No. 95 May 15, 1963 CHARLES H. LAMOUREUX ROTANY DEPT. UNI\'ERSITY OF HAWAII HONOLULU 14, HAWAII ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN E&ts of Humi-anc Hattie on t h Bn'tih Honduras Re$ and Cay4 Octohr'~ 30-31, 1961 by D. R. Stoddart Issued by THE PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council Washington, D. C., U.S.A. ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN No. 95 Effec t s of Hurricane H a t t i e on t h e B r i t i s h Honduras Reefs and Cays, October 30-31, 1961 by D. R. S toddar t Issued by THE PACIFIC SCIEXCE BOARD National Academy of Sciences--National Eesearch Council Washington, D . C . May 15: 1 ~ 5 3 It i s a p l easu re t o commend t h e fa r -s ighted p o l i c y of t h e Of f i ce of Naval Research, wi th i t s emphasis on b a s i c research , a s a r e s u l t of which a g ran t has made poss ib l e t h e con t inua t ion of t h e Cora l A t o l l Program of t h e P a c i f i c Science Board. It i s of i n t e r e s t t o note , h i s t o r i c a l l y , t h a t much of t h e funda- mental information on a t o l l s of t h e P a c i f i c w a s ga thered bv t h e U. S. N a v l s South P a c i f i c Exploring Expedit ion, over one hundred y e a r s ago, under t h e comand of Captain Charles Wilkes. The cont inuing na tu re of such s c i . e n t i f i c i n t e r e s t by t h e Navy i s shown by t h e support f o r t h e P a c i f i c Scj-ence Board's r e sea rch programs dur ing t h e p a s t f i f t e e n yea r s . The p repa ra t ion and i ssuance of t h e A t o l l Research B u l l e t i n i s a s s i s t e d by funds from Contract ~onr-2300(12) . The s o l e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r a l l s ta tements made by au tho r s of papers i n t h e A t o l l Research B u l l e t i n r e s t s wi th them, and they do no t n e c e s s a r i l y r ep re sen t t h e views of t h e P a c i f i c Science Board o r of t h e e d i t o r s of t h e B u l l e t i n . E d i t o r i a l S t a f f F. R . Fosberg, e d i t o r M.-H. Sachet , a s s i s t a n t e d i t o r Correspondence concerning t h e A t o l l Research B u l l e t i n should be addressed t o t h e above: P a c i f i c Vegetat ion P r o j e c t $ National Research Council 2101 C o n s t i t u t i o n Ave., N. W. Washington 25, D . C . , U.S.A. CONTENTS Page PREFACE I. INTRODUCTION Description of the reef area 11. HURRICANE HATTIE Development of Hurricane Hat t ie Hurricane Hat t ie i n Br i t i sh Honduras waters Half Moon Cay, Lighthouse Reef Sandbore Cay, Lighthouse Reef Mauger Cay, Turneffe Cay Bokel, Turneffe Cay Caulker, Barrier Reef Lagoon Belize City Barrier reef lagoon Tobacco and South Water Cays, Barr ier Reef Stann Creek and nearby area Mango Creek Punta Gorda Other areas Changing wind and wave conditions, 2100 h 30 October - 1200 h 31 October Storm surge Wave ac t ion Direction of water movement Ra infa l l 111. REEF DANAGE DURING HURRICAI\JE HATTIE Paunch Cay Reef Sergeant's Cay Reef Reef-patch south of English Cay Rendezvous Reef Cay Glory Carrie Bow Cay Peter Douglas Cay Comment I V . HUEtFiICANE DANAGE TO NORTHERN BARRIER REEF CAYS Ambergris Cay Cay Caulker Cay Chapel Cays between Cay Chapel and Belize St . George! s Cay S t . George's East Cay Paunch Cay Sergeant 1 s Cay Goff f s Cay English Cay Page The Southern Triangles Rendezvous Cay Other sand cays of t h e Rorthern Bar r i e r Reef HURRICANE DANAGE TO CENTRAL BARRIER REEF CAYS A . Cays between Rendezvous and Weewee Cays Cay Glory Tobacco Cay Cays between Tobacco and South Water cays South Water Cay Carr ie Bow Cay Curlew Cay B. Cays ~f Centra l Bar r i e r Reef Lagoon Weewee Cay t o Baker's Rendezvous Cary Cay Trappl s Cay Is lands between Trappls Cay and Gladden S p i t Laughing Bird Cay Owen Cay Scipio Cay Colson Cay Bugle Cay Other b a r r i e r reef and lagoon cays Cays of southern b a r r i e r r ee f V I . HURRICANE DAMAGE ON TURNEFFE ISLANDS The Northern Cays The Cockroach Group Pelican Cay So ld ie r and Blackbird Cays Calabash Cays The Deadman Group Cay Bokel The Eastern Sand Ridge Turneffe lagoon mangroves Crickozeen Creek slumping V I I . HURRICANE DM-IAGE ON LIGHTHOUSE REEF Sandbore Cay Northern Cay Saddle Cay Half Moon Cay E f f e c t on vegeta t ion Bird colony Long Cay Hat Cay VIII. SUNMARY OF PHYSIOGRAPHIC EFFECTS Zonation of danage Erosional e f f e c t s Page Depos i t i ona l e f f e c t s I n c i d e n t a l physiographic e f f e c t s I n t e r t i d a l beachrock Cay sandstone Promenade rock Shingle rock Other rock I X . VEGETATIONAL EFFECTS OF THE HURRICANE Vegetat ion types and zonat ion of damage Summary of v e g e t a t i o n a l e f f e c t s X. HUIUN AND ECONOMIC RESULTS OF THE HURRICANE Se t t l emen t Economy Fauna X I . POST-HURRICANE ADJUST1:ENTS AND PROSPECT Topography Vegetat ion Recent spread of coconuts and changing hur r icane e f f e c t s Conclusion X I I . APPENDICES 1. E a r l y B r i t i s h Honduras hu r r i canes and t h e i r e f f e c t s 2. Some I'daya p o t t e r y from Grand Bogue P o i n t , Turneffe I s l ands , B r i t i s h Honduras, by Euan W. NacKie X I I I . REFERENCES CITED F igu res A f t e r page 1. Locat ion of B r i t i s h Honduras Cays 6 2. Track of Hurricane Ha t t i e , 27-31October 1961 20 3. P res su re and winds i n t h e Caribbean, 1800 h r s Be l i ze t ime, 30 October 1961 I I 4. Atmospheric pressure , 30-31 October 1961 I I 5. Anemometer t r a c e , S t an ley F i e l d , Bel ize , 30-31 October 1961 11 6. Wind s t r eaml ines f o r 2100, 2200, 2300 h, 30 October 7. Wind s t rearc l ines f o r 0000, 0100, 0200 h, 3 1 O c t o b e r 8. Wind s t r eaml ines f o r 0300, 0400, 0500 h, 3 1 O c t o b e r I' 9. Wind s t r eaml ines f o r 0600, 0700, 0800 h, 3 1 O c t o b e r 10. Wind s t r eaml ines f o r 0900, 1000, 1100 h , 31 October 11. Hurricane H a t t i e i n B r i t i s h Honduran waters (der ived from wind and s t r eaml ine c h a r t s ) II 12. Proq-ess of s torm surge I I After page Dominant d i r e c t i o n s of water movement during Hurricane Ha t t i e 20 Degree of r e e f damage during Hurricane H a t t i e 2 9 Rendezvous Reef i n 1960, 1962 I I Ambergris Cay 50 Cay Caulker and Cay Chapel 11 Location of S t . George's Cay I I Hurricane damage a t S a i n t George's Cay 11 S t . George's Cay East Sandbore, 1960 11 Paunch Cay, 1960 I I Sergean t ' s Cay, 1960, 1962 I I Goofls Cay, 1960, 1962 11 English Cay, 1960, 1962 11 The Tr iangles and Deepw2ter Channel 1 1 Sketch map of Robinson Point Cay I I Spanish Cay, 1961 I I Rendezvous Cay, 1959-61, 1962 11 kiddle Long Cay 6 9 Cay Glory, 1960 I I Tobacco Cay, 1960, 1962 I I South kiater Cay, 1960, 1962 I I Car r i e Bow Cay, 1960, 1962 11 Curlew Cay, 1960 11 Cays of c e n t r a l b a r r i e r r ee f lagoon I I Bottom topography i n p a r t of c e n t r a l b a r r i e r r ee f lanoon Cary Cay, 1962 Trapp' s o r lfoho Cay, 1962 Buttonwood Cay, 1961 Laughing Bird Cay, 1962 Owen Cay, 1962 . . Colson Cay and Sc ip io Cay, 1962 West end of Bugle Cay, 1962 Pel ican Cay, Cay I1 of t h e Cockroach Group, 1962 Cockroach Cay: Cay V I of the Cockroach group, 1960 (with Cockroach v ) , 1962 S o l d i e r Cay, 1960, 1962 L i t t l e Calabash Cay, 1960, 1962 Big Calabash Cay, 1960, 1962 Deadman Cay I , 1960, 1962 Deadman Cay 11, 1960, 1962 Deadnan Cay I V Y 1960, 1962 Deadman V, 1960, 1962 Cay Bokel, 1961, 1962 Traverse a t Grand Bogue Po in t , Turneffe Is lands Aer i a l view from nor th of Crickozeen Creek slumning Sandbore Cay, 1960, 1962 Hurrican'g c h a n ~ e on t h e por th shbre of' Northern Cay, - 1961, 1962 Half Moon Cay: topography i n l 9 6 i Half Moon Cay: topographic change during Hurricane Ha t t i e Half Moon Cay: composition, 1962 11 Half Moon Cay: vegetat ion change 1961-1962 I I Pa t t e rn of hurr icane damage t o sand cays 111 Section of cay sandstone a t Northern Cay II Direct ion of t r e e f a l l dur ing Hurricane H a t t i e 119 Maya p o t t e r y from Grand Bogue 13 4 Hurricane H a t t i e passed a c r o s s t h e B r i t i s h Honduras coas t on October 30-31, 1961, and t h i s paper n re sen t s i n some d e t a i l t h e e f f e c t s of t h e storm on c o r a l r e e f s and p a r t i c u l a r l y on r ee f i s l a n d s i n i t s t r a c k . I am much indebted t o t h e Royal Society of London f o r support- i n g t h e re-survey expedit ion, which l a s t e d from February t o Lay 1962: and a l s o t o Miss Evelyn L. P r u i t t , Head, Geography Branch, Off ice of Naval Research, Department of t h e Navy, Washington, who arranged t r a n s - a t l a n t i c t r a n s p o r t a t i o n f o r m. Without t h i s g r e a t a s s i s t a n c e , t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n would not have taken place. huch of t h i s r epor t n e c e s s a r i l y d e a l s with pre-hurr icane condi t ions - i n o u t l i n e only f o r t h e a t o l l s ( ~ u r n e f f e , Lighthouse and Glover! s Reefs) which have been described i n a previous paper ( s todda r t , 1962b), i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l f o r t h e h i t h e r t o undescribed cays of t h e b a r r i e r r e e f . This m a t e r i a l was gathered dur ing two e a r l i e r expedi t ions : The Cambridge Expedit ion t o B r i t i s h Honduras 1959-60, l e d by J .E. Thorpe, and an expedi t ion i n 1961 sponsored by t h e Coastal S tudies I n s t i t u t e , Louisiana S t a t e Universi ty, and t h e Off ice of Naval Research,Washington. I am most g r a t e f u l t o my companions on t h e f i r s t expedit ion; and t o Professor R.J. Russe l l and iG.ss E.L. P r u i t t f o r t h e i r g r e a t he lp on t h e second. A s p e c i a l word of thanks must go t o my a s s i s t a n t s , filr. JoD. Poxon and M r . Stephen P. Kurray, f o r t h e i r a id . On a l l t hese expedi t ions , my p lan t c o l l e c t i o n s have been i d e n t i f i e d by D r . F.R. Fosberg; t o D r . Fosberg, and t o D r . I!:.H. Sachet, both of t h e P a c i f i c Vegetation P ro jec t , go my very b e s t t ha rks , not only f o r t h i s , bu t f o r many o the r kindnesses. This whole p r o j z c t has been c a r r i e d out under t h e d i r e c t i o n of Professor J .A. S t ee r s , of Cambridge, who has given encouragement and adv icea t a l l s tages ; I t r u s t h i s inf luence may be seen i n t h e fol lowing pages. Since 1959 I have bsen supported by funds from t h e Department of S c i e n t i f i c and I n d u s t r i a l Research, London, held a t t h e Department of Geography, Cambridge, England. One i s embarrassed by t h e nw.bers of ~ e o p l e who have so f r e e l y given t h e i r h e l p dur ing t h e s e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y a f t e r t h e hurr icane , when most had more t o occupy t h e i r ~ c i n d s than wandering geomorphologists. I must thank i n p a r t i c u l a r S i r C.H. Thornley and S i r P.G.H. S t a l l a r d , success ive ly Governors of B r i t i s h Honduras, f o r very p r a c t i c a l a s s i s t a n c e , and t h e Government cf t h e Colony f o r customs exemption and o the r favours; my good f r i e n d s D r . and h r s . S t u a r t Heap and I?";. and ~ l r s , Noman S ta lke r , f o r t h e i r unflagging h o s p i t a l i t y ; Nrs. Ol iv ia C. S tua r t , who both before and a f t e r t h e hurr icane welcomed me t o h e r home a t no small personal inconvenience; and Be l i ze E s t a t c and Produce Company Limited and t h e Harrison Line f o r i nva luab le h e l p with sh ipping s t o r e s and s p e c h e n s o Ky thanks a l s o t o t h e l o c a l fishermen who have a t cne time o r another taken m e from cay t o cay: e s p e c i a l l y M r . P h i l i p Young i n t h e Ramrod i n 1961, and Kr, Pe te Young i n t h e Sunshine and M r , hau r i ce P i i l l e r i n t h e Joy i n 1962. I am g r a t e f u l a l s o t o Government Departments i n B r i t i s h - Honduras who gave a s s i s t a n c e , notably t h e Fores t ry Department, Survey and Lands De~ar tment , Information Department, Customs Department and B r i t i s h Honduras Broadcasting Service; and i n England e s p e c i a l l y t o t h e Hydrographic Department, Admiralty, under Admiral E.G. I rv ing , O.B.E. R.N., t h e B r i t i s h Muscum (Natural ist tor^), and t h e Royal Geo- g raph ica l Society. The Coas ta l S tudies I n s t i t u t e of Louisiana S t a t e Univers i ty helped with t h e loan of instruments . 14any persons have given f r e e l y of t h e i r knowledge and advice, inc luding D r . Adrian Richards, Off ice of Naval Research, London; D r . Gordon E. Dunn, U.S. Wea- t h e r Bureau, ?%mi; D r . k i c h a e l Nancoo, Pal isadoes Airport , Jamaica; Captain 1d.S. Eustace, Piaster, move Tact ic ian; h r , h e S . Porcher, Chief Secretary, B r i t i s h Honduras; Colonel Fairweather, B r i t i s h Honduras Volun- t e e r Guard; and Colonel Charnock \ U s o n , Late ly of t h e B r i t i s h Honduras Cocmut Marketing Board. Figure 5 i s reproduced by courtesy of t h e U.S. Weather Bureau; and Figures 2 and 3 a r e based on information supplied by D r . Gordon E. Dunn, Figures 23 and 33 a r e based on Admiralty cha r t s , by permission of Admiral I rv ing ; Figure 14 on t h e a i r photographs taken by t h e RoAeFo i n 1962, loaned by Admiral I rv ing; and Figures 15, 16 and 34 on United S t a t e s Navy photographs of 1945, supplied by Coastal S tudies I n s t i t u t e . There a r e i n e v i t a b l y many o t h e r persons and organisa t ions I ought t o mention; my apprec ia t ion i s by no means lessened by my i n a b i l i t y t o name them a l l here. Perhaps my thanks can b e s t be phrased i n t h e words of one of t h e f i r s t English s tuden t s of t h e co ra l s , John E l l i s , who i n 1755 wrote a s fol lows : ilkany h i n t s I owe t o t h e conversat ions of my Friends; and I cannot but acknowledge, t h a t whatever e l s e may have accrued t o me from t h e s e Pursu i t s , they, a t l e a s t , h v e been t h e Means of procuring me many valuable Friendships, and an Acauaintance with Ven who do Honour t o t h e i r Country, and t h e i r Species .Yl ( ~ l l i s , 17559 1 0 ~ ) . 1 . INTRODUCTION The e f f e c t of hurr icanes and ca ta s t roph ic storms on r e e f s and reef i s l a n d s has long been appreciated - Charles Darwin c i t e d numerous examples i n h i s l fS t ruc ture and Dis t r ibu t ion of Coral Reefs)! (1842~ 95-97) - and t h e l i t e r a t u r e on r e e f s i s s c a t t e r e d with abundant references t o such e f f e c t s . Wells (1951, 5-7) f o r example, has catalogued t h e tremendous morphologic changes r e s u l t i n g from t h e 1905 and 1918 typhoons a t Arno Ato l l , biarshall I s l ands . Yet t h e f a c t remains t h a t very few s t u d i e s have been made of hurr icane e f f e c t s e i t h e r during o r soon a f t e r t h e i r occurr-. For many yea r s t h e only such study was koorhouse9s repor t on t h e e f f e c t s of t h e 1934 cyclone a t Low I s l e s , Great Bar r i e r Reef of Aus t ra l i a (~oorhouse , 1936), and t h e subsequent comments by S t e e r s (1937) and Fai rbr idge and Teichert (1948, 75-83). The work a t Low I s l e s has been continued with t h e exce l l en t r e p o r t by Stephenson, Endean and Bennett (1958) on t h e e f f e c t on t h e c o r a l s themselves of t h e 1954 c y b n e . I n r ecen t years , t h e r e has been a g rea t inc rease i n i n t e r e s t i n t h e p h y s i o g r a ~ h i c , geologic, botanica l , b i o l o g i c a l and human e f f e c t s of severe storm ac t ion , l a r g e l y a s a r e s u l t of Typhoon Ophelia, which s t ruck J a l u i t Atol l , Marshal l I s lands , on January 7-8, 1958. Seven s c i e n t i s t s s tud ied t h e changes t h r e e and a h a l f months a f t e r t h e passage of t h i s d ~ m , and t h e i r r e ~ o r t s form t h e only d e t a i l e d survey of severe storm e f f e c t s on a t o l l land a r e a s lumenst stock, 1958; McKee, 1959; Blumenstock, e d i t o r , 1961). Nearly t h r e e g e a r s a f t e r t h e passage of Ophelia, J a l u i t was r e v i s i t e d by a second pa r ty t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e modif icat ion of t h e hurricane-induced changes, and a prel iminary repor t has a l ready appeared lumenst stock, Fosberg and Johnson, 1961) . Fur ther d e t a i l e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n s have a l s o r ecen t ly been c a r r i e d out a t U l i t h i A to l l , Carol ine I s l ands , s t ruck by a typhoon, a l s o named Ophelia, on 30 November, 1960; Blumenstock l e d a p a r t y t o t h a t a t o l l i n January 1961, and a repor t i s an t i c ipa ted . Bnery (1962, 59-61) has r e c e n t l y described typhoon e f f e c t s on Guam. Hurricane H a t t i e i s of s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t i n t h e s tudy of ca ta s t roph ic storms i.n reef a reas . While l o ~ g neglected, t h e r e e f s of B r i t i s h Honduras have r ecen t ly seen inc reas ing a c t i v i t y by a number of workers. Vermeer (1959) has published a genera l account of t h e whole reef a r e a based on a reconnaissance study made i n 1957. D r . Edward G, Purdy, c u r r e n t l y i n v e s t i g a t i n g b a r r i e r reef lagoon sediments, spent seve ra l seasons i n t h e a r e a before t h e hurr icane , and has re turned since. The m e s e n t w r i t e r began work on t h e cays i n December 1959, and i n t h e course of two expedi t ions (~ecember 1959 - June 1960; Kay - August 1961) completed m a p i n g of some seventy reef i s l a n d s , with comprehensive ground and a i r photo coverage, p l a n t c o l l e c t i o n , and i n c i d e n t a l r ee f observat ion. Accounts of p a r t of t h i s work have a l r eady appeared (s toddar t , 1960, 1962a, l962b). The programme of mapping was completed l e s s than t h r e e months before Hurricane H a t t i e s t ruck t h e a r e a on October 30-31, 1961. This afforded what i s probably a unique opportunity t o s tudy i n d e t a i l t h e e f f e c t of hurr icanes on reef i s l a n d s , on t h e b a s i s of maps and o t h e r d a t a obtained immediately before t h e hurr icane s t ruck . F i r s t r e p o r t s ind ica ted appa l l ing devas ta t ion a t t h e c a p i t a l , Bel ize ( e a g 0 Boga, 1961), and it w a s soon apparent t h a t t h e hurr icane must have a f f e c t e d much of t h e northern b a r r i e r reef and probably Turneffe and Lighthouse Reefs a l s o , With Royal Socie ty support I was a b l e t o spend February-Hay 1962 i n B r i t i s h Honduras : during t h i s re-survey expedi- t i o n I was ab le t o f l y over t h e whole length of t h e a t o l l and b a r r i e r r ee f s , re-photograph a l l t h e cays from t h e a i r , f l y a long t h e whole c o a s t l i n e of t h e country, and, i n a n u ~ b e r of sea t r i p s , re-map cays i n t h e devas ta ted a r e a s of t h e b a r r i e r r e e f , Turneffe I s l ands and Light- house Reef. Descript ion of t h e Reef Area B r i t i s h Honduras i s s i t u a t e d i n t h e south-eastern p a r t of t h e Yucatan Peninsula, Cen t ra l American mainland. The southern p a r t of t h e country c o n s i s t s of a n upfaulted block of Palaeozoic metamorphosed sediments and igneous i n t r u s i o n s , r i s i n g t o 3650 f e e t above sea l eve l . South of t h e s e Kaya Mountains i s a lower-lying h i l l y a r e a of Cretaceous and Eocene limestones, s h a l e s and sandstones; t h e l imestones a l s o over- l a p t h e western p a r t of t h e Kaya Mountains, and c o n s t i t u t e t h e whole of t h e nor thern lowlands of B r i t i s h Honduras. he Yucatan Peninsula north of B r i t i s h Honduras i s a l s o b u i l t of low-lying limestones, previously thought t o become younger northwards, but now shown by B u t t e r l i n and Bonet (1961) t o exh ib i t a l e s s r egu la r p a t t e r n and t o be mainly Eocene. Faul t systems i n t h e B r i t i s h Honduras highlands a r e dominantly eas t - west, and i n t h e northern lowlands northeast-southwest ( ~ w e r , 1929; F lores , 1952; Dixon, 1956). The g r e a t e r p a r t of t h e e a s t coast of Yucatan i s s t r a i g h t and f e a t u r e l e s s , a p a r t from two mangrove-fringed embayments a t Bahia E s p i r i t u Santo and Bahia de l a Ascension. Reef development a long t h i s coast appears t o be poor (~dwards , 1957)~ South of t h e B r i t i s h Honduras border, however, t h e c o a s t l i n e becomes widely embayed and overlooks a broad but shal low c o a s t a l s h e l f , f r inged on i t s o u t e r edge by a b a r r i e r reef and cays. This reef extends with few breaks, follow- i n g an a rcua te course, f o r 130 n a u t i c a l mi les , t o wi th in 16 mi le s of t h e mainland Honduras coas t a t t h e foot of t h e peninsula. It encloses a lagoon, on t h e c o a s t a l s h e l f , which i n c r e a s e s gradual ly i n depth from 1-2 fathoms i n Chetumal Bay t o 25-30 f a t h o m a t i t s southernmost extent . Cays on t h e b a r r i e r reef a r e of s e v e r a l types: on t h e b a r r i e r i t s e l f , sand and sh ing le i s l a n d s have been b u i l t by wave r e f r a c t i o n a t many major reef gaps. Lagoonward from t h e b a r r i e r , a number of l a r g e r cays, with sandy seaward rims and mangrove swamp t o leeward, r i s e from a fflow platformtf a t 2-4 fathoms depth, which extends along t h e whole length of t h e she l f edge, and from which t h e present r e e f s r i s e . Clus- t e r s of mainly mangrove i s l a n d s wi th in t h e c o a s t a l lagoon a r e r a t h e r loca l i sed : one group l i e s south-east of. . .Belize, a t t h e i n n e r end of a remarkable sinuous channel which i n t e r s e c t s t h e b a r r i e r r ee f with depths of up t o 33 fathoms; a second group i s found i n t h e c e n t r a l p a r t of t h e lagoon, between Placencia v i l l a g e and t h e prominent Gladden S p i t elbow; and a t h i r d group i s found nea r t h e mainland coas t between Punta Ycacos and Punta Gorda. Outside t h e b a r r i e r r ee f t h e sea deepens r ap id ly - soundings of 48CO f e e t a r e found wi th in 3; mi les of t h e southern b a r r i e r reef a t Ranguana Entrance, Three a t o l l s r i s e t o t h e su r f ace from t h i s deep water o u t s i d e t h e b a r r i e r . Turneffe I s l a n d s , more p rope r ly a shallow, reef- f r i n g e d bank covered w i t h much mangrove, has a number of smal l sand and s h i n g l e cays on i t s exposed e a s t e r n r e e f s , Lighthouse Reef, a t r u e a t o l l wi th lagoon depths averaging 2-3 fathoms, l i e s 11-18 m i l e s seawards from Turneffe I s lands . Before t h e hu r r i cane t h e r e were f o u r smal l sand cays on t h i s a t o l l , and two much l a r g e r sand and mangrove i s l a n d s . F i n a l l y , t h e Glovervs Reef a t o l l , wi th lagoon dep ths of up t o 24 fathoms, l i e s south of Turneffe and Lighthouse Reefs; it has six sand and sh ing le cays on i t s south-east r e e f . A l l t h e s e a t o l l s a r e elongated i n a gene ra l ly NME-SSW d i r e c t i o n , and a r e 30$, 22 and 16 m i l e s long r e spec t ive ly . A l l of them, too , apDear t o be bounded by s t e e p s lopes , e s p e c i a l l y on t h e i r e a s t s ides : t h u s t h e r e a r e soundings of un t o 1100 fathoms w i t h i n 3$ m i l e s of t h e e a s t r e e f s of Lighthouse Reef. It seems q u i t e probable t h a t t h e s e gross f e a t u r e s of t h e r e e f s a r e t h e r e s u l t of c o a s t a l f au l - t i n g , r e s u l t i n g i n alignment of t h e r e e f s and pronounced submarine r e l i e f . The a t o l l s a r e descr ibed i n d e t a i l i n my ~ r e v i o u s B u l l e t i n ( s t o d d a r t , 1962b; h e r e a f t e r r e f e r r e d t o as ARB 87) P!aximum e l e v a t i o n s of reef i s l a n d s a r e g r e a t e s t on t h e exposed cays of Lighthouse and Glovervs Reefs: 10.5 f e e t be fo re t h e hu r r i cane a t Half Noon Cay, Lighthouse Reef, and 9-10 f e e t a t Long Cay, Glovervs Reef. On t h e e a s t r e e f s of Turneffe most of t h e sand cays a r e 3-5 f e e t high; s h i n g l e i s p re sen t i n l e s s e r amounts t h a n on t h e more e x ~ o s e d cays, and what i s found i s of f i n e r c a l i b r e . On t h e s e c t i o n s of t h e b a r r i e r r ee f s h e l t e r e d from t h e reva ailing winds by t h e a t o l l s t h e cays a r e wholly b u i l t of sand, l a c k p r