk and a verv thick bonv shell. 
y i i ^ 
The kernels are verv hard, but can be eaten in times of scarcity, or 
made to yield oil by the application of heat. Considerable quantities 
of the kernels are gathered in Mexico and the oil extracted for the 
making of soap and for other domestic purposes. Vast quantities 
of these nuts might be gathered in other parts of the American 
tropics if any profitable use were found for them. 
As the Attalea palms have no spines to protect them from the 
grazing animals or from man, they are at a disadvantage in compari- 
son with Acrocomia and have not attained so wide a distribution. 
On the other hand, they are much better able to compete with other 
forest growth, so that they are often found in vast numbers in regions 
that have been abandoned by the Indians in the last century or two, 
and now distinguish such reforested areas from the forests of older 
O 
growth where the long-lived hard-wood trees have taken full posses- 
sion to the exclusion of the Attalea palms.c 
ORIGIN OF THE NAMES COCO AND COCOS. 
The lack of native American names for the coconut has been 
accepted as proof that the palm could not have existed in America 
before the arrival of the Spaniards. This argument Is considerably 
weakened by the probability already noted that the name "coco" 
itself is of American origin. It is certain, at least, that the Spaniards 
did not need to bring the word "coco" to America, since it was a 
favorite plant name in several Central American languages. It is 
applied in particular to plants that have bulbs or bulbous roots. For 
example, the bulbous rootstocks of Xanthosoma, a taro-like plant 
« Vegetation Affected hy Agriculture in Central America, U. S. Department of 
Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bull. No. 145. 
Cr>'"ir. N Jt. H»T. / 11. '4 
Plate 58. 
» t 
N 
X 
'ty 
/' ' 
( ^ J* ; * h r ? j r * 
Vi.r.v t 
1
 A * , ■ "■ f 
L. -l T\ 
X*' 
, • ■» 4 
* 
^ * 
# 
r 
i - 
i\ ' 
^ T 
-;!"V 
V'- ' 
'"7 
f 
fV ' 
\ . V " 
# * J r- k, ^ \ 
^ 'f +* 
.* H -' ■ 
V 
V 
Trunk and Fruit Clusters of the Corozo or Manaca Palm iAttalea cohune p 
Eastern Guatemala, 
A. relativo of tliv c ^nut. {wrtiiilly iIhtuj-^i ii-nt-1-! in \ h■:i crr11 AiiK-riut. Tlir ph■ pt- tn^ic 
in-ar I';! [i/u-L A [ I - l W m [my. 
COOK—THE COCONUT PALM TN AMERICA. 315 
extensively cultivated in Porto Kico under the native name yautiaf 
are still commonly called cocos in Jamaica. 
Peter Martyr used the word coccos in his ninth Decade in describ- 
ing coconuts in the East Indies (Coccos appellant fructus iUos . . .), 
but no modern writer seems to have recorded the word as a native 
East Indian name of the coconut. None of the numerous names 
given in Watt's Dictionary of the Economic Products of India and 
in Wallace's vocabularies of thirty-three languages of the Malay 
Archipelago has any apparent resemblance to coco, unless it be copray 
the East Indian name of the dried meat. 
Some authorities note an ancient Egyptian word as the original 
of the Greek kouki of Theophrastus and the Latin cuci of Pliny. 
Seemann denies that the Egyptian kouki referred to the coconut, 
but applies it to a native African fan palm, Borassus. It is also 
possible to identify the cuciophoron of Theophrastus with the doum 
palm of Upper Egypt (Hyphaene).0 Indeed, the word "honk" is 
still to be heard in the bazaars of Cairo as the name of the homy 
endosperm of the doum palm, commonly used for making the beads 
of rosaries, and other small objects. 
Some etymologists would assimilate kouki with kokkos, a general 
Greek word for fruit, berry, or seed, the same as the Latin coccus. 
The word coccus seems to have come into Latin as the name of the 
Kermes insect {Coccus iliciti) that yielded the scarlet dye, rather than 
as the name of a seed or a berry. Nevertheless, we find among later 
post-Columbian writers of botanical Latin, such as Pi so, the expres- 
sion Coccus Jndica taking the place of Nux Indica as the name of the 
true coconut and Coccus Medica or Coccus Maldivica, instead of Nux 
Medica or Nux Mald'tvensium. Eden's English translation of Oviedo 
shows the word cocus; Oviedo himself adhered consistently to coco, 
except as ho wrote cocos in the plural number, as in the heading of 
his chapter. Li mucus, in his older works, such as the Ilortus Clif- 
fortianus and the Flora Zeylanica, also used the generic name Coccus. 
The change to Cocos seems to have been made in the first edition of 
the Species Plant-arum (1753) without any previous author being 
indicated as having used the name in this form. The fourth edition 
of Genera Plant arum (1752) uses the old spelling Coccus, but the 
fifth edition (1754) adopts the new form Cocos. 
The Latin and Greek derivations that have been invented for the 
word may have quite as little basis in fact as the fanciful theory given 
by Oviedo, and repeated by many later writers, that the name was 
suggested by the resemblance of the base of the shell to the face of a 
monkey. The Spanish language has a verb cocar, meaning to make 
faces like a monkey, and even a noun coco, meaning ogre or bugbear, 
« Greene, Edw. L , Landmarks of botanical history, pt. 1, Smiths. Misc. Coll., 
vol. 54, p. m. 
316 CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE NATIONAL HERBARIUM. 
connected by philologists with the Greek adjective kakos, the equiv- 
alent of the English word bad. Eden's translation0 elaborates 
Oviedo's original statement to the extent of definitely ascribing this 
etymology to the Indians, and associating it with the cry of the 
howling monkey. 
OTHER AMERICAN NAMES OF THE COCONUT. 
It now appears that names other than coco are applied to the 
coconut by aboriginal Indians. Such names have been found by 
Prof. II. Pittier among the inhabitants of the southern part of the 
Central American republic of Costa Rica, where several very primi- 
tive tribes have hidden themselves in the forest and avoided contact 
with the Spanish colonists. The name l-o-ko is used by the Cabecara, 
Dorasque, and Guaymi tribes; the Cunus say o-kob, also slightly sug- 
gestive of copra, while the Bribri and Brunka people have quite dis- 
tinct terms, sura uo and sia ud, respectively. 
According to Professor Pittier the Brunkas are good sailors, who 
make voyages of considerable length along the Pacific coast, though 
they are careful to keep their canoes wit bin sight of land. The 
Brunkas live not far from the Burica peninsula where Ovicdo found 
the coco palm In special abundance in the early part of the sixteenth 
century. The Burica district is also the nearest part of the main- 
land to Cocos Island. That this region possessed at one time a 
much more advanced civilization is shown by the graves of the adja- 
cent Chiriqui district of Panama, and other ancient remains dis- 
covered in the southern part of Costa Rica by Professor Pittier. 
It is to be expected that other native names will be found in the 
interior districts of South America where the coconut is known to 
exist, but these regions are still largely unexplored. The native 
names of the coconut in Brazil, inaiaguacu, recorded by Piso and 
Marcgrave in Brazil, have been noted in a previous chapter. Accord- 
ing to Martins the name inaja or inaia is also applied in Brazil to 
another related palm, Maximiliana. Martins associates the Tupi 
names for fruits, yba, iba, and ia with such words as aha or niat which 
relate more specifically to the large fruits of the Brazil-nut tree. 
BerthoUetia excelsa, and then points out the similarity to nia, the 
Hawaiian name of the coconut.1 
fool.note p, 
& Marlins, (\ F. 1\ lieitriujo zur Ethnographic uiul iSpraehenkunde AmerikaV, 
vol. 2, p. 417. (Leipzig 1867.) In Muregrave's vocabulary of a native Brazilian 
language, published in 1658, the word nhia is said to signify heart (cor), 
COOK—TTTE COCONUT PALM IK AMERICA 317 
DISSEMINATION OF THE COCONTJT PALM BY PRIMITIVE MAN. 
Without the recognition of human agency in its dissemination the 
history of the coconut would be likely to remain forever as mysterious 
as it was to the eminent botanist Seemann, who traversed the subject 
in several of his books in attempting to solve the problem by means 
of natural agencies alone: 
. . . And the great puzzle lias been, whence did it originally spring? Though 
having paid considerable attention to this subject, I am not acquainted with any 
theory, nor have been able to start one myself, which would be in unison with the part 
the Cocoanut plays in different countries. «■ 
Seemann was inclined to believe that the coconut palm must have 
been a native of Polynesia because of its extreme economic importance 
in that part of the world. In support of this view, and in opposition 
to the idea of Asiatic or Malayan origin which previous writers had 
advanced, Seemann argued that the coconut could not have been 
brought to the Pacific islands from (he west, because colonists from 
Asia would certainly have brought the Asiatic art of bleeding the 
sap from the palms by cutting the young flower stalksj to make 
toddy and sugar from the juice. Such facts tend to show that the 
original inhabitants of the Pacific islands did not derive their agricul- 
tural habits from Asiatic sources, and that the more modern contacts 
with Asia have also been very slight, since they have left the Poly- 
nesians in ignorance of the art of making toddy. 
. . . Had the Polynesian* therefore once known the process, they would probably 
never have forgotten so easy a way of obtaining sugar, vinegar, yeast, and a pleasant 
drink, the strength of which may be regulated by lime to any man's taste. So either 
the Polynesians could never have coine from eastern Asia, or else, after spreading over 
the Sou ill Sea, ages must have elapsed before the cocoa-nut made its appearance in 
these waters, so that the process of toddy-making (there being 110 other suitable Poly- 
nesian Palms to operate upon) had been entirely forgotten, and even disappeared 
from native traditions. I'nder such circumstances, it. behooves us to suspend our final 
judgment whether Polynesia be or be not the native country of the cocoa-nut. & 
If we admit Seem aim's argument, and there is no good reason for 
rejecting it, we can not suppose that the original settlers of the Pacific 
islands came from (he Malay region, for the coconut is the one thing 
that they w ould have taken with them, if all else had been left behind. 
