DESIGN AEEAS IN OCEANIABASED ON SPECIMENS IN THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUMBy Herbert W. KriegerCurator of Ethnology, United, States National Museum
INTRODUCTIONPrimitive art, as usually understood, is the product of geographicareas and of peoples who have for some reason not shared in thetechnical development centering about metallurgy in Europe. Othergreat metallurgical centers, as southeastern Asia and central Africa,developed art styles more commensurate with local developments inculture generally and were not disturbed by the early organized dif-fusion of western trait complexes. Each of the more generally dif-fused elements of design, as the triangle and zigzag or alternatespur, the spiral, the swastika, and the meandered guilloche, has adistinct areal style which may never be mistaken when once one hasbecome accustomed to it in its local setting.There seems to be a key design peculiar to each distinctive art areathat unlocks the secret of the origin of other designs from the samearea. Frequently this key is merely the understanding of a con-ventionalized form as applied either to textiles or to wood carvings,such as the incised frigate bird designs of Polynesia, or the crocodile,water buffalo, dog, and leaf designs in Malaysia.When man attempts to represent objects of nature through thegraphic arts of drawing, engraving, or painting, he is confrontedwith the problem of showing three dimensional objects on a two-dimensional surface. Primitive peoples solve this problem in a man-ner different from ours. Perspective is utilized by the civilized artistto give a visual presentation of the object as it appears to us in pho-tography. The primitive artist realized that such a view must ex-clude from vision certain features essential for its recognition; theeye, for instance, when the individual is seen from the back. Theprimitive artist puts into the picture what he considers most im-portant. That his point of view is influenced not so much bymomentary impressions as by the demands of a formalized art enablesthe student to classify and evaluate designs of primitive peoples.1
Z PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM vol. 79Peoples having a developed art technic, whether sj^mbolic, repre-sentative, or purely decorative, rarely possess pictographic ability.This is true for peoples of Oceania as well as for the AmericanIndian. It is only when formalized art tends toward realism thata good picture becomes a possibility, as in the Magdalenian cavepaintings.Symmetry may be observed in Melanesian shields or in their de-signs on paddles and arrows, also on Polynesian dressing boxes ofcarved wood. Decorations of Melanesian houses have a rhythmicrepetition of design motive. Banded patterns on bamboo, althoughdiffering one from another, are symmetrical in themselves and arerepeated at rhythmic intervals, giving a pleasing effect for thepattern as a whole. The omission, inversion, and distortion of apattern is carried out with almost mathematical precision. Informalized Polynesian art on tapa, stamped blocks, each incorpo-rating a conventionalized life motive, principally aviform, are re-peated at regular intervals. Perhaps the simplest form of thisrhythmic repetition pertains to the pineapple and to the lotus-flower motive on brasses, bronzes, and iron objects from Malayanmetal-work centers.Modern Malayan art, incidentally, ranges far superior to pre-historic European achievement. It was only with the coming ofGrecian influence to northern Europe that art forms developedthere beyond the initial crude stages of the later stone age.The axial cross, or almost all symbolism in the form of variantsof the swastika, have a different application and different mean-ings attached as we proceed from country to country and tribe totribe. The use of the spiral is so widespread as to be of no signifi-cance in itself, although the technic employed in its execution maybetray the maker. Common alike to painted designs on Pueblo pot-tery in the Southwest and to etched designs on bamboo or wood inPolynesia or in lower Melanesia, we can everywhere in the two areasdistinguish the maker by the crudity or excellence of workmanship.The spiral and associated double-curve design representing orig-inally zoomorphic forms, such as the horns of the water buffalo inCelebes, or the frigate bird in eastern Polynesia, is almost mechani-cally perfect when incised on bamboo or gourds in western Poly-nesia. It is crudely done in Melanesia and New Guinea, Not onlyare individual designs poorly or well done in one area, but all ofthe designs share alike and take their cue from the quality of thekey design. We may thus speak of the excellence or of the crudityof design as characteristic of art areas.Wood carving is usually characteristic of peoples of the stoneage. This is notably true of the Melanesian islanders. Their carv-ing of representations of the alligator and of the frigate bird is
AET.30 DESIGN AEEAS IN OCEANIA KRIEGER 3superb. The Polynesian art complex employs similar designs butthe media of bark cloth sets this apart from Melanesian patterns.Tattooing is characteristic likewise of both Melanesian and Poly-nesian areas. Cultural habits complicate the explanation of stylesin art still further. Squatting tribes, for example, naturally do notdevelop artistically embellished stools or seats. A development ofart in hair coiffures naturally leads to the invention and ultimateartistic embellishment of a neck rest, as in Polynesia and Japan.The wood carving of the Maori of New Zealand, with its repeateduse of the incised surface spiral, may never be mistaken for totemiccarvings in the round of the Haida Indians of southeastern Alaskaand British Columbia. The same may be said of the peculiar style ofwood carvings of the Marquesan islanders, or the Fijians. Thespecimens of the wood carver's art of the various peoples of thePacific show an appreciation of form and line. It will be seen,however, that incised surface decoration is in the style of tapa-oloth ornamentation to a remarkable extent. Ceremonial adzes,clubs, paddles, stilts, etc., were treated thus with the most minuteand patient work, employing the teeth of the shark as etching tools.Figures carved in the round, although produced by the Maori, theMelanesian, the Fijian, the Hawaiian, and the Filipino, yet aresufficiently distinctive to become a key or index to the art of theirrespective geographic design areas. In carving in the round, certainsubsidiary principles arbitrary in their nature lead up to differencesin their execution. The element of grotesqueness, frequently mis-understood, enters into the designs of each of the areas just men-tioned so far as carvings in the round are considered. The omis-sion of parts, the repetition of others, the misplacement to fit themedia on which the design is applied, all these principles are wellunderstood by the primitive wood carver; yet for each there is adifference in style.Of all areas of decorative design, the island world of Oceania isthe most extensive. Its most easterly projection is Easter Island,situated near the American coast. In the west its most extreme pro-jection is Madagascar, near the African coast, while in the northHawaii lies in comparative proximity to the Aleutian Islands ofAlaska. The customary explanation of Japanese culture derives itfrom the Asiatic mainland.This mighty island world, Oceania, then, taken as an area togetherwith its seas and oceans, includes approximately as large a spaceas Asia. It is naturally divided into eastern and western parts,the line of cleavage corresponding roughly to the one hundred andthirtieth parallel. To the west of this lie the islands of Indonesia,together with Madagascar, the western half of which may be classedas belonging culturally to Africa. Oceania has been privileged to
4 PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM vol.79share the proximity of the great culture influences of the Asiaticpeninsulas of Arabia, India, and southeastern Asia, that point likeso many huge fingers in the direction of Indonesia and the islandsof the East Indian archipelago.Eastward of the one hundred and thirtieth parallel the smallerislands of Micronesia and Polynesia remained isolated in a stone-age culture level until the days of Captain Cook and other greatexplorers of the eighteenth century. Stirling and other recent ex-plorers found tribes of the interior of the Melanesian island ofNew Guinea similarly still unadvanced beyond the stone age.Micronesia and Polynesia are nowhere contiguous to the coast of acontinent or of a peninsula which might serve as a bridge for thetransmission of culture traits. The}^ are closely pushed together inseparate isolated groups.If we thus divide Oceania into an eastern Polynesia and Micro-nesia, and a western Indonesia, we have not included Melanesia andthe islands centering about the great island continent of New Guinea.From the geographic viewpoint these two groups are closely relatedto central Indonesia, but from the viewpoint of culture connectionsthe same is not entirely true. Indonesia and Micro-Polynesia aremainly inhabited by peoples who speak languages differing as todialects but related as to structure, i. e., the Malay or Austric lan-guage. This linguistic similarity, however, does not extend to theMelanesians or to the Negritos and Papuans of Australia and of NewGuinea and surrounding islands.Micronesian arts.?The Micronesians dwelling in island groupssuch as the Carolines, Gilbert, and Marshall Islands typify a cul-ture in which the knowledge of iron is lacking and useful stone isscarce. The arts of the Marshall Islanders are well shown by theweaving paraphernalia and excellent belts exhibited in the NationalMuseum. Shell and fiber neck ornaments, seed necklaces, woodwork,basketry, and ornamental bamboo boxes illustrate the type of artused in Micronesia.The specimens exhibited in the United States National Museumembrace shark's-teeth spears, coconut fiber armor, helmets of fishskin, drums, headdress, basketry, ornaments, coconut vessels, dip-pers, house models, lapboards, pillow, boat bailers, lime gourds, fish-hooks, awls, pump drill, daggers, dish, canoe prow, and oval maulsof coral rock and heavy wood for dressing the pandanus leaf usedin basketry.Distribution of Polynesian designs.?Polynesians apparently mayaccount for their occupancy of such widely separated islands as NewZealand, Hawaii, and Easter Island by their skill in navigation.They observed the flights of birds and set out to find the lands whencecame these birds. The cult of the frigate bird, which plays a great
ABT.30 DESIGN AREAS IF OCEANIA KEIEGER 5
role in the life of Polynesians and of Micronesians such as the GilbertIslanders, developed through a recognition of the essential aidrendered them by this bird when sailing the outrigger boat literallyfrom one end of the Pacific to the other. It is therefore not astonish-ing to find the frigate bird motive among the wonderful wood carv-ings of Polynesia. Notably excellent examples of this design maybe seen on carved wooden paddles from Hervey Island. These pad-dles are completely covered with an open-work filigree carving incor-porating the frigate bird motive.The American mainland was apparently outside the main courseof Polynesian travel, due, no doubt, to the lack of the flights of birdscoming from that course. There was nothing to prevent the dis-covery, occasional landing, even the settling of the American westcoast by Polynesians. They were competent to make journeys of amonth's duration, covering greater distances than that actually lyingbetween the coast of South America and the western outpost of Poly-nesia, namely, Easter Island. The outrigger boat, when equippedwith Micronesian navigators who knew the courses of the stars, andwho were provided with a crude sailing chart of bamboo sticksspaced on a bamboo frame in such a manner as to plot out the course,made it possible for Marshall Islanders to engage in deep sea voyag-ing far from the sight of land. Landings of Polynesian crews on con-tinental America doubtlessly were made from time to time, as evi-denced by the many items of culture similarity in tropical Americaand in Oceania. Similarities with Polynesia in the culture of cer-tain Northwest Pacific coast Indian tribes, such as the Haida andthe Tlingit, who excel in plastic sculpture, in wood carving andin stone working, have often been noted. One of these, infrequentlytaken into account, is the wide extent of Pacific coast area where theIndian tribes of diverse linguistic stocks possessed a knowledge ofwoodworking and of sculpturing. As this area extends all the wayfrom central California to northern Alaska it is apparent that thedesign area is an old one. Old Malayan influence, discussed later,might offer a tentative explanation. In explaining such extensivedesign areas as Polynesia and the Pacific coast of America it isnecessary to allow for elapse of great periods of time, perhaps, also,completely to disregard the possibility of tribes now occupying theregion as having established such culture contacts as at one timeundoubtedly existed.It has been conjectured that the so-called Old Malayan or EarlyIndonesian population elements of southeastern Asia arrived on thecoasts of the several Indonesian island archipelagos at an early date.Motivation for this early travel may have been desire for adven-ture, overpopulation, or simply desire for trade. At any rate they
6 PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM vol.79found such groups as the Philippine Islands, the great islands ofBorneo, Sumatra, Java, New Guinea, even the Malay Peninsula, inpossession of a dark-skinned Melanesian population. Pausing fora time along the Melanesian coasts, and occupying large areas inBorneo, Java, Sumatra, the Philippine Islands and other islands ofthe East Indies,, they wandered gradually eastward, occupyinguntimately the several island groups known to us as Polynesia.These islands in mid-Pacific they found unoccupied.These early immigrants possessed the rudiments of a wood carver'sart. Figurines representing the ancestral gods were carved fromhard wood ; representations of them were applied ornamentally toweapons and utensils. The use of paints was restricted to themedium of bark cloth which was used decoratively or as a bodilyprotective covering. The Polynesian artist was not master of sucha large field as a robe of bark cloth. He therefore divided the fieldinto zones when he applied his decorative designs in paint. He like-wise had not learned how to portray plant, animal, or human forms.In this he resembles other primitive artists from other lands who,although possessing a conventionalized style of decorative art, yetcan not break away from geometrical devices of a more unsophisti-cated nature. The realistic drawing of such tribal artists is crude.The Cheyenne and Sioux Indian drawings, for example, portray-ing horses, battle scenes, and hunting episodes, are similarly crudethough the conventional geometric art of the Plains Indians is pleas-ing to the M^estern eye and answers the requirements of many of theprinciples of design. The early undifferentiated " Old Malayan "art foundation blossomed out into what is clearly distinguishable assubareas of Polynesian design on such islands as New Zealand,Tahiti, Raratonga, Hawaii, the Marquesas, and Easter Island. Thisdifferentiation transpired before the time of the great European ex-plorers in the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries. Cul-ture contact was had only with the culturally impoverished Melane-sian, Papuan, and Negrito. In the Marquesas and in New Zealandthey learned to carve wooden and stone gods of heroic size accord-ing to a design developed by them in their isolation.The exceptional art patterns developed by the Maori and Mar-quesans must be attributed in part to Melanesian influences. TheMaori learned to free themselves from the conventional division ofthe decorative field which may still be observed in the tapa clothdecorative designs of Hawaii and Tahiti. In their tattooing thismay be noted only to a limited extent as the size of the skin sur-faces to be ornamented is naturally determined and divided. Thebanded panelings in triangular and quadrangular figures appearalong with realistically applied figures of birds, sea creatures, as star
AET.30 DESIGN" AEEAS IN OCEANIA KRIEGER 7fish, also centipedes and other figures. Tattooing is especially de-veloped among the Marquesans, who tattoo the torso, face, arms, andlegs, the whole according to a pattern charted in advance of theoperation and conventionally divided into zones.Weaving of baskets is peculiarly lacking in Polynesia, if we exceptthe small fans and baskets not woven in twilled or twined technicscapable of being used as decorative aids. Even pottery making isunknown to the Polynesians, as is generally the weaving of t?xtiles.Adjoining Melanesian peoples, notably the Fijians, make anunpainted pottery, but like the Polynesians, possess no basketry ortextiles.In discussing the distribution of decorative art designs in Poly-nesia one might refer to six distinct geographical design areas asshowing differences in art forms and modes of application of design.These are: Tonga-Samoa, New Zealand, Raratonga-Tubuai-Tahiti,Manihiki, the Marquesas, and the Hawaiian Islands.The Tonga-Samoan area is characterized by the use of straightlines, zigzags, and a derivative, namely, the dentated line. Thereare some delineations of animals and men. The Fortuna Islands,Tutuila and Rotuma, situated within the confines of Melanesia, andperhaps the small archipelagos of Tokelau and EUice, appear tobelong to this group so far as pertains to decorative design.In the New Zealand area curved lines with a pronounced ten-dency toward spirals show a clear relation with Fijian and Papuantypes of etched and painted designs.Stylistic art patterns in New Zealand, as in the Pacific Northwestcoast area, are fixed and standardized, the spiral perhaps being themost recurrent device in this subarea of artistic design of which theMaori are the chief representatives. Blanket robes of the Maorihave a broad border in colored patterns, principally black, instraight lines, zigzags, and triangles, while the field is plain white.This is more in harmony with other Polynesian designs. Rara-tonga-Tubuai-Tahiti has for its key designs a geometrical series ofzigzags, semicircular and dentated lines.In the Manihiki area sculptures in wood are for the most partunknown, but small plaques with incrustations of shell nacre ar-ranged in symmetrical form are found.The Marquesan a/ea designs are more conventional ; among themare found two types of human faces, strongly stylized. Examplesof this art are represented in the National Museum collection in theform of carved wooden stilts and a dagger with carved figurinesin high relief. This latter example of Marquesan design (U. S.N. M. No. 5345) was collected by Captain Aulick, U. S. Navy.In the Hawaiian area straight lines are decorated with nodes, orin zigzags or angles. Straight lines are parallel or cross them-