o t e c t i v e s h i n g l e r idges , and r a r e l y r i s e more than 3 f e e t above t h e sea. Along t h e southern b a r r i e r r e e f , no t pro tec ted by t h e a t o l l s , s h i n g l e r i d g e s a r e found, r i s i n g 5-6 f e e t above sea l e v e l ( s t oddart , 1962a) . Climatic d a t a f o r t h i s a r e a a r e meagre i n t h e extreme, and t h e on ly long-term reco rds a v a i l a b l e a r e f o r t h e c o a s t a l c a p i t a l , B e l i ~ e (b!allace and Spano, 1962); t h e most r ecen t survey of mainland c l imate i s by Romney and o t h e r s (1959, 15-22). R a i n f a l l i n c r e a s e s on t h e main- l and from l e s s t h a n 20 inches on t h e no r th coas t of Yucatan t o more than 170 inches on t h e southern c o a s t a l lowlands of B r i t i s h Honduras, and t o probably over 200 inches on t h e P:aya P,ountains, B e l i ~ e i t s e l f has a n average of 69.6 inches , On t h e b a r r i e r r e e f , cond i t i ons probably r e f l e c t t h e c o a s t a l p a t t e r n : Ambergris Cay i n t h e f a r no r th probably h a s 50-60 inches per annum; t h e southernmost b a r r i e r r ee f cays may exceed 80-90 inches . The t h r e e a t o l l s may have about 70 i n c h e s per annum. Most r a i n f a l l f a l l s from June t o December, wi th heav ie s t monthly t o t a l s i n September and October, and a ~ r o n o u n c e d d r y season frcm Narch t o May. V a r i a b i l i t y from y e a r t o yea r i s considerable . Winds a r e dominantly e a s t e r l y , except f o r s h o r t pe r iods i n win ter , when co ld Phortherslt reach t h e a r e a from North America. Temperatures a r e high with rnean 6 maximum monthly tempera tures a t Be l i ze vary ing from 81-88 F and mean minimum monthly tempera tures from 68-75'. The h ighes t temperatures a r e experienced from A p r i l t o September. A t Rendezvous Cay, b a r r i e r r ee f , mid-day tempera tures from September 1959 t o May 1960 ranged from 79 t o 89'. The main coas ta l current flows from the south-east, from Cabo Gracias Dios northwards t o t h e Yucatan Channel, However, Br i t i sh Honduras waters experience a counter-current, flowing anti-clockwise i n the Gulf of Honduras, giving predominantly southerly water movements over most of t h e coasta l shelf , sometimes extending out t o t he a t o l l s , depending t o a 'considerable extent on l o c a l wind conditions. biean monthly sea tempera- t u r e s a t Rendezvous Cay ranged from 26.5 t o 29080~ , September 1959 t o Nay 1960. Tides a r e l e s s than 2 f e e t throughout t he area , and loca l movements of sea l e v e l may r e f l ec t wind influence t o a greater extent than purely t i d a l movements . Apart from v i l l ages on Ambergris Cay and Cay Caulker, ba r r i e r ree f , each with about 300 inhabitants, t h e population of t h e reef is lands i s r e s t r i c t ed t o a semi-permanent lighthouse s t a f f on cer ta in cays, and a number of temporary residents, mainly fishermen and coconut workers. On the th ree a t o l l s , f o r example,Wore t he hurricane, t he re were seven settlements on Turneffe (two associated with lighthouses), four on Lighthouse Reef (two of them associated with l ighthouses), and three on Glovervs Reef. The t o t a l population of t he a t o l l s probably never exceeded 50 persons. On the b a r r i e r reef , apar t from lighthouse s t a t i ons and the two vi l lages , only a dozen o r so cays were occupied, and t h e majori ty had no permanent houses and were v i s i t ed infrequently, Most of the tanporary v i s i t o r s had permanent homes i n Belize o r t h e coasta l se t - tlements, chief ly Stann Creek, Kullins River, bionkey River and Placencia. The greates t temporary increase i n population occurred during public holidays a t St. Georgeqs Cay, with about 40 houses, used a s a holiday resor t by people from Belize. For char ts of the a t o l l s , reference should be made t o Figures 14, 27 and 37 i n ARB 87. Detailed surveys of various dates provide t he bas i s f o r excellent Admiralty char ts of t h e ba r r i e r reef lagoon, See par t icu la r ly Admiralty charts: 522. Belize Harbour (1957-1958) 9590 'Approaches t o Belize (1921-1922) 1204. West I ~ d i e s from Belize t o Cabo Catoche (1830-1837) 1573. Honduras Gulf (1835-1841) 1797. Ranguana Cay t o Columbus Cay (1830-1841) FIG. I - LOCATION O F B R I T I S H HONDURAS CAYS 11. HURRICANE HATTIE Hurricane H a t t i e has been t h e most important storm t o a f f e c t t h e r e e f s and cays of B r i t i s h Honduras f o r many years . It i s comparable i n i n t e n s i t y t o Hurricane J a n e t of 1955, which, however, passed t o t h e nor th of t h e main reef a r e a and devastated Corozal and Chetumal ( ~ a g n e y , 1957). S t o m s of s i m i l a r magnitude have occurred i n 1945 i n Toledo D i s - t r i c t ; i n 1931, causing g r e a t damage and l o s s of l i f e a t Belize ( ~ a i n , 1933); and i n 1787, when Bel ize was almost completely destroyed. D e t a i l s of t h e s e and o t h e r e a r l i e r hu r r i canes a r e given i n Appendix 1. H a t t i e achieved i t s main n o t o r i e t y f o r t h e grea t damage it i n f l i c t e d t o l i f e and proper ty i n t h e c o a s t a l se t t lements . Much of Bel ize and Stann Creek were badly damaged, though not beyond t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s of r e p a i r , and some smaller v i l l a g e s were almost e n t i r e l y wiped out , Damage a t Bel ize was so considerable t h a t t e n t a t i v e p lans were made f o r t h e re- locat ion of t h e c a p i t a l a t Roaring Creek, 50 m i l e s inland, and t h e extent of proper ty damage has been roughly est imated at S O m?(Rickards91962), Of t h e approxi- mate t o t a l of 250-260 deaths , most occurred i n t h e l a r g e r c o a s t a l s e t t l e - ments: 94 i n Belize City, 60 i n Stann Creek Town, and 46 i n Mull ins River, according t o t h e o f f i c i a l l ist. Mumbers of dea ths on t h e cays a r e i n t h e na tu re of t h i n g s d i f f i c u l t t o determine, bu t t h e following l is t , based on t h e o f f i c i a l l is t , g ives a c l o s e anproximation; add i t ions have been made on t h e b a s i s of information c o l l e c t e d during t h e 1962 expedit ion. Table 1. Mor ta l i ty on Cays dur ing Hurricane H a t t i e B a r r i e r Reef: Cay Caulker Rendezvous Cay Turneffe Is lands : Berry Cays So ld ie r Cays Cay Bokel Calabash Cays Bu l l Bay Lighthouse Reef: Northern Cay Long Cay 1 Tota l : 45 It i s s i d t h a t no person who survived t h e a c t u a l storm subsequently suc- cumbed t o d i s e a s e o r o the r cause contingent on t h e hurr icane, l a r g e l y as a r e s u l t of t h e e f f o r t s of United S t a t e s and B r i t i s h m i l i t a r y fo rces . However, persons were found up t o 13 days a f t e r t h e storm s t randed on cays, p a r t i c u l a r l y on t h e Turneffe lagoon mangroves, and some d ied soon a f t e r rescue. It i s q u i t e ~ o s s i b l e t h a t o t h e r s survived f o r a period of days and d ied before being found. S imi lar ly , it i s not poss ib le t o be c e r t a i n t h a t a l l persons i n t h e reef a r e a s have been accounted f o r , It i s not t h e purpose of t h i s chapter t o d i s c u s s t h e meteorology of Hurricane Ha t t i e , o r t h e reasons f o r i t s unusual westward recurvature on 29-30 October. For d i scuss ions of t h e pure ly meteorological a spec t s , see Dunn and o the r s (1962) and ivancoo (1962+?). his chapter s e t s out t o .record as accura te ly as poss ib le changing wind and wave condi t ions * $ 33,600,000 y-?$ Nancoo, M.E. 1962. H u r r i c a n e r H a t t i e f . Weather 17: 295-304. dur ing t h e passage of Hurricane Ha t t i e , as a necessary prel iminary t o understanding t h e r e s u l t i n g changes on r e e f s and cays. The f i r s t p a r t i s based on meteorological information co l l ec ted by t h e U.S. Weather Bureau (u,s. Weather Bureau, 1962); t h e second on information gathered a t numerous l o c a l i t i e s i n B r i t i s h Honduras. Development of H u r r i c a n e H a t t i e H y r i c a n e H a t t i e w a s f i r s t i d e n t i f i e d as a t r o p i c a l storm a t Lat. 12.9 N , Long, 82.4%, near San Andres Is land, o f f t h e e a s t coas t of Nicaragua, dur ing t h e af te rnoon of 27 October 1961. The d is turbance followed an af te rnoon of l i g h t winds on t h e morning of t h e 27th and on t h e previous af ternoon. The f i r s t advisory f o r t h e t r o p i c a l storm was i ssued a t 1600 h Bel ize time, 27 October, a t about t h e time t h a t H a t t i e passed c lose t o San Andres ( a l l t imes i n t h i s r epor t , except where other- wise s t a t e d , a r e co r rec t f o r Belize; add 1 hour t o convert t o Eas tern Standard Time, and 6 hours t o convert t o Greenwich hean ~ i m e ) , Steady winds of 70 knots were experienced a t San Andres, gus t ing t o 90 knots , with a minimum Qressure a t 08CO h, 2 8 October, of 991 mb. A t t h i s t ime ga le f o r c e winds extended 125 mi le s t o t h e nor th and 60 mi le s t o t h e south of t h e storm cen t re , which w a s moving slowly northwestwards a t about 8 mph., Northerly movement i s usual with hur r i canes o r i g i n a t i n g i n t h e San Andres a rea , and H a t t i e continued along t h i s course on 28 and 29 October, a t 6-7 mph. During t h e morning of 2 8 October ( 1 ~ 0 0 h ) , t h e storm i n t e n s i f i e d : minimum pressure repor ted by a i r c r a f t pene t ra t ion f e l l t o 28.62 i n (969 mb), with hurr icane fo rce winds extending 40 mi le s from t h e c e n t r e a t 1 3 0 9 0 ~ , 81.6?1i\r, maximum winds near t h e c e n t r e of 125 mph. and g a l e fo rce winds extending l 4 O mi le s t o t h e NE and 70 mi le s t o t h e SW. b5nimum pressure f e l l dur ing t h e af ternoon t o 28.23 i n (956 mb) a t 1600 h, and g a l e f o r c e winds extended f o r 150 mi le s i n a l l quadrants. During t h e n ight the hurr icane continued t o i n t e n s i f y , p res su re f a l l i n g t o 28.11 i n (952 mb) a t 22CO h, 28 October. The following morning t h e storm contin- ued t o move northwards a t about 9 mph; a t 1000 h, 29 October, g a l e f o r c e winds extended f o r 185 miles i n t h e e a s t e r n and A40 mi le s i n t h e western semi-circle from t h e cen t re , now a t 17.4%, 81.3 W. Advisory 8 i s sued by t h e M i a m i Weather Bureau a t t h i s t ime warned of d e s t r u c t i v e winds and high t i d e s i n t h e Cayman I s l a n d s and Cuba. During 29 October, however, Hurricane H a t t i e began t o move toward t h e northwest a t a s l i g h t l y f a s t e r r a t e (13 mph). Reconnaissance a i r c r a f t reported wind meeds of 128 mph i n t h e nor thern s e c t o r and 113 mph i n t h e southern s e c t o r a t 5000 f t , By 1600 h, g a l e fo rce winds extended f o r 2 0 mi le s no r theas t of t h e c e n t r e and f o r 140 mi le s southwest. When t h e storm reached wi th in 100 mi le s of Grand Cayman I s l and , however, t h e r a t e of forward movement decreased sharply, and l a t e on t h e 29th and e a r l y on t h e 30th October, H a t t i e began t o move slowly towards t h e Yucatan Penin- su la . At 0100 h, 30 October, g a l e f o r c e winds extended 200 m i l e s t o t h e nor theas t and 1.40 mi les t o t h e southwest of t h e storm cent re , but winds a t both Grand Cayman and Swan I s l ands remained below hurr icane f o r c e as Ha t t i e passed between them. I n t h e e a r l y hours of 30 October, H a t t i e entered i t s t h i r d phase, moving westward a t t h e rapid r a t e of 12-15 mph, and in t ens i fy ing , with c e n t r a l pressure f a l l i n g t o 27.82 i n (942 mb) a t 04CO h. Advisory 11, i s sued a t t h i s t ime, was t h e f i r s t t o warn of high winds and t i d e s along t h e e a s t coas t of t h e Yucatan Peninsula. Advisory 12, a t 1 0 0 h, 30 October, est imated s t o m t i d e s at 15 f e e t above normal where t h e cen t re reached t h e coas t , roba ably between Bel ise and Chetmal , Quintana Roo. Zinimum pressure was now down t o 27.29 i n (924 mb); ga le s extended 230 mi les t o t h e i\TE and 140 mi le s t o t h e Sld. An i n t e r - mediate b u l l e t i n from M i a m i s t a t e d t h a t (9During t h e forenoon Swan I s l and has been experiencing winds of 50 t o 60 mph, with gus t s of 60 and 70 mph. Waves 20 t o 25 f e e t high have been l a sh ing t h e i s l and . About eleven and one h a l f inches of r a i n f e l l a t Grand Cayman I s l and dur ing t h e 24 hours ending a t 7 a.m. ( i .eo 0600 h ) with 7.80 inches during t h e six hours between 1 and 7 a.m. (000-0600 h, 30 ~ c t o b e r ) ; f , An extreme miniman pressure of 920 mb was ca lcu la t ed f o r Hurricane H a t t i e a t 1600 h t h e same day ( ~ u n n and o thers , 1962, 116)e A s t h e storm moved landwards during the af ternoon and evening of 30 October, it became c l e a r t h a t t h e cent re would c ross t h e coas t nearer t o Bel ize than Chetumal, and would cause g rea t des t ruc t ion . Ninds near t h e cen t re were est imated a t 150 mph, gus t ing t o 2CG mph, accompanied by high t i d e s , t o r r e n t i a l r a i n s , and g a l e fo rce winds, extending a t 2200 h f o r 230 mi le s i n t h e NE semi-circle, and over a l l of t h e Gulf of Honduras t o t h e south-west, A t 22CO h, 30 October, H a t t i e was loca ted a t 170801~, 86.69;T, 100 mi le s EilE of Belize. A t 0100 h, 31 October, it was 75 mi le s EiE cf Belize. A t 03CO h, 31 October, H a t t i e w a s wi th in 30 mi le s of Belize, a t 17.4?N9 87.8%. Figure 2 shows t h e t r a c k of t h e hurr icane based on a i r c r a f t penet ra t ion and radar f i x e s UD t o t h i s time. Advisory 15 from Miami s t a t e d : VfThe a rea . f rom Belize t o Chetumal w i l l have hurr icane fo rce winds a l l morning and t i d e s w i l l be 1 0 t o 15 f e e t above normal with s a l t water f looding t h e low a r e a s f o r many mi les in land. T o r r e n t i a l r a i n s w i l l a l s o add t o t h e f looding. Highest winds a r e est imated a t 150 mph near t h e c e n t r e and g a l e s extend from t h e c0as.t t o 200 mi le s e a s t of t h e cent re . The rnost extreme condit ions, 150 mph winds and 1 5 f o o t t i d e s with huge waves, w i l l occur a t B e l i ~ e i n t h e next few hours and a l l precautions f o r t h e p ro tec t ion of l i f e and proper ty should be continued .If Even before t h i s Advisory w a s i ssued, B e l i ~ e r a d i o had ceased t o funct ion ( a t 03CO h, 31 ~ c t o b e r ) and t h e nor thern b a r r i e r and a t o l l r e e f s were experiencing hurr icane condit ions. Hurricane H a t t i e i n B r i t i s h Honduras Waters The t r a c k followed by H a t t i e ac ross t h e c o a s t a l a rea of B r i t i s h Honduras can be p l o t t e d from a v a r i e t y of sources. These inc lude ( a ) a few rada r pos i t ions , given i n Figure 2; (b) l o c a l barometric records; ( c ) eyewitness accounts of wind, weather and sea condit ions; (d) physiographic e f f e c t s on r e e f s and cays; and ( e ) vegeta t ion e f f e c t s , c h i e f l y d i r e c t i o n of f a l l of coconut palms, Eyewitness accounts i n t h e reef a r e a a r e few in number f o r s e v e r a l reasons. The hur r i cane passed dur ing t h e n igh t and e a r l y morning, and t h i s , t o g e t h e r with t h e unusual ly severe condi t ions , impeded observat ion. The t o t a l populat ion of t h e cays i s a t any time small; many moved t o t h e mainland before t h e hurr icane s t ruck ; many who remained were drowned, and a high proport ion of t hose who survived have s ince moved t o t h e mainland and cannot be e a s i l y t r a c e d . Appeals f o r information from persons on t h e cays a t t h e t ime of t h e storm, made over t h e B r i t i s h Honduras Broadcasting Serv ice Radio, met with no response. The most i m ~ o r t a n t sources of information a r e t h e l ighthouse keepers , and a l s o t h e Master of t h e m.v. Tact ic ian , then i n B e l i t e harbour. Information from t h e s e sources i s c o l l e c t e d here ; d a t a derived from study of ~ h y s i o g r a p h i c and vegeta t ion change a r e not con- s ide red here , and have not been djrectly used t o recons t ruc t hurr icane events . Half Moon Cay, Lighthouse Reef Half Moon Cay l i e s 60 mi l e s due e a s t of Belilse, and n i t h Sandbore Cay a t t h e no r th end of t h e same ree f , was t h e f i r s t t o experience Hurricane Ha t t i e . M r . Austin Garbutt , l i gh thouse keeper, and Nr. George Young, r e s iden t on t h e cay s ince 1928, s t a t e t h a t t h e f i r s t s ign of t h e storm came dur ing t h e a f te rnoon of Sunday, 29 October. Heavy swel l s from t h e e a s t r e f r a c t e d i n t o t h e southeas t bay and washed over t h e main seaward sand r idge , 9-10 f e e t high, from about 1530 h. This heavy swe l l continued u n t i l dawn on 30 October, and was followed by calmer seas. It i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o note t h a t t h i s wave a c t i o n i s comparable t o t h a t experi- enced a t t h e he ight of Hurricane Abby (1960) and Hurricane Anna (1961)~ and M r . Young, who had seen many hur r i canes before , inc luding those of 1931 and 1945, was of t h e oninion on t h e morning of 30 October t h a t t h e storm had passed. A t 1530 h, when t h e swe l l began t o break, Hurricane H a t t i e was j u s t beginning t o t u r n t o t h e west, and t h e c e n t r e was loca ted some 400 mi l e s e a s t of Half Moon Cay. During t h e morning of 30 October, t h e wind was no r the r ly , f o r c e 2-3, f reshening i n t h ? a f te rnoon and s h i f t i n g t o wes ter ly about 1500 h. Force 5 winds continued from about l5CO t o 2300 h, when they began t o draw t o t h e southwest and f reshen f u r t h e r . Heavy seas began t o overtop t h e seawardsnd r idge continuously from about 22C0 h. The anero id baro- meter was f a l l i n g r a p i d l y a t t h i s time. By OlCO h, 31 October, t h e wind was souther ly , blowing with hurr icane force , and t h e anero id reached i t s lowest l e v e l of 27.85 i n 9 where it remained s teady f o r 2-3 hours. Between 0100 and 02C0 h t h e wind reached i t s maximum force , blowing from t h e south and southwest, and knocking many coconut t r e e s down. South and southwester ly winds continued t o blow hard u n t i l 0 4 0 - 0 5 0 h, and waves continued t o wash a c r o s s t h e c,ay u n t i l about 0 4 0 h. By O9OO h, 31 October, t h e storm was c l e a r l y over, and t h e winds had f a l l e n t o f o r c e 4 o r 5. Sandbore Cay, Lighthouse Reef M r . Roy Young, Lighthouse keeper, survived t h e storm i n a concrete h u r r i c a n e ' s h e l t e r on t h e cay, d e s p i t e extreme devas t a t ion which demolished t h e l ighthouse and a l l o t h e r bui ld ings and cu t t h e cay i n t o t h r e e p a r t s . As a t Half Noon Cay, heavy swel l s were experienced on 29 October, bu t t h e leading edge of t h e storm i t s e l f d i d no t anproach t h e cay u n t i l t h e a f t e r - noon of 30 October. A t 1300 h, 30 October, winds from t h e northwest d id not exceed f o r c e 3-4. Heavy wave a c t i v i t y i n advance of t h e storm had begun by 1430 h, and r e f r a c t e d waves broke heavi ly on both no r th and south shores. The concre te walk, 75 yards long, connecting cay and l i g h t - house, b u i l t i n 1945, was very soon completely destroyed. A t 1530 h M r . Young was i n wi re l e s s communication wi th Half Moon Cay f o r t h e l a s t time. By 1600 h it was decided t o move i n t o t h e concre te hurr icane s h e l t e r , as t h e wind was s t i l l r i s i n g . By t h i s t ime t h e cay su r face was covered wi th 1; f e e t of water ; an hour l a t e r t h i s had increased t o 2-2& f e e t , and kerosene drums were beginning t o f l o a t away, The wind was s t i l l north- wester ly. By 1930 h, t h e wind was Tovery highs', and t h e barometer was f a l l i n g r ap id ly , A t 2230 h, t h e sea had r i s e n s o much t h a t t h e f l o o r of t h e hurr icane s h e l t e r , a ~ p r o x i m a t e l y 8 f e e t above t h e sea, was flooded t o a depth of one foot . A t midnight t h e wind dropped suddenly and t h e aneroid barometer reached i t s minimum of 27.4 inches. It remained a t t h i s l e v e l u n t i l 0130 h, 31 October, when it began t o r i s e . Hurricane f o r c e winds re turned f r o m t h e south a t 0100 h, and a t t h e same time t h e water l e v e l began t o f a l l . M r . Young considered t h a t t h e sou the r ly winds f o l - lowing t h e calm were stmuch harder11 than t h e no r thwes te r l i e s meced ing it. From about 0200 h, howeve,-, t h e wind began t o f a l l , and drew round t o t h e eas t . By dawn, 0700 h, t h e wind had f a l l e n t o fo rce 7, no r theas t e r ly , with much r a i n . A l l houses on t h e cay disanpeared except t h e s i n g l e concrete h u r r i - cane s h e l t e r , The l ighthouse was demolished and a l l f i s h i n g boa t s d i s - anoeared. During t h e hurr icane t h e s h e l t e r held f o u r a d u l t s and f i v e ch i ldren , who would otherwise have l o s t t h e i r l i v e s ; a f te rwards t h e y were joined by n ine o the r s from Northern Cay, and a l l managed t o surv ive u n t i l taken o f f by a passing s h i p six days l a t e r . I~Jauger Cay, Turnef f e - M r . Thomas Young, f o m e r l y keeper of t h e Mauger Cay l i g h t , s t a t e s t h a t dur ing t h e evening of 3 0 October, t h e wind was from t h e north, and gradual ly increas ing . A t midnight t h e i n h a b i t a n t s of t h e cay went t o t h e t o p of t h e l ighthouse and s ~ e n t h e r e s t of t h e n i g h t t he re . By t h i s t ime t h e wind was a l r e a d y blowing very hard, and continued t o increase , s t i l l from t h e north, u n t i l 04CO h, 31 October, when it veered round t o t h e southeas t . From O4CO t o 0600 h t h e wind blew with i t s g r e a t e s t fo rce , and a l l t h e houses on t h e cay were destroyed a t t h i s time. Af t e r 0600 h, t h e wind began t o moderate, and continued t o do so throughout t h e morning. There i s no p r e c i s e information on t h e he igh t of t h e sea. M r . Young s t a t e s t h a t it began r i s i n g l a t e on 30 October, and a t dawn on 31 October covered t h e cay t o a d e ~ t h of 5-6 f e e t . Cay Bokel, Turneffe Only sDarse information i s a v a i l a b l e from Cay Bokel, where six p e o ~ l e d ied . A t l7CO h, 30 October, t h e wind was a l r eady s t rong, and accom~anied by heavy ra in . A t 2100 h, t h e wind had i n t e n s i f i e d t o hurr icane fo rce , from t h e no r theas t , and houses were co l laps ing . A t midnight, 30-31 October, t h e wind abated suddenly, and t h e r e was a l u l l of 10 minutes, before t h e wind returned from t h e southeas t , Heavy seas covered t h e i s l a n d and washed people away. A t 0500 h on 31 October t h e wind began t o f a l l , and t h e sea surge t o abate . h his i n f o m a t i o n i s given i n w r i t i n g i n a repor t a t t h e Chief Sec re ta ry t s Off ice i n Belize, but I have not been a b l e t o d iscover i t s source. The t imes given a r e c l e a r l y incompatible with information from o the r cays; t h e occurrence of a b r i e f l u l l so f a r south i s i n t e r e s t i n g . D i s c r e ~ a n c i e s a r e c l e a r l y t h e r e s u l t of t h e very severe damage caused by t h e storm; t h e i s l a n d completely disappeared and even t h e l ighthouse overturned. ) Cay Caulker, B a r r i e r Reef Lagoon Cay Caulker l i e s t o t h e nor th of t h e hurr icane t r ack , some 20 mi le s nor theas t of Belize. The p o l i c e cons tables on t h e cay made t h e fol lowing repor t . The wind began t o f reshen a t 1 6 ~ 0 h, 30 October, blowing from t h e northwest. A t l7CO h heavy waves were breaking on t h e beach, and t h e wind was increas ing . A t 2300 h, t h e wind changed from northwest t o north- e a s t , and was estimated t o be gus t ing from 175-200 moh. A t midnight, l a r g e swel ls were r o l l i n g over t h e cay near Cay Caulker Village. The schoolhouse col lansed under t h e s t r e s s of wave a c t i o n a t 0300 h, 31 October, with t h e l o s s of 1 4 l i v e s . idiost of t h e