It not only furnishes in that part of the world the chief ration for 
native voyages, but is the only source of fresh water on many of the 
smaller islands, and is thus indispensable for human existence. 
The fiber of the husk of the coconut is equally necessary to the 
Polynesians in the building and handling of boats. The mystery 
a
 Seemann, B., I)oltings on the Roadside, in Panama, Nicaragua, and Mosquito, 
p. 152. (London, 18G9.) 
& Seemann, op. cit., p. lo4; Flora Yitiensis, p. {London, 1868.) 
318 COKTKIiiUTIOKS FROM THE NATIONAL MEHBAR1TTM. 
deal's only wlion wc arc prepared to admit that the original colonists 
in the Pacific islands were native of the same continent as the coconut 
palm, so that they could take with them the cultivated plants oil 
which their future existence depended. Bv keeping close to the 
practical agricultural facts we avoid the confusion to which De 
Candolle and Seemann were brought by conflicting theoretical 
methods of ascertaining the origins of plants. The uses of the coco- 
nut have been most highly developed in the Pacific islands because 
lack of other plants has compelled the inhabitants to depend more 
and more upon the coconut. Necessity has given rise to the multi- 
plicity of uses, but the palm itself had to be brought from the only 
part of the world where such palms grew -South America. 
The relatively slight economic importance of the coconut in America 
could be given as a reason for believing that the palm was not intro- 
duced into America bv the Polvnesians in the same wav that Seemann 
used the absence of toddy in Polynesia to prove that the palm was 
not brought to the Pacific islands by people from Asia. 
Jt is gratuitous to object to human agency as accounting for the 
spread of the coconut since there were other cult ivated tropical plants, 
such as the sweet potato and the banana which were also cultivated 
on both sides of the Pacific, and must have been carried across bv 
the men who knew and used them. They are propagated only from 
cuttings, would not survive soaking in salt water, and do not grow 
on sea beaches. The indications are that nearlv all the cultivated 
plants which Polynesia shared with America were natives of America, 
but whatever their source, they do not permit us to doubt that there 
was communication across the Pacific by primitive agricultural 
people. Ethnological evidence for such communication may also be 
found in the similarities now eommonlv recognized between the 
*_■ I1 
natives of America and the present, inhabitants of eastern Asia and 
the Malay region. That the straight-haired peoples of the East 
Indies are not true aborigines of the countries they now occupy is 
shown by the presence among (hem of remnants of the former curl- 
haired populations, such as the Ainus in Japan, the Negritos in the 
Philippines, the Alfuros of (lilolo and ('cram, the Papuans, and the 
Andamanese. On the continent of Asia as well recent investiga- 
tions are showing that, primitive peoples related to the Negritos or to 
the Ainus preceded the Malayan and Mongolian occupations. 
That (lie present Polynesians do not more closely resemble the 
natives of America does not warrant an objection to the idea that 
the coconut palm was originally carried into the Pacific islands from 
America. Ethnologists are familiar with the fact that the prevail- 
ing direction of recent racial movements in the Pacific has been from 
west to east. Whatever may have been the conditions in the remote 
times when the islands were first occupied, the island people have 
COOK—THE COCONTJT PALM IN AMERICA 319 
had more recent contacts with the Malayan and Mel artesian races. 
This eastward movement into the Pacific explains the presence, even 
in the most eastern archipelagoes, of many seedless varieties of the 
breadfruit, banana, and other Malayan plants, and of an infusion of 
Papuan or Melanesian blood. Yet these later influences have not 
destroyed the essential likeness of the Polynesian and Malayan 
culture to that of ancient America. The general unity of the Malavo- 
Polynesian language and the similarity of the people and their cus- 
toms to those of the American Indians are more obvious in the 
remote islands, such as New Zealand, Easter Island, and Hawaii, than 
in the equatorial archipelagoes, where the Melanesian influences are 
more apparent. The Polynesians have traditions and genealogies 
that refer to the introduction of the breadfruit as having taken place 
about eighty generations or two thousand years ago, but this eastward E_? A/ ( t 1 ' 
migration that carried the breadfruit need not have had any con- 
nection with the westward migration which carried the coconut into 
the Pacific from America, and which probably took place at a much 
more ancient period. 
Nor is it necessary to believe that contacts of the islanders with 
America entirely ceased during the modern period of eastward migra- 
tion. The presence of the banana in pre-Spanish America forbids 
such an assumption. In addition to numerous traditions of the 
arrival of people from the seas, in Peru and elsewhere, there was the 
definitely reported historical incident of the black, frizzle-haired 
people of the Isthmus of Panama, which can hardly be explained 
except by supposing that a tribe of Polynesians had established 
themselves on the Isthmus when Balboa crossed it and discovered 
the Pacific Ocean. 
The origin of the coconut in America and its dissemination by 
human agency to the tropics of the Old World do not stand alone as 
botanical theories, but are in full accord with more recent and well- 
established discoveries in the fields of ethnology and archeology. 
It is now generally admitted by ethnologists that the ancient civiliza- 
tions of tropical America were of native, indigenous origin and not 
imported from abroad. In Egypt and Assyria, on the contrary, it 
does not appear that the earliest civilizations were indigenous. 
Recent discoveries make it possible to trace them back to the shores 
of the Persian Gulf and to southern Arabia, and to a seafaring exotic 
race, skilled in agriculture and navigation. 
That the primitive agricultural people who distributed the coconut 
and other American plants over the islands and shores of the Pacific 
and Indian oceans came originally from America is a possibility that 
appears worthy of careful consideration by students of botany and 
ethnology. The tropical contact of the two hemispheres was so 
remote in time, and the subsequent changes have been so great on 
320 CONTBIBUTIONS FROM THE NATIONAL HERBARIUM:. 
both sides of the Pacific, that the ethnological evidence a?one might 
riot be sufficient, but the addition of definite botanical data may 
yield conclusive proof. The earlier idea of an Asiatic origin of Amer- 
ican civilizations having been given up, the tendency has been to 
believe that agriculture and other arts of civilization have developed 
quite independently on the two sides of the Pacific. But even if we 
were willing to believe in closely parallel developments in customs 
and arts, this could not explain the prehistoric distribution of the 
same cultivated plants over the Tropics of both hemispheres. 
ORIGIN OF CULTIVATED VARIETIES OF THE COCONUT PALM. 
One of the most convincing arguments for the Malayan origin of 
the coco palm was the existence of many and very diverse varieties 
in the East Indies. It was a favorite line of reasoning with De 
Candolle that the native home of a species was the region in which 
it had been longest in domestication. The length of the period of 
domestication was inferred from the number of varieties as a meas- 
ure of the time that selection had been at work. Such calculations 
were applied to the sugar cane, the taro, and numerous other plants. 
In dealing with the coco palm this plan seemed to be particularly 
effective, for nearly all of the recorded varieties are in the East 
Indies. The coco palm in America is not as uniform as commonly 
supposed, though the varietal diversities do not approach those of 
the Malav region. 
Careful consideration of the evolutionary argument will lead, how- 
ever, to a conclusion directly opposite to that reached by De Candolle, 
for the greatest and most definite variations of a cultivated plant are 
much more likely to occur and he preserved outside its natural range, 
where intermixture with the wild type of the species is prevented. 
There are many reasons for believing that the abrupt and striking 
"sports" that appear among our cultivated plants are not, in reality, 
caused by selection, but are induced by new conditions and by the 
state of inbreeding that generally accompanies domestication. 
The normal or wild type of a species is generally prepotent over 
the varieties which have arisen in domestication, so that the "im- 
proved" breed rapidly "deteriorates" when allowed to become 
crossed with the wild stock. Darwin and many later experimenters 
have proved, also, that when diverse breeds are crossed the offspring 
are very often not intermediate between the breeds, but tend to 
revert to the ancestral form. The breeders of high-^rade varieties 
r> n 
look upon such mongrels as degenerate, but from the standpoint of the 
evolutionist they may be said to be recovering from the injurious 
results of inbreeding. It was noticed, for example, that in parts of 
Guatemala,-where the wild tropical papaw (Carica) is common, the 
cultivated trees also have very small fruit. The tendency to such 
COOK—THE COCONUT PALM IN AMEKICA, 321 
reversion would ho particularly strong in plants like the palms, cross- 
fertilized by the wind. 
If economic importance and multiplicity of variations were to 
decide the question of origin, codec could be proved to be a native 
of the East Indies or of Central America, instead of Abyssinia. Many 
striking variations of the coffee plant have arisen in the American 
Tropics, and none, as far as known, in Abyssinia. The breadfruit 
could be shown by such reasoning to be a native of the eastern 
archipelagoes of Polynesia, where most of the specialized varieties are 
found and where the tree has an economic importance and an agri- 
cultural popularity far beyond that enjoyed in its original Malayan 
home. 
If the Malayan varieties of the coco palm are to be accepted as 
proof of anything, it is that the wild ancestral type of the species 
has not existed in that part of the world during the period in which 
the diverse mutations have arisen. The relatively unmodified 
coconuts of America, on the other hand, may indicate the compara- 
tively recent presence of the "unimproved" wild stock, and corrob- 
orate the evidence afforded by the geographical distribution of the 
related species of Cocos and the presence of the coco palm itself, in 
the salt-spring regions of the interior of Colombia. 