8 PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM vol.79
selves, forming lozenge-shaped designs reinforced with dots orcurved lines.In an area as large and as heterogeneous as is Polynesia there arebut few art elements common to the entire area. As one passes fromwest to east there is a developmental sequence in the plastic art;the hierogh^Dhics of the island of Paques are the last stage in thisprogressive series. The island of Niue presents a distinct phase,however simple. The islands of Poumotu and Gambier are littleknown from the point of ornamental designs.Passing to the Raratonga-Tahiti group, we find designs derivedfrom anthropomorphic models. Tahitian objects are rare, but theproducts of Raratongan art (Herve}') are well represented in museumcollections. All objects appear to have a religious significance.Ceremonial adzes with handles of carved palmwood (U. S. N. M. No.3719). collected by Wilkes in 1838, are probably the most exquisiteexamples of wood carving known among primitive peoples. Wrap-ping of sennit cord secures the stone blade. The rectangular patternof filigree openwork with which the handle is carved resembles lacework.Hawaiian decorative art.?Hrdlicka, in speaking incidentally of theHawaiians. says that they do not represent a pure ethnic group, butcarry in all probability the blood of the yellow-brown Indonesian,and even Melanesian and Negrito ancestry. This implies that thefundamental type is a yellow-broAvn or Mongoloid.There are exhibited in the National Museum collection examplesof the principal classes of objects produced by the Hawaiian for thematerial needs of social life. There are shown excellent examples ofstonework consisting of poi pounders, adz blades, net weights, gamestones, lamps, mirrors, divination stones, sling stones, grinding andpolishing stones, and pestles. Woodwork is represented by platters,kava bowls, bark beaters, and polished coconuts serving for drinkingcups. Gourds were enclosed in complicated network and used incarrying and serving food. Smaller gourds were used as cups andrattles. Sperm-whale teeth were worked into ivory hook-shape orna-ments, especially into pendants, to which were attached braided cordsof human hair and which were valued as fetishes. Several rattles, amusical bamboo, nose flutes, a whistle, and a time-beating stick ; orna-ments of feather, shell, and nuts ; pens for decorating tapa ; and flvbrushes used by chiefs, are shown. The pearl shell Avas employed inthe remarkable fishhooks made by the Hawaiians. Beads were alsomade of shell, which resemble those of the California Indians. TheHawaiians prepared a fine even cord of sennit and they were wonder-fully skillful in knotting the cords into a pleasing structure, as thecarriers for calabashes and bowls. These are sometimes veritable
ART. 30 DESIGN" AREAS IN OCEANIA KEIEGER 9works of art and form a variety of lace. Marionettes of carved woodand imitation leather capes are paraphernalia of the Hulu dance.The foundation of the well-known Hawaiian cape is a networkof olona, or " native hemp," and to it are attached by means of finethreads of the same material the feathers of native Hawaiian birds.The feathers overlap each other and lie flat, forming a smooth sur-face. The upper and lateral borders, w-hich are corded with astring of olona, are decorated with alternate tufts of red, black, andyellow feathers. The groundwork is yellow, ornamented with cres-cents of black and red feathers. In front are two crescents of red,one above the other, one-half of each crescent being on either margin,and they form the full crescents when the cape is closed in front.The inner surface is without lining and shows the olona networkand the quill ends of the feathers.The cord of the upper border is prolonged to serve as a fasteningat the throat. The yellow and black feathers are obtained fromthe Oo {AcTvJocercus nohilis). The yellow feathers are of greatvalue, as the bird is comparatively rare, very shy, and difficult tocapture. It has but a small tuft of these feathers upon eachshoulder. Its general plumage is of a glossy black, and from thebreast and back are obtained the black feathers. The Oo is takenalive by means of birdlime ; the yellow feathers are then plucked andthe bird released. The red feathers are from the body and neck ofthe Vestiana coccinea, the most abundant bird of these islands.A cape of this description was presented in 1841 to CommodoreW. C. Bolton by Kamehameha III, King of the Hawaiian Islands.Capes such as this were formerly the royal robes of state and wereconsidered the principal treasures of the Crown. Length, 17 inches;circumference, upper border, 16 inches, lower border, 66 inches.Accompanying this cape is a cylindrical bag of yellow feathers orleis to be worn on the head.Decorative art of the Maori of Neio Zealand.?Th^ Maori are inpossession of several distinctive styles and subjects in their decora-tive art. Noteworthy among these is the carving of the so-calledtik^^s^n ancestral deity figurine which plays an important part intheir cult and decorative art complex. Though a sacred image, theresemblance to the outline of a human foetus is remarkable. Bodytattooing is occasional among the Maori but they do a complete jobin facial tattoo. The employment by the Maori of incised or appliedsurface spirals in complex patterns is foreign to the rest of Polynesia.Spiraled designs are etched by them on the outer surfaces oftheir wooden bowls and trinket or dressing boxes. Their idols andsacred images are carved, however, in true Polynesian style. Thefigurines representing ancestral deities vary from island to island, be-
10 PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM vol.79traying thereby a long period of independent growth in design fromeach of the Polynesian siibareas of decorative design. The woodenmarionette figurine is a good example of such local variation, throughstill conforming to the conventional Polynesian style of wood carv-ing. Samoa and Tonga do not possess decorated wooden carvingsor decorative designs in the form of line plays. The Maori, like theMarquesans, but unlike other Polynesians, persist in ornamenting thecarved surfaces of their wooden implements of diverse descriptionwith curvilinear designs. This, as in European rococo art, consists inthe application of spirals and of counterspirals locked together.This device resembles that of the Dyaks of Borneo, who thus con-ventionally represent the interlocking tails of two dogs. Midway be-tween New Zealand and Borneo in the so-called Massim area appearsimilar hooked spirals. The design blossoms into the concentriccircle, so frequently applied as a frieze decoration when daubed overwith red paint in the gable end rafter projections appearing at thefront of Maori houses. The thick planks of the wooden ancestralpillars supporting these houses have similar decorated surfaces fillingin the spaces between the grotesque faces of an ancestral deity. Theseare deeply incised and inset with shell, the whole being painted overwith a red ocher.Meandered spirals appear incised on the surfaces of the musicalbull-roarer of the Australian-Papuan culture area, also on the paintedwood carvings of a semisacred nature. As mentioned previously, therichly carved boxes and the ancestral deity figurines are never paintedby the Maori, who thus conform to Polynesian rather than to Mela-nesian art impulses. The spiral design is used by the Maori princi-pally in wood engraving. The spirals arc double and are placed ininterlocking patterns, or volutes. Boxes of wood cut out of thesolid, tattooing, house gable decorations, and house foundationposts?these are some of the typical media on which are placed thespiral patterns in connection with diverging lines, spurs, nucleatedcores representing eye forms, and other facial features, or any featurebreaking up the continuous spiral, but blending into it. The designoverlaps into Melanesia as shown in the cut devices on shields fromeastern New Guinea.Carving in the round is a characteristic of the Maori woodworker,who resembles in this respect the artisans of many other areas, notablyMelanesians and Northwest Pacific coast Indians, each in a broadway contiguous to the area of the Polynesians. The art of woodcarving in the South Pacific is imitative in that the designs are sim-ilar to those used on more flexible materials such as the wovenfabrics in Tonga.In comparing Polynesian textiles, the contrast between the feath-ered mantle of the Hawaiians just described and a Maori man's cloak
ART. 30 DESIGN AEEAS IN OCEANIA KKIEGER Hexhibited in the National Museum is of interest. The material isfinely prepared Phormium tenax, or New Zealand flax, twinedwith great accuracy and neatness. The border is formed bydividing the warp into numerous strands intertwined with black-dyed flax and red strouding (bayeta), producing lozenge patterns ingreat variety. The edges of the cloak are bordered with a narrowgeometrical pattern of close twining which is continued from theborder of the garment. The upper edge is finished with a sewing ofred and black cord and is supplied with two tying strings. The robeis a fine example of the best textile work of the Maori. The materialhas aged to a fine brown color and has taken on a silky luster. Col-lected by Edwin Smith, United States Geological Survey, in 1883.Length, 38 to 45 inches; width, 52 inches; bottom border, 7 incheswide ; side borders, 1 inch wide.Tonga-zSamoan art area.?Samoans of to-day have been affected asto the nature of their clothing by the distance from the centers inwhich the whites live; also the inconvenience of the old Samoandress has caused them to adopt cotton materials for clothing. Themen and children wear a lava lava or loin cloth knotted about thewaist and reaching to the knees. The men usually wear a cottonundershirt and on official occasions a white coat.The women wear a loose wrapper or a skirt and loose sack, or theskirt may be replaced with a lava lava. At the siva siva, or cere-monial dance, and other purely Samoan ceremonial affairs, oldentypes of costumes and ornaments are seen, especially those of thewomen and the costume of the taupo, or village virgin.The Samoans are skilled in making mats, buckets, and fans frompandanus and palm leaf, these plants yielding excellent material forthe purpose. Mats are made of exquisite fineness and are valued asheirlooms. These mats are trimmed with red feathers of a parrot.Baskets are woven in checker designs in black and natural colors,and fans are constructed in beautiful forms and patterns. Thereare exhibited in the National Museum wooden dishes, clubs, spears,adzes, combs, fly brushes, ornaments, and a drum. A large kavabowl was presented to President Grover Cleveland by Malietoa, Kingof Samoa. The exhibit also consists of ceremonial dress, dance head-dress, ornaments, combs, pillows, paddles, spears, and fishing appli-ances.Breadfruit, bananas, taro, potatoes, and coconuts furnish theprincipal food supply, and fish are eaten. The only domesticatedanimal is the pig. The Samoans are robust and active, their war-like exercise with club and spear, and their constant practice withthe canoe paddle developing a fine physique. They are cleanly, anddelight in flowers and perfumes. The men excel in woodworking,
12 PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM vol.79in building elaborate houses, in making large canoes, and in carvingout bowls, dishes, clubs, and spears from the Samoan chestnut. Thewomen weave mats of the finest texture, and beat out bark cloth ofstrong fiber with corrugated clubs, decorating the fabric with nativedesigns in color.The Samoans are of the brown Polynesian race which at someearly period spread over the Pacific to numerous widely separatedislands and reached to within 1,800 miles of the South American Con-tinent, The Samoan Islands were visited by the Dutch navigatorRoggoveen in 1722, and named by Bougainville in 1768. Like theHawaiians, Samoans live in villages which are scattered along thecoasts of their tropical islands. They were formerly ruled by heredi-tary chiefs, but as the islands noAv belong to the United States theirgovernments are accordingly administered by naval officers.Tapa cloth, leaf girdles, nechlaces.?The making of tapa cloths isone of the oldest native industries of the Samoans, Fijians, Ha-waiians, and of other Pacific islanders. These cloths of beaten barkare now used mainly for decorative purposes during festivals andceremonies. They were originally used as lava lavas, a kind ofloin cloth worn by Polynesians; also as robes. They are still usedas objects of wearing apparel to a limited extent, although nativesfind the imported cotton and other European textiles more satis-factory.Tapa cloth is a primitive type of paper, although not fashionedfrom the pulp of the wood. It is rather made from the bast of aspecies of mulberry tree, which grows abundantly throughout Poly-nesia and which in past years was especially cultivated. When 3months old it is cut clown and its bark stripped from it. The barkis then tied together in bundles and weiglited down in fresh water,where it is allowed to soak for about a day. After this soaking thestrips are placed on a flat board and scraped with a mussel shell.After they are scraped clean they are beaten with sticks on a roundlog which causes them to spread out into wider strips. The root ofthe arrowroot, which resembles a plant bulb, is then boiled and theskin removed. It is then used as a sort of gum for sticking the differ-ent strips together. It is rubbed along the edge of one strip whichis placed upon the edge of the other and in this manner they arejoined, forming cloths of various dimensions.The cloths are then dyed and painted with patterns for whichnothing but native-made vegetable dyes are used. Wooden patternsare made, the white tapas are placed upon them, and with a cloththe dye is rubbed all over them. In this manner the pattern istransferred to the tapa cloths. In some cases the patterns and figures
AKT.30 DESIGN AREAS IN OCEANIA KRIEGEB 13are painted by hand on the cloths, the fruit of the pandanus tree,which makes an excellent paintbrush, being used for the purpose.The Samoan bark cloth, or tapa, is not so fine as that of Hawaiiand other parts of Polynesia. It is coarse and for the most partcrudely decorated. It is manufactured from the u'a, or paper mul-berry {Brousso7ietia papyrlfera), a plant propagated by suckersand cultivated sparingly.The bark of the slender sapling is removed and prepared bysoaking, peeling, and macerating. The strips are then beaten withthe square tapa mallet or beater into long strips. The holes andthin places are filled or thickened by strips attached by paste madefrom masoa, then the fabric is ready for painting.The patterns are placed on the tapa by blocks of two kinds. Onehas a raised design cut out of solid wood ; the other is composed ofa frame with the ribs and fibers of the pandanus and the coconutarranged in a pattern. Striping with brushes and freehand paint-ing are also practiced.The colors used are yellow from the fruits of the loa, red or blackfrom the sap of the hibiscus, bluish gray from the juice of the stemof the soa'a, and dark yellow or dark red when slaked lime is addedto the juice of the nonu, and brown when it is added to the juiceof togo or paui.The dry and bleached tapa is laid over the pattern block orframe, its edges weighted down with stones, the dry color sprinkledover it and rubbed with a bit of tapa so that the raised design aloneretains the color. This is repeated for each field of the design,sometimes a field being gone over with two colors to blend, andthen, the patterns having been outlined in colors, they are fixed withthe juice of the o'a.Tapa is still worn at times, especially by chiefs and taupos(village virgins), and is often seen in the villages remote from thetrading centers.Previous to the introduction of American and European trader'sgoods, such as calico and other cotton prints, the Samoans sewed to-gether an apron from ti leaves {Dracaena ter^ninalis) . The manhad a small apron about a foot square and the women had theirsmade from longer ti leaves, reaching from the waist down below theknees and made wide so as to form a girdle all around.Leaf girdles (titi) now appear only in the siva siva, and aremade from the colored varieties of the ti. The leaves are gatheredfresh, split lengthwise, the midrib removed, and the pieces strungin one or more rows on the midrib of a banana leaf. For a dancethey are considered most ornamental when made to shine with coco-
