“The sea and land, and the peoples that span these liminal spaces are often treated in isolation, both in academic scholarship and in practice. This introductory text takes a widescreen, interdisciplinary approach to illuminating these interdepend- ent socio-ecological processes, with keen attention to their equity implications.” Dr. Kenny Broad, University of Miami “Oceans and Society: An Introduction to Marine Studies places the relationship between people and the ocean at its heart. The book echoes calls for interdis- ciplinary thinking, championing the development of innovative ways to better understand the relationships between people, ocean, and place, through useful case studies.” Dr. Emma McKinley, Research Fellow, School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Cardiff University & Chair of the Marine Social Sciences Network “As our climate changes and global populations reach eight Billion, we must i mprove ocean management. This book sets an important foundation for ocean management, as it introduces the breadth of marine studies, and connects oceans and society.” Dr. Quentin Hanich, Ocean Nexus Chair in Fisheries Gov- ernance; Australian National Centre for Ocean Resources and Security (ANCORS), University of Wollongong “The challenges faced by our oceans are complex, multi-faceted and inter-related. Future ocean stewardship will rely on interdisciplinary approaches. This book is a timely compilation which will help guide students from diverse disciplinary backgrounds to an appreciation of the benefits and opportunities associated with engaging with human dimensions approaches.” Dr. Michelle Voyer, Senior Research Fellow Austral- ian N ational Centre for Ocean Resources and Security ( ANCORS) at University of Wollongong “A must-read book for graduate students in the field of marine management. Un- derstanding the ‘ocean-society’ intersection, from multiple perspectives and ap- plied to multiple grand challenges, is essential to enable these next-generation marine managers to work collaboratively towards sustainable and just ocean futures.” Dr. Megan Bailey, Associate Professor and Canada Re- search Chair, Marine Affairs Program, Dalhousie University “Oceans and Society is a valuable introduction to the human dimension of coastal and ocean issues, accessible to individuals with a variety of backgrounds united by their passion to sustain a healthy future for our ocean, coasts, and people.” Professor Jack Barth, Executive Director, Marine Studies Initiative, Oregon State University Oceans and Society This unique textbook presents an introduction to the interdisciplinary field of marine studies, exploring the dynamic relationship between people and the marine environment. Emphasizing the human dimension of coastal and ocean issues, the book p rovides an innovative examination of the complex marine–human environment dynamics by drawing on social science and humanities approaches. Applying these interdisciplinary approaches, it addresses key challenges f acing the marine environment, including changing climate, fisheries, aquaculture, m arine pollu- tion, energy production, and management of areas beyond national jurisdiction. While leading with a human dimension approach to these challenges, the chap- ters are all firmly grounded in foundational knowledge about coastal and ocean environments and processes. The textbook also includes examples of professional or academic areas of specialization within marine studies such as s ocial and envi- ronmental justice, governance, global perspectives, t raditional ecological knowl- edge and management, entrepreneurship, community development, conservation, and the blue economy. Ultimately, the book provides the first cohesive resource on marine studies to educate students, train interdisciplinary marine leaders, in- spire new knowledge about people and the sea, generate innovative solutions for sustainable oceans, and build capacity for a new g eneration of marine-focused professionals. Oceans and Society is essential reading for students on marine studies courses, as well as those studying marine governance, policy, conservation, and law more broadly. It will also be of great interest to students, researchers, and professionals interested in applying interdisciplinary approaches to environmental challenges. Ana K. Spalding is an Associate Professor of Marine and Coastal Policy at Oregon State University, and Research Associate at the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute and Coiba Research Station – AIP in Panama. Daniel O. Suman is a Professor of Marine Policy and Coastal Management at the University of Miami ś Rosenstiel School of Marine, Atmospheric, and Earth Science. Earthscan Oceans Coral Reefs Tourism, Conservation and Management Edited by Bruce Prideaux and Anja Pabel Marine Extremes Ocean Safety, Marine Health and the Blue Economy Edited by Erika Techera and Gundula Winter Marine Policy An Introduction to Governance and International Law of the Oceans 2nd Edition Mark Zacharias and Jeff Ardon Conflicts over Marine and Coastal Common Resources Causes, Governance and Prevention Karen A. Alexander Marine and Fisheries Policies in Latin America A Comparison of Selected Countries Edited by Manuel Ruiz Muller, Rodrigo Oyandel and Bruno Monteferri Oceans and Society An Introduction to Marine Studies Edited by A. K. Spalding and Daniel O. Suman Transdisciplinary Marine Research Bridging Science and Society Edited by Sílvia Gómez and Vera Köpsel For further details please visit the series page on the Routledge website: http://www.routledge.com/books/series/ECOCE Oceans and Society An Introduction to Marine Studies Edited by Ana K. Spalding and Daniel O. Suman Designed cover image: © Getty images First published 2023 by Routledge 4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2023 selection and editorial matter, Ana K. Spalding and Daniel O. Suman; individual chapters, the contributors The right of Ana K. Spalding and Daniel O. Suman to be identified as the authors of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Spalding, Ana K., editor. | Suman, Daniel O. 1950– editor. Title: Oceans and society : an introduction to marine studies / Edited by Ana K. Spalding and Daniel O. Suman. Description: New York, NY : Routledge, 2023. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2022037797 (print) | LCCN 2022037798 (ebook) | ISBN 9780367524883 (hardback) | ISBN 9780367524869 (paperback) | ISBN 9781003058151 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Marine ecology. | Marine resources. | Marine resources conservation. Classification: LCC QH541.5.S3 O233 2023 (print) | LCC QH541.5.S3 (ebook) | DDC 577.7—dc23/eng/20220831 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022037797 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022037798 ISBN: 978-0-367-52488-3 (hbk) ISBN: 978-0-367-52486-9 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-003-05815-1 (ebk) DOI: 10.4324/9781003058151 Typeset in Goudy by codeMantra To our colleagues in Marine Studies/Marine Affairs and Policy who pioneered the Human Dimensions field. To our students who are the future ocean leaders. To Tutty and Rosita who have provided some calm during our writing and preparation of the book. Contents Editors Bios xi List of Contributors xiii Foreword xv Preface xvii Acknowledgments xxi PART I Setting the Stage 1 1 An Introduction to Marine Studies 3 A. K. SPALDING 2 Human Dimension Approaches to Marine Studies 14 K. BIEDENW EG, S. CHISHOLM HATFIELD, AND A. K. SPALDING 3 The Ocean: An Introduction to the Marine Environment 24 K. GRORUD-COLV ERT AND M. WARD PART II Grand Challenges 39 4 Wild Capture Fisheries: Processes, Technology, and Solutions 41 F. CONWAY AND L . CIANNELLI 5 Global Marine Aquaculture Development 59 J. D. STIEGLITZ, M. TOUCHTON, D. D. BENET TI, D. ROTHEN, A. CLAR K-HUGHES, B. K. HAUS, A. ZANGRONIZ, AND D. O. SUMAN 6 Marine Pollution: Science, Art, and the Accumulations of Time 78 S. BR ANDER AND P. BETJEMANN x Contents 7 Oceans and the Changing Climate 99 D. O. SUMAN 8 Marine Renewable Energy: Policy, People, and Prospects 116 B. J. WICKIZER, D. BR ANDT, B. ROBERTSON, AND H. S. BOUDET 9 Marine Areas beyond National Jurisdiction 137 H. HARDEN-DAVIES PART III Approaches to the Grand Challenges 155 10 Ocean Governance: Definitions, Framework, and Implementation 157 I. SCOT T AND A. K. SPALDING 11 Stewardship and Conservation of the Marine Environment: Marine Protected Areas 175 M. SHIV LANI AND D. O. SUMAN 12 Social Justice in Coastal Spaces 193 M. M. MALDONADO AND B. BOOV Y 13 Truth-Telling: Understanding Historical and Ongoing Impacts to Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) 209 C. B. LAPORTE 14 Coastal Community Development 228 A. N. DOER R, C. POMEROY, AND F. CONWAY 15 Marine Entrepreneurship 244 A. N. DOER R, L . ANDERSON, AND J. SCORSE 16 Measuring Progress toward a Blue Economy: A Critical Overview of Development Indicators 260 A. M. CISNEROS-MONTEMAYOR 17 Conclusion: Marine Studies as an Interdisciplinary Approach to the Study of the Coupled Natural–Human Ocean System 278 D. O. SUMAN AND A. K. SPALDING Index 285 Editors Bios Ana K. Spalding Dr. Spalding is an Associate Professor of Marine and Coastal Policy at Oregon State University, and Research Associate at the Smithsonian Tropical Re- search Institute and Coiba Research Station – AIP in Panama. She has a PhD in Environmental Studies from the University of California, Santa Cruz, an MA in Marine Affairs and Policy from the University of Miami, and a BA in International Economics from the University of Richmond. She has published widely on the socio-environmental outcomes of lifestyle migration to Panama; on the linkages between land use and policy, property rights, and develop- ment; and, more broadly, on the evolution of marine policy and conservation in Panama and the United States. She is also fascinated by interdisciplinarity and collaboration as an academic endeavor, where it no longer represents an abstract concept, but instead has become a critical framework for addressing global environmental threats. Her current research includes the study of adap- tive capacity to changing ocean conditions in resource-dependent communi- ties in California, science-policy engagement related to ocean acidification on the West Coast of the United States, and assessments of the social outcomes of marine protected areas. Daniel O. Suman Dr. Suman is a Professor of Marine Policy and Coastal Management at the Uni- versity of Miami’s Rosenstiel School of Marine, Atmospheric, and Earth Sci- ence. His research and project areas focus on coastal management, adaptation to climate change and sea level rise, governance of marine resources and space, management of mangroves and coastal wetlands, and marine protected areas – particularly in Latin America and the Caribbean, but also worldwide. Suman earned a PhD in Oceanography from the Scripps Institution of Oceanography (University of California, San Diego); a law degree (JD) from the University of California, Berkeley; an MA in International Education and Latin American Studies from Columbia University; and a BA from Middlebury College. At the University of Miami, he has taught courses for over 30 years in Environmental Law, Environmental Planning, Coastal Management, Coastal Law, and Water Resources Policy. Contributors Laura Anderson Local Ocean Seafoods, Newport, OR, USA Daniel D. Benetti University of Miami, Miami, FL, USA Peter Betjemann Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA Kelly Biedenweg Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA Bradley Boovy Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA Hilary S. Boudet Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR USA Susanne M. Brander Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA Diane Brandt Renewable Northwest, Corvallis, OR, USA Samantha Chisholm Hatfield Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA Lorenzo Ciannelli Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA and Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Ischia, Italy Andrés M. Cisneros-Montemayor Simon Fraser University, Vancouver, BC, Canada Angela Clark-Hughes University of Miami, Miami, FL, USA Flaxen Conway Oregon State University and Oregon Sea Grant, Corvallis, OR, USA A. N. Doerr Oregon State University, Newport, OR, USA xiv Contributors Kirsten Grorud-Colvert Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA Harriet Harden-Davies Nippon Foundation – University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland, UK Brian K. Haus University of Miami, Miami, FL, USA Caroline B. LaPorte Little River Band of Ottawa Indians, Seminole Tribe of Florida and Univer- sity of Miami, Miami, FL, USA Marta Maria Maldonado Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA Carrie Pomeroy University of California, Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA Bryson Robertson Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA Daniel Rothan University of Miami, Miami, FL, USA Jason Scorse Center for the Blue Economy and Middlebury Institute of International Studies, Monterey, CA, USA Inara Scott Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA Manoj P. Shivlani University of Miami, Miami, FL, USA Ana K. Spalding Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA and Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama City, Panama John D. Stieglitz University of Miami, Miami, FL, USA Daniel O. Suman University of Miami, Miami, FL, USA Michael Touchton University of Miami, Miami, FL, USA Melissa Ward San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, USA and Oxford University, Oxford, UK Benjamin J. Wickizer Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA Ana Zangroniz University of Florida/IFAS Extension, Miami, FL, USA Foreword Relationships among people and oceans are complicated. People rely on the oceans and are influenced by them. They derive well-being from coastal and ocean spaces. And they also affect coastal and ocean health. It’s not possible to fully understand the myriad connections among people and oceans through one disciplinary lens. The field of marine studies draws on multiple disciplines to better understand complex linkages among people and the oceans. The com- prehensive multi-disciplinary approach at the core of the field of marine studies is critical to addressing some of society’s most challenging issues related to water quality, multi-use, energy development, coastal access, environmental justice, and many others. As the field of marine studies has gained attention over the years, the need for a holistic, multi-disciplinary text has emerged. Ana K. Spalding and D aniel O. Suman’s Oceans and Society: An Introduction to Marine Studies fills that need. By drawing on multiple academic disciplines from across the social sciences and humanities, as well as traditional ecological knowledge, Oceans and Society equips students, coastal and ocean practitioners, and anyone else interested in the h uman dimensions of the oceans with valuable knowledge and practical tools to make sense of the way people relate to the coasts and oceans. This work demonstrates the importance of the social sciences and the power of the humanities to lend insights into how people think about and interact with coastal and ocean spaces. As a university professor who has been teaching introductory marine stud- ies for two decades, I know how beneficial it is for students to be able to draw on different disciplines and areas of expertise when tackling important – but challenging  – issues like marine pollution, habitat decline, inequitable access, and climate change. I also recognize how difficult it can be to provide just the right amount of disciplinary depth and breadth so that students are adequately equipped to engage with complex coastal and ocean issues. By providing in one place important theories and tools from a variety of disciplines and valuable cases, like the harvesting of Manoomin (wild rice) by Indigenous communities for sub- sistence and ceremony or the international governance of the Arctic Ocean, this book is a welcome addition to the field of marine studies. xvi Foreword It is essential that current and future generations of coastal practitioners, policy makers, researchers, and coastal and ocean users approach complex coastal and ocean issues through a lens of multidisciplinarity. The field of marine studies in general, and this book in particular, prepares them to do just that. Dr. Tracey Dalton Professor of Marine Affairs University of Rhode Island Kingston, RI, USA Preface Daniel and I, together, have over 60 years of experience conducting research, consulting, and teaching about the interactions between oceans and society. No- tably, during this time our emphasis has been on “society” in all its dimensions (e.g., political, cultural, economic, legal, etc.) within the marine space. However, the path to becoming marine social scientists was far from clear. Daniel has a background in oceanography, law, Latin American studies, and education; I have degrees in environmental studies, marine affairs and policy, and economics; and we both share a deep connection to the ocean and curiosity about the people who rely on it (and we are both originally from Panama!). The latter, unfortunately, is not enough to secure a job nor does it provide clarity on the types of skills or knowledge needed to work with oceans and people. Indeed, before I met Daniel almost 20 years ago (Daniel was my MA and PhD supervisor), I had asked myself this question many times – how can I work on social issues, in marine areas, without pursuing a degree in marine biology? Since then, Daniel and I have actively collab- orated on various projects related to coastal zone management, policy, tourism and sustainability, ocean conservation, and now on this book. Over the years we have often discussed challenges we faced while doing this work, such as funding (it tends to be less compared to funding available for our natural and physical science counterparts), expectations (often colleagues will expect us to translate or communicate the natural or physical science to the public, instead of recog- nizing our work as generating its own type of information), perceptions (inclu- sion of marine social scientists as research collaborators as a last minute add-on to a project to satisfy the funders), and marine-specific social science training (it is straightforward to pursue a degree in economics, anthropology, business ad- ministration, etc.; yet not as easy to find opportunities for training in marine economics, marine anthropology, marine business, or other marine-focused social sciences). In response, we decided to put together this volume on what we are calling Marine Studies, an interdisciplinary field that centers the human dimen- sion (social sciences and humanities) and is grounded in a solid understanding of the natural and physical processes that define oceans and coasts. It is our hope that the volume will contribute to current efforts to build capacity and foster a community of interdisciplinary thinkers who can overcome these challenges and become the next generation of oceans and society leaders. xviii Preface The volume is designed in three parts to provide a deep and practical under- standing of the complex social, cultural, historical, economic, and environmental issues faced by global coasts and oceans. Part I sets the stage and defines the field of Marine Studies; describes the basic, applied, and interdisciplinary fields that enable the study of the human dimension; and outlines the natural and physical processes that make the ocean a unique place. Part II is a survey of contemporary and emerging grand challenges faced by oceans and society, such as fisheries, aq- uaculture, marine pollution, climate change, energy production, and the proposed framework for governance of the 60% of the ocean that is found in areas beyond national jurisdiction, aka “High Seas”. Notably, most chapters in this Part of the book are co-authored by a natural or physical scientist in partnership with a social science or humanities expert. This was intentionally done to invite readers to think critically about how we portray problems in the ocean – Is the problem that there are less fish in the sea? Or is the problem that human activity has led to fewer fish and is, in turn, negatively affecting those who rely on fishing for their livelihoods? Finally, we recognize that readers will have different professional and academic interests and worldviews. Thus, Part III showcases a suite of applied approaches or perspectives to help address these grand challenges, such as ocean governance, conservation, social justice, traditional ecological knowledge, community devel- opment, entrepreneurship, and development for the blue economy. If you are an instructor wanting to use some or all of this volume in your classes in marine or environmental studies, we encourage you to think about the goal of each part of the book. While you may certainly pick and choose chapters from Parts II and III, we encourage you to carefully present all the content from Part I as a foundation for subsequent discussions of the grand challenges and approaches. This can provide students with some clarity on their disciplinary or interdiscipli- nary identity, effectively building a community of Marine Studies scholars and fu- ture practitioners. To work through the marine socio- environmental problems of Part II, we have added questions for reflection to each chapter as a starting point for class discussion. You may facilitate activities, such as think-pair-share, where students can talk with each other about the points they found most interesting about the chapter. We also realize that due to space limitations we were only able to include a few specific examples in each chapter. To overcome this, you might ask students to each bring a current event related to the chapter and critically as- sess the social and environmental nature of the event. In our classes, for instance, we have engaged students by asking them to select one of the grand challenges and explore its many dimensions throughout the length of the term, with the expectation that they will produce a final project that reflects their interests and experiences. We have also developed case studies around some of these topics, in- viting the whole class to represent a different approach or perspective, essentially replicating a real-world scenario where decision-making requires effective collab- oration and communication across often conflicting interests.1 Finally, to actively engage students to think about how their own personal vocation and interests might shape their future careers, in addition to questions for reflection, all the chapters in Part III include a short section on professional pathways that hints at Preface xix the type of disciplinary specialization students might need to focus on to be more prepared for a given career direction. These professional pathways may appear generic. Certainly, for instance, to become a marine conservation practitioner a student may pursue a degree in marine biology, public policy, environmental ed- ucation, etc. However, they would probably also want to focus on learning about the types of organizations that do conservation work and specifically tailor their coursework, assignments, and networking to building expertise on the topic. If you are a student or practitioner reading this book, we invite you to read it critically and thoughtfully. You might ask yourself – What is the change I want to see for oceans and society, and how can the content of each chapter help me think about creative and innovative solutions? You may also notice that some of the topics are presented in more than one chapter. In fact, you may even notice that the same topic is addressed differently across chapters (e.g., the links between fisheries and aquaculture in providing food from the sea; or the implications of promoting ma- rine renewable energy in ocean spaces that are already experiencing competing uses, such as fisheries, aquaculture, and conservation; or the role of international agencies in managing and regulating the ocean space). This, again, is intentional to reflect the interests, perspectives, and worldviews of a diverse society. Chapter authors have a range of disciplinary and professional experiences, expertise, and identities that are reflected in their writing. In this sense, we invite you to not just look at the content of the chapters but also read about the authors and think about their contributions to Marine Studies. We have enjoyed the process of designing the structure of the book, inviting author contributions, and thinking deeply about how to best use this material to train the next generation of ocean leaders. Ultimately, we hope we have provided a tool that will inspire a new narrative for the ocean as a coupled natural–human system that calls for interdisciplinary thinking and holistic approaches to inno- vative solutions. Increasingly, policymakers, resource managers, conservation organizations, and natural and physical scientists are finding that solutions to per- vasive environmental problems, such as climate change, require this interdiscipli- nary approach, including social science and humanities perspectives. Students of Marine Studies are ideally suited to fill this demand for future interdisciplinary marine-focused professionals. Ana K. Spalding, Oregon State University and Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute Daniel O. Suman, University of Miami Acknowledgments We thank the many people who have assisted us in the preparation of this book. First, we recognize the authors of the chapters who gave their time writing and revising the essays, as well as the anonymous external chapter reviewers. Taylor & Francis editorial assistants John Baddeley and Katie Stokes provided guidance regarding the many publishing details and were sensitive to delays caused by the pandemic. We thank Dr. Jack Barth and Dr. Kristen Milligan, Executive and Associate Director, respectively, of Oregon State University’s Marine Studies In- itiative who provided enthusiastic support for this project, as well as partial fund- ing for co-editor Spalding. Oregon State students Trisha Patterson and Ravyn Cervantes provided excellent assistance with copyediting. Co-editor Suman’s stu- dents from the University of Miami’s Ocean Policy class and teaching assistant Johanna Mead provided constructive criticism and feedback for the chapters. We also recognize Mead’s assistance with the indexing. Finally, we thank our family and friends who offered us support and encouragement during book preparation. Note 1 You can find excellent case study materials in the UC Press journal titled Case Studies in the Environment, and in the National Socio-Environmental Synthesis Center’s (SES- YNC) Case Study Collection, available online at: https://www.sesync.org/resources/ case-study-collection. Part I Setting the Stage Part I sets the stage for the rest of the book by introducing the field of marine studies, describing various human dimension disciplines, and introducing basic natural and physical processes that define the marine environment. DOI: 10.4324/9781003058151-1 1 An Introduction to Marine Studies A. K. Spalding Introduction Marine studies is an emerging interdisciplinary1 field of study that explores the dynamic relationship between people and the marine environment. As the reach of anthropogenic activities expands from heavily populated coastal areas into re- mote regions of the ocean, the marine environment has become a literal, as well as symbolic, last frontier for exploration and exploitation. At the same time, there is a growing awareness of the unequal outcomes and unjust practices associated with this expansion of ocean-based activities (e.g., Büscher et al., 2017; Camp- bell & Gray, 2019; Fusco et al., 2022). Scientists, practitioners, and civil society have made it clear that social equity and, more specifically, ocean justice must ac- company all thinking about the future of coastal communities, ocean industries, conservation, and the governance of ocean spaces and resources in areas beyond national jurisdiction. More than ever, unraveling these dynamics to better under- stand how people affect the ocean and, in turn, how the ocean affects humans is essential. The field of marine studies is ideally suited to take on this challenge by engaging a suite of human dimensions approaches and tools (described in more detail in Chapter 2 of this volume) and applying these to real-world problems (marine-specific problems are presented in more detail in the chapters included in Part II of this book). This chapter specifically explores the evolution of marine studies as an interdisciplinary field. It then highlights the importance of adopting a marine studies approach by asking the question: Why should we care? And it ends with a discussion about ways in which interdisciplinary research and training can embrace the applied nature of this field, as well as support capacity building for the next generation of ocean and coastal professionals. People and the Sea The attraction to the ocean is deeply embedded into who we are as humans. From evolutionary science debates about Darwin’s writings on the origins of life to faith- based representations in the Bible of the sea as simultaneously a limitless source of food and a dangerous life-threatening force, our connections to the ocean run deep and are inextricably linked to our existence. Depictions, interpretations, DOI: 10.4324/9781003058151-2 4 A. K. Spalding and representations of the human relationship to the ocean abound in literature (e.g., Herman Melville’s Moby-Dick