The history of the coco palm has been discussed recently at some 
length by Professor De Vries as affording evidence that the numerous 
cultivated forms of the species have originated during the period of 
domestication and do not represent separate domestications of wild 
species or varieties already diverse. There could seem to be no 
question that this is true of the coconut as of other cultivated plants.® 
The inference to be drawn from the fact that Cocos nucifera, as 
now cultivated in the Old World Tropics and made up of a large 
number of very distinct varieties, is not that wild species are so 
constituted, but that domestication conduces to the formation of 
the diverse varieties. The wild plants show individual diversity, 
the cultivated plants varietal diversity. The individual members 
of wild species are generally more diverse than individuals of domes- 
ticated varieties. On the other hand, wild species seldom present 
any such measure of diversity as exists among domesticated varieties. 
Trees of the larger varieties of the coco palm grow to a height of 
50 to 100 feet, but a dwarf kind mentioned by Watt reaches a height 
of only 10 or 15 feet. The nuts differ correspondingly in abundance, 
size, and shape. In some varieties they are comparable in size to a 
man's head; in others to a turkey's egg. In shape they may be 
spherical or pointed at one or both ends, or with prominent angles. 
The outside of the husk may be green, yellow, red, bluish, brown, 
*De Vries, II., Species and Varieties, their Origin by Mutation, pp. 82-89. (Chi- 
cago, 1905.) 
322 CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE NATION AT. HERBARIUM 
or black. On the inside the husk may contain coarse or fine fibers 
or may consist of a reddish edible pulp. The meat may be thick or 
thin, hard or creamy, and rich or poor in oil. One sort has an outer 
layer of the meat red instead of white. Finally, the varieties differ 
in size, number, and color of the leaves, some being light green and 
some dark, or yellowish, grayish, or reddish. Most kinds have the 
pinna* separate, but in a few they remain united as in the young 
seedlings. 
No wild palms have been found with any such individual or varietal 
diversification as the coconut varieties; indeed, most of the species 
of palms are less easy to distinguish from their nearest relatives 
than arc these varieties. Professor De Vries has described many 
such variations of the evening primrose as new species, on the ground 
that they answer all the requirements of species as treated by sys- 
tematise, but if this be true it would seem to be better to modify 
our taxonomic criteria than to set ourselves the unnecessary task 
of naming as new species all the cultivated varieties of coconuts and 
other plants. 
The objection to the classification of these mutative variations 
as species is not that the amount of difference may not be as great 
as between some wild species, but that the evolutionary status of 
the mutation is not the same as among the wild species. The nat- 
ural species is a group of freely interbreeding diverse individuals, 
while mutative varieties generally represent the progeny of a single 
individual variation, induced and maintained by inbreeding. 
To give Latin names to fiftv or a hundred Malayan mutations of 
<T? % 
the domesticated coco palms might appear to place them in the 
same taxonomic rank as the South American species of Cocos, but 
it would amount, after all, only to an assertion of the identity of 
conditions essentially unlike. 
The Malayan varieties of the coconut are said to propagate true 
from seed with great uniformity, and this fact may have, strength- 
ened the idea of diverse ancestry in the wild state, but it is now 
known that the so-called mutations or abrupt variations of inbred 
domesticated plants, such as coffee, are often as constant in their 
characters as the parental type, or even more so. In this respect 
thev often differ strikinglv from new varieties, originated by hybrid- 
ization, in which it is generally thought necessary to "fix the char- 
acters" by selection. 
The coconut palm appears to be the only cultivated tree whose 
varieties are in the nature of mutations that come true from seed, 
if exception be ma.de of the varieties of mangoes and citrous fruits 
that, can be propagated from seeds because of the peculiar habit of 
polvemhryony, the formation of fsdse embryos from nucellar buds. 
The mutative varieties of the coffee shrub form a parallel with those 
COOK—THE COCONUT PALM IN AMERICA. 323 
of the coconut, and some varieties of the peach also yield a consid- 
erable percentage of seedlings that retain the parental characters. 
The vast majority of varieties of cultivated trees have to be prop- 
agated from cuttings or grafts. The reason for this contrast be- 
tween trees and annual plants is doubtless to be found in the greater 
amount of time required for the selective breeding of trees. The 
existence of imitative varieties might be considered as an evidence 
that the culture of the coconut palm is older than that of the date 
palm. That date varieties are usually propagated from cuttings 
should not interfere with the development of mutative varieties, 
but the dioecious habit of the date mav be a more serious obstacle. 1 
The evolutionary interest of the varieties of the coconut does not 
lie, therefore, in any difference of behavior from other plants of like 
history, but in their complete agreement, and in helping to show that 
even in plants so peculiar as the palms the same law of evolution holds, 
that narrow segregation, or inbreeding, is accompanied by mutative 
variations, often distinctly degenerate from the biological standpoint. 
The peach palm, the coconut, the oil palm," and the date have series of 
similar variations, indicating that like evolutionary causes are active 
in the production of like effects, in spite of the fact that the 
palms themselves and the conditions under which they live are very 
different. 
Although the disparity in coconut varieties between the East 
Indies and tropical America is very great, it is a mistake to suppose 
that there are no distinct varieties in America. Velasco's account of 
the four different kinds of coconuts in Colombia has already been 
quoted, and reference has been made to the small variety found on 
Cocos Island by Professor Pittier as distinct from the ordinary com- 
mercial variety grown on the adjacent shores of Costa liiea. Mr. 
O. W. Barrett, who formerly resided in Porto Rico, states that there 
are two distinct varieties on that island, one with yellowish leaves 
and fruits, the other with green. The milk ol the latter is considered 
preferable while the yellow variety has the thicker "meat." It is 
stated by planters and importers that the coconuts of the coast of 
Colombia, sometimes called San Bias coconuts, are considered dif- 
ferent from those grown in other places in the Caribbean region. 
The ready separation of the meat from the shell gives these nuts a 
special value for manufacturing purposes. 
A further example of what may be a distinctively American 
variety of the coconut was found in 1902 at Tapachula, a town in the 
° Prcuss, P., Ber. Deutsch. Pharm. Gcsellsch., -vol. 13, p. 109. 1903, Fendler, G., 
loc. cit., p. 119. The latter paper describes three varieties from the Togo colony, 
the first with the shell so thin that it can be broken with the teeth, the second with 
green instead of red fruits, the third with the leaf segments united and the leaf bases 
persistent. See also The varieties of the oil palm in West Africa, Kew Bulletin of 
Miscellaneous Information, 1901), p. 33. 
324 CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE NATIONAL HERBARIUM. 
Soconusco district of southern Mexico. Instead of being oval or 
spherical, these nuts are strongly flattened on the very broad apex, 
so that the shape would be described in botanical terms as broadly 
obconic or turbinate. All of the nuts observed in the markets of 
Tapachula at the time of our visit in the spring of 1902 seemed to be 
of this type. They are also of distinctly larger size than those, 
for example, of Costa Rica. This fact may have caused them to be 
preferred for planting, but there is no probability that the peculiar 
shape has been secured by selection. The variety doubtless originated 
as a imitation or "sport/' like those of the Malay region. 
It is also reasonable to believe that the coconut was established 
on the Pacific coast of Mexico by human agency, as well as on the 
islands of the Pacific. There were Indian tribes of the Aztec family 
scattered along the coast at least as far south as the Nicoya Penin- 
sula of Costa Rica, where many objects believed by arc Ideologists 
to have been made in Mexico have been dug from prehistoric graves. 
The claim of some writers that the Indians of the Pacific coast of 
America are not navigators finds little support in fact, for all along 
between Alaska and Terra del Fuego there have been, even in the 
post-Columbian epoch, tribes with maritime skill and seafaring 
instincts. The Pacific coast of America from Mexico to Peru" is 
dotted at frequent intervals with human remains which mark former 
centers of ancient cultural activity, many of them already decayed 
and forgotten before the Spaniards came, as the early explorers 
themselves had occasion to reflect/ 
ADAPTATIONS OF THE COCONUT FOR GERMINATION. 
For nearly two centuries the coconut has been described in books 
of travel and natural history, and even in formal scientific works, as 
an example of a plant widely distributed in nature through the agency 
of ocean currents. Thus in a recent text-book: 
The Cocoanut seems especially designed for floating, inasmuch as its outer fibrous 
husk forms a veritable life-preserver; it has been known to float hundreds of miles on 
the surface of the ocean. On reaching a strand, it readily germinates; in this way 
coral and volcanic islands in the South Sea? are populated with Cocoanut palms/ 
« The Indians of the islands off the coast of California, now extinci, are supposed to 
have been allied to the maritime tribes of British Columbia. The eminent American 
ethnologist Cushing maintained that a direct connection existed between the Peru- 
vians and the ancient people who built the extensive irrigation canals of Arizona. 
b In ancient times these Indians were not natives of Qninbaya, but they invaded the 
country many times, killing the inhabitants, who could not have been few, judging 
from the remains of their works, for all the dense eanebrakes seem once to have been 
peopled and tilled, as well as the mountainous parts, where there are trees as big 
around as two bullocks. From these facts I conjecture that a very long period of 
time has elapsed since these Indians first peopled the Indies.—Cieza de Leon, p. 89. 
(See footnote above, p. 287.) 
c Osterhout, W. J. V., Experiments with Plants, p. 325. (New York, 1905.) 
COOK—THE COCONUT PALM IN AMERICA. 325 
Warburg includes Cocos nucifera in a list of "all-tropical shore- 
plants" (Litoral-PantropistenJ that have pronounced adaptations for 
swimming (ausgepraegten ScJiwimmanpassungen). The adaptations 
are specified as "swimming-tissue in the husk and empty space in 
the kernel" (Schwimmgewebe im Mesocarp und Hohlraum im Endo- 
sperm) 
It is true that the coconut is provided with a tough, fibrous husk 
from an inch to 2 inches in thickness which enables it to remain afloat 
for a long time. There is even a layer of wax on the surface, as 
though to render it impervious to water. A contrivance better 
suited for the maritime distribution of the nut would be difficult to 
imagine, and it is not surprising that writers who approach the sub- 
ject from the standpoint of structure alone should continue to rely 
on apparently indubitable proof regarding the true habits of the plant 
in nature. 