14 PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM roL. 79nut oil. The titi fatupona was a girdle which lasted for a week orlonger, and was the type worn commonly in earlier times.Necklaces of a permanent character are made from various seedsand shells, and are commonly used as gifts at parting. The seedsused generally are those of the lopa samoa {Leucaena glauca) , whichare brown, and those of the sanasana {Coix lachrymajohi) , lightbluish white. These are perforated and strung, either of one sortor of two or more sorts mixed in a definite pattern, and often mixedwith the shells of land snails, forming very pleasing necklaces. Arm-lets of small white shells were worn by the men above the elbow.Some pierced their ears for flowers. A long comb made from thestem of the coconut leaflet was a common ornament for the w^omen,and was worn in the hair behind the left ear. These combs aremuch inferior to the beautifully carved combs of whalebone used bythe Maori of New Zealand, which are very rare. The splendid ex-amples collected by Wilkes, now in the National Museum, are amongthe few extant specimens of this form of Polynesian carver's art.Mats.?The early Fijians and Samoans prized fine mats and con-sidered them their most valuable property to serve as a mediumof exchange. They were preserved with great care, some of thempassed through several generations, and as their age and historicinterest increased they were the more valued. Many of the oldest andbest mats had distinct names given them, and acquired great valueif they had been used as " top mat " at any great occasion, such as atthe marriage of some celebrated taupo (village virgin) or at apeacemaking on the conclusion of some war. Many of the mostvaluable mats are old and torn shreds of the original mats, but theyare eagerly sought after by the Samoans.The fine mats are made of the leaves of a species of pandanus(paono) leaf scraped as thin as writing paper and slit into stripsabout one-sixteenth of an inch wide. Fine mats are made by thewomen, and when completed are from two to three yards square.The}^ are straw or cream color, are fringed, and in some instancesornamented with borders of scarlet feathers. A small species ofparrot is kept in captivity for this purpose. These fine mats arethin and almost as flexible as a piece of calico. Few of the womenof to-day can make them, and many months or even years are some-times spent in making a single mat.Another kind of mat is the ie sina, a white shaggy mat wovenor plaited so as to be smooth on one side and shaggy on the other.When bleached white they are rather like a fleecy sheepskin. Theprojecting fibers may be as long as 6 inches. The shaggy matsoften were colored with red clay or a red earth mixed with coco-
'^i'.30 DESIGN AEEAS IN OCEANIA?KRIEGEE 15nut oil. The ie sina are very scarce, and the art of making themis almost lost, if not entirely so. There are villages which do nothave a single shaggy mat.Some of the fine mats are for costume purposes, others are inthe nature of house furnishings. They are used only by the chiefsof high rank, and then only on ceremonial occasions and in anofficial capacity.Tattooing.?^Among the dark-skinned races of Africa, Australia,and Melanesia, tattooing is replaced by the artificial productionof raised scar tissue on the body or face, forming designs in relief.This so-called cicatrization is a decorative technic not productive ofelaborate or pleasing decorative designs. Asiatic races, Indiantribes generally throughout America, and Oceanic peoples, however,understand thoroughly the tattooer's art which is universal amongthem. The word tatu is of Tahitian origin, its American equivalentmeaning " to mark." Among the peoples mentioned the process oftattooing was attended with ceremony, while among the Polynesiansthe fact that a boy is tattooed signifies he has entered the ranks ofthe men.Nowhere is tattooing more effectively applied from the stand-point of esthetic art than in New Zealand. The tattooed faces arewonderful examples of the artist's skill in the application of spiralsand of curved line etching. These lines are usually centripetal andcover the entire face, including the lower lip and nose. There are nostraight lines and the designs vary from individual to individual,but are symmetrical and conform to stylistic patterns. In Polynesiathe decorations appropriate to objects of material culture, such ashouses, are different from tattooed designs. Designs applied to clothor incised on bows of canoes are different again.In the Marquesas Islands, tattooing occurs in series of triangles ofsolid color on rectangular bases. These designs tattooed on the bodyand legs are said to be symbolic and to represent in part mythologicalevents. In part they are merely decorative, depicting animals, mainlythe turtle and crustaceans.According to Samoan legend, tattooing originated in Fiji, whereat first only the women were so decorated. In Samoa and in theMarquesas the men alone are tattooed. At the present time, owingto the influence of European and American culture, a native senseof propriety leads them to cover the tattooed parts of the body. Theabundance of trader's cotton goods is also a contributory factor. Thepractice is gradually discontinued as useless and expensive. Thereis no longer an incentive to bear the pain involved.66993?31 2
16 PEOCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM vol. 79In Polynesia a boy is ineligible for marriage until he becomestattooed. This, of course, before the introduction of western ideas.When application is made for the services of a professional tattooer,a present of a fine mat is made, the acceptance of which is sufficientto make the contract binding. A house is set apart for the scene ofthe operation. A number of young men are tattooed at the same timeand a number of tattooers are employed. Instruments used areshaped from human bone, the serrated edges of which resemble afine-toothed comb. The instruments are usually five in number andvary from one-eighth of an inch to an inch in length of operatingedge. They are securely bound to reed handles 6 inches in length.Tattooing instruments in the National Museum are mostly fromFiji. The American Indians, by way of contrast, used tattooingneedles of sharp flint points or of cactus spines ; latterly, steel needlessecured firmly in a leather binding.The points of the tattooing instrument are dipped into candlenutashes and water, and the instrument is then used to puncture the skinby tapping with a mallet. The rapidity with which the tattooerworks in following the pattern marks his skill. Patterns vary fromisland to island only in minor details which might be called coatsof arms to distinguish their people, and each generation had sometrifling variation.Tattooing extends from the waist down to the knee and covers thegreater part of the body, but is variegated here and there with neatregular stripes of the untattooed skin. The designs when welloiled appear as silken breeches and caused Behrens of Koggewein'sexpedition of 1772 to say : " They were clothed from the waist down-wards with fringes and a kind of silken stuff artistically wrought."A close inspection would have shown the narrator that the fringeswere bimches of ti leaves {Do^acaena terminalis) glistening with coco-nut oil, and the silken stuff was the tattooing just described.When all was ready for the operation the young man would throwhimself on the ground. A young woman, generally some relative ofthe youth being operated upon, sits cross-legged and holds the youngman's head in her lap. Three or four girls would hold his legs andsing to drown his groans as he writhed under the lacerations of theinstruments. Attendants were present to wii)e away the blood as itoozed from the skin. \Vhen about as much as one's hand was done,upward of an hour's work, the lad would rise and another would takehis place. Each one would have a turn about once a week, dependingupon the number in the partj^Payment was made to the tattooers with property consisting offine mats and native cloth, the value of which depended upon therank of the young chief being tattooed.
ART. 30 DESIGN AREAS IN OCEANIA KRIEGER 17Tattooing is an expensive operation for the one tattooed, thoughlor the operator the rewards for his skill are satisfactory. Food isfree to him during the three or four months consumed by the opera-tion. Then, too, the payments in hne mats, in tapa cloths, and otherconsiderations reached a respectable amount. If dissatisfied withthe payment offered as the work progressed, the professional tattooersimply delayed his work, as an unfinished tattoo was considered adisgrace. Friends always came to the rescue in such an emergency.Headdresses.?It is impossible to refer to ceremonial garments anddecorative wearing apparel without making some slight mention ofthe ceremony or artistic performance calling for artistic decorativedisplay. Dancing is one of the major methods of expression of Poly-nesian artistic abilities. Dancing exhibitions are there conducted withthe aid of song and the music of instruments. Such performances aredesigned merely for the entertainment of visitors. The object of thedance is to display native charm and agility. Formerly the Polyne-sian dance, no doubt, had a symbolical meaning, hinted at by thesurvival of the punctiliously ceremonial manner in which the simpledance movements are still carried out. The village taupo, or officialvillage mistress of entertainment, is the central figure in the cere-monial dance and is the leader of the concerted movements of thedancers. The dancing group consists of girls working as a ballet.The taupo has undergone a long period of training, and her attend-ants are rehearsed by her. The excellence of the taupo's dancingand of the ballet is one of the village boasts, and songs and verses ofpraise are written about it.The Polynesian dance is very formal. Sometimes three or fourhours are required for the toilet of the taupo. Her dress differsfrom that of her other attendants in one important particular?shewears the tuinga, or Samoan headdress. This headdress is a com-posite affair of human hair, nautilus shells, plumage, and a scaffoldof sticks. It is assembled piece by piece on the wearer's head, andis a source of constant pain to her because of its weight and the tiglit-ness with which it is bound onto the head. The foundation is astrip of cloth wound around the^head at the roots of the hair. Thestrip serves to draw the hair into a bunch at the crown and causesit to stand up its full length. Upon the base of real hair is tied awig of human hair set in a frame of cloth or fiber netting. Thenthe scaffolding of three sticks and a crossj^iece is tied in front andmade fast to the cloth covering above the forehead. This frame-work usually supports a decoration of small mirror disks. Greenand red feathers of the tiny parrakeet are attached to the framework,and the tuinga is completed by tying across the forehead a bandof several rows of the partition plates of the nautilus. With this
18 PROCEEDIISrGS OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM vol.79decoration goes a necklace of shells or of whale's teeth ground fineand sharp.House fiomisMngs.?The furnishings of a house are simple. A fewbundles of mats, a roll of tapa cloth, and a few household imple-ments and utensils constituted the furniture before the arrival ofthe Europeans. Now chairs, tables, camphor-wood boxes, and evenbeds are appearing in their houses. The furnishings are of twosorts : Those cut entirely from wood and those woven or plaited fromleaves or bast.The wooden articles include bowls, cups, tapa beaters, paddles,bamboo head rests, occasionally low wooden seats, and combs. Themost prized bowl is the tahoa, used for making kava. There are fewof these in any village and they usually belong to the chief's family,or even to the village. The better specimens take years to make andare beautifully shaped, round, smoothly polished, sometimes with apatina of fine color if in long service, and provided with a variablenumber of legs up to 16 or more. The bowl is made from a singlepiece of hard-grained heartwood of a large ifilele tree.Much less care is used in the manufacture of the umete or mixingbowl found in the cook house. It is a shallow oval bowl with ahandle at each end.Tapa beaters or mallets are made of any hardwood, ifilele and toabeing especially good for the purpose. They are square in cross sec-tion and have a rounded handle. Two surfaces are finely grooved,while two are smooth.Bamboo head rests consisting of a short length of bamboo with twoshort spreading legs at each end are being replaced with the morecomfortable pillow stuffed with kapok fiber.Combs of a peculiar pattern were made of hardwood such as theifilele and toa. Cups are made of coconut shell scraped thin andsometimes carved. Bottles of glass are now used, but coconut shellswith a small opening were used, as well as gourds and short lengthsof bamboo.Cotton mosquito nets have almost completely replaced the tapacanopies formerly draped over the hieds.Floor mats are used to cover up the floor of small pebbles. Theseare coarse mats plaited from the strips of pandanus leaves andpaono. The strips vary from 0.12 to 1.25 inches, seldom coarser, thefiner usually about one-quarter to one-half an inch in width. Themats are spread on the floor to sit upon, and in piles, the coarserbelow and the finer above, for a bed. They may be washed andusually are kept clean.Among the utensils most used are the coarser pack baskets madefrom the half of a coconut leaf split lengthwise. Food baskets are
ART. 30 DESIGN" AKEAS IN OCEANIA KRIEGEB 19made in the same way. The baskets and banana leaves are all thedining-room furniture required, although the natives are beginningto use imported plates and dishes.Fans are of various shapes and materials. The coarser fans arewoven from coconut leaves and are used to fan the spark to producea flame. The finer fans are used as heat or sun screens for the face.Polynesian stone structures and images.?Spirit houses (Fale-aitu)were erected in some of the districts to the deities, especially the wargods. These temples were built of the same materials and in thesame style as the houses of men, with nothing to distinguish themfrom the ordinary dwelling except that they always stood on plat-forms of stones varying in height and size with the respect felt forthe god. They were usually situated on the public green and sur-rounded by a low fence. Whatever emblems of the deity were in thepossession of the village were placed in the temple.Worship of a venerated ancestral chief appears in eastern Poly-nesia, in Easter Island and in Tahiti at its best. It is not so apparentin western Polynesia, in Samoa, and in Tonga. Thus, in Tahiti, theAhu, or stone-flagged burial quadrangle reserved for the chiefs cor-responds to the stone bases on which rest the stone images of EasterIsland. They also correspond to the bases on which elsewhere inPolynesia are erected the huts where are preserved the small woodenidols.In Easter Island the great stone figurines with stone hats arefound even on the slopes of the mountains. Elsewhere in Polynesia,in Hawaii, New Zealand, the Marquesas, Hervey Island, even on theborders of Melanesia in Nukumanu, all figurines representing ances-tral deities are carved from hardwood. In Easter Island, due to thescarcity of hardwood, the figures of ancestral deities are carved fromthe tufaceous lava, except for the smaller statuettes of from 1 to 2 feetin length, which are carved from hardwood and are very rare. Char-acteristic of these smaller figurines is the curved nose, protrudingribs, breastbone in relief, abdomen concave, and thin legs and arms.The hard lavas of Hawaii and of other Polynesian islands and con-versely the quantities of hardwood there obtainable led to a distinctdevelopment in wood carving in the round.The Easter Island images are the most interesting of archeologicalmonuments. There are over 600 of them on this island. Formerlythey stood in groups of from 6 to 12 on platforms of hewn stone fac-ing the sea, but in later years they have been thrown down during thecivil strife among the natives. Most of them are to be found onhillsides at the eastern end of the island. They were hewn out ofvolcanic tufa in the crater of an extinct volcano and transported overits sides, sometimes 3 or 4 miles, to their destination. The island is
20 PKOCEEDI]SrGS OP THE NATIONAL MUSEUM vol. 79almost treeless, and the wonder is how savages could remove objectsso fragile as these, weighing from 3 to 30 tons each, over ground sorugged. There are now 400 people living on the island and they areof pure Polynesian stock. They know nothing whatever of the erec-tion of these images and it is quite evident that they are the descend-ants of a later immigration. The images exhibited in the NationalMuseum, together with many other objects of ethnological interest,were procured during a 12-day visit to the island in 1886 by theU. S. S. Mohican, under Commander B. F, Day, U. S. Navy. (Theseimages are described and illustrated by Paymaster W. J. Thompson,U. S. Navy, in the report of the U. S. National Museum for 1888-89.)Artistic ability of the Fijians.?The skill and artistic ability of theFijians is shown by type objects exhibited in the National Museum.The exhibit consists of a decorated bark cloth, baskets with pleasingpatterns, women's girdles showing remarkable textile work, fans,rolls of coconut fiber cord (sennit) ; carved wood images, clubs,bowls, food hangers, etc.; masks; and ceremonial fly brushes. Thespecimens are from the exploring expedition of 1838-1843 under theleadership of Lieutenant Wilkes, U. S. Navy.The Fiji Islanders have quite fully taken advantage of their ma-terial environment and are especially noted for their skill in workingwood, from which they make boats, houses, weapons, and a greatvariety of dishes, headrests, and domestic utensils, which show anappreciation of form and decoration. The exhibit contains carveddishes, pillows, forks, spatulas, coconut-shell cups, and pottery ofdifferent shapes, glazed with resin.In Fiji, painting over of food bowls, kava bowls, pottery, clubs,and other objects is unknown, but the bark-cloth decoration ofspaces filled in with figures of black paint resemble the cloth of thePolynesians. It is well known *hat culturally the Fiji Islanders areclosely related to the Tonga and Samoa Islanders. A Melanesiangroup, the Tami Islanders, are also divergent from ordinary Mela-nesian practice in that they decorate with carving even the outer sur-faces of their wooden bowls and even of their sailing boats. Theseboats, carrying on commerce with the Siassi Islanders, could readilyhave absorbed Polynesian decorative ideas so prevalent along thecoastal areas of Melanesia. Ordinarily the Melanesians are peopleof the forested interior or hinterland.Fiji, which lies on the margin of Polynesia, possessed a greaternumber and more forms of carved wooden clubs of war and spearsthan any of the Polynesian islands. The clubs exhibited in theNational Museum from Fiji are more massive than those of the darkpeoples to the East. The material is usually Polynesian ironwood,which is hard and durable and very difficult to work with primitivetools of stone and shell.