damage was s a i d t o be caused by f i v e l a r g e d i s t i n c t waves. The h ighes t water mark w a s 15 f e e t above sea l e v e l , and the sea d id not recede u n t i l 0900 h. Bel ize City Advisory 11 from t h e Miami Weather Bureau, t h e f i r s t t o warn of hurr icane condi t ions on t h e Yucatan coas t , w a s received i n Belize a t 07CG h, 30 October. A s a r e s u l t , a t 0800 h, Government ordered t h e h o i s t i n g of t h e warning s i g n a l ifRedX" throughout B r i t i s h Honduras, and of "Red 11" i n Corozal D i s t r i c t , where t h e storm was expected t o s t r i k e . A t 1100 h, ffRed IIff idas ordered throughout t h e country. A number of ins t rumenta l records a r e a v a i l a b l e from Bel ize City ( f igu re 4 ) , The most r e l i a b l e i s probably t h a t from t h e I~ieteorological Service, Stanley Fie ld , 14 mi les west of Belize, equipped with a baro- graph and Dines anemometer; c o ~ i e s of t h e s e records have been published by Dunn and o t h e r s (1962, 116-117). The o f f i c i a l Beliae barograph was inadequate t o record t h e lowest p res su res experienced dur ing Hurricane Ha t t i e ; t h e p a r t i a l t r a c e i n Figure 4 has been supplied by Colonel Fairweather, B.H.V.G. I am a l s o g r a t e f u l t o Colonel H.P. Charnock Wilson f o r t h e use of h i s ~ r i v a t e barograph t r a c e , Figure 4, t h e only ccmplete record f o r Belize City i t s e l f . F i n a l l y , t h e Pol ice Log Book of Hurricane H a t t i e conta ins regular readings of t h e Po l i ce S t a t i o n mercury barometer, and readings from N r . K.S. Porcher ts aneroid, a l s o a t t h e Pol ice S ta t ion . Pressure i n Belize f e l l slowly but s t e a d i l y from 1200 h (29.8 i n ) t o 22CO h (29.6 i n ) on 30 Dctober, and then began t o f a l l more rapid ly , A t midnight, 30-31 October, with pressure a t t h e Pol ice S t a t i o n 29.53 i n , t h e wind increased t o g a l e force , from t h e north-north-west, and r a i n began t o f a l l . Wind speeds a t S tanley F ie ld a t t h i s t ime varied from 15-30 mph, fo rce 5-6. A t 0100 h, 31 October, t h e Po l i ce barometer f e l l t o 29.4 i n . According t o t h e Pol ice Log Book winds had a l r eady reached hurr icane fo rce , but t h e Stanley F ie ld anemometer a t t h i s t ime recorded no g u s t s i n excess of f o r c e 8, 47 mph. E l e c t r i c power f a i l e d i n Belize a t about % i s time, bu t r ad io t ransmission continued using emergency genera- t o r s . A t 0200 h, t h e Po l i ce Log recorded winds of fVprobab1y;V 100 mph, ( c f . S tanley Fie ld winds ranging from 20-60 mph), s t i l l from t h e NXW; pressure had f a l l e n t o 29.2 i n . A t 0300 h, t h e emergency genera tors f a i l e d and BHBS ceased transmission. By 0400 h, t h e Pol ice barometer read 28,68 i n , and t h e wind was repor ted a s r i s i n g s t e a d i l y , and gus t ing probably t o 150-200 mph. Buildings i n Belize were beginning t o d i s i n t e g r a t e , and roofs were being t o r n o f f , Stanley F i e l d a t this time recorded winds of 30-80 mph. A t 0500 h, t h e lowest reading was made on t h e Pol ice baro- meter, 28.35 i n . The Charnock Wilson barograph read 28.5 i n , a t 05CO h, and 28.45 i n a t 06CO h, High winds and h?avy r a i n continued, A t S tanley Fie ld t h e wind continued t o increase , gus t ing t o 115 rnph when t h e record ceased s h o r t l y a f t e r 0500 h ( ~ i ~ u r e 5 ) . Between 0400 and 05CO h, the wind d i r e c t i o n changed from NNW t o N, and then slowly began t o draw t o t h e eas t . Eas te r ly winds were continuous from about 0700 h. A t 06CO h, pressure began t o r i s e ranid ly , shown i n Bel ize by t h e Po l i ce and Charnock Wilson barographs, and by t h e Stanley F ie ld barograph, Kinimurn pressure a s t h e hurr icane c e n t r e passed t o t h e southeast of Bel ize was probably about 28.4 i n , i n t h e City and 28.7 i n a t t h e a i r - f i e l d 1 4 mi les t o t h e west. According t o Dunn and o the r s (1962, 116) t h e pressure gradient between t h e a i r f i e l d and t h e hurr icane eye 20 mi les southeas t of Belize was some 45-50 mb, 1.5 i n , A t 0600 h a l s o , t h e wind reached i t s g r e a t e s t i n t e n s i t y . No ins t rumenta l records a r e ava i l ab le , but according t o Dunn and o the r s (1962, 117) W e l i a b l e estimates11 put t h e wind speed a t 140-160 mph, p e r h a ~ s gus t ing in excess of 200 mph. Between 0700 and 0800 h t h e wind f e l l considerably t o about 70 mph, and a f t e r 0900 h decl ined f u r t h e r t o 30-60 mph ( s t a n l e y ~ i e l d ) . A s t h e wind drew t o t h e e a s t and reached i t s maximum f o r c e a t about 06CO h, t h e sea- level began t o r i s e . A t 0600 h t h e r e was 1 f o o t of water i n t h e Pol ice S t a t i o n yard; by 08CO h t h e depth had increased t o 10-12 f e e t . The whole c i t y was inundated, t h e s t r e e t s f i l l e d wi th t h i c k mud, and mud, sand and weed thrown high above t h e extreme high surge l e v e l by t h e considerable wave a c t i o n which s t i l l continued. By 1030 h t h e wind had f a l l e n i n B e l i ~ e t o " l i g h t t o moderatelo, t h e barometer a t t h e Pol ice S t a t i o n had r i s e n t o 29,5 i n , and t h e water in t h e s t r e e t s had receded t o a depth of only 3 f e e t o A t mid-day, however, t h e r e was s t i l l 2-3 f e e t of water i n many s t r e e t s , and neople were paddling about i n doreys (dugout canoes). F i r s t r ad io contac t with t h e outs ide world was made a t l T C C , h on t h e day of the hurr icane, and f i r s t a s s i s t a n c e a r r i v e d with a scheduled f l i g h t of TACA a i r l i n e s on t h e e a r l y morning of 1 November. B a r r i e r Reef Lagoon -- The most complete record of changing condit ions during Hurricane H a t t i e comes from m.v. Tact ic ian , a new Harrison Line v e s s e l on i t s f i r s t voyage t o Belize. The fol lowing account i s based on observat ions made b y . t h e Master, Captain W.S. Eustace, and very kindly placed a t my dis - posal . On 29 October, t h e Tact ic ian was a t Stann creek. The barometer was s teady a t 29.8 in; and t h e wind was northwesterly, f o r c e 3. I n t h e even- i n g t h e s h i p returned t o Belize. On t h e following day, 30 October, a t 1000 h, heavy seas were reported breaking on t h e ou te r r ee f s , and it was decided t o move from Bel ize k r b 0 u . r t o a poin t south of Grennel's Cay ( ~ r i a n ~ l e s ) . The s h i p anchored i n 9-11 fathoms water, 5 mi le s south of Grennelqs Cay, a t 1600 h, The barometer was s t i l l s teady a t 29,7 i n ; t h e wind had increased t o f o r c e 5. The sky was overcast , with alto-nimbus, and t h e r e were l i g h t showers. A t 2C00 h t h e barometer read 29.65 i n , tem- pe ra tu re 7 5 O ~ , sky heav i ly overcast , with moderate showers. A t midnight, 30-31 October, t h e wind was west-north-west, and squal ly ; barometer 29,45 i n . The showers continued. I n t h e e a r l y hours of 31 October t h e wind increased, reaching fo rce 1 0 by 02CO h, but s t i l l WNW. The sky was overcast , with f requent showers, and a s h o r t sea was r i s i n g . Caotain Eustace could s t i l l see t h e l i g h t s of Belize, English Cay and Colson Point a t t h i s time. A t 0215 h, t h e winds reached hurr icane f o r c e and t h e s h i p began t o drag he r anchors. Observation of t h e l i g h t s showed d r i f t of 2 mi le s i n 25 minutes, beam on t o t h e wind and r i s i n g sea, Captain Eustace no tes t h a t 1tBeing i n t h e l e e of t h e land it i s r a t h e r su rp r i s ing t h a t t h e l a t t e r was so high and rough, a s i f t h e wind was blowing down, r a t h e r than horizontally.tl He was unable t o b r i n g t h e s h i p up i n t o t h e wind, and continued t o go a s t e r n on t h e engines. By 03CO h, Captain Eustace found t h a t %he wind was s t ronger t h a n any I have ever experienced i n my l i fe .r t It continued from t h e W; t h e a i r was f u l l of sea, spray and r a i n ; and t h e barometer, a t 28,5 i n , was f a l l i n g rapid ly . The Tact ic ian had developed a l i s t of 20' with t h e wind, and t h e s t e e p shor t sea pushed h e r another 15-20?. A t 0400 h, t h e wind was est imated a t 150 knots (175 mph), bJNld. The barometer continued t o f a l l s teeply , and had reached 27.67 i n . R a i n f a l l was now heavy. A t 05CO h t h e barcmeter read 27.30 i n , and a t 0515 h 27.40 i n . The wind dropped suddenly a t t h i s t ime t o a moderate breeze. During t h e l u l l , which l a s t e d three-quar ters of a n hour, a Wery s i c k l y ~ f moon and a few s t a r s could be seen, p a r t l y obscured by scud from t h e ESE, A confused sea and swel l came predominantly from t h e SE, gradu- a l l y inc reas ing u n t i l a t 0600 h t h e wind s e t t l e d i n again from t h e SE, f o r c e 5-6. The barometer, now reading 27.6 i n , continued t o r i s e , By 0615 h, with t h e barometer 27,72 i n , t h e wind was back a t hurr icane force , and t h e sea rose l ikewise. This t ime it seemed t o have more fo rce than before t h e l u l l , p a r t l y , Cant, Eustace surmised, because of deeper water over t h e r e e f s as a r e s u l t of t h e storm surge, Wind, spray and heavy r a i n penet ra ted everywhere. The s h i p again swung beam on and heeled over; and again she was forced t o go a s t e r n on t h e engines, dragging t h e anchors, A t 0700 h t h e barometer stood a t 28.10 i n . and t h e wind, from t h e ESE, was gus t ing t o over 170 mph. Rain came i n squa l l s , bu t t h e heavy cloud cover was not iceably higher. By 0900 h t h e wind had eased t o f o r c e 12, and t h e s h i p began t o respond a t l a s t t o t h e engines. The barometer had r i s e n t o 29,33 i n ; v i s i b i l i t y was 3 miles . A t mid-day, with wind f o r c e 9, t h e s t eep r i s e of t h e barometer was checked a t 29.63 i n . A cay could be seen a t a d i s t ance of 4$ miles , probably one of t h e Colson Cays. Cloud was forming and l i f t i n g . A t 1300 h t h e Tact ic ian re turned t o Bel ize with a n e a s t e r l y ga le blowing. lrThe sea was a milky c o l o u r ~ ~ , noted Capt . Eustace, l l l i t t e r e d with palm t r e e s and many dead f i s h . On reaching t h e Belize anchorage depths about 4 f e e t more than usual were notedlt (as a r e s u l t of t h e storm surge) , The Tac t i c i an was c l e a r l y i n t h e d i r e c t pa th of t h e hurr icane a s it crossed t h e b a r r i e r reef lagoon. The lowest p re s su res recorded were 931.5 mb (27.51 i n ) , cor rec ted t o 27,hO i n , on t h e inercur ia l barometer, and 27030 i n , on t h e anero id , both a t 0500 h. The ins t ruments were checked a few days l a t e r a t Houston, USA, and found t o be co r rec t . Tobacco and South Water Cays, B a r r i e r Reef Br ief accounts a r e a v a i l a b l e from i n h a b i t a n t s of t h e s e i s l a n d s , which a r e only 5$ mi l e s a p a r t . Both l i e w e l l t o t h e south of t h e h u r r i - cane t r a c k , A t Tobacco Cay, h igh winds a r e s a i d t o have begun dur ing t h e evening of 30 October, mainly southwestem. I n t h e e a r l y hours of 31 October t h e wind moved t o t h e south and increased i n violence; coconut t r e e s began t o f a l l a t about 0800 h. The sea l e v e l d i d not r i s e , bu t h igh waves washed over t h e margins of t h e cay, e s p e c i a l l y on t h e south s ide. A t South Water Cay M r . J o e Garbutt s t a t e s t h a t high winds began about 1900 h, 30 October, from t h e northwest. About 0100 h, 31 October, t h e winds moved t o t h e southwest and continued i n t h i s q u a r t e r till 0500 h. From then u n t i l 1100 h sou the r ly winds blew with g r e a t violence; by mid- day t h e wind was aba t ing . The cay was not inundated, but high waves washed over t h e south and southwest shores. Stann Creek and Nearby Area The D i s t r i c t Commissioner, Stann Creek, which su f fe red very heavy damage, r e p o r t s as fol lows. A t midnight on 30-31 October, heavy r a i n was f a l l i n g , and t h e wind was inc reas ing . By 02CO h, 31 October, winds had reached ga le fo rce , blowing from t h e west, Between 0330 and 0430 h t h e wind gradual ly s h i f t e d from west t o south, cont inuing t o blow a t hu r r i cane fo rce , and gradual ly moving t o t h e southeas t . Estimated windspeeds reached 150 mnh, wi th g u s t s t o 200 mph. A t 0500 h t h e sea surge began, reaching i t s maximum height a t O9CO h. Low-lying a r e a s i n Stann Creek Town c a r r i e d 10-12 f e e t of water , and near t h e Po l i ce S t a t i o n and i n Front S t r e e t t h e water was 4-5 f e e t dee?. Between 0900 and lCOC h t h e wind began t o aba te , t h e g u s t s became weaker and more sporadic, and t h e water began t o r-ecede, By l l C O h it w a s poss ib l e t o walk through t h e s t r e e t s . The storm c e n t r e apwears t o have passed d i r e c t l y over K u l l i n s River , 10 mi l e s nor th of Stann creek, where a l l bu t t h r e e houses out of 3CO were destroyed. Here t h e storm surge i s s a i d t o have r i s e n a s high a s 20 f e e t above sea l e v e l . Pielinda Fores t S t a t i o n i s s i t u a t e d 5 mi l e s i n l a n d from Stann Creek Town, i n t h e Stann Creek Valley; M r , R, Langley g ives t h e fol lowing account of condi t ions , The wind was blowing t o a storm by midnight on 30-31 October. By 0200 h, 31 October, t h e wind was tqstrongrf and wester ly. Hurricane f o r c e winds blew frcm t h e west u n t i l 0715, when t h e wind dropped suddenly and t h e r e w a s a d i s t i n c t l u l l u n t i l 0800 h. Immediately a f t e r t h e l u l l t h e wind re turned with f u l l hu r r i cane fo rce , but blowing from t h e e a s t , and a l i t t l e from t h e southeas t . By 1100 h it had abated somewhat, and by mid-day approximated only t o a ifvery heavy stormif. It i s s i g n i f i c a n t t o no te t h a t t h e three-quar te r hour l u l l w a s no t experienced a t Stann Creek, only 5 mi l e s away o Nango Creek M r . I . A . Fadden, Belize E s t a t e and Produce Company Manager a t Mango Creek, a coas ta l i n l e t near Placencia, 28 mi les south of Stann Creek, made barometer readings dur ing t h e storm ( ~ i g u r e 4 ) , A t midnight, 30-31 October, pressure stood a t 29.75 i n ; it f e l l s t e a d i l y throughout t h e e a r l y hours of 31 October, reaching a minimum of 29.01 i n a t 0930 h. The f i r s t heavy gus t s of wind came a t 0430-0500 h from t h e south-south-west, and then increased t o an estimated 100 m ~ h by 0730 h. A t 0930 h t h e wind s h i f t e d suddenly t o t h e south, and t h e h ighes t winds of t h e whole hurr icane were experienced a t about 1000 h. A t 1110 h, t h e wind had s h i f t e d t o south-south-east. Af ter 0930 h t h e barometer rose very rapid ly , and by 1300 h was almost back t o t h e pre-storm leve l . Punta Gorda Punta Gorda i s s i t u a t e d on t h e coast of t h e Gulf of Honduras, near t h e southern borders of B r i t i s h Honduras. The Acting D i s t r i c t Commissioner made t h i s repor t : r l A t about 3.00 a.m. ( 0 3 ~ h, 31 ~ c t o b e r ) a s t rong wind of approximately 35 mph began blowing i n Punta Gorda. The v e l o c i t y of t h e wind increased t o such an extent t h a t a t day-break, about 6.0 a.m., t h e people were informed t o vacate t h e i r homes t o make use of t h e approved s h e l t e r s . By 7.00 a.m. t h e v e l o c i t y of t h e wind had increased t o 45-50 mph and became s t ronger s t i l l i n t h e course of t h e day, reaching approxi- mately 75-80 mph between 12 and 2.W p.m. when it began t o subside gradually. By 7.00 p.m. t h e wind had f i n a l l y calmed down.ff Other Areas Two in land records may be added t o complete t h e p ic tu re of Hurricarie H a t t i e f s Dassage across t h e country. A t Cayo, 60 mi les WSW from Belize, winds iva l i t t l e above hurricane fo rce f f blew from 1200 t o 1 5 G O h on 31 October. VtShortly af terwardsfl t h e Mopan and Macal Rivers rose i n p laces by over 40 f e e t , a response t o t o r r e n t i a l r a i n s i n t h e h i l l y country t o t h e south. I n E l Cayo town i t s e l f t h e r i v e r rose t o wi th in 2-3 f e e t of t h e roadway on t h e Hawkesworth Bridge, 52 f e e t above t h e streambed. Similar f loods occurred a t seve ra l p laces along t h e northern edge of t h e kaya Iviountains: a t Barton Creek t h e road was slbmerged 8 f e e t deep and a t Roaring Creek it ca r r i ed 12 ft. water. This f looding l a s t e d one day: i n some v i l l a g e s a second f lood occurred a day o r two l a t e r . Near t h e sea, with impeded drainage, excess runnoff remained on t h e land f o r a consider- a b l e time. There a r e no es t imates of t h e amount of r a i n f a l l dur ing t h e storm, but t h e 11.5 in . i n 24 hours a t Grand Cayman I s l and gives some ind ica t ion of magnitude. Winds were s u f f i c i e n t t o f e l l t r e e s along t h e whole of t h e Belize-Cayo road, a t l e a s t a s f a r a s Benque Viejo, though t h e g r e a t e s t numbers of f a l l e n t r e e s a r e seen between Belize and Roaring Creek and ~ o i n t s outh, Tree - fa l l was moderate i n t h e Mountain Pine Ridge area . Direct ion of f a l l was genera l ly e a s t t o north. Catastrophic f o r e s t des t ruc t ion occurred i n t h e Hays Mountains, e s ~ e c i a l l y i n t h e Cockscomb Basin, and po in t s southwest t o Quartz ilidge, but any d e t a i l e d repor t on these i s ou t s ide t h e scope of t h i s paper. A t Orange Walk, 42 mi les Wd of Belize, winds of 40-45 mph were experienced between midnight and 0830 h on 31 October. Gusts were e s t i - mated a t 65-70 m ~ h . Changing Wind and Tave Conditions, 2100 h 30 October - 12CO h 31 October The foregoing n a r r a t i v e of hurr icane condi t ions a t loca t ions through- out t h e B r i t i s h Honduras reef a r e a and in land g ives a general , though patchy, p i c t u r e of changing wind and sea condi t ions as Hurricane H a t t i e passedo This information i s summarised i n approximate fashion i n a s e r i e s of c h a r t s a t hourly i n t e r v a l s from 0900 h on 30 October t o 1200 h on 31 October (Figures 6-10). These diagrams a r e derived only from a c t u a l wea- t h e r condit ions, by p l o t t i n g wind d i r e c t i o n a t hourly i n t e r v a l s f o r each repor t ing s t a t i o n , toge the r with o the r r e l evan t information, such a s baro- metr ic records and rada r f i x e s of t h e storm cent re . Wind s t reaml ines were then drawn t o f i t t h e s e observat ions and t h e approximate c e n t r e of t h e storm a t each time. Each hourly cha r t w a s computed without reference t o those immediately before and a f t e r ; hence, i f t h e c h a r t s a r e combined, t h e r e s u l t i n g hurr icane t r a c k (Figure 11) looks somewhat e r r a t i c , though t h i s may w e l l have been t h e case. The outer edge of t h e s t reaml ines d e l i m i t s i n a very aoproximate way t h e limit of hurr icane fo rce winds. Using t h e s e cha r t s , t h e genera l sequence of wind d i r e c t i o n s a t any one place, o ther than those f o r which we have eye-witness accounts, can be determined. For p o i n t s nor th of t h e storm cent re , t h e winds were genera l ly , north- west, north, no r theas t , and e a s t ; and f o r p o i n t s south, genera l ly south- west, south, southeas t and eas t . Storm Surge There i s no p r e c i s e information e i t h e r on waveconditions during t h s hurr icane o r on t h e l i m i t s of t h e storm surge which accompanied it. The storm surge would seem t o have been l e s s severe on t h e out ly ing r e e f s and a t o l l s than on t h e mainland coas t , where a shallow offshore she l f pre- sented optimum condi t ions f o r high surge development. Thus a t Sandbore Cay, Lighthouse Reef, near t h e storm cent re , t h e surge reached i t s g r e a t e s t he ight of about 9 f e e t above normal sea l e v e l a t 2230 h 30 October, 1s hours before t h e passage of t h e cen t re i t s e l f . No apprec iable surge was recorded a t Half Moon Cay, 20 mi les t o the south, Information' f o r Turneffe i s very spa r se indeed: t h e surge a t ?huger Cay reached i t s maxi- mum dur ing t h e e a r l y hours 31 October, with he igh t s of perhaps 5-6 f e e t . There i s no f u r t h e r information on p o i n t s t o t h e south, but most of t h e srnall e a s t e r n cays show s igns of complete inundation. It i s d i f f i c u l t on t h e s e more exposed cays t o separa te t h e e f f e c t s of in t ense wave a c t i o n from those of a t r u e storm surge, On t h e b a r r i e r reef and mainland coast we have r a t h e r more da ta , though t h e accuracy of some r e p o r t s i s quest ionable. The most t rus twor thy record i s t h a t of Belize, where t h e surge began immediately a f t e r t h e passage of t h e storm c e n t r e 15-20 mi les t o t h e south- e a s t . Between 06CO and 0800 h on 31 October water l e v e l rose t o a maxi- mum of 12 f e e t above normal ( the astronomical t i d e s on t h i s coas t r a r e l y exceed one f o o t , and may be disregarded here) ; t h e f a l l i n l e v e l from t h e peak of t h e surge was much slower than t h e r i s e , and a t mid-day sea l e v e l was s t i l l 3-4 f e e t above normal. This i s shown not only by t h e Bel ize records, but a l s o by t h a t of t h e Tac t i c i an a t 1300 h i n Belize harbour. There i s no information on t h e extent of t h e surge along t h e uninhabited mainland coast no r th of Belize, and information from t h e b a r r i e r reef cays i s sparse. Cay Caulker r e p o r t s a high water mark of 15 f e e t , t h e water no t receding u n t i l 0900 h; t h i s probably r e f e r s t o t h e h ighes t water mark of wave ac t ion , and t h e t r u e surge he ight was probably very much lower, On morphologic grounds it was probably l e s s than 6 f e e t , and may only have been 2-3 f e e t , Cay Caulker l i e s 30 mi les nor th of t h e storm t r a c k , A t Ambergris Cay, 40 mi le s north, t h e surge probably d i d not exceed 2-3 f e e t , South of t h e storm t rack , information i s again l imi ted . Stann Creek, 9 mi les south of t h e storm cen t re , has we l l - a t t e s t ed r e p o r t s of a surge beginning a t 0500 h and l a s t i n g till about 1 0 0 h, reaching 10-12 f e e t above normal. The t imes and ex ten t of t h e surge a r e s imi la r t o those a t Belize. However, no surge occurred a t Tobacco or South Water Cay, 20 mi le s south of t h e storm t r a c k , on t h e edge of t h e c o a s t a l she l f . A t Mull ins River, where t h e storm c e n t r e crossed t h e coas t , t h e r e i s a r a t h e r dubious repor t of a maximum surge l e v e l of 20 f e e t ; again, t h i s probably r e f e r s t o t h e maximum height of wave ac t ion . There i s no information on surge l e v e l s on t h e mainland coas t south of Stann Creek. Figure 12 summarises t h i s very sketchy da ta . The f i g u r e s f o r Sandbore and Mauger Cays on t h e a t o l l s a r e not r e a l l y comparable t o those on t h e mainland, s ince open-ocean l e v e l s must have been considerably lower t h a n c o a s t a l f i g u r e s on account of t h e she l f e f f e c t . Much information has accumulated on hurricane-induced surges ( ~ e d f i e l d and PLl ler , 1957; Hubert and Clark, 1955)~ and empir ica l r e l a t i o n s h i p s have been found between height of storm surge, lowest c e n t r a l pressure, and d i s t ance nor th and south of t h e hurr icane t r a c k ( ~ o o v e r , 1957; Conner, Kraft and Harr i s , 1957; Harr i s , 1956, 1957, 1959). Using Conner, Kraft and H a r r i s v s fo r - mulae, with a lowest c e n t r a l pressure of 27.3 i n , t h e maximum surge should have reached a ~ p r o x i m a t e l y 13 f e e t , Hoovervs r e s u l t s g ive r a t h e r h igher f igu res , of over 15 f e e t on t h e b a s i s of Gulf Coasthurricanes, and over 15 f e e t on t h e b a s i s of A t l a n t i c coas t storms. The order of magnitude i s c l e a r , Hoover (1957, 174) a l s o shows t h a t t h e h ighes t surge genera l ly occurs 10-15 mi les t o t h e r i g h t of t h e storm cen t re ( f ac ing t h e d i r e c t i o n of movement) i n Gulf Coast hurr icanes , and 20-30 mi le s t o t h e r i g h t i n t h e case of t h o s e on t h e A t l a n t i c coas t , I n any one storm t h e poin t of maximum surge, and t h e l e v e l of t h e peak surge, w i l l c l e a r l y depend on bottom t o ~ o g r a p h y , shore l ine o r i en ta t ion , angle of approach and o the r f a c t o r s , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e magnitude of t h e storm. It i s reasonable t o suppose t h a t Hurricane H a t t i e f s surge resembled pre- v ious surges. However, t h e angle of approach would tend t o g ive unusual ly high l e v e l s i n t h e lagoon segment between Stann Creek and Belize, so t h a t t h e high repor t from Kul l ins River cannot a l t o g e t h e r be excluded. D i s - regarding t h i s channel l ing of t h e approaching surge, t h e Belize record of 12 f e e t 20 mi les no r th of t h e storm cen t re may have approached c lose t o t h e maximum surge l e v e l ; up t o 15 f e e t may have occurred i n t h e Sibun River a rea . South of l l u l l in s River one would have expected a rapid f a l - l i n g o f f i n maximum leve l . The channel l ing e f f e c t of ang le of approach on t h e shallow c o a s t a l shelf may have increased t h e ord inary surge by up t o 4-5 f ee t a t Stann Creek. The very rough curve i n Figure 12 b gives an indicat ion of t h e surge-spread on t h e mainland coast . It must be s t ressed t h a t a s a r e su l t of t he advance of t h e surge over t he 10-20 mile wide coas ta l she l f , t h e mainland coast surge was undoubtedly both higher and of greater l a t e r a l extent than on t h e b a r r i e r reef or on t he a t o l l s . It might be noted t h a t t h e hurricane surge during Hatt ie 'was higher than most recent Gulf of Mexico hurricane surges (Dunn and IvIiller, 1960, 2l9), and was s imilar t o t he open coas t l ine l eve l s during Hurricane Carla of 1961 (Dunn and others, 1962, 113). There a r e few records of t he flforerunners* o r gradual r i s e of sea- l e v e l over a period of up t o several days preceding t he storm, though a s l i g h t r i s e i n sea l e v e l accompanied t h e heavy swells which struck t h e outer a t o l l s during t he two preceding days. The f i r s t d i s t i n c t sea- l e v e l r i s e was generally noted only a few hours before t he hurricane, i . e , during 30 October. I'Jave Action Superimposed on t h e general r i s e i n sea-level, and even more d i f f i - c u l t t o consider, i s t he e f fec t of wave action. 