Unfortunately there appears to be no direct evidence to support 
these deductions from the structure of the coconut and its powers of 
floating. The same general type of husk is to be found among scores 
of other related species of palms, which do not grow on seacoasts and 
are not distributed by water. That the husk of the coconut is thicker 
than that of the other related species but comports with its larger size 
and the greater danger of breakage when it falls to the ground. 
The waxy coating of the surface is also no unique character, but is to 
be found in well-nigh the whole group of palms, the small fruits of 
many inland species being far more waxy than the coconut. 
In the East Indies, where the culture of the coco palm has reached 
its highest development, nuts intended for planting are picked from 
the trees and let down carefully to avoid injury, even to the external 
coat of the husk. The breaking of this is thought to reduce mate- 
rially the chances of successful germination. To permit the husk to 
dry out or to become infected with putrefactive bacteria or fungi 
might be equally dangerous for the young plant. 
The unique habit of the coconut of preserving a store of water in an 
interior cavity of the seed is in itself an indication that the species 
was native in some relatively dry interior region where the regular 
supply of moisture from external sources would not suffice for ger- 
mination. These extensive provisions for water storage would seem 
superfluous in a maritime plant able to draw moisture from sandy 
beaches wet twice a day with tidal brine. The distance to perma- 
nent moisture on a sandy ocean beach is very short; in fact, the 
sand is never really dry at all except at the surface. For a plant able 
to thrive on a salt solution, a covering of an inch or two of sand 
o Warburg, O., Einigc ftemerkungen Ueber Die Litoral-Pantropisten, Annales du 
Jardin Botanique de Buitenzorg. Supplement II, p. 133. 1898. 
326 CONTRIBUTIONS FItOM TILE NATIONAL HERBARIUM. 
would be a sufficient permanent protection against drying out. It is 
only when we think of the coconut as growing in an alkaline interior 
region, subject to prolonged drought, that we can appreciate the large 
hollow seed and the very thick husk as characters that give the palm 
special adaptation to the natural conditions of its environment. 
The very large size of the coconut , which is the largest of all seeds 
except one," undoubtedly tends to keep it from becoming buried in the 
ground, and would thus interfere seriously with germination if it 
were not for the fact that the young plant sends its first roots into 
the fibrous material of the husk, which serves as a sponge for the 
storage of water. By virtue of its husk the coconut is able to pro- 
ceed with germination without waiting to be buried in the ground. 
Palm seeds are notoriouslv short-lived, with verv little of the usual 
power of seeds to remain dry and dormant for long periods of time. 
If palm seeds arc very carefully packed so as to keep just the right 
amount of moisture, enough to prevent drying out but not enough to 
permit germination, they can often be kept for several months; 
otherwise a single drying may be fatal. The seeds of many species 
have a natural packing in the form of a fleshy external pulp like the 
date, able to hold moisture by reason of the sugar it contains. 
But with most palm seeds early germination is a necessity and if, 
as often happens, the fruit ripens in the dry season,'' germination 
becomes a very critical problem for which many specialized solu- 
tions have been worked out in the various natural groups of palms. 
And even if the germination can be deferred until the rainy season 
the next period of drought may find the young plants still very small, 
for the palms labor under the further disqualification of very slow 
growth, especially in their earlier st ages. 
The process of germination is extremely slow in the palms. The 
embryo is very small in comparison to the hardened food materials 
which have to be digested and absorbed into the tissues of the seed- 
ling. Long before any external sign of germination appears there is 
a growth of the cotyledon, or absorbing organ of the embryo, at the 
expense of the hardened food materials stored in the seed. In the 
Tlio so-called double coconut, or coeo-de-mer Lodoivtn mtildivivn (L.i.a huge fan 
palm native in the Seychelles Islands of tile Indian Ocean, has seeds several dines 
as large as coconuts. A single fruit of Lodoieea, containing three or four seeds, some- 
times weighs from 40 to 50 pounds. 
& In India the hot, dry months are counted upon to bring the nuts to maturity. 
"In wix months from blossoming, ihe kernels of die nuts begin to solidify; in a 
year, the fruit is fully ripe—even sooner if Ihe season is very hot and dry. The pro- 
duce of the tree in full health and properly tended is much dependent on soil and 
climate. The average may be put down at 1*20 nuts in the twelve monlhs; in a low 
and sandy soil, it will amount jo -00; in gravel and laterite, not <i0. The most pro- 
ductive months in India are from January 1o June, thai, is for ripe nuts, the lu-ai 
bringing them quickly to maturity/Spoils1 Encyclopedia. 
Crcntr. Nat, Ho:o , VoJ. 14 Plate 59. 
Fig. 1.—Germinating Coconut. 
The young j>liint shows one tilurieli'ss loaf slieutli ami one 
simple, (iet'jily divided luii/, tltuilueiHl.) 
Fig, 2.—Cross Section of Coconut Germinating Inside the Husk. 
1*roni f'nulliummv, l,i-1'twinicr. li^ Jit, I'- lift < lJaris. I'Jul'. (KvUk-uil.) 
COOK—T1IE COCONUT PALM IN AMERICA 327 
case of the coconut the embryo lies inside the largest of the three 
thin spots or "eyes" at the base of the shell, and the soft spongy 
cotyledon grows out from this point to fill the whole interior cavity 
of the nut and then continues to digest and absorb until all of the 
surrounding food materials have been taken over and conveyed into 
the growing parts of the young plant. 
Palm seeds with thick hard shells like the coconut are provided 
with special channels or pores for the exit of the embryo, covered 
only by a thin scale of the shell material or a specially formed lid or 
plug easily pushed out of the way. When germination finally occurs 
the base of the cotyledon grows out of the seed, carrying with it the 
plumule or leaf bud of the young plant, which later emerges from 
the cotyledon by a split on one side. 
V,'ith the relatives of the coconut, which have not thick husks, the 
second phase of germination, the escape of the young pi ant let by the 
opening of the cotyledon, necessarily takes place outside the husk, 
but with the coconut the whole process of germination may be com- 
pleted inside the husk. Coconuts buried in the moist soil germinate 
without any special assistance from the husk, and even without wait- 
ing for the cotyledon to grow to full size, by absorbing the food mate- 
rials of the endosperm. It is said to be customary in some localities 
to remove the husk before planting. But if the husk is allowed to 
remain intact the coconut is able to germinate without even being 
placed in the ground. And not the germination alone, but the sub- 
sequent growth of the young plant may go on for months without any 
external contacts, the leaves often attaining considerable size, before 
the roots have made any external growth beyond the fibers of the 
husks. The young coconut seedling, with its ample provision of 
food and moisture and its fibrous husk for the accommodation of its 
roots, might be described as a self-potted plant. It is to a very large 
extent independent of external conditions during the early stages of 
growth, which are much more precarious for all other palms. The 
preference of gardeners for coconut fiber as a potting material may 
be accepted as a testimonial of the success of the palm in meeting 
the needs of the seedlings. (PI. 59, figs. 1,2.) 
For palms that arc natives of humid, densely forested regions such 
a provision would be superfluous and disadvantageous, for with them 
it is a question of increasing the number of seeds and seedlings and 
of thus multiplying the chances that some of the seedlings will find 
favorable situations, with light enough to permit them to grow. 
Natural selection in the form of competition of other vegetation 
would discriminate against the cvolulion of an excessively large seed 
in a species tolerant of shade. But for a palm that lives in an open 
country with long, dry seasons, the protection of the seed and the 
51004°—TOT, 14, PT 2 10 -5 
328 CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE NATIONAL HERBARIUM. 
seedling against (Irving out would be- of the greatest possible advan- 
tage. An evolutionary tendency in this direction would be favored 
by natural selection and might be expected to make rapid progress. 
The natural result would be that we should have one species highly 
adapted in one respect, but remaining otherwise closely like its rela- 
tives, as in the case of the coconut. The adaptive value of the husk 
as an expedient for germination can also be estimated by comparing 
the habits of the coconut with those of related palms that encounter 
similar environmental problems. 
Excellent examples of adaptive germination devices are afforded 
bv Attalca and Acrocomia, two relatives of the coconut found in 
Guatemala. The seeds of Attalea cohune, which abounds in eastern 
Guatemala, are about the size of a turkey's egg, with a thin woody 
husk and an extremely hard, bony shell almost half an inch in thick- 
% ^ t 
ness, perforated at the base for the exit of the embryo. But instead 
of pushing out a young plant as in the coconut, the first organ to 
emerge from the seed is the long, slender, cord-like cotyledon, which 
grows down into the ground for a distance of from 3 to fi inches 
(pi. 60). The true germination takes place at the end of this burrow- 
ing organ, so that the young plant, though produced from a seed 
lying on the surface of the soil, is well and deeply planted, and at 
once sends its roots still farther down, to establish communication 
with the permanent moisture of the deeper layers of the soil. The 
cord-like cotyledon connecting the seed with the young plant remains 
alive for a long time, to carry down food materials from the store- 
house above. 
In Acrocomia the same difficulties have been solved in a very 
different way, though not less definitely adaptive. The nursing foot 
or cotyledon is very short and remains functional for a much briefer 
period than in Attalea. The young plant completes its germination 
and begins its development close to the surface of the soil. It par- 
tially supplies the deficiency of the length of the cotyledon by growing 
downward at first instead of upward, the bases of the leaves being 
abruptly bent (pi. 01). These first joints of the seedling very soon 
thicken into a fleshy bulb, formed, doubtless, by a prompt transfer of 
the nutrient material stored in the seed, thus avoiding the need of a 
long-lived cotyledon as in Attalea. 
The coconut follows neither of these policies. Being provided with 
its own water supply inside and outside the nut, it is able to grow a 
plant of considerable size before attempting to make any connection 
with the soil. And then being thoroughly prepared, and the proper 
season having arrived, it is able to send down a good supply of roots 
to the level of permanent moisture in the soil and establish itself on 
a self-supporting basis. 