AR'J^-30 DESIGN- AREAS IN OCEANIA KRIEGER 21The war spears of the Fiji IsLander are made from a single treetrunk under extraordinary difficulties for the worker. They areornamented with braided coconut fiber cord and carved. One va-riety has four radiating points lashed to the shaft. The KingsmillIslander fashions shark-tooth spears and daggers. These weaponsare good examples of the skill of these islanders in drilling woodand shark's teeth. Some of the weapons resemble swords. Armorof knotted coconut fiber was used and a helmet of spring fish skin.Ornaments of the Fijians show an extensive use of shell and muchskill in working them into form. The necklaces and other orna-ments worked from whale-tooth ivory are remarkable examplesof patient industry.In contrasting the carvings in the round from Melanesia and fromPolynesia, one notes at once that the former are painted whilePolynesian figurines of hardwood are always unpainted. Further-more, it is noted that the Melanesian figurines are carved from lightwood. There are many accompanying differences in structure anddesign, also in function.Melanesian art.?In the islands of Melanesia north and east ofAustralia we find examples of cultural diffusion from two radicallydistinct ethnic elements?the dark-skinned, kinky-haired Melane-sians and the wavy-haired, brown-skinned, old Polynesians, whowere anciently closely linked with the straight-haired, brown-skinnedold Malayans. Immigrants from Malaysia passed through Mela-nesia on their way to settle in those islands now known as Polynesia.These old Malayan immigrants absorbed Melanesian decorativemotivation and applied designs after Melanesian patterns to theirsculptures in wood, but also distributed early Malayan design pat-terns along the coasts of Melanesia, in those islands where theysojourned. This intermixture with Malayan designs helps to setMelanesian designs apart as distinct from Australian-Papuan deco-rative designs. To be sure, the old Melanesian art survived, andit is sufficiently distinctive in its elementary manifestations tocharacterize the entire Melanesian art area as separate from Indone-sian or Malayan art areas.Melanesia is characterized through the growth of population unitsmore extensive than those of Papua or of Australia, where simplehunters and gatherers lived their nomadic existence. Better housesand a more close-knit social organization grew along with handi-crafts and decorative arts. Wood carving in the round served torepresent honored and venerated or feared gods and ancestors.These figurines were not painted; at the most, one provided themwith decorative textile covering in red colors. This color was con-sidered sacred, although yellow was also used. The nonpainting ofsacred ancestral figurines extended as far as Indonesia and Micro-
22 PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM vol.79
nesia, along the border of the Melanesion-Papuan land masses,such as Kaniet in the west and Sikaiana and Loaniiia in the east.Tattooing, for example, was not taken up by the people of darkskins, who used instead an abundance of paint, which, in turn, wasnot used by the lighter-skinned Indonesians who tattooed themselves.The coasts of all Melanesian islands, inclusive of New Guinea, havebecome Malayan in culture and decorative art. The painting of barkcloth, which appears to best advantage in Polynesia, occurs butseldom in Indonesian and Micronesian art, as in Celebes, for exam-ple, where painted bark cloth substitutes for woven rectangularmatting.The Polynesians fashioned their hardwood gods in artistic mannerand saw no need to paint them, while the Melanesians fashionedtheir gods of softer woods in sketchy manner and painted them withgaudy colors. These gods served them only for the festival period.Throughout entire Melanesia there is a riot of color painting, ex-cepting such wooden vessels as are fashioned on the AdmiraltyIslands, which are not painted.The carved and tied objects of New Ireland, designed for the cultof the dead, namely the large helmeted heads with small body andyet smaller legs, are similar to the sculptured figurines of Raratongaand New Zealand. In all these figures the painting of the face issimilar. This is replaced by the Maori with tattooing. The Ulifigures of New Zealand (dead cult) show breasts and phallus?a sortof a fertility fetish similar to that of India. The Uli figure is alsosomewhat similar to the New Guinea ancestral figurines from theSepik River tribes, and even resembles the wooden idols of the Maoriand of the ancient Easter Islanders, apparent in the rib structurerevealed on the New Guinea and Easter Island figures. Papuan in-fluence may be seen in the ray-like appendages on the body sculpturesof idols from the Tugeri of the south coast of New Guinea, also onthe plastic puppets which are occasionally provided with woodenmasks. These wooden figurines are found also in the New Hebrides,in New Guinea, in the Admiralty and Solomon Islands. The Solo-mon Island puppets have black heads inset with mother of pearl andthe Sepik River type is like the bill of a bird. Squatting figures,strangely reminiscent of the Sepik type and of those of the island ofBali, also occur.The bird motive in Melanesian religious art design goes back totheir mythology and is similar to Indian religious art. Thus thebird motive is present not only in figurines but in shield decorationand in symbolism from New Guinea, particularly the ancestralimages with bird beak and red paint, and stylized incised border de-signs, otherwise apparently foreign to the Australian-Papuan andthe purely Polynesian art motivation. One finds it in west New
ABT.30 DESIGN AREAS IN OCEANIA KRIEGER 23Guinea, where the Melanesian-Papuan element meets with the Indo-nesian art motivation especially characterized in the squatting fig-ures used as burial vaults, again on the neck rests, wooden carveddrums, shields, spears, and bamboo lime containers of the north andsouth coasts. These display in part the bordered incised designs,in part the faces and figures of men and animals in abundance ofdecorative variation, all this carving in the round and etching on
, wood being the work of practically naked cannibals. In the Sepikfigurines of carved wood the nose becomes a beak extending to thenavel as an ornamental embellishment. This may be due to birdmythology and to nose piercing which distorts the septum of the nosein real life in a supposedly ornamental manner. Ornamental de-signs of a crocodile head from the Sepik is pleasing and realistic, notgrotesque as are the above mentioned. In the south of New Guineathe Tugeri, also the tribes on the Gulf of Papua, all possess thisability of pleasing animal sculpture.In the east of the island, in the Massim region, appears Indo-nesian art decoration. This is seen also in the Solomons, wheredecorated bamboo lime boxes similar to those from Timor in highlyornamental patterns appear, along with dancing boards, black bowlswith mother of pearl inlay and horseshoe-shape patterns.Aboriginal Avstralian design.?^When separated from their tra-ditional methods of executing art designs, most primitive peoplesmake a poor showing. A conventionalized frigate bird, spiral, or awater buffalo volute may be practically mathematically perfect whenit leaves the hand of the Polynesian or Malayan artist, but actualpictures of the frigate bird or of the water buffalo could not bedrawn by either of the two. Apparently we must go back to the lesssophisticated Magdalenian of the old stone age, or the bushman, oreven the lowly Australian aborigine, for realism in pictographic art.Smooth surfaces of rock bowlders and cliffs are sometimes coveredwith paintings of hunting scenes, human faces, corroboree scenes, andof animal life. Melanesians are also skillful in pictographic art. Thework of Australian and of Melanesian, also of African bushmenartists, like that of the Eskimo, is in silhouette and lacks perspective.Australia, larger than continental United States and borderingIndonesia on the south, shows but little differentiation in art designs,and these but of a low grade, on a par with .those of the SouthAfrican bushmen and kindred tribes. Museum collections represent-ing the tribal art characteristic of north, south, and west Australia,include totemic designs on incised stone, bone, and wood. Theirrepresentations in sand pictures are considered superior to theirincised work on stone and wood. Ornaments of fur and feathers arecommon; paint designs are associated with incised shell and othermedia. In art, as in several other phases of primitive life, Australian
24 PEOCEEDINGS OP THE NATIONAL MUSEUM vol.79
aboriginal art is inferior to that of other peoples who have a similarly-developed totemic system.The Australians are one of the most primitive of peoples, and theirexhibit at the National Museum consists of spear hurlers, boomer-angs, clubs, stone axes, shields, an ornamented fur robe, a nettedbag, baskets, a message stick, and a pair of shoes which are thoughtto render the wearer invisible. Their boomerangs, churingas, andmessage sticks have symmetrically incised or painted designs.Isolated as are the great island masses of New Guinea and Aus-tralia, we find, as expected, that the decorative motives and thestyle of their application are distinctive and extremely stylized.A further causative factor in emphasizing the isolation of their artimpulses is the racial integrity combined with linguistic forces pe-culiar to the area. The patterns are applied to basketry and towood through painted designs. Another form is the combined in-cised and painted design so frequently found on Melanesian weaponsof offense and defense. Sand paintings of a ceremonial nature arenot nearly so pleasing as are those of the Hopi of southwesternUnited States; they are rather in form of a maze such as is wellknown to our Apache artist when in a ceremonial mood.Painting with carbon or charcoal or colored clay is also char-acteristic principally in red and yellow earths. The body is thuspainted with stripes; line drawings, and fiat surfaces forminggeometrical figures. Even the rocks are thus painted, as are objectsof diverse description. The narrow oblong wooden shield and thewooden troughlike bowls are so painted, the latter being longitudi-nally corrugated and painted over with red ochre. Further orna-mentation is in the form of white and black bands. Weapons, asshields, spears, and spear-throwers, have zigzag line ornamentationrepresenting snakes. Transverse line, angle, and flat surface de-signs are varied, and on the curved wooden boomerangs are wavyV-shape patterns in transverse order.In North Australia basketry ornamentation occasionally takes on arealistic spirit in the form of painted dancer or warrior figures.Peoples having a higher development of basketry technology weavetheir decorative designs in the body walls of the basket, so that bothin the primitive design itself and in the technical deficiencies ofbasketry, for instance, may one see the low stage of Australian cul-ture. To be sure many peoples, as our own Plains Indians and theMalayan peoples of Java and the Philippines, have a highly devel-oped technical achievement?^the one in quill work and the other inbasketry?but a corresponding lack of development of pictographicor painting art. It is impossible to establish from observation theart sequence of peoples, whether one observes the Papuans and the
AET.30 DESIGN AEEAS IN OCEANIA KBIEGER 25Australians, among whom the art of painting is developed but plasticefforts are crude or entirely lacking, or whether one considers Malaygroups among whom the weaver's art and plastic efforts generallyreach a high stage but who can not paint. On the basis of such com-parisons it is impossible to determine which art is the older. It israther true that they are mutually exclusive in principle. We needbut refer to the crude pictographic efforts of Polynesia, where a cor-responding pictographic art?that of tattooing?is highly developed.The modeling of human or animal figures is almost absent in Aus-tralia, while the churingas of stone are so carved in the round as tobe work of pleasing artistic merit. These highly conventionalizeddevices, representative of their god or totem, are intimately associ-ated with mythological religious lore and represent imaginary per-sonalities showing a well-understood conventional art. Churingasare usually oval or flat pieces of stone or wood and are provided withincised and painted decorative designs. It is said that the peculiarlengthwise corrugations are first cut into the surfaces of a woodchuringa or shield piece to better hold the applied red ochre paint.Patterns are mostly wavy lines or broken circles and spirals usuallyin connected series. Originally these figures, like conventionalizeddevices on California Indian basketry, had a symbolical meaning andwere not to be considered as purely decorative. Concentric circlesare designated as rest places, while diverging lines are trails takingon forms of the maze.Among the Australians, who are hunters primarily, animal soulsmust either be appeased or intimidated. Thus arise scenic art por-traying the methods whereby this is effected in a conventional man-ner. From another angle this highly stylized art might be viewedas a form of pictographic writing in the form of a primitive map orplat as viewed from above. An opossum churinga, for instance, onwhich incised and painted lines appear, represent, as mentioned,trails and hiding places, while star forms represent trees about whichthe game animal moves. The whole thus appears as a hunter'scharm accessory.At times a wavy line appears to represent a trail, again a snake,a grub or worm, a vine, however the technical ability to realisticallyportray is lacking. When a useful article, as a churinga of a shield,has etched or painted devices not much more intelligible thanchildish efforts it must not be understood that they are thereforemeaningless. The primitive artist feels that decoration enhancesthe value and effectiveness of the object. The dance, the battle, andthe hunt are primary activities in the life of the primitive Austra-lian, but nowhere do the Australians approach the excellent drawingsof the bushmen of South Africa.
26 PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIOISTAL MUSEUM vol. 79Papua and Neio Guinea.?The desire for ornament is very markedamonir tlie dark-skinned islanders of Papua and Melanesia. Thespecimens exhibited in the National Museum from New Guinea con-sist of costumes of fiber, arm and neck ornaments of feathers, shells,teeth, weapons, basketry, etc. ; headdress, combs ; carved wood spatu-las, decorated gourd and bamboo vessels, etc. There are also shownwood carvings from the Solomon Islands. The recent explorationsof Stirling in the interior of Dutch New Guinea, and of Brandes inBritish New Guinea and the territory of Papua in the east, havegiven the Museum a most extensive and representative Papuan andNegrito collection, while the great collections from Malaysia obtainedby W. L, Abbott can perhaps never be duplicated.It appears that in Oceania geometrical designs are almost alwaystraceable to some anthropomorphic or zoomorphic or phyllomorphicmotive more or less conventionalized. Thus in the bark belts col-lected by Abbott and Brandes the human face has been applied as adecorative pattern. Eye forms are occasionally plainly recogniz-able. On combs and wooden clubs are etched the curved beak and eyeof the frigate bird. This design is conventionally modified intomeandered interlocking spirals with the eye placed at each point ofintersection. The beak alone is represented occasionally in Mel-anesian art as scrolled arabesques.The Papuan tribes excel the Australians in the plastic modelingof human and animal forms in a peculiar manner. A framework isconstructed, covered with bark and painted white. Masks areso constructed and are rather terrible examples of realism in theform of masks and headdresses of heroic size. Such huge masks aresupported by attendants holding bamboo staves, and have thereforelittle ornamental and art value. Painted lines and angles and ahost of smaller devices in color fill in the facial planes, which aredone in unconventional manner or free style. In New Guinea themore realistic efforts, which, as mentioned, are quite lacking inAustralia, occur in typical Papuan painted form. The origin ofthis art must lie in the proximity of the Sulka and other coastalPapuan tribes in contact with old Malayan art.Negntos and Papuans of central Dutch Neio Guinea.?The recentStirling-Smithsonian expedition to the highlands of central DutchNew Guinea, under the leadership of Matthew W. Stirling, hasachieved some striking and important results. Negrito groups ofthe Nassau Mountains, hitherto unvisited by white men, and Papuansof the central lake plain, which lies between the Nassau Mountainson the south and the Van Rees Mountains on the north, are nowmade known to science for the first time.