or Samuel Taylor Coleridge’s The Rime of the Ancient Mariner), art (e.g., Katsushika Hokusai’s The Great Wave off Kanagawa), and history (e.g., the Age of Exploration, known for European colonization of the Americas). Similarly, naturalists such as Charles Darwin and Edward Forbes, intrigued by the ocean and its creatures, developed their own relationship with the ocean – where scientists are observers, and the ocean is the observed – by systematically documenting and studying the ocean in all its complexities. In the purest example of interdependence, humans have long relied on food from the sea for their survival. Academics often describe these relationships through distinct disciplinary perspectives. For instance, anthropologists tell us about sea- faring cultures of the Pacific (Hau‘ofa, 2008), political economists explain the role of neoliberal ideology on current uses of the ocean (e.g., Mansfield, 2004), fisheries biologists assess the health of fish stocks (e.g., Grorud-Colvert & Sponau- gle, 2011), and oceanographers describe the relationship between ocean currents, fisheries resources, and climate change (e.g., Pinsky et al., 2018). But, as Singh et al. (2021) point out, will understanding the ocean in this fragmented way really lead to “the ocean we want”? Importantly, it is us, as humans, who continue to socially construct2 the ocean and have done so over time through our attitudes, beliefs, and actions. Humans have created what is known today as the Anthropocene ocean: a geographi- cal space in which human activities are undeniably driving observed physical and environmental changes (Spalding & de Ycaza, 2020). Intricately linked as a tightly coupled natural–human system, these environmental changes are affect- ing human societies that are, in turn, also experiencing rapid change. It becomes ever clearer that understanding, and making decisions based on, this dynamic relationship between people and nature has become one of the most challenging, yet critical, tasks of our time. So … what if, by recognizing the ocean as a socially constructed and dynamic space, scholars and practitioners were able to move beyond disciplinary limitations to informing decision-making? What if, instead of working narrowly within academic and practical silos, scholars and practitioners adopted a more holistic and integrated approach to understanding the material (practical) and symbolic (socially constructed) drivers of change in the ocean, and made decisions accordingly? In practice, humans are actively creating the Anthropocene ocean through policy, management, and behaviors that are, in turn, shaped by needs, culture, values, and unequal power structures. These actions result in persistent plastic pollution in the ocean (Jambeck et al., 2015), overexploitation of living marine resources (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2022), and rising sea levels and temperatures as a result of anthropogenic climate change, among others. Symbolically, or through narratives about the ocean, humans are also affecting the ocean by, for instance, supporting the dominant perception of the ocean as limitless or “too big to fail” (Lubchenco & Gaines, 2019) or by conceptualizing the ocean and its resources as “open for business” (Virdin et al., 2020). Simply put, how we understand, perceive, and use the ocean matters. If we An Introduction to Marine Studies 5 care about the future of the ocean and its resources, we must act and think in more holistic, integrated, and sustainable ways. It follows, then, that a holistic approach to scholarship and practice – one that explicitly and intentionally integrates politics with ecological outcomes, or links literary and historical accounts of travel with state-of-the-art oceanographic observations – is a possible way forward. As Berkes points out in the preface to his 2015 book Coasts for People: Interdisciplinary Approaches to Coastal and Ma- rine Resource Management: “Addressing the real problems of the world requires crossing disciplinary boundaries and, ultimately, eliminating the divides between science and management, resource user and decision-maker, and different kinds of knowledge” (p. 12). While admittedly a lofty goal, marine studies seeks to do just that! The next sections of this chapter outline how this interdisciplinary field can help address the very real challenges faced by the Anthropocene Ocean through focusing on the human dimension of coastal and marine issues. Marine Studies as an Interdisciplinary Field of Study You may be wondering whether this interdisciplinary thinking is really new. For instance, is it not obvious that the economy affects fisheries? Or that how we feel about the ocean affects whether or not we are willing to support or respect conservation regulations? The simple answer is that, in effect, it is not ground- breaking; and yes, some academic disciplines have embraced interdisciplinarity since at least the middle of the 20th century (Sauer, 1956). For instance, geogra- phers, human and cultural ecologists, and environmental studies scholars have long engaged in explorations of the relationship between people and nature. How- ever, it is the intentional application of this thinking to the ocean that is, argu- ably, novel. Certainly, the expectation that the information obtained from these interdisciplinary studies be used to solve real-world problems is new. Perhaps a key distinctive feature of marine studies as a field is that issues are framed f oremost by the human dimension – and that the human dimension is inclusive of h umanities, as well as disciplinary and interdisciplinary social sciences. By p utting people first, in all their diversity and complexity, marine studies scholarship is ideally suited to disentangle the uneven, and often unjust, outcomes of resource use. Specifi- cally, it may provide insights into the social and political conditions that are more conducive to successful conservation outcomes, or it may even help discern the human drivers of and proposed solutions to climate change. This does not mean natural and physical science contributions, alone, are not important. Instead, it suggests the need for a shift in thinking toward considering people as an inextri- cable part of the story of environmental change and associated solutions. While a traditional ecologist might focus on advancing knowledge about the life history of a given species based on ecological theories of evolution, an ecologist with train- ing in marine studies might expand her focus on the life history of said species to explicitly consider the relationship between fish and associated human uses over time. A marine studies specialist might further look at the broader political economy, the culture, or even human migration patterns to understand why and 6 A. K. Spalding how humans use certain fish species, or actions that might support the sustainable management of fisheries and the livelihoods of people dependent on living ma- rine resources. Furthermore, marine studies often calls for collaborations across individuals who, together, form interdisciplinary research teams. So, if not new, what are the intellectual origins of marine studies, and how does it differ from marine science? The “marine” aspect of the field is self-explanatory and encompasses all issues related to oceans (including the water column and seafloor) and coasts (spaces and uses along the broadly defined land–sea inter- face). To understand the meaning of “studies”, consider environmental studies, a discipline that has existed since the 1970s. An inherently interdisciplinary field of study, environmental studies examines, understands, and addresses environ- mental challenges from a range of perspectives, including social, political, and economic concerns – often using more than one perspective at a time. The field is grounded in human ecology, a school of thought proposed by Barrows in 1923 that represented a critique of environmental determinism.3 Subsequent scholar- ship, known as cultural ecology, moved away from the idea that the relation- ship between humans and the environment could be explained using ecological concepts and moved toward explanations of the evolution of culture and human civilizations, using culture and history as elements that also influence cultural change over time (Steward, 1955). For instance, Sauer’s (1956) work on fire and agriculture reinforced Barrows’ (1923) critique by recognizing the role of human activity in shaping environments into what he called “cultural landscapes”. This new thinking about people and the environment had closer ties to the social sciences, applying concepts from economics, history, sociology, and political science to particular situations and environmental conditions. A more recent critique of cultural ecology, related to its failure to understand or fully account for the complexities of human interactions with their environment, is known as political ecology. First used by Eric Wolf in 1972, political ecology was born from the recognition that in post-WWII societies, people and communities no longer lived in isolation from larger political or economic forces. Political ecology schol- ars acknowledge the need to integrate broader social, political, and economic contexts into socio-environmental research. Thus, drawing on this long tradition, environmental studies emerged from c oncepts that have evolved over time to include various human dimensions disci- plines, and it applies that lens to relevant environmental problems. Importantly, the natural and social sciences work together to explore the causes of and iden- tify solutions to complex environmental problems. In sum, environmental studies scholars acknowledge that environmental degradation is inextricably linked to the human condition and is often characterized by unequal or unjust outcomes for vulnerable communities. The inclusion of this human dimension is, indeed, what differentiates the environmental studies from environmental science. While environmental scientists acknowledge the interactions between people and the environment, they often focus primarily on the scientific drivers of and answers to environmental problems. Currently, almost a century after the emergence of the field of human ecology, we are living in a time when converging climate, public health, economic, and An Introduction to Marine Studies 7 racial justice crises, brought to a head in 2020 with the Covid-19 pandemic, have highlighted that failures of collective and public policies around health and the environment have perpetuated individual and collective suffering. In 2018, more than 1 billion people around the world were living in poverty (i.e., living on less than $3.20 per day), most of them in Sub-Saharan Africa (World Bank, n.d.). Furthermore, an estimated 25% of assessed animal and plant species are threat- ened (Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services, 2019). Thus, the legacy of interdisciplinary thinking around people and the environment, as applied to the grand challenges facing society, is, arguably, more important and relevant than ever. While the interdisciplinary nature of environmental or marine studies is not new, it is, unfortunately, far from widespread – likely because this type of research is harder to conduct, assess, and fund (Nature, 2015). Within the marine space, in particular, this integration of disciplines and application to real-world problems lags behind interdisciplinary efforts in terrestrial areas. An exploration of the reasons for this is beyond the purview of this chapter. But suffice it to say that the interdis- ciplinary perspectives on marine grand challenges presented in Part II of this book, and the various human dimensions approaches highlighted in Part III, are impor- tant reminders of a much-needed shift in thinking toward inclusive science that goes beyond the use of increasingly complex and sophisticated tools for describing and modeling ocean conditions. Indeed, such a shift could be responsive to calls for environmental justice and equity and the solutions-oriented science needed to achieve an ocean space that reflects the diversity of needs and interests of marine actors, knowledge-holders, industry, and government (Singh et al., 2021). Finally, you may have heard the ideas described above as falling under the purview of disciplines other than marine studies. Other names typically used to describe interdisciplinary approaches to marine issues include maritime studies, marine social science, marine or blue humanities, marine affairs, among others. Indeed, these are all terms broadly used to refer to the study of people and the ocean. While the term marine studies is used here as an all-encompassing term, it is important to also acknowledge the many historical and current traditions that have influenced and inform the various chapters of this book. Changing Oceans and Societies: Why Should We Care? We have hinted at the challenges faced by the ocean and the people who depend on it. These include climate change, pervasive plastic pollution, questions around conventional exploitation of fossil fuels and increased knowledge about renewable sources of energy from the ocean, food from the sea (wild-caught and farmed), and global negotiations around resource management in ocean areas beyond national jurisdiction (further described in Part II of this book). The pervasiveness of these challenges suggests that the time to change our approach to finding solutions is now. Three points make this a unique moment for finding solutions for people and the sea. First, physically and environmentally, the imprint of humans is ever-present. The Anthropocene ocean puts us, as humans, closer than ever to being affected 8 A. K. Spalding by and having the opportunity to shape ocean futures (Biermann, 2021). For in- stance, technology has allowed us to explore further and deeper into the ocean than ever before, while also increasing our ability to predict future ocean con- ditions and, thus, reduce risk at sea. Furthermore, recent natural and associated social disasters (e.g., the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami, recurring heat waves across Europe, wildfires in Australia and most of the US West Coast in 2020 and 2022, and the global health crisis from the Covid-19 pandemic) have become regular reminders that we are highly dependent on a functioning natural, social, and political environment. Second, related climate and global health crises have exposed significant flaws in how we understand and address society’s problems, emphasizing the vulnera- bility of certain sectors of society and the need to simultaneously consider cross- cutting issues. You may consider, for example, the link between fisheries, n utrition, poverty, and gender. Global wild-capture fisheries plateaued in the 1980s (Pauly, 2008), and climate change is predicted to further affect their availability and distribution (Pinsky et al., 2018). Nutrition and food security continue to be a high priority on the sustainable development agenda; in 2017, some 815 million people around the world went to bed hungry, and about 2 billion people lacked key micronutrients (Development Initiatives, 2017). Closely related to nutrition, in 2015 about 10% of the world’s population lived in extreme poverty, meaning that they lacked access to basic needs such as health, sanitation, and education, among others. For the first time since the 1990s, that number increased as a re- sult of the Covid-19 crisis (Lakner et al., 2021). Studies show that these changes in fisheries, nutrition, and poverty disproportionately affect women around the world. If we consider post-harvest processing, women represent 50% of the global fisheries workforce (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2016). However, the nature of their involvement suggests they receive lower re- turns than men, in part due to engagement in less profitable segments of the value chain, gendered divisions of labor, and patterns of access to and ownership of assets (WorldFish, 2016). The value of securing gender equality has been exten- sively studied, effectively demonstrating that supporting women’s engagement in productive activities, such as fishing, has the potential to improve nutrition and other development indicators through their contributions to the overall wellbe- ing of the household (WorldFish, 2016). As with poverty, the Covid-19 crisis has rolled back recent gains for women’s rights and equality (UN Women, 2020), and negatively affected the fishing industry as a whole (Bennett et al., 2020). Applying lessons from recent efforts to support women and girls is more important than ever, and it offers an opportunity to engage more broadly across sectors to address these intersecting challenges. Third, from a policy and governance perspective, the complex nature of the problems faced by people and the ocean means that solutions increasingly require both social and ecological information to make better resource management and development decisions. The ocean has only recently emerged as a critical element of the global development agenda, creating opportunities for action. In 2015, the ocean secured its own Sustainable Development Goal, SDG 14: Life Under Water, An Introduction to Marine Studies 9 within the UN’s 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (United N ations, 2015); and scholars and practitioners are increasingly working on emphasizing the intersecting goals and benefits across all 17 SDGs (e.g., links between sustain- able fisheries and poverty reduction [WorldFish, 2016]). Additionally, the decade that started in 2020 has, in a short time, seen the emergence of global efforts such as the High-Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean Economy, as well as a variety of national and regional-level efforts. Indeed, the UN has declared this the UN Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development. These actions allow for increased attention to the natural, social, and physical aspects of the ocean to be placed on the global agenda and have the potential to raise important questions and hold global and national institutions accountable for addressing the intersec- tional nature of our ocean’s grand challenges. How Does a Marine Studies Approach Help Address Ocean and Society Problems? To provide a deep and practical understanding of the complex social, cultural, historical, political, and economic character of the marine environment, it is necessary to center human dimensions research, training, and capacity building. This training must be grounded in a solid understanding of marine natural and physical processes. The interdisciplinary perspective of a marine studies approach can be applied to real-world problems such as climate change, fisheries, aquacul- ture, pollution, energy production, governance, and biodiversity loss. Furthermore, this approach provides the skills and creates opportunities for future professionals to engage in a diversity of careers related to social and environmental justice, policy, entrepreneurship, community development, support for Indigenous rights, and conservation. Marine Studies Research Social science research and a humanities approach to the study of the marine en- vironment has traditionally been organized around distinct disciplines, instead of by its shared focus on the ocean and associated activities. Analogous research on land use, food, and agriculture, in contrast, has enjoyed a community of scholar- ship built on shared study sites, themes, topics, theories, methods, and approaches. However, this is changing for the marine space. For instance, the Manifesto for the Marine Social Sciences (Bavinck & Verrips, 2020), generated at the Centre for Maritime Research’s 2019 MARE conference, is the first attempt at identifying marine and coastal topics that are relevant to social scientists. In the Manifesto, the authors identified urgent marine social science topics, suggestions for further research, and thoughts on how to apply new methodologies and approaches to the study of marine issues. The resulting vision for marine social sciences in- cludes an expansion of theory and applied research opportunities, as well as marine-based thematic focal areas such as ocean politics, regional perspectives, gender and fisheries, and sustainable blue growth. Importantly, there is a need to 10 A. K. Spalding further connect the social sciences, the humanities, and the natural and physical sciences. This is often limited by challenges such as the inclusion of social science as an afterthought to a project, a relative lack of funding for environmental social science and humanities, and the differences in jargon between natural and social scientists (Spalding & Biedenweg, 2017). However, the interdisciplinary nature of marine studies research may help to overcome these challenges and facilitate integration by centering the importance of understanding the environmental and physical characteristics of the ocean (see Chapter 3 of this volume). In other words, marine studies research can help to understand the broad social and envi- ronmental context of marine issues, with a vision to identify holistic and viable solutions to the most pressing problems faced by people and the sea. Interdisciplinary Training and Workforce Capacity Building The vision for marine studies research outlined above requires appropriate train- ing and capacity building. A key critique of interdisciplinarity is that it focuses on breadth (knowing a little about many things) versus depth (knowing a lot about a few things). However, in the context of marine studies, breadth of knowledge might be an asset – especially if accompanied by an understanding of the type of social science or humanities expertise that is needed to address a given problem (if it’s not your expertise, you can always call on someone with knowledge in that field! Indeed, collaboration is a key element of marine studies), the type of natural or physical science that would be most useful for a given issue, and the social and governance context within which said issue is occurring (International Ocean Institute, 2018). Chapter 2 (Human Dimension Approaches to Marine Studies) and Chapter 3 (The Ocean – An Introduction to the Marine Environment) in this volume offer this foun- dational knowledge, while subsequent chapters in Part II illustrate how that knowl- edge is applied to key socio-environmental issues. Furthermore, research shows that while disciplinary knowledge can be valuable, other capacities such as the ability to work collaboratively, tolerance and reflexivity, trust, and the ability to balance power dynamics within groups are essential elements of interdisciplinary training and ca- pacity building for the marine workforce of the future (Blythe & Cvitanovic, 2020). Conclusion: A Field Evolved This chapter shows how marine studies has evolved to integrate humanities, natural, and social science disciplinary approaches in the context of real-world problems. Through marine studies research, training, and capacity building we can prepare future interdisciplinary marine leaders, inspire new knowledge about people and the sea, generate innovative solutions for sustainable ocean futures, and build capacity for a new generation of marine-focused professionals. Environ- mental careers are diverse, wide ranging, and rapidly growing! Chapters in Part III of this volume provide examples of how marine studies training can be used to address social justice, understand governance and decision-making, incorporate An Introduction to Marine Studies 11 and support Indigenous rights and knowledge, build marine-themed businesses, work with coastal communities, or focus on conservation. Importantly, marine studies lays the foundation for you to learn more about the links between people and the sea and invites students to embrace interdisciplinarity and align research and training with pressing environmental and societal needs. Notes 1 Rosenfield (1992) defines multidisciplinary and interdisciplinarity as the spaces in which teams of people with different disciplinary backgrounds work in parallel with no or some integration across fields, respectively. Transdisciplinarity goes beyond in- tegration and is characterized by a shared goal or approach to address the societally relevant question or issue. 2 Social construction is a sociological theory that suggests that knowledge of or about objects, events, landscapes, or even other living beings is shaped by meanings placed on said objects, landscapes, or living beings by society (Andrews, 2012). 3 Environmental determinism is a highly debated and critiqued geographical concept that suggests all human activities and characteristics are determined by environmental conditions. The concept has a complex history, starting in the early 20th century. Currently, geographers generally accept that the human condition is affected by p olitics, the economy, and other social factors, in addition to the environment (Livingstone, 2011). References Andrews, T. (2012). What is social constructionism? Grounded Theory Review, 11(1). http:// groundedtheoryreview.com/2012/06/01/what-is-social-constructionism/ Barrows, H. (1923). Geography as human ecology. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 13(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/00045602309356882 Bavinck, M., & Verrips, J. (2020). Manifesto for the marine social sciences. Maritime Studies, 19(2), 121–123. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40152-020-00179-x Bennett, N. J., Finkbeiner, E. M., Ban, N. C., Belhabib, D., Jupiter, S. D., Kittinger, J. N., Mangubhai, S., Scholtens, J., Gill, D., & Christie, P. (2020). The COVID-19 pandemic, small-scale fisheries and coastal fishing communities. Coastal Management, 48(4), 336–347. https://doi.org/10.1080/08920753.2020.1766937 Berkes, F. (2015). Coasts for people: Interdisciplinary approaches to coastal and marine resource management. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315771038 Biermann, F. (2021). The future of ‘environmental’ policy in the Anthropocene: Time for a paradigm shift. Environmental Politics, 30(1–2), 61–80. https://doi.org/10.1080/09644016. 2020.1846958 Blythe, J., & Cvitanovic, C. (2020). Five organizational features that enable successful interdisciplinary marine research. Frontiers in Marine Science, 7. https://doi.org/10.3389/ fmars.2020.539111 Büscher, B., Fletcher, R., Brockington, D., Sandbrook, C., Adams, W. M., Campbell, L., Corson, C., Dressler, W., Duffy, R., Gray, N., Holmes, G., Kelly, A., Lunstrum, E., Ramutsindela, M., & Shanker, K. (2017). Half-earth or whole earth? Radical ideas for conservation, and their implications. Oryx, 51(3), 407–410. https://doi.org/10.1017/ S0030605316001228 12 A. K. Spalding Campbell, L. M., & Gray, N. J. (2019). Area expansion versus effective and equitable management in international marine protected areas goals and targets. Marine Policy, 100, 192–199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2018.11.030 Development Initiatives. (2017). Global nutrition report 2017: Nourishing the SDGs. https:// globalnutritionreport.org/documents/822/Global_Nutrition_Report_2017.pdf Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2016). The state of world fisher- ies and aquaculture 2016: Contributing to food security and nutrition for all. Retrieved July 14, 2022 from https://www.fao.org/3/i5555e/i5555e.pdf Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2022). The state of world fi sheries and aquaculture 2022. Towards blue transformation. Retrieved July 19, 2022 from https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/cc0461en/ Fusco, L. M., Knott, C., Cisneros-Montemayor, A. M., Singh, G. G., & Spalding, A. K. (2022). Blueing business as usual in the ocean: Blue economies, oil, and climate justice. Political Geography, 98, 102670. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2022.102670 Grorud-Colvert, K., & Sponaugle, S. (2011). Variability in water temperature affects trait-mediated survival of a newly settled coral reef fish. Oecologia, 165(3), 675–686. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-010-1748-4 Hau‘Ofa, E. (2008). We are the ocean. In We Are the Ocean. University of Hawaii Press. Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. (2019). Summary for policymakers of the global assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services (summary for policy makers). IPBES Plenary at its seventh session (IPBES 7, Paris, 2019). Zenodo. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3553579 International Ocean Institute. (2018). The future of ocean governance and capacity develop- ment. Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004380271 Jambeck, J. R., Geyer, R., Wilcox, C., Siegler, T. R., Perryman, M., Andrady, A., Narayan, R., & Law, K. L. (2015). Plastic waste inputs from land into the ocean. Science, 347(6223), 768–771. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1260352 Lakner, C., Yonzan, N., Mahler, D. G., Aguilar, R. A. C., & Wu, H. (2021). Updated esti- mates of the impact of COVID-19 on global poverty: Looking back at 2020 and the outlook for 2021. World Bank. Retrieved July 14, 2022 from https://blogs.worldbank.org/opendata/ updated-estimates-impact-covid-19-global-poverty-looking-back-2020-and-outlook-2021 Livingstone, D. N. (2011). Environmental determinism. In J. A. Agnew & D. N. Livingstone (Eds.), The Sage handbook of geographical knowledge (pp. 368–380). Sage Publications. Lubchenco, J., & Gaines, S. D. (2019). A new narrative for the ocean. Science, 364(6444), 911–911. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aay2241. Mansfield, B. (2004). Neoliberalism in the oceans: “Rationalization,” property rights, and the commons question. Geoforum, 35(3), 313–326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum. 2003.05.002 Nature. (2015). Why interdisciplinary research matters. Nature, 525, 305. https://doi. org/10.1038/525305a Pauly, D. (2008). Global fisheries: A brief review. Journal of Biological Research- Thessaloniki, 9, 3–9. Pinsky, M. L., Reygondeau, G., Caddell, R., Palacios-Abrantes, J., Spijkers, J., & Cheung, W. W. (2018). Preparing ocean governance for species on the move. Science, 360(6394), 1189–1191. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aat2360 Rosenfield, P. L. (1992). The potential of transdisciplinary research for sustaining and extending linkages between the health and social sciences. Social Science & Medicine, 35(11), 1343–1357. https://doi.org/10.1016/0277-9536(92)90038-R An Introduction to Marine Studies 13 Sauer, C. O. (1956). The education of a geographer. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 46(3), 287–299. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8306.1956.tb01510.x Singh, G. G., Harden-Davies, H., Allison, E. H., Cisneros-Montemayor, A. M., Swartz, W., Crosman, K. M., & Ota, Y. (2021). Will understanding the ocean lead to “the ocean we want”? Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118(5). https://doi.org/10.1073/ pnas.2100205118 Spalding, A. K., & Biedenweg, K. (2017). Socializing the coast: Engaging the social science of tropical coastal research. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 187, 1–8. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.ecss.2017.01.002 Spalding, A. K., & de Ycaza, R. (2020). Navigating shifting regimes of ocean governance: From UNCLOS to sustainable development goal 14. Environment and Society, 11(1), 5–26. https://doi.org/10.3167/ares.2020.110102 Steward, J. H. (1955). Theory of culture change: The methodology of multilinear evolution. University of Illinois Press. United Nations. (2015). Transforming our world: The 2030 agenda for sustainable devel- opment (A/Res/70/1). https://sdgs.un.org/sites/default/files/publications/21252030%20 Agenda%20for%20Sustainable%20Development%20web.pdf UN Women. (2020). COVID-19 and its economic toll on women: The story behind the numbers. Retrieved July 14, 2022 from https://www.unwomen.org/en/news/stories/2020/9/ feature-covid-19-economic-impacts-on-women Virdin, J., Vegh, T., Jouffray, J. -B., Blasiak, R., Mason, S., Österblom, H., Vermeer, D., Wachtmeister, H., & Werner, N. (2021). The Ocean 100: Transnational corporations in the ocean economy. Science Advances, 7(3), eabc8041. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv. abc8041 Wolf, E. (1972). Ownership and political ecology. Anthropological Quarterly, 45(3), 201–205. https://doi.org/10.2307/3316532 World Bank. (n.d.). Poverty and inequality platform. Retrieved July 21, 2022, from https:// pip.worldbank.org/home WorldFish. (2016). Why gender equality matters in fisheries and aquaculture. Retrieved July 14, 2022 from https://www.worldfishcenter.org/pages/why-gender-equality-matters- fisheries-aquaculture/ An Introduction to Marine Studies Andrews, T. (2012). What is social constructionism? Grounded Theory Review, 11(1). http://groundedtheoryreview.com/2012/06/01/what-is-social-constructionism/ Barrows, H. (1923). Geography as human ecology. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 13(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/00045602309356882 Bavinck, M. , & Verrips, J. (2020). Manifesto for the marine social sciences. Maritime Studies, 19(2), 121–123. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40152-020-00179-x Bennett, N. J. , Finkbeiner, E. M. , Ban, N. C. , Belhabib, D. , Jupiter, S. D. , Kittinger, J. N. , Mangubhai, S. , Scholtens, J. , Gill, D. , & Christie, P. (2020). The COVID-19 pandemic, small- scale fisheries and coastal fishing communities. Coastal Management, 48(4), 336–347. h ttps://doi.org/10.1080/08920753.2020.1766937 Berkes, F. (2015). Coasts for people: Interdisciplinary approaches to coastal and marine resource management. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315771038 Biermann, F. (2021). The future of ‘environmental’ policy in the Anthropocene: Time for a paradigm shift. Environmental Politics, 30(1–2), 61–80. h ttps://doi.org/10.1080/09644016.2020.1846958 Blythe, J. , & Cvitanovic, C. (2020). Five organizational features that enable successful interdisciplinary marine research. Frontiers in Marine Science, 7. h ttps://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2020.539111 Büscher, B. , Fletcher, R. , Brockington, D. , Sandbrook, C. , Adams, W. M. , Campbell, L. , Corson, C. , Dressler, W. , Duffy, R. , Gray, N. , Holmes, G. , Kelly, A. , Lunstrum, E. , Ramutsindela, M. , & Shanker, K. (2017). Half-earth or whole earth? Radical ideas for conservation, and their implications. Oryx, 51(3), 407–410. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605316001228 Campbell, L. M. , & Gray, N. J. (2019). Area expansion versus effective and equitable management in international marine protected areas goals and targets. Marine Policy, 100, 1 92–199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2018.11.030 Development Initiatives . (2017). Global nutrition report 2017: Nourishing the SDGs. https://globalnutritionreport.org/documents/822/Global_Nutrition_Report_2017.pdf Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations . (2016). The state of world fisheries and aquaculture 2016: Contributing to food security and nutrition for all. Retrieved July 14, 2022 from https://www.fao.org/3/i5555e/i5555e.pdf Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations . (2022). The state of world fisheries and aquaculture 2022. Towards blue transformation. Retrieved July 19, 2022 from https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/cc0461en/ Fusco, L. M. , Knott, C. , Cisneros-Montemayor, A. M. , Singh, G. G. , & Spalding, A. K. (2022). Blueing business as usual in the ocean: Blue economies, oil, and climate justice. Political G eography, 98, 102670. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2022.102670 Grorud-Colvert, K. , & Sponaugle, S. (2011). Variability in water temperature affects trait- mediated survival of a newly settled coral reef fish. Oecologia, 165(3), 675–686. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-010-1748-4 Hau‘Ofa, E. (2008). We are the ocean. In We Are the Ocean. University of Hawaii Press. Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services . (2019). Summary for policymakers of the global assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services (summary for policy makers). IPBES Plenary at its seventh session (IPBES 7, Paris, 2019). Zenodo. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3553579 International Ocean Institute . (2018). The future of ocean governance and capacity development. Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004380271 Jambeck, J. R. , Geyer, R. , Wilcox, C. , Siegler, T. R. , Perryman, M. , Andrady, A. , Narayan, R. , & Law, K. L. (2015). Plastic waste inputs from land into the ocean. Science, 347(6223), 7 68–771. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1260352 Lakner, C. , Yonzan, N. , Mahler, D. G. , Aguilar, R. A. C. , & Wu, H. (2021). Updated estimates of the impact of COVID-19 on global poverty: Looking back at 2020 and the outlook for 2021. World Bank. Retrieved July 14, 2022 from https://blogs.worldbank.org/opendata/updated- estimates-impact-covid-19-global-poverty-looking-back-2020-and-outlook-2021 Livingstone, D. N. (2011). Environmental determinism. In J. A. Agnew & D. N. Livingstone (Eds.), The Sage handbook of geographical knowledge (pp. 368–380). Sage Publications. Lubchenco, J. , & Gaines, S. D. (2019). A new narrative for the ocean. Science, 364(6444), 911–911. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aay2241. Mansfield, B. (2004). Neoliberalism in the oceans: “Rationalization,” property rights, and the c ommons question. Geoforum, 35(3), 313–326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2003.05.002 Nature . (2015). Why interdisciplinary research matters. Nature, 525, 305. https://doi.org/10.1038/525305a Pauly, D. (2008). Global fisheries: A brief review. Journal of Biological Research- Thessaloniki, 9 , 3–9. Pinsky, M. L. , Reygondeau, G. , Caddell, R. , Palacios-Abrantes, J. , Spijkers, J. , & Cheung, W. W. (2018). Preparing ocean governance for species on the move. Science, 360(6394), 1189–1191. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aat2360 Rosenfield, P. L. (1992). The potential of transdisciplinary research for sustaining and extending linkages between the health and social sciences. Social Science & Medicine, 35(11), 1 343–1357. https://doi.org/10.1016/0277-9536(92)90038-R Sauer, C. O. (1956). The education of a geographer. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 46(3), 287–299. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8306.1956.tb01510.x Singh, G. G. , Harden-Davies, H. , Allison, E. H. , Cisneros-Montemayor, A. M. , Swartz, W. , Crosman, K. M. , & Ota, Y. (2021). Will understanding the ocean lead to “the ocean we want”? Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118(5). https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2100205118 Spalding, A. K. , & Biedenweg, K. (2017). Socializing the coast: Engaging the social science of tropical coastal research. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 187, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2017.01.002 Spalding, A. K. , & de Ycaza, R. (2020). Navigating shifting regimes of ocean governance: From UNCLOS to sustainable development goal 14. Environment and Society, 11(1), 5–26. h ttps://doi.org/10.3167/ares.2020.110102 Steward, J. H. (1955). Theory of culture change: The methodology of multilinear evolution. University of Illinois Press. United Nations. (2015). Transforming our world: The 2030 agenda for sustainable development (A/Res/70/1). https://sdgs.un.org/sites/default/files/publications/21252030%20Agenda%20for%20Sustainable % 20Development%20web.pdf UN Women . (2020). COVID-19 and its economic toll on women: The story behind the numbers. Retrieved July 14, 2022 from https://www.unwomen.org/en/news/stories/2020/9/feature-covid- 19-economic-impacts-on-women Virdin, J. , Vegh, T. , Jouffray, J. -B. , Blasiak, R. , Mason, S. , Österblom, H. , Vermeer, D. , Wachtmeister, H. , & Werner, N. (2021). The Ocean 100: Transnational corporations in the ocean economy. Science Advances, 7(3), eabc8041. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abc8041 Wolf, E. (1972). Ownership and political ecology. Anthropological Quarterly, 45(3), 201–205. h ttps://doi.org/10.2307/3316532 World Bank . (n.d.). Poverty and inequality platform. Retrieved July 21, 2022, from h ttps://pip.worldbank.org/home WorldFish . (2016). Why gender equality matters in fisheries and aquaculture. Retrieved July 14, 2022 from https://www.worldfishcenter.org/pages/why-gender-equality-matters-fisheries- aquaculture/ Human Dimension Approaches to Marine Studies Acheson, J. M. (1981). Anthropology of fishing.Annual Review of Anthropology, 275–316. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.an.10.100181.001423 Clausen, R. , & Clark, B. (2005). The metabolic rift and marine ecology: An analysis of the ocean crisis within capitalist production.Organization & Environment,18(4),422–444. h ttps://doi.org/10.1177/1086026605281187 Coulthard, S. (2013). What does the debate around social wellbeing have to offer sustainable fisheries? Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability,4(3), 358–363. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2012.06.001 Erlandson, J. M. , Rick, T. C. , & Braje, T. J. (2009). Fishing up the food web? 12,000 years of maritime subsistence and adaptive adjustments on California’s channel islands.Pacific Science, 63(4), 711–724. https://doi.org/10.2984/049.063.0411 F rancis, P. (2015). Laudato Si’: On Care for Our Common Home [Encyclical]. Hicks, C. C. , Cohen, P. J. , Graham, N. A. J. , Nash, K. L. , Allison, E. H. , D’Lima, C. , Mills, D. J. , Roscher, M. , Thilsted, S. H. , Thorne-Lyman, A. L. , & MacNeil, M. A. (2019). Harnessing global fisheries to tackle micronutrient deficiencies. Nature, 574, 95–98. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1592-6 Hoagland, S. J. (2017). Integrating traditional ecological knowledge with western science for optimal natural resource management.IK: Other Ways of Knowing, 3(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.18113/P8ik359744 Karnad, D. , & St. Martin, K. (2020). Assembling marine spatial planning in the global south: International agencies and the fate of fishing communities in India. Maritime Studies, 19(3), 375–387. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40152-020-00164-4 Kerra, L. W. , Colton, J. , Conway, F. , Hulle, A. , Johnson, K. , Jude, S. , Kannen, A. , MacDougall, S. , McLachlan, C. , Potts, T. , & Vergunst, J. (2013). Establishing an agenda for social studies research in marine renewable energy. Energy Policy, 67, 694–702. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2013.11.063 Lewis, S. L. , & Maslin, M. A. (2015). Defining the anthropocene. Nature, 519(7542), 171–180. h ttps://doi.org/10.1038/nature14258 Longo, S. B. , & Clark, B. (2016). An ocean of troubles: Advancing marine sociology. Social Problems, 63(4), 463–479. https://doi.org10.1093/SOCPRO/SPW023 Longo, S. B. , Clausen, R. , & Clark, B. (2015). The tragedy of the commodity: Oceans, fisheries, and aquaculture. Rutgers University Press. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration . (2020). Ocean literacy: The essential principles and fundamental concepts of ocean sciences for learners of all ages. https://oceanliteracy.unesco.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/OceanLiteracyGuide_V3_2020- 8 x11-1.pdf Mathooko, J. M. (2005). Application of traditional ecological knowledge in the management and sustainability of fisheries in East Africa: a long-neglected strategy? Hydrobiologia, 537, 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10750-004-2788-8 Nelson, M. K. (Ed.). (2008).Original instructions: Indigenous teachings for a sustainable future. Simon and Schuster. Pahl, S. , Wyles, K. J. , & Thompson, R. C. (2017). Channeling passion for the ocean towards plastic pollution. Nature Human Behaviour, 1, 697–699. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-017- 0204-4 Polissar, N. L. , Neradilek, M. , Aravkin, A. Y. , Danaher, P. , & Kalat, J. (2012). Statistical analysis of national and Washington State fish consumption data. Prep. Wash. State. Dep. Ecol. Reynolds, N. D. , & Romano, M. D. (2013). Traditional ecological knowledge: Reconstructing historical run timing and spawning distribution of Eulachon through tribal oral history.Journal of Northwest Anthropology, 47(1), 47–70. Spalding, A. K. , & de Ycaza, R. (2020). Navigating shifting regimes of ocean governance: From UNCLOS to sustainable development goal 14. Environment and Society, 11(1), 5–26. h ttps://doi.org/10.3167/ares.2020.110102 Steinberg, P. E. (2001). The social construction of the ocean (Vol. 78). Cambridge University P ress. Stonich, S. (1999). The other side of paradise: Tourism, conservation, and development in the B ay Islands. Cognizant LLC. T he Ocean Allison, E. H. , Kurien, J. , & Ota, Y. (2020). The human relationship with our ocean planet. World Resources Institute. https://www.oceanpanel.org/blue-papers/Human- RelationshipwithOurOceanPlanet Amoroso, R. O. , Pitcher, C. R. , Rijnsdorp, A. D. , McConnaughey, R. A. , Parma, A. M. , Suuronen, P. , Eigaard, O. R. , Bastardie, F. , Hintzen, N. T. , Althaus, F. , Baird, S. J. , Black, J. , Buhl-Mortensen, L. , Campbell, A. B. , Catarino, R. , Collie, J. , Cowan, J. H. , Durholtz, D. , Engstrom, N. , … Jennings, S. (2018). Bottom trawl fishing footprints on the world’s continental shelves. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115(43), E10275–E10282. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1802379115 Baumgartner, A. , & Reichel, E. (1975). The world water balance: Mean annual global, continental and maritime precipitation, evaporation and run-off. Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company. Bigg, G. R. , Jickells, T. D. , Liss, P. S. , & Osborn, T. J. (2003). The role of the oceans in climate. International Journal of Climatology, 23(10), 1127–1159. https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.926 Blasiak, R. , Wynberg, R. , Grorud-Colvert, K. , Thambisetty, S. , Bandarra, N. M. , Canário, A. V. M. , da Silva, J. , Duarte, C. M. , Jaspars, M. , Rogers, A. , Sink, K. , & Wabnitz, C. C. C. (2020). The ocean genome and future prospects for conservation and equity. Nature S ustainability, 3(8), 588–596. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-020-0522-9 Cheung, W. W. L. , Lam, V. W. Y. , Sarmiento, J. L. , Kearney, K. , Watson, R. , Zeller, D. , & Pauly, D. (2010). Large-scale redistribution of maximum fisheries catch potential in the global ocean under climate change. Global Change Biology, 16(1), 24–35. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2009.01995.x Costello, C. , Ovando, D. , Hilborn, R. , Gaines, S. D. , Deschenes, O. , & Lester, S. E. (2012). Status and solutions for the world’s unassessed fisheries. Science, 338(6106), 517–520. https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1223389https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/scie n ce.1223389 Del Valle, A. , Eriksson, M. , Ishizawa, O. A. , & Miranda, J. J. (2020). Mangroves protect coastal economic activity from hurricanes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117(1), 265–270. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1911617116 Dulvy, N. K. , Fowler, S. L. , Musick, J. A. , Cavanagh, R. D. , Kyne, P. M. , Harrison, L. R. , Carlson, J. K. , Davidson, L. N. , Fordham, S. V. , Francis, M. P. , Pollock, C. M. , Simpfendorfer, C. A. , Burgess, G. H. , Carpenter, K. E. , Compagno, L. J. , Ebert, D. A. , Gibson, C. , Heupel, M. R. , Livingstone, S. R. , … White, W. T. (2014). Extinction risk and conservation of the world’s sharks and rays. ELife, 3, e00590. h ttps://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.00590 Falkowski, P. G. , & Raven, J. A. (2013). Aquatic photosynthesis. Princeton University Press. h ttps://press.princeton.edu/books/paperback/9780691115511/aquatic-photosynthesis Fisher, R. , O’Leary, R. A. , Low-Choy, S. , Mengersen, K. , Knowlton, N. , Brainard, R. E. , & Caley, M. J. (2015). Species richness on coral reefs and the pursuit of convergent global estimates. Current Biology, 25(4), 500–505. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2014.12.022 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations . (2020). The state of world fisheries and aquaculture 2020: Sustainability in action. FAO, Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/ca9229en Gagné, T. O. , Reygondeau, G. , Jenkins, C. N. , Sexton, J. O. , Bograd, S. J. , Hazen, E. L. , & Van Houtan, K. S. (2020). Towards a global understanding of the drivers of marine and terrestrial biodiversity. PLOS ONE, 15(2). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0228065 Gattuso, J.-P. , Magnan, A. , Billé, R. , Cheung, W. W. L. , Howes, E. L. , Joos, F. , Allemand, D. , Bopp, L. , Cooley, S. R. , Eakin, C. M. , Hoegh-Guldberg, O. , Kelly, R. P. , Pörtner, H.-O. , Rogers, A. D. , Baxter, J. M. , Laffoley, D. , Osborn, D. , Rankovic, A. , Rochette, J. , … Turley, C. (2015). Contrasting futures for ocean and society from different anthropogenic CO2 emissions scenarios. Science, 349(6243). https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aac4722 Grorud-Colvert, K. , Sullivan-Stack, J. , Roberts, C. , Constant, V. , Horta e Costa, B. , Pike, E. P. , Kingston, N. , Laffoley, D. , Sala, E. , Claudet, J. , Friedlander, A. M. , Gill, D. A. , Lester, S. E. , Day, J. C. , Gonçalves, E. J. , Ahmadia, G. N. , Rand, M. , Villagomez, A. , Ban, N. C. , … Lubchenco, J. (2021). The MPA guide: A framework to achieve global goals for the ocean. Science, 373(6560), eabf0861. https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abf0861 Halpern, B. S. , Frazier, M. , Potapenko, J. , Casey, K. S. , Koenig, K. , Longo, C. , Lowndes, J. S. , Rockwood, R. C. , Selig, E. R. , Selkoe, K. A. , & Walbridge, S. (2015). Spatial and temporal changes in cumulative human impacts on the world’s ocean. Nature Communications, 6(1), 7 615. https://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms8615 Hoegh-Guldberg, O. (2015). Reviving the ocean economy: The case for action -2015. World Wide Fund for Nature, Gland, Switzerland. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . (2019). IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate. Geneva, Switzerland: [ H.-O. Pörtner , D. C. Roberts , V. Masson-Delmotte , P. Zhai , M. Tignor , E. Poloczanska , K. Mintenbeck , A. Alegría , M. Nicolai , A. Okem , J. Petzold , B. Rama , N.M. Weyer (Eds.)]. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157964 Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (2019). Global assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. IPBES secretariat, Bonn, Germany: E. S. Brondizio , J. Settele , S. Díaz , and H. T. Ngo (Eds.). h ttps://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3831673 International Union for the Conservation of Nature . (2019). The IUCN red list of threatened species. Gland, Switzerland. Jones, K. R. , Klein, C. J. , Halpern, B. S. , Venter, O. , Grantham, H. , Kuempel, C. D. , Shumway, N. , Friedlander, A. M. , Possingham, H. P. , & Watson, J. E. M. (2018). The location and protection status of Earth’s diminishing marine wilderness. Current Biology, 28(15), 2 506–2512.e3. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2018.06.010 Kroeker, K. J. , Kordas, R. L. , Crim, R. N. , & Singh, G. G. (2010). Meta-analysis reveals negative yet variable effects of ocean acidification on marine organisms. Ecology Letters, 13(11), 1419–1434. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2010.01518.x Laffoley, D. , Baxter, J. M. , Amon, D. J. , Claudet, J. , Hall-Spencer, J. M. , Grorud-Colvert, K. , Levin, L. A. , Reid, P. C. , Rogers, A. D. , Taylor, M. L. , Woodall, L. C. , & Andersen, N. F. (2020). Evolving the narrative for protecting a rapidly changing ocean, post-COVID-19. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, n/a(n/a), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1002/aqc.3512 Lillebø, A. I. , Pita, C. , Garcia Rodrigues , J., Ramos, S. , & Villasante, S. (2017). How can marine ecosystem services support the Blue Growth agenda? Marine Policy, 81, 132–142. h ttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2017.03.008 Lotze, H. K. , Tittensor, D. P. , Bryndum-Buchholz, A. , Eddy, T. D. , Cheung, W. W. L. , Galbraith, E. D. , Barange, M. , Barrier, N. , Bianchi, D. , Blanchard, J. L. , Bopp, L. , Büchner, M. , Bulman, C. M. , Carozza, D. A. , Christensen, V. , Coll, M. , Dunne, J. P. , Fulton, E. A. , Jennings, S. , … Worm, B. (2019). Global ensemble projections reveal trophic amplification of ocean biomass declines with climate change. Proceedings of the National Academy of S ciences, 116(26), 12907–12912. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1900194116 Louca, S. , Mazel, F. , Doebeli, M. , & Parfrey, L. W. (2019). A census-based estimate of Earth’s bacterial and archaeal diversity. PLOS Biology, 17(2), e3000106. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3000106 Lubchenco, J. , & Gaines, S. D. (2019). A new narrative for the ocean. Science, 364(6444), 9 11–911. https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aay2241 MarinLit . (2020). A database of marine natural products literature. http://pubs.rsc.org/marinlit/ Masson-Delmotte, V. , Zhai, P. , Portner, H. , Roberts, D. , Skea, J. , Shukla, P. R. … & Waterfield, T. (2019). Global warming at 1.5 degrees C: An IPCC Special Report. I ntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. https://www.ipcc.ch/sr15/ McCauley, D. J. , Pinsky, M. L. , Palumbi, S. R. , Estes, J. A. , Joyce, F. H. , & Warner, R. R. (2015). Marine defaunation: Animal loss in the global ocean. Science, 347(347). h ttps://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1255641 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment . (2005). Ecosystems and human well-being: Synthesis report. Island Press. Miller, K. A. , Thompson, K. F. , Johnston, P. , & Santillo, D. (2018). An overview of seabed mining including the current state of development, environmental impacts, and knowledge gaps. Frontiers in Marine Science, 4. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2017.00418 Mora, C. , Tittensor, D. P. , Adl, S. , Simpson, A. G. B. , & Worm, B. (2011). How many species are there on earth and in the ocean? PLOS Biology, 9(8), e1001127. h ttps://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1001127 Niner, H. J. , Ardron, J. A. , Escobar, E. G. , Gianni, M. , Jaeckel, A. , Jones, D. O. B. , Levin, L. A. , Smith, C. R. , Thiele, T. , Turner, P. J. , Van Dover, C. L. , Watling, L. , & Gjerde, K. M. (2018). Deep-sea mining with no net loss of biodiversity - An impossible aim. Frontiers in Marine Science, 5. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2018.00053 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development . (2016). The ocean economy in 2 030. OECD Publishing. Österblom, H. , Wabnitz, C. , Tladi, D. , Allison, E. , Arnaud-Haond, S. , Bebbington, J. , Bennett, N. , Blasiak, R. , Boonstra, W. , Choudhury, A. , Cisneros-Montemayor, A. , Daw, T. , Fabinyi, M. , Franz, N. , Harden-Davies, H. , Kleiber, D. , Lopes, P. , McDougall, C. , Resosudarmo, B. , & Selim, S. (2020). Towards ocean equity. High Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean Economy. Pacoureau, N. , Rigby, C. L. , Kyne, P. M. , Sherley, R. B. , Winker, H. , Carlson, J. K. , Fordham, S. V. , Barreto, R. , Fernando, D. , Francis, M. P. , Jabado, R. W. , Herman, K. B. , Liu, K.-M. , Marshall, A. D. , Pollom, R. A. , Romanov, E. V. , Simpfendorfer, C. A. , Yin, J. S. , Kindsvater, H. K. , & Dulvy, N. K. (2021). Half a century of global decline in oceanic sharks and r ays. Nature, 589(7843), 567–571. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-020-03173-9 Reid, P. C. (2016). Ocean warming: Setting the scene. In D. Laffoley & J. M. Baxter (Eds.), Explaining ocean warming: Causes, scale, effects and consequences (pp. 17–45). IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Rogers, A. , Aburto-Oropeza, O. , Appeltans, W. , Assis, J. , Ballance, L. , Cury, P. , Duarte, C. , Favoretto, F. , Kumagai, J. , Lovelock, C. , Miloslavich, P. , Niamir, A. , Obura, D. , O’Leary, B. , Reygondeau, G. , Roberts, C. , Sadovy, Y. , Sutton, T. , Tittensor, D. , & Velarde, E. (2020). Critical habitats and biodiversity: Inventory, thresholds and governance. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/341219468_Critical_Habitats_and_Biodiversity_Invent ory_Thresholds_and_Governance Rousseau, Y. , Watson, R. A. , Blanchard, J. L. , & Fulton, E. A. (2019). Evolution of global marine fishing fleets and the response of fished resources. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116(25), 12238–12243. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.182034411 Sabine, C. L. , Feely, R. A. , Gruber, N. , Key, R. M. , Lee, K. , Bullister, J. L. , Wanninkhof, R. , Wong, C. S. , Wallace, D. W. R. , Tilbrook, B. , Millero, F. J. , Peng, T.-H. , Kozyr, A. , Ono, T. , & Rios, A. F. (2004). The oceanic sink for anthropogenic CO2. Science, 305(305), 367–371. h ttps://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1097403 Sekerci, Y. , & Petrovskii, S. (2015). Mathematical modelling of plankton–oxygen dynamics under the climate change. Bulletin of Mathematical Biology, 77(12), 2325–2353. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11538-015-0126-0 Smale, D. A. , Wernberg, T. , Oliver, E. C. J. , Thomsen, M. , Harvey, B. P. , Straub, S. C. , Burrows, M. T. , Alexander, L. V. , Benthuysen, J. A. , Donat, M. G. , Feng, M. , Hobday, A. J. , Holbrook, N. J. , Perkins-Kirkpatrick, S. E. , Scannell, H. A. , Sen Gupta, A. , Payne, B. L. , & Moore, P. J. (2019). Marine heatwaves threaten global biodiversity and the provision of ecosystem services. Nature Climate Change, 9(4), 306–312. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558- 0 19-0412-1 Stuchtey, M. R. , Vincent, A. , Merkl, A. , Bucher, M. , Haugan, P. M. , Lubchenco, J. , & Pangestu, M. E. (2020). Ocean solutions that benefit people, nature, and the economy (High Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean Economy). World Resources Institute. www.oceanpanel.org/ocean-solutions Taglialatela-Scafati, O. (2021). New hopes for drugs against COVID-19 come from the sea. Marine Drugs, 19(2), 104. https://doi.org/10.3390/md19020104 Teh, L. C. L. , & Sumaila, U. R. (2013). Contribution of marine fisheries to worldwide employment. Fish and Fisheries, 14(1), 77–88. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467- 2 979.2011.00450.x Wild Capture Fisheries Arellano, C. E. , & Swartzman, G. (2010). The Peruvian fishery: Changes in patterns and distribution over time. Fisheries Research, 101(3), 133–145. h ttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.fishres.2009.08.007 Bailey, K. M. , & Houde, E. D. (1989). Predation on eggs and larvae of marine fishes and the recruitment problem. In J. H. S. Blaxter & A. J. Southward (Eds.), Advances in marine biology ( Vol. 25, pp. 1–83). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065–2881(08)60187-X Beaudreau, A. H. , & Levin, P. S. (2014). Advancing the use of local ecological knowledge for assessing data-poor species in coastal ecosystems. Ecological Applications, 24(2), 244–256. https://doi.org/10.1890/13–0817.1 Bonanomi, S. , Pellissier, L. , Therkildsen, N. O. , Hedeholm, R. B. , Retzel, A. , Meldrup, D. , Olsen, S. M. , Nielsen, A. , Pampoulie, C. , Hemmer-Hansen, J. , Wisz, M. S. , Grønkjær, P. , & Nielsen, E. E. (2015). Archived DNA reveals fisheries and climate induced collapse of a major fishery. Scientific Reports, 5(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep15395 Brander, K. (2010). Impacts of climate change on fisheries. Journal of Marine Systems, 79(3–4), 3 89–402. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmarsys.2008.12.015 Carothers, C. , Lew, D. K. , & Sepez, J. (2010). Fishing rights and small communities: Alaska halibut IFQ transfer patterns. Ocean Coastal Management, 53(9), 518–523. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2010.04.014 Chavez, F. P. , & Messié, M. (2009). A comparison of eastern boundary upwelling ecosystems. P rogress in oceanography, 83(1–4), 80–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pocean.2009.07.032 Cheung, W. W. L. , Lam, V. W. Y. , Sarmiento, J. L. , Kearney, K. , Watson, R. E. G. , Zeller, D. , & Pauly, D. (2010). Large-scale redistribution of maximum fisheries catch potential in the global ocean under climate change. Global Change Biology, 16(1), 24–35. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365–2486.2009.01995.x Ciannelli, L. , Bailey, K. , & Olsen, E. M. (2014a). Evolutionary and ecological constraints of fish spawning habitats. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 72(2), 285–296. https://doi.org/10.1093/icesjms/fsu145 Ciannelli, L. , Hunsicker, M. , Beaudreau, A. , Bailey, K. , Crowder, L. B. , Finley, C. , Webb, C. , Reynolds, J. , Sagmiller, K. , Anderies, J. M. , Hawthorne, D. , Parrish, J. , Heppell, S. , Conway, F. , & Chigbu, P. (2014b). Transdisciplinary graduate education in marine resource science and management. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 71(5), 1047–1051. https://doi.org/10.1093/icesjms/fsu067 Cinner, J. E. , & Barnes, M. L. (2019). Social dimensions of resilience in social-ecological s ystems. One Earth, 1(1), 51–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2019.08.003 Conway, F. D. L. , Gilden, J. , & Zvonkovic, A. (2002). Communication, power and innovation in f ishing families and communities. Fisheries, 27(10), 20–29. Conway, F. , & Shaw, W. (2008). Socioeconomic lessons learned from the response to the federally declared West Coast groundfish disaster. Fisheries, 33(6), 269–277. https://doi.org/10.1577/1548–8446-33.6.269 Cramer, L. A. , Flathers, C. , Caracciolo, D. , Russell, S. M. , & Conway, F. (2018). Graying of the fleet: Perceived impacts on coastal resilience and local policy. Marine Policy, 96, 27–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2018.07.012 Dahlke, F. T. , Butzin, M. , Nahrgang, J. , Puvanendran, V. , Mortensen, A. , Pörtner, H. -O. , & Storch, D. (2018). Northern cod species face spawning habitat losses if global warming exceeds 1.5°C. Science Advances, 4(11), eaas8821. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aas8821 DingsØr, G. E. , Ciannelli, L. , Chan, K. -S. , Ottersen, G. , & Stenseth, C. N. (2007). Density dependence and density independence during the early life stages of four marine fish stocks. Ecology, 88(3), 625–634. https://doi.org/10.1890/05–1782 Donkersloot, R. , & Carothers, C. (2016). The graying of the Alaskan fishing fleet. Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development, 58(3), 30–42. https://doi.org/10.1080/00139157.2016.1162011 Fina, M. (2011). Evolution of catch share management: Lessons from catch share management in the North Pacific. Fisheries, 36(4), 164–177. https://doi.org/10.1080/03632415.2011.564509 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations . (1995). Code of conduct for r esponsible fisheries. www.fao.org/3/a-v9878e.pdf Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations . (2004). Fishery country profile - G reenland. https://www.fao.org/fishery/docs/DOCUMENT/fcp/en/FI_CP_GL.pdf Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations . (2015). Voluntary guidelines for securing sustainable small-scale fisheries in the context of food security and poverty e radication. www.fao.org/3/a-i4356en.pdf). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations . (2020). The state of world fisheries a nd aquaculture 2020. Sustainability in action. https://doi.org/10.4060/ca9229en Frank, K. T. , Petrie, B. , Leggett, W. C. , & Boyce, D. G. (2016). Large scale, synchronous variability of marine fish populations driven by commercial exploitation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113(29), 8248–8253. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1602325113 Frank, K. T. , Petrie, B. , Leggett, W. C. , & Boyce, D. G. (2018). Exploitation drives an ontogenetic-like deepening in marine fish. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 1 15(25), 6422–6427. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1802096115 Global Seafood Alliance . (2020, June 3). Crisis response: How is the seafood supply chain responding to the COVID-19 pandemic? [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c52DAIy9Phw Greenberg, P. (2014). American catch: The fight for our local seafood. Penguin Press. Keller, A. A. , Ciannelli, L. , Wakefield, W. W. , Simon, V. , Barth, J. A. , & Pierce, S. D. (2017). Species-specific responses of demersal fishes to near-bottom oxygen levels within the California Current large marine ecosystem. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 568, 151–173. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps12066 Kuonen, J. , Conway, F. , & Strub, T. (2019). Relating ocean condition forecasts to the process of end-user decision making: A case study of the Oregon commercial fishing community. Marine T echnology Society Journal, 53(1), 53–66. https://doi.org/10.4031/MTSJ.53.1.1 Long, S. , & Jones P. J. (2021). Greenland’s offshore Greenland halibut fishery and role of the Marine Stewardship Council certification: A governance case study. Marine Policy, 127, 104095. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2020.104095 Magel, C. L. , Lee, E. M. J. , Strawn, A. M. , Swieca, K. , & Jensen, A. D. (2020). Connecting crabs, currents, and coastal communities: Examining the impacts of changing ocean conditions on the distribution of U.S. West Coast Dungeness crab commercial catch. Frontiers in Marine S cience, 7, 401. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2020.00401 Matulich, S. C. (2009). The value of individual processing quota in the Alaska red king crab fishery: A preliminary analysis. Marine Resource Economics, 24(2), 187–193. h ttps://doi.org/10.1086/mre.24.2.42731379 McCay, B. J. , Creed, C. F. , Finlayson, A. C. , Apostle, R. , & Mikalsen, K. (1995). Individual transferable quotas (ITQs) in Canadian and US fisheries. Ocean & Coastal Management, 28(1–3), 85–115. https://doi.org/10.1016/0964–5691(95)00068-2 Meire, L. , Mortensen, J. , Meire, P. , Juul-Pedersen, T. , Sejr, M. K. , Rysgaard, S. , Nygaard, R. , Huybrechts, P. , & Meysman, F. J. R. (2017). Marine-terminating glaciers sustain high productivity in Greenland fjords. Global Change Biology, 23(12), 5344–5357. h ttps://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.13801 Ministry of Forestry and Agriculture (Italy) . (2020). Annual report on the efforts made by Italy in 2019 to achieve a sustainable balance between fishing capacity and fishing opportunities in compliance with art 22 Reg. (CE) n.1380/2013. Ministry for Foreign Affairs (Government of Iceland) . (2020, December 20). Greenland and Iceland in the New Arctic: Recommendations of the Greenland Committee appointed by the Minister for Foreign Affairs and International Development Co-operation. https://www.government.is/library/01-Ministries/Ministry-for-Foreign-Affairs/PDF- s kjol/Greenland-Iceland-rafraen20–01-21.pdf Morrison, W. (2019, April 8). National Marine Fishery Service’s catch share policy. NMFS. https://media.fisheries.noaa.gov/dam-migration/01–121.pdf Myers, R. A. , & Worm, B. (2003). Rapid worldwide depletion of predatory fish communities. Nature, 423(6937), 280–283. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature01610 National Marine Fisheries Service. (n.d.). Fisheye: Fisheries economic explorer. https://dataexplorer.northwestscience.fisheries.noaa.gov/fisheye/ National Marine Fisheries Service. (2018). Fisheries economics of the United States, 2016 (NMFS-F/SPO-18). U.S. Dept. of Commerce & NOAA. https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/resource/document/fisheries-economics-united-states-report- 2 016 National Marine Fisheries Service. (2019). Laws & policies: Magnuson-Stevens Act. h ttps://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/topic/laws-policies#magnuson-stevens-act Nielsen, M. , Nielsen, A. H. R. , Waldo, S. , Blomquist, J. , Asche, F. , Bergesen, O. , Viðarsson, J. R. , Sigurðardóttir, S. , & Sveinþórsdóttir, R. (2017). Employment and salary of Nordic coastal f ishermen. Nordisk Ministerråd. https://doi.org/10.6027/TN2017–558 Paterson, B. , Isaacs, M. , Hara, M. , Jarre, A. , & Moloney, C. L. (2010). Transdisciplinary co- operation for an ecosystem approach to fisheries: A case study from the South African sardine f ishery. Marine Policy, 34(4), 782–794. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2010.01.019 Pauly, D. , & Christensen, V. (1995). Primary production required to sustain global fisheries. Nature, 374(6519), 255–257. https://doi.org/10.1038/374255a0 Pfeiffer, L. , & Gratz, T. (2016). The effect of rights-based fisheries management on risk taking and fishing safety. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113(10), 2615–2620. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1509456113 Pinsky, M. L. , Worm, B. , Fogarty, M. J. , Sarmiento, J. L. , & Levin, S. A. (2013). Marine taxa track local climate velocities. Science, 341(341), 1239–1242. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1239352 Pooley, S. G. (1998). Issues and options in designing and implementing limited access programs in marine fisheries (NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-252). U.S. Dept. of Commerce & NOAA. https://repository.library.noaa.gov/view/noaa/3047/noaa_3047_DS1.pdf Rettig, R. B. , & Ginter, J. J. C. (Eds.). (1978). Limited entry as a fishery management tool. U niversity of Washington Press. Ringer, D. , Carothers, C. , Donkersloot, R. , Coleman, J. , & Cullenberg, P. (2018). For generations to come? The privatization paradigm and shifting social baselines in Kodiak, Alaska’s commercial fisheries. Marine Policy, 98, 97–103. h ttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2018.09.009 Rogers, L. A. , Griffin, R. , Young, T. , Fuller, E. , St. Martin, K. , & Pinsky, M. L. (2019). Shifting habitats expose fishing communities to risk under climate change. Nature Climate Change, 9(7), 5 12–516. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-019-0503-z Russell, S. , Sparks, K. , Arias-Arthur, A. , & Varney, A. (2014). Pacific Coast groundfish trawl fishery social study. Northwest Fisheries Science Center. https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/west- c oast/socioeconomics/west-coast-groundfish-trawl-fishery-social-study Schindler, D. E. , Hilborn, R. , Chasco, B. , Boatright, C. P. , Quinn, T. P. , Rogers, L. A. , & Webster, M. S. (2010). Population diversity and the portfolio effect in an exploited species. Nature, 465(465), 609–612. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature09060 Schittone, J. (2001). Tourism vs. commercial fishers: Development and changing use of Key West and Stock Island, Florida. Ocean & Coastal Management, 44(1–2), 15–37. h ttps://doi.org/10.1016/S0964–5691(00)00078-8 Selden, R. L. , Thorson, J. T. , Samhouri, J. F. , Bograd, S. J. , Brodie, S. , Carroll, G. , Haltuch, M. A. , Hazen, E. L. , Holsman, K. K. , Pinsky, M. L. , Tolimieri, N. , & Willis-Norton, E. (2020). Coupled changes in biomass and distribution drive trends in availability of fish stocks to US West Coast ports. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 77(1), 188–199. https://doi.org/10.1093/icesjms/fsz211 Silvestri, G. (2003). Lacco Ameno tuna and other fishing on the Island of Ischia. Imagaenaria. Timmermann, A. , An, S.-I. , Kug, J.-S. , Jin, F. -F. , Cai, W. , Capotondi, A. , Cobb, K. M. , Lengaigne, M. , McPhaden, M. J. , Stuecker, M. F. , Stein, K. , Wittenberg, A. T. , Yun, K.-S. , Bayr, T. , Chen, H.-C. , Chikamoto, Y. , Dewitte, B. , Dommenget, D. , Grothe, P. … Zhang, X. (2018). El Niño–Southern Oscillation complexity. Nature, 559, 535–545. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-018-0252–6. US Bureau of Labor Statistics . (2022, April 18). Occupational outlook handbook. https://www.bls.gov/ooh/math/mathematicians-and-statisticians.htm Weber, M. L. (2002). From abundance to scarcity: A history of U.S. marine fisheries policy. I sland Press. Wilson, M. N. , Laufer, A. E. , Howard, E. M. , & Wong-Ala, J. A. (2021). Lessons from the trenches: Students’ perspectives of their own marine transdisciplinary education. Frontiers in M arine Science, 7, 592368. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2020.592368 White, C. S. (2015). Getting into fishing: Recruitment and social resilience in North Norfolk’s ‘cromer crab’ fishery, UK. Sociologia Ruralis, 55(3), 291–308. https://doi.org/10.1111/soru.12101 White, E. R. , Froehlich, H. E. , Gephart, J. A. , Cottrell, R. S. , Branch, T. A. , Bejarano, R. A. , & Baum, J. K. (2020). Early effects of COVID-19 on US fisheries and seafood consumption. Fish and Fisheries, 22(1), 232–239. https://doi.org/10.1111/faf.12525 G lobal Marine Aquaculture Development Aas, T. S. , Ytrestøyl, T. , & Åsgård, T. (2019). Utilization of feed resources in the production of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) in Norway: An update for 2016. Aquaculture Reports, 15, 100216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aqrep.2019.100216 Abolofia, J. , Asche, F. , & Wilen, J. E. (2017). The cost of lice: Quantifying impacts of parasitic sea lice on farmed salmon. Marine Resource Economics, 32(3). http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/691981 Ahmed, N. , Thompson, S. , & Glaser, M. (2018). Integrated mangrove-shrimp cultivation: Potential for blue carbon sequestration. Ambio, 47(4), 441–452. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280- 017-0946-2 Alleway, H. K. , Gillies, C. L. , Bishop, M. J. , Gentry, R. R. , Theuerkauf, S. J. , & Jones, R. (2019). The ecosystem services of marine aquaculture: Valuing benefits to people and nature. Bioscience, 69(1), 59–68. https://doi.org/10.1093/biosci/biy137 Alvial, A. , Kibenge, F. , Forster, J. , Burgos, J. M. , Ibarra, R. , & St-Hilaire, S. (2012). The recovery of the Chilean salmon industry: The ISA crisis and its consequences and lessons. Global Aquaculture Alliance, 85. Armitage, D. L. (2002). Socio-institutional dynamics and the political ecology of mangrove forest conservation in Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. Global Environmental Change, 12(3), 203–217. h ttps://doi.org/10.1016/S0959-3780(02)00023-7 Aquaculture Stewardship Council. (n.d.). About the ASC. https://www.asc-aqua.org/what-we- do/about-us/about-the-asc/ Aquaculture Stewardship Council. (2017, April). ASC salmon standard v1.1. https://www.asc- aqua.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/ASC-Salmon-Standard_v1.1.pdf Asche, F. , Hansen, H. , Tveteras, R. , & Tveteras, S. (2009). The salmon disease crisis in C hile. Marine Resource Economics, 24(4), 405–411. https://doi.org/10.1086/mre.24.4.42629664 Ashton, E. C. (2008). The impact of shrimp farming on mangrove ecosystems. CAB Reviews: Perspectives in Agriculture, Veterinary Science, Nutrition and Natural Resources, 3(003). h ttps://doi.org/10.1079/PAVSNNR20083003 Bendiksen, E. Å., Johnsen, C. A. , Olsen, H. J. , & Jobling, M. (2011). Sustainable aquafeeds: Progress towards reduced reliance upon marine ingredients in diets for farmed Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.). Aquaculture, 314(1–4), 132–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2011.01.040 Benetti, D. D. , Benetti, G. I. , Rivera, J. A. , Sardenberg, B. , & O’Hanlon, B. (2010). Site selection criteria for open ocean aquaculture. Marine Technology Society Journal, 44(3), 22–35. https://doi.org/10.4031/MTSJ.44.3.11 Boyd, C. E. , D’Abramo, L. R. , Glencross, B. D. , Huyben, D. C. , Juarez, L. M. , Lockwood, G. S. , McNevin, A. A. , Tacon, A. G. J. , Teletchea, F. , Tomasso Jr., J. R. , Tucker, C. S. , & Valenti, W. C. (2020). Achieving sustainable aquaculture: Historical and current perspectives and future needs and challenges. Journal of the World Aquaculture Society, 51(3), 578–633. https://doi.org/10.1111/jwas.12714 Boyd, C. E. , & McNevin, A. A. (2018). Land use in shrimp aquaculture. World Aquaculture, 4 9(1), 28–34. Bravo, S. (2012). Environmental impacts and management of veterinary medicines in aquaculture: The case of salmon aquaculture in Chile. In M. G. Bondad-Reantaso , J. R. Arthur , & R. P. Subasinghe (Eds.), Improving biosecurity through prudent and responsible use of veterinary medicines in aquatic food production (FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical P aper No. 547, pp. 11–24). FAO. Buck, B. H. , & Langan, R. (2017). Aquaculture perspective of multi-use sites in the open ocean: The untapped potential for marine resources in the anthropocene. Springer Nature. h ttps://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-51159-7 Bush, S. R. , Belton, B. , Hall, D. , Vandergeest, P. , Murray, F. J. , Ponte, S. , Oosterveer, P. , Islam, M. S. , Mol, A. P. J. , Hatanaka, M. , Kruijssen, F. , Ha, T. T. T. , Little, D. C. , & Kusumawati, R. (2013). Certify sustainable aquaculture? Science, 341(341), 1067–1068. h ttps://doi.org/10.1126/science.1237314 Chopin, T. , MacDonald, B. , Robinson, S. , Cross, S. , Pearce, C. , Knowler, D. , Noce, A. , Reid, G. , Cooper, A. , Speare, D. , Burridge, L. , Crawford, C. , Sawhney, M. , Ang, K. P. , Backman, C. , & Hutchinson, M. (2013). The Canadian integrated multi-trophic aquaculture network (CIMTAN) - A network for a new era of ecosystem responsible aquaculture. Fisheries, 38(7), 297–308. https://doi.org/10.1080/03632415.2013.791285 Costello, C. , Cao, L. , Gelcich, S. , Cisneros-Mata, M.Á. , Free, C. M. , Froehlich, H. E. , Golden, C. D. , Ishimura, G. , Maier, J. , Macadam-Somer, I. , Mangin, T. , Melnychuk, M. C. , Miyahara, M. , de Moor, C. L. , Naylor, R. , Nøstbakken, L. , Ojea, E. , O’Reilly, E. , Parma, A. M. … Lubchenco, J. (2020). The future of food from the sea. Nature, 588(7836), 95–100. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2616-y Crampton, V. O. , Nanton, D. A. , Ruohonen, K. , Skjervold, P. O. , & El-Mowafi, A. (2010). Demonstration of salmon farming as a net producer of fish protein and oil. Aquaculture Nutrition, 1 6(4), 437–446. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2095.2010.00780.x Duarte, C. M. , Wu, J. , Xiao, X. , Bruhn, A. , & Krause-Jensen, D. (2017). Can seaweed farming play a role in climate change mitigation and adaptation? Frontiers in Marine Science, 4, 100. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2017.00100 FAO/NACA/UNEP/WB/WWF . (2006). International principles for responsible shrimp farming. Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific (NACA). https://enaca.org/?id=542#:~:text=The%20International%20Principles%20for%20Responsible% 20Shrimp%20Farming%20provide,for%20a%20more%20sustainable%20development%20of% 2 0shrimp%20farming. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2011a). Code of conduct for r esponsible fisheries. https://www.fao.org/3/i1900e/i1900e00.htm Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2011b). Technical guidelines on aquaculture certification. https://www.fao.org/publications/card/en/c/0ec15d4a-6295-51a5-af16- 5c724c62de25/ Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2022). The state of world fisheries and aquaculture 2022. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc0461en Gentry, R. R. , Alleway, H. K. , Bishop, M. J. , Gillies, C. L. , Waters, T. , & Jones R. (2020). Exploring the potential for marine aquaculture to contribute to ecosystem services. Reviews in A quaculture, 12(2), 499–512. https://doi.org/10.1111/raq.12328 Gentry, R. R. , Froehlich, H. E. , Grimm, D. , Kareiva, P. , Parke, M. , Rust, M. , Gaines, S. D. , & Halpern, B. S. (2017). Mapping the global potential for marine aquaculture. Nature Ecology & E volution, 1(9), 1317–1324. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-017-0257-9 Global Aquaculture Alliance . (2020). Best aquaculture practices. https://www.bapcertification.org Granada, L. , Sousa, N. , Lopes, S. , & Lemos, M. F. L. (2016). Is integrated multitrophic aquaculture the solution to the sectors’ major challenges? – A review. Reviews in Aquaculture, 8(3), 283–300. https://doi.org/10.1111/raq.12093 Greenberg, P. (2010). Four fish: The future of the last wild food. Penguin Books. Gross, M. R. (1998). One species with two biologies: Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) in the wild and in aquaculture. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 55(S1), 131–144. https://doi.org/10.1139/d98-024 Hicks, C. C. , Cohen, P. J. , Graham, N. A. J. , Nash, K. L. , Allison, E. H. , D’Lima, C. , Mills, D. J. , Roscher, M. , Thilsted, S. H. , Thorne-Lyman, A. L. , & MacNeil, M. A. (2019). Harnessing global fisheries to tackle micronutrient deficiencies. Nature, 574, 95–98. h ttps://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1592-6 Iversen A. , Asche, F. , Hermansen, Ø., & Nystøyl, R. (2020). Production cost and competitiveness in major salmon farming countries 2003–2018. Aquaculture, 522, 735089. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2020.735089 Jackson, A. , & Shepherd, J. (2012). The future of fishmeal and fish oil. In Second international congress on seafood technology on sustainable, innovative, and healthy Seafood (Vol. 189) (pp. 189–221). https://www.fao.org/3/i2534e/i2534e.pdf#page=199 Jouffray, J. -B. , Blasiak, R. , Norström, A. V. , Österblom, H. , & Nyström, M. (2020). The blue acceleration: The trajectory of human expansion into the ocean. One Earth, 2(1), 43–54. h ttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2019.12.016 Kramer, L. (2015, October 14). Land-based salmon aquaculture: A future with potential. SeaFood Source. Retrieved July 18, 2022 from https://www.seafoodsource.com/news/aquaculture/land-based-salmon-aquaculture-a-future- with-potential Kumar, G. & Engle, C. R. (2016). Technological advances that led to growth of shrimp, salmon, and tilapia farming. Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture, 24(2), 136–152. https://doi.org/10.1080/23308249.2015.1112357 Kumar, G. , Engle, C. , & Tucker, C. (2018). Factors driving aquaculture technology adoption. Journal of the World Aquaculture Society, 49(3), 447–476. https://doi.org/10.1111/jwas.12514 Lester, S. E. , Gentry, R. R. , Kappel, C. V. , White, C. , & Gaines, S. D. (2018). Offshore aquaculture in the United States: Untapped potential in need of smart policy. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115(28), 7162–7165. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1808737115 Lovatelli, A. , Aguilar-Manjarrez, J. , & Soto, D. (2013). Expanding mariculture farther offshore. Technical, environmental, spatial and governance challenges. FAO Technical Workshop, Orbetello, Italy, March 22–25, 2010 (No. 24). FAO Library. Morrison, D. B. , & Saksida, S. (2013). Trends in antimicrobial use in Marine Harvest Canada farmed salmon production in British Columbia (2003–2011). The Canadian Veterinary Journal, 54(12), 1160–1163. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24293677 Mutersbaugh, T. , Klooster, D. , Renard, M. -C. , & Taylor, P. (2005). Certifying rural spaces: Quality-certified products and rural governance. Journal of Rural Studies, 21, 381–388. h ttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2005.10.003 Nellemann, C. , Corcoran, E. , Duarte, C. M. , Valdés, L. , De Young, C. , Fonseca, L. , & Grimsditch, G. (Eds.) (2009). Blue carbon: The role of healthy oceans in binding carbon: A rapid r esponse assessment. UNEP/Earthprint. Olson, T. K. , & Criddle, K. R. (2008). Industrial evolution: A case study of Chilean salmon aquaculture. Aquaculture Economics & Management, 12(2), 89–106. h ttps://doi.org/10.1080/13657300802110687 Parkes, G. , Young, J. A. , Walmsley, S. F. , Abel, R. , Harman, J. , Horvat, P. , Lem, A. , MacFarlane, A. , Mens, M. , & Nolan, C. (2010). Behind the signs: A global review of fish sustainability information schemes. Reviews in Fisheries Science, 18(4), 344–356. h ttps://doi.org/10.1080/10641262.2010.516374 Price, C. , Black, K. D. , Hargrave, B. T. , & Morris Jr., J. A. (2015). Marine cage culture and the environment: Effects on water quality and primary production. Aquaculture Environment Interactions, 6(2), 151–174. https://doi.org/10.3354/aei00122 Primavera, J. H. (2000). Development and conservation of Philippine mangroves: Institutional i ssues. Ecological Economics, 35(1), 91–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0921-8009(00)00170-1 Primavera, J. H. (2005). Mangroves, fishponds, and the quest for sustainability. Science, 310(310), 57–59. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1115179 Primavera, J. H. (2006). Overcoming the impacts of aquaculture on the coastal zone. Ocean & Coastal Management, 49(9–10), 531–545. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2006.06.018 Ridler, N. , Wowchuk, M. , Robinson, B. , Barrington, K. , Chopin, T. , Robinson, S. , Page, F. , Reid, G. , Szemerda, M. , Sewuster, J. , & Boyne-Travis, S. (2007). Integrated multi-trophic aquaculture (IMTA): A potential strategic choice for farmers. Aquaculture Economics & M anagement, 11(1), 99–110. https://doi.org/10.1080/13657300701202767 Salgado, H. , Bailey, J. , Tiller, R. , & Ellis, J. (2015). Stakeholder perceptions of the impacts from salmon aquaculture in the Chilean Patagonia. Ocean and Coastal Management, 118(Part B ), 189–204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2015.07.016 Savage, A. , McIver, L. , & Schubert, L. (2020). Review: The nexus of climate change, food and nutrition security and diet-related non-communicable diseases in Pacific Island countries and territories. Climate and Development, 12(2), 120–133. https://doi.org/10.1080/17565529.2019.1605284 SNV Netherlands Development Organization. (n.d.). MAM-II: Scaling up ecosystem-based adaptation in the Mekong Delta. https://snv.org/project/mam-ii-scaling-ecosystem-based- a daptation-mekong-delta Suman, D. (2019). Mangrove management: Challenges and guidelines. In G. M. E. Perillo , E. Wolanski , D. R. Cahoon , & C. S. Hopkinson (Eds.), Coastal wetlands: An integrated ecosystem approach (pp. 1055–1079). Elsevier. Tacon, A. G. , & Metian, M. (2008). Global overview on the use of fish meal and fish oil in industrially compounded aquafeeds: Trends and future prospects. Aquaculture, 285(1–4), 146–158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2008.08.015 Teletchea, F. (2015). Domestication of marine fish species: Update and perspectives. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, 3(4), 1227–1243. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse3041227 The Explorer. (n.d.). Closed-system salmon farming protects the environment. https://www.theexplorer.no/solutions/marine-donut---paving-the-way-for-sustainable-fishfarming/ Theuerkauf, S. J. , Morris Jr., J. A. , Waters, T. J. , Wickliffe, L. C. , Alleway, H. K. , & Jones, R. C. (2019). A global spatial analysis reveals where marine aquaculture can benefit nature and people. PloS One, 14(10), e0222282. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0222282 Troell, M. , Joyce, A. , Chopin, T. , Neori, A. , Buschmann, A. H. , & Fang, J. -G. (2009). Ecological engineering in aquaculture — Potential for integrated multi-trophic aquaculture (IMTA) in marine offshore systems. Aquaculture, 297(1–4), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2009.09.010 Warne, K. (2011). Let them eat shrimp: The tragic disappearance of the rainforests of the sea. I sland Press. World Bank. (2013). Fish to 2030: Prospects for fisheries and aquaculture (Agriculture and Environmental Services Discussion Paper, No. 3). https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/17579 Ytrestøyl, T. , Aas, T. S. , & Åsgård, T. (2015). Utilisation of feed resources in production of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) in Norway. Aquaculture, 448, 365–374. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2015.06.023 Marine Pollution Abbriano, R. , Carranza, M. M. , Hogle, S. L. , Levin, R. A. , Netburn, A. N. , Seto, K. L. , Snyder, S. M. , & Franks, P. J. S. (2011). Deepwater Horizon oil spill: A review of planktonic r esponse. Oceanography, 24(3), 294–301. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24861323 Barrett, J. , Chase, Z. , Zhang, J. , Banaszak Holl, M. M. , Willis, K. , Williams, A. , Hardesty, B. D. , & Wilcox, C. (2020). Microplastic pollution in deep-sea sediments from the Great Australian Bight. Frontiers in Marine Science, 7, 576170. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2020.576170 Bascom, W. (1974). The disposal of waste in the ocean. Scientific American, 231(2), 16–25. h ttps://www.jstor.org/stable/24950139 Bergmann, M. , Almroth, B. C. , Brander, S. M. , Dey, T. , Green, D. S. , Gundogdu, S. , Krieger, A. , Wagner, M. , & Walker, T. R. (2022). A global plastic treaty must cap production. Science, 376(376), 469–470. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abq0082 Bloomfield, M. (2019). Widening gyre: A poetics of ocean plastics. Configurations, 27(4), 5 01–523. https://doi.org/10.1353/con.2019.0033 Borrelle, S. B. , Ringma, J. , Law, K. L. , Monnahan, C. C. , Lebreton, L. , McGivern, A. , Murphy, E. , Jambeck, J. , Leonard, G. H. , Hilleary, M. A. , Eriksen, M. , Possingham, H. P. , De Frond, H. , Gerber, L. R. , Polidoro, B. , Tahir, A. , Bernard, M. , Mallos, N. , Barnes, M. , & Rochman, C. M. (2020). Predicted growth in plastic waste exceeds efforts to mitigate plastic p ollution. Science, 369(6510), 1515–1518. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aba3656 Brander, S. M. (2022). Rethinking our chemical legacy and reclaiming our planet. One Earth, 5 (4), 316–319. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2022.03.020 Byron, G. G. (1816–1817). Childe Harold´s pilgrimage. In The Works of Lord Byron Including Several Poems now First Collected Together with an Original Biography (Vol. 1) (pp. 13–29). M. Thomas & J. Maxwell, printer. Carpenter, E. J. , & Smith Jr., K. L. (1972). Plastics on the Sargasso Sea surface. Science, 1 75(4027), 1240–1241. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.175.4027.1240 Carson, R. (1998). The edge of the sea. Mariner Books (Original work published 1955). Carson, R. (2002). Silent spring. Houghton Mifflin (Original work published 1962). Carson, R. (2018). The sea around us. Oxford University Press (Original work published 1951). Colborn, T. , Dumanoski, D. , & Meyers, J. P. (1996). Our stolen future: Are we threatening our f ertility, intelligence and survival? – a scientific detective story. Dutton Adult. Earle, S. A. (2010). The world is blue: How our fate and the ocean’s are one. National G eographic Books. Epstein, L. (2014). Fifty years since Silent Spring. Annual Review of Phytopathology, 52(1), 3 77–402. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-phyto-102313-045900 Gilbert, M. (2016). Brydson’s plastics materials. Butterworth-Heinemann. Gittings, J. A. , Raitsos, D. E. , Krokos, G. , & Hoteit, I. (2018). Impacts of warming on phytoplankton abundance and phenology in a typical tropical marine ecosystem. Scientific R eports, 8(1), 2240. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-20560-5 Goldberg, E. D. (1986). The assimilative capacity of the oceans for wastes. In C. S. Giam & H. J.-M. Dou (Eds.), Strategies and advanced techniques for marine pollution studies: M editerranean Sea (pp. 1–8). NATO ASI Series. Springer. Green, T. , & Jacobs, P. (2021, March 17). 2020 tied for warmest year on record, NASA analysis shows. NASA. https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/2020-tied-for-warmest-year-on- record-nasa-analysis-shows. Hawthorne, N. (n.d.). The Ocean. Poetry Foundation (Original work published 1825). https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/57286/the-ocean Hong, S. , Candelone, J.-P. , Patterson, C. C. , & Boutron, C. F. (1994). Greenland ice evidence of hemispheric lead pollution two millennia ago by Greek and Roman civilizations. Science, 265(265), 1841–1843. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.265.5180.1841 H ooper, J. (2002). Of moths and men: An evolutionary tale. W.W. Norton & Company. Howarth, R. W. (2008). Coastal nitrogen pollution: A review of sources and trends globally and r egionally. Harmful Algae, 8(1), 14–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hal.2008.08.015 Jambeck, J. R. , Geyer, R. , Wilcox, C. , Siegler, T. R. , Perryman, M. , Andrady, A. , Narayan, R. , & Law, K. L. (2015). Plastic waste inputs from land into the ocean. Science, 347(347), 768–771. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1260352 Jamieson, A. J. , Brooks, L. S. R. , Reid, W. D. K. , Piertney, S. B. , Narayanaswamy, B. E. , & Linley, T. D. (2019). Microplastics and synthetic particles ingested by deep-sea amphipods in six of the deepest marine ecosystems on Earth. Royal Society Open Science, 6(2), 180667. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.180667 Kivenson, V. , Lemkau, K. L. , Pizarro, O. , Yoerger, D. R. , Kaiser, C. , Nelson, R. K. , Carmichael, C. , Paul, B. G. , Reddy, C. M. , & Valentine, D. L. (2019). Ocean dumping of containerized DDT waste was a sloppy process. Environmental Science & Technology, 53(6), 2 971–2980. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.8b05859 Lavers, J. L. , Dicks, L. , Dicks, M. R. , & Finger, A. (2019). Significant plastic accumulation on the Cocos (Keeling) Islands, Australia. Scientific Reports, 9(9), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-43375-4 Lebreton, L. , Slat, B. , Ferrari, F. , Sainte-Rose, B. , Aitken, J. , Marthouse, R , Hajbane, S. , Cunsolo, S. , Schwarz, A. , Levivier, A. , Nobl, K. , Debeljak, P. , Maral, H. , Schoeneich-Argent, R. , Brambini, R. , & Reisser, J. (2018). Evidence that the Great Pacific Garbage Patch is rapidly accumulating plastic. Scientific Reports, 8, 4666. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018- 22939-w Liboiron, M. (2018, December 21). How plastic is a function of colonialism. Teen Vogue. https://www.teenvogue.com/story/how-plastic-is-a-function-of-colonialism Lubchenco, J. , & Gaines, S. D. (2019). A new narrative for the ocean. Science, 364(6444), 911. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aay2241 Malaysia returns 42 containers of ‘illegal’ plastic waste to UK. (2020, January 20). BBC News. Retrieved June 21, 2022, from https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-51176312 Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act, Public Law 92–532 (1972). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/COMPS-1680/pdf/COMPS-1680.pdf McRae, G. (2020, April 16). Will climate change threaten earth’s other lung? The Revelator. https://therevelator.org/phytoplankton-climate-change/ Melville, H. (1993). Moby-Dick; or, the whale. Wordsworth Classics (Original work published 1 851). Menon, U. (2019, September 30). Giving a mongoose a plastic bottle. Skipping Stones 31. https://www.skippingstones.org/wp/2019/09/30/poetry-by-uma-menon-16-florida/ Morelle, R. (2019, May 13). Mariana Trench: Deepest-ever sub dive finds plastic bag. BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-48230157 Mosley, S. (2013). The chimney of the world: A history of smoke pollution in Victorian and E dwardian Manchester. Routledge. National Conference of State Legislatures . (2021, February 2). State Plastic Bag Legislation. https://www.ncsl.org/research/environment-and-natural-resources/plastic-bag-legislation.aspx Nichols, W. J. (2014). Blue mind: The surprising science that shows how being near, in, on, or under water can make you happier, healthier, more connected, and better at what you do. Little Brown. Paine, R. T. , Ruesink, J. L. , Sun, A. , Soulanille, E. L. , Wonham, M. J. , Harley, C. D. G. , Brumbaugh, D. R. , & Secord, D. L. (1996). Trouble on oiled waters: Lessons from the Exxon Valdez oil spill. Annual Review of Ecology & Systematics, 27, 197–235. h ttps://www.jstor.org/stable/2097234 Perez, C. S. (2018, November 1). The age of plastic. The Margins: Asian American Writers’ Workshop. https://aaww.org/the-age-of-plastic/ Ragusa, A. , Svelato, A. , Santacroce, C. , Catalano, P. , Notarstefano, V. , Carnevali, O. , Papa, F. , Rongioletti, M. C. A. , Baiocco, F. , Draghi, S. , D’Amore, E. , Rinaldo, D. , Matta, M. , & Giorgini, E. (2021). Plasticenta: First evidence of microplastics in human placenta. Environment International, 146, 106274. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2020.106274 Ramirez-Llodra, E. , Shank, T. M. , & German, C. R. (2007). Biodiversity and biogeography of hydrothermal vent species: Thirty years of discovery and investigations. Oceanography, 20(1), 3 0–41. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24859973 Rich, A. (1973). Diving into the wreck. Diving Into the Wreck: Poems, 1971–1972. W.W. Norton & Co. Robbins, J. (2020, August 31). Why bioplastics will not solve the world’s plastics problem. Yale Environment 360. https://e360.yale.edu/features/why-bioplastics-will-not-solve-the-worlds- plastics-problem Rossetti, C. G. (n.d.). By the sea. (Original work published 1858). http://famouspoetsandpoems.com/poets/christina_rossetti/poems/16473 Safina, C. (1997). Song for the blue ocean: Encounters along the world’s coasts and beneath the seas. Holt Paperbacks. Thompson, R. C. , Swan, S. H. , Moore, C. J. , & vom Saal, F. S. (2009). Our plastic age. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 364(1526), 1973–1976. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2009.0054 Turley, C. , Eby, M. , Ridgwell, A. J. , Schmidt, D. N. , Findlay, H. S. , Brownlee, C. , Riebesell, U. , Fabry, V. J. , Feely, R. A. , & Gattuso, J.-P. (2010). The societal challenge of ocean acidification. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 60(6), 787–792. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2010.05.006 Twombly, M. , Scalamogna, A. , & Stegmaier, A. (2014). The evolution of Alvin. National Geographic. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news-features/evolution-of- alvin/?sf3188984=1 Walcott, D. (2014). The sea is history. In G. Maxwell , (Ed.), The poetry of Derek Walcott, 1 948–2013. Farrar, Straus, and Giroux (Original work published 1978). Woodwell, G. M. , Wurster Jr., C. F. , & Isaacson, P. A. (1967). DDT residues in an east coast estuary: A case of biological concentration of a persistent insecticide. Science, 156(3776), 821–824. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.156.3776.821 Zhu, X. (2021). The plastic cycle–an unknown branch of the carbon cycle. Frontiers in Marine Science, 7, 609243. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2020.609243 Oceans and the Changing Climate Barange, M. , Merino, G. , Blanchard, J. L. , Scholtens, J. , Harle, J. , Allison, E. H. , Allen, J. I. , Holt, J. & Jennings, S. (2014). Impacts of climate change on marine ecosystem production in societies dependent on fisheries. Nature Climate Change, 4, 211–216. https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate2119 Barton, A. , Waldbusser, G. G. , Feely, R. A. , Weisberg, S. B. , Newton, J. A. , Hales, B. , Cudd, S. , Eudeline, B. , Langdon, C. J. , Jefferds, I. , King, T. , Suhrbier, A. , & McLaughlin, K. (2015). Impacts of coastal acidification on the Pacific Northwest shellfish industry and adaptation strategies implemented in response. Oceanography, 28(2), 146–159. https://doi.org/10.5670/oceanog.2015.38 Blasiak, R. , Spijkers, J. , Tokunaga, K. , Pittman, J. , Yagi, N. , & Österblom, H. (2017). Climate change and marine fisheries: Least developed countries top global index of vulnerability. PLoS O NE, 12(6), e0179632. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0179632 Bolstad, E. (2017, May 1). High ground is becoming hot property as sea level rises. Scientific American ClimateWire. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/high-ground-is-becoming-hot- p roperty-as-sea-level-rises/ Carter, A. (2019). A national standard for climate-ready fisheries. Center for American Progress. h ttps://www.americanprogress.org/article/national-standard-climate-ready-fisheries/ Cheung, W. W. L. , Lam, V. W. Y. , Sarmiento, J. L. , Kearney, K. , Watson, R. , & Pauly, D. (2009). Projecting global marine biodiversity impacts under climate change scenarios. Fish and F isheries, 10, 235–251. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-2979.2008.00315.x Cheung, W. W. L. , Sarmiento, J. L. , Dunne, J. , Frölicher, T. L. , Lam, V. W. Y. , Palomares, M. L. D. , Watson, R. , & Pauly, D. (2013). Shrinking of fishes exacerbates impacts of global ocean changes on marine ecosystems. Nature Climate Change, 3, 254–258. h ttps://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate1691 Davenport, C. , & Haner, J. (2015, December 1). The Marshall Islands are disappearing. New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2015/12/02/world/The-Marshall-Islands-Are- D isappearing.html?searchResultPosition=1 Dermansky, J. (2019, January 11). Isle de Jean Charles Tribe turns down funds to relocate first US “climate refugees” as Louisiana buys land anyway. DeSmog. https://www.desmogblog.com/2019/01/11/isle-de-jean-charles-tribe-turns-down-funds-relocate- c limate-refugees-louisiana. Doney, S. C. , Busch, D. S. , Cooley, S. R. , & Kroeker, K. J. (2020). The impacts of ocean acidification on marine ecosystems and reliant human communities. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 45, 83–112. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-012320- 083019 Drury, C. , & Lirman, D. (2021). Genotype by environment interactions in coral bleaching. Proc. R oyal Soc. B., 288(288), 20210177. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2021.0177 Ekstrom, J. A. , Suatoni, L. , Cooley, S. R. , Pendleton, L. H. , Waldbusser, G. G. , Cinner, J. E. , Ritter, J. , Langdon, C. , van Hooidonk, R. , Gledhill, D. , Wellman, K. , Beck, M. W. , Brander, L. M. , Rittschof, D. , Doherty, C. , Edwards, P. E. T. , & Portela, R. (2015). Vulnerability and adaptation of US shellfisheries to ocean acidification. Nature Climate Change, 5, 207–214. h ttps://doi.org/10.1038/NCLIMATE2508 Environmental Protection Agency . (2016). Adapting to climate change: Alaska. h ttps://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2016-07/documents/alaska_fact_sheet.pdf Faraday, S. E. (2015). Moving targets: fisheries management in New England in the midst of climate change. In R. S. Abate (Ed.), Climate change impacts on ocean and coastal law: US and international perspectives (pp. 73–90). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199368747.001.0001 Faraday, S. E. , & Bigford, T. E. (2019). Fisheries and climate change: Legal and management implications. Fisheries, 44(6), 270–275. https://doi.org/10.1002/fsh.10263 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations . (2020). The state of world fisheries and aquaculture 2020. Sustainability in action. United Nations. https://doi.org/10.4060/ca9229en. Friedland, K. D. , Kane, J. , Hare, J. A. , Lough, R. G. , Fratantoni, P. S. , Fogarty, M. J. , & Nye, J. A. (2013). Thermal habitat constraints on zooplankton species associated with Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) on the US Northeast Continental Shelf. Progress in Oceanography, 116, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pocean.2013.05.011 Gaines, S. D. , Costello, C. , Owashi, B. , Mangin, T. , Bone, J. , Molinos, J. G. , Burden, M. , Dennis, H. , Halpern, B. S. , Kappel, C. V. , Kleisner, K. M. , & Ovando, D. (2018). Improved fisheries management could offset many negative effects of climate change. Science Advances, 4(8), eaao1378. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aao1378 Hall-Spencer, J. M. , & Harvey, B. P. (2019). Ocean acidification impacts on coastal ecosystem services due to habitat degradation. Emerging Topics in Life Sciences, 3, 197–206. https://doi.org/10.1042/ETLS20180117 Hauer, M. E. , Evans, J. M. , & Mishra, D. R. (2016). Millions projected to be at risk from sea- level rise in the continental United States. Nature Climate Change, 6, 691–695. https://doi.org/10.1038/NCLIMATE2961 Hoegh-Guldberg, O. , Poloczanska, E. S. , Skirving, W. , & Dove, S. (2017). Coral reef ecosystems under climate change and ocean acidification. Frontiers in Marine Science, 4, 158. h ttps://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2017.00158 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . (2019). Summary for Policymakers. In: IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate. [ H. -O. Pörtner , D. C. Roberts , V. Masson-Delmotte , P. Zhai , M. Tignor , E. Poloczanska , K. Mintenbeck , A. Alegría , M. Nicolai , A. Okem , J. Petzold , B. Rama , N. M. Weyer (Eds.)]. Geneva, Switzerland. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157964. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . (2022). Synthesis report of the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report (AR6): Summary for policymakers. United Nations. h ttps://www.ipcc.ch/report/sixth-assessment-report-cycle/ Jacobsen, N. S. , Marshall, K. N. , Berger, A. M. , Grandin, C. , & Taylor, I. G. (2022). Climate- mediated stock redistribution causes increased risk and challenges for fisheries management. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 79(4), 1120–1132. https://doi.org/10.1093/icesjms/fsac029 Keenan, J. M. , Hills, T. , & Gumber, A. (2018). Climate gentrification, from theory to empiricism in Miami-Dade County, Florida. Environmental Research Letters, 13(5). https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/aabb32/pdf. Lirman, D. , & Schopmeyer, S. (2016). Ecological solutions to reef degradation: Optimizing coral reef restoration in the Caribbean and Western Atlantic. PeerJ, 4, e2597. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.2597 Louisiana Office of Community Development . (2020). Resettlement of Isle de Jean Charles: Background and overview. US Department of Housing and Urban Development. http://isledejeancharles.la.gov/sites/default/files/public/IDJC-Background-and-Overview-6- 2 0_web.pdf Lyons, K. (2020, January 20). Climate refugees can’t be returned home, says landmark UN human rights ruling. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jan/20/climate- refugees-cant-be-returned-home-says-landmark-un-human-rights-ruling Malmstadt, J. C. , Elsner, J. B. , & Jagger, T. H. (2019). Risk of strong hurricane winds to Florida cities. J. Applied Meteorology and Climatology, 49(10), 2121–2132. h ttps://doi.org/10.1175/2010JAMC2420.1 Martin, A. (2018, October 18). An Alaskan village is falling into the sea. Washington is looking the other way. The World: Public Radio International. https://www.pri.org/stories/2018-10- 22/alaskan-village-falling-sea-washington-looking-other-way McDonnell, T. (2018, June 20). The refugees the world barely pays attention to. National Public Radio. https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2018/06/20/621782275/the-refugees-that- the-world-barely-pays-attention-to Melillo, J. M. , Richmond, T. T. C. , & Yohe, G. W. (Eds.) (2014). Climate change impacts in the United States: The third national climate assessment. US Global Change Research Program. https://doi.org/10.7930/J0Z31WJ2 Molinaroli, E. , Guerzoni, S. , & Suman, D. (2019). Do the adaptations of Venice and Miami to Sea Level Rise offer lessons for other vulnerable coastal cities? Environmental Management, 64(4), 391–415. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-019-01198-z Muñoz, N. J. , Farrell, A. P. , Heath, J. W. , & Neff, B. D. (2015). Adaptive potential of a Pacific salmon challenged by climate change. Nature Climate Change, 5, 163–166. https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate2473 Narita, D. , Rehdanz, K. , & Tol, R. S. J. (2012). Economic costs of ocean acidification: A look into the impacts on global shellfish production. Climatic Change, 113, 1049–1063. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-011-0383-3 National Hurricane Center . (2019). Estimated return period in years for hurricanes passing within 50 nautical miles of various locations on the US coast. h ttps://www.nhc.noaa.gov/climo/#cp100. National Research Council. (2007). Mitigating shore erosion along sheltered coasts. National Academies Press. Nicholls, R. J. , Hanson, S. , Herweijer, C. , Patmore, N. , Hallegatte, S. , Corfee-Morlot, J. , Chateau, J. , & Muir-Wood, R. (2007). Ranking of the world’s cities most exposed to coastal flooding today and in the future (OECD Environment Working Paper No. 1). h ttps://doi.org/10.1787/011766488208 Ojea, E. , Lester, S. E. , & Salgueiro-Otero, D. (2020). Adaptation of fishing communities to climate-driven shifts in target species. One Earth, 2(6), 544–556. h ttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2020.05.012 Patricola, C. M. , & Wehner, M. F. (2018). Anthropogenic influences on major tropical cyclone events. Nature, 563, 339–346. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-018-0673-2 People urgently fleeing climate crisis cannot be sent home, UN rules. (2020, January 20). BBC News. Retrieved May 6, 2022, from https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-51179931 Pilkey, O. H. , & Cooper, A. G. (2014). The last beach. Duke University Press. Pilkey, O. H. , Pilkey-Jarvis, L. , & Pilkey, K. C. (2016). Retreat from a rising sea. Columbia University Press. Pörtner, H. O. , & Peck, M. A. (2010). Climate change effects on fish and fisheries: towards a cause-and-effect understanding. Journal of Fish Biology, 77(8), 1745–1779. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8649.2010.02783.x Rijnsdorp, A. D. , Peck, M. A. , Engelhard, G. H. , Möllmann, C. , & Pinnegar, J. K. (2009). Resolving the effect of climate change on fish populations. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 66(7), 1570–1583. https://doi.org/10.1093/icesjms/fsp056 Sweet, W. , Kopp, R. , Weaver, C. , Obeysekera, J. , Horton, R. , Thieler, E. R. , & Zervas, C. (2017). Global and regional sea level rise scenarios for the United States (NOAA Technical Report NOS CO-OPS 083). NOAA/NOS Center for Operational Oceanographic Products and Services. https://tidesandcurrents.noaa.gov/publications/techrpt83_Global_and_Regional_SLR_Scenarios _ for_the_US_final.pdf Treuer, G. , Broad, K. , & Meter, R. (2018). Using simulations to forecast homeowner response to sea level rise in South Florida: Will they stay or will they go? Global Climate Change, 48, 108–118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2017.10.008 Union of Concerned Scientists. (2017). Encroaching tides in Miami-Dade County, Florida. UCS Fact Sheet, pp. 1–10. https://www.ucsusa.org/sites/default/files/attach/2016/04/miamidade-sea- l evel-rise-tidal-flooding-fact-sheet.pdf United States Army Corps of Engineers (USACE). (2020). Miami-Dade back bay coastal storm risk management draft integrated feasibility report and programmatic environmental impact statement. https://usace.contentdm.oclc.org/utils/getfile/collection/p16021coll7/id/14453 Weiss J. L. , Overpeck, J. T. , & Strauss, B. (2011). Implications of recent sea level rise science for low-elevation areas of coastal cities of the conterminous USA. Climate Change, 105, 6 35–645. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-011-0024-x Zervas, C. (2009). Sea level variations of the United States 1854–2006 (NOAA Technical Report NOS CO-OPS 053). NOAA. https://tidesandcurrents.noaa.gov/publications/Tech_rpt_53.pdf Marine Renewable Energy Ansolabehere, S. , & Konisky, D. M. (2014). Cheap and clean: How Americans think about energy in the age of global warming. MIT Press. Arnstein, S. R. (1969). A ladder of citizen participation. Journal of the American Institute of P lanners, 35(4), 216–224. https://doi.org/10.1080/01944366908977225 Bailey, H. , Brookes, K. L. , & Thompson, P. M. (2014). Assessing environmental impacts of offshore wind farms: Lessons learned and recommendations for the future. Aquatic Biosystems, 10(1), 1–13. Retrieved July 1, 2022 from h ttps://aquaticbiosystems.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/2046-9063-10-8 Batel, S. (2020). Research on the social acceptance of renewable energy technologies: Past, present and future. Energy Research & Social Science, 68, 101544. h ttps://doi.org.10.1016/j.erss.2020.101544 Bell, D. , Gray, T. , & Haggett, C. (2005). The ‘social gap’ in wind farm siting decisions: Explanations and policy responses. Environmental Politics, 14(4), 460–477. h ttps://doi.org/10.1080/09644010500175833 Bell, D. , Gray, T. , Haggett, C. , & Swaffield, J. (2013). Re-visiting the ‘social gap’: Public opinion and relations of power in the local politics of wind energy. Environmental Politics, 22(1), 115–135. https://doi.org/10.1080/09644016.2013.755793 Boudet, H. S. (2019). Public perceptions of and responses to new energy technologies. Nature Energy, 4(6), 446–455. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-019-0399-x Boudet, H. S. , Brandt, D. , Stelmach, G. , & Hazboun, S. (2020). West Coast perceptions of wave energy. Pacific Marine Energy Center. h ttps://ir.library.oregonstate.edu/concern/technical_reports/pr76f9588 Boudet, H. S. , & Ortolano, L. (2010). A tale of two sitings: Contentious politics in liquefied natural gas facility siting in California. Journal of Planning Education and Research, 30(1), 5–21. h ttps://doi.org/10.1177/0739456X10373079 Carley, S. , Konisky, D. M. , Atiq, Z. , & Land, N. (2020). Energy infrastructure, NIMBYism, and public opinion: A systematic literature review of three decades of empirical survey literature. Environmental Research Letters, 15(9), 093007. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ab875d Clarke, C. E. , Hart, P. E. , Schuldt, J. P. , Evensen, D. T. , Boudet, H. S. , Jacquet, J. B. , & Stedman, R. C. (2015). Public opinion on energy development: The interplay of issue framing, top-of-mind associations, and political ideology. Energy Policy, 81, 131–140. https://doi.org./10.1016/j.enpol.2015.02.019 Conway, F. , Stevenson, J. , Hunter, D. , Stefanovich, M. , Campbell, H. , Covell, Z. , & Yin, Y. (2010). Ocean space, ocean place: The human dimensions of wave energy in Oregon. Oceanography, 23(2), 82–91. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24860714 Copping, A. E. , & Hemery, L. G. (Eds.). (2020). OES-environmental 2020 state of the science report: Environmental effects of marine renewable energy development around the world. Ocean Energy Systems. Retrieved July 1, 2022 from https://www.ocean-energy- s ystems.org/news/oes-environmental-2020-state-of-the-science-report Crowe, J. A. (2020). The effect of partisan cues on support for solar and wind energy in the United States. Social Science Quarterly, 101(4), 1461–1474. https://doi.org/10.1111/ssqu.12799 Dear, M. (1992). Understanding and overcoming the NIMBY syndrome. Journal of the American P lanning Association, 58(3), 288–300. https://doi.org/10.1080/01944369208975808 Devine-Wright, P. (2005). Beyond NIMBYism: Towards an integrated framework for understanding public perceptions of wind energy. Wind Energy, 8(2), 125–139. h ttps://doi.org/10.1002/we.124 Devine-Wright, P. , & Howes, Y. (2010). Disruption to place attachment and the protection of restorative environments: A wind energy case study. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 30(3), 271–280. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2010.01.008 Dreyer, S. J. , Polis, H. J. , & Jenkins, L. D. (2017). Changing tides: Acceptability, support, and perceptions of tidal energy in the United States. Energy Research & Social Science, 29, 72–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2017.04.013 Energias de Portugal. (2018). Windfloat Atlantic. https://www.edp.com/en/innovation/windfloat Energy Sector Management Assistance Program . (2019). Going global: Expanding offshore wind to emerging markets. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/32801/Going-Global-Expanding- Offshore-Wind-To-Emerging-Markets.pdf?sequence=5&isAllowed=y Equinor . (n.d.). The future of offshore wind is afloat. https://www.equinor.com/en/what-we- do/floating-wind.html Firestone, J. , Hoen, B. , Rand, J. , Elliott, D. , Hübner, G. , & Pohl, J. (2018). Reconsidering barriers to wind power projects: Community engagement, developer transparency and place. Journal of Environmental Policy & Planning, 20(3), 370–386. https://doi.org/10.1080/1523908X.2017.1418656 Firestone, J. , & Kempton, W. (2007). Public opinion about large offshore wind power: Underlying factors. Energy Policy, 35(3), 1584–1598. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2006.04.010 Firestone, J. , Kempton, W. , Lilley, M. B. , & Samoteskul, K. (2012a). Public acceptance of offshore wind power across regions and through time. Journal of Environmental Planning and M anagement, 55(10), 1369–1386. https://doi.org/10.1080/09640568.2012.682782 Firestone, J. , Kempton, W. , Lilley, M. B. , & Samoteskul, K. (2012b). Public acceptance of offshore wind power: Does perceived fairness of process matter? Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, 55(10), 1387–1402. https://doi.org/10.1080/09640568.2012.688658 Fitch-Roy, O. (2016). An offshore wind union? Diversity and convergence in European offshore wind governance. Climate Policy, 16(5), 586–605. https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2015.1117958 Fornahl, D. , Hassink, R. , Klaerding, C. , Mossig, I. , & Schröder, H. (2012). From the old path of shipbuilding onto the new path of offshore wind energy? The case of northern Germany. E uropean Planning Studies, 20(5), 835–855. http://hdl.handle.net/10419/120052 Freudenburg, W. R. , & Gramling, R. (1993). Socioenvironmental factors and development policy: Understanding opposition and support for offshore oil. Sociological Forum, 8(3), 341–364. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01115049 Freudenburg, W. R. , & Gramling, R. (1994). Oil in troubled waters: Perceptions, politics, and the battle over offshore drilling. SUNY Press. Giordono, L. S. , Boudet, H. S. , Karmazina, A. , Taylor, C. L. , & Steel, B. S. (2018). Opposition “overblown”? Community response to wind energy siting in the western United States. Energy R esearch & Social Science, 43, 119–131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2018.05.016 Global Change Data Lab. (n.d.) Global direct primary energy consumption. Our world in data. https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/global-primary-energy?time=earliest.latest Global Wind Energy Council. (n.d.) Offshore Wind Power. https://gwec.net/global-figures/global- offshore/ Haggett, C. (2008). Over the sea and far away? A consideration of the planning, politics and public perception of offshore wind farms. Journal of Environmental Policy & Planning, 10(3), 289–306. https://doi.org/10.1080/15239080802242787 Haggett, C. (2011). Understanding public responses to offshore wind power. Energy Policy, 3 9(2), 503–510. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2010.10.014 Hall, D. M. , & Lazarus, E. D. (2015). Deep waters: Lessons from community meetings about offshore wind resource development in the US. Marine Policy, 57, 9–17. h ttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2015.03.004 Hazboun, S. O. , & Boudet, H. S. (2020). Public preferences in a shifting energy future: Comparing public views of eight energy sources in North America’s Pacific Northwest. Energies, 13(8), 1940. https://doi.org/10.3390/en13081940 Ho, S. S. , Leong, A. D. , Looi, J. , Chen, L. , Pang, N. , & Tandoc Jr., E. (2019). Science literacy or value predisposition? A meta-analysis of factors predicting public perceptions of benefits, risks, and acceptance of nuclear energy. Environmental Communication, 13(4), 4 57–471. https://doi.org/10.1080/17524032.2017.1394891 Huckerby, J. , Jeffrey, H. , de Andres, A. , & Finlay, L. (2017). An international vision for ocean energy. Ocean Energy Systems. https://www.ocean-energy-systems.org/publications/oes- vision-strategy/ International Energy Agency. (2018). Offshore Energy Outlook 2018. https://www.iea.org/reports/offshore-energy-outlook-2018 International Energy Agency. (2019). Offshore Wind Outlook 2019. https://www.iea.org/reports/offshore-wind-outlook-2019 International Renewable Energy Agency. (2019). Future of Wind: Deployment, Investment, Technology, Grid Integration and Socio-Economic Aspects. https://www.irena.org/- / media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2019/Oct/IRENA_Future_of_wind_2019.pdf Jacquet, J. B. (2012). Landowner attitudes toward natural gas and wind farm development in northern Pennsylvania. Energy Policy, 50, 677–688. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2012.08.011 Jones, P. J. , Lieberknecht, L. M. , & Qiu, W. (2016). Marine spatial planning in reality: Introduction to case studies and discussion of findings. Marine Policy, 71, 256–264. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2016.04.026 Kerr, S. , Watts, L. , Colton, J. , Conway, F. , Hull, A. , Johnson, K. , Jude, S. , Kannen, A. , MacDougall, S. , McLachlan, C. , Potts, T. , & Vegunst, J. (2014). Establishing an agenda for social studies research in marine renewable energy. Energy Policy, 67, 694–702. h ttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2013.11.063 Konisky, D. M. , & Woods, N. D. (2018). Environmental federalism and the Trump presidency: A preliminary assessment. Publius: The Journal of Federalism, 48(3), 345–371. https://doi.org/10.1093/publius/pjy009 Lee, A. , Zinaman, O. , & Logan, J. (2012). Opportunities for synergy between natural gas and renewable energy in the electric power and transportation sectors (Report No. NREL/ TP- 6A50–56324). National Renewable Energy Laboratory. https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy13osti/56324.pdf McLachlan, C. (2009). ‘You don’t do a chemistry experiment in your best china’: Symbolic interpretations of place and technology in a wave energy case. Energy Policy, 37(12), 5342–5350. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2009.07.057 Molotch, H. (1970). Oil in Santa Barbara and power in America. Sociological Inquiry, 40(1), 131–144. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-682X.1970.tb00990.x Musial, W. , Beiter, P. , Spitsen, P. , Nunemaker, J. , Gevorgian, V. , Cooperman, A. , Hammond, R. , & Shields, M. (2020). 2019 offshore wind technology data update (Report No. NREL/ TP-5000–77411). National Renewable Energy Laboratory. https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy21osti/77411.pdf National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration . (2017, April 5). Largest oil spills affecting US waters since 1969. https://response.restoration.noaa.gov/oil-and-chemical-spills/oil- spills/largest-oil-spills-affecting-us-waters-1969.html Neill, S. P. , Angeloudis, A. , Robins, P. E. , Walkington, I. , Ward, S. L. , Masters, I. , Lewis, M. J. , Piano, M. , Avdis, A. , Piggott, M. D. , Aggidis, G. , Evans, P. , Adcock, T. A. A. , Židonis, A. , Ahmadian, R. , & Falconer, R. (2018). Tidal range energy resource and optimization – Past perspectives and future challenges. Renewable Energy, 127, 763–778. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2018.05.007 O’Hagan, A. M. (2020). Marine spatial planning and marine renewable energy. In A.E. Copping & L.G. Hemery (Eds.), OES-Environmental 2020 state of the science report: Environmental effects of marine renewable energy development around the world (pp. 214–241). Ocean Energy Systems. https://doi.org/10.2172/1633204 Olson-Hazboun, S. K. , Howe, P. D. , & Leiserowitz, A. (2018). The influence of extractive activities on public support for renewable energy policy. Energy Policy, 123, 117–126. h ttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2018.08.044 Rand, J. , & Hoen, B. (2017). Thirty years of North American wind energy acceptance research: What have we learned? Energy Research & Social Science, 29, 135–148. h ttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2017.05.019 Renn, O. , & Marshall, J. P. (2016). Coal, nuclear and renewable energy policies in Germany: From the 1950s to the “Energiewende”. Energy Policy, 99, 224–232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2016.05.004 Russell, A. , Firestone, J. , Bidwell, D. , & Gardner, M. (2020). Place meaning and consistency with offshore wind: An island and coastal tale. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 132, 110044. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2020.110044 Ryan, K. , Bates, A. , Gopnik, M. , Danylchuk, A. , & Jordaan, A. (2019). Stakeholder perspectives on the value of marine spatial planning towards advancing offshore wind in the US. Coastal Management, 47(3), 269–291. https://doi.org/10.1080/08920753.2019.1596675 Schively, C. (2007). Understanding the NIMBY and LULU phenomena: Reassessing our knowledge base and informing future research. Journal of Planning Literature, 21(3), 255–266. h ttps://doi.org/10.1177/0885412206295845 Short, A. (2020). Industrial policy support for tidal technology in the UK: An international comparison. University of Exeter. Simas, T. , Muñoz-Arjona, E. , Huertas-Olivares, C. , de Groot, J. , Stokes, C. , Bailey, I. , Magagna, D. , Conley, D. , Greaves, D. , Marina, D. , Torre-Enciso, Y. , Sundberg, J. , O’Hagan, A. , & Holmes, B. (2012, October 17). Understanding the role of stakeholders in the wave energy consenting process: Engagement and sensitivities [Paper presentation]. International Conference on Ocean Energy, Dublin, Ireland. https://tethys.pnnl.gov/publications/understanding-role-stakeholders-wave-energy-consenting- process-engagement Slovic, P. (1987). Perception of risk. Science, 236(236), 280–285. h ttps://doi.org/10.1126/science.3563507 Sokoloski, R. , Markowitz, E. M. , & Bidwell, D. (2018). Public estimates of support for offshore wind energy: False consensus, pluralistic ignorance, and partisan effects. Energy Policy, 112, 4 5–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2017.10.005 Spence, A. , Demski, C. , Butler, C. , Parkhill, K. , & Pidgeon, N. (2015). Public perceptions of demand-side management and a smarter energy future. Nature Climate Change, 5(6), 550–554. https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate2610 Stoutenborough, J. W. , Vedlitz, A. , & Liu, X. (2015). The influence of specific risk perceptions on public policy support: An examination of energy policy. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 658(1), 102–120. h ttps://doi.org/10.1177/0002716214556472 Thomas, M. , Pidgeon, N. , Evensen, D. , Partridge, T. , Hasell, A. , Enders, C. , Herr Harthorn, B. , & Bradshaw, M. (2017). Public perceptions of hydraulic fracturing for shale gas and oil in the United States and Canada. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change, 8(3), e450. https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.450 United Nations Environment Programme . (2018). Assessing environmental impacts – A global review of legislation. UNEP. US Energy Information Administration . (2016, October 25). Offshore production nearly 30% of global crude oil output in 2015. https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=28492# Vasi, I. B. , Walker, E. T. , Johnson, J. S. , & Tan, H. F. (2015). “No fracking way!” Documentary film, discursive opportunity, and local opposition against hydraulic fracturing in the United States, 2010 to 2013. American Sociological Review, 80(5), 934–959. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122415598534 Walker, G. (1995). Renewable energy and the public. Land Use Policy, 12(1), 49–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/0264-8377(95)90074-C Wiersma, B. , & Devine-Wright, P. (2014). Public engagement with offshore renewable energy: A critical review. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change, 5(4), 493–507. h ttps://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.282 Wüstenhagen, R. , Wolsink, M. , & Bürer, M. J. (2007). Social acceptance of renewable energy innovation: An introduction to the concept. Energy policy, 35(5), 2683–2691. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2006.12.001 M arine Areas beyond National Jurisdiction Ardron, J. A. , Rayfuse, R. , Gjerde, K. , & Warner, R. (2014). The sustainable use and conservation of biodiversity in ABNJ: What can be achieved using existing international agreements? Marine Policy, 49, 98–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2014.02.011 Badman, T. , Douvere, F. , Freestone, D. , & Laffoley, D. (2016). World heritage in the high seas: An idea whose time has come. UNESCO. Bell, J. D. , Senina, I. , Adams, T. , Aumont, O. , Calmettes, B. , Clark, S. , Dessert, M , Gehlen, M. , Gorgues, T. , Hampton, J. , Hanich, Q. , Harden-Davies, H. , Hare, S. R. , Holmes, G. , Lehodey, P. , Lengaigne, M. , Mansfield, W. , Menkes, C. , Nicol, S. … Williams, P. (2021). Pathways to sustaining tuna-dependent Pacific Island economies during climate change. Nature Sustainability, 4(10), 900–910. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-021-00745-z Berkman, P. A. (2010). Biodiversity stewardship in international spaces. Systematics & B iodiversity, 8(3), 311–320. https://doi.org/10.1080/14772000.2010.512623 Blasiak, R. , Wynberg, R. , Grorud-Colvert, K. , Thambisetty, S. , Bandarra, N. M. , Canário, A. V. M. , da Silva, J. , Duarte, C. M. , Jaspers, M. , Rogers, A. , Sink. K. , & Wabnitz, C. C. (2020). The ocean genome and future prospects for conservation and equity. Nature Sustainability, 3(8), 588–596. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-020-0522-9 Carmine, G. , Mayorga, J. , Miller, N. A. , Park, J. , Halpin, P. N. , Ortuño Crespo , G., Österblom, H. , Sala, E. , & Jacquet, J. (2020). Who is the high seas fishing industry? One Earth, 3(6), 730–738. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2020.11.017 Cisneros-Montemayor, A. M. , Moreno-Báez, M. , Reygondeau, G. , Cheung, W. W. , Crosman, K. M. , González-Espinosa, P. C. , Lam, V. W. , Oyinlola, M. A. , Singh, G. G. , Swartz, W. , & Zheng, C. W. (2021). Enabling conditions for an equitable and sustainable blue economy. Nature, 591(7850), 396–401. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03327-3 Dunn, D. C. , Jablonicky, C. , Crespo, G. O. , McCauley, D. J. , Kroodsma, D. A. , Boerder, K. , Gjerde, K. M. , & Halpin, P. N. (2018). Empowering high seas governance with satellite vessel t racking data. Fish and Fisheries, 19(4), 729–739. https://doi.org/10.1111/faf.12285 Freestone, D. (2009). Modern principles of high seas governance: The legal underpinnings. E nvironmental Policy and Law, 39(1), 44–49. Gjerde, K. M. , Clark, N. A. , & Harden-Davies, H. R. (2019). Building a platform for the future: The relationship of the expected new agreement for marine biodiversity in areas beyond national jurisdiction and the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea. Ocean Yearbook Online, 33(1), 1–44. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004395633_002 Gjerde, K. M. , Reeve, L. L. N. , Harden-Davies, H. , Ardron, J. , Dolan, R. , Durussel, C. , Earle, S. , Jimenez, J. A. , Kalas, P. , Laffoley, D. , Oral, N. , Page, R. , Ribeiro, M. C. , Rochette, J. , Spadone, A. , Thiele, T. , Thomas, H. L. , Wagner, D. , Warner, R. M. … Wright, G. (2016). Protecting Earth’s last conservation frontier: Scientific, management and legal priorities for MPAs beyond national boundaries. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 26, 45–60. https://doi.org/10.1002/aqc.2646 Haas, B. , Haward, M. , McGee, J. , & Fleming, A. (2021). Regional fisheries management organizations and the new biodiversity agreement: Challenge or opportunity? Fish and F isheries, 22(1), 226–231. https://doi.org/10.1111/faf.12511 Harden-Davies, H. R. , & Gjerde, K. M. (2019). Building scientific and technological capacity: A role for benefit-sharing in the conservation and sustainable use of marine biodiversity beyond national jurisdiction. Ocean Yearbook Online, 33(1), 377–400. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004395633_015 Hassanali, K. (2021). Internationalization of EIA in a new marine biodiversity agreement under the Law of the Sea Convention: A proposal for a tiered approach to review and decision- making. Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 87, 106554. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eiar.2021.106554 Humphries, F. , & Harden-Davies, H. (2020). Practical policy solutions for the final stage of BBNJ treaty negotiations. Marine Policy, 122, 104214. h ttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2020.104214 Jaeckel, A. (2020). Benefitting from the common heritage of humankind: From expectation to reality. The International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law, 35(4), 660–681. https://doi.org/10.1163/15718085-BJA10032 Levin, L. A. , Amon, D. J. , & Lily, H. (2020a). Challenges to the sustainability of deep-seabed mining. Nature Sustainability, 3(10), 784–794. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-020-0558-x Levin, L. A. , & Le Bris, N. (2015). The deep ocean under climate change. Science, 350(6262), 7 66–768. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aad0126 Levin, L. A. , Wei, C. L. , Dunn, D. C. , Amon, D. J. , Ashford, O. S. , Cheung, W. W. , Colaço, A. , Dominguez-Carrió, C. , Escobar, E. G. , Harden-Davies, H. R. , Drazen, J. C. , Ismail, K. , Jones, D. O. , Johnson, D. E. , Le, J. T. , Lejzerowicz, F. , Mitarai, S. , Morato, T. , Mulsow, S. … Yasuhara, M. (2020b). Climate change considerations are fundamental to management of deep-sea resource extraction. Global Change Biology, 26(9), 4664–4678. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.15223 Mulalap, C. Y. , Frere, T. , Huffer, E. , Hviding, E. , Paul, K. , Smith, A. , & Vierros, M. K. (2020). Traditional knowledge and the BBNJ instrument. Marine Policy, 122, 104103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2020.104103 Österblom, H. , Wabnitz, C. C. , Tladi, D. , Allison, E. , Arnaud-Haond, S. , Bebbington, J. , Bennett, N. , Blasiak, R. , Boonstra, W. J. , Choudhury, A. , Cisneros-Montemayor, A. M. , Daw, T. , Fabinyi, M. , Franz, N. , Harden-Davies, H. , Kleiber, D. L. , Lopes, P. , McDougall, C. , Resosudarmo, B. P. , & Selim, S. A. (2020). Towards ocean equity. World Resources Institute. https://www.oceanpanel.org/blue-papers/towards-ocean-equity. Popova, E. , Vousden, D. , Sauer, W. H. H. , Mohammed, E. Y. , Allain, V. , Downey-Breedt, N. , Fletcher, R. , Gjerde, K. M. , Halpin, P. N. , Kelly, S. , Obura, D. , Pecl, G. , Roberts, M. , Raitsos, D. E. , Rogers, A. , Samoilys, M. , Sumaila, U. R. , Tracey, S. , & Yool, A. (2019). Ecological connectivity between the areas beyond national jurisdiction and coastal waters: Safeguarding interests of coastal communities in developing countries. Marine Policy, 104, 9 0–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2019.02.050 Rabone, M. , Horton, T. , Harden-Davies, H. , Zajderman, S. , Appeltans, W. , Droege, G. , Brandt, A. , Pardo-Lopez, L. , Dahlgren, T. G. , Glover, A. G. , & Horton, T. (2019). Access to marine genetic resources (MGR): Raising awareness of best practice through a new agreement for biodiversity beyond national jurisdiction (BBNJ). Frontiers in Marine Science, 6, 520. h ttps://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2019.00520 Ramirez-Llodra, E. , Brandt, A. , Danovaro, R. , De Mol, B. , Escobar, E. , German, C. R. , Levin, L. A. , Martinez Arbizu, P. , Menot, L. , Buhl-Mortensen, P. , Narayanaswamy, B. E. , Smith, C. R. , Tittensor, D. P. , Tyler, P. A. , Vanreusel, A. , & Vecchione, M. (2010). Deep, diverse and definitely different: Unique attributes of the world’s largest ecosystem. Biogeosciences, 7(9), 2851–2899. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-7-2851-2010 Ramirez-Llodra, E. , Tyler, P. A. , Baker, M. C. , Bergstad, O. A. , Clark, M. R. , Escobar, E. , Levin, L. A. , Menot, L. , Rowden, A. A. , Smith, C. R. , & Van Dover, C. L. (2011). Man and the last great wilderness: Human impact on the deep sea. PLoS ONE, 6(8), e22588. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0022588 Rogers, A. , Sumaila, U. , Hussain, S. , & Baulcomb, C. (2014). The high seas and us: Understanding the value of high seas ecosystems. Global Ocean Commission. Rogers, A. D. , Baco, A. , Escobar-Briones, E. , Currie, D. , Gjerde, K. , Gobin, J. , Jaspars, M. , Levin, L. , Linse, K. , Rabone, M. , Ramirez-Llodra, E. , Sellanes, J. , Shank, T. M. , Sink, K. , Snelgrove, P. V. , Taylor, M. L. , Wagner, D. , & Harden-Davies, H. (2021). Marine genetic resources in areas beyond national jurisdiction: Promoting marine scientific research and enabling equitable benefit sharing. Frontiers in Marine Science, 8, 844. h ttps://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2021.667274 Schiller, L. , Bailey, M. , Jacquet, J. , & Sala, E. (2018). High seas fisheries play a negligible role in addressing global food security. Science Advances, 4(8), eaat8351. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aat8351 Spiteri C. , Senechal, T. , Hazin, C. , Hampton, S. , Greyling, L. , & Boteler, B. (2021). Study on the socio-economic importance of areas beyond national jurisdiction in the Southeast Atlantic Region. STRONG High Seas Project. https://publications.iass- potsdam.de/rest/items/item_6001046_4/component/file_6001047/content Tessnow-Von Wysocki, I. , & Vadrot, A. B. (2020). The voice of science on marine biodiversity negotiations: A systematic literature review. Frontiers in Marine Science, 7(7), 614282. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2020.614282 Tickler, D. , Meeuwig, J. J. , Bryant, K. , David, F. , Forrest, J. A. , Gordon, E. , Larsen, J. J. , Oh, B. , Pauly, D. , Sumaila, U. R. , & Zeller, D. (2018). Modern slavery and the race to fish. N ature Communications, 9(1), 4643. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-07118-9 Tiller, R. , De Santo, E. , Mendenhall, E. , & Nyman, E. (2019). The once and future treaty: Towards a new regime for biodiversity in areas beyond national jurisdiction. Marine Policy, 99, 239–242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2018.10.046 Treves, T. (2015a). Historical development of the law of the sea. In D. R. Rothwell , A. G. Oude Elferink , K. N. Scott , & T. Stephens (Eds.), The oxford handbook of the law of the sea (pp. 1 –24). Oxford University Press. Treves, T. (2015b). Law and science in the jurisprudence of the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea. In H. N. Scheiber , J. Kraska , & M-S. Kwon (Eds.), Science, technology, and new challenges to ocean law: A law of the sea institute publication (pp. 13–26). Brill/Nijhoff. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004299610_003 Turner, P. J. , Cannon, S. , DeLand, S. , Delgado, J. P. , Eltis, D. , Halpin, P. N. , Kanu, M. I. , Sussman, C. S. , Varmer, O. , & Van Dover, C. L. (2020). Memorializing the middle passage on the Atlantic seabed in areas beyond national jurisdiction. Marine Policy, 122, 104254. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2020.104254 United Nations . (1982, December 10). United Nations convention on the law of the sea. https://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/unclos_e.pdf United Nations . (2019, November 18). Revised draft text of an agreement under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea on the conservation and sustainable use of marine biological diversity of areas beyond national jurisdiction. Intergovernmental conference on an international legally binding instrument under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea on the conservation and sustainable use of marine biological diversity of areas beyond national jurisdiction (fourth session, New York, 23 March – 3 April 2020) (UN doc A /CONF.232/2020/3). UNGA. https://undocs.org/en/a/conf.232/2020/3 United Nations Conference on Trade and Development . (2019). Review of maritime transport (UNCTAD/RMT/2019/Corr.1). United Nations. https://unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/cefact/cf_forums/2019_UK/PPT_L_L-UNCTAD-RMT.pdf Vadrot, A. B. M. , Langlet, A. , & Tessnow-Von Wysocki, I. (2022). Who owns marine biodiversity? Contesting the world order through the ‘common heritage of humankind’ principle. E nvironmental Politics, 31(2), 226–250. https://doi.org/10.1080/09644016.2021.1911442 Vierros, M. K. , & Harden-Davies, H. (2020). Capacity building and technology transfer for improving governance of marine areas both beyond and within national jurisdiction. Marine Policy, 122, 104158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2020.104158 Vierros, M. K. , Harrison, A. L. , Sloat, M. R. , Crespo, G. O. , Moore, J. W. , Dunn, D. C. , Ota, Y. , Cisneros-Montemayor, A. M. , Shillinger, G. L. , Watson, T. K. , & Govan, H. (2020). Considering indigenous peoples and local communities in governance of the global ocean c ommons. Marine Policy, 119, 104039. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2020.104039 Warner, R. M. (2014). Conserving marine biodiversity in the global marine commons: Co- evolution and interaction with the Law of the Sea. Frontiers in Marine Science, 1. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2014.00006 Wright, G. , Gjerde, K. , Finkelstein, A. , & Currie, D. (2020). Fishing in the twilight zone: Illuminating governance challenges at the next fisheries frontier. Institute for Sustainable Development and International Relations (IDDRI). Wright, G. , Rochette, J. , Gjerde, K. M. , & Seeger, I. (2018). The long and winding road: Negotiating a treaty for the conservation and sustainable use of marine biodiversity in areas beyond national jurisdiction. Institute for Sustainable Development and International Relations ( IDDRI). O cean Governance Arctic Council. (2021). About the Arctic Council. Retrieved April 4, 2021 from https://arctic- council.org/en/about/ Arctic NGO Forum. (2020). Partners. Retrieved September 20, 2020 from h ttp://www.arcticngoforum.org/partners.aspx Balint, P. J. , Stewart, R. E. , Desai, A. , & Walters, L. C. (2011). Wicked environmental problems: Managing uncertainty and conflict. Island Press. Baty, T. (1928). The three mile limit. American Journal of International Law, 22(3), 503–537. h ttps://doi.org/10.2307/2188741 Bennett, M. (2019, May 8). The arctic shipping route no one’s talking about. The Maritime Executive. https://www.maritime-executive.com/editorials/the-arctic-shipping-route-no-one-s- t alking-about Campbell, L. M. , Gray, N. J. , Fairbanks, L. , Silver, J. J. , Gruby, R. L. , Dubik, B. A. , & Basurto, X. (2016). Global oceans governance: New and emerging issues. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 41(1), 517–543. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-102014- 021121. Cho, R. (2016, March 22). The damaging effects of black carbon. State of the Planet. Retrieved September 20, 2020 from https://blogs.ei.columbia.edu/2016/03/22/the-damaging-effects-of- b lack-carbon/ Craig, R. K. (2020). The new United Nations high seas treaty: A primer. Natural Resources & Environment, 34(4), 48–50. De Lucia, V. (2020). The BBNJ negotiations and ecosystem governance in the arctic. Marine Policy, Forthcoming. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2019.103756 De Tolve, R. (2012). At what cost? America’s UNCLOS allergy in the time of lawfare. Naval Law Review, 61, 1–16. Department of State. (2019). The United States ratifies central Arctic Ocean fisheries agreement. Retrieved September 20, 2020 from https://translations.state.gov/2019/08/27/the- u nited-states-ratifies-central-arctic-ocean-fisheries-agreement/ Gallo, William . (2016, June 26). Why hasn’t the US signed the law of the sea treaty? Voice of America. https://www.voanews.com/usa/why-hasnt-us-signed-law-sea- treaty#:~:text=The%20U.S.%20has%20not%20accepted,linked%20the%20issue%20to%20Chi na Gallucci, M. (2018, September 26). As the arctic melts, the northern sea route opens for business. Wired. https://www.wired.com/story/as-the-arctic-melts-the-fabled-northwest- passage-opens-for-cargo-ships/ Grant, J. (2010). International law essentials. Dundee University Press. Head, B. , & Alford, J. (2013). Wicked problems: Implications for public policy and management. Administration and Society, 47(6), 711–739. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095399713481601 International Court of Justice. (2020). https://www.icj-cij.org/en Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. (2019). Summary for Policymakers. In H. -O. Pörtner , D. C. Roberts , V. Masson-Delmotte , P. Zhai , M. Tignor , E. Poloczanska , K. Mintenbeck , A. Alegría , M. Nicolai , A. Okem , J. Petzold , B. Rama , N. M. Weyer (Eds.), IPCC Special report on the ocean and cryosphere in a changing climate. h ttps://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157964 Kramer, A. (2020, June 9). Major fuel spill in Russia’s north spreads toward Arctic ocean. New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/09/world/europe/russia-arctic-oil-spill.html Khon, V. C. , Mohkov, I. I. , Latif, M. , & Semeov, V. A. (2010). Perspectives of northern sea route and northwest passage in the twenty-first century. Climate Change, 100(3), 757–768. h ttps://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-009-9683-2 Khurshudyan, I. , & Freedman, A. (2020, July 28). An oil spill in Russia’s Arctic exposes risks for Moscow’s Far North plans. Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/climate- environment/2020/07/28/an-oil-spill-russias-arctic-exposes-problems-moscows-big-plans-far- north/?arc404=true Kjær, A. M. (2004). Governance. Polity Press. Kobayashi, L. (2006). Lifting the international whaling commission’s moratorium on commercial whaling as the most effective global regulation of whaling. Environs, 29(2), 177–219. [Juris D octoral Dissertation, UC Davis]. ​https://environs.law.ucdavis.edu/volumes/29/2/kobayashi.pdf. Kulp, S. , & Strauss, B. (2019). New elevation data triple estimates of global vulnerability to sea- level rise and coastal flooding. Nature Communication, 10, 4844. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-12808-z Levine, A. S. , Richmond, L. , & Lopez-Carr, D. (2015). Marine resource management: Culture, livelihoods, and governance. Applied Geography, 59, 56–59. ​ https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2015.01.016 Miles, E. L. (1999). The concept of ocean governance: Evolution toward the 21st century and the principle of sustainable ocean use. Coastal Management, 27(1), 1–30. h ttps://doi.org/10.1080/089207599263875 Molenaar, E. (2007). Managing biodiversity in areas beyond national jurisdiction. International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law, 22(1), 89–124. https://doi.org/10.1163/157180807781475263 Nordea . (2017). Analyses of key companies having business operations in the Arctic. Retrieved September 20, 2020 from https://insights.nordea.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/Analyses-of- Key-Companies-having-Business-Operating-In-the-Arctic_0.pdf Nunez, C. (2014, April 24). What happens when oil spills in the Arctic? National Geographic. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/energy/2014/04/140423-national-research-council- on-oil-spills-in-arctic/#close Osborn, A. , & Balmforth, T. (2020, July 10). Russia’s Nornickel fights cover-up accusations over Arctic oil spill. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-russia-pollution-insight/russias- n ornickel-fights-cover-up-accusations-over-arctic-oil-spill-idUSKBN24B0QH Rayfuse, R. (2019). The role of law in the regulation of fishing activities in the Central Arctic O cean. Marine Policy, 110, 103562. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2019.103562 Sand, P. (2008). Japan’s ‘research whaling’ in the Antarctic Southern Ocean and the North Pacific Ocean in the face of the endangered species convention (CITES). Review of European Community & International Environmental Law, 17(1), 56–71. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467- 9388.2008.00587.x Schlanger, Z. (2019, June 27). The US is picking a fight with Canada over a thawing Arctic shipping route. Quartz. https://qz.com/1653831/the-us-is-picking-a-fight-with-canada-over-an- arctic-shipping-route/ Silver, J. J. , Gray, N. J. , Campbell, L. M. , Fairbanks, L. W. , & Gruby, R. L. (2015). Blue economy and competing discourses in international oceans governance. The Journal of Environment & Development, 24(2), 135–160. https://doi.org/10.1177/1070496515580797 SIMIP Community . (2020). Arctic sea ice in CMIP6. Geophysical Research Letters, 47(10), e 2019GL086749. https://doi.org/10.1029/2019GL086749. Skaridov, A. (2020). The sea bed in the high north—How to address conflict? In C. Banet , (Ed.), The law of the sea bed (pp.104–124). Brill. Smith, J. (2014). Evolving to conservation? The international court’s decision in the Australia/Japan whaling case. Ocean Development & International Law, 45(4), 301–327. h ttps://doi.org/10.1080/00908320.2014.957965 Sohn, L. B. , Juras, K. G. , Noyes, J. E. , & Franckx, E. (2010). Law of the sea in a nutshell (2nd ed.). West Publishing. Solano, G. , & Torchia, C. (2020, July 30). 260 Chinese boats fish near Galapagos; Ecuador on alert. Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/the_americas/260-chinese- boats-fish-near-galapagos-ecuador-on-alert/2020/07/30/01b0d98e-d29f-11ea-826b- cc394d824e35_story.html Song, Y. (2005). Declarations and statements with respect to the 1982 UNCLOS: Potential legal disputes between the United States and China after U.S. accession to the convention. Ocean Development & International Law, 36(3), 261–289. https://doi.org/10.1080/00908320591004405 Spalding, A. K. , & DeYcaza, R. (2020). Navigating shifting regimes of ocean governance: From UNCLOS to Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 14. Environment and Society: Advances in Research. https://doi.org/10.3167/ares.2020.110102 Telesetsky, A. (2019). Managing marine resources: Can the law of the sea treaty adapt to climate change? In P. Harris , (Ed.), Climate change and ocean governance: Politics and policy for threatened seas (pp.325–339). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108502238.020 Treves, T. (n. d.) Introductory Note: 1958 Geneva Convention on the Law of the Sea. Audiovisual Library of International Law. Retrieved September 20, 2020 from https://legal.un.org/avl/ha/gclos/gclos.html#:~:text=The%20Conventions%20and%20Protocol% 20are,February%20to%2027%20April%201958.&text=It%20had%20its%20precedents%20in,of % 20the%20League%20of%20Nations T uerk, H. (2012). Reflections on the contemporary Law of the Sea. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. United Nations. (2020). Oceans and the Law of the Sea. Retrieved September 20, 2020 from https://www.un.org/en/sections/issues-depth/oceans-and-law- sea/#:~:text=The%20oceans%20had%20long%20been,all%20and%20belonged%20to%20non e Willaert, K. (2020). Crafting the perfect deep sea mining legislation: A patchwork of national laws. Marine Policy, 119, 104055. ​https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2020.104055 Wold, C. (2020). Japan’s resumption of commercial whaling and its duty to cooperate with the international whaling commission. Journal of Environmental Law & Litigation, 35, 87–142. Zacharias, M. (2014). Marine policy: An introduction to governance and international law of the o ceans. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203095256 Zhang, L. (2014). A guide to Chinese legal research: Who makes what? Library of Congress, Law Library Blog. Retrieved September 20, 2020 from https://blogs.loc.gov/law/2014/01/a- guide-to-chinese-legal-research-who-makes-what/ S tewardship and Conservation of the Marine Environment Balmford, A. , Gravestock, P. , Hockley, N. , McClean, C. J. , & Roberts, C. M. (2004). The worldwide costs of marine protected areas. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 101(26), 9694–9697. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0403239101 Ban, N. C. , Gurney, G. G. , Marshall, N. A. , Whitney, C. K. , Mills, M. , Gelcich, S. , Bennett, N. J. , Meehan, M. C. , Butler, C. , Ban, S. , Tran, T. C. , Cox, M. E. , & Breslow, S. J. (2019). Well- being outcomes of marine protected areas. Nature Sustainability, 2(6), 524–532. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-019-0306-2 Blaustein, R. J. (2007). Protected areas and equity concerns. BioScience, 57(3), 216–221. https://doi.org/10.1641/B570303 Bown, N. , Gray, T. S. , & Stead, S. M. (2013). Contested forms of governance in marine protected areas: A study of co-management and adaptive co-management. Routledge. Brockington, D. (2002). Fortress conservation: The preservation of the Mkomazi game reserve, Tanzania. Indiana University Press. Christie, P. (2004). Marine protected areas as biological successes and social failures in Southeast Asia. American Fisheries Society Symposium, 42, 155–164. Cicin-Sain, B. , & Knecht, R. (2000). The future of US ocean policy: Choices for the new c entury. Island Press. Cinner, J. (2005). Socioeconomic factors influencing customary marine tenure in the Indo- Pacific. Ecology and Society, 10(1), 36. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26267728 Cinner, J. E. , & Aswani, S. (2007). Integrating customary management into marine conservation. Biological Conservation, 140(3–4), 201–216. h ttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2007.08.008 Claudet, J. , Guidetti, P. , Mouillot, D. , Shears, N. T. , & Micheli, F. (2011). Ecological effects of marine protected areas: Conservation, restoration, and functioning. In J. Claudet (Ed.), Marine protected areas: A multidisciplinary approach (pp. 37–71). Cambridge University Press. Cowen, R. K. , Paris, C. B. , & Srinivasan, A. (2006). Scaling of connectivity in marine p opulations. Science, 311(5760), 522–527. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1122039 Dalton, T. M. (2005). Beyond biogeography: A framework for involving the public in planning of US marine protected areas. Conservation Biology, 19(5), 1392–1401. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2005.00116.x Davis, K. J. , Vianna, G. M. , Meeuwig, J. J. , Meekan, M. G. , & Pannell, D. J. (2019). Estimating the economic benefits and costs of highly protected marine protected areas. Ecosphere, 10(10), e02879. https://doi.org/10.1002/ecs2.2879 Day, J. , Dudley, N. , Hockings, M. , Holmes, G. , Laffoley, D. , Stolton, S. , Wells, S. , & Wenzel, L. (Eds.). (2019). Guidelines for applying the IUCN protected area management categories to marine protected areas (2nd ed.). IUCN. Delaney, J. M. (2003). Community capacity building in the designation of the Tortugas Ecological Reserve. Gulf and Caribbean Research, 14(2), 163–169. h ttps://doi.org/10.18785/gcr.1402.13 De Santo, E. M. , Mendenhall, E. , Nyman, E. , & Tiller, R. (2020). Stuck in the middle with you (and not much time left): The third intergovernmental conference on biodiversity beyond national jurisdiction. Marine Policy, 117, 103957. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2020.103957 Dietz, T. , Ostrom, E. , & Stern, P. C. (2003). The struggle to govern the commons. Science, 302(302), 1907–1912. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1091015 Di Lorenzo, M. , Claudet, J. , & Guidetti, P. (2016). Spillover from marine protected areas to adjacent fisheries has an ecological and a fishery component. Journal for Nature Conservation, 3 2, 62–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnc.2016.04.004 Dudley, N. (Ed.). (2008). Guidelines for applying protected area management categories. IUCN. Edgar, G. J. , Langhammer, P. F. , Allen, G. , Brooks, T. M. , Brodie, J. , Crosse, W. , De Silva, N. , Fishpool, L. D. , Foster, M. N. , Knox, D. H. , McCosker, J. E. , McManus, R. , Millar, A. J. , & Mugo, R. (2008). Key biodiversity areas as globally significant target sites for the conservation of marine biological diversity. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 18(6), 969–983. https://doi.org/10.1002/aqc.902 Edgar, G. J. , Stuart-Smith, R. D. , Willis, T. J. , Kininmonth, S. , Baker, S. C. , Banks, S. , Barrett, N. S. , Becerro, M. A. , Bernard, A. T. , Berkhout, J. , Buxton, C. D. , Campbell, S. J. , Cooper, A. T. , Davey, M. , Edgar, S. C. , Försterra, G. , Galván, D. E. , Irigoyen, A. J. , Kushner, D. J. … Thomson, R. J. (2014). Global conservation outcomes depend on marine protected areas with five key features. Nature, 506(7487), 216–220. h ttps://doi.org/10.1038/nature13022 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2011). Fisheries management. 4. Marine protected areas and fisheries. FAO Technical Guidelines for Responsible Fisheries. Retrieved July 6, 2022 from https://www.fao.org/3/i2090e/i2090e.pdf Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2020). The State of World Fisheries a nd Aquaculture 2020: Sustainability in Action. https://doi.org/10.4060/ca9229en Florida Department of Environmental Protection. (2019, February 15). John Pennekamp Coral Reef State Park: Approved Unit Management Plan. DRP/FDEP. Retrieved July 6, 2022 from https://floridadep.gov/sites/default/files/JPCRSP_02.15.2019%20Approved%20UMP.pdf Fraschetti, S. , Claudet, J. , & Grorud-Colvert, K. (2011). Transitioning from single-sector management to ecosystem-based management: What can marine protected areas offer? In J. Claudet (Ed.), Marine protected areas: A multidisciplinary approach (pp. 11–36). Cambridge University Press. Gaymer, C. F. , Stadel, A. V. , Ban, N. C. , Cárcamo, P. , Ierna, J. , & Lieberknecht, L. M. (2014). Merging top-down and bottom-up approaches in marine protected areas planning: Experiences from around the globe. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 24(S2), 128–144. https://doi.org/10.1002/aqc.2508 Gill, D. A. , Mascia, M. B. , Ahmadia, G. N. , Glew, L. , Lester, S. E. , Barnes, M. , Craigie, I. , Darling, E. S. , Free, C. M. , Geldmann, J. , Holst, S. , Jensen, O. P. , White, A. T. , Basurto, X. , Coad, L. , Gates, R. D. , Guannel, G. , Mumby, P. J. , Thomas, H. … Fox, H. E. (2017). Capacity shortfalls hinder the performance of marine protected areas globally. Nature, 543(7647), 665–669. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature21708 Goñi, R. , Badalamenti, F. , & Tupper, M. H. (2011). Fisheries – Effects of marine protected areas on local fisheries: Evidence from empirical studies. In J. Claudet (Ed.), Marine protected areas: A multidisciplinary approach (pp. 72–98). Cambridge University Press. Grüss, A. , Kaplan, D. M. , Guénette, S. , Roberts, C. M. , & Botsford, L. W. (2011). Consequences of adult and juvenile movement for marine protected areas. Biological Conservation, 144(2), 692–702. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2010.12.015 Grüss, A. , Robinson, J. , Heppell, S. S. , Heppell, S. A. , & Semmens, B. X. (2014). Conservation and fisheries effects of spawning aggregation marine protected areas: What we know, where we should go, and what we need to get there. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 71(7), 1515–1534. https://doi.org/10.1093/icesjms/fsu038 Halpern, B. S. , Frazier, M. , Afflerbach, J. , Lowndes, J. S. , Micheli, F. , O’Hara, C. , Scarborough, C. , & Selkoe, K. A. (2019). Recent pace of change in human impact on the w orld’s ocean. Scientific Reports, 9(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-47201-9 Halpern, B. S. , Lester, S. E. , & McLeod, K. L. (2010). Placing marine protected areas onto the ecosystem-based management seascape. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 1 07(43), 18312–18317. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0908503107 Humphreys, J. , & Clark, R. W. (2020). A critical history of marine protected areas, In J. Humphreys & R. W. Clark (Eds.), Marine protected areas: Science, policy, and management ( pp. 1–12). Elsevier. Jones, P. J. S. , Murray, R. H. , & Vestergaard, O. (2019). Enabling effective and equitable marine protected areas: Guidance on combining governance approaches (Regional Seas Reports and Studies No. 203). Ecosystems Division/UNEP. Retrieved July 6, 2022 from h ttps://apo.org.au/sites/default/files/resource-files/2019-04/apo-nid228726.pdf Kough, A. S. , Paris, C. B. , & Butler IV, M. J. (2013). Larval connectivity and the international management of fisheries. PLoS One, 8(6), e64970. h ttps://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0064970 Leenhardt, P. , Low, N. , Pascal, N. , Micheli, F. , & Claudet, J. (2015). The role of marine protected areas in providing ecosystem services. In A. Belgrano , G. Woodward , & U. Jacob (Eds.), Aquatic Functional Biodiversity (pp. 211–239). Academic Press. Marine Conservation Institute. (2020). The marine protected atlas. https://mpatlas.org/ McCrea-Strub, A. , Zeller, D. , Sumaila, U. R. , Nelson, J. , Balmford, A. , & Pauly, D. (2011). Understanding the cost of establishing marine protected areas. Marine Policy, 35(1), 1–9. https://doi/10.1016/j.marpol.2010.07.001 National Academy of Public Administration. (2000). Protecting Our National Marine Sanctuaries: A Report by the Center for the Economy and Environment. Retrieved July 6, 2022 from https://montereybay.noaa.gov/research/techreports/trnapa2000.html O’Leary, B. C. , Ban, N. C. , Fernandez, M. , Friedlander, A. M. , García-Borboroglu, P. , Golbuu, Y. , Guidetti, P. , Harris, J. M. , Hawkins, J. P. , Langlois, T. , McCauley, D. J. , Pikitch, E. K. , Richmond, R. H. , & Roberts, C. M. (2018). Addressing criticisms of large-scale marine p rotected areas. Bioscience, 68(5), 359–370. https://doi.org/10.1093/biosci/biy021 Petra, D. (2012). Marine protected areas in areas beyond national jurisdiction. The International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law, 27(2), 291–350. https://doi.org/10.1163/157180812X637975 Pita, C. , Pierce, G. J. , Theodossiou, I. , & Macpherson, K. (2011). An overview of commercial fishers’ attitudes towards marine protected areas. Hydrobiologia, 670(1), 289–306. h ttps://doi.org/10.1007/s10750-011-0665-9 Pomeroy, R. S. , Mascia, M. B. , & Pollnac, R. B. (2007). Marine protected areas: The social dimension. In FAO expert workshop on marine protected areas and fisheries management: Review of issues and considerations (pp. 149–275). FAO. Retrieved July 6, 2022 from http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.120.4804&rep=rep1&type=pdf#page= 1 57 Roff, J. C. , & Zacharias, M. (2011). Marine conservation ecology. Earthscan. Sala, E. , & Knowlton, N. , (2006). Global marine biodiversity trends. Annual Review of Environmental Resources, 31(1), 93–122. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.energy.31.020105.100235 Salm, R. V. , Clark, J. R. , & Siirila, E. (2000). Marine and coastal protected areas: A guide for planners and managers. IUCN. Shivlani, M. , Leeworthy, V. R. , Murray, T. J. , Suman, D. O. , & Tonioli, F. (2008). Knowledge, attitudes and perceptions of management strategies and regulations of the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary by commercial fishers, dive operators, and environmental group members: A baseline characterization and 10-year comparison. ONMS/NOS/NOAA/DOC. http://hdl.handle.net/1834/20077 Suman, D. O. , Shivlani, M. , & Milon, J. W. (1999). Perceptions and attitudes regarding marine reserves: A comparison of stakeholder groups in the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary. Ocean & Coastal Management, 42(12), 1019–1040. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0964- 5691(99)00062-9 The MPA Guide . (n.d.). Retrieved July 20, 2022, from https://mpa-guide.protectedplanet.net/ United Nations. (2015). Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (A/Res/70/1). Retrieved July 6, 2022 from https://sdgs.un.org/sites/default/files/publications/21252030%20Agenda%20for%20Sustainable % 20Development%20web.pdf Vann, A. (2010). Marine protected areas: Federal legal authority. In F. B. Mayr (Ed.), Marine protected areas (pp. 25–50). Nova Science Publishers, Inc. Watson, J. E. , Dudley, N. , Segan, D. B. , & Hockings, M. (2014). The performance and p otential of protected areas. Nature, 515(515), 67–73. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature13947 Wells, S. , Ray, G. C. , Gjerde, K. M. , White, A. T. , Muthiga, N. , Bezaury Creel, J. E. , Causey, B. D. , McCormick-Ray, J. , Salm, R. , Gubbay, S. , Kelleher, G. , & Reti, J. (2016). Building the future of MPAs–lessons from history. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 26, 101–125. https://doi.org/10.1002/aqc.2680 World Bank. (2006). Scaling up marine management: The role of marine protected areas. http://hdl.handle.net/10986/8152 Worm, B. , Barbier, E. B. , Beaumont, N. , Duffy, J. E. , Folke, C. , Halpern, B. S. , Jackson, J. B. , Lotze, H. K. , Micheli, F. , Palumbi, S. R. , Sala, E. , Selkoe, K. A. , Stachowicz, J. J. , & Watson, R. (2006). Impacts of biodiversity loss on ocean ecosystem services. Science, 314(5800), 787–790. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1132294 S ocial Justice in Coastal Spaces Ahmed, S. (2012). On being included: Racism and diversity in institutional life. Duke University Press. Bacchetta, P. , Maira S. , & Winant, H. (Eds.). (2019). Global raciality: Empire, postcoloniality, decoloniality. Routledge. Barreto, G. C. , Di Domenico, M. , & Medeiros, R. P. (2020). Human dimensions of marine protected areas and small-scale fisheries management: A review of the interpretations. Marine Policy, 119, 104040. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2020.104040 Bennett, N. J. (2019). Marine social science for the peopled seas. Coastal Management, 47(2), 244–252. https://doi.org/10.1080/08920753.2019.1564958 Bennett, N. J. , Govan, H. , & Satterfield, T. (2015). Ocean grabbing. Marine Policy, 57, 61–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2015.03.026 Bonilla-Silva, E. (2017). Racism without racists: Color-blind racism and the persistence of racial inequality in America (5th ed.). Rowman and Littlefield. Butler, J. (2006). Gender trouble: Feminism and the subversion of identity. Routledge. (Original w ork published 1990) https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203824979 Carastathis, A. (2016). Intersectionality: Origins, contestations, horizons. University of Nebraska Press. Catton, W. R., Jr. , & Dunlap, R. E. (1978). Environmental sociology: A new paradigm. The American Sociologist, 13(1), 41–49. https://doi.org/10.1177/000276428002400103 Catton, W. R., Jr. , & Dunlap, R. E. (1980). A new ecological paradigm for post-exuberant sociology. American Behavioral Scientist, 24(1), 15–47. h ttps://doi.org/10.1177/000276428002400103 Chávez, S. (2005). Community, ethnicity, and class in a changing rural California town. Rural Sociology, 70(3), 314–335. https://doi.org/10.1526/0036011054831224 Christie, P. , Bennett, N. J. , Gray, N. J. , Wilhelm, T. A. , Lewis, N. A. , Parks, J. , Ban, N. C. , Gruby, R. L. , Gordon, L. , Day, J. , Taei, S. , & Friedlander, A. M. (2017). Why people matter in ocean governance: Incorporating human dimensions into large-scale marine protected areas. Marine Policy, 84, 273–284. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2017.08.002 Cho, S. , Crenshaw, K. W. , & McCall, L. (2013). Toward a field of intersectionality studies: T heory, applications, and praxis. Signs, 38(4), 785–810. https://doi.org/10.1086/669608 Cohen, P. N. (2013). The persistence of workplace gender segregation in the US. Sociology C ompass, 7(11), 889–899. https://doi.org/10.1111/soc4.12083 Cohen, P. N. , & Huffman, M. L. (2003). Occupational segregation and the devaluation of women’s work across U.S. labor markets. Social Forces, 81(3), 881–908. h ttps://www.jstor.org/stable/3598179 Crenshaw, K. (1993). Mapping the margins: Intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of color. Stanford Law Review, 43(6), 1241–1299. Doyle, J. , Boovy, B. , Maldonado, M. M. , & Conway, F. D. (2018). Understanding the working in working waterfronts: The hidden faces of the industries that make up the working waterfront. In L. Price & N. Narchi (Eds.), Coastal heritage and cultural resilience (pp. 223–242). Springer. Free Radicals. (n.d.). Mission. https://freerads.org/mission/ Gault, B. , Hartmann, H. , Jones-DeWeever, A. , Werschkul, M. , & Williams, E. (2005, October). The women of New Orleans and the Gulf Coast: Multiple disadvantages and key assets for recovery part I: Poverty, race, gender and class. (IWPR # D464). Institute for Women’s Policy Research. Retrieved July 7, 2022 from h ttps://katrinareader.cwsworkshop.org/sites/katrinareader.org/files/iwpr.pdf Hegeswich, A. , & Hartmann, H. (2014). Occupational segregation and the gender wage gap: A job half done. Institute for Women’s Policy Research. https://hdl.handle.net/1813/79410 Levine, A. S. , Richmond, L. , & Lopez-Carr, D. (2015). Marine resource management: Culture, livelihoods, and governance. Applied Geography, 59, 56–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2015.01.016 Massey, D. (2005). For space. Sage. Mastracci, S. H. (2005). Persistent problems demand consistent solutions: Evaluating policies to mitigate occupational segregation by gender. Review of Radical Political Economics, 37(1), 23–38. https://doi.org/10.1177/0486613404272326 May, V. (2015). Pursuing Intersectionality, unsettling dominant imaginaries. Routledge. Mintz, B. , & Krymkowski, D. H. (2010). The intersections of race/ethnicity and gender in occupational segregation: Changes over time in the contemporary United States. International Journal of Sociology, 40(4), 31–58. https://doi.org/10.2753/IJS0020-7659400402 Morris, A. (2021, February 3). From civil rights to Black Lives Matter. Scientific American. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/from-civil-rights-to-black-lives-matter1/ Nelson, L. , & Hiemstra, N. (2008). Latino immigrants and the renegotiation of place and belonging in small town America. Social & Cultural Geography, 9(3), 319–342. h ttps://doi.org/10.1080/14649360801990538 Reskin, B. , & Cassirer, N. (2012). Occupational segregation by gender, race, and ethnicity. Sociological Focus, 29(3), 231–243. https://doi.org/10.1080/00380237.1996.10570642 Rodríguez, H. , & Dynes, R. R. (2007). Finding and framing Katrina: The social construction of disaster. In D. L. Brunsma , D. Overfelt , & J. S. Picou (Eds.), The sociology of Katrina: Perspectives on a modern catastrophe (pp. 23–33). Rowman & Littlefield. Runyan, A. S. , & Peterson, V. S. (2018). Global gender issues in the new millennium (4th ed.). R outledge. Shackeroff, J. M. , Hazen, E. L. , & Crowder, L. B. (2009). The oceans as peopled seascapes. In K. McLeod & H. Leslie (Eds.), Ecosystem-Based management for the oceans (pp. 33–54). Island Press. Swain, J. , French, S. , Barnes, C. , & Thomas, C. (2013). Introduction. In J. Swain , S. French , C. Barnes , & C. Thomas (Eds.), Disabling barriers – enabling environments (pp. xvii–xxi). Sage. Van Dijk, T. A. (1995). Discourse, power, and access. In C. R. Caldas-Coulthard & M. Coulthard ( Eds.), Texts and practices: Readings in critical discourse analysis (pp. 84–104). Routledge. Winant, H. (2002). The world is a ghetto: Race and democracy since World War II. Basic Books. Young, I. M. (2009). Five faces of oppression. In G. L. Henderson & M. Waterstone (Eds.), Geographic thought: A praxis perspective (pp. 55–71). Taylor & Francis. (Original work p ublished 1990) Truth-Telling Apgar, M. J. , Allen, W. , Moore, K. , & Ataria, J. (2015). Understanding adaptation and transformation through indigenous practice: The case of the Guna of Panama. Ecology and S ociety, 20(1), 45. http://dx.doi.org/10.5751/ES-07314-200145 Austen, I. (2021, May 28). ‘Horrible History’: Mass Grave of Indigenous Children Reported in Canada. New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2021/05/28/world/canada/kamloops-mass- grave-residential-schools.html Berkes, F. (1993). Traditional ecological knowledge in perspective. In T. J. Inglis (Ed.), Traditional ecological knowledge: Concepts and cases (pp. 1–9). Canadian Museum of Nature and International Development Research Centre. Brookings Institution, & Institute for Government Research. (1928). The problem of Indian a dministration. Johns Hopkins University Press. Deloria, V. (1988). Custer died for your sins: An Indian manifesto. University of Oklahoma P ress. Douglas, J. (2021, September 2). Wild rice sues to stop oil pipeline. High Country News. https://www.hcn.org/articles/latest-justice-wild-rice-sues-to-stop-oil- pipeline#:~:text=It%20declared%20that%20within%20White,%2C%20recovery%2C%20and%2 0 preservation.%E2%80%9D Eligon, J. (2019, November 14). A native Tribe wants to resume whaling. Whale defenders are divided. New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/11/14/us/whale-hunting-native- a mericans.html Great Lakes Indian Fish, & Wildlife Commission. (2018). Integrating Scientific and Traditional Ecological Knowledge. http://glifwc.org/ClimateChange/GLIFWC_Climate_Change_Vulnerability_Assessment_Version 1_April2018.pdf Hopper, F. (2019, May 7). Makah one step closer to hunting whales: Animal rights extremists continue to oppose it. Indian Country Today. https://indiancountrytoday.com/news/makah-one- step-closer-to-hunting-whales-animal-rights-extremists-continue-to-oppose-it Jumper, B. M. (1994). Legends of the seminoles. Pineapple Press. Kimmerer, R. W. (2002). Weaving traditional ecological knowledge into biological education: A call to action. BioScience, 52(5), 432–438. https://doi.org/10.1641/0006- 3568(2002)052[0432:WTEKIB]2.0.CO;2 Kimmerer, R. W. (2013). Braiding Sweetgrass: Indigenous wisdom, scientific knowledge, and the teachings of plants. Milkweed Editions. Love the Everglades. (2017). Miccosukee Tribe requests public comment on new nonpoint source pollution plan. https://www.lovetheeverglades.org/blog/miccosukee-tribe-requests-public- comment-on-new-nonpoint-source-pollution-plan Maclowry, R. (2019). The American experience: The swamp [Film]. PBS Video. Mark, J. (2021, September 29). A tribe has not hunted whales in decades. Now, it might have a chance — and animal rights groups aren’t happy. Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2021/09/29/makah-whaling-judge-recommendation/ Native American Rights Fund. (2019, November). Trigger points: Current state of research on history, impacts, and healing related to the United States’ Indian industrial/boarding school policy. https://secureservercdn.net/198.71.233.187/ee8.a33.myftpupload.com/wp- content/uploads/2019/12/trigger-points.pdf National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. (2021). Makah tribal whale hunt frequently asked questions. https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/west-coast/makah-tribal-whale-hunt-frequently- a sked-questions. Ostler, J. (2016). ‘Just and lawful war’ as genocidal war in the (United States) Northwest Ordinance and Northwest Territory, 1787–1832. Journal of Genocide Research, 18(1), 1–20. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/14623528.2016.1120460 P evar, S. L. (2012). The rights of Indians and Tribes. Oxford University Press. Public Law No. 103–238, § 14, 108 Stat. 532 , 558 (1994). Resolution establishing rights of Manoomin, 1855 Treaty Authority . (2018, December 5). Retrieved July 21, 2022 from https://static1.squarespace.com/static/58a3c10abebafb5c4b3293ac/t/5c3cdbc940ec9ab9b9ffde 9d/1547492298497/1855+Treaty+Authority+Resolution+for+2018- 0 5+Rights+of+Manoomin+12-5-18.pdf Rust, S. (2019, December 1). A U.S. Tribe wants to resume whale hunting. Should it revive this tradition? Los Angeles Times. https://www.latimes.com/environment/story/2019-12-01/whale- h unting-makah-tribe-tradition-washington-state Schulman, S. (2020, December 24). Florida Tribes deeply appalled by wetlands deal. Indian Country Today. https://indiancountrytoday.com/news/florida-tribes-deeply-appalled-by-wetlands- deal Stopline3. (2019). White Earth Nation and 1855 Treaty Authority pass laws to protect the “Rights of Manoomin.” https://www.stopline3.org/news/rightsofmanoomin The Ways. (2019). Manoomin. Retrieved June 29, 2022 from h ttps://theways.org/story/manoomin.html Treaty of Neah Bay. (1855, January 31). https://goia.wa.gov/tribal-government/treaty-neah-bay- 1855 United Nations. (2007). United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, General Assembly Resolution No. 61/295, adopted on Sept. 13, 2007. https://www.un.org/development/desa/indigenouspeoples/wp- content/uploads/sites/19/2018/11/UNDRIP_E_web.pdf United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. (2018). Community consent and participation. https://ich.unesco.org/doc/src/40082.pdf United States Caucus of the Traditional Ecological Knowledge Task Team. (2021). Guidance document on traditional ecological knowledge pursuant to the Great Lakes water quality agreement. https://www.bia.gov/sites/bia.gov/files/assets/bia/wstreg/Guidance_Document_on_TEK_Pursua n t_to_the_Great_Lakes_Water_Quality_Agreement.pdf US House of Representatives. (1934). H.R. Report No. 1804, at 6. US Supreme Court. (1992). County of Yakima v. Confederated Tribes and Bands of Yakima Indian Nation, 502 U.S. 251, 254. The Last Real Indians. (2020, February 18). Makah whaling and the anti-treaty mobilization by chuck tanner. Retrieved June 3, 2021 from https://lastrealindians.com/news/2020/2/11/makah- w haling-and-the-anti-treaty-mobilization. Ventocilla, J. , Herrera, H. , & Núñez, V. (1995). Plants and animals in the life of the Kuna. University of Texas Press. Williams, A. B. (2020). “Runaway train” policy change will hurt Florida’s environment, advocates say. News-Press. https://www.news- press.com/story/tech/science/environment/2020/12/17/florida-native-americans-and- e nvironmental-activists-decry-wetland-permitting-shift/3925599001/ Coastal Community Development Adams, A. J. , & Cooke, S. J. (2015). Advancing the science and management of flats fisheries for bonefish, tarpon, and permit. Environmental Biology of Fishes, 98, 2123–2131. h ttps://doi.org/10.1007/s10641-015-0446-9. Berkes, F. , Colding, J. , & Folke, C. (Eds.). (2003). Navigating social-ecological systems: B uilding resilience for complexity and change. Cambridge University Press. Carpenter, S. , Walker, B. , Anderies, M. , & Abel, N. (2001). From metaphor to measurement: Resilience of what to what? Ecosystems, 4(8), 765–781. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10021-001- 0 045-9 Chavez, F. P. , Costello, C. , Aseltine-Neilson, D. , Doremus, H. , Field, J. C. , Gaines, D. D. , Hall-Arber, M. , Mantua, N. J. , McCovey, J. , Pomeroy, C. , Sievanen, L. , Sydeman, W. , & Wheeler, S. A. (2017). Readying California fisheries for climate change. California Ocean Science Trust. Retrieved June 30, 2022 from https://www.oceansciencetrust.org/wp- content/uploads/2016/06/Climate-and-Fisheries_GuidanceDoc.pdf Clay, R. , & Jones, S. (2009). A brief history of community economic development. Journal of A ffordable Housing & Community Development Law, 18(3), 257–267. Culver, C. , Richards, J. , & Pomeroy, C. (2007). Commercial fisheries of the Santa Barbara Channel and associated infrastructure needs. Report to the Ventura Port District and the Santa Barbara Harbor District. California Sea Grant College. Culver, C. , Stroud, A. , Pomeroy, C. , Doyle, J. , Von Harten, A. , & Georgilas, N. (2015). M arket Your Catch website. https://marketyourcatch.msi.ucsb.edu/ Fedler, T. (2019). The 2018 economic impact of flats fishing in The Bahamas. The Bonefish and Tarpon Trust. Retrieved June 30, 2022 from https://www.bonefishtarpontrust.org/downloads/research-reports/stories/bahamas-flats- economic-impact-report.pdf Folke, C. (2006). Resilience: The emergence of a perspective for social – ecological systems analyses. Global Environmental Change, 16(3), 253–267. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2006.04.002 Hannah, R. W. , Lomeli, M. J.M. , & Jones, S. A. (2015). Tests of artificial light for bycatch reduction in an ocean shrimp (Pandalus jordani) trawl: Strong but opposite effects at the footrope and near the bycatch reduction device. Fisheries Research, 170, 60–67. h ttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.fishres.2015.05.010 Holling, C. S. (1973). Resilience and stability of ecological systems. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 4, 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.es.04.110173.000245 Industrial Economics, Inc. (2012). Identification of outer Continental Shelf renewable energy space-use conflicts and analysis of potential mitigation measures. US Department of the Interior, Bureau of Ocean Energy Management: 414p. Nelson, D. , Adger, N. , & Brown, K. (2007). Adaptation to environmental change: Contributions of a resilience framework. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 32(1), 395–419. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.energy.32.051807.090348 National Marine Fisheries Service . (2018). Fisheries of the United States, 2017 Report. Retrieved November 2, 2020 from https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/resource/document/fisheries- u nited-states-2017-report Oakley, P. , & Garforth, C. (1985). Guide to extension training (No. 11). Food & Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved June 30, 2022 from h ttps://www.fao.org/3/t0060e/t0060e.pdf Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife . (2019). 30th annual (diamond edition) Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife Marine Resources Program pink shrimp review [Newsletter]. Retrieved November 2, 2020 from https://www.dfw.state.or.us/MRP/shellfish/commercial/shrimp/docs/30th_APSR_2019.pdf Peterson, G. (2000). Political ecology and ecological resilience: An integration of human and ecological dynamics. Ecological Economics, 35, 323–336. ​https://doi.org/10.1016/S0921- 8 009(00)00217-2 Pomeroy, C. , Rice, S. , Culver, C. , & Baker, V. (2020). Seafood direct marketing: Supporting critical decision making in Alaska and California. In J. Zelasney , A. Ford , L. Westlund , A. Ward , & O. Riego Peñarubia (Eds.), Securing sustainable small-scale fisheries: Showcasing applied practices in value chains, post-harvest operations and trade (pp. 85–103). FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper No. 652. FAO. https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/cb0472en/ Pomeroy, C. , Thomson, C , & Stevens, M. M. (2010). California’s North coast fishing communities: Historical perspective and recent trends. California Sea Grant and NOAA F isheries Southwest Fisheries Science Center. Shackeroff, J. , Hazen, E. , & Crowder, L. (2009). The oceans as peopled landscapes. In K. L. McLeod & H. M. Leslie (Eds.), Ecosystem-Based management for the oceans (pp. 33–51). Island Press. Sherman, K. D. , Shultz, A. D. , Dahlgren, C. P. , Thomas, C. , Brooks, E. , Brookes, A. , Brumbaugh, D. R. , Gittens, L. , & Murchie, K. J. (2018). Contemporary and emerging fisheries in The Bahamas – Conservation and management challenges, achievements and future directions. Fisheries Management and Ecology, 25(5), 319–331. https://doi.org/10.1111/fme.12299 Walker, B. , & Salt, D. (2006) Resilience thinking: Sustaining ecosystems and people in a changing world. Island Press. Whitney, C. K. , Bennett, N. J. , Ban, N. C. , Allison, E. H. , Armitage, D. , Blythe, J. L. , Burt, J. M. , Cheung, W. , Finkbeiner, E. M. , Kaplan-Hallam, M. , Perry, I. , Turner, N. J. , & Yumagulova, L. (2017). Adaptive capacity: From assessment to action in coastal social- ecological systems. Ecology and Society, 22(2), 22. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-09325-220222 Wiseman, J. , & Brasher, K. (2008). Community wellbeing in an unwell world: Trends, challenges, and possibilities. Journal of Public Health Policy, 29(3), 353–366. https://doi.org/10.1057/jphp.2008.16 M arine Entrepreneurship Barham, J. , Tropp, D. , Enterline, K. , Farbman, J. , Fisk, J. , & Kiraly, S. (2012, April). Regional F ood Hub resource guide. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. http://dx.doi.org/10.9752/MS046.04-2012 California Air Resources Board. (2018, September 26). CARB announces more than $200 million in new funding for clean freight transportation. Retrieved January 16, 2021 from https://ww2.arb.ca.gov/news/carb-announces-more-200-million-new-funding-clean-freight- t ransportation Colgan, C. S. , & Newkirk, S. G. (2016). Tradable permits for shoreline protection: Reshaping regulation under the Coastal Act for the era of sea level rise. Center for the Blue Economy. https://www.middlebury.edu/institute/sites/www.middlebury.edu.institute/files/2018- 10/10.12.18.Shoreline%20Tradable%20Permits%20Working%20Paper--originalpublishdate-- Sept.2016.pdf Costello, C. , Cao, L. , Gelcich, S. , Cisneros-Mata, M. Á. , Free, C. M. , Froehlich, H. E. , Golden, C. D. , Ishimura, G. , Maier, J. , Macadam-Somer, I. , Mangin, T. , Melnychuk, M. C. , Miyahara, M. , de Moor, C. L. , Naylor, R. , Nøstbakken, L. , Ojea, E. , O’Reilly, E. , Parma, A. M. … Lubchenco, J. (2020). The future of food from the sea. Nature, 588, 95–100. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2616-y Den Hollander, N. , & Thorsteinsson, T. V. (2020). A systematic approach to analyze industrial clusters: A case study of the Iceland ocean cluster (Publication No. TRITA ITM-EX 2020:198) [Master’s Thesis, KTH Royal Institute of Technology]. DiVA Portal. h ttp://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn%3Anbn%3Ase%3Akth%3Adiva-279730 Dundas, S. J. , Levine, A. S. , Lewison, R. L. , Doerr, A. N. , White, C. , Galloway, A. W. E. , Garza, C. , Hazen, E. L. , Padilla-Gamiño, J. , Samhouri, J. F. , Spalding, A. , Stier, A. , Hill, T. , & White, J. W. (2020). Integrating oceans into climate policy: Any green new deal needs a splash of blue. Conservation Letters, 13(5), e12716. https://doi.org/10.1111/conl.12716 Environmental Protection Agency . (2017). Climate impacts on coastal areas. Retrieved January 12, 2021 from https://19january2017snapshot.epa.gov/climate-impacts/climate-impacts-coastal- areas_.html#Overview () Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2017). Fishery and aquaculture country profiles: The People’s Republic of China. Retrieved August 24, 2021 from h ttp://www.fao.org/fishery/facp/CHN/en#CountrySector-PostHarvest Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2020). The state of world fisheries and aquaculture 2020. Sustainability in action. https://doi.org/10.4060/ca9229en Gephart, J. A. , Froehlich, H. E. , & Branch, T. A. (2019). To create sustainable seafood industries, the United States needs a better accounting of imports and exports. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116(19), 9142–9146. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1905650116 Gopal, N. , Hapke, H. M. , Kusakabe, K. , Rajaratnam, S. , & Williams, M. J. (2020). Expanding the horizons for women in fisheries and aquaculture. Gender, Technology and Development, 2 4(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1080/09718524.2020.1736353 Harper, S. , Adshade, M. , Lam, V. W. Y. , Pauly, D. , & Sumaila, U. R. (2020). Valuing invisible catches: Estimating the global contribution by women to small-scale marine capture fisheries production. PLoS ONE, 15(3), e0228912. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0228912 Korfmacher, K. S. , Aviles, K. , Cummings, B. J. , Daniell, W. , Erdmann, J. , & Garrison, V. (2015). Health impact assessment of urban waterway decisions. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 12(1), 300–321. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120100300 Kroetz, K. , Luque, G. M. , Gephart, J. A. , Jardine, S. L. , Lee, P. , Chicojay Moore , K., Cole, C. , Steinkruger, A. , & Donlan, C. J. (2020). Consequences of seafood mislabeling for marine populations and fisheries management. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117(48), 30318–30323. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2003741117 Lamy, J. (2020, October 2). WSO’s Friend of the Sea certification matters for the plant-based seafood industry. Here’s why. Good Food Institute. Retrieved February 1, 2021 from https://gfi.org/blog/friend-of-the-sea-certification/ Lucas, A. (2020, December 1). Singapore issues first regulatory approval for lab-grown meat to Eat Just. CNBC. ​https://www.cnbc.com/2020/12/01/singapore-issues-first-regulatory-approval- for-lab-grown-meat-to-eat-just.html Luque, G. M. , & Donlan, C. J. (2019). The characterization of seafood mislabeling: A global meta-analysis. Biological Conservation, 236, 556–570. h ttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2019.04.006. Maul, G. A. , & Duedall, I. W. (2019). Demography of coastal populations. In C. W. Finkl & C. Makowski (Eds.), Encyclopedia of coastal science. Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93806-6_115 National Marine Fisheries Service. (2020). Fisheries of the United States, 2018 (Current fishery statistics No. 2018). U.S. Department of Commerce. Retrieved February 1, 2021 from h ttps://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/national/commercial-fishing/fisheries-united-states-2018 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. (2020). Fast facts: Tourism and recreation. Retrieved January 12, 2021 from https://coast.noaa.gov/states/fast-facts/tourism-and- recreation.html#:~:text=Workers%20in%20the%20ocean%2Dbased,the%20national%20econo my%20each%20year National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. (2021). NOAA fisheries updated impact assessment of the COVID-19 crisis on the U.S. commercial seafood and recreational for- hire/charter industries. U.S. Department of Commerce. Retrieved February 1, 2021 from https://media.fisheries.noaa.gov/2021-01/Updated-COVID-19-Impact-Assessment.pdf Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. (2016). The ocean economy in 2030. OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264251724-en Stoll J. S. , Harrison, H. L. , De Sousa, E. , Callaway, D. , Collier, M. , Harrell, K. , Jones, B. , Kastlunger, J. , Kramer, E. , Kurian, S. , Lovewell, M. A. , Strobel, S. , Sylvester, T. , Tolley, B. , Tomlinson, A. , White, E. R. , Young, T. , & Loring, P. A. (2021). Alternative seafood networks during COVID-19: Implications for resilience and sustainability. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 5, 614368. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2021.614368 Sumaila, U. R. , Zeller, D. , Hood, L. , Palomares, M. L. D. , Li, Y. , & Pauly, D. (2020). Illicit trade in marine fish catch and its effects on ecosystems and people worldwide. Science Advances, 6(9), eaaz3801. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aaz3801 United Nations World Tourism Organization. (2016). Measuring sustainable tourism: Developing a statistical framework for sustainable tourism. Retrieved January 26, 2021 from h ttps://webunwto.s3-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/2019-08/mstoverviewrev1.pdf Wheeler, B. W. , White, M. , Stahl-Timmins, W. , & Depledge, M. H. (2012). Does living by the coast improve health and wellbeing? Health & Place, 18(5), 1198–1201. h ttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2012.06.015. World Bank. (2017). What is the blue economy? Retrieved August 12, 2021, from https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/infographic/2017/06/06/blue-economy Measuring Progress toward a Blue Economy Allison, E. H. , Kurien, J. , Ota, Y. , Adhuri, D. S. , Bavinck, J. M. , Cisneros-Montemayor, A. M. , Fabinyi, M. , Jentoft, S. , Lau, S. , Mallory, T. G. , Olukoju, A. , van Putten, I. , Stacey, N. , Voyer, M. , & Weeratunge, N. (2020). The human relationship with our ocean planet (p. 80). World Resources Institute. https://oceanpanel.org/publication/the-human-relationship-with-our- o cean-planet/ Andriantiatsaholiniaina, L. A. , Kouikoglou, V. S. , & Phillis, Y. A. (2004). Evaluating strategies for sustainable development: Fuzzy logic reasoning and sensitivity analysis. Ecological Economics, 48(2), 149–172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2003.08.009 Arreguín-Sánchez, F. , & Ruiz-Barreiro, T. M. (2014). Approaching a functional measure of vulnerability in marine ecosystems. Ecological Indicators, 45, 130–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2014.04.009 Austen, M. , Andersen, P. , Armstrong, C. , Döring, R. , Hynes, S. , Levrel, H. , Oinonen, S. , Ressurreição, A. , & Coopman, J. (2019). Valuing marine ecosystems – Taking into account the value of ecosystem benefits in the Blue Economy [Preprint]. MarXiv. https://doi.org/10.31230/osf.io/vy3kp Bell, S. , & Morse, S. (2004). Experiences with sustainability indicators and stakeholder participation: A case study relating to a “blue plan” project in Malta. Sustainable Development, 12(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1002/sd.225 Bennett, N. J. , Blythe, J. , Cisneros-Montemayor, A. M. , Singh, G. G. , & Sumaila, U. R. (2019). Just transformations to sustainability. Sustainability, 11(14), 3881. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11143881 Bennett, N. J. , Govan, H. , & Satterfield, T. (2015). Ocean grabbing. Marine Policy, 57, 61–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2015.03.026 Bentley, J. W. , Hines, D. , Borrett, S. , Serpetti, N. , Fox, C. , Reid, D. G. , & Heymans, J. J. (2019). Diet uncertainty analysis strengthens model-derived indicators of food web structure and function. Ecological Indicators, 98, 239–250. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2018.11.008 Blanchard, W. (1986). Evaluating social equity: What does fairness mean and can we measure it? Policy Studies Journal, 15(1), 29–54. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1541-0072.1986.tb00442.x Carruthers, T. R. , & Hordyk, A. R. (2018). The data-limited methods toolkit (DLM tool): An R package for informing management of data-limited populations. Methods in Ecology and Evolution, 9(12), 2388–2395. https://doi.org/10.1111/2041-210X.13081 Cisneros-Montemayor, A. M. , Cashion, T. , Miller, D. D. , Tai, T. C. , Talloni-Álvarez, N. , Weiskel, H. W. , & Sumaila, U. R. (2018a). Achieving sustainable and equitable fisheries requires nuanced policies not silver bullets. Nature Ecology & Evolution, 2(9), 1334. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-018-0633-0 Cisneros-Montemayor, A. M. , Moreno-Báez, M. , Reygondeau, G. , Cheung, W. W. L. , Crosman, K. M. , González-Espinosa, P. C. , Lam, V. W. Y. , Oyinlola, M. A. , Singh, G. G. , Swartz, W. , Zheng, C. , & Ota, Y. (2021). Enabling conditions for an equitable and sustainable blue economy. Nature, 591(7850), 396–401. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03327-3 Cisneros-Montemayor, A. M. , Moreno-Báez, M. , Voyer, M. , Allison, E. H. , Cheung, W. W. L. , Hessing-Lewis, M. , Oyinlola, M. A. , Singh, G. G. , Swartz, W. , & Ota, Y. (2019). Social equity and benefits as the nexus of a transformative blue economy: A sectoral review of implications. Marine Policy, 109, 103702. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2019.103702 Cisneros-Montemayor, A. M. , Pauly, D. , Weatherdon, L. V. , & Ota, Y. (2016). A global estimate of seafood consumption by coastal Indigenous peoples. PLoS ONE, 11(12), e0166681. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0166681 Cisneros-Montemayor, A. M. , Singh, G. G. , & Cheung, W. W. L. (2018b). A fuzzy logic expert system for evaluating policy progress towards sustainability goals. Ambio, 47(5), 595–607. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-017-0998-3 Cisneros-Montemayor, A. M. , Zetina-Rejón, M. J. , Espinosa-Romero, M. J. , Cisneros-Mata, M. A. , Singh, G. G. , & Fernández-Rivera Melo, F. J. (2020). Evaluating ecosystem impacts of data-limited artisanal fisheries through ecosystem modelling and traditional fisher knowledge. O cean & Coastal Management, 195, 105291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2020.105291 Colgan, C. S. (2016). Measurement of the ocean economy from national income accounts to the sustainable blue economy. Journal of Ocean and Coastal Economics, 2(2), 12. h ttps://doi.org/10.15351/2373-8456.1061 Coll, M. , Shannon, L. J. , Kleisner, K. M. , Juan-Jordá, M. J. , Bundy, A. , Akoglu, A. G. , Banaru, D. , Boldt, J. L. , Borges, M. F. , Cook, A. , Diallo, I. , Fu, C. , Fox, C. , Gascuel, D. , Gurney, L. J. , Hattab, T. , Heymans, J. J. , Jouffre, D. , Knight, B. R. … Shin, Y.-J. (2016). Ecological indicators to capture the effects of fishing on biodiversity and conservation status of marine ecosystems. Ecological Indicators, 60, 947–962. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2015.08.048 Cope, J. M. , & Punt, A. E. (2009). Length-based reference points for data-limited situations: Applications and restrictions. Marine and Coastal Fisheries: Dynamics, Management, and Ecosystem Science, 1(1), 169–186. https://doi.org/10.1577/C08-025.1 Cormier, R. , & Elliott, M. (2017). SMART marine goals, targets and management – Is SDG 14 operational or aspirational, is “Life Below Water” sinking or swimming? Marine Pollution Bulletin, 123(1–2), 28–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.07.060 Daly, H. E. (1990). Toward some operational principles of sustainable development. Ecological Economics, 2(1), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/0921-8009(90)90010-R Devillers, R. , Pressey, R. L. , Ward, T. J. , Grech, A. , Kittinger, J. N. , Edgar, G. J. , & Watson, R. A. (2020). Residual marine protected areas five years on: Are we still favouring ease of establishment over need for protection? Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 30(9), 1758–1764. https://doi.org/10.1002/aqc.3374 Díaz, S. , Pascual, U. , Stenseke, M. , Martín-López, B. , Watson, R. T. , Molnár, Z. , Hill, R. , Chan, K. M. A. , Baste, I. A. , Brauman, K. A. , Polasky, S. , Church, A. , Lonsdale, M. , Larigauderie, A. , Leadley, P. W. , van Oudenhoven, A. P. E. , van der Plaat, F. , Schröter, M. , Lavorel, S. … Shirayama, Y. (2018). Assessing nature’s contributions to people. Science, 359(6373), 270–272. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aap8826 Elfes, C. T. , Longo, C. , Halpern, B. S. , Hardy, D. , Scarborough, C. , Best, B. D. , Pinheiro, T. , & Dutra, G. F. (2014). A regional-scale ocean health index for Brazil. PLoS ONE, 9(4), e92589. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0092589 Fabricius, K. E. (2005). Effects of terrestrial runoff on the ecology of corals and coral reefs: Review and synthesis. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 50(2), 125–146. h ttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2004.11.028 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2018). The state of world fisheries and aquaculture 2018. Meeting the Sustainable Development Goals (p. 227). FAO. Fenichel, E. P. , Milligan, B. , Porras, I. , Addicott, E. T. , Árnasson, R. , Bordt, M. , Djavidnia, S. , Dvarskas, A. , Goldman, E. , Grimsrud, K. , Lange, G.-M. , Matuszak, J. , Muawanah, U. , Quaas, M. , Soulard, F. , & Zhang, J. (2020). National accounting for the ocean and ocean economy (High Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean Economy, p. 48). World Resources Institute. Fernandez-Macho, J. (2016). A statistical assessment of maritime socioeconomic indicators for the European Atlantic area. Journal of Ocean and Coastal Economics, 2(2), 4. https://doi.org/10.15351/2373-8456.1047 Folke, C. , Biggs, R. , Norström, A. V. , Reyers, B. , & Rockström, J. (2016). Social-ecological resilience and biosphere-based sustainability science. Ecology and Society, 21(3), 41. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26269981 Fulton, E. A. (2010). Approaches to end-to-end ecosystem models. Journal of Marine Systems, 81(1–2), 171–183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmarsys.2009.12.012 Gill, D. A. , Mascia, M. B. , Ahmadia, G. N. , Glew, L. , Lester, S. E. , Barnes, M. , Craigie, I. , Darling, E. S. , Free, C. M. , Geldmann, J. , Holst, S. , Jensen, O. P. , White, A. T. , Basurto, X. , Coad, L. , Gates, R. D. , Guannel, G. , Mumby, P. J. , Thomas, H. , … Fox, H. E. (2017). Capacity shortfalls hinder the performance of marine protected areas globally. Nature, 543(7647), 665–669. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature21708 Golden, C. , Allison, E. H. , Cheung, W. W. , Dey, M. M. , Halpern, B. S. , McCauley, D. J. , Smith, M. , Vaitla, B. , Zeller, D. , & Myers, S. S. (2016). Fall in fish catch threatens human health. Nature, 534(7607), 317–320. https://doi.org/10.1038/534317a Guggisberg, S. (2019). The roles of nongovernmental actors in improving compliance with fisheries regulations. Review of European, Comparative & International Environmental Law, 28(3), 314–327. https://doi.org/10.1111/reel.12304 Halpern, B. S. , Klein, C. J. , Brown, C. J. , Beger, M. , Grantham, H. S. , Mangubhai, S. , Ruckelshaus, M. , Tulloch, V. J. , Watts, M. , White, C. , & Possingham, H. P. (2013). Achieving the triple bottom line in the face of inherent trade-offs among social equity, economic return, and conservation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110(15), 6229–6234. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1217689110 Halpern, B. S. , Longo, C. , Hardy, D. , McLeod, K. L. , Samhouri, J. F. , Katona, S. K. , Kleisner, K. , Lester, S. E. , O’Leary, J. , Ranelletti, M. , Rosenberg, A. A. , Scarborough, C. , Selig, E. R. , Best, B. D. , Brumbaugh, D. R. , Chapin, F. S. , Crowder, L. B. , Daly, K. L. , Doney, S. C. … Zeller, D. (2012). An index to assess the health and benefits of the global ocean. Nature, 4 88(7413), 615–620. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature11397 Hass, J. , Brunvoll, F. , & Hoie, H. (2002). Overview of sustainable development indicators used by national and international agencies (OECD Statistics Working Papers, No. 2002/02). OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/838562874641 Hicks, C. C. , Levine, A. , Agrawal, A. , Basurto, X. , Breslow, S. J. , Carothers, C. , Charnley, S. , Coulthard, S. , Dolsak, N. , Donatuto, J. , Garcia-Quijano, C. , Mascia, M. B. , Norman, K. , Poe, M. R. , Satterfield, T. , St. Martin, K. , & Levin. P. S. (2016). Engage key social concepts for sustainability. Science, 352(6281), 38–40. Hilborn, R. , & Mangel, M. (1997). The ecological detective: Confronting models with data. Princeton University Press. Kleisner, K. , Zeller, D. , Froese, R. , & Pauly, D. (2013). Using global catch data for inferences on the world’s marine fisheries: Catch data for fisheries inferences. Fish and Fisheries, 14(3), 293–311. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-2979.2012.00469.x Konar, M. , & Ding, H. (2020). A sustainable ocean economy for 2050: Approximating its benefits and costs (p. 62). High Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean Economy. Retrieved July 11, 2022 from https://www.readkong.com/page/a-sustainable-ocean-economy-for-2050- a pproximating-its-7989226 Merry, S. E. (2011). Measuring the world: Indicators, human rights, and global governance. Current Anthropology, 52(S3), S83–S95. https://doi.org/10.1086/657241 OECD [Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development] . (2016). The ocean economy in 2030. OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264251724-en Perrings, C. , Naeem, S. , Ahrestani, F. S. , Bunker, D. E. , Burkill, P. , Canziani, G. , Elmqvist, T. , Fuhrman, J. A. , Jaksic, F. M. , Kawabata, Z. , Kinzig, A. , Mace, G. M. , Mooney, H. , Prieur-Richard, A.-H. , Tschirhart, J. , & Weisser, W. (2011). Ecosystem services, targets, and indicators for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 9(9), 512–520. https://doi.org/10.1890/100212 Pintér, L. , Hardi, P. , Martinuzzi, A. , & Hall, J. (2012). Bellagio STAMP: Principles for sustainability assessment and measurement. Ecological Indicators, 17, 20–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2011.07.001 Plagányi, É. E. (2007). Models for an ecosystem approach to fisheries (FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No. 477; p. 108). FAO. http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/a1149e/a1149e00.htm Schuhbauer, A. , Cisneros-Montemayor, A. M. , Chuenpagdee, R. , & Sumaila, U. R. (2019b). Assessing the economic viability of small-scale fisheries: An example from Mexico. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 617–618, 365–376. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps12942 Schuhbauer, A. , Cisneros-Montemayor, A. M. , & Sumaila, U. R. (2019a). Economic viability of small-scale fisheries: A transdisciplinary evaluation approach. In R. Chuenpagdee & S. Jentoft (Eds.), Transdisciplinarity for small-scale fisheries governance (Vol. 21, pp. 93–117). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-94938-3_6 Seto, K. , & Campbell, B. (2019). The last commons: (Re)constructing an ocean future. In A. M. Cisneros-Montemayor , W. W. L. Cheung , & Y. Ota (Eds.), Predicting future oceans: Sustainability of ocean and human systems amidst global environmental change (pp. 365–376). Elsevier. Spijkers, J. , Morrison, T. H. , Blasiak, R. , Cumming, G. S. , Osborne, M. , Watson, J. , & Österblom, H. (2018). Marine fisheries and future ocean conflict. Fish and Fisheries, 19(5), 798–806. https://doi.org/10.1111/faf.12291 Sumaila, U. R. , & Walters, C. (2005). Intergenerational discounting: A new intuitive approach. Ecological Economics, 52(2), 135–142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2003.11.012 Teh, L. S. L. , Teh, L. C. L. , & Sumaila, U. R. (2014). Time preference of small-scale fishers in open access and traditionally managed reef fisheries. Marine Policy, 44, 222–231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2013.08.028 United Nations. (2015). Transforming our world: The 2030 agenda for sustainable development (A/Res/70/1, p. 35). United Nations General Assembly. https://www.ceeol.com/search/article- d etail?id=304581 United Nations. (2017). Work of the statistical commission pertaining to the 2030 agenda for sustainable development (A/RES/71/313). United Nations General Assembly. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. (2014). Blue economy concept paper. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/2978BEconcept.pdf United Nations Development Programme. (2020, December 15). Human development report 2020. The next frontier: Human development and the Anthropocene. United Nations D evelopment Programme. http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/human-development-report-2020 Valentin, A. , & Spangenberg, J. H. (2000). A guide to community sustainability indicators. Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 20(3), 381–392. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0195- 9255(00)00049-4 Vierros, M. K. , Harrison, A. L. , Sloat, M. R. , Crespo, G. O. , Moore, J. W. , Dunn, D. C. , Ota, Y. , Cisneros-Montemayor, A. M. , Shillinger, G. L. , Watson, T. K. , & Govan, H. (2020). Considering indigenous peoples and local communities in governance of the global ocean commons. Marine Policy, 119, 104039. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2020.104039 Voyer, M. , Quirk, G. , McIlgorm, A. , & Azmi, K. (2018). Shades of blue: What do competing interpretations of the blue economy mean for oceans governance? Journal of Environmental Policy & Planning, 20(5), 595–616. https://doi.org/10.1080/1523908X.2018.1473153 Wang, X. (2016). The ocean economic statistical system of China and understanding of the blue economy. Journal of Ocean and Coastal Economics, 2(2). https://doi.org/10.15351/2373- 8 456.1055 World Bank. (2016). Poverty and shared prosperity 2016: Taking on inequality. The World Bank. https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-0958-3 World Bank, & United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. (2017). The potential of the Blue Economy: Increasing long-term benefits of the sustainable use of marine resources for Small Island Developing States and Coastal Least Developed Countries (p. 50). World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/26843/115545.pdf?sequence=1& i sAllowed=y