Contr. Na* Herb.. V:r '4 Plate 60. 
Germination of the Corozo Palm (Attalea cohuneK 
Sliowiiifj the long Mim>wiii|r cut vision tluit carrit's thct'iiihryn iiitti thv ktouixI. Fi»r <-<m>}mrison 
with tin- frorinit)Hti(»i of the coctuml :is sln»wn in jilatc 5'J. (Ntiturnl > 
Contr Nat. Herb. Vf>l 14. Plate 61. 
( 
i 
4. 
f 
Germination of the Coyol Palm (Acrocomia viniferaI. 
Showing the nuts with their foramina, the very short cotyledon. ntul llic downward growth of the 
utem of the young cotyledon to form a Jleshy subterranean bulb, producing the tirst leaves from 
its lower end, (Xntnrnl size.) 
COOK—THE COCONUT PALM IN AMERICA. 329 
Even when actually hung up or kept in the house coconuts will 
often germinate and grow a plant 2 feet or more in height. In fact 
thev often do much better when treated this way than when buried k.' V 
in the ground too soon, and it is the regular custom in some tropical 
countries to germinate coconuts in sheds before planting them in the 
ground. 
Nevertheless it is difficult to believe that the moisture of the nut 
and its husk can sustain the plant for so long a period. The possi- 
bility that atmospheric moisture is drawn upon to replenish the sup- 
ply may be worthy of consideration, though it seems not to have been 
regarded in studies of the germination of the coconut. Thus Kirk- 
wood and Gies declare: 
Neither the husk nor the shell appears to serve any other than passive mechanical 
function, and only the constituents of the endosperm and milk, so far as the nut is 
concerned, nourish the young plant before it finds in the soil the elements provided 
there in abundance for its growth to maturity. . . . 
The lowest part of the stem contains almost as little solid matter and is nearly as 
watery as the cotyledon. The percentage of water in the stem diminishes as the 
distance away from the "root crown" increases. The watery condition of the lower 
part of the stem is increased, doubtless, by the fact that the surrounding husk is 
impregnated with water, thus favoring direct absorption by osmosis and at the same 
time preventing evaporation from the surface of the growing tissue.0 
But on a previous page these writers have referred to chemical 
analyses which support in a striking manner the suggestion that the 
husk of the coconut may be able to collect moisture for the benefit of 
the young plant, and that it is the husk for which the plant makes 
demands of salt and potash. 
Bachofen's results indicate that sodium chloride and potassium phosphate are the 
chief inorganic matters drawn upon in the development of the cocoanut—chemical 
data in harmony with the fact that the cocoa palm does not thrive away from the 
coast or where salt is lacking in the soil.& 
A summary of Bachofen's analysis is also given, showing that of the 
important ingredients of the soil 1,000 nuts remove the following 
quantities: 
This means that each coconut husk contains about a tablespoonful 
of salt, to say nothing of the lime and potash, the presence of which 
a Kirk wood and Gies, Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, vol. 29, pp. 352, 357. 
(1902.) 
& Kirkwood and Gies, loc. cit., p. 334. 
Total in I Portion 
pounds. I in husk. 
Nitrogen     
Phosphor to acid 
Potash..,.,  
Lime  
Sodium chloride 
X. f>5 
2, 45 
18, 75 
2.30 
21.42 
3.70 
.fc4 
13- 52 
1, H2 
20.23 
330 C'ONTttl MUTTONS FltOM THE NATIONAL HERliARTUM 
may well assist in increasing the power to attract and hold water for 
the young plant. 
The more wc appreciate the highly specialized adaptive character- 
istics of the coconut the more unwarranted appears the idea of 
maritime distribution. The huge size of the nuts and the necessary 
limitation of their number, would have no meaning from the stand- 
point of maritime distribution, the maximum production of flour- 
ishing trees under favorable conditions being reckoned at onlv 200 
nuts. Related palms comparable in size to the coconut, such as 
Attalea and Acrocomia, produce seeds in vastly greater numbers. 
The number of pistillate /lowers is relatively very small in the coconut 
palm and many of these are abortive (pis. 6'.\ 63, G4). It would be 
impossible for any large number to develop. The chances of any 
sea-borne nut floating to a favorable destination are so infinitesimal 
that the natural perpetuation of the species by this method would 
be entirely impracticable. The specialization of the coconut toward 
greater size is in itself an evidence that natural selection has favored 
this tendency. If a few large seeds had not been more advantageous 
to the palms than many small seeds we may be sure that the large 
seeds would never have developed. How important the factor of 
human selection niav have been we do not know, but it does not 
appear that larger size has been a desideratum. The largest varie- 
ties do not seem to bespecially preferred in cultivation. 
BEHAVIOR OF THE COCONUT PALM IN INTERIOR LOCALITIES. 
The popular impression that the coconut will grow to normal 
maturity only in the immediate vicinity of the ocean has arisen from 
the fact that this palm, like the date, is a salt-loving plant and in 
continuously humid tropical countries finds no congenial soil except 
near the seashore. Many agricultural treatises and general works 
of reference continue to repeat the traditional theory of direct and 
necessary connection between the coconut and the sea. Even 
Nicholls asserts the limitation to the seacoast. 
The climate, however, must bo a maritime one, the palm delighting in the saline 
atmosphere of the seat-oust. When the tree is plant cd inland, in order to make up for the 
want of a saline atmosphere, it if usual to put: silt in l he hoks before the seedlings are set 
out, and as much as half a bushed of salt ia sometimes used in this way for each tree." 
But this view is no longer universal, and is very definitely denied 
bv a recent writer on coconut culture in British India. 
The old idea tliut it would not thrive f:ir from the influence of the sea breeze is ex- 
ploded, as it grows welhdl over the low country, where the jsoil mid r.iinfall are suitable, 
and even in sheltered vallevaat. an elevation of 2,000 feel, as in ihe I own uf Uadulhi.k 
"Nicholls, H. A. A., Tropical Agriculture, p. ]<)7. (London, 1H00.) 
fcJardme, W.t The Cultivation of the Coconut Palm, Tropical Agriculturist, vol. 
24, p. 151. (11)05.) 
Cor-.tr. Nat. Hero.. Vo' '4 Plate 62 
Flowers and Fruit of a Young Coconut Palm, Belize, British Honduras. 
Tin/ lit>n>UH UJAI shctuhs wild (uhulur >[mi lift Ihut iiirU^i1 thii iiitlniVM't-h*"! ^ u hrri yuunir iii:lIm> 
sliowti, at uKo (lit- st ars ul thti ^ nf itUlvEL l^uvs mm 11 if trunk. 
Cortr. NiT. Hr-rK> Vo . 1 4 Plate 63. 
Fruit Clusters of Mature Coconut Palm, Costa Rica. 
[n a tmiiHii;! (.liUUHlioll lit I.!i Ciiliiinliintiii. rinir I'nrl IJiriuii. Mure pnnliic-1 nc 1 n;.'»tn 
soi'U. tint Iiiivt". u lair tiiiiin-siuii of liic ilusU-r^- <>i ntit< ;i^ 111>• v Iniiih in tl 
] insii ii >1 l. 
ii\ n1 *■* •] t\*"1 
L r 1 [' 1111 w L n L i 
C-' n'r. Nal. H'.-rh. V^l. - 4 Plate 64. 
Inflorescence of the Coconut Palm, with Staminate and Pistillate Flowers. 
1mmr sttuniiww llmvrrs; bnsrHnd tijHil" ii lirniH'h <0 n\\ i[itU>rvsrtMm\ witli ^imniutr iJiuvits: 
rt (mrl t»f n spnthi* inrlosiiitf \hv intlnivsi-t'Tiiv, with iniTntir«»u* biHlsol" shnimmtr llmvrrs mn) 
■ tfir i^istillrt ti- hud: f/. ui (wobruin Ir-s. tnrh Ki'tiriii^ji very yuuiiirrorunut. ■ Nsitnrtil 
COOK THE COCONUT PALM IN AMERICA 331 
The traditional partiality of the coconut for the scabeaeh is fully 
explained by two considerations, the salt and the relative absence 
of of her vegetation, which enables it to be grown with less care or to 
persist longer without cultivation. The limestone of coral islands 
may also afford sufficient alkaline mutter for the coconut, even out 
of reach of the sea water, as described by Wallace on the island of 
Matabello in the Malay Archipelago." 
Nor is the coconut confined to humid tropical climates or to low 
elevations. Coco palms have been reported as thriving away from 
the sea in relatively dry localities in several tropical countries. Pick- 
ering reported them in Arabia in the district behind Muscat. Coco- 
nuts are extensively grown in the southern part of the Hindustan 
peninsula, and even in Bangalore, in tne middle of the peninsula at 
an altitude of 900 meters. Field cultures of coconuts are recognized 
as acutely dependent upon part icular kinds of soils/" 
An old report of coconuts in the interior of Africa, in the region 
of Timbuctu, was probably a mistake, as Seemann has pointed out, 
though it does not appear improbable that they would grow there 
if planted. Landor refers to five kinds of palms as seen about Tim- 
buctu, but makes no mention of coconuts/ 
""The natives uf Matabello are almost nil ircly occupied in making cocoa-nut oil, 
which they sell to the Iiugis and (lorsim traders, who carry it l<> Banda and Amboina. 
The rugged coral rock seems very favorable to the growth of the cocoa-nut palm, 
which abounds over the whole island lo tlx* very highest points, and produces fruit 
all the year round."—The Malay Archipelago, p. 281. (London, ISS!).) 
& A report "On the composition of Indian soils " contains the following statements: 
"No. 375-96. Black loam; lies on a gravelly substratum at a depth of 2 or 3 feel.; 
is therefore unfit for cocoa-nut. The ryots complain that the soil of ihi.s and the neigh- 
bouring fields is not retentive enough, and needs to he more frequently watered than 
the fields farther down the Cauvery Valley. Irrigated under the Kaling-arayan 
channel from (he Bhavani. 