ART. 30 DESIGN AKEAS IN OCEANIA KRIEGER 27Stirling found the Negrito, a negrillo pygmy people, in possessionof a sedentary, comparatively high culture based on agriculture, onthe one hand far outranking neighboring Papuan peoples whileoffering in almost every respect a marked contrast culturally to thephysically related groups of Malaysia. Characteristic of the Negri-to or negrillo pygmies throughout the range of their distribution,notably in the interior of the Malay Peninsula, in the Philippines,and in the Andaman Islands, is their isolated habitat, which isusually a mountainous more or less inaccessible interior plateauregion where they are surrounded entirely by stronger and morenumerous lowland peoples. Characteristic of the Negrito of centralNew Guinea is the diminutive stature, which in males is less than152 centimeters, in females 145 centimeters, and the dark skin colorand frizzy black hair. Stirling found several individual Negritosof the Nassau Mountains with hair of a reddish tinge. The Negritosof the Upper Rouffaer River valley were found in possession ofa well-developed economic system based on agriculture, but withno governmental organization extending beyond the isolated villages.It becomes necessary, as a result of the discoveries of the expedition,to enlarge our conception regarding the commonly attributed culturalcharacteristics of the Negrito.The pygmy Negrito of the Nassau Mountains lives in a regioninaccessible alike to hostile Papuan and to the white race. Therethey have developed a culture unique to science, differing in manyrespects from that of the Papuans and from Negrito tribes livingelsewhere. Stirling found wide variations in the language spokenby different pygmy Negrito groups. Just what this variation sig-nifies will be indicated after further study. Whether all of theobserved linguistic differences will prove to be variants of existingPapuan stock languages, presenting a condition similar to that pre-vailing in the Philippine Islands, where Negrito spoken languagehas been revealed as variant of the Malayan stock language, orwhether there may be different languages existing among the NewGuinea Negritos themselves will undoubtedly be established afterMr. Stirling has made a thorough study of the linguistic dataobtained.Animistic tendencies were noted in the observation that the Negritobelieves spirits of dead relatives to inhabit various natural objects,such as stones and water, also different kinds of animals. Anotherobservation of considerable interest is that the Papuan groups donot bury their dead, but instead leave the bodies exposed near thevillages, producing a condition which does not tend to enhance thepleasure of sojourning in the vicinity. A gruesome ornamental
28 PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM vol. 79pendant worn by Papuans suspended from the girdle consists of tliemandible (lower jawbone) of some departed ancestor or other rela-tive snatched from the putrefying body. After the flesh has beenscraped away a fabric band is woven around the central part of themandible and a suspension loop attached. Two of these amuleticpendants from the Kirakai River are included in the collectionbrought back by the expedition. Negritos bury their dead accordingto a ritual, and so offer another testimony of the superiority of theirculture over that of the Papuan.It is in his material culture and decorative art designs that thepeculiar development of the Negrito is best demonstrated. Housesare erected of rough-hewn wooden slabs set vertically and coveredover with grass and palm-leaf thatch. The flooring of rough-hewnboards is placed several inches above the ground. This is probablya culture survival, as there appears to be no need for this custom,either as a protective or sanitary measure, in the salubrious uplandsof the Nassau Mountains. Decorative art is manifest principally insurface patterns on weapons.Clearings are perched on precarious slopes of the steep mountainsides. Various crops are produced. A variety of white sweetpotato,sago, taro roots, sugarcane, bananas, tobacco, and lemons are stapleproducts. The use of potatoes and of starchy food in general ispreponderant in the diet of the Negrito and causes an unusual dis-tension of the stomach and abdominal region. An oblong woodenfood dish is cut out of the solid trunk of a certain soft-texturedtree. These food dishes are two or more feet in length and are usedsomewhat as mixing bowls or as mealing stones, no stone mortar beingemployed.Spoons, awls, dirks, weaving and plaiting implements, and variousother objects are fashioned into implements for daily domestic usefrom leg and wing bones of birds, chiefly from the tibiae of thecassowary, a tall and somewhat vicious bird inhabiting all sections ofthe island. By far the greater use of bone is in the fashioning ofornamental objects, charms, and trophies. Here, again, there is anobservable distinction between the primitive technology of the Ne-grito and the Papuan. The marked tendency of the Negrito is inthe direction of simplicity of construction or meagerness of applica-tion and is linked with excellent technique and artistic merit inornamental designs introduced. The Papuan displays a lavish useof materials combined with a coarseness of technique and a quiteelementary art impulse and execution of design.A food cooker like that of the Polynesians is used by the Negrito.A depression is made in the ground and is lined with stones. Inthis cavity are placed food ingredients, such as meat, potatoes, or
~ AHT. 30 DESIGN AREAS IN OCEANIA KRIEGER 29taro. Hot cooking stones wrapped in leaves are then placed on thefood and the whole is covered over with ashes and earth. Exclusionof air serves to continue the cooking process for some time. Thusis created a primitive tireless cooker.There is scarcity of domestic implements but a great variety ofwoven cord fabrics, applied chiefly to the making of openwork weavemeshed carrying, storage, and trophy bags. Although very few andcrude baskets are made by the Negrito, basketry materials andtechnique are applied as in the making of body armor, in ornamentalbraided bands resembling the continuous braided bands of basketrymaterials so much in vogue among the peoples of Malaysia, in thebraided thong woven as wristlets, in headbands and ornamentalwristlets of twill weave, and in many other objects betraying a skillthat could easily have been applied to the making of baskets as well.Pottery making, like the use of metals, is unknown to Papuansand pygmy Negritos alike.As no cradle board is employed, carrying bags of woven cordfabric are used. Such a carrying bag is often quite large. It iswoven with a 2-ply cord fabric in simple openwork meshed designand may be used to carry everything from firewood, meat, potatoes,and other supplies, along with a baby unceremoniously thrust into itsimprovised cradle, from which it is removed without protest on thereturn of the mother from the clearing.Many of the woven carrying bags have an ornamental figureddesign covering one side effected through the introduction of peeledgrommets from the yellow stems of the orchid. Some of these arestained a dull red, producing with the natural color of the fabricmaterial designs in three colors. The designs introduced formgeometric rectangular figures and are produced by intertwining theintroduced peeled orchid strips with the 2-ply fabric of which thebag is made. Peeled strips of yellow orchid stems are similarlyintroduced as applique designs on charm and trophy bags, also ongirdles and other objects of personal adornment. Cut sections ofstems of orchid are mounted on fabric cord as beaded necklaces.The carrying bag is worn as a headdress when not in use for otherpurposes, a portion of it being allowed to drop like a veil at the sideof the head or down the back. This draping lends a peculiar appear-ance to the wearer, giving the Negrito the illusory appearance ofhaving a Semitic cast of facial and head features. When in use as acarrier, a long band or tump line, with which it is provided, is passedaround and over the forehead.Another variety of meshed bag, the so-called trophy bag, is wornby men only. It is carried under the armpit at one side of the bodyand is supported over the opposite shoulder. Attached to this bag
30 PKOCEEDIN"GS OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM vol, 79
are ornamental appendages of boar's tusks, each tusk representinga trophy of the hunt. The Negrito uses no spear but bags his gamewith the aid of his dogs and his bow and arrows only. Tliere isnothing remarkable about the bow. It is formed from the blackpalmwood, is 5 or 6 feet in length and is plain, the ensemble ofbow and bamboo arrow resembling for the most part the bow andarrow used by the Tinguian of Luzon.One peculiarit}^ in the construction of the Negrito hunting ortrophy bags is in the attachment of a neatly carved and highlypolished "swagger stick" of bone cut from a tibia of the cassowary.It is secured by a wooden pivot, around which the " stick " is almostconstantly twirled by the Negrito hunter when he is not otherwiseoccupied. A small wooden pillow 6 or 8 inches long and 3 or 4inches wide, but less than one-half inch in thickness, is always car-ried in the trophy bag.A third type of woven fabric bag is the smaller charm or amuletbag of similar weave and ornamented profusely with peeled orchidbark. The charm bag represents, along with the woven body armor,some of the finest products of the skill of the Negrito in the loomlesshandicrafts. It is a small pouch 3 or 4 inches long, scarcely largeenough to carry a tooth, a beautifully colored seed, or some othersimilar amulet. The compact weave is dissimilar to that of the largeopen-mesh bags. It is a combination of a series of braided ribs, eachhaving two or three elements and each made up of 2-ply cord. Thesebraided ribs are passed diagonally from one side of the bag to theother and have no connection with each other except at the center ofthe bag, which on completion becomes the bottom, and at each endwhere the braided rib terminates by having each one of its constituentelements become an element in the next braided rib. By arrangingthe braided ribs about a center near each end of the bag, and havingthe ribs terminated there, the bag assumes an oblong rectangularoutline. A novel feature is introduced at this stage in the makingof the charm bag. On the surface which is to become the outer one,a continuous strip of peeled bark of the orchid is twined longitudi-nally around each intersecting braided rib with which it forms anX-shape angle firmly knitting the diffen^nt ribs together and at thesame time supplying a beautiful ornamental pattern. So far as isknown this weave is new to science. A braided rib representing theelements taken from four of the braided ribs of the bag thus contin-ued forms an extension several inches in length. This is designedfor a cover, as each charm bag represented in the collection has anextension cord just long enough to be passed enough times around thebag to completely inclose it if the process is begun at one end andcontinued to the opposite end of the bag.
ABT.30 DESIGN AEEAS IN OCEANIA KRIEGER 31The clothing of the pygmy Negrito is scanty. Women wear askirt girdle of braided cord with cord fringes 3 to C inches in length,or of plaited pandanus palm leaves. The girdle worn by the Negritomen is even more scanty but is more picturesque. Here, again, areused the grommets of peeled bark of the orchid as an ornamental sur-face design, strands of which are intertwined with the other fabricelements, making up that portion of the girdle 6 to 10 inches inlength fitted to the small of the back, where it is passed back andforth until the desired thickness is obtained. As the girdle braidis of the thickness of one-third inch 15 to 25 thicknesses are usedto form the desired thickness for the back pad or bustle, as one maychoose to call it. Looped about this pad at either end is a coarsedouble strand of fabric cord passing around the body where oneend is attached to a small braided basketry band about 2 centimeters
^vide and of large enough a diameter to be fitted over a slender, tap-ered gourd used as a penis cap. The other end of the gourd girdle,which is passed about the body from the opposite side, terminatesin a knot. This knot is slipped under the basketry band and theband is pushed downward on the expanding side walls of the gourduntil it is firmly fixed. This completes the men's costume, exceptfor the headdress and body armor.The Papuan male costume includes two elements worthy of note.These are the taillike ornaments of cassowary feathers or ofpandanus palm leaves and the sharp-pointed nose ornaments ofbone which are passed through the nostril wings both vertically andhorizontall3^ The tailiike ornament affected by the Papuan con-sists of a number of pandanus leaves or of the tail feathers of thecassowary attached to the end of a short curved stick of wood slitopen at one end for insertion of the plume and curved at the otherend for insertion in the girdle. Mr. Stirling states that the Papuanfeels himself quite undressed when he is without his tail ornamentand that he would take to the bush immediately after having partedwith this so necessary article of personal adornment to members ofthe expedition for a consideration, to the great amusement of hisfellows.Among the various kinds of headbands and headdresses in useamong the Negritos and Papuans is a simple twill weave, delicatelyplaited headband of rattan, ranging in width from 1 to 2 inches.Another headdress worn by the Negritos is one of coiled cassowaryfeathers attached to a woven basketry frame of rattan splints.Still another consists of a woven band of basketry material withinset of shell, plumed pompons of bird of paradise feathers, andothers of feathers resembling those of the Carib Indians of Vene-66993?31 3
32 PL'OCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM tol. 79
zueia and Guiana. Sometimes a bit of crimson color is obtained byaddition of tail coverts of small birds of brilliant hue.Wristlets of coarse braided rattan, which are also used as firethongs, or of more finely woven braided bands of fine basketrymaterial, and others, stained to form geometric designs, completethe costume ; though many additional touches are lent by ornamentalnecklaces of variously colored seeds, shell, and beads from cutsection of orchid stems.A characteristic object from the Papuans of the Kirakai and mid-Kouffaer Kivers is a trophy bag carried by the Papuans m much thesame manner as the Negrito carries his trophy bag, to which, how-ever, it is far inferior. This trophy bag seems to have a certainvalue as a charm and the essential ornamental features, chieflypendants of the crudest kind, occur also as pendants on amuleticnecklaces worn by Papuan women of the central plain. The pen-dants are trophies of the hunt, as cassowary bird heads, beaks ofhornbill, feet of bird of paradise, leg bones of various birds, pigtails, and snake tails. All of these are attached at the side of therather compactly twined woven bag with loops of rattan splints,the ends of which are inserted between skin and bone of the leg andtail piece pendants. Shrinkage due to drying causes the rattan loopsto remain firmly fixed. The amuletic necklaces worn bj' Papuanwomen have still other pendants attached, such as fragments ofbird bodies, seeds of the common allspice, sections of bone and shell,together with bits of bark.One of the more characteristic methods of executing ornamentaldesigns employed by Papuans is the etching of surface designs onarrow points. These designs are so highly differentiated as to easilydistinguish one area from another and also from the designs executedby Negritos on their bamboo arrow points. The latter are character-ized by wrappings of peeled grommets of orchid stems. Papuandesigns are applied both to bamboo shaft and bamboo or palm-woodforeshaft and may take the form either of curvilinear or rectilinearsurface etchings or of carvings on the body of the foreshaft. Inlayof lime or white paint is sometimes applied on carved surfaces intrue Melanesian style.A peculiarity of the Negrito arrow from the Upper RouffaerValley is the banded ferrule which is placed over the juncture ofpalm-wood foreshaft with bamboo shaft. This small woven ferrulewith its unique spiny surface, due to the peculiar twined weave, isidentical with the ferrule made by the Negrito in the PhilippineIslands and which is used by them for a similar function. This isthe only deep-seated resemblance noted in the weapons of thesewidely separated pygmy groups, unless one takes into consideration
ABT. 30 DESIGN AREAS IN" OCEANIA KRIEGER 33the noiiiise of the biowgun by each. Culture characteristics of eachresemble more the culture complex of adjoining peoples than that ofa common ancestry.The Takutamesa Papuans have shafted arrows of bamboo withheads of leaf-shape split sections of bamboo stem. Line etchings onarrow head and bamboo shaft probably represent animal figures.The Van der Willigen Papuan arrow type has but few lineetchings on its bamboo shaft but has elaborate barbing carved bilater-ially on its palm-wood foreshaft. A peculiarity noted is the reversefeathering attached to foreshaft at the tip. The base of quill ispointed toward the nock while the tip of feather is near the tip ofthe arrow point.Arrows from the Papuans of the Upper Mamberamo Hiver areas a rule tipped with bone, a diagonal section of which has beenremoved to form a point. Etched lines occur both on bone point andbamboo shaft. The foreshaft is of palm wood, is triangular in sec-tion, and is deeply barbed in pairs along two of the intersectingangles but not along the third.Arrows obtained at the junction of the Yan Daalen and EouffaerRivers are tijiped with a cut section of bone. One of the arrows hasan unusually long foreshaft of palm wood with many diagonally cutsunken panels which provides a jagged surface for lacerating andmaking large wounds.The Sebit Papuans of the Upper Mamberamo Eiver Valley etchan ornamental design on their bamboo arrow shafts by burningbanded lines around the circumference of shaft, also by etchingcurvilinear figures representing animal forms. The foreshaft isnndtiple barbed and bone tipped.The Papuans of the Kirakai Eiver have arrows with bambooshafts. Some of the foreshafts of palm wood are unusual in thatthey have multiple trilateral barbs placed at lines of intersection ofthe triangular sectioned foreshaft.Papuans of the Lower liouffaer River make, in addition to theburned-etched banded designs used by the Sebit Papuans, peculiarlong dashlike punctated figures by burning. A leaf-shaped section ofbamboo stem is the usual form of arrowhead and usual materialemployed by Papuans and Negritos alike. The sole exception is thebone-tipped palm-v.ood point which is also foreshaft and occurs inabout 30 per cent of all Papuan arrows. It is not used by theXegritos.Bows are of uniform type and are inferior to the arrows from theviewpoirits of artistic design, craftsmanship, and inventiveness dis-played in their construction. They are long, straight, flat surfacedon the inner and rounded on the outer side. The bow cord is a long
34 PEOCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM vou 79
strip of rattan knotted at each end and easily slipped over the slightlyhollowed nock ends of the bow.Fishing is conducted with circular dip nets held in the hand.Other forms of fishing paraphernalia include long funnel-like trapsof rattan splints. Similarly shaped traps made from some unidenti-fied thorny vine are used by Papuans of the Kirakai River region.A form of body armor appears as an enlarged girdle among theTakutamesa and Sebit Papuans of the Van Rees Mountains. Itconsists of a narrow braided band made from an unidentified vege-table fiber which is wrapped around the abdomen from 75 to 150times, forming a bulging roll completely covering the lower torso.The nearest resemblance to this object of wearing apparel, whichis both ornamental and protective, is the braided girdle worn by theIgorot.True armor appears in use among the pygmy Negritos. TheNegritos of New Guinea are alone among all pj'gmy Negrito peoplesin their use of body armor. The armor appears in the form of awoven fabric jacket which is worn as a covering over the chest andlower abdomen. The armor shows not only high artistic merit butembodies the principles of extreme flexibility and durabilit3\ Nativearrows can not penetrate it except at the top, where it is suspendedfrom the shoulders by straps of woven fabric which also cover theupper chest. The armor proper begins with a change in the weaveat a line 3 or 4 inches below the shoulder straps. The weave fromthis line downward is a compact form of a double-faced twisted-twinepattein. It appears to be new to science and an exceedingly ingeni-ous invention. As the Negrito's life depends on the strength andimpenetrability of his body armor, no shields being used, it may beunderstood that the weaving of body armor represents his bestefforts and skill as a weaver. The warp or passive element is madeof a continuous strand of rattan splints which passes vertically fromtop to bottom and back again entirely around the circumference of thejacket. The crossed weft or active element, also of finely cut rattansplints, passes horizontally across the body as a twisted twinedelement. The unique features of this weave, which supplies flexi-bility and strength, may be seen in the manner in which the weft istwined first over two warp elements, then completely around thesecond, and again over two but undergoing two twists in the process.The same process is carried forward on the reverse side of the jacket,forming identical patterns on both inner and outer surfaces andsupplying great toughness of fabric.The ribbed weave of the upper portion of the jacket is similarto that described before when discussing the weave pattern of theNegrito charm bags. Peeled grommets of orchid stems are intro-
ART. 30 DESIGN AREAS IN" OCEANIA KRIEGER 35duced to produce ornamental patterns as in the charm bags. Acrossthe front of the jacket where the true armor weave begins is a lineof ornamental display of feather decorations, chiefly from the tailfeathers of the bird of paradise.Tobacco and narcotics are in general use among the sedentarypygmy Negritos of the Upper Eouffaer River area. Mr. Stirlingobserved infants in arms smoking cigarettes which were offered themby their mothers and nurses. The container in which the cigaretteis wrapped is the leaf of the pandanus palm, a supply of which iscarried in small tubes made from sections of bamboo stems and car-ried in the lobe of the ear. Curvilinear and rectilinear designs madeby burning are etched on the surfaces of these containers. Tobaccois usually smoked in pipes fashioned either from a tree knot or froman unidentified variety of unusually large acorn. The oak grows inabundance along the Middle and Upper Rouffaer River. To thebase of the hollowed pipe bowl there is affixed a short section ofstem of orchid ferruled with pitch or wrapped with cord. In twoinstances the ferrule is an excellent example of continuous braidedband similar to that attached to arrow shafts. Tobacco was intro-duced evidently at an early date and is now cultivated in the com-munity plot in the center of the village, where are also grown allof the other plant products and vegetables. The development ofagriculture and the domestication of animals by the Negrito is hisown achievement, probably developed on the spot, and not an impor-tation. With but one or two exceptions there seems to be no trace ofcultural relationship with the physically related pygmy stocks else-where, so that linguistic data obtained by the expedition becomesexceedingly important.The Andmncmese.?The Andamanese likewise are a very primitivepeople. No satisfactory explanation has yet been made of the largenumber of exceedingly primitive peoples occupying the coastal fringeof Asia and the mountainous interior of the East Indies. In almostevery case these primitive peoples are negroid, diminutive in stature,and distinct physically from the higher cultural peoples forming thebulk of the insular population. Such people, of which the Andam-anese are typical, support themselves almost entirely by hunting andfishing. Use of clothing is but poorly developed. As among allnegroid peoples with dark skins, a peculiar form of body decorationis practiced by the Andamanese. Tattooing would not be effective,unless some form of white color design could be introduced. Thisis not done by any known tribe. On the other hand, a bringinginto relief of certain parts of the skin is effected wherever elementaryornamental designs are produced. This bruising or scarring of thebody is known as cicatrization.