0bserva;tional data on waves during Hurricane Hatt ie a r e completely lacking, except f o r t h e Cay Caulker report t h a t most of t he damage was caused by f i v e d i s t i n c t waves. Since hurricane waves a r e wind-generated, it i s reasonable t o suppose t h a t highest waves w i l l be produced i n t he northern (right-hand) sector of t h e storm, where winds a r e moving i n t h e same d i rec t ion a s the storm - -. i t s e l f (pore, 1957). wlnd speed may be estimated a t 150 mph; these high winds acted i n an E-W direct ion, toward t he Br i t i sh Honduras coast, from t h e time when t h e storm began t o t u rn westwards on 29-30 October, 350 nau t ica l miles eas t of Belize. Bnpir ical t ab l e s r e l a t i ng wave charac- t e r i s t i c s , f e tch and wind speed (e .go Bretschneider, 1952) ind ica te t h a t with wind speeds and a fe tch of t h i s magnitude, waves w i l l be over 60 f e e t i n height, with periods of more than 16 seconds. Normal wave period observed on t h e outer ree fs var ies from 5 t o 7 seconds. Alternatively, Clineqs (1926) rough einpirical method (wind speed divided by 2,O5 gives wave height) gives even greater heights; Japanese e x ~ e r i e n c e i n t h e Pac i f ic would suggest heights of more than 40 f e e t (Dunn and Miller , 1960, 1 0 1 ) ~ These a r e a l l open-ocean f igures , and waves of t h i s magnitude have occasionally been observed during hurricanes. However, it i s questionable whether such waves were experienced i n t h e Br i t i sh Honduras reef area. I f such waves were generated, and formed recognisable wave t r a i n s , they were probably confined t o the open sea north and ea s t of Lighthouse Reef; they may have helped i n t he dest ruct ion of t he Sandbore Cay Lighthouse, Between t he a t o l l s and i n t he b a r r i e r reef lagoon, however, l o c a l bottom r e l i e f , shallow water, and varying wind d i rec t ion may a l l have l imi ted wave development. South of t he storm centre, while many accounts speak of even more violent winds immediat* a f t e r t h e cen t ra l calm, waves were unlikely t o have been so great , because of r e s t r i c t ed f e t ch a s t h e winds blew coun- t e r t o t he d i rec t ion of hurricane movement. Even SO, considerable damage was caused near deen-water areas , a s a t Cay Bokel. A s w i l l b e apparent i n succeeding chapters , damage due t o waves, whi le cons iderable , ha rd ly seems t o i n d i c a t e t h e t r u l y monstrous waves suggested by wind speeds, ~ e c o ~ n i s a b l e wave t r a i n s were probably no t w e l l developed n e a r t h e storm c e n t r e i t s e l f . Windspeeds were so high t h a t t h e a i r -water i n t e r f a c e became i n d i s t i n c t : s e v e r a l accounts speak of t h e a i r being f u l l o f spray , and of salt water t ra in ing9 i n through open roofs . The sea su r f ace was probably h i g h l y confused, wi th s h o r t , very s t eep , b u t on ly moderately high waves (perhaps 20 f e e t ) from many d i r e c t i o n s , depen- d ing on l o c a l winds. This may have lessened t h e e r o s i v e p o t e n t i a l o f t h e waves ( ~ r a k a w a , 1954). Di rec t ion of Water Novemer,t Figure 13 a t t empt s t o show, in a gene ra l way, t h e dominant d i r e c - t i o n s of water movement a s s o c i a t e d wi th t h e hu r r i cane , and t h e approximate a r e a a f f e c t e d by t h e storm surge. Seas ahead of t h e hur r icane were e a s t e r l y ; it was t h e s e swe l l s , running ahead of t h e storm, which caused t h e e a r l y damage a t Lighthouse Reef. To t h e no r th of t h e storm t r a c k , a s t h e storm passed, sea movement continued e a s t e r l y and no r the r ly . Channel-cutting and de l ta -depos i t ion a t S t . George's Cay, t o g e t h e r wi th r e p o r t s from Bel ize , Stann Creek, and t h e - 9 Tac t i c i an of 31 t o IL'W winds immediately ahead of t h e storm, i n d i c a t e major water movements from t h e northwest i n t h e . l o r them b a r r i e r r e e f lagoon i n t h e few hours immediately preceding t h e passage of t h e storm cent re . Northwester ly s eas may have played some p a r t i n t h e Crickozeen Creek slumping ( chap te r 6) . South of t h e hu r r i cane t r a c k , t h e f i r s t swel l s were aga in e a s t e r l y , bu t t h e main s e a s a s soc i a t ed wi th t h e passage of t h e hu r r i cane were sou theas t , south and southwest. This i s shown by sediment depos i t i on on cays, d i r e c t i o n of t r e e - f a l l i n inundated a reas , and such miscel laneous i n d i c a t o r s a s t h e d i r e c t i o n of f a l l of t h e Cay Bokel Lighthouse. This map of water movement may be compared wi th t h a t showing d i r e c t i o n of t r e e f a l l due t o wind dur ing t h e hu r r i cane ( ~ i g u r e 63) ; t h e two show a cons iderable correspondence. R a i n f a l l No r a i n f a l l information i s a v a i l a b l z from B r i t i s h Honduras du r ing t h e storm, s i n c e ins t ruments were destroyed. It i s i n any case ques- t i o n a b l e whether s tandard r a i n gauges could g ive even a n approximation of a mainly h o r i z o n t a l r a i n f a l l . The 11.5 inches i n one day a t Grand Cayman I s l a n d may be r e c a l l e d ; many i n s t a n c e s i n o t h e r hu r r i canes of over 20 inches i n 24 hours have been recorded, mainly i n mountainous a r e a s ( ~ c h o n e r and Molansky, 1956). R a i n f a l l i s g e n e r a l l y concent ra ted near and a l i t t l e ahead of t h e storm cen t r e ( ~ i l l e r , 1958). R a i n f a l l i n t h e Maya Mountains may have been more than 20 inches , judging from t h e ex tens ive high f loods . This excess run-off probably reduced s a l i n i t y temporar i ly i n t h e shal low nor the rn b a r r i e r r ee f lagoon (c f . Goodbody, 1961), bu t t h i s would have l i t t l e e f f e c t on t h e r e e f s of t h a t a r e a , which were by then a l r e a d y dead. j' Y U C A T A N J A M A I C A T H O N D U R A S TRACK OF HURRICANE HATTIE I I 37-31 OCTOBER 1961 J FIG. 2 7 t BASED ON INFORMATION SUPPLIED BY DRUORDON E.DUNN 2 9 0 ~ 1 4 - I ISTANLEY FIELD BELIZE CITY - - - M E -ER .-.-- ~.M.s.PoRcHE#S AMI(OID ! ATMOSPHERK: PRESSURE 30-31 OCTOBER 1961 IT\. ,L 1 VERTICAL SCALE: INCHES I WOORONIAL SCALE: BELIZE TIME FIG. 4 STATION- STANLEY FIELD LAT 1 7 ' 3 2 ' N LONG. 88'18'W MONTH -OCTOBER YEAR-1961 O N - 3 0 t h OFF-31st 141 NIGHT 9 10 L1 12,,,,13 14 15 16 17 18,,,19 20 21 22 23 Omah 1 2 3 4 5 6 m h 7 8 9 160 ' ' 160 ' lb t t60 ' 161. I I L . ++f-L-'-+ - - + 100 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 LB 19 20 21 22 23 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 NIGHT FIG. 5 - ANEMOMETER TRACE, STANLEY FIELD, BELIZE, 3 0 - 31 OCTOBER 1961. REPRODUCED FROM DUNN AND STAFF, 1962, COURTESY U. S. WEATHER BUREAU. 2100 30 OCTOBER 2200 3 0 OCTOBER 2300 3 0 OCTOBER 0000 31 OCTOBER 31 OCTOBER <-'/. 0300 31 OCTOBER 0400 31 OCTOBER FIGS. 6,7.8 - WIND STREAMLINES !--(,< 0500 31 OCTOBER 0 8 0 0 SI OCTOBER FIG. II I I : IN BRITISH HONDURAN WATERS I i b' T R X K OF CENTRE FIGURE I2 , PROGRESS OF STORM SURGE FEET 1 I 1 I I I I I 30 OCTOE?R/JI OCTOBER /- / /w--$o< , , s ~ ~ o ~ o r k - 4 , ~ 1 P' CAY \ \ SOUTH' WATER \ U10 TOBACCO a- USTANGE CRMl STORM CENTRE. MILES FIG. 13 111. MEF DWIGE DURI&!G HURRICANE HATTIE Unfortunately only i n c i d e n t a l observations could be made on l i v i n g r e e f s during t h e 1962 expedition, and f r e s h seas nrevented any underwater observation a t a l l on t h e windward s i d e s of both Turneffe and Lighthouse Reef. However, t h e whole length of reef round Turneffe, Lighthouse and Gloverqs Reefs, and along t h e b a r r i e r r ee f , was observed from t h e a i r and photogralshed a t frequent i n t e r v a l s . These photographs could then be com- pared with a s i m i l a r s e r i e s made.in 1961. Reefs were seen underwater a t a number of p laces along t h e b a r r i e r reef i t s e l f . These observations a r e .summarised i n Figure l4. The main conclusion i s t h e h ighly va r i ab le degree of reef damage, and t h e al l- important r o l e of t h e loca t ion and o r i en ta t ion of r e e f s i n r e l a t i o n t o hurricane winds and waves. Since t h e hurricane crossed t h e r e e f s almost a t r igh t . angles, it i s reasonable t o assume t h a t e a s t fac ing r e e f s t o t h e nor th of t h e storm t r a c k would suf- f e r most severely from genera l ly e a s t e r l y and nor theas te r ly winds and waves; and t h a t r e e f s south of t h e storm t rack , f ac ing away from t h e dominant winds o r ~ a r a l l e l t o them, would s u f f e r l e a s t damage. This did, i n f a c t , occur, and hence t h e r e i s no zonation of damage north and south of t h e storm t rack s i m i l a r t o t h a t d i s c e r n i b l e on t h e cays. Lighthouse Reef l a y e n t i r e l y t o t h e south of t h e storm t rack , and i t s e a s t r e e f s suffered remarkably l i t t l e damage; groove-buttress systems seem unaltered f o r t h e length of t h e a t o l l , Fiinor damage i s indica ted a t t h e nor th end of t h e e a s t reef by shingle ca rpe t s on t h e reef c r e s t ; but g r e a t e s t damage seems t o have occurred on t h e east-west t rending sec t ion of reef between Half hoon Cay and Long Cay. This i s near t h e south end of the a t o l l , and al igned t r ansverse t o t h e southerly winds and waves dominant i n t h i s s e c t o r ( ~ i ~ u r e 13). The west r e e f s on t h i s a t o l l were not we l l developed, and t h e r e i s no means of a s sess ing change. Lagoon r e e f s a r e unal tered , exceqt i n t h e northern lagoon, near Rorthern Two Cays, where some surface-breaking ilcropora has been overturned. Hurricane Ha t t i e crossed Turneffe I s l ands near Pel ican Cay. North- wards t o Pauger Cay damage t o t h e e a s t reef has been heavy, e spec ia l ly on t h e reef c r e s t and upper seaward slope. Fresh g rave l ca rpe t s a r e s ~ r e a d ac ross t h e reef c r e s t , replac ing l i v i n g cora l . Numerous c o r a l s have been thrown up a t Cockroach Cays, inc luding Diploria , kontas t rea , Por i t e s , -- Acropora, and =a angulosa (not previously recorded from t h i s reef). Over t h e g rea te r p a r t of t h e seaward slope, however, t h e groove- b u t t r e s s system i s s t i l l preserved, and i n some cases it i s poss ib le t o i d e n t i f y l sa r t i cu la r reef-configurat ions on both pre- and post-hurricane photographs. South of Pel ican Cay, degree of damage i s very va r i ab le . Seas were mainly southerly, and e i t h e r p a r a l l e l t o t h e r e e f s o r nea r ly so, Damage i s concentrated on reef segments o r i en ted E-W o r NE-SW, whereas immediately adjacent r e e f s , facing away from t h e souther ly winds..show l i t t l e damage. A good example i s found a t Soldier Cay: north of the prominent Soldier Cay elbow t h e reef extends f o r seve ra l mi les and seems l i t t l e changed, but i m e d i a t e l y south of t h i s point damage inc reases and much d e b r i s i s p i l ed on t h e reef c r e s t . S imi lar ly , damage i s considerable on t h e south fac ing r e e f s near Cay Bokel. It is on t h c b s r r i s r r e e f i t s e l f , h o ~ ~ ~ e v e r , t h a t r e e f s s u f f e r e d danago t o a heavy, evcn c a t a s t r s p h i c d?grce, Hurricane H a t t i e c rossed t h z b a r r i o r n e a r Rcndczvous Cay: on t h e b a r r i e r r c a f proper, and on nmerclus patch r b e f s 5 m e d i a t c l y lagoonward ~f thl; b a r r i e r , bctweon Rendezvous and English Cays, up t o 80;; cf t h c r cc f c o r a l s have simply disappeared. Vcry heavy danags i n d ~ : 2 d has bcen caused a s f a r n o r t h as Paunch Cay: but no r th of t h i s po in t t h e recf i s ~ o c r l y dzvelopcd and in t e r rup ted , and t h ~ degree c f damsge i s uncer tz in . Bstwecn t h e Deep- water Channcl and Rcndmvous Cay t h e change i s n o s t d r m s t i c : r e e f s which previous ly broke su r face with d i s t i n c t i v c a s s m b l a g e s of orange and ye l - low Acropcra, now r i s c , grecnish-white, ghost- l iks , and devoid c f c o r a l s , from t h e surrc~unding b lue water , No t r a c e of any grcovc-buttress system can be seen a l ~ n g t h i s r s e f , o r indced nor th of Cay Glory, 10 m i l e s south of t h c hurr icane t r a c k , Immediately no r th and south of t h c Cay Glory gap r e e f remnants on t h e seaward s l cpe i n d i c a t e t h c prcvious ex i s t ence of a l i n e a r groove-buttress p a t t e r n , but t h i s p a t t e r n docs n c t become unin t e r rup tad ly apparent u n t i l south c f Scuth Watm Cay. Changis on these b a r r i e r cays r c e f s can b c s t be descr ibed by o u t l i n i n g undcr- water obscrva t ions a t a n m b c r c f po in t s , Paunch Cay Recf Dominant prc-hurricane s p c c i e s h s r e were W t a s t r c a annu la r i s , licropora palmata, I:, ce rv ico rn i s , and c t h e r assi'mblagcs si-nilar t c ) t h c s e of Rendezvous Cay, described below, F r m a i r photographs and u n d e r w t ~ r o b ~ s r v a t i ~ n it scans prcbablz t h a t 90s o f t h e l i v i n g r ce f has bcen des- t royad . Thc d d n a n t surv iv ing specic.s i s 24, a n n u l a r i s , t c g i t h z r wi th a few larg-u cvcrturned colonies, s t i l l l i v i n g , cf :lo p a l m t a , and pa tchcs of P o r i t e s a s t r e o i d e s , Dichccoenia s t o k e s i i , S i d a r a s t r c s sid<.;rza, and esnc-cial ly Dip lc r i a l a b y r i n t h i f o m h s , D. s t r i g o s a and D. c l i vosa . Xi l lcpora i s p a r t i c u l a r l y ~ n d o s p r e a d a t t h e p rasen t ti lxt: , Only sixill specinens of l iontas t rea cavernosa were seen. and no A, c c r v i c c r n i s , Small c o r a l s such a s S i d ~ r a s t r e a rad ians and Nanicina a r c o l a t a a r o now abscnt . Cervicornis rubble i s ncw accumulating on t h e r e e f f l a t as an e m b r y o n i c c a y s 4 ) O . Sergcant 9 s Cay Rcef Th2 main species scen l i v i n g hzrc a f t e r t h z hurr icane wcre li, annu la r i s , D i d o r i a , scme g d c r a s t r i a s i d ~ r e a , and P o r i t e s a s t r e z d e s , Round t h e seaward s i d e t h c r z i s a confused tar& s f A. p a h a t a with some s t i l l l i v i n g . No 6, c c r v i c o r n i s was seen, though t h e l o c a t i o n of former patchcs i s markcd by wcl l -dz- f in~d rubbli: zones, There has been much d c s t r u c t i o n of Aqaricia a g a r i c i t c s on t h e windward s idz , though a faw. patches remain alivc;, No irfingerr9 P o r i t e s (P, p c r i t c s , - Po f u r c a t a , P. d i v a r i c a t a ) was seen a l i v e , bu t sornc dead and broken clwrnps were s t i l l raccgnisable. Other c o r a l s scen l i v i n g i n 1962 included Eusmilia, I sophyl l ia , and M, cavernosa , Reef-patch south of Engl i sh Cax T& reef ~ a t c h e s b e t w e n English and Rendezvous Cays a t t r a c t a t t e n - t i o n because of t h e i r ;;baldrv appearance. One was investigated about $ mile south of English Cay. The c o r a l fauna was previous ly c o q a r a b l e t o : t h a t around Engl i sh and Rendezvous Cay: a zone of A o palmata round thc; ' . edges, e s p e c i a l l y on t h e windward s i d e , A o c e r v i c o s n i s i n t h e p ro t ec t ed ,-. cen t r e , and massive )I, a n n u l a r i s on t h e o u t e r slopes, Much dzad A, c s r v i c o r n i s d e b r i s was sean, bu t none a t a l l l i v i n g . ~ o n v ~ r s e l ~ , ~ -. palmata survived f a i r l y we l l , though many l a r g e specimens were overturned, and some were dead. Most of t h e Agaricia was de& toge the r wi th n e a r l y a l l t h e P o r i t e s p o r i t e s , Sca t t e r ed small co lon ie s of P o r i t e s a s t r e o i d e s were f a i r l y prominent i n t h e gene ra l scene of confusion, t o g e t h s r wi th much M i l l e ~ o r a , Rendezvous Rsef The c e n t r e of t h e hur r icane passed almost d i r e c t l y over t h e Rendezvous Cay r e e f , a vatch r ee f 450 yards long, e longated i n a north- south d i r e c t i o n , and 150-250 ya rds wide, r i s i n g s t e e p l y frcm water mors t han 50 f e e t deep. Thc 13dges of t h c patch, e s p e c i a l l y w i th in 20 f e e t of t h e sur face , were coated with c o r a l be fo re t h c hur r icane , except on t h e west s i d c , whcrs a gap gave en t rance t o an anchorage n e w t h e cay car ry ing 4 f e e t of water, Otherwise t h e su r f ace of t h e patch gene ra l ly c a r r i e d 1-2 f e e t of watsr , The pre-hurricanl-$ d i s t r i b u t i o n of c o r a l s was i n v e s t i g a t e d by d i v i n g and underwater mapping i n 1959-60 by JOE. Thorpe; an o u t l i n c man of t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of co lon ie s has a p ~ e a r e d ( ~ h o r ~ c , i n Thorw and Stoddar t , 1962, Figure 4 ) , t o g e t h e r with a b r i e f d e s c r i ~ t i o n ( ~ h o r ~ e and Bregazzi, 1960, 25-28), The main r c s u l t s a r e s t i l l i n mnnu- s c r i o t , and I am indebted t o Xr. Thoroe f o r use of h i s unpublished c h a r t s , I a l s o bcc?me f a x i l i a r with t h i s reef dur ing r e s i d m c z i n 1959-60, and a v i s i t i n 1961; many a i r and underwater photographs arL2 a v s i l a b l e t o supplement T h o r ~ e f s map. Af te r t h s hu r r i cane , a l a r g e number of a i r ohotograohs were taken on two s e ~ a r a t a occasicns, m d two days were snent d i v i n g on t h e r ee f i t s e l f and t a k i n g underwater photograohs. Figure 15 s m a r i s e s t h e main changcs i n t h e d i s t r i b u - t i o n of r ee f c o r a l s : P a r t A i s taken from Thorpc's published map; P a r t B i s a c o m ~ i l a t i o i i ms.9 f r m 25 a i r phctographs, i n cc lour , taken a t he igh t s of 100-3CO f a c t ' i n A o r i l and Way, 1962. The sccond map i s obviiiusly much l e s s r s l i a b l c t han t h e f i r s t , but t h c r e i s no doubt t h a t it r b f l e c t s f a i r l y a c c u r a t e l y t h e magnitude of changcs due t o Hurricane Ha t t i e . Bef.ore t h e hur r icane , t h e r e e f s could be descr ibed a s f a l l i n g i n t o four d i v i s i o n s : ( a ) t h e r e e f s on t h e west s i d e , south of t h e anchorage gap; wi th a c r e s t of massive M. annu la r i s , and f a i r l y ex tens ive a r e a s of A. c e r v i c o r n i s and P o r i t e s , and smal le r amom-ts of K i l l e p o r a and A . palmata. This zone cont inues round th'e south end of t h z r ee f patch, with s c a t t e r e d co lon ie s of M. a n n u l a r i s . (b) t h c r e e f s a long t h c south,- rn s i c t i o n of t h e c a s t s i d i : with massive A. palmata, and smal le r m o w t s of i ' l i l l e ~ o r a , Dip lor ia , P o r i t e s , Nontast rea and Azar ic ia . ( c ) t h e wide a r e a of r ce f growth i n f a i r l y shal low watcr ( l c s s t h s n 10 f e e t deep) a c r o s s t h c no r thcas t end of t h c r ce f natch: c o n s i s t i n g of massive l&amularis, ire palmata 2nd X i l l e p o r a , with pa tchcs of A , c c r v i c o r n i s lly i n shoal watei;) and~garicia a g a r i c i t s s o (d) t h e deep-water spurs a t t h e no r theas t end of t h ~ patch, extending down t o d c ~ t h s of 20-40 f e e t , coated wi th massivc 14. a n n u l a r i s , t oge the r wi th A o palmata and P o r i t c s , ( e ) t h e narrow reef rim on t h e northwest s i d e of t h e patch: mainly massive 14. annu la r i s , wi th Mycetophyllia, I s c u h y l l i a , I\liussa, and on t h c r cc f c r e s t , A. ce rv ico rn i s . I n add i t ion , t h e c e n t r e of t h ~ patch, much of it covored wi th T h a l a s ~ i a ~ . s u ~ p o r t c d s c a t t e r e d small co lon i s s of Xanicine a r c o l a t a , Cladocora a rbuscula and S idc ras t r ea radians. Nany othc;r suec ie s a r e prcsent i n t h e ~ e r i ~ h e r a l r e c f s (such a s G e r s s t r e a s ide rea , Colpophyllia riatans, Dichococnia s t o k e s i i and Dcndromra cyl indrus) bu t do n c t i n themsclvns form d i s t i n c t zones. Thcrpo and B r ~ g a z z i q s f x l l l i s t of spec ies has been given i n my previous Daucr (ARB 87, 17-18). The changes r e s u l t i n g from t h ~ hurric.3nc. i n thcise e o i ~ s may bo sum- marised a s fc l lows : ( a ) Approximately 80:;. of t h e s t m y c o r a l s disappsared i n t h i s z o m 0 Onc patch on t h e south s i d e of t h o anchoi-age gan, cons i s t ing of K O a n n u l a r i s , mi. p2lmata and Ki l leuorn disappeared cn t i ro ly . Fur- t h e r scuth , Pi. a n n u l a r i s survivcd i n i s o l a t e d blocks, some of them s p l i t a u a r t , t o g a t h e r with a l i t t l c Lga r i c i a , Thc c x t m s i v c a r c a of A. ce rv ico rn i s a t t h e south~rrc~st corner has gone e n t i r e l y , and only scstterr3d P o r i t e s w r i t e s n e s t l i n g i n c e r v i ~ o r r ~ i s rubble remain. Scattered c o ) o n i ~ s of 5.;;. a r ~ n u l a r i s a long t h c south s i d e c;f t h e reef natch have l a r g e l y d i s a p ~ a r e d . This narrow zone of A. palmata, K i l l epora , and s c a t t o r e d massive c o r a l s (I;. a n n u l a , , ~ i ~ l o r i a ) su f fe rcd very h ~ a v y damage, perhaps g0$ bcing dcstroycd. Thc: chief c c r a l surv iv ing i s i'i;. a n c u l a r i s , o f t e n wi th scour ho le s t o lseward of t h c coloniss . Associated with t h e l a r g c su rv iv ing c o r a l co lonies a r e a number of smal lc r co ra l s , inc luding Favia fragum, Pycctophyl l ia , and i!garicia a g a r i c i t e s . A l l t h e A o c c rv ico rn i s has been destroyed, exccpt f o r occas ional s t r a g g l i n g branches r i s i n g from blankzts of ce rv ico rn i s deb r i s . Damage t o t h c dominant il. palmat?, i s a l s o g rca t : co lonies wcrc broken and ovmturned, 2nd gene ra l ly k i l l e d , o f t e n by smothering with d e b r i s , though occas iona l co lonies remained a l i v e w e n though complctcly invsr tod . While ~ r c v i o u s l y one could c ross t h i s r ee f a t only a few po in t s , it i s now poss ib l c t o swim ac ross almost a t w i l l o On t h e reef f l a t t o leeward, between t h e r ~ e f ' c r c s t and t h e bcachrock, t h e r e a r e s c a t t c r c d specimens of D. c l i vosa and S i d e r a s t r e a s ide rea s t i l l l i v i n g , though i n some cases overturned, KO P o r i t e s was seen, Surv iva l i n t h i s zone i s much g rea te r , t h e success fu l spec ie s aga in being c h i e f l y Pi, a n n u l a r i s , with t h e more m a s s i v ~ iilo nalmata, and Dinlor ia . There i s m u c h ~ e r v i c o r n i s rubble, but no l i v i n g colonies ; and no spec ie s of P o r i t 9 s were seen except P c r i t e s a s t r e o i d s s . This zone was no t examined i n d e t a i l ; from t h e photographs it i s apparent t h a t more c o r a l survived here9 poss ib ly b e c a u s ~ o f i t s g r e a t e r depth and t h e dominance of t h e more r e s i s t a n t spec ies , par- t i c u l a r l y N o annu la r i s , Towards t h e no r th end n c a r l y a l l t h e c o r a l has becn destroyed, but elsewhere small co lonies cf h. a n n u l w i s have survived, A. ce rv ico rn i s i s no t t o be seen, To sum QD t h e r ee f changes a t Rendezvous Reef: hon tas t r ea m n u l a r i s has survived a11 round t h e r e e f patch with moderats success, t o g c t h e r with Mil lepora, which may, a t l e a s t i n p a r t , have grown s ince t h e storm. Lore massivc specimens of A. nalmata havl; a l s o survived i n places. On t h e su r face of t h e patch, S i d z r a s t r e a rad ians can s t i l l be found i n t h e t u r t l e grass , bu t not gladocora o r Nanicina, The d ~ e p e r s lopes round t h e whole socm t c b s bare , No l a r g e b locks have accu- mulated i n t h e cen t r e of t h ~ ga tch thcugh t h e t u r t l e g ra s s i s l i t t e r e d with niuch small debr is . A s rough e s t ima tes of t h e amount of daixage, t h e t o t a l r e e f damage may be placed a t 75-80s; d e s t r u c t i o n of 4. ce rv ico rn i s 100%; A . nalmata 80$; and 14, a n n u l a r i s 505, The extensive rubble banks a long t h e e a s t e r n rcef c r e s t a r e now t h i c k l y coated with nurplc a lgae . Cay Glory Damage was a l s o considerabl t : a t Cay Glory, 10 mi les soutn of Rendezvous Cay, On t h c rcef f l a t i t s e l f , very l i t t l e l i v i n g c o r a l remains, a o a r t from s c a t t e r e d fragments of l i v i n g Acropora palmata and 1~ ce rv ico rn i s , The most widespread c o r a l s a r e now small s c a t t e r e d colonies of M. a n n u l a r i s , Po a s t r e o i d e s , So s iderca , and D o s t r i g o s a , Two specimens only of P o r i t c s p o r i t e s were szen, and one of Dichococnia. The r ee f c r e s t i t s e l f i s covered with a f r e s h rubble ca rve t 30-40 yards widc, ca r ry ing 1 2 inches of water, wi th a s t 2 e ~ i n n e r margin 2-3 f e e t high. Car r i e Bow Cay - A t Ca r r i e Bow Cay t h e degree of r e e f damage has markedly decreased. On t h e r ee f f l a t t h e r ee f i s h e a l t h y but sparse; it inc ludes annu la r i s , L o palmata, r a t h e r broken A. ce rv ico rn i s , Agaricia a g a r i c i t e s , P o r i t o s p o r i t e s , Dip lor ia and S ide ras t r ca . The reef c r e s t c o n s i s t s of a rubblc ca rpe t 10-15 yards wide, of t i g h t l y packed dcbr i s , p a r t l y r i s i n g above sea l e v e l , der ived from t h e heav ic r d e s t r u c t i o n of c o r a l s on t h c o u t e r s lope, Only t h e upper sec t ion of t h e o u t c r s lopc could be inves t iga t ed , w h ~ r e a n a r t frcm scattered P o r i t c s a s t r c o i d c s i t is simply a d e s o l a t e ca rpe t of rubble. A i r observat ion showed t h a t more c o r a l survived a t g r c a t c r depths, below about 4 fathoms, Furthermore, t h e massive c o r a l s (Montastrea , Dinlor ia , ~ i d e r a s t r e a ) of t h e nor thern and southern horns of t h e reef survived wi th l i t t l e damage, P e t e r Douglas Cax F ina l ly , we may note r ee f condi t ions i n t h e c e n t r a l b a r r i e r reef lagoon, where d e s t r u c t i v e hurr icane e f f e c t s on cays were s l i g h t , a p a r t from mangrove d e f o l i a t i o n , The reef a t P e t e r Douglas Cay c o n s i s t s only of Montastrea annu la r i s , P o r i t e s a s t r e o i d e s and S i d e r a s t r e a s ide rea , wi th l e s s e r amounts of Acropora c e r v i c c r n i s and A. p r o l i f e r a , and very l i t t l e A, nalmata. The only spec ie s markedly a f f e c t e d by t h e hurr icane was A. c e rv ico rn i s , t h e co lonies being much broken, b u t gene ra l ly s t i l l l i v i n g , No under-water observat ions were made south of t h i s po in t , but a i r obssrva t ion showed v i r t u a l l y unchanged condi t ions , both along t h e southern b a r r i e r r e e f , and on Gloverqs Reef. A major exception i s t h e ?ee f s round t h e southernmost i s l a n d s of t h e c e n t r a l b a r r i e r r e e f lagoon, where w i d e s ~ r e a d depos i t ion i n d i c a t e s considerable reef damage. Comment This c a t a s t r o p h i c degree of recf damage over s e v e r a l mi les of t h e b a r r i e r reef i s of considerable i n t e r e s t , I ' lor tal i ty of c o r a l s dur ing storms has previous ly bcen descr ibed by Xoorhouse (1936) fol lowing t h e 1934 cyclone a t Low I s l e s , Great B a r r i e r Reef of Aust ra l ia , where many branching c o r a l s on t h e r ee f f l a t disappeared, S imi lar , more d s t a i l e d observa t ions were made a t t h e same place, aga in on s h a l l o ~ ~ water c o r a l s , by Stephenson, Endean and Bennett (1958) fol lowing t h e minor 1954 cyclone. Most observa t ions have been confined t o shallow r e e f - f l a t and lagoonal waters because of t h e p r a c t i c a l d i f f i c u l t i e s of i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e r ee f - f r o n t , r e s u l t i n g from wave a c t i o n and s u r f ; y e t it i s on t h e more exposed recf - f ront t h a t damage may be expected t o be g r e a t a s t . Thus, fol lowing Typhoon Ophelia a t J a l u i t , Banner reported t h a t ffoii t h e bottom of th.; lagoon below low t i d e t h e r e w a s no evidence of d i s tu rbed cond.itions. Even d e l i c a t e c o r a l s were not broken. I n c o n t r a s t it seems l i k e l y t h a t t h e ou te r reef f r o n t suf fered profound changesit, a s shown by t h o amount of f r e s h c o r a l sh ing le i n b a r s and sh ing le c a r p e t s ( i n Blumenstock, 1958, 1269; a l s o Banner, i n Blumsnstock, e d i t o r , 1961, 75-78) Banner? s deduct ion of V a t h e r extznsivelf hur r icane damage on t h e r ee f f r o n t i s born out by t h e observcd changes on t h e B r i t i s h Honduras r ee f s , though t h e midence of such damage i n B r i t i s h Honduras, i n t h e s h a m of rubble and sh ingle cons t ruc t ions above sea levc; lp i s very much l e s s ex tens ive than on J a l u i t . I n gene ra l terms, t h e observa t ion made by Stephenson, Endean and Bennett , and o t h e r e a r l i e r workers, t h a t t h e more rapidly-growing, branching, f r a g i l ~ spec ie s ars more s u s c e ~ t i b l e t o damage than t h e slower- growing, massive, o f t en g lobular and hemispherical spec ies , i s conf im~ed by t h e B r i t i s h Honduras da ta . The most success fu l c o r a l i n r e s i s t i n g damage was everywhere Montastrea annu la r i s ; t h e l e a s t success fu l Acropora ce rv ico rn i s , P o r i t e s o t h e r -than P. a s t r e o i d e s , and t h e sinall unattached co ra l s , such a s Manicina a r e o l a t a , Side ras t r ea rad ians , and Cladocora a rbuscula . Table 2 l i s t s t h e more c&rnon c o r a l suec ie s of t h e B r i t i s h Honduras r e e f s i n approximate order of r e s i s t a n c e t o des t ruc - t i o n by storms. Table 2. Re la t ive r e s i s t a n c e of spec ies t o hurr icane darnage. Least r e s i s t a n t Most r e s i s t a n t Acropora ce rv ico rn i s P o r i t e s p o r i t e s P o r i t e s d i v a r i c a t a P o r i t e s f u r c a t a S ide ras t r ea r ad ians -- Favia fragum Manicina a reo la t a Cladocora arbuscula I sophy l l a s t r ea r i g i d a Colpopl~yl l ia 11a t a n s Agaricia a g a r i c i t e s Mycetophyllia lamarckana Acropora pa h a t a Sldera s t r e a s ide rea Montastrea caveriiosa P o r i t e s a s t r e o i d e s Solena s t r e a bournoni -- Dichocoenia s to l r e s i i Dendrozyra cy l ind rus Diplor ia c l ivosa Diplor ia l abyr in th i fo rmis Diplor ia s t r i g o s a Montastrea a n n u l a r i s The na tu re o r d a a z ~ e t o co lonies v a r i e s considerably, and sone of tlie lilore comnmn tyj?es of damage 1:lay be noted. Acropora mlclata is o f t e n o v e r t u r ~ e d and even con!pletely inve r t ed , without breakace, arid tlie colony mey surv ive and. cont inue t o gro1.r i n t h i s vay. Examples ??ere seer, ?.:here neiJ v e r t i c a l branches ve re g?or.rinz upwards f r ~ i i l tile former undersides of' now inver ted colonies . Di rec t ion of f a l l of t h e t r e e - l i k e co lonies i s gene ra l ly from sea t o land.. Dead Acropora branches a r e o f t e n almost sub- merged i n o t h e r d.ebris, vhich way have been mainly respons ib le f o r t h e i r dea ths , No extens ive co lonies of A. c e rv ico rn i s ve re seen over a 30-40 mile lone r e e f t r a c t on t h e barriel- r e e f . The l o c a t i o n of former co lonies i s o f t e n rnarlied by p i l e s of broken cerv icor i l i s s t i c k s , o f t en t i g h t l y packed, wi th an admixture of o t h e r small spec ie s . Occasional branches, sotnetiines bro1ienj nay be seen r i s i n e from t h e debr i s , s t i l l vrith l i v i n g p o l n ~ s , but t h e s e a r e uncoliuilon. The lilost r e s i s t a n t co lonies of Montastrea annu la r i s luay be r a t h e r complex, cons i s t ing n o t of a s i n e l e heii~is:,herical mass b u t of numerous smal le r sub-hemisphericsl co lonies ~ r o u p e d t o ~ e t h e r i n l a r s e r co lonies v i t h a t o t a l he ight and diameter of s e v e r a l f e e t , o r of a s e r i e s of overlapping p l a t e s a l s o ~ r o u p e d t o e e t h e r t o form a l a r g e colony erris is, 1963). Frequently t h e l a r ~ e r colony has been f r a c t u r e d a long the, l i n e s of con tac t between t h e smal le r co lonies , and t h e whole mass has f a l l e n a p a r t , This t y ~ e of damage i s u s u a l l y pe r iphe ra l . Other more pu re ly hemispherical co lon ie s of t h e genera Diploria , FTontastrea, P o r i t e s , g d e r a s t r e a , Solenas t rea , e tc . , were sub jec t t o r o l l i n g ac ross t h e reef f l a t , some be ing l e f t i n v e r t e d but no t dead, i n t h e manner envisaged by ~ o r n i c k c r a i d Boyd f o r t h e formation o f -mic ro -a to l l s orni nicker and Boyd, 1962, 668), These co lonies were a l s o sub jec t t o wave scour round t h e i r margins. P o r i t e s p o r i t e s was s e v e r a l t imes seen, appa ren t ly undisturbed, though no longer l i v i n g ; on examination, however, t h e co lonies proved t o be thoroughly s h a t t e r e d and about t o d i s i n t e g r a t e , Stephenson and o t h e r s a r r i v e d a t s i m i l a r r e s u l t s i n Aust ra l ia . A t Low I s l e s t h e more massive and r e s i s t a n t spec ie s inc lude P o r i t e s l u t e a , Goniastrea p e c t i n a t a and Pla tygyra l and l ina ; t h e l e s s r e s i s t a n t f r a g i l e s ~ e c i e s included P l o n t i ~ o r a d i v a r i c a t a and Poci l lopora damicornis, While accep t ing t h e dominant mechanical e f f e c t s of hurr icane waves, t hey a l s o d raw-a t t en t ion t o t h e c f f e c t of i nc reased amounts of d e b r i s i n t h e water fc l lowing t h e storm; ?$There i s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t d e s t r u c t i o n of c o r a l may have continued a f t e r t h c cyclone had passed. 1:ioderatc and poss ib ly l o c a l des t ruc t ion of Acropora would produce c o r a l rubble whose subsequent movements could damage a much l a r g e r a rea , and would prcbably hamper r eco lon iza t ion by c o r a l s of a r e a s a l r eady devas t a t edo Fur ther degradat ion i n t o g r i t would a c c e l e r a t e t h i s process, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n a bared a r e a where t h i s g r i t could be a g i t a t e d by'waves, I n 1954 much of t h e lower seaward s lopes of t h e e a s t e r n s i d e of t h e i s l a n d was cha rac te r i scd by a substratum of g r i t and rubble, and t h e g r i t w a s i n f a c t k e ~ t i n con t inua l motion during moderate s e a s a t low watcr ... It i s not impossible t h a t a r e a l l y severe cyclone would c l e a r t h e a r e a morc2 ccmpletely of b rokm cora l , and have l e s s prolonged e f f ectsis (stephenson, Endsan and Bennett , 1958, 304). The sugges t ions t h a t i nc reased amounts of mobilc d e b r i s may h e l p smother s t i l l l i v i n g co ra l s , and t h a t t h e same d e b r i s may a l s o preven-t r ecc lon iza t ion , both seem h igh ly probable; on t h e o the r hand, even so severe a storm a s Hurricane att tie w a s i n s u f f i c i e n t t o sweep t h e d e b r i s away, and i n t h i s case t h e e f f e c t s would seem l i k e l y t o be more, r a t h e r t han l e s s prolongedo F ina l ly , t h e r e i s t h e ~ r o b l e n of t h e much g r e a t e r degree of reef d e s t r u c t i o n on t h e b a r r i e r than on t h e ou t ly ing r e e f s * To some ex ten t t h i s i s explained by t h e r e l a t i v c l o c a t i o n of r e e f s and t h e hurr icanz t r a c k , but t h e r e i s s t i l l a cons iderable d i f f z rence betwem t h e nor thern b a r r i e r reef and t h e nor thern Turneffc r e e f s , The c o n s t r i c t i o n of t h e channel betwesn Turneffe and t h e b a r r i e r r ee f between English and Rendezvous cays, may have l e d t o t h e ~ i l i n g up of surge water and increased wave ac t ' ion under t h e in f luence of n o r t h e r l y winds. On t h e e a s t r e e f s of Turneffe t h e r e i s no such c o n s t r i c t i o n , and adequate drainage t o no r th and south. It i s a l s o i n t e r e s t i n g t o note t h a t very l i t t l e m a t e r i a l has accumulated above water l w e l i n t h e a r e s of maximum reef damagi., Thus i n t h e case of Rendezvous Cay v i r t u a l l y ncne of t h e reef m a t e r i a l i s now v i s i b l e above s s a l e v e l : most of t h e r e ~ f c o n s t i t u e n t s must have b e m swept i n t o deeper water round t h e reef patch, On t h e o the r hand, where damage was l e s s extreme, a s i n t h e b a r r i e r r ee f lagoon and i n p laces on Turneffe arid Lighthouse Reefs, cons iderable ' shingle r i d g e s and c a r p t s h-zve been depos i ted above sea l . evc lo ,111 t h e s e ex tens ive d e ~ o s i t i o n a l f e a t u r e s above sea- leve l , however, l i e ou t s ide t h e storm surge zone, Presumably i n a r e a s a f f e c t e d by t h e surge a l l cay l and was submerged and presented no b a r r i e r t o t h e waves, once vegeta t ion had been s t r i ~ p e d , whereas ou t s ide t h e surge a r e a , i s l a n d s ac t ed as bar- r i e r s t o wave movement throughout t h e storm. To a smal l ex tent a l s o t h e absence of d e b r i s above sea l e v e l i n t h e surge a r e a s i s i l l u s o r y , as I am informed t h a t much more m a t e r i a l was v i s i b l e immediately a f t e r t h e storm, and has s ince disappeared through wave a c t i o n , Nevertheless , i t i s c e r t a i n t h a t no f e a t u r e s comparable t o t h e g r e a t sh ing le r idges a t J a l u i t , up t o 8 f e e t high and 20 yards wide, w i th c o r a l boulders 1-5 f e e t i n diameter , were b u i l t anywhere i n B r i t i s h Honduras. This comparatively meagre development of r i d g e s on reef f l a t s m a y perhaps r e s u l t from poorer r ee f development i n t h e Caribbean, compared with t h e P a c i f i c , and t h e more s h e l t e r e d sea condi t ions , At t h i s s tage , it might be unwise t o a t t a c h t o o g rea t s ign i f i cance t o t h e s e d i f f e rences . The sub jec t of sediment degos i t ion i s r a i s e d aga in i n Chapter 8. / ' SDurIIwESr CAYS Q - 17-30 LIGHTHOUSE 17'15 DEGREE OF REEF DAMAGE DURING HURRICANE HATTIE BASED 011 AERIAL AND UWDERWATER O I S E l V A T l O W C ALMOST COMPLETE m r t w c T m HEAVY DAMAGE MODERATE DAMAGE MINOR DAMAGE 0 NO CHANGE o HURRICANE TRACK 16'3C FIG. 14 FIG. I V o HURRICAm DANAGE TO NORTHERN BARRIER REEF CAYS Hurricane H a t t i e crosscd t h e n o ~ t h e r n b a r r i e r reef near Rendezvous Cay (chapter 2, Figure 2) , l a t i t u d e 17?15q~. Damagc e x t e n d ~ d northwards from t h i s po in t as f a r as Ambergris Cay and t h e nor thern boundary of B r i t i s h Honduras a t Boca Bacalar Chico; i n t h i s a r e a dominant winds and waves were northwest, north, nor theas t and e a s t . South of Rendezvous Cay, damage extendcd almost t o Gladden S p i t on t h e b a r r i e r reef edge, and almost t o Punta Ycacos on t h e mainland coas t ; winds and waves were hore south- west, south and southeast . Because of t h i s change i n wind and wave con- d i t i o n s on e i t h e r s ide of t h e storm t r a c k , and becausc of t h e number of cays involved, it i s convenient t o descr ibe those t o t h e nor th of Rendezvous i n t h e ~ r e s e n t chapter , and those t o t h e south i n Chapter 5. The cays of t h e southern b a r r i e r r ee f , not a f f w t e d by Hurricane Ha t t i e , a r e not considered here and w i l l bc described i n a l a t e r papcr, I n both chapters t h e cays a r c descr ibed from nor th t o south. The genei-a1 d i s p o s i t i o n of t h e cays on t h e northern b a r r i e r reef and i n t h e lagoon has been described by Vermeer (1959, 41-47, 58-65) and w i l l only be broadly ou t l ined here , North o f . B e l i z e t h e c o a s t a l she l f averages 1 5 mi les i n width, and bctween Bel ize 'and t h e Bulkhead Reef (extending from t h e mainland t o Ambergris cay) i s 1$2& fathoms deep. The Bulkhead i t s e l f i s a shoal a r e a carrying $-$ fathoms, and encloses t h e 55-mile long Bahia de Chetumal,a drowned por t ion of Yucatan lowlends car ry ing 1-3 fathoms, with which we a r e not here concerned, The cays of t h e nor thern b a r r i e r a r e mostly mangrove cays with seaward sand r idges : t h e y inc lude Ambergris Cay, Cangrejo Cay, Cay C a u l k ~ r and Long Cay. The Hicks Cays a r e t h e only extensive group of cays wi th in t h e lagoon proper nor th of Belize. Irnmediatslg south of Belize t h e lagoon deepens r ap id ly t o 3-4 fathoms, reaching 10 fathoms i n t h e l a t i t u d e of Rendezvous Cay, The seaward edge of t h e c o a s t a l she l f i s formed by a low platform, 2-4 fathoms deep, 3-4 mi les wide, from t h e ou te r edge of which tha present b a r r i e r reef r i s e s t o sea l e v e l o Scvera l mangrove i s l a n d s a r c loca tcd on t h i s low platform, inc lud ing t h e Drowned Cays, Middle Long Cay and Colson Cays; whilo a num- ber of small sand cays a r e found on t h e b a r r i e r r ee f proper , Thzse inc lude St . Georgcqs East Cay, Paunch, Sergeantvs, Goffvs, English and Rendezvous Cayso South of B e l i z e t h e r e a r e no cays wi th in t h e lagoon, except f o r a c l u s t e r of mangrove i s l a n d s with a l i t t l e d r y land a t t h e inne r edge of t h e Dewwater ( ~ r e n n e l q s , as tern) Channd, which i n t e r - s e c t s t h e b a r r i e r reef and low platform i n l a t i t u d e 1 7 ? 2 0 ~ ~ . Ambergris Cay Ambergris Cay i s t h e l a r g e s t i s l a n d on t h e B r i t i s h Honduras c o a s t a l s h e l f , though i t s d e s c r i p t i o n a s such i s somewhat a r t i f i c i a l ( ~ i g u r e 16) . It extends f o r scme 25 mi le s southwards from t h e Boca Bacalar Chico, a l a r g e l y a r t i f i c i a l channcl only 6 f e e t wide, which g ives access from t h e sea t o t h e Bahia de Chctumal, and serves as t h e Mexico-British Honduras boundary. The cay v a r i e s i n width from over 4 mi lcs t o l c s s than 100 yards, According t o Bird Allen (1841, 80) t h ~ cay was named fffrom t h e produce of i t s shoresit, and Captain ilenderson (1811, 24) descr ibed it as bfof considerable s i ze , abounding with extensive f r e s h water lakes, and a t most seasons ,.. p l e n t i f u l l y stocked with many kinds of game. This Key i s l ikewise s a i d t o produce Logwood, and t h e more valuable kind of dye-wood, named Brasilettosr, J e f f r e y s noted i n h i s 1775 chart t h a t t h e r e were ivplenty of deer i n it and h b e r g r e a s e o f t en found on i t s Beachit, The seaward shore general ly l i e s mile from t h e b a r r i e r re: f , from which it i s separated by a channel 1-2 fathoms deep; but a t t h e rocky Reef Point, 46 miles south of Boca Bacalar Chico, t h e shore swings.out t o t h e edge of t h e coas ta l she l f and t h e reef i t s e l f i s in ter rupted ( a i r photograph i n Stoddart, 1960). This i s probably control led by t h e faul - t i n g which has shaaed t h e r e c t i l i n e a r cas t coast of Yucatan. Rorth of Boca Bacalar Chico t h e coast c o n s i s t s of up l i f t ed Ter t i a ry Limestones extending t o Cabo Chatoche; i n thc- Xcalak area, immediately nor th of t h e Boca, t h c limestones belong t o t h e Carrillo-Puerto Formation of Upper Miocene-Pliocene age ( ~ u t t c r l i n and Bonet, 1960). South of t h c Boca, Ambergris Cay f a l l s i n t o t h r e e main d ivis ions : (a) a three-mile long zone of mangrove swama, lagoon, and t ida l ly-emosed sand; (b) tha Basil Jones a rea , 5 milcs long and 2-3 miles wide; and (c) t h e r e s t of t h e cay. The Basil Jones a rea was b r i e f l y v i s i t e d i n liarch 1960; it consis t of a seaward beach r idge and leeward mangrove swamp, wi tha broad in tervening a r e a of ~ a l m t h i c k e t , dist inguished i n Figure 16 a s high and low woodland with mangrove. Surface bedrock, a creamy limestone, was seen exposed along the t r a c k leading t o Bas i l Jones. This i s presumably comparable i n age t o t h a t north of t h e Boca, and i t s presence shows t h a t t h e cay i s more properly a long sand and mangrove s p i t b u i l t southwards from a s o l i d rock core, probably continuous a t very shallow depths with t h e main penin- s u l a r l i m ~ s t o n e s . I s B a s i l Jonesrf i s t h e name given t o a t e s t d r i l l f o r o i l made i n t h e l a t e 19509s by a Shcll-Gulf O i l consortium, which reached 7322 f e e t without show of o i l . No i n f o m t i o n i s a v a i l a b l e on t h o we l l log ( ~ e l l e r and Wories, 1959)- South of Basil Jones i s t h e main p a r t of t h e cay, extcnding f o r about 1 4 miles. I n s t r u c t u r e it cons i s t s of a seaward sand r idge from 1CO t o 500 yards wide, backed by a wide zone of Rhizophora. The mangrove of ten f a l l s i n t o two sect ions : one immediately adjoining t h e sand r idge on i t s l e e s ide , and onc two miles t o th6 e a s t , forming t h c eas te rn shore of t h e cay, The in tervening area i s f i l l e d with shoal sand only in te rmi t t en t ly colonised by mangrove, and o f ten forming iivlumerabla c i r c u l a r deprcssions 1-200 yards across , separated by i n t r i c a t e , narrow i n t e r t i d a l sand rims, occasionally colonised by vegetation. These a r e well developed behind San Pcdro, and a l s o near Recf Point; no d e t a i l e d work has been done on these fea tu res , which bear a s u n c r f i c i a l resemblance t o drying att terns i n t h e savanna country near B d i ~ e , a s seen from t h e a i r . The sand r idge i s t h e only d ry p a r t of t h ~ cay, and i s of va r iab le h ~ i g l i t and width. For most o f i t s length it i s only 3-5 f e e t above sea l eve l , and of ten lower; but a t San Pedro and f o r about 1 mile t o t h c north it i s considerably highcr. I n 1959 Vermeer described a ra ised beach on t h e seaward face of t h i s r idge, 6 f e e t h i & and 10-20 yards wide, 2 mi les north of San Pedro (1959, 51-52, Figure 6) . Levell ing i n 1961 along t h i s r idge showed var i - ab le heights with -ridge c r e s t s a t 5 and 8 fee t , and a surface much d i s - turbed by wind erosion and deposit ion, The tops of t h e r idges i n t h i s a r e a might i n f a c t bes t be t e m e d dunes under calm t h i c k e t . Any such seaward-facing ledge a s t h a t described by Vermeer i s probably a hurricane cons t ruc t ion (s toddar t , 1962a, 167), and it i s i n f a c t doubt fu l whether .: .a.ny. t r a c e s of high stands of t h e sea can be t r a c e d anywhere on t h e B r i t i s h . . Honduras r e e f s (ARB 87, 109-110, 123-125): h ~ e d i a t e l y north of San Pedro v i l l a g e t h e r idge c r e s t reaches 8 f e e t above sea l eve l , and t h e water t a b l e , shown by a wel l , i s 7,5 f e e t d c e ~ . The r idge he re i s about 80 yards wide; on i t s west s ide it Dasses under dense palmetto t h i c k e t o r . , Avicennia-Rhizophora bush, depending on a l t i t u d e , Along t h e broadly a rcua te seaward shore, t r a c e s of eroded cemented sands can be folnd up t o . 