"No. 377-Oii. Clay, black; more mellow and clayey than No. 375. At a depth 
of 3 to 5 feet there its a, bed of impalpable black sand; cocoa-nuts and plantains thrive 
on this remarkably, and nowhere in the Can very Valley are cocoa-nuts more exten- 
sivoly cultivated. The nuts are comparatively small. (The sample received could 
not be called either black or clayey; it consisted of a dark-brown loamy Koil.)"— 
Leather, J. \\\, The Agricultural Ledger, No. 2, p. 8. (1898.) 
c"A (cw date palms, the gorboij'mwukuru, tho (jorbotj-homo. with long green thorns 
and a bitter fruit much enjoyed by the children, and a number of dwarf palms arc 
to be found, as well as the forked palm, thcbdvdc—Landor, A, II, S,, Across Widest 
Africa, vol. 2, p. 451. (1907.) 
The palms with the long green thorns may be oil palms, Elaeis guineensis Jaeq., 
which have the lower pinme narrow, stiff, and spine-like. Many other palms have 
spines along the margins of the petioles, but usually short and brown or black in 
color. The fruits oi Elaeis are rather bitter when raw, but not after they have been 
roasted. 
332 CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE NATIONAL HERBARIUM. 
A recent publication on the German colonies contains a photo- 
graph of a group of apparently thriving coconut palms at Misa- 
hoclic, in the interior of the Togo colony in West Africa, but no 
statement is made regarding them." 
Coconut palms are grown in large numbers on limestone soils in 
interior districts of the Yucatan peninsula, especially about the city 
of Mcrida, and they are also said to thrive on the Pacific side of 
Mexico, around the volcano of Colima. They are also reported by 
Mr. G. X. Collins at Acala, a town in the State of Chiapas, in an 
arid interior district with a natural growth of cacti and other desert 
plants, 
Humboldt remarked particularly the vigorous condition of the 
coconut palms found by him in the interior of Venezuela and Colom- 
bia, which he considered as an anomalous fact in the distribution of 
a maritime species. Sir Richard Burton mentions the coconut palm 
as flourishing and very productive in interior districts of Brazil that 
have alkaline soils which he recognized as a practical substitute for 
" sea air." b 
More recent testimony to the existence of the coconut palm in 
interior localities of South America is that of Prof. II. Pit tier, a 
special agent of the Department of Agriculture, who makes the 
following statement: 
Until 189.1, 1 had no notion of that species bearing fruit at any great distance from 
the seashore or high above the sea level, but when, on behalf of the Intercontinental 
Railway Commission, I crossed the Azuero peninsula from Retnedios to Santiago de 
Yeragua, in the present Republic of Panama, I was surprised to see groves of coconut 
palmy surrounding the houses in the high savannas of Tole, more than meters 
above sea level. The sites of many houses in the valley of Tabasara were marked 
by isolated coconut trees. This, however, did not seem so very wonderful on account 
of the proximity of the sea, and at Tol<5 the inhabitants attributed (he fine condition 
of the palms to their being fully exposed lo the sea breeze. l>ul in 1905, when we 
entered through Buenaventura into the Dagua Valley of Colombia, we began to 
notice coconut trees as soon as we reached the drier region of the interior, at an alti- 
tude of over 2,000 feet. On the inner watershed of (he Western Cordillera, near a 
hostelry and on the brink of a precipitous slope, another beautiful specimen was 
found at about 4,800 feet above sea level. In the Cauca plain, in the interior of 
Colombia, at a mean level of over 900 meters, in a warm, temperate climate, wi(h 
extreme conditions of wet and dry seasons, groves of coconut palms were seen every- 
where. (1M. Gti, fig. 1.) The people of the Cauca Valley did not seem to distinguish 
their variety from the one growing on the seashore at Buenaventura, but Dr. Evaristo 
Garcia, a noted naturalist and physician of Calf, assured me that coconuts brought 
into the valley from the seabeaeh do not thrive. 
In the Cordillera do Santa Maria I have seen several coconut trees on the hills 
around San Andres at nearly 1,090 meters of elevation, and the palm seemed to be 
quite familiar to the Indians. All over Central America the coconut palm is also 
° Wohltmann, I' ., Kultur-und-Vegelationa Dilder aus unseren IH'Ut.schcn Colonieti, 
pi. 52. 
& Burton, R., Highlands of Brazil, vol. 2, pp. 204, 2S0. (London, 1869.) 
Co ft' N it. H»iph vol. 14. Plate 65. 
Fig. 1Coconut Palm, near Palmira. Fig. 2.- Coconut Palm at Cajabon, 
Cauca Valley, Colombia. Alta Verapaz. Guatemala. 
Kxrtmpli's from interior localities. Kig. I, filtilmlc '."X) idcIit-: n1«n»t iiu'ivr*. 
Cor-Nil. HU-rti. ■■ ' 4 Plate 66, 
Coconut Palm at Belize* British Honduras. 
'llMVXtll.Lf Will*- foi'tll * 11 It 41 \t ^ us I avsrl 11 < n ] Uml + T Mil |f\rl i'i pHi! i I h HW. I " In « i Mil |VU t 1 uilli 
< .'l!, fi\ w t ] n f | s[n *W pulltl> l^rnU LtlL3 
tmrruMt r 
mi li i inii.ruT ion- m\*[ tiriwiiu -iUT»-r nrnl 
COOK—THE COCONUT PALM IN AMERICA. 333 
frequently cultivated in the interior, especially in the drier districts, but the natives 
do not seem to be so well acquainted with it as is the case in South America, and 
they have no special names to designate it. 
The palms shown in plate 52 (frontispiece) are growing in the city 
of Salama near the geographical center of Guatemala. The broad 
valley or plateau in which Salama is situated has an altitude of 
900 meters, and has a distinctly desert climate, but the coconut 
prospers apparently as well as on the seashore. The leaves are not 
as large as usual in coast-grown palms (compare with pi. 65), but 
this is in accordance with a very general principle of plant growth, 
that plants produce smaller leaves under the stronger light and more 
rapid transpiration afforded by desert conditions. 
The coconut is also planted with success in other drv vallevs in 
Guatemala, notably in that of Cajabon (pi. G6, fig. 2), It is a curious 
fact that in several of these places the prosperity of the palms is 
coincident with the prevalence of goiter, a disease commonly sup- 
posed to be associated with alkaline water, which might be an advan- 
tage to the palms. 
In eastern Guatemala, near Livingston, the coconut palm has 
given an apparent illustration of its requirement of salt by refusing 
to grow within a few rods of the ocean on slopes moistened only by 
fresh water. The nature of the soil and the water supply will prob- 
ably be found to constitute a very large factor in all such cases. 
The palms thrive much better in the town of Livingston, built on a 
part of the same slope where the agricultural production of coconuts 
appears to have failed (pi. 54, fig. 2, facing p. 290). Proximity to the sea 
is not enough without the right conditions of the soil. Other tropical 
tree crops, such as coffee and cacao, often thrive under dooryard cultiva- 
tion in districts where agricultural production is much less success- 
ful. Even at Panzos, 90 miles from the sea, coconuts are still able 
to grow in the yards about the houses." 
The dryness of the interior valleys of Guatemala, and the alkalinity 
of their scant water supplies, are to a large extent artificial conditions 
induced by the long-continued presence of agricultural populations 
and the consequent destruction of the forests and denudation of the 
a An instance where proximity to the sea enabled palms to thrive in otherwise 
unfavorable soil is given in Spons' Encyclopedia: 
"Coco-nuts growing in mangrove soil on the side of creeks, and more or less saturated 
with nalt, have their milk brackish, and the eap is saline also. These trees do not 
suffer from Ihe a Hacks of the rhinoceros beetle, and are found to bear much sooner 
than those planted on a sandy soil, As an illustration of this, while trees planted at 
Penang thirty years ago, on sandy soil, have not yet borne fruit—although they arc 
fine-looking trees—others in the same plantation, only 10 years old, but on low ground, 
where the sea title conies up daily, washed their roots, and runs off again, are in full 
bearing, giving 50—100 nuts annually, and the kernel is as thick aa that of nuts grown 
on sandy soil, and produces as much oil." 
334 CONTlUnUTTO"X£ FltOM THE XATIONAT, HKHHAJiU'M 
soil. Under favorable conditinns upon the seabeaeh the coconut 
palm may require only one form of assistance front man -protection 
against the shade of other vegetation hut in other places it may 
become dependent upon mail for its water supply and for (he saline 
constituents of the soil. 
ABSENCE OF COCONUT PALMS ON THE COAST OF PERU. 
The failure of archaeologists to imd coconut shells in the ancient 
graves of Peru was used bv De Candollc as an argument against the 
n ■ t ™ 
American origin of the palm, but coconuts still refuse to ^row alon^ 
the Peruvian coast, in spite of efforts to introduce them. Other 
palms Iloiirish m the botanical gardens at Lima, bui numerous 
experiments have shown that the coconut is entirely unsuited to the 
local conditions. Although much of the coast belt of Peru lies inside 
the Tropics, the sky is overcast and the weather continuous!v cool for 
several months of the year, a result of the cold llumbohlt current 
that follows (he Peruvian coast. The unfavorable climate continues 
northward nearly to Guayaquil, where the cloud belt is passed and 
the coco palm thrives." 
The Kn^lish botanist Spruce, who made a special study of (he 
vegetation of this region, considers that the Peruvian desert extends 
alon<r the coast even farther north than Guayaquil, almost to the 
equator, his Jirst mention of coconuts growing on the coast being at 
10 5' south latitude. 