36 PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM vol.79The Andamanese, too, live in constant fear of demons. In suchrepressive environment art forms can scarcely develop into styles ofart. A peculiar form oi ancestor veneration may be noted amongthe Andamanese in common with primitive peoples elsewhere in theisland world of southeastern Asia. Necklaces are made of the bonesof dead relatives. Even the skull of a friend or relative is decoratedand worn as a pendant. A strange coincidence is the presence of asimilar custom reaching their somewhat similar stage of developmentin the island of New Guinea. As opposed to the use of cicatrizationon the part of the dark-skinned primitive peoples, the yellow-skinnedpeoples of southeastern Asia and of Oceania generally tattooedtheir faces and bodies. Frequently such designs are symbolical;mostly, however, they are purely decorative. Some are emblematic,showing that the one so marked has achieved majority and is nowa full-fledged member of the tribe.The Andamanese and the Negritos, the one living north of Sumatraon a small island group in the Bay of Bengal, and the other in theheart of the Malay country in the interior of the Philippine Archi-pelago, in Borneo, and in central New Guinea, live like the Austra-lians, under primitive housing conditions, merely a wind shelter.Being nomadic, they accumulate but little by way of a material cul-ture suitable for application for art designs. The Andamanese havebeen but little affected by foreign influence, partly due to their iso-lation and to their reputation as fighters and due to their linguisticisolation. But little similarity vrith x4_ustralians may be noted asidefrom their negroid affiliations, bodilj'- decoration, and the paintingof their ornamented objects in red ochre. These may be of practicaluse or cult objects. Either realism or geometric art patterns arepresent, however, in minute quantities. It is difficult to include suchwidely separated peoples as the Negritos, the Andamanese, and theAustralian in one art area, although sharing alike in the crudity oftheir art devices and to some extent in the technic of their applica-tion.The Nicoharese.?If we follow the chain of islands connecting theAsiatic mainland with the larger islands of Malaysia we encounterthe Nicobar group, which lies off the Malay Peninsula. The peopleoccupying the Nicobar Islands are apparently distinct from theinhabitants of another small island group in the vicinity of theAndamanese. This primitive tribe has quite a developed art complexand ornaments of several descriptions might be mentioned, such ascylindrical ear plugs of wood. They have also developed a technicof painting figures and figurines on wooden boards. This is perhapsa form of mnemonic writing somewhat similar to the pictographsused in the time counts of the Chippewa Indians, xls among theSinhalese, art is made subservient to the needs of primitive religion.
ART. 30 DESIGN AEEAS IN OCEANIA KEIEGEK 37The entire gamut of artistic expression is applied to t'.ie shapini; ofdevices to scare away the demons.Sinhalese art.?The large island of Ceylon, just ofl' the southeasterncoast of India, through the Sinhalese has developed a rather dec-orative style of art. This may be traced to Brahmanistic andBuddhistic religious influences from India, and the more ancient])rimitive native religion of the Sinhalese. The so-called devil wor-ship of the Sinhalese reaches an expression in art through the use ofgrotesque wooden masks, representing for the most part major andminor demons. As in northwestern North America, masks are theaccessories of the shaman, and each mask represents one kind ofdisease. In the Museum collection from Ceylon are several Ceylonesemasks.Elementary decorative art of the Veddah.?Another primitive tribein Ceylon, the Veddahs, are apparently related to the primitive peoplesin the Malaysian Peninsula, the Sakai, perliaps also to the >7e.'>:ritoand black peoples of Indonesia, These peoples apparently are almostdevoid of artistic expression through the means of decorative art.In fact not even bodily decorations are practiced, such as scarifica-tions, or even the piercing of the ears for earrings. The same mightbe said for other primitive tribes in the interior of the islands ofMalaysia and Indonesia, except that for each of them a few objectsof ornamental art are known, such as wristlets, leg bandages, neck-laces, and other rudimentary forms of decorative art.Cultural affiliations in Indonesia.?No region of the earth is soisolated as Australia and New Guinea, while none is so rich in types,so articulated, and so hybridized as Indonesia.Indonesia lies at the boundary of South Asia, facing on the onehand Micronesia, on another, Melanesia, and on still another NewGuinea. It fronts southeastern Asia as a compact-land mass, andhas sent out a tentacle as far as the southeastern coast of Africa,i. e., Madagascar.It is not attempted in this article to discuss art styles of the severalcultural areas of Asia, although a cradleland, so to speak, of insularart styles as found in Indonesia, particularly the Malayan islands ofJava, Borneo, and the Philippines. Then, too, the environmentalinfluences of diverse geographical regions of Asia have tended tomake for dissimilar art forms and styles. Prevalent use of rattanand bamboo in the insular world off the southwestern coast of Asialikewise has introduced a central motive in Indonesian art that isnot found on the mainland.The Japanese, perhaps more than any modern insular Asiaticpeople, can trace their art to a direct continental source, but there,too, we find a great divergence from Chinese prototypes. Asia
38 PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM vol.70is the traditional home of the world's great historical religions, thereligious art of which has penetrated the entire world whereverAsiatic influence has at all made itself felt. Perhaps the greatestof these influences may be traced to Buddhism in Indonesia. Thishas made itself felt through the several invasions and migrationswhich may be traced direct to India.Biologically and geologically Indonesia is divided according toits relationship with the continental land masses of Asia or Aus-tralia. The dividing line is the narrow water passage between Baliand Lombok, two small islands of the southern East Indian Archi-pelago, and the contiguous Strait of Macassar. The great islands ofSumatra, Java, and Borneo were formerly joined with the continentof Asia, while Celebes, the Moluccas, and New Guinea at one timewere a part of the Australian Continent. Animals of the Asiaticmainland, such as the tapir, tiger, rhinoceros, and elephant, arefound in Sumatra and Java, while marsupials, such as the cuscusand birds of paradise, are indigenous to New Guinea and Australia.Borneo and other great islands of the East Indies, as Java,Celebes, and the Philippines, are populated primarily by Asiaticspecies, although the great animals of Sumatra, as the tiger andelephant, are not represented. The people occupying these islandsare decidedly related to the southern Mongoloid group. Theirspeech is Malayan, and their culture has been repeatedly influencedfrom Asiatic sources. In thus classifying the population, one mustdisregard the minority, which is negroid and a somewhat proteanpopulation element. In the eastern half of Indonesia, black-skinned,broad-nosed, and wavy or kinky-haired Melanesians and Papuansfar outnumber the Malay element, which alone is the indigenouspopulation. The very name Melanesian characterizes the area as thehome of a black-skinned race. These negroids of the Malaj' Penin-sula, Andaman Islands, Borneo, Sumatra, and the PhilippineIslands, are not identical with the New Guinea and Australian blacksbut are loosely related culturally to Malayan tribes of surroundingareas.Malayan decorative art.?When the island archipelagos of theEast Indies were first occupied by the Indonesian immigrants theyfound them settled by a primitive Negrito stock. These aboriginesretreated into the interiors of the larger islands perhaps withoutattempting contact with the Indonesian invaders. They consequent-ly left but little, if any, mark on the decorative art of the Malayanimmigrants. These new occupants of the East Indies have beencalled Indonesians, Old Mala3^ans, even Old Polynesians. In thePhilippine Islands their descendants are clearly distinguishable fromthe more recent Malays who have everywhere been much influencedby Mohammedan and the earlier Buddhist and Hindu religious cult
ABT.30 DESIGN AREAS IN OCEANIA KRIEGER 39
art. The non-Mohammedan tribes of the Philippine Islands, addedto the non-Christian tribes, correspond to what might there be calledthe early Indonesian elements. The hill tribes of Luzon, the so-calledIgorots, and of Mindanao are the most important. In East Borneo,in Metwi Island, and in Timor also are found tribes possessingdecorative designs typical of what we might call early Malayan orIndonesian art as distinguished from the more recent influences ofthe historic religions?the Hindu Buddhist, and the Mohammedan.The flat, painted bark cloth which preceded woven textiles in theEast Indies is a good example of old Malayan decorative art media.This art was continued in Celebes, where the rectangular sittingmats with their dark colored, angular figures are characteristic.According to Doctor Hough designs on tapa from central Celebes,though geometrical, are clearly traceable to a zoomorphic motiva-tion, representing birds and animal figures.Among the Battaks of Sumatra, carvings in the round have avogue. This art here reaches a high development in smaller objectsas magician's wands, and realistic carvings of animals, notably thelizard.Thus in the reciprocal relation of Indian culture traits and agreat insular population arose Malaysian or Indonesian art. Influ-ences continued throughout many centuries, the origin of such majorachievements as the introduction of weaving, house architecture, andthe working of metals antedating the Christian era.Weaving ornamentation was at first limited to banded designs inperhaps only two colors ; later, more colors were added and the spacebetween the bordered bands was filled in with decorative designs.In woven scarfs of the Battaks of Sumatra, and the fabrics of Sum-bawa, east of the island of Bali in the smaller Sunda Islands, inFlores, in Timor and other islands do we see the introduction ofadditional colors and of the blending into the subdued shades ofIndian textile decorative art. The foundation color of the tied tex-tile is dark blue or red; patterned designs are in yellow or blue,white or red, even green.Blending of colors is effected by the tie and dye method, wherebythe warp threads and the woof threads are separately tied and thendyed. To achieve the desired color pattern, the process has to berepeated many times, but a complicated loom is not required. Muchskill and patience such as only the Malay can put into his labor areprime requirements. Decorated cloths thus ornamented are bestknown from the island of Bali. Some of the rarest examples of tieand die ornamented textiles and most intricate designs appear on theso-called burial cloths, where a 5-pointed star occupies the centralfield. This is surrounded by a galaxy of Hindu Buddhist gods and
40 PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM vol.79
other religious motives. Precious cloths from Java and Sumatra,from Palembang and Atjeh betray Indian influence. In these tex-tiles, gold threads are woven into the design as in the wonderfulSiamese textiles of similar description.Siamese influence may also be noted in house architecture inSumatra. Houses of the Minangkabau Malays were originally builtupon piles, but are now on stone foundations. The outer walls arecovered over with carved decorative designs. These are particularlynoticeable on the gable ends, of which th-ere are many. The peculiarswayback rooftree, the concavity of which extends all the way fromgable end to gable end, may be seen also in other regions all the wayto the Caroline Islands and Guam on the east and to the Massimregion in east New Guinea on the south. This type of house archi-tecture might be termed truly Indonesian. The decorative designsare either geometric or floral. Houses of the Battaks of Sumatraare similarly decorated with carved friezes on the wooden gables.The floral patterns of the Bornean Dyaks alternate with the inter-locking dog-tail motive. In this respect Dyak art resembles thecurved and recurved carved spirals of the Maori.Pictorial art is also represented on the decorated gable ends ofthe Indonesian house. Painted figures of human beings, of animals,of land and sea, of trees, mountains, and other objects illustratethe mytholgy and historical deeds of the Indonesian house builder.Colors used in this form of pictographic art are mostly red, butAvhite, yellow, and black also occur. These are houses of the Toba-Battaks of Sumatra, of the Toradja of Celebes and of the natives ofPalau. It should be noted that this pictorial art bears no relation-ship with the Australian-Papuan painter's art, as it arrived in Indo-nesia at a late date from India and elsewhere on the xA.siatic m.ain-land. Even at that, this type of decorative house architecture ishistorically one of the oldest in the world.In classifying Malayan decorative designs as founded on floral,geometrical and faunal motives, it is well to note that the religiousinfluence of Mohammedanism checked the use of animal motives toa great extent. Hinduism and Buddhism, on the other hand, stim-ulated the use of the lotus flower motive, although most IMalayanartisans fail to recognize the motive as such, merely following theconventional style of wood carving or damascening as the case maybe. What has been recognized as geometrical designs in ornamenta-tion may readily be explained as conventionalized floral motives inmany instances, particularly in the ornamentation of metal objects,such as the kris guards and ornamentation on brass vessels.Malay craftsmen use terms to designate simple designs, namely
" clove flower," " mangosteen calyx," " Solomon's seal," " Bo-tree
AKT.30 DESIGN AREAS IN OCEANIA KRIEGER 41leaf," "bamboo sprouts," and " flying-fox elbows."' Certain typesof covered metal bowls from Sumatra, covered cups, and trays, cupsfor holding betel-nut are often designed to represent the lotus flower,the petals of which may be in relief or engraved. The flower of thegourd vine and other flowers are occasionally engraved in the centerof metal plates or as a motive for concentric bands. The lotus mayalso appear on large metal belt buckles, with the petals beaten outin relief and arranged around the central boss.The so-called fern curves pattern, from the curvmg of the shootsof the fern frond, is a design applied by the Sumatran Malay and bythe Bornean Kayan. This is combined with the conventional " dog "pattern, parts of which end in trifid shoots, the backs of the dog beingbent to form a meandered series.Swastika motives are fairly common and may occur with director indirect (counterclockwise) arms. All these designs appear ininsular Malayan art and on the Malay Peninsula, even to a limitedextent in Siam, as in the niello work of that country.The fish-tail motive is illustrated in Ceylonese work and inthe Malayan type of water dipper in which the coconut bowl hasattached to it a handle of wood with cleft or " fish tail " end. In theSinhalese specimens the coconut bowl has an ivory handle shapedlike the fish-tail Malay handle, however, in rather complicated form,as it is usually represented as a fish submerging down the mouth ofthe whale-elephant, only the tail being visible.It is frequently difficult to distinguish between Javanese andHindu or Buddhist art objects. This is particularly the case incarved figurines or decorative friezes. Stone and bronze decoratedfigurines and vessels are frequently undistinguishable, the Javanesefrom the Indian and vice versa. The same confusion results inBalinese work, as the island of Bali was in part settled direct fromIndia; also from the introduction of wayang figurines from India,which are used with or without masks in theatrical entertainmentsin Java and elsewhere in the East Indies. Indian color predominatedin one type of wayang, in which pictures are introduced. In themore Javanese types of wayang (" puraa " and " klitik ") carvingin leather or in wood betrays the more characteristic Malayan prefer-ences in design motivation and technique, as contrasted with Indianlove of color. This is seen also in the vivid yellow painting of theGeruda-bird carving, on which is mounted the goddess Visnu(Krishna) , a splendid example of Balinese art directly influenced byIndian mythology.Banded decorative devices of triangles painted or woven into tjiomatting and textiles, the design representing the fern frond or abamboo shoot, are to be seen everywhere in Malaysia, in Bali,