6 inches above sea- level a t t h e promontories sega ra t ing t h e bays; t h e s e a r e -probably exposures of o ld cay.sandstone, s i m i l a r t o those on t h e e a s t . s i d e of Turneffe. San Pedro v i l l a g e , populat ion about 300 i s b u i l t on t h e h ighes t n a r t of t h e sand r idge, which r i s e s here t o nea r ly 20 f e e t I i . , above sea l e v e l , The water t a b l e l i e s a t depths of 15-17 f e e t . i n wel ls , . . . and supp l i e s exce l l en t d r ink ing water, which was not contaminated during Hurricane H a t t i e , Water between t h e cay and t h e reef i s not l e s s than 1 fathom deep, and the reef i t s e l f i s poor ly developed. I n s p i t e of t h e d i s t ance from t h e storm t r a c k , t h e r e was considerable eros ion of t h e sza- ward shore near t h e v i l l age . A number of houses near t h e sea were undermined by waves and col lapsed; t h e cemetery on lower ground w a s p a r t l y washed i n t o t h e sea; and a newly-built assemblage of hol iday h u t s south of t h e v i l l a g e was very badly damaged. Actual r e t r e a t of t h e shore and sand-striysping was, however, minor, and few t r e e s were knocked down. Terminalia c a t a ~ ~ a was seen l i v i n g c lose t o t h e beach, and only t h e near- shore coconuts were a f fec ted by waves, Away from t h e v i l l a g e , t h e main e f f e c t w a s depos i t ion of a t h i n sand carpet a few yards wide. Even a t t h e south end of Ambergris Cay few coconuts havz been f e l l e d . The l imi t ed damage seems t o have r e su l t ed s o l e l y from t h e work of waves i n exposed s i t u a t i o n s ; t h e wind ev iden t ly lacked t h e fo rce t o knock down coconut t r e e s , There i s no evidence t h a t t h e sea crossed t h e i s l a n d a t any point . Nor i s t h e r e any evidence of a high storm surge. The southern t i n of Ambergris i s formed by a number of small mangrove i s l ands , and bctween these and t h c main cay, and a l s o Cangrejo, t h c r t a r e a nwnber of d e e ~ submarine channels heading i n t h e shoa l reef a r e a and debouching i n t o t h e main c o a s t a l she l f lagoon, S imi lar channels a r e t o be found betwaen Cay Cangrejo and Cay Caulker, Thsse were ~hotographed before and a f t e r t h e hurr icane, and t h e r e seems t o be no s i g n i f i c a n t change i n t h e i r form. FTone of t h c mangrove on h b c r g r i s i s s e r i o u s l y de- f o l i a t e d , except t o a l imi t ed ex ten t near t h e south end, and evcn he re Rhizophora on t h e l e e s ide r e t a i n s i t s leaves. The limit of se r ious d e f o l i a t i o n must, t he re fo re , l i e between Ambergris Cay and Cay Caulker, about 40 mi le s no r th of t h e storm cent re . The e f f e c t of t h e hurr icane on mangrove cays i n t h e l e e of Ambergris Cay ( ~ e e r Cay, Swab Cay, Blackadore Cay, Piosquito cay) w a s negl ig ib le . Cay Caulker Cay Caulker (corker of J e f f r e y s , 1775, and Owen, 1830) i s a l a r g e mangrove-sand cay s i t u a t e d 5 mi les south of Ambergris Cay and 1-14 mi les from t h e edge of t h e c o a s t a l s h e l f , It has been b r i e f l y described by Vermeer (1959# 55-58). The i s l and , which ~ a r a l l e l s t h e she l f edge, i s about mi le s long, bu t v a r i e s considerably i n width, The northern section, some 25 miles long, i s 350-550 yards wide; then follows a mile- long section, f ron t ing a great leeward indentat ion, with a maximum width of only some 70 yards; while t h e broad southern end of t h e cay widens out t o about 2 mile i n width ( ~ i g u r e 17). The i s l and i s s t i l l very inadequately known; it was v i s i t ed i n 1961 and again i n 1962, and photographed from the a i r i n 1959, 1961 and 1962. The seaward s i de is formed by a sand ridge of var iable height. Along t h e northern ha l f of t h e cay it i s everywhere low, and fronted on t he seaward s i de by now defo l ia ted Rhizophora. Along much of t h e narrow sec to r of t h e cay it i s a l s o l e s s than 3 f e e t high, but near Cay Caulker v i l l age it r i s e s t o 6-7 f ee t (vermeer quotes a maximum of 12 f e e t ) . Along t he southern sec t ion t h e r idge again decl ines and i s fronted by mangrove. About t h e i n t e r i o r of t h e cay very l i t t l e i s known: t h e southern lobe contains much mangrove and some standing water (vermeer, 1959, 56-7), and mangrove forms a discontinuous rim round t h e shore of t h e main west bay, and a l s o towards t h e northern end of t h e west s i de of t h e cay. Piuch of t h e l e e shore, how- ever, consis ts of a low, of ten c l i f f e d sand beach without mangrove. The i n t e r i o r of t he northern sec to r i s covered with palm th i cke t ra ther than with mangrove. The seaward sand ricige i s generally planted with coconuts, especia l ly near Cay Caulker v i l l age , on t h e narrow sect ion of t h e cay. The v i l l agc i s favourably s i tua tcd on t he highest pa r t of t he sand ridge, with an excel lent small-boat anchorage i n t he west bay. It has a p o ~ u l a t i o n of about 300 and before t h e hurricane was a boat-building and f i sh ing centre with a l a rge ly Spanish-speaking population, a nol ice s t a t i o n and shops. Reyes, Alamina, Young and Bevans were common surnames here, I n addi t ion t o coconuts a number of o ther t r e e s were plantcd m a r t h e v i l - lage, some ornamental (including l a rge specimens of pinus), scme f r u i t , including mango (liangifera irdica), wlaiitain ( lhsa paradisiaca) , and 9almondq ( ~ e r m i n a l i a catappa), n lus many exot ic flowering shrubs. During t h e hurricane damage was coilcentrated near the v i l l age i t s e l f , where t he land, though highcst , was narrowest and most clearcd of na t ive vegetation. Two s t r e e t s of wooden houses neares t t h e sea were dcstroyed by wave act ion, together with t h e main boat-building s i t e s , and t he sea completely crossed over t h e land a rea a t i t s narrowest point. The school- house, standing i n the t rack of t h e waves, collapsed, with 14 dcaths. A t t h i s point , north of the v i l l age , t h e land i s low-lying and presented l i t t l e obstacle. Coconut t r e e s were uprooted, and t he holes l e f t by t h e i r roots formed the nucleus of scour holes cut i n t o t h e cay surface. The deepest of these holes i s about 6 f e e t deep and most a r e about 6 yards long, elongated i n t he d i r ec t i on of water movement. Further scour holes have been cut i n the shallow f loor of the west bay c lose t o the shoreline. I n t h e v i l l age i t s e l f , where t h e land i s higher, east-west t rending s t r e e t s , a t right-angles t o t he shore, channelled storm waters across the cay, and were scoured out t o depths of 1-2 fee t . The walls of these channels a r e near ly v e r t i c a l , and reveal l aye r s of cemented sand, dipping seaward paral- l e l t o the cay surface. Elsewhere along the seaward shore the re has been s t r ipp ing of t he surface sands within 10 yards of t he shore, removing up t o 2-3 f ee t of sand i n v e r t i c a l cross-section, a s indicated by t h e roo t s of s t i l l - s t and ing coconut palms. Thz s u r v i v a l of coconut n?lms, r . s n ~ . c i a l l y away f ron t h e narrow a r e a where t h e sea crossed t h c i s l a n d , i s ~ c m a r k s b l c ; young t r e e s r r e s t i l l s tan- d ing wi th in a few f e e t of th,: seamrd s h c x i t s e l f . Elhi~onhora has b?on c o m ~ l c . t e l y d e f o l i a t e d a long t h e whole of t h a c a s t shor:, and along t h e mar- g ins of t h e west bay; b u t i n Narch 1962 Rh i~oghora with l eaves was t o be seen a long t h e r ~ s t of t h e west shore. Coccolcba survivad even ncar t h e ssaward beach, and Tarminslia wi th in 50 yards of it, though both w:3re much broken. One o r two l a r g e ~ i n c s werc overturned i n t h z v i l l a g a , and t h e m was complete d e s t r u c t i o n of p l an ta ins . Generally, ~ h y s i o g r a p h i c e f f e c t s away from t h s v i l l a g e were neg l ig ib l e , and vegeta t ion damagc w a s moderate, e x c e ~ t near t h e v i l l a g e and a long t h e seaward shore. Cay Cham1 Cay Chapel ( ~ i ~ u r e 17) i s a mangrove-sand cay l y i n g 1 mi le south of Cay Caulker and 1 5 m i l e s from t h e edge of t h ? c o a s t a l s h e l f , herc only sna r se ly fringed with r ee f . The i s l a n d i s elongate, a l igncd ~ a r a l l e l t o t h e she l f edge; it i s 2; m i l e s long, with ?- g r e a t e s t width of about 500 yards, Th.2 g r e a t e r p a r t of thc cay i s b u i l t of o a r a l l e l sand r idges , s l i gned north- south r i s i n g t o a maximum he igh t of 6 f e e t abovc sea l e v e l , Ths s t r u c t u r e of t h e r i d g e s and in t e rven ing swales has been l a r g e l y destroyed by b u l l - dozing opera t ions connected with land c l ea r ing . A t t h e nor thern and southern m d s of t h e cay t h e r c i s a s l i g h t growth of Rhizophora, but othar- wise mangrove i s r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e na rg ins of a l e c s i d e svmnp a r e a near t h e middle of t h e cay. The vegeta t ion of thtt sand a rea formcrly con- s i s t e d of 3 dense ~ , ,h t h i c k e t of coconuts and Thrinax, w i th Coccoloba, Tournefort ia , Suriana, Euphorbia and grasses ; it has c l e a r l y changed xuch s ince J c f f m y s noted a s i n g l e : f l a rge cocoa tree;a i n 1775. Sincc 1961, howevcr, t h e i s l a n d has been i n t h e hands of land dcvclopers , who before t h e hurr icane had almost c o m ~ l e t e l y c lzared t h ~ vegzta t ion from t h e w h o l ~ o'f t h e no r the rn end of t h e cay, l eav ing only coconuts s tanding, with no ground vegeta t ion a t a l l . Previous ly t h e i s l a n d had been exploited f o r c o c o n u t s , y i e l d i n g 60-70 ,~00 n u t s pc r month, Of t h e coconuts s tanding a t t h e timc- of t h e storm, r z s i d e n t s cs t imate t h a t 60:' were f c l l e d ; but a t t h e time of my v i s i t most of t h e s e had been bulldozed away. I n t h c nor thern c leared s e c t o r t h e r e was some undcrcut t ing and root-oxposure a long t h e e a s t shore, and s a n d - s t r i ~ p i n g and root-exposure 2cross a zone about 10-15 yards wide nea r t h e shore, and oatchy sand depos i t ion ac ross a Lcne 12-25 yards wide immediately in l and frcm it. The sea i s s a i d t o have r i s e n t o a he ight of 10-12 f e e t above normal and t o have submerged t h e nor thern end of t h e cay; how~ver , t h i s he igh t i s very much g r e a t e r than t h a t repor ted f o r Cay Caulker, and t h e t r u e r i s e may have been much l e s s than 10 f e e t Since t h e hurr icane , t h e ba re sand sur face has been colonised by Tournefort ia seedl ings , a l i t t l e Euphorbia and ?burr-burr ' , Cenchrus. The southern sec t ion of t h e i s l a n d i s s t i l l dense ly vegetated, and s ince hurr icane has been almost impenetrable except a long b u l l d o ~ e d t r a i l s , Wind damage t o vegeta t ion has been considerable, a c t i n g from t h e no r theas t , but maximum damage occurred along t h e seaward shore, where t h e vegetat ion, mostly Coccoloba, has been pushed back f o r s e v c r a l yards. Lmmediatcly south of t h e easternmost po in t on t h e seaward shore, t h i s r e t r e a t of t h e vege ta t ion hedge and t h e s t r i p p i n g of sur face sand has zxposed a wide s r e a of cay sandstone. The e m o s u r e i s about l5 yards square, and d i p s seaward. A t i t s ou te r cdge it i s 1 foo t t h i c k , with i t s lowcr edge 18 inches above sea 1 6 ~ ~ 1 , a t about t h e limit of normal wavc swash, Thc t o p of t h e inne r edge r i s e s t o about 3 f e e t above sea l eve l . It i s bounded on a l l s i d e s by s t e e p and overhanging margins, and t h e sur face i s deenly p i t t e d and eroded; t h e su r face i s a l s o much b e t t e r cemented than t h e i n t e r i o r . Ths cons t i tuen t sand i s very f i n e , and does not contain t h e l a r g e Halimcda elates and red foramini fera c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of i n t e r t i d a l beachrock. Similar cementation can be t r a c e d a t i n t e r v a l s along t h e shore beneath t h e Coccoloba f r inge , The exnosure seems sinilar t o 9 though b e t t e r developed than, t h a t a t Cay Caulker v i l l a g e . Cays between Cay Cham1 and Be&& hnar t from St . Gecrgeos Cay and St . Georgevs East Cay, discussed below, t h e r z i s l i t t l e t o remark about t h e numerous mangrove i s l a n d s on t h e coas- t a l she l f between 1 7 ? 3 0 ~ ~ and 17?45~1;1. These cays inc lude Long Cay ( the northernmost of t h a t name), Hicks Cays, ISontego and Frenchmanvs Cays, Han and Chicken Cays, Riderys Cays, and t h e northernmost Drowned Cays, Apart from a narrow seaward f r i n g e of sand and coconuts on Long Cay and on t h c Drownzd Cays nor th of Gallows Point , t h a s e i s l a n d s cons i s t wholly of man- grcve, and a r e o f t en discontinuous. The Hicks Cays, f o r examnle, cons i s t of a dozen i s l a n d s , fou r of them la rge , t h e in t e rven ing passages being shal - low and colonised by Rhizoohora seedlings, but with deen meandering channels, through which t i d a l cu r ren t s s e t with g r e a t r a p i d i t y , A 1 1 t hese mangrove cays suf fered complete d e f o l i a t i o n , and most were probably inundated by t h e storm surge. Flying over them a f t c r t h e storm, t h e a r e a of bare mud and shallow water wi th in many of t h e cays seemed g r e a t l y increased, probably l a r g e l y a s a r e s u l t of t h e breakup of t h e mangrove canoDy; seen i n t h i s condit ion t h e name of qdrowned cays? scemed p a r t i c u l a r l y appropriate . On t h e snarse dry a r e a s even coconuts were s t i l l s tanding, but gaDs showed t h a t a t l e a s t 75s. had been destroyed. A t Lontego, Frenchmanfs,St, GeorgePs and Hick?s Cays l e a f growth on Rhizophcra i n Apr i l , 1962, w a s l imi t ed t o young p l a n t s on t h e west s i d e s , i n d i c a t i n g p ro tec t ion from e a s t e r l y hurr icane wave so The form of t h e Drowned Cays p r o w r i s w e l l shoum on t h e new Admiralty cha r t of Belize Harbour, No, 522 of 1960, based on suilveys of 1957-8. These mangrove i s l a n d s a r e i n t e r s e c t e d by a number of narrow east-west channels o r ?boguesv, namely Shag Cay Bogue, Bannister Bogue, F a r l s Bogue and Goring Bogue, These arne similar t o t h e un-named bogues between Frenchmanfs, Montego and S t , Georgevs Cays f u r t h e r north. Most of t h e s e bogues carry 3-4 fathoms water , and they must have ac ted as major drainage channels f o r t h e east-west passage of water during t h e storm surge. The northernmost bogues show s igns of scouring, with ~ r o m i n e n t sand d e l t a s a t t h z i r western end (e.g, nor th of S t , Georgevs cay) but t h e r e i s no mzans of es t imat ing t h e amount of deepening e i t h e r here o r a t Drowned Cays. Stake Bank, midway between Drowned Cays and Belize, i s worthy of men- -- t i o n . According t o Anthony de XaynePs ii5S survc;-y of B e l i ~ e Harbour, 1828, t h i s w a s a t t h a t t ime a shoal bank with one o r two mangrove seedlings, There i s a widesnread t r a d i t i o n t h a t t h e shoal i s b u i l t from b a l l a s t deno- s i t e d by sh ips i n t h e harbour ( ~ n d e r s o n , 1958, 95) , I n 1765 Speer des- c r ibed i t as a ftlong Bank, . . , ca l l ed Stake Bank, . .. d r y i n some par ts l f ; it was not t hen v i s i b l e u n t i l c lose by, a s Sgeer g ives course d i r e c t i o n s when it may be seer. 79) and Cebulski (1961). The P h i l l i p s Petroleum Company i s a t ~ r e s e n t (1961-2) d r i l l i n g a t e s t we l l west of t h e nor thern end of Tobacco Yange, which sould provide much information on s h e l f s t r u c t u r e , Cay G l o q Cay Glory was v i s i t e d a number of t imes i n 1959 and 1960, and photo- graphed from t h e a i r i n 1959 and 1961, A t t h i s t ime it was s i t u a t e d on t h e south s i d e of a reef gap ca r ry ing L-5 fathoms water , some 9 mi l e s south of dendezvous Cay. It was a narrow s t r i p of sand 115 ya rds long and nowhere more than 23 yards wide ( ~ i g u r e 30) , Minzerling (1946) has suggested t h a t t h e gap i s of l a r g e l y a r t i f i c i a l o r i g i n , and was cu t t o p l a y a p a r t i n t h e ou te r defences of a somewhat hypo the t i ca l Pu r i t an colony a t Stann Creek; but t h i s specula t ion seems t o have no f a c t u a l b a s i s , Northwards t h e b a r r i e r reef extends wi th few breaks t o Rendezvous Cay; southwards it p r o j e c t s t o t h e e a s t i n a ~ r o m i n e n t elbow, backed by a wide, sandy, r i p p l e d r ee f - f l a t . Two mi le s south of t h e cay a number of h u t s had been e r e c t e d on t h e shallow r e e f - f l a t , and were o c c u ~ i e d du r ing t h e grouper f i s h i n g season; t h e r e were ttm h u t s t h e r e i n 1922 and over a dozen i n 1960, The cay was wholly b u i l t of sand, 1 6 t h maximum h e i g h t s of n e a r l y 4 f e e t a long t h e undercut western shore near i t s nor th end, The southern, unvegetated p a r t of t h e cay w a s sub jec t t o cons iderable changes: Figure 30 shows i t s p lan i n February 1960; when r e v i s i t e d i n A p r i l t h e whole west shore had r e t r e a t e d 2-3 f e e t , t h e southern s p i t had decreased i n l eng th by 15 yards, and had recurved towards t h e e a s t . The vegeta t ion cover a t - t he no r th end w a s spa r se and low, c o n s i s t i n g of ~esuv ium wort u l acas t rum, Eunhorbia mesembrian 12, Philoxerus vermicular i s , Cakile lanceola ta , Paswalum d i s t i c h u i and Iwomoea a s a r i f o l i a . There was a s i n g l e young coconut t r e e 4 f e e t high, and t h e cay was more conspicuous f o r a smal l tha tched hut than f o r i t s vegeta t ion cover. There i s no doubt t h a t t h e i s l a n d was formerly more extensive. A s l a t e a s 1922 Cawt. Douglas noted coconut t r e e s 70 f e e t t a l l (&is ~ 8 9 2 5 ) ~ and many fishermen remember when t h e cay was l a r g e r t h a n a t p resen t and was inhab i t ed , It was destroyed i n t h e 1931 o r 1945 hur r i canes ( in fo r - mation d i f f e r s ) . Beachrock r e l i c s of t h i s o lder cay a r e widespread t o west and northwest of t h e 1960 cay, and seem t o i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e o ld i s l a n d was l a r g e r than t h e present , There a r e f o u r l i n e s of beachrock dipping nor th , t h e longes t 7G yards long, a l l massive, s l i g h t l y undercut, suwporting a lgae and some co ra l s , and l i t t l e f r ac tu red . A l l t h e s e l i n e s were s l i g h t l y drowned and could be swum over a t high t i d e ; modern reef growth extended wi th in t h e o u t e r l i n e s , More l i n e s of rock d i p southwards, one being e x c e ~ t i o n a l l y massive, t h e o the r be ing t h i n n e r and drowned suf- f i c i e n t l y f o r t h e growth of Acropora c e r v i c o r r ~ i s co lon ie s on i t s upper ENGLISH CAY s FIG. 24 FIG. 26 SPANISH CAY 1961 , . RENDEZVOUS CAY PHYSIOGRAPHY FIG. 20 VEGETATION CHANNEL A f i FIG. 19 HURRICANE DAMAGE AT SAINT CHANNEL B GEORGE'S CAY 0 V A D S 200 r * * . * . * " . . I I f W " . . W . . w . . . w \ I I I gs1 I . . . . . I 1 1 I I , C . . . . . I ; I \ I I I . . 42 I I I I I , I \ 9 I :, I 6 ', I ,!f I , \ \ \ $ & m E W H M A N 9 S I . CAY \ \ : 1 - 24 \ v w , , I ; \ 0 1 1 I I @,, \ \ 6 I 9 ,f\; I' \\ 0 6 ~ \ ,! :: I 9 \ I 1 1 0 \ \ 6 I I I l L , 5 I I I / 2 4 I I I I I / I i s I I I I I I I I I I I f ,'/ : g I I / : 2 I I I I I I 1 I - -6.' I , I ___---- I /--- I , I I 7$ / "ST.'GEORGE~S EAST CAY I 9 I - I " I I I ;? ,' 9 / I I \ :: I ' ; ; 21 , , :: I I I I I 1.' 1 I I '\ I I \ /' I ', I 30 I I I I / \ I 24 \ I I \ I \. \ 24 \ \. 30 \ \ \\ \ W '\ '\ \ \ \ I I 30 24 \ 'L-2 /I 7t FIG. 18 24 0 LOCATION OF ST GEORGE'S CAY BASED ON AlR PHOTOGRAPHS SOUNDINGS IN FEET FROM U M I U L T Y W R T W b E R 959 ONE MILE 1 . . . . I . . I I I . . . . . , ; I I I . ' . . . . . , I . . j I . . I . . i I . : i l I . . : . R I P P L ? S . :' I I I . . I .,., . ; : I . . . , . . : I . . . . . . . . . . : I ; . : : I I . . . . I I surface , The massive block was deenly undercut, rose 5 f e e t from t h e reef f l a t and j u s t broke surface. It was t h e only exposure v i s i b l e from t h e i s l and a t any s t a g e of t h e t i d e , One i n t e r e s t i n g f ea tu re , not marked on t h e mao, was a c i r c l e of c o r a l blocks 15 yards i n diameter between t h e two iiorthernrnost l i n e s of beachrock, which r e c a l l s t h e conch s h e l l f i s h t r a o s b u i l t by fishermen on present shores, arid may have a s i m i l a r o r ig in . During Hurricane Ha t t i e , Cay Glory was completely destroyed, and no cay ex i s t ed a t t h i s poin t i n 1962, The only f e a t u r e t o a t t r a c t a t t e n t i o n was t h e c r e s t of t h e massive beachrock s t i l l breaking surface. A l l t h e beachrock seems t o have survived, though conple te ly s t r ipped of c o r a l s and algae. The reef f l a t f l o o r near t h e beachrock i s barren, 5-6 f e e t deep, and covered with s t r o n g l y r ippled sand. About 20 yards t o t h e e a s t i s a s t e e ~ - s i d e d zone of r ipp led sand r i s i n g t o wi th in 2-3 f e e t of t h e sur face - an embryonic cay which, a s a t Paunch Cay, w i l l eventually break surface a s a sandbore, Round t h i s r i ~ p l e d - s a n d a r e a t h e f l o o r i s covered with Thalass ia , l i t t e r e d with smal l c o r a l debr i s ; t h e r ee f i t s e l f ( see C h a ~ t e r 3 ) has been l a r g e l y destroyed and replaced by a rubble c a r ~ e t , The beachrock i t s e l f seems more f r ac tu red than previously, though t h i s may only be a n anparent change r e s u l t i n g from t h e s t r i p p i n g of a lgae . Tobacco Cay Tobacco Cay ( f igu re 31) l i e s a t t h e southern end of a long unbroken sec t ion of t h e b a r r i e r r e e f , 12 n a u t i c a l mi l e s due south of Cay Glory. The reef f l a t immediately nor th of t h e cay has a width of 500-600 yards; while t h e lower platform t o leeward i s here 3s mi les wide and ~ z r r i e s 2$-3 fathoms of water, with deeper holes un t o 6; fathoms. MaXmum depths i n t h e lagoon here reach 13 fathoms. The Tobacco Cay e ~ t r a n c e i t s e l f c a r r i e d 2-3 fathoms, s u f f i c i e n t f o r m a l l s a i l i n g vesse l s , which even today regu la r ly use t h i s o r nearby reef-gaps when making f o r Glovervs Reef. I n t k e i g h t e e n t h century t h e gaD was a l s o an i m ~ o r t a n t entrance t o t h e b a r r i e r reef lagoon: it i s marked with g rea t prominence i n Speerqs 1771 c h a r t , and J e f f r e y s i n 1775 names t h e cay and a l s o gives soundings i n t h e channel. Caiger (1951, 28-29) fol lows ldinzerling (1946) i n speaking of tobacco c u l t i v a t i o n here i n 1630-1640, but t h e r e i s no evidence of t h i s a p a r t from t h e name. The f i rs t mention of Tobacco Cay i n t h e colonyvs a rch ives seems t o be i n 1753, i n connection with a l l eged English lobarbari- t i e s i t a g a i n s t t h e Spanish on t h e cay (caiger , 1951, 74). The 1922 biutine survey d i d not extend a s f a r south a s Tobacco Cay, and cu r ren t c h a r t s d a t e from Owenos Thunder s w v e y of 1834. The i s l a n d was mapped i n e a r l y 1960, remapped i n J u l y 1961 fol1owins;"Iurricane Abby, and mapped again i n Apr i l 1962 following Hurricane ~ a t t : & l . I n 1960 Tobacco Cay was roughly t r i angu la r , with a g r e a t e s t N-S length of 300 yards and a maximum width of 150 yards. The whole i s l a n d was sndy , r i s i n g on t h e seaward s i d e t o a he ight of 5 f e e t above sea l e v e l ilear t h e southeas t poin t ; bu t t h e g r e a t e r p a r t of t h e sur face was remark- ab ly f l a t and f e a t u r e l e s s , with a near constant e l eva t ion of 3$-4 f e e t above t h e sea. Towards t h e north and west shores t h i s s inks t o l e s s than 3 f e e t . Conch s h e l l s had accumulated along t h e west shore, and t h e r e was a shor t f r e s h sandspit a t t h e north ~ o i n t . The l a r g e s t f r e s h sand accumu- l a t i o n i n 1960, however, was along t h e south shore, where white sand, con- t r a s t i n g s h a r d y with t h e dark humic sand of t h e cay nroner, had been thrown uo i n two r idges, t h e innermost r i s i n g t o 3 f e e t above sea l e v e l and enclosing two brackish pools. The shore behind t h i s accumulation, and behind t h e northern sandspit, was undercut. Two l i n e s of southward dipping beachrock were found 40 yards off t h e south shore. The cay was inhabi ted , with 10 huts , some s u b s t a n t i a l , i n 1960-61, and we l l s tapping ground water gave a notable s u p d y , I n 1960 t h e i s l and was covered with t h i c k vegetation. I n mid-1834 Owen noted t r e e s 70 f e e t high; Lieut. Smith (1842, 732) s t a t e d t h a t iqTobacco Cay cannot wel l be mistaken, having a high f ig - t r ee (70 f e e t ) near t h e nor theas t extreme.