The northern limit of Ihe Peruvian desert. is usually placed about Tumboz, at the 
southern extremity of the flulf of Guayaquil, in lalilude oO' but I now know, 
from personal inspect km, that the coast of the Pacific north of tin* gull has the same 
geological conformation. tho same climate, am] almost as scant}' a vegetation as it lias 
south of it. At what point to northward tho simple between barrenness ami fertility 
begins to bo equal Iy balanced I am unable to say, but I am inclined to place il about 
Cape Pasado, a! the mouth of the river Chones. Guayaquil itself, as seen from the 
river, with its groves of coco palms and fruit trees, and us picturesque wooded bills, 
might be supjioscd a region of forests; but the moment, we pass ihe skirls of the city to 
westward we find thai the country is nearly all savanna, either open and grassy or 
scattered over with bushes and low groves, and that tin* woods are confined lolhehiUs 
and to the borders of salt-creeks. . . . 
Abou { ('ape San Lorenzo (latitude I ° V K.) the coast i-' bold and broken, and almost 
complete!} clad wil.ii low bushy vegetal ion. In the village of the same name, which 
nestles in tho bay to southward of the cape, at the mouth of a small si ream, the houses 
stand mixed with Coco palms and Plantains, and steep wooded declivities rise at the 
back. . . . 
A liltle farther northward, on the river Chones, there is real forest, from which much 
limber is obtained for Guayaquil. 
" For the fads stated in this paragraph I am indebted to Mr, W, K. Sa fiord, of the 
Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 
& Spruce, It i chard, Notes of a liotanist on the Amazon and Andes, edited by A. It. 
Wallace, vol, pp, X20. ( London, 190<\) 
COOK—THE COCONUT PALM IN AMEUICA. 335 
As soon as the coast holt is passed the coconut palms arc able to 
thrive, not only at Guayaquil, but much farther to the southward. 
The following statement by Spruce shows the existence of coconut 
palms in an oasis of the desert in the region of Payta, m northern Peru: 
When the traveler across the despoblado comes suddenly on one of the? valleys, lie 
j )£i3P03 at once from a, desert In a garden, whose charms are enhance I by their unex- 
pectedness. Standing on the clilT that overlooks the Chiru, about Amotape, he sees ;it, 
]tis feet, a broad valley filled wilh perpetual verdure, the great mass of which is coin- 
posed of the pale green foliage of the Algarroba; but the course of the river that winds 
through it is marked (oven where the river itself is not seen) by lines or groups of tall 
Coeo palms, here and there diversified by the more rigid Date palm, both growing arid 
fruiting in the greatest luxuriance, their ample fronds never mutilated by caterpillars, 
as I hey are wont to he in other regions.« 
POSSIBILITIES OF THE COCONUT PALM IN THE UNITED STATES. 
It will be apparent from the preceding chapters that we are not to 
expect the coconut palm to attain its utmost limits of extratropical 
distribution along the scar oast, but in interior localities that afford 
larger amounts of heat and sunlight. Applying these considerations 
to the United States, wo ought not to accept asiinal the present limi- 
tation of the coconut palm to extreme southern Florida, but should 
test the possibility of establishing it in the frost-free interior valleys 
of southern California and Arizona. The low summer temperatures 
of the coast belt of California would doubtless exclude the coconut 
palm, though some of the Brazilian species of Cocos appear to thrive 
in the region of Santa Barbara and also farther north in Florida than 
the existing varieties of the true coconut. 
The fact that the coconut is able to thrive and mature its fruit on 
tropical seacoasts shows that it does not demand the high tempera- 
tures that the date palm requires to ripen its fruit. It seems prob- 
able, therefore, that the coconut may prefer districts nearer to the 
coast in California than the very hot interior valleys where the date 
succeeds. The region about liiverside, or some of the valleys that 
are not hot enough for dates, may possibly afford conditions in which 
coconut palms can thrive. 
The possibility of securing useful hybrids between the coconut and 
other related palms already known to be hardy in California is also 
worthy of consideration. Some of the Brazilian species of Cocos 
have been reported as thriving in California, as well as the Chilean 
relative of the coconut, Jubaea cMlensis, which grows in South America 
well outside the Tropics. 
It is said to extend to 36 degrees south latitude in the wild state, 
but lives in cultivation still farther south. It has proved hardy in 
° Op. cit., p. 3X5. 
336 CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE NATION AT, HERliARlUM. 
the south of Franco, where large trees exist more than 30 years old. 
Twelve degrees of frost have been endured with little or no injury." 
While experimental plantings of coconuts in frost-free localities 
in southern California and Arizona are desirable to test the possibility 
of introducing the coconut into a new region, no assurance can be 
given in advance that the undertaking will be successful, either to 
the extent of affording a new agricultural industry or to the lesser 
extent of introducing a new ornamental palm. The fact that the 
coconut is not limited to maritime conditions, as usually supposed, 
but is adapted to dry climates, simply means that previous ideas of 
the habits of the palm should not be allowed to stand in the way of 
further study of its possibilities. 
The only assurances that can now be given are that the climatic 
factors do not appear likely to exclude the palm from an extra- 
tropical distribution in frost-free interior localities with adequate 
exposure to sunlight, and that the heat requirement is not ns great 
as in the case of the date palm. Whether coconuts can be made to 
thrive in anv locality in the United States outside, of Florida can 
only be determined by experiment. Other factors that are not to 
be foreseen may interfere with or entirely preclude success. Locusts 
or other insects or diseases may destroy the palms, as they have 
done in oilier parts of the world, or the soil conditions may prove 
unsuited in some manner that can not be corrected. It is also 
possible that the palms may not tolerate cold weather, even above 
the freezing point. Some tropical plants are permanently injured 
by cold, even when the freezing temperatures are not reached, but 
this susceptibility is not conspicuous among the palms and is not 
very likely to appear in the coconut, in view of what we already 
know of its ability to exist in dry and elevated regions subject to 
marked changes of temperature. 
To undertake the commercial planting of coconuts in California 
before experiments have shown its feasibility would be altogether 
unwarranted. Such a caution may appear to some readers as alto- 
gether superfluous, but not to those who are familiar with the losses 
that have come from the premature expansion of rubber culture 
and other tropical industries in recent years. It is quite possible 
that coconut palms will be found to grow well in localities where 
they are able to produce little or no fruit. This would preclude 
commercial cultivation, but if coconut palms will grow in California, 
even without producing fruit, their introduction will be abundantly 
repaid, for they are one of the most beautiful objects in the whole 
vegetable kingdom and would be "a very great grace" in California 
as in the "citie of Porto Rico." 
« Andr6, E., llevue Horlieole, vol. 71, p. 8. (1902.) 
COOK—THE COCONUT PALM IN AMERICA. 337 
An adequate test of the possibilities of the coconut palm in 
California and Arizona can not be made bv planting commercial 
nuts raised on tropical seacoasts. Except in South America, all 
the attempts to grow coconut palms in interior localities have 
probably been made with varieties brought in from neighboring 
coasts. It is something to know that the maritime varieties are 
able to grow away from the sea, but it is not at all to be expected that 
such varieties will represent the best possibilities of the species in 
subtropical localities away from the seacoast. 
To rely upon maritime varieties for an experiment in the United 
States would be the same as to expect hothouse varieties of grapes 
or lettuce to excel in tests of hardiness. If an effort is to be made 
to establish the coconut in California, it should be based upon the 
study and introduction of the varieties that have shown their ability 
to thrive in the dry interior valleys and plateaus of South America, 
and especially the varieties that are able to withstand the most 
extreme conditions of drought and cold. In tropical countries the 
climatic conditions often differ greatly, even within very short dis- 
tances. One valley or mountain slope may have a very prolonged 
dry season and wide extremes of temperature, while the next may 
have equable temperatures and relatively continuous humidity. 
Plants with large, heavy seeds are likely, in their natural state, to be 
confined to very limited districts, and this is to be expected of the 
wild stock or the native varieties of the coconut if anv have survived 
in the original home of the species. 
It seems strange that the numerous maritime varieties of the 
coconut which exist in the East Indies have never been introduced 
and tested in the West Indies or in southern Florida. They may 
be expected to differ quite as much in hardiness and earliness of 
bearing as in the characteristics of the nuts. Hardier or earlier 
coconuts would have a distinct value in southern Florida, since it 
would permit a more northern extension of the planting of coconuts, 
which is now confined to the keys and to the southern shores of the 
peninsula. 
Conditions favorable for the coconut palm may also be found in 
interior localities of Palestine and Upper Egypt. In the coast 
districts where the summer climate is dominated by cool winds from 
the Mediterranean the heat requirements would not bo met, but the 
interior valleys afford many sheltered places with tropical tempera- 
tures in summer and free from frost in winter. The soil requirements 
must be considered, of course, as well as the climate, but experiments 
might be well worth the making. 
It is said that coconuts were germinated some years ago a few 
miles below Cairo, but the garden was abandoned and the young 
palms allowed to die for lack of water. Though royal palms and 
338 CONTRIBUTIONS FKOM TIIK NATIONAL HERBARIUM. 
several other species have been found, to thrive, Cairo may be still 
too near the sea to give the most favorable conditions for ttic coconut. 
Tlie partial shade of gardens that seem to be well suited to Cocoa 
jihitiumt and other Brazilian species would not l'uvor the true coco 
palm. Shelter against cold winds may be an advantage, but the J " 4 t" f 
young palms will probably recpiire full exposure to the sunlight. The 
coconut may behave like the douui palm, that thrives in Upper 
Egypt but is kept alive only with difficulty in the gardens at Cairo. 