42 PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL, MUSEUM vol.79Lombok, Borneo, Lampong, Minangkabau, Atjeh, everywhere theHindu Idngdom had penetrated. The Hindu kingdom of Majapahitcontrolled the destinies of the Javanese for more than 1,000 years, butwas overthrown by the Mohammedans in the year 1478, just beforethe arrival of the Spanish explorers and the beginning of Europeaninfluence. On the island of Bali the Buddhism and Sivaism of itsnative population remained in power. This is reflected in the deco-rative art of these island populations to the present day. In Java,the Buddhist art continues among the Sundanese.The kris (keris) hilts from the Malay Peninsula and from Sumatrahave but little decorative work. The human figurine which formsthe hilt is not well developed as in krisses from Bali and Lombok,although some of them have small figurines sometimes representedmerely by a few transverse cuts in the wood. The typical pommeldecoration from the Upper Malay Peninsula is the kingfisher motive.This is closely similar to the typical pommel decoration on theJavanese kris. Although the kris is supposed to have originated inJava, the Bugis type is much more widely disseminated. This isno doubt due to the aggressive Bugis character. Marsden says thatMacassar and Bugis people came in trading prahus to Sumatra andthat " Malaj'^s affect to copy their style of dress, and frequent allu-sions to the feats of achievements of these people are made in theirsongs. Their reputation for courage, which certainly surpassesthat of all other people in the eastern seas, acquires for them thisflattering distinction. They also derive part of the respect paid themfrom the richness of the cargoes they import."The introduction of iron to Malaysia dates back to a time beforethe beginning of the Christian era. It had, however, not yet reachedMicronesia or Polynesia at the beginning of the exploration of thePacific by Europeans in the sixteeenth century. Malayan weaponsand armor are excellent examples of the thorough penetration ofmetal working into Indonesian culture complexes, some of the bestexamples of native Malayan ironwork being fashioned by theseinterior Indonesian tribes who have not been reached by Mohammed-anism. The kris (keris) of the Mohammedan Malay is perhaps thebest example, showing both ancient Malayan, Hindu, and Moham-medan art motives. Meandered lotus flower, Naga serpent designsinlaid on the blade, and stylized dog or kingfisher figurines shapedfrom dugong ivory on the conventionalized pommel, also wayangfigures on guard or pommel? all denote separate and distinct culturestratification and influences from Malayan and Indian sources.Influence of culture stratification on Filipino decorative design.?In the Philippines, for example, are a large number of tribes, bothIndonesian and Negrito, exhibiting almost every stage of culture
ABT.30 DESIGN AKEAS IN OCEANIA KRIEGEE 43from the Negrito upward. The civilized tribes, the Visayans, ofBohol, Cebu, Leyte, and others occupy the central islands, while theTagalog, Ilocano, and Bicol are representative of Luzon. More typi-cally Malayan are the " uncivilized " Manobo, Mandayan, Subanun,and Bagobo of Mindanao, the Bukidnon of Mindanao and the centralislands, the Tagbanua and Batak of Palawan, the Bontok, Ilongot,and Ifugao of Luzon.Several types of culture influence have been dominant in thePhilippine Islands. The late Christian influence, which began withLegazpi and his conquest of the Philippines in 1564, is character-ized by a Catholic education. The widespread influence of theChristian doctrine provided a widely diffused veneer of Europeanculture. Mohammedanism had been introduced in Mindanao ap-proximately in 1380, and spread rapidly to northern parts of thearchipelago. A Mohammedan settlement was established at thepresent site of Manila, but yielded to Legazpi in 1571. Mohammedandesigns are noticeable in the southern islands, particularly in Joloand in the large island of Mindanao.Back still further we find a direct influence from India. This maybe seen in certain religious design motives engrafted on purelyMalay customs. Tavera has traced the survival of himdreds ofSanskrit words. Perhaps the art of metal work as it is still practicedin Luzon, where iron is predominant, and in Mindanao where, asin Borneo, brass work has been developed, shows Indian influenceto have penetrated Malayan culture much more deeply than havethe comparatively recent Mohammedan and Christian intrusivereligions.Still another influence must be reckoned with in considering Malayart, and that is the Chinese. The Chinese have traditions that theyvisited the Philippines as early as the ninth century, and from thethirteenth century on their records show trade with the Philippinesand with Borneo. Chief among these trade articles were Chinesepottery, brass gongs, and bronzes, weapons and art works, and a vastarray of more material objects. Chinese influence was limited tosuch trade goods and there is no trace of a social or institutionalinfluence, although China is much nearer the archipelago than isIndia. Back of these influences from without, of course, is that ofnative Malaysian culture.In art designs the Filipino has drawn widely on environmentalplant forms and animal life, beautifully executed leaf and floralpatterns in wood carving or in cast and filigree metal work, whichappear with inlay of soft metal in color. The pineapple design,wayang and anito figurines, and carved zoomorphic dog and leechmotives are characteristic of those tribes uninfluenced by Christi-k
44 PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM vol.79
anity. It is only with the introduction of certain Hindu and laterChristian symbolism and images that we find a mixture of nativeMalaysian design and extemporaneous forms. A splendid exampleof the Malay leech motive is the repousse design painted over withbitumen on the walls of a miniature wooden coffin box secured byStirling from the Dyaks.In Malaj'an chow pots and bowls of cast brass, also in kettles andlamps, are occasional protuberances. The same technic is noted inMalayan silver betrothal cups. A. variation of this may be notedin the fluted pedestal bases to be seen both in silver and brass warefrom Malay centers of metal craft. The Malays call the irregularsurface an imitation of a pineapple pattern. The protuberances, or
" gadroons," resemble also Siamese work, but the general form of thebrass and silver bowls and vases from Borneo and Mindanao closelyresemble Javanese forms. The protuberances, or " gadroons," alsoresemble the lotus pattern which is found on the base of Buddhistidols.The Bagobo of Mindanao in full regalia illustrates well the art ofa primitive Malay tribe in the exuberant ornamentation of weaponsof offense and defense, and of textiles. Embroidery of appliquebeadwork designs on textiles in a technic entirely diiTereiit from thaiof the American Indian is the outstanding element of Bagobodecorative design. The carving of geometrical designs in flat reliefon wooden shields, also the repousse ornamentation and applieddecoration on metal spears and cutting blades, is excellently done bythe artisans of this primitive pagan Malay tribe.Malaysian hashetry.?The basketrj'- of the D^aks of Borneo isunrivaled for strength, fineness, variety, and skill in construction.Rattan and bamboo, tough and resistant, are materials capable ofbeing readily and evenly dvided, and splints of any length can beeasily made. The braided or plaited basketry ferrule rarely exceedsone centimeter in width. It is unknown elsewhere in the Tropics,but it is of frequent occurrence throughout Malaysia. Many of thespecimens combine joinery work with basket weaving, and the knots,loops, windings, and other fastenings often show marvelous ingen-uit3^ While the Dyaks excel in delicacy of work, they are weak indecorative patterns.The materials employed are derived from pandanus, which yieldsbaskets of a soft and flexible texture; from leaves of various pahnsof paperlike texture ; and from split bamboo and rattan, which makebaskets of a rigid structure. The forms are flat bags of pandanusand palm of artistically twilled weaving in different colors, variedwith complicated openwork like lace ; flat telescopic baskets, circularand hexagonal in shape; and napiform and globose baskets of
ART. ;iO DESIGN AREAS IN OCEANIA KRIEGER 45
rattan. They are put to an infinite variety of uses: For ornament,for containing small objects, for the storage of food, and for thetransportation of articles. As a rule the surface decoration of Malaybaskets is the result of the style of the weave more than of the colorof the materials.Malaysian wood carving.?Household gods, shrine images, andother religious objects from southern Malaysia range from a simplebillet of wood rudely representing the human figure to elaboratelycarved and decorated images, which are in many cases costumed.The shrine images are usually fastened together in a row and placedin the neighborhood of the house, where they receive various offer-ings, the customary one being the blood of a slain animal or a stonewhich represents food. Larger images are placed in shrines alongthe seashore. The smaller images, blackened by smoke, are maleand female household gods whose headdresses indicate rank. Someof these show great skill in carving, though the faces are expression-less. The hands are brought up toward the chin, and, as a rule,clasp a bowl for the reception of food. The legs are also flexed andthe knees prominently shown. The more rudely shaped imagesand idols are simply hewn out of the crotch of a tree, and a facewith human features is cut from one side to form an anthropomor-phic representation of one of the many of the ancient gods ofMalaysia.

EXPLANATION OF PLATESPlate 1Ethnic areas in Oceania. Plates 2 and 3Marionettes of cut leather and carved wood from Java.The small hand and rod operated puppets of the Javanese represent theirancient culture heroes and the creatures of Hindu mythology. Those ofcut leather (U.S.N.M. No. 16S224), illustrated in Plate 3, are called wayangpurv.-a, while a more recent form of marionette is known as the wayangklitik. The latter is shaped from wood, is rod operated, and is used inpuppet shows glorifying historical characters of the ancient Malay kingdomof Majapahit. The wayang figures are used in shadow pictures accompa-nied by a monologue of the operator. Appropriate music is rendered by anorchestra of bamboo xylophones and brass gougs. The gongs are oftenexquisite examples of Malay metal craft and decorative art, while thewayang combines decorative art and theatrical amusement. The wayangof carved wood is illustrated as dressed in decorated Javanese batik cloth.U.S.N.M. Nos. 168225, 168227 from the World's Columbian Exposition,Chicago, 1893. Related forms of the marionette occur iu Burma, Siam, andsoutheastern Asia generally. The hulu marionette of the Hawaiian Islandsis distinct in symbolism and expressed art.Plate 4Hawaiian royal feather cape. Plate 5Woven cloak of the Maori, New Zealand.Plates 6-9Tapa cloth from Samoa, Hawaii, Fiji, and Santa Cruz Islands.The stamped decorative designs are based on alligator patterns and othermotives taken from life forms. These have been conventionalized and arebroken up into their component parts to fit the requirements of the space tobe decorated. Plate 10Decorative art of the Maori of New Zealand.Polynesian art, more particularly tliat of the Maori, is manifest essentiallyin wood carving, also in tattoo marks. Mummified Maori heads on whichthe skin and hair remain intact are in the National collection along withother Maori art objects, such as wooden dressing boxes, carved sections ofwooden house posts, carved and inlaid feeding funnels, and carved combsof whalebone. These were collected principally by Lieutenant Wilkes,United States Navy, in 1838.Maori wood carver's art is illustrated by engraved double spirals in flatrelief, also by shell inset. The repeated use of the eye form as a decorativedevice resembles the art of the Haida Indians of British Columbia and ofsoutheastern Alaska.The objects of carved wood illustrated are dressing boxes, U.S.N.M.Nos. 3785, 3786, collected by Lieutenant Wilkes, United States Navy, fromthe Maori of New Zealand.60993?31 4 47
48 PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM vol.79Plate 11
a, End view of a dressing box of wood collected from the Maori of New Zealandby Lieutenant Wilkes, United States Navy, in 1S3S-1842. U.S.N.M. No. 3787.&. Cast of feeding funnel. Maori of New Zealand.Plate 12Section of house post belonging to the Maori of New Zealand, collected byA. W. Converse, U.S.N.M. No. 334017. Dimensions: 25 inches long, 9 incheswide.This wooden slab is typical of Maori decorative design painted with redochre In shark's oil. It consists of grotesque totemic figurine carvingswith protruding tongue, flaring nostrils, and high brow ridges. Nacre ofpawa shell oblique inlay represents the eyes of the figurine.The form of relief engraving generally is that of an incomplete spiralresembling the decorative designs engraved on the lids of work boxes, andtattooed on face and body. In a general way totemic figurines carved onMaori house posts resemble the totemic devices to be seen on carved houseposts of the Haida and allied tribes of southeastern Alaska and BritishColumbia. As in southeastern Alaska, a totemic figure is represented, butin anthropomorphic form, while the carved designs of southeastern Alaskaare zoomorphic with only occasional anthropomorphic features.Structurally there is a wide divergence in the areas compared; thisMaori figurine being highly conventionalized, and the figurines of thePacific northwest coast being realistic in the extreme. In both areas thedesign is commemorative of some ancestor.Plate 13Objects illustrating the wood carver's art of the Marquesans and the Rara-tongans.Left: Carved wooden stilt, U.S.N.M. No. 3792, collected by the exploringexpedition under Lieutenant Wilkes, United States Navy, in 1838.Right : A carved wooden dagger, U.S.N.M. No. 5345, collected by CaptainAulick, United States Navy. Plate 14A ceremonial adze of black palm wood from Hervey Island, probably themost exquisite example of wood carving known among primitive peoples.U.S.N.M. No. 3719. Collected by Lieutenant Wilkes, United States Navy,in 1838. Plate 15Ceremonial adzes from Hervey Island and the Marquesas illustrating thedecorative wood carving technic of the Polynesians, U.S.N.M. Nos. 3719,3722. Collected by Lieutenant Wilkes in 1838.Plate 16
a, A Moro chow pot of cast brass from Mindanao, P. I., collected by Mrs. H. C.Corbin. U.S.N.M. No. 258287.The diameter is 10.1 inches and the depth 5 inches. A detachable trayserves also as a lid. It is a generally accepted form of Malay metal foodcontainer, which in rare instances is duplicated in silver. It has numerousprotuberances on the globose walls, forming what is called by the Malay
AKT.30 DESIGN AREAS IN OCEANIA KRIEGER 49the pineapple pattern. The base, a flaring pedestal form, is flattened andwidespread, detracting from the beauty and harmonious proportions of thevessel. It is said that the reason for the wide pedestal bases on metalfood jars in Malaysia is the method of floor construction in Malay houses
;
the split bamboo sections being exceedingly irregular, causing a vesselwith narrow base to spill its contents over the floor. A floral designencircles the upper margin. There is also a linked scroll design resemblinga loose plaiting or braid.6. Betel nut bos of cast brass, U.S.N.M. No. 257654, length 6 inches, height2y2 inches, width 3 inches. Lanao tribes of the Mohammedan Moros,Mindanao, P. I.The box is provided with hinged lid and handle lugs at the ends. Withinare three compartments. In one is kept the leaf of the Piper betel, inanother the Bouaa nuts, and in the other lime. In use, a section of theleaf is placed on the hand, and a cut section of the nut and some lime isadded. This is rolled and chewed. This habit turns the teeth black,which is fashionable. The box is rectangular, and is in contrast with thenumerous cresent-shaped Buyo sets of cast brass designed to be carried atthe side under the armpit. Walls are plain. The lid has a meandereddouble volute filigree design in relief resembling that on the brass teacaddy just described, and the painted volute scroll designs on the basketrybetel nut boxes from Celebes. PLATB3 17Malay vessels of cast brass, and shell inlay on wood.Upper left: A miniature globose vessel of cast brass, U.S.N.M. No.257712, 2% inches high and 4^/^ inches in diameter, is a typical exampleof the pineapple design, incorporating on its walls an embellishment con-sisting of series of protuberances and spurs resembling the spines of thepineapple plant. Two of the flaring brass spurs had been broken off andrepaired with brass rivets by the native Malay workmen. Collected byE. A. Mearns from Mindanao, P. I.Upper right: A decorated wooden trinket box, U.S.N.M. No. 232809,collected by E. A. Mearns in Mindanao, is globose in form and has a widepedestal base. The characteristic Malay inlay forms a triangular fretteddesign encircling the base and margin. In this wooden vessel the inlayconsists of the nacre of shell. Dimensions : Height, 2.4 inches ; diameter,3.3 inches. Iniay on brass chow pots is in a light-colored metal alloy.Bottom figure: A teapot of cast brass, U.S.N.M. No. 232779, with adiameter of 8 inches and standing 6.6 inches high. The vessel has a distinctHindu cast, but incorporates on the decorated walls the Malay pineapplepattern in relief. The flaring pedestal base has a fluted relief embellish-ment. The pot is provided with a spout, lid, and loop handle, with ameandered cast filigree design in relief encircling the vessel near the marginand on most of the upper surface of the lid. A conventionalized dragonfigure connects the end of spout with a lug supporting the looped handle. Itis an excellent example of Moro metal work in cast brass from the LakeLanao country of northern Mindanao, where, in the village of Taguya,brass is still being cast in the form of decorated chow pots, cannon, storagevases, pipes, chains, jewelry, and other objects.