^^ I n 1960 coconuts were dominant, some reaching heights of 80 f e e t , together with a number of t a l l talmondsq, Terminalia catappa, and shor t bushy Coccoloba uvi fera and Cordia sebestena. The undergrowth was dense, mainly of Conocar~us, with a continuous ground cover, cons i s t ing of l a r g e patches of Stachflarpheta jamaicensis, Idedelia t r i l o b a t a , Ipomoea gescaprae, I. s t o l o n i f s , Sesuvium portulacastrum, Hwenocal l i s l i t t o r a l i s , with species of Euphorbia, and Canavalia rosea and Vigna lu teo la . There were a number of Rhi'ophora - seedl ings on t h e west shore, It i s worth noting t h a t on t h e 1945 1:40,000 a i r ~ h o t o g r a p h cover, vegetat ion on t h e cay seemed - - extremely soarse, probably a s a r e s u l t of t h e hurricane of t h e year. In mid-1961, before Hurricane Ha t t i e , t he cay had suffered consider- able changes. Hurricane Abby of 15 Ju ly , 1960, had sweot away t h e southern sand r idge and t h e northern s a n d s ~ i t ( the new shore l ine i s shown i n Figure 31a), and blown down a number of coconut t r e e s i n t h e south- c e n t r a l plzrt of t h e cay. I n addi t ion , most of t h e bushes had been c leared by t h e innab i t an t s , t o give a very d i f f e r e n t a s ~ e c t t o t h e i s land. The ground cover of creeDers and recumbent n lan t s , however, remained t h e same. The damage caused by Hurricane H a t t i e may be summarised a s follows. The old cay shores were eroded on t h e e a s t s ide , and p a r t i c u l a r l y a t t h e southeast ooint , where t h e r e t r e a t t o t a l l e d 14 yards. Coconuts roo t s were exposed by sand s t r ipp ing along t h e c e n t r a l p a r t of t h e e a s t shore, and f o r shor t d i s t ances near t h e nor th point . Fresh sand has been p i l e d up over t h e old surface along t h e west and south shores. It i s most noticeable along t h e south shore, where it forms a s t eep r idge r i s i n g t o a height of 2-3 f e e t ; and a t t h e southeast point , now r i s i n g i n a gradual slope t o a height of 6 f e e t , 2 f e e t higher than formerly. Along t h e south shore t h e f r e s h sand carnet has a maximum width of about 15 yards. About 70:' of t h e coconuts were knocked down, t h e d i r e c t i o n of f a l l vary- ing from 10-60?, average 40?, i n d i c a t i n g winds s l i g h t l y south of southeas t , The g r e a t e s t sand deposi t ion a l s o i%&cates s i m i l a r water movement; but t h e g r e a t e s t erosion i s on t h e e a s t , seaward side. I n f a l l i n g , many of t h e t r e e s l e f t sur face holes now f i l l e d with brackish water , The i s l and i s sa id not t o have been submerged by a storm surge, bu t t h e freshwater l e n s was s c contaminated t h a t we l l water i s now almost undrinkable; t h e inhabi tants , who have no a l t e r n a t i v e , nevertheless survive on it. A l l t h e houses collapsed, and i n 1962 a s ing le family was Living i n a makeshift t e n t of polythene sheeting. T e m i n a l i a r e s i s t e d d e s t r u c t i o n i n near-shore l o c a t i o n s , bu t - Coccoloba and Cordia were both much broken, Coconuts, i nc lud ing some of t h e t a l l e s t and most f rag i le - looking , s tood on t h e e a s t and no r th s i d e s of t h e cay. None of t h e f a l l e n t r u n k s have y e t been c leared . The cay su r f ace i s covered wi th a very s i m i l a r u l a n t assemblage t o t h a t e x i s t i n g - before t h e storm: Stachytarpheta , Sesuvium, Tdedelia and Ipomoea; though Vedelia, which appears t o l i k e shade,was much l e s s widespread, and Ipomoea had r e l a t i v e l y increased . 1;uch of t h e Hymenocallis w a s bur ied by f r e s h sand but survived, Along t h e south shore t h e f r e s h sand r idge has been invaded and almost completely covered i n t h e per iod November- A p r i l by I~omoea . Other p l a n t s c o l l e c t e d i n 1962 inc luded Eleusine -- i n d i c a Vigna l u t e o l a , G a g r o s t i s c i l i a r i s and Euphorbia b l o d g e t t i i , -- 9 Por tu laca o le racea , dominant co lon i se r on t h e heav i ly damaged nor thern - sand cays was seen, bu t no t i n profusion. Cays between Tobacco and South lister Cays I n June 1834 Owen char ted t h r e e i s l a n d s a long t h e reef between Tobacco and South W a t e r Cays, with t h e annota t ions , atdead t r e e s 1 m i l e nor th , vttrees 15 feetr1 1i mile nor th , and qf trees 20 feetbr 2; mi l e s n o r t h of South Water Cay r e spec t ive ly . The h u t i n e d i d no t f i n d t h e s e cays i n 1922, nor do t h e y e x i s t today. However, t h r e e sandbores were seen here , i n t h e s e approximate loca t ions , i n 1960. S imi l a r sand pa tches were a l s o seen no r th of Tobacco Cay. They were a l l l i n e a r , o r i e n t e d p a r a l l e d t o t h e r ee f , uw t o 50 ya rds long and l e s s t han 10 ya rds wide, b u i l t of very f r e s h sand, almost overtopped by t h e waves, and c l e a r l y ephemeral. They were no t seen i n 1961 o r 1962, South Water C= - South Water Cay ( ~ i g u r e 32) i s s i t u a t e d on t h e no r the rn s i d e of a r ee f gap, a t t h e end of a n unbroken r ee f segment 5; m i l e s south of Tobacco Cay, It i s prominently marked on J e f f r e y ' s c h a r t (1775), and w a s l a s t char ted by Owen i n 1834, when he noted t r e e s 50 f e e t t a l l . The g e n e r a l physiography of t h e reef i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t descr ibed a t Tobacco Cay, The i s l a n d w a s mapped i n 1960, r e v i s i t e d i n 1961, and re-mapped i n 1962. I n 1960 t h e cay had a maximum north-south l eng th of a l i t t l e more t h a n 700 yards ; i t s width v a r i e d from 75 t o 200 yards ; and it was a l igned a t an ang le t o t h e b a r r i e r r ee f , which it approached c l o s e s t a t i t s no r the rn end. The i s l a n d f a l l s into'two d i s t i n c t p a r t s : over t h e southern th ree -qua r t e r s t h e n a t u r a l vege ta t ion has been completely c l ea red f o r coconuts, while t h e no r the rn s e c t o r i s s t i l l p a r t l y covered with dense palm t h i c k e t , I n t h e cen t r e of t h e cay t h e r e i s a n a r e a of ornamental gardens with e x o t i c wlants , a hard t e n n i s cour t , tomb ( incorpora t ing a f reshwater we l l ) , and house. A t t h e n o r t h e a s t po in t , where t h e shore l i e s 50-100 yards from t h e reef , t h e beach i s composed of c o r a l rubble, much p i t t e d and blackened, merging i n t o t h e s c a t t e r e d d e b r i s of t h e shal low reef f l a t , and backed landward by a sh ing le r i dge 4 f e e t high, I n pockets i n t h e face of t h e sh ing le r idge, small sand beaches have accumulated, composed e n t i r e l y of Halimeda fragments, A s t h e beach t r e n d s away from t h e b a r r i e r reef towards t h e south t h e amount of sh ingle and rubble decreases r an id ly , and t h e g r e a t e r p a r t of t h e e a s t shore, be fo re t h e hurr icane, cons i s t ed of f i n e sand, r i s i n g t o a c r e s t 4-5 f e e t above sea l e v e l , and overlooking a wide, sandy and very shallow reef f l a t . The reef f l a t i t s e l f i s covered wi th Thalassia: c l o s e in shore a r e numerous Fhizophora seedl ings , with a few mature clumps. Behind t h e sh ing le r idge a t t h e n o r t h end of t h e cay i s a n a r e a of b lack swampy s o i l wi th s tanding water, separated from t h e lagoon on t h e northwest s i d e by a low sand r idge , t h e o u t e r margin of which was s l i g h t l y c l i f f e d i n 1960. I n 1960 and 1 9 6 1 t h e r e w a s a prominent s p i t o f f r e s h sand a t t h e south po in t , where t h e margin of t h e i s l a n d core was a l s o undercut, and a t t h e n o r t h end of t h e west bay. No beachrock was seen on t h e seaward shores of t h e cay, bu t immediately south of a 70 yard long masonry w a l l i n t h e west bay t h r e e patches of cemented sand were noted i n 1960, emerging from underneath t h e beachridge. Pa r t of t h e rock was w e l l cemented, b u t much was s t i l l f r i a b l e ; i t s ou te r edge extended 2-3 f e e t from t h e base of t h e beach, and t r ench ing showed t h a t it extended a t l e a s t 4 f e e t under t h e beach sands. I t s t o t a l t h i ckness was 12 inches - Almost a l l t h e i s l a n d i e covered with coconuts, wi th a spa r se ground cover of Euphorbia b l o d g e t t i i and g ras ses ; t h e Mutine survey n,oted t r e e s 60 f e e t high i n 1921 (west I n d i e s P i l o t , I, 463). The nor thern sh ing le r idge w a s covered wi th a p r o s t r a t e zone of Sesuvium and a c r e s t - zone of Tournefort ia and Suriana. Ground cover i n t h e nor thern palm t h i c k e t cons i s t ed of Wedelia, Cakile, Ipomoea, Euphorbia, C.yperus pla- n i f o l i u s , Sporobolus and Andropogon glomeratus, wi th Borr ich ia arborescens and Coccoloba round t h e margins. Borr ich ia and Coccoloba were a l s o s c a t t e r e d a long t h e e a s t e r n sand r idge , w i th patches of Euwhorbia and Ambrosia h i sp ida , During Hurricane H a t t i e t h e shore l ine r e t r e a t e d d iscont inuous ly on a l l s i d e s of t h e cay: along t h e whole of t h e northwest shore, a long t h e nor thern s e c t i o n of t h e west bay (i .e. t h a t art f a c i n g southwest), a t t h e south ~ o i n t , and i n p l aces a long t h e e a s t shore. Re t r ea t on t h e northwest shore exposed t h r e e pa tches of cemented sand s tanding 6 inches above high t i d e l e v e l , w i th no d i s c e r n i b l e d i p , permeated wi th coconut roo t s , and s t i l l f r i a b l e . Tne exposure l i e s 120 ya rds from t h e no r th po in t , where t h e sand r i d g e narrows between swamp and sea, and i s probably a cay sandstone r a t h e r t han a beachrock. The i n c i p i e n t beachrock noted i n t h e west bay i n 1960 was c o m ~ l e t e l y emosed, forming t h r e e overlapping l i n e s , now s tanding 2-3 yards of fshore , with a t o t a l l eng th of n e a r l y 30 yards. The rock i s now gene ra l ly w e l l cemented, and has a marked lagoonward d ip . It i s loca ted immediately south of t h e end of t h e con- c r e t e w a l l , now much broken and nd longe r i n con tac t with t h e shore. The southernmost sand s p i t was washed away, and t h e southern p a r t of t h e cay has t h e appearance of submergence by t h e sea. On t h e e a s t s i d e t h e r e a r e a number of shallow scour ho le s which may have been cu t by southwes- t e r l y storm waters c ross ing t h e cay sur face . Along t h e shores of t h e west bay, t h e r e i s f i r s t a narrow beach zone, t hen a n undercut s a n d c l i f f , towped by a zone of bare coconut r o o t s from which t h e loose sand has been s t r ipped , and then a wider but i r r e g u l a r zone of patchy f r e s h sand, deposi ted by storm waves. These f r e s h sand d e p o s i t s a r e found only on t h e west and south shores of t h e cay. Tree f a l l d i r e c t i o n i s i n harmony with t h e ~ i c t u r e of erosion arid depos i t ion: d i r e c t i o n of f a l l e n coconuts v a r i e s from 11-62' and averages 30-40?, corresponding, a s a t Tobacco Cay, t o southwesterly winds, Pany t r e e s a r e s t i l l s tanding a t t h e south and nor th ends of t h e cay, but i n t h e cen t re about 80Z of t h e t r e e s a r e down. The shores of t h e northern p a r t of t h e west bay a r e l i n e d by t h e u ~ t u r n e d bo les of f a l l e n t r e e s , According t o i n h a b i t a n t s o the r t r e e s were de fo l i a t ed , b u t i n 1962 E r r i c h i a and Coccoloba were s t i l l l i v i n g , and two l a r g e Avicennia on t h e e a s t shore were not k i l l e d . The j e t t i e s and some houses were destroyed, but t h e cay i s s t i l l occupied and seve ra l houses a r e inhab i t ab le . i\!iost severe proper ty damage w a s l imi t ed t o nearshore l o c a t i o n s on t h e west s ide . Carr ie Bow Cay Carr ie Bow Cay, owned by and named a f t e r t h e Bowman family of Stann Creek, was mapped by Owen a s flJack E l l i n v s Cays' ( ~ 5 7 , 1830) and appears on c h a r t s as G l l e n Cay*?. It i s s i t u a t e d a t t h e southern end of a small sec t ion of the b a r r i e r r ee f , bounded north and south by channels car ry ing 1$ fathoms, and it l i e s about $ mile south of South Water Cay. The i s l a n d i t s e l f was an elongat3 s t r i p of sand 150 ya rds long and 35-45 yards wide when named i n 1960 (Figure 33). A t t h e t ime of t h i s survey a temporary f r e s h s a n d s ~ i t extended 35 yards t o t h e nor th of t h e main body of t h e cay. The su r face of t h e i s l a n d i s f l a t , of r a t h e r grey sand, r i s i n g t o a maximum height of 3-4 f e e t above sea l e v e l a long t h e e a s t shore. The eas t e rn beach was then narrow and covered with small loose blocks of dead co ra l . A t t h e northern and southern ends, where t h i s rocky zone was absent , t h e shore was s l i g h t l y c l i f f e d , and l i t t e r e d with f a l l e n and leaning coconut t r e e s , The sand c l i f f was up t o 2 f e e t high, t h e t o p 12 inches forming an impenetrable t ang le of coconut roots . The e a s t shore overlooks a shallow and sandy reef f l a t , t h i c k l y covered with Thalass ia , with a number of s t r i p s of r e l i c t beachrock. I n 1960 these E r e not v i s i b l e from t h e shore, but were e a s i l y seen from t h e verandah of t h e house, and from t h e a i r . The s t r i p s of beachrock were roughly p a r a l l e l t o t h e beach; Group I (Figure 33) showed no c l e a r d i p and were l i t t l e more than c leared patches i n t h e t u r t l e grass . Between Groups I and I1 t h e reef f l a t was sca t t e red with P o r i t e s , S ide ras t r ea , and & ce rv ico rn i s , and c a r r i e d a b o ~ t 2 f e e t of water a t low t i d e , Beachrock I1 shows a d e f i n i t e seaward d ip ; l i v i n g reef approached w i t h i n a s h o r t d i s t ance of t h i s ou te r exposure. No beachrock was seen along t h e shores of t h e cay i t s e l f . I n 1830 Cavtain Owen noted +%ops of bushes 20 feetvf (Adm. liS H61), probably denoting a t h i c k e t of Suriana, Coccoloba, perhaps Cordia, palms and s t r and p lants . By 1960, however, a l l t h e s e had been removed f o r coconuts and t h e ground was kept c l e a r of a l l vegetat ion, except f o r s c a t t e r e d grasses and E u ~ h o r b i a . The i s l and was used a s a hol iday cen t re ; it had a l a r g e house and chale ts , and a re inforced concrete p i e r giving anchorage i n 1& fathoms on t h e l e e s i d e . Physiographic change during Hurricane Hatt ie was minor. There was a l i t t l e shore r e t r e a t a t the south and north extremities, giving low sand c l i f f s , and the whole of t he ea s t shore re t reated 5-6 f ee t , exposing a f resh l i n e of beachrock (III), This new l i n e of beachrock showed a d i s t i n c t d ip t o landward along i t s whole length (cf. a s imilar exnosure a t Southwest Cay 11, Gloveros Reef: ARB 87, 97). The northern sandspit was a l so washed away, revealing two l i n e s of poorly cemented beachrock, corresponding t o i t s former shorelines ( ~ r o u ~ IV), The sandsnit i n 1960 was low and continually overtopped by waves; it i s d i f f i c u l t t o reconcile t h i s exposure with t h e view t h a t beachrock formation i s connected with a freehwater h o r i ~ o n usse sell, 1962). A fu r ther exposure i n Group I was a l s o seen i n the Thalassia. A number of coconut t r e e s @ill stand, especially a t t he north end; f a l l e n t r e e s trend from 345-035 , and average almost due north, indicat ing more southerly winds than a t Tobacco and South ldater Cays. The j e t t y was undamaged, while damage t o buildings was considerable, though a l l except one house stood. A boat is now stranded near the north end of t he cay, presumably by storm waves. The only plant coloniser since t he hurricane aopears t o be Eunhorbia. The is land has a resident caretaker. Damage t o the reef has already been outlined (chapter 3); southeast of the cay i n April 1962 a s t r i p of coral rubble broke surface t o form a ridge every- where l e s s than 2 f e e t high. Curlew Cay Curlew Cay (Figure 34) must a t one time have been very s imilar i n appearance t o Carrie Bow Cay, one mile t o the north, Here a l so Owen noted bushes 20 f e e t high i n the 18309s ( ~ 6 1 ) ~ but i n 1960 and 1961 the island was simply a low, crescentic sandbore, 40 yards long and UP t o 10 yards wide, b u i l t of f resh sand and unvegetated apar t from two Rhizophora seedlings. Traces of the older i s l a l ~ d can be seen i n t h e extensive development of beachrock ea s t of the cay. There a r e three d i s t i n c t exposures. The f i r s t trends STIWE and shows a charac te r i s t i c d i p t o the Md; it was th ick ly covered with algae, jus t broke surface, and was par t ly buried by the sandbore. The second consisted of a s ingle l i n e of beachrock trending E-W; it was ra ther more submerged and dipped t o the north. The t h i r d l i e s 60-70 yards seaward of t h e f i r s t zone, was 1-2 yards wide and i t s uoper surface l i e s 1-1$ fee t below sea level . A t i t s northern end it was a low mound with no discernible dip; i n the south t he d i p was de f in i t e ly seaward. This l i n e of rock marked t h e inner edge of l i v ing reef, and t h e rock i t s e l f was colonised by Pori tes and YIllepora, The area enclosed by these th ree zones of beachrock carried 2 f e e t of water, and i t s f loo r was covered with Thalassia and scat tered Porites. It i s unlikely t h a t the beachrock was a l l of t he same age. The date of destruction of t he vegetated cay i s unknown; the great hurricane of 1945. Curlew Cay presumably disappeared a f t e r April-Nay 1962, it had again b u i l t up, a few 1960 position. The beachrock was undamaged. and of f luc tua t ing dimensions. it may have been during Hurricane Hatt ie, but by yards t o the west of i t s The cay i s s t i l l unvegetated B o Cays of Cen t r a l B a r r i e r - Reef lagoon South of Curlew Cay t h e b a r r i e r r ee f i s fragmented f o r f o u r mi l e s t o South Cut, and t h e r e a f t e r i s cont inuous and without sand cays f o r t h e 1 4 mi l e s t o t h e Gladden S p i t elbow, The next southernmost sand cays on t h e b a r r i e r r ee f proper a r e 2 1 mi l e s due south of Curlew Cay. A t t h e Gladden S p i t elbow t h e c o a s t a l s h e l f and lagoon reach t h e i r widest ex t en t of 23 mi l e s ; i n t h i s l a t i t u d e t h e maximum lagoon depth is 19 f a t h o m . Within t h i s a r e a , de l imi ted by S i t t e e River and Great honkey Cay on t h e coas t , and by Curlew Cays and S i l k Cays on t h e b a r r i e r r e e f , i s a n a r e a of extremely i n t r i c a t e bottom topography, w i th a l a r g e number of cays, both sand and mangrove. The bottom tonograohy cannot be d iscussed i n d e t a i l , bu t some b r i e f cons ide ra t ion i s necessary f o r an understanding of t h e deve lo~men t and l o c a t i o n of t h e cays, The f l o o r of t h e lagoon, a s i n t h e no r th , f a l l s away f r o m t h e coas t toward t h e b a r r i e r r e e f , reaching maximum d e ~ t h s a t d i s t a n c e s of 10-14 m i l e s from t h e coas t , o r gene ra l ly two- th i rds t h e width of t h e c o a s t a l s h e l f , Near t h e edge of t h e s h e l f t h e r e i s a n ab rup t r i s e t o t h e lower platform a t 2-4 fathoms depth, which i s i t s e l f edged on t h e seaward s i d e by t h e p re sen t sea l e v e l b a r r i e r r ee f . The g r e a t e s t d e ~ t h s i n t h e lagoon i n c r e a s e from 12 fathoms i n t h e l a t i t u d e of Curlew Cay t o 24 fathoms i n t h e l a t i t u d e of S i l k Cays, a s t r a i g h t - l i n e d i s t a n c e of 2 1 mi les . This i n c r e a s e i n maximum depth i s about t e n t imes g r e a t e r t han t h a t between t h e Tr i ang le s and Curlew Cay (2 fathoms i n 40 mi l e s ) , b u t s t i l l g ives a north-south g rad ien t of on ly 1:1800. Figure 35 shows t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of depths l e s s t han t h r e e fathoms i n t h i s p a r t of t h e lagoon; t h i s i s o b a t h a ~ p r o x i m a t e l y d e l i m i t s t h e lower platform. Note how a long narrow submerged spur t r e n d s away from t h e main lower p la t form near South \dater Cay, and cont inues southwards by Blue Ground Range t o P e t e r Douglas Cay. From t h e r e , Admiralty c h a r t s , based on t h e 1830-34 surveys, show t h e cont inua t ion southwards of a r c u a t e r i dges , p a r a l l e l t o t h e b a r r i e r reef and convex t o t h e e a s t . The most ~ r o m i n e n t of t h e s e i s t h a t connect ing C r a w l Cay, Bakervs Rendezvous, Cary Cay and Long Cocoa Cay. Eas t and west of t h i s r i dge dohens of smal le r patches, some with cays, many without , r i s e t o o r n e a r t h e su r f ace , These a r e appa ren t ly concent ra ted along a n a x i s extending from Placencia on t h e coas t t o Gladden s p i t ; i n t h i s l a t i t u d e many of t h e pa tches s u ~ p o r t cays, Imme- d i a t e l y t o t h e south of t h i s a x i s i s a n a r e a of numerous s h o a l s r i s i n g t o w i th in 3 fathoms of t h e su r f ace ( p a n t i l e ~ e a d s ) , without cays; and y e t f u r t h e r south a zone of appa ren t ly similar pa tches which do no t r i s e above a depth of 4-5 fathoms. F i n a l l y , t h e r e i s a zone where such shoa l s a r e almost e n t i r e l y absent . This d e ~ t h - d i s t r i b u t i o n may suggest d i f f e r e n - t i a l movement a long an a x i s t r a n s v e r s e t o t h e b a r r i e r r ee f lagoon, which may a l s o have s h a ~ e d t h e Gladden S p i t elbow. It i s c l e a r t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n he igh t of t h e pa tches i s no t a r e f l e c t i o n of d i f f e r i n g degrees of r e e f growth depending on d i f f e r e n c e s i n depth of t h e lagoon f l o o r ; f o r i n t h i s case t h e t o p s of t h e pa t ches would become deeper t h e f a r t h e r from t h e shore, and t h i s is no t so. But t h e problem h e r e i s more complex than simple warping o r f a u l t i n g about a n east-west a x i s , f o r t h e t