That the possibility of growing coconuts in Egypt and Palestine 
should not have been more thoroughly tested mav seem verv strange, i t * h ~ / 
but it should be remembered that the Mediterranean region had no 
direct communication with coconut-producing tropical countries 
before the opening of the Sue/ Canal. Though the Poinciana. the 
banyan (Ficit,s hen-gulcnx-is), the Assam rubber (I'icit,s* elaxfica), and 
many other tropical trees have been established as ornamentals 
about Cairo and other towns, many other tropical and subtropical 
species that are likely to prove well adapted to the conditions remain 
to be introduced. Xow that, selected fresh nuts can be brought bv 
swift steamers from Ceylon or other parts of the East Indies, other 
experimental plantings of coconut palms will doubtless be made. 
SUMMARY OF RESULTS. 
The history of the coconut palm has relation to several different 
kinds of scientific questions, so that the facts require to be sum- 
marized from several different standpoints. 
BOTANICAL CONCLUSIONS. 
All the palms that are related to tlx* coconut, comprising about 
20 genera and 200 species, are natives of America, with the po^ible 
exception of a single species, the West Africtm oil palm. All the 
species of the genus Cocos and of the closely allied genera, are natives 
of South America. The species of Cocos that are most related to the 
coconut are natives of the interior valleys and plateaus of the Andes, 
where the coconut also thrives, remote from the sea. 
Comparison of the structure of the fruit and the method of germi- 
nation of the coconut with those of the related palms indicates a 
high degree1 of specialization, but not for purposes of maritime distri- 
bution. The unusually large, heavy seed and the thick, fibrous husk 
are to be considered as adaptations for protecting the embryo, 
assisting in germination, and establishing the young plants in the 
dry climates of interior localities, the onlv conditions where this 
% % 
palm could be expected to maintain its existence in a wild state. 
The habits of the coconut palm afford no indication that its orig- 
inal habitat was on the seacoast, nnd none of its closer relatives 
have maritime habits or maritime distribution. The coconut palm 
COOK—THE COCONUT PALM IN AMERICA. 339 
does not appear to bo able to maintain itself under littoral conditions 
without the assistance of man. Though carried by man to all of the 
warmer parts of the earth, it has not been able to establish itself as 
a wild plant on any tropical coast, but is always crowded out by 
other vegetation after human care is withdrawn. 
Wafer's circumstantial account uf the existence of large numbers 
of coconut palms on the Cocos Islands, 300 miles west of Panama, 
in 1(>S5? taken together with their almost complete disappearance 
at the present day, affords a striking illustration of the dependence 
of the coconut upon human assistance not only for its distribution, 
but for its continued existence on oceanic islands. 
The dissemination of the coco palm along the tropical coasts is 
to be ascribed to the agency of primitive man, as with the sweet 
potato, banana, and other tlomesi icated plants which were widely 
distributed in prehistoric times. The theory that it lias been dis- 
seminated by ocean currents is gratuitous, unproved, and improbable. 
The development of distinct varieties of the coconut has not been 
confined to the Polvnesian and .Malayan islands. Distinct varieties 
are also to be found in isolated localities in America, such as the 
Soconusco region of Mexico and the island of Porto Rico. 
The existence of manv and diverse varieties in the Malav region fc- n 
does not indicate that the species is native there, but the opposite, 
since the proximity of the wild stock of a species is likely to hinder 
the appearance and preservation of imitations among its cultivated 
representatives. The relative uniformity of the coconuts of America 
is in accord with the probability of an origin in this hemisphere. 
The discovery of distinct varieties in isolated localities in America 
accords with the probability that the Malayan varieties have arisen, 
like other cultivated varieties, through segregation and mutation 
rather than by gradual evolution and natural selection. 
HISTORICAL CONCLUSIONS. 
At the time of the discovery of America the coconut was not con- 
fined to the Pacific side of the Isthmus of Panama, as De Candollc 
believed, but was already widely distributed along the Atlantic 
side of the American tropics. Early records show its presence in 
Cuba, Porto "Rico, Brazil, and Colombia at dates so early as to pre- 
clude the idea of introduction by the Spaniards. 
The statement of Pickering, frequently quoted in works of refer- 
ence, to the effect that coconuts were reported by Columbus on the 
coast of Central America during his fourth voyage, proves to be 
erroneous. On the other hand, there appears to be a definite refer- 
ence to the coconut in Cuba in the journal of the first voyage of 
Columbus. 
340 CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE NATIONAL HERBARIUM. 
De Candolle's inference from Acosta's report of coconuts in Porto 
Rico at the end of the sixteenth century, that they had recently 
been introduced by the Spaniards, proves to have 110 warrant in 
history and is directly opposed by the more extended reference to 
the coconut in Porto Rico by the Duke of Cumberland's chaplain, 
who visited the island onlv a few years after A cost a. 
])e Candolle's use of the testimony of Piso and Marcgrave to sup- 
port the idea of the introduction of the coconut into Brazil by 
Europeans is also unwarranted, since those writers only indicated 
that the plant was cultivated. An earlier and more explicit record, 
unknown to De Candolle, gives an account of the coconut as one of 
the native products of Brazil. 
The journal of Cieza de Leon, who accompanied the first Spanish 
expedition to the interior of Colombia, indicates the presence of the 
coconut palm in localities where it still continues to exist, as shown 
by the accounts of Velasco, Humboldt. and more recent travelers, 
down to the present decade. 
ETHNOLOGICAL CONCLUSIONS. 
The American origin of the coconut palm and the strict limita- 
tion of its status in maritime tropics to that of a cultivated plant 
are facts of ethnological significance. The wide distribution of the 
coconut in prehistoric times is evidence of the antiquity of agri- 
culture in America and of very early communication across the 
Pacific. 
The American origin of the coconut palm, along with its inability 
to maintain itself on tropical seacoasts without human assistance, 
compels us to believe that its trans-Pacific distribution was the work 
of primitive man. The dependency of the Pacific islanders upon the 
coconut inav he taken to show that these islands could not have l- 
been occupied without the previous domestication and dissemina- 
tion of the coconut. 
I11 view of the fact that several other palms of unquestioned 
American origin have been domesticated by aborigines of the Ameri- 
can tropics, no ethnological objection can be raised to the idea that 
the coconut palm was originally domesticated ill ancient America. 
The name "coco" does not appear to have been applied to the 
'Indian nut" till after the discovery of America and is to be con- 
sidered as a word derived from the natives of the AVest Indies. 
Other native names for the coconut are found among primitive tribes 
of Costa Rica, as well as in Brazil. 
The presence of large numbers of coconuts on Cocos Island in the 
time of Wafer (1(>S5) and their subsequent disappearance should be 
considered as evidence that the island was formerly inhabited, or 
COOK—THE COCONUT PALM IN AMERICA. 341 
at least regularly visited, by the maritime natives of the adjacent 
mainland. 
The fact that the coconut is largely restricted to islands and tropical 
countries of low elevation explains its importance among the pre- 
eminently maritime people of the Old World tropics and its relatively 
slight importance among tlie non maritime natives of the lowland 
tropics of America. 
The evidence of the prehistoric dissemination of the coconut and 
other American cultivated plants across the Pacific Ocean is such as 
to warrant a careful consideration of other indications that agricul- 
tural civilization developed originally in America and was distributed 
to the shores of the Pacific and Indian oceans by a primitive people 
with agricultural and maritime habits, like those of the Polynesians 
and Mala vs. 
The existence of a distinct tribe of frizzle-haired people near the 
Isthmus of Panama at the time of the discovery does not rest alone 
on Peter Martyr's casual mention of the finding of negroes, but is 
supported by Oviedo's contemporary history written directly from 
the testimony of Balboa and other members of his expedition, just 
after their return to Darien. The facts are not to be explained rea- 
sonably by assuming a chance arrival of African negroes, but indi- 
cate that prehistoric communication across the Pacific continued 
after the frizzle-haired Melanesian race had spread eastward in the 
Pacific. 
Such communication would account for the existence of the banana 
plant in America previous to the arrival of the Spaniards, as well as 
for the Old World distribution of the coconut palm and other culti- 
vated plants of American origin. The banana plant is as evidently 
a native of the eastern continent as the coconut palm of the western. 
Evidence of these facts appears very definite and concrete from the 
biological standpoint, and is worthy of careful consideration by 
ethnologists. 
AGRICULTURAL CONCLUSIONS. 
The coconut is confined to seacoasts only in the humid lowlands 
of the Tropics; in dry regions it is not restricted to coasts, but thrives 
in many districts remote from the sea. The fact that it received 
scientific study only as a maritime plant should not longer obscure 
the fact that it is also adapted to interior localities with saline soils. 
The cultural problems of the coconut palm should be investigated 
quite apart from the idea of maritime habits and distribution. 
The possibility of raising coconuts in frost-free localities outside 
the Tropics is not to be tested along the seacoast, but in interior 
districts where larger amounts of sunlight and heat arc available, as 
in the valleys of southern California and Arizona. The coconut, like 
J 
342 CONTH MUTTONS FROM THE NATIONAL 11 KUI5ARII'JI. 
many oilier (minis, is not tolerant of shade nor of long continued cool 
and cloudy weather. Other species of Cocoa that arc less exacting 
in their requirements of sunlight and heat have been found to do 
well along the California coast. 
n 
The possibility of introducing coconut palms into southern Cali- 
fornia is not disproved hy the absence of these palms from Egypt 
and Palestine. Though the climatic conditions are probably favor- 
able, it, does not appear that any adequate effort has been made to 
introduce the palms in those countries. 
The ability of the coconut to thrive on seaeoasts shows that its 
requirements of heat are not as great as those of the date palm. 
Though probably less hardy than the dale palm, it is not impossible 
that the coconut may be able to exist in frost-free localities that have 
not enough heat for the ripening of dates. 
The possibility of introducing the. coconut palm into southern 
California and Arizona can not be fairly tested by the planting of 
the maritime varieties. The chances of success will be verv much I 
greater with the varieties that are adapted to the dry interior locali- 
ties of the temperate plateaus of the Andes. 
c ■ r.v. h.t:. , v.,1. :4. Plate 67.