50 PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM vol.79Plate 18Upper : Betel nut box from Sirah, Middle Celebes, collected by Dr. W. L, Abbott.U.S.N.M. No. 283958. Dimensious : 8.4 inches long, 2.6 inches wide, 1.2inches in diameter.This betel nut box consists of sections of pandanus leaf sewn togetherand covered over with strips of mica ; the mica is brought in praus fromBangaai Island on the east coast of Celebes. The box has a twilled basketrylid ; a meandered floral design in color is incorporated in the walls undertlie covering of mica.Lower: Decorated pommel, ferrule, and scabbard of Malay steel barongs fromJolo, Philippine Islands. The barong at right, U.S.N.M. No. 288361, hasa silver-shod handle of lauan wood and a decorated pommel of dugongivory. The ivory and carved wooden pommels of the barong at the rightare excellent examples of the " leech " pattern, a decorative motive widelydiffused throughout Malaysia. Stirling found Dyak porters carving objectsin this intricate pattern while resting on the journey. The ferrule ofplaited silver wire on the handle of the barong at the left is an exquisiteexample of Malay metal filigree work and resembles the well-known Malayplaited ferrule of rattan. Apparently nowhere else in tropical countriesdo we encounter this characteristic use of rattan. The braided Malayferrule, whether of silver wire or of rattan, rarely exceeds 1 centimeterin width. Plate 19Carved wooden spoons: Philippine Islands.A typical form of Malay design from the Ifugao and Igorot of the islandof Luzon consists of figurine or spirit images forming handles of carvedwooden spoons. These spoous have plain bowls, but invariably haveanthropomorphic figures occupying the handles. They represent "Anitos,"or spirits whose qualities, both good and bad, are known only to theprimitive Malay.Some of these sculptures are of interest, others are quite crudely done.Illustrated are two examples fairly typical. One, U.S.N.M. No. 248011,8.2 inches iu length, has a handle representing a spirit or " Anito " inerect posture with arms at the side and touching the knees. He wears aplumed headdress represented by a 2-lobed extension of the crown of thehead. The other spoon illustrated, U.S.N.M. No. 35127, has a figurinehandle more typical of Igorot wood carving generally. It represents anAnito with flexed knees, and with hands resting on thighs.Like all primitive peoples, the primitive Malay wood carver representsa life form in the least possible number of planes. A straight line extendsfrom the top of the head to the lip, forming, thus, forehead and nose inone plane. The face is triangular, extending in two divergent planes tothe ears, where protuberances are invariably carved.There is nothing of great interest in these carvings, and the generallevel of decorative art here seen is inferior to that of Malay etched designson bamboo or executed in metal.Plate 20A bamboo comb, collected by Gen. Tasker Bliss. U.S.N.M. No. 836f>41, fromMindanao, has characteristic Malay art embellishment occupying a panelat the base of the comb. Zigzag nucleated circles and fretted designs form
ABT. 30 DESIGN" AEEAS IN OCEANIA KRIEGER 51panels set off from one another by incised lines. All of these form aborder leaving a central field in plain natural color. This art is perhapsmost characteristic of the Philippine-Malay areas.The tubular container collected by Haskell, U.S.N.M. No. 341501, TY2inches in length and 7 inches in diameter, also the slightly larger container,U.S.N.M. No. 334538, collected by Miss I. H. Lenman from the island ofLuzon, resemble rather closely the etched designs of a tubular bamboocontainer from Africa, U.S.N.M. No. 334402, collected by R. C. Bielinski.The similarity is to be noted in the triangular and lozenge-shape etchedbanded designs forming panels covering the entire surface of the containers.Such designs, along with other protean designs, such as V-shape, alternat-ing spurs, are too elementary to be of any value in a study of culturaldiffusion. Plate 21Decorative work in bamboo : Malaysia and Melanesia.Wherever bamboo is grown the tribe or people occupying the region hasseized upon it as an effective medium for carrying out their artistic impres-sions. Some of the best examples of decorative engraving or etching onbamboo come from Malaysia, as shown on the plate, in the form of 6-stoppered flutes. One of these, characterized by lightly etched rather thanby the more usual broad banded designs, U.S.N.M. No. 235159, is from thePhilippine Islands. It has a length of 31 inches and a sectional diameterof 0.9 inch. As in other examples of Malay art on bamboo, the bandeddesigns tend to the geometric and are symbolic, although they originatedin patterns of life forms. Series of V-shapes, rectangles, zigzags in parallel,hourglass devices?all are conventionalized representations of reptileanforms and feature, such as scales.Five flutes from central Celebes, U.S.N.M. No. 304191, collected by W. L.Abbott, are shown on this plate. They incorporated, along with the dec-orative design just described in the flute from the Philippines, a number ofconventionalized zoomorphic designs, principally of horns and head of thewater buffalo. The head of the animal is represented in the form of alozenge-shape device often split into triangles. There is otherwise littledifference from Philippine designs except in the depth or broadness of lineetching. The art resembles somewhat the banded burnt etching on blowgunsfrom the island of Palawan.One of the flutes on this plate, U.S.N.M. No. 394191, Sanggana, slightlysmaller in diameter than the other examples illustrated, introduces whiteand red paint which, alternating with the burnt sections, gives a pleasingeffect. The encircling panels covered with red stain frequently have adecorative design realistic in character, differing from the more geometricallozenge-shape, and line patterns in burnt black. Bird representations arethe characteristic theme of the etched panels in red, while the waterbuffalo is the motive in the burnt line sections.Plate 22A bamboo stem, U.S.N.M, No. 232790, shown at upper right of plate, used asa container, was collected by E. A. Mearns in the Philippines. It is SVainches long and 1.8 inches in diameter. Encircling designs etched byburning are in wide zigzags, triangles, and encircling bands alternatingwith plain spaces, the whole forming a pleasing geometrical patteni.
52 PBOCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM vol.79Two coutainers at the upper left represent entirely different culturalareas. They were collected by M. W. Stirling from the Papuans of theCentral Rouffaer River Valley in Dutch New Guinea. None of themexceed 4 inches in length : the shortest is 2i/^ inches long. They arestoppered at one end with the uncut nodal diaphragm, the other end beingopen and, in use, being extemporaneously stoppered with leaves. U.S.N.M.No. 338671.These decorated bamboo receptacles are used as lime containers in con-nection with the chewing of betel, also as needle cases, and for otherpurposes. It is interesting to note that the decorative design is etchedon the walls by cutting away the outer cortex in sections, thus introducingby contrast a 2-color pattern, as is the practice of the aboriginal peoplesof Central and South America. The outer cortex remaining forms doublespirals resembling Maori decorative devices, V-shaped figures, also certaintadpolelike designs. Execution of these designs in Papua is inferior toMalay work, being crudely done and giving an amateurish impression,while the finished work of the Malay artist approaches virtuosity.A lime container, U.S.N.M. No. 304151, shown at lower right of plate, usedin connection with the chewing of betel, is introduced here by way ofcontrast. It is from central Celebes and was collected at Bada Toeare byH. C. Raven for Dr. W. L. Abbott. It is an elongated cone-shaped gourd,stoppered with a piece of bamboo in which have been inserted severalnondescript pieces of colored cloth. The designs are the same as thosepreviously described in connection with the Malay flute from that area.The general effect is pleasing in that each design, each panel, is a perfectexample of free-hand etching. Encircling bands of zigzags, triangles,water buffalo horns, and other features, belonging undoubtedly to thewater buffalo motif, are harmoniously separated by undecorated panels.A decorated gourd shown at lower left of plate, collected by W. E. Curtisin Africa, U.S.N.M. No. 280894, 6 inches long and 2 inches in diameter atthe base, introduces etched designs consisting of triangles, spurs, V-shapedfrets, and encircling lines. Life forms, consisting of man and animalfigures, the man holding a saber, and the animal figure resembling a lionare entirely foreign to the more geometrical art just described from NewGuinea, Celebes, and the Philippine Islands.Plate 23Examples of Fijian decorative and symbolic art.
"Wood carving and painting on tapa bulk large in the art technic ofOceania. A Fijian club with symmetrically carved knobbed striking endmay be seen at the left, while below are carved images in palm wood andplaited mats of palm fiber. In the background are bolts of decorated tapa,and at the right are bolts of wrapped sennit cord.Fijian tapa like the matting shown at bottom have geometrical designsreducible to conventionalized life forms. The frigate bird of the Polynesiansand the leech of Malayan designs have likewise become geometricalthrough conventionalization. Plate 24Arts of the Fijians. Pottery and wood carving.Plate 25Tattooed heads. Maori, New Zealand.
ART. 30 DESIGN AEEAS IN OCEANIA KRIEGER 53Plate 26Tattoo designs, a, c, Marquesas Islander; 6, Samoau Islander.Plate 27Decorated human heads. Papuans of New Guinea.Plate 28Wood carver's art of the Papuans of the island of New Guinea.A tubular drum with aviform decorative embellishments in high relief.Collected by B. W. Brandes. Plate 20A 2-pronged wooden hook with elongated conventionalized aviform decorationin profile. Used in the men's dormitories of the New Guinea Papuans.Collected by E. W. Brandes. Plate 30Wooden combs from the Papuans of New Guinea. The base of each comb hasetched designs in color depicting in a conventionalized manner birds andother life forms. Collected by E. W. Brandes.Plate 31Tubular drum shells of carved wood, U.S.N.M. No. 344961.An aviform decorative embellishment carved in high relief from the solidrepresents the hornbill. Other zoomorphie patterns, incised in flat relief,tend to approach the double spiral of the Melanesians, and of the Maori ofNew Zealand. Collected by B. W. Brandes at Ambunti, Territory ofPapua, British New Guinea. Plate 32Decorated objects of carved wood. Papuans of New Guinea.Figurines of carved wood, U.S.N.M. No. 334934, used in the young men'sdormitories of Papua, are excellent examples of Melanesian wood carver'sart Carving of human figurines and images in the round is generalamong the peoples of the Pacific. Collected by B. W. Brandes from aPapuan village located on a tributary of the Sepik River, British NewGuinea. Plate 33Decorated arrow shafts. Papuans of British New Guinea.The surface etchings are filled in with a white color, a decorative technlccharacteristic of Melanesia. The use of red ochres as a filler in inciseddecorative work is also typically Melanesian and Papuan.o

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Marionettes of carved Wood. Java
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TAPA CLOTH. SAMOA
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Tapa Cloth. Fiji islands
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o, Dressing Box of the Maori, End View
b. Funnel used in Feeding a Recently tattooed Maori of New7FAI AND
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Section of a Maori House Post
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OBJECTS ILLUSTRATING THE WOOD CARVER'S ART OF THE MARQUESANS ANDTHE RARATONGANS
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Ceremonial Adze. Hervey island
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CEREMONIAL ADZES ILLUSTRATING THE POLYNESIAN WOOD CARVER'S TECH-NIQUE. HERVEY AND THE MARQUESAS ISLANDS
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a, A MoRO Vessel of cast Brass from Mindanao. P. 1.
b, MoRO Betel Nut Box of Cast Brass from Mindanao. P. I.
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Left, Malay Vessel of Cast Brass; Right, Wooden Trinket Box withShell Inlay
Malay teapot of cast brass
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BETEL Nut Box of Sewn Pandanus Leaf. Sirah. Middle Celebes
Decorated pommel, handle, and scabbard of Malay Steel barongs.JOLO. P. I.
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WOODEN SPOONS WITH CARVED HANDLES REPRESENT! NG AN ITOS ? OR SPI RITS.IFUGAS. OF LUZON. P. I.
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left, malay comb of bamboo; right. tubular containers ofBamboo. Luzon, p. 1.
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Decorated bamboo Flutes from Middle Celebes. The Flute. ThirdFROM left. Introduced for Comparison, is from Luzon, p. I.
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a, BAMBOO CONTAINERS AT LEFT AND CENTER FROM DUTCH NEWGUINEA; AT RIGHT. FROM THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
b. Decorated Bamboo Containers. Left. Africa; Right,MIDDLE Celebes
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TATTOOED HEADS OF MAORI. NEW ZEALAND
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Decorated Heads. Papuans, of Territory of papua. New Guinea
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Tubular Drum of Carved Wood. Territory of Papua.New Guinea
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CONVENTIONAL ANCESTRAL FIGURINE CARVING SHOWING BmD BEAKAND OTHER DETAILS ON PRONGED HOOK USED IN MEN S DORMITORIES.PAPUANS OF TERRITORY OF PAPUA. NEW GUINEA
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Tubular Wooden Drums of the Papuans of the Territory of Papua.Island of New Guinea
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DECORATED ARROWS. PAPUANS OF BRITISH NEW GUINEA