o p o g r a ~ h i c h ighs a r e themselves not simnle f e a t u r e s . I n t hose c l o s e t o t h e shore c o r a l s a r e no t s i g n i f i c a n t , and it i s probable t h a t i n a l l of them present-day c o r a l s on ly veneer pre-ex is t ing s t r u c t u r e s . Figure 36 i s derived from an a i rphoto mosaic of t h e a rea between South Cut and i h s q u i t o Cay; f o r i t s precise locat ion, see Figure 35. The i n t r i c a t e nature of t h e ~ ~ p a t c h e s ~ ~ i a t once apparent: many f o n elongate, almost closed r ings, r i s i n g extremely s t eep ly from depths of 15 fathoms o r more. The r i m s of these r ings a r e e v e m e r e narrow, r i s e t o within t h r e e fathoms of t h e surface, and a r e in te r rup ted by deep gaps; they enclose a c e n t r a l ~vlagoonbs with denths o f t en comparable t o those out s ide t h e rim. These r ing-l ike fea tu res vary up t o 7 miles i n length, but most a r e smaller. Cays a r e located a t i n t e r v a l s on t h e rims. The rims themselves have a f u r t h e r d is t inguishing c h a r a c t e r i s t i c : t h e i r outer margins a r e smooth i n plan and gent ly curved; t h e channels between t h e r i n g s pass smoothly i n t o each other without marked angles; and t h e i r genera l shape i s smoothly curv i l inea r , o r lozenge-sha~ed. But t h e inner edges of t h e rims a r e i n t r i c a t e l y d issected and highly i r r e g u l a r , The uDper surface of each rim i s a l s o i r r e g u l a r and ~ i t t e d with deep holes. The only extensive surface-breaking reef i s t h a t between Baker's Rendeb- vous and C r a w l Cay, but most of t h e patches have mcderate reef growth on t h e i r eas te rn sides. These f e a t u r e s a r e c lea r ly not t h e r e s u l t of modern reef growth; t h e i r general form and i n t r i c a t e d i s sec t ion point t o karst erosion during g l a c i a l low sea l eve l s . The channels between t h e patches may represent lagoon f l o o r drainage channels of g l a c i a l age. It i s ~ o s s i b l e t h a t wrt a t l e a s t of t h e i r form r e s u l t s from solut ion weathering of limestone of t h e type described from Okinawa by EacNeil (1954) and demonstrated experimentally by Hoffmeister and Ladd (1945) ; some of t h e small patches, with t h e i r a rcua te o u t l i n e and deep holes, r e c a l l i n a s t r i k i n g way t h e small elevated limestone i s l a n d s of the Palau Archipelago ( ~ o s b e r g , 1960, P l a t e l 2 ) , except, of course, t h a t i n B r i t i s h Honduras t h e forms a r e e n t i r e l y submarine. They may o r i g i n a l l y have been extensions of t h e Ter t i a ry limestone h i l l s o f t h e mainland, o r old reef forms, but i n t h e l a t t e r case it i s d i f f i c u l t t o explain t h e i r absence i n o the r p a r t s of t h e b a r r i e r reef lagoon. Very s imi la r f ea tu res l y i n g a t g r e a t e r depths (4-7 fathoms) can be t raced on a i r photographs a t t h e southern end of t h e b a r r i e r reef , west and southwest of Sea l Cays, These may represent erosion f e a t u r e s e i t h e r down-warped s ince foundation o r developed a t a lower l e v e l on lower limestone masses. I f down-warping o r f a u l t i n g has occurred it must have predated t h e foundation of t h e hor izonta l lower platform. The idea t h a t t h e patches have developed on drowned limestone h i l l s expla ins more e a s i l y t h e i r r e s t r i c t e d loca t ion and e n t i r e absence over t h e g r e a t e r p a r t of the lagoon. I f t h e fea tu res d id predate t h e lower platform they were presumably a l l t runcated a t t h e 2-4 fathom l e v e l when t h e platform was formed. Enough has been sa id t o i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e recent h i s t o r y of t h i s p a r t of t h e she l f may be more complex than Vermeer (1959) supposed; deep d r i l l i n g f o r o i l a t Placencia may help unravel events when t h e r e s u l t s a r e avai lable . I n t h e following sect ions the cays of t h i s c e n t r a l b a r r i e r reef lagoon a r e discussed i n t u r n from north t o south. No e a r l y desc r ip t ions of these cays e x i s t : it i s not poss ib le t o i d e n t i f y Speeros (1765) b r i e f references, nor t o reconcile t h e r a t h e r schematic char t s by Speer (1765, 1771) and Je f f r e y s (1775) with modern maps. Only t h e present False Cay and Placencia Cay were named by them; t h e r e s t were grouped a s Reed9s Cays (Tobacco and Blue Ground Ranges?) and t h e Coconut Cays ( a l l t h e r e s t ) . J e f f reys (1775) add i t iona l ly names Bugle, Colson, Scipio and adjacent cays t h e i@Placentia Triangle st!. Weewee Cay t o Bekervs Hendezvous Weewee Cay l i e s on a reef ~ a t c h 4 mi l e s west of t h e b a r r i e r r ee f and 4; m i = southwest of South Water Cay. It i s a small t r i a n g u l a r i s l a n d wi th s i d e s 100-150 yards long, enclosed on t h e n o r t h and sou theas t s i d e s by dense mangrove. R h i z o ~ h o r a a l s o extends a long t h e g r e a t e r p a r t of t h e N-S t r end ing west shore, excent f o r a smal l onening g iv ing acces s t o t h e low-lying sandy i n t e r i o r , I n A n r i l 1962 t h e n e r i p h e r a l mangrove was s t i l l a l i v e a long t h e no r th and southeas t f a c i n g shores , and had been k i l l e d only a t t h e southern t i p , where f o r a s h o r t d i s t a n c e t h e shore t r e n d s h160~~ . Living r ee f f r i n g e s t h e e n t i r e e a s t e r n s i d e of t h e cay, bu t i s absent a long t h e west s i d e ; a nro tec ted s i t u a t i o n presumably accounts f o r t h e absence of a weatherside sand r i d g e on t h e i s l a n d , and t h e anparent r e v e r s a l of ~ h y s i o g r a n h i c zones compared with t h e ~ o r m a l mangrove-sand cay. The cay i s not pemanen t ly i nhab i t ed , but i s used a s a f i s h i n g s t a t i o n by Stann Creek Caribs; a number a r e buried or1 t h e i s l a n d under p i l e s of conch s h e l l s , F ish a r e cleaned, s a l t e d and d r i e d (corned) here. The d r y land a r e a has a c i r c m f e r e n c e of about 75 ya rds ; i t s vege ta t ion i s r e s t r i c t e d t o coconuts and an undercover of g r a s s e s and sedges inc lud ing Cyperus - 9 peruvianus F i m b r i s t y l i s c p o s a , Chlor i s pe t r aea and B a t i s maritima. A l a r g e number of t r e e s was knocked down by Hurr icane Ha t t i e : d i r e c t i o n of f a l l var ied from due north t o due south, with a few due e a s t and due west. The p a t t e r n i s i n f a c t a lmost r a d i a l , perhaps a s a r e s u l t of the enclosed cha rac t e r of t h e dryland a rea ; perhaps 50:: of t h e measured d i r e c t i o n s l a y between 345' and 045O, i n d i c a t i n g predominantly sou the r ly winds. Stewart Cay (un-named on c h a r t s , bear ing 316-323' from Weewee cay) and Bread-and-Butter Cay (bearing 274-282O from Weewee Cay, named Stewart Cay on c h a r t s ) a r e mangrove i s l a n d s , l ack ing d r y l and , with no important hur r icane e f f e c t s except mangrove d e f o l i a t i o n on south-facing &ores . Crowos Nest Cay (spruce Cay on c h a r t s ) l i e s 2$ m i l e s SSW of Meewee Cay; - it i s e n t i r e l y of mangrove, and because of i t s s h e l t e r e d p o s i t i o n e s c a ~ e d much d e f o l i a t i o n . Pe t e r Douglas Cay ( ~ o u ~ l a s Cay of c h a r t s ) Lies 1s mi l e s SThT of Crowvs Nest Cay; t h e i n t e r v e n i n g Norval Cay of c h a r t s was not seen i n 1962. P e t e r Douglas i s a l a r g e i s l a n d , mainly mangrove, of i r r e g u l a r o u t l i n e , f r i nged by r ee f on i t s no r theas t and e a s t s ides . Rh i~oohora on t h e no r theas t and southeas t shores was not s e r i o u s l y d e f o l i a t e d ; but complete d e f o l i a t i o n occurred a t t h e south ~ o i n t , and along t h e west shore a number of t a l l Rhizophora had been uprooted, apparent ly by south- wes t e r ly waves. There i s a smal l a r e a of d r y land on t h e west s i d e of t h e C% nearshore, it i s formed of coarse sand with much s h e l l deb r i s , r i s i n g 1% f e e t above t h e sea; it extends f o r an unknown d i s t a n c e toward t h e c e n t r e of t h e cay, and suppor ts a dense nalm t h i c k e t with Sonhora tomentosa. According t o informants t h e r e were about 30 coconuts before - t h e hu r r i cane ; 1 2 were counted af terwards. L i t t l e P e t e r i s a smal l i s l a n d immediately t o t h e south, t h e g r e a t e r p a r t be ing d e f o l i a t e d Rhizophora, with Sophora on t h e d r y land a rea ; and immediately t o t h e south of t h i s l i e s ano the r very small mangrove i s l a n d , Old Rendezvous Cay, almost c o m ~ l e t e l y d e f o l i a t e d , Nei ther of t h e s e smal l i s l a n d s i s named on cha r t s . South of P e t e r Douglas Cay, Saddle Cays ( ~ l b o w Cays of c h a r t s ) were not v i s i t e d , but i n s t ead we s a i l e d through Idortheast Cay Ran=, t h e Pe l ican Cays of c h a r t s , i n l a t i t u d e 16?41V0 These cays a r e s i t u a t e d midway between coas t and b a r r i e r r e e f , here 7 mi l e s d i s t a n t , They con- sist of a s i n g l e l a r g e mangrove cay, Northeast Cay, with many small mangrove cays, d e f o l i a t e d on t h e west s ide , some with small amounts of sh ingle thrown UD on t h e west shore. Of these , Cat Cax l i e s on t h e southwest s i d e of t h e group. It i s a small i s l a n d with a narrow f r i n g e o f Rh i~ophora on i t s nor th and e a s t shores, and along t h e g r e a t e r p a r t of t h e west shore a l so . The g r e a t e r art of t h e cay i s d r y land, though t h e c e n t r e i s low-lying and marshy, wi th s c a t t e r e d M c e n n i a , Fresh small s h i n g l e has been thrown up along t h e west shore, and a number of coconuts have been knocked down. Direc t ion of f a l l v a r i e s from 270-020?, with t h e ma jo r i ty 340-360?, aga in i n d i c a t i n g sou the r ly winds, The vegeta t ion of t h e d r y land a rea inc ludes , i n a d d i t i o n t o cococuts, t h e p a l n e t t o 9 Thrinax and Thespesia populnea; t o g e t h e r with Conocarnus e rec tus , Eunhorbia sp, , C nerus sp,, Wedelia t r i l o b a t a , and - grasses . Ospreys andi ion h a l i e t u s -+- were nes t ing here i n 19620 Ean-of-Mar Cay i s one of' t h e southernmost of t h e Northeast Cay Range, I n A ~ r i l - P a y 1962, t h o ~ g h small and c o n s i s t i n g only of almost completely d e f o l i a t e d Rhizophora, it was inhab i t ed by l a r g e numbers of Fregata magnificens, - w e p a r a t o r y t o nes t ing . This b i r d was no t seen on any of t h e neighbouring cays a t t h i s t ime. Other cays mer i t l i t t l e comment. The two Lagoon Cays s o c a l l e d because they each enclose deep lagoons ( the l a r g e r ca r ry ing 8 fathoms), and Crawl Cay a r e e n t i r e l y mangrove; &uamino Cay i s almost e n t i r e l y mangrove, - with a l i t t l e d r y land on i t s e a s t s ide . S lasher Sand Bore, where Owen noted t r e e s 1 5 f e e t high i n 1830, has not been v i s i b l e f o r many years , bu t reappeared as a n unvegetated s a n d s ~ i t f o l l o ~ d n g t h e hurr icane. Bakerqs Rendezvous c o n s i s t s of two l o n g mangrove i s l a n d s and two much smal le r - ones t o t h e south; they a r e wholly mangrove, except f o r two coconuts on t h e southern long i s l and , A 1 1 t h e s e cays show some mangrove d e f o l i a t i o n on t h e i r south shores. Cary Cay ( ~ i g u r e 37) occupies a very similar pos i t i on t o Crawl Cay and Bakervs Rendezvous, but i s much f u r t h e r south, where t h e l i n e a r r ee f on which it s tands t r ends NNE-SSW, r i s i n g from maximum depths of 17-18 fathoms. The i s l a n d i t s e l f t r e ~ d s north-south, and has a maximum length of 500 yards ; i t s width v a r i e s , from a narrow sandy s t r i p only 10 ya rds wide i n t h e south, t o a 2C0 yard wide mass of E ~ o p h o r a i n t h e no r th , Reef extends along t h e whole e a s t s i d e , but not on t h e west. Along t h e e a s t s i d e of t h e i s l a n d t h e r e i s a narrow dry-land a rea , with palms and s t rand vegeta t ion; and a lower dry a rea , p lan ted t o coconuts, extends along much of t h e west s ide . These two dryland a r e a s d iverge northwards, and t h e in t e rven ing area i s occupied by s t and ing water, Acrostichum marsh, and, towards t h e no r th Rhizophora. During t h e hurr icane , f r e s h sh ingle was thrown up f o r 400 ya rds a long t h e e a s t s h o ~ e , and a l s o i n t h e form of sepa ra t e r idges a t t h e south end. These sh ing le spreads c o n s i s t mainly of ce rv ico rn i s deb r i s ; t h e sepa ra t e r i d g e s have a maximum he igh t of 2-2$ f e e t , though on t h e southern t i p of t h e cay t h e sh ingle i s p i l e d a g a i n s t vege ta t ion t o a maximum height of 5; f e e t . I n p l aces a long t h e shore t h e r e a r e s m a l l s t r e t c h e s of e ros ion , wi th c l i f f i n g and roo t exposure. Immediately of fshore , toward t h e south, a r e numerous s c a t t e r e d c o r a l blocks, most ly l e s s t han 1 foot diameter. The main western sh ing le r i dge v a r i e s i n he ight from 2-5 f e e t , and i n width from 10-20 ya rds ; it i s o f t e n h igher where narrower, because of banking a g a i n s t vege ta t ion . The inne r edge of t h e sh ing le r i dge , where it a b u t s a g a i n s t s tanding water r a t h e r t han vege ta t ion , i s c h a r a c t e r i s - t i c a l l y s teep . The c a l i b r e of t h e m t e r i a l v a r i e s from f i n e sh ing le up t o coarse rubble and some l a r g e c o r a l blocks. Near t h e no r th no in t , and a long much of t h e west shore, t h e sandy beach i s s l i g h t l y c l i f f e d , i n s p i t e of pa tches of p r o t e c t i n g Rhizophora. Thin b l a n k e t s of f r e s h sar,d cover t h e nearshore a r e a i n t h e south , The vege ta t ion of t h e dryland a r e a c o n s i s t s of coconuts, Thrinax ( e s p e c i a l l y a long t h e no r theas t shore) , Coccoloba, Cordia sebestena, and a n under- cover of Hynenocallis, Wedelia, Ageratum, m c h y t a r ~ h e t a , g r a s s e s and sedges. Only a few coconuts have been knocked down, and t h e s e have gene ra l ly f a l l e n t o t h e no r th and no r theas t . The Acrostichum a u r e m marsh i s surrounded by Avicennia and Rhizophora. k a j o r hu r r i cane e f f e c t s a t Cary Cay a r e t h u s p r a c t i c a l l y l i m i t e d t o sh ing le and sand depos i t i on , apparent ly i n response t o m&ly sou theas t e r ly waves, T r a p ~ q s Cay - Trappvs Cay ( ~ i ~ u r e 38) , t h e Noho Cay of c h a r t s , l i e s 2 m i l e s south- e a s t of Cary Cay on a n i s o l a t e d reef oa tch r i s i n g from 18 fathoms. The i s l a n d i s r e g u l a r l y shaped, wi th maximum dimensions of 260 and 210 yards , N-S and E-Id, and a n a rea of some 55,000 sq. yards , The margins of t h e cay a r e low and sandy, except on t h e southwest, south and e a s t s i d e s , where t h e o ld shore was bur ied by f r e s h sh ing le dur ing Hurr icane H a t t i e , Underneath t h i s sh ing le accumulation, and i n t e r m i t t e n t l y exposed, t h e o ld shore i s undercut and eroded; much of t h e f i n e r m a t e r i a l has been washed out , l e av ing only a roo t mat. Before t h e hu r r i cane t h e s e sho res were probably comparable t o t h e p re sen t nor th and e a s t shores , Vegeta- t i o n approaches c l o s e t h e shore on a l l s i d e s , except a t t h e no r theas t corner , where a new s ~ i t of f r e s h sand i s b u i l d i n g outwards. The whole of t h e e a s t shore i s blanketed by a ca rpe t of s h i n g l e 9 varying i n width from 10-25 yards, and i n c a l i b r e from s m a l l c e r v i c o r n i s d e b r i s t o occas iona l l a r g e blocks, i nc lud ing one M o n t a s t r s a n n u l a r i s block 35 f e e t long, The o ld s h o r e l i n e a long t h i s s i d e of t h e cay has c l e a r l y been much eroded; i t s edge can be t r aced a long t h e c e n t r e of t h e s h i n g l e carpe t . The old nearshore vege ta t ion has been l a r g e l y destroyed o r bur ied by t h e sh ingle , b u t i n many o l a c e s broken palmettoes ( ~ h r i n a x ) pro t rude through t h e sh ing le ca roe t . The i n n e r edge of t h e f r e s h s h i n g l e i s everywhere a r c u a t e i n o l a n and s t e e p i n s ec t ion , r i s i n g 18-24 inches above t h e o ld cay f l o o r , he re low-lying, with coconuts o r Conoca r~us bushes. Along t h e south shore t h e s h i n g l e c a r p e t has a s i m i l a r width bu t i s much th inne r , and t h e eroded o l d s h o r e l i n e i s v i s i b l e everywhere wi th in a few f e e t of t h e p re sen t s h i n g l e shore. Patches of a r a t h e r s o f t sand-shingle con@ome r a t e a r e e x p s e d a t sea l e v e l a t one ~ o i n t , The height of t h e s t e p a t t h e landward edge of t h e sh ingle i s here gene ra l ly l e s s than 1 foo t . Northwards a long t h e west shore, t he shingle t a i l s of f r a ~ i d l y i n both width and th ickness . A t i s g r e a t e s t accumulation on the e a s t shore t h e sh ingle ca rpe t i s roba ably not t h i c k e r than 22 fee t . A low a r c u a t e spread of sh ing le has been thrown up off t h e south shore; it i s about 100 yards long, and mobably d id not e x i s t before t h e hurr icane. The vegeta t ion of t h e i s l a n d was not inves t iga ted i n d e t a i l ; hu r r i - cane e f f e c t s were l imi t ed t o near-shore f e l l i n g of' cocoi~uts , l a r g e l y by wave-sapping of t h e s u b s t r a t e i t s e l f . A l a r g e Coccoloba w a s a l s o uprooted on t h e west shore. Dominant d i r e c t i o n of t r e e f a l l i n d i c a t e s winds from t h e south and southwest, i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e sou theas te r ly d i r e c t i o n ind ica ted by sh ing le denos i t ion . Thrinax i s widespread round t h e cay mar- gins, and aopears t o have r e s i s t e d t h e hurr icane b e t t e r than coconuts. Other t r e e s noted inc lude Thesoesia oonulnea and Coccoloba uvi fera ; with a ground vegeta t ion of H p e n o c a l l i s l i t t o r a l i s , Cyperus, Phyllanthus amarus, S Q o r i s pe t raea and Paspalum ~ a n i c u l a t u m . The cen t re of t h e cay was not inves t iga ted . There a r e a few Rhi~oghora bushes round t h e shore. The name T r a w f s Cay i s referred t o t h a t givgn on cha r t s , which i n v i t e s confusion with o the r Noho Cays ( l a t i t u d e 17 31;0~, 88'12~; and 160099N9 8 8 ? 4 ~ f ~ ) and i s not known loca l ly . Co-ordinates of Trappfs Cay a r e 16O30$f~ , 8 8 ? 1 0 f ~ . I s l ands between T r a ~ p l s Cay and Gladden S p i t - Some of t h e i s l a n d s l y i n g t o t h e nor theas t of Trappvs Cay were a l s o v i s i t e d . Rendezvous Cay i s a mangrove i s l and wi th a small c e n t r a l sand a rea covered with coconuts, used by Carib fishsrmen but not permanently inhabited. A number of coconuts had been knocked down, t h e i r d i r e c t i o n varying from 305-35r0, with a few 140-150?. A s on o the r cays near Gladder! S p i t , some of these t r e e s were c e r t a i n l y knocked down by Hurricane Anna i n 1961; and t h e r e was no doubt t h a t a t l e a s t two d i f f e r e n t s e t s c f f a l l e n t r e e s were represented here, d is t inguished, f o r example, by g r e a t e r amounts of fungal growths on t h e o lde r t runks. Long Coco Cax i s very s i m i l a r t o Rendezvous Cay, b u t t h e r e has been l i t t l e damage t o coconuts. There i s some de fo l i a t ed mangrove a t i t s southeas t poin t , but no depos i t s of f r e s h sand o r shingle. This cay was b r i e f l y descr ibed by Vermeer (1959, 91-92). Tar~um and J a c k f s Cays a r e wholly mangrove, with l i t t l e of i n t e r e s t . L i t t e r Water Cays, noted by Vermeer (1959, 91) w a s not v i s i t e d , but seened from a d i s t ance t o be s i m i l a r t o Rendezvous and Long Coco Cays. Buttonwood Cay ( ~ i g u r e 39) was ma~ped i n 1960, s h o r t l y before i t s - vegeta t ion w a s severe ly damaged i n Hurricane Anna. The sand a r e a i s low- ly ing , measures 80x100 yards, and i s surrounded 3n i t s west and southwest s i d e s by mangrove. The vegeta t ion c o n s i s t s of coconuts, Coccoloba, Conocarpus, Rhiz ophora and Avicennia, with -s, E r a ~ r o s t i s - domingensis, Portulaca o l e r a c z , Euphorbia so., and Vigna l u t e o l m name i t s e l f i s t h e l o c a l term f o r t h e buttonwood mangrove, Conocarpus e rec tus . Because of the occurrence of two hurr icanes s ince t h e i s l a n d w a s mapped, it was not thought worthwhile t o re-map t h e cay. Lau~hing Bird Cay Laughing Bird Cay ( ~ i g u r e 40) i s the southernmost of t he cen t r a l ba r r i e r reef lagoon cays, and the most a t t r a c t i v e ; it l i e s 4; miles from t h e ba r r i e r reef and 6 miles from the coast, on a narrow reef patch, aligned NE-SW. The bottom t o t h e northwest i s f a i r l y shallow, but depths of up t o 24 fathoms a r e found within very shor t distances t o t he south- east . The is land, l i k e t h e reef on which it stands, i s long and narrow, with a t o t a l length of nearly 500 yards, but varying i n width from only 10 t o 45 yards. Before t he hurricane the i s land seems t o have been corn- ~ l e t e l y sandy, with a beachridge r i s i ng t o a height of 3-4 f e e t on t h e southeast side. The vegetation, which consisted chief ly of coconuts, w.23 dis t r ibu ted i n th ree d i s t i n c t clumps, the longest i n the centre, and the t r e e s were only about 4.0 f e e t high. During t h e hurricane, few of these t r e e s were knocked down, except along the cen t r a l par t of the southeast shore, where the beach i t s e l f was cut back and a number of undermined t r e e s f e l l towards the north. A number of Rhizophora t r e e s on t he eouth- eas t side were a l so defol ia ted and ki l led. The dominant storm e f f ec t , however, was t h e deposition of shingle and rubble on t h e southeast side. These deposi ts a r e most extensive towards t he ends of the cay, where they blanket t h e old surface and a r e ~ i l e d up against the now dead vegetation; between these extremities there a r e occasional high patches of gravel, reaching 4-5 f e e t above sea level , but most of the shingle takes the form of an off-shore ridge 5-1C yards from the southeast beach. The greates t height reached by the shingle cn the cay surface i s a t the bushy northern end, where i t istanked up t o 6 f e e t above sea level . A t t h e south end the rubble and shingle forms an arcuate r idge enclosing two stagnant ~ o o l s of water. It is, of course, impossible t o say whether t h i s off-shore ridge was ~ r e v i o u s l y more exten- s ive and has been ~ a r t i a l l y eroded since the hurricane, or indeed whether t he hurricane succeeded i n breaching the sandy is land between the vegeta- t i o n qislandsl, though no sign of such breaching was apparent. However, the shingle i t s e l f i s c lear ly of hurricane or igin , and my loca l companions, who had previously often s l e p t here, confirmed t h e changes. The leeward beach i s wide, long and sandy, and except a t t h e extremities shows no unusual features. It overlooks a shallow sand-floored anchorage. The ground cover under the coconuts consisis of Sesuvium, Ipornoea, Euphorbia, and i n places H,ymenocallis. Except where buried by rubble the vegetation seems t o have been l i t t l e affected, except f o r t he mangrove on the windward side. Owen Cay Finally, we come t o t he cays between Laughing Bird and the coast, J e f f reyq s 8tPlacentia Trianglesf . These f a l l i n t o th ree groups : (a) those with considerable dry land, on t he south and ea s t of the group, including Owen, Scipio and Colson Cays; (b) the mangrove is lands , with no dry land, including Lark Cay, once known col lect ively as W x u f f e r q s Rangeft (Owen, 1830) and s i tua ted on the north s ide of the group; and (c) Bugle Cay, a mangrove cay with a narrow sand zone. A l l t hese i s lands a r e s i tua ted on small d i s c r e t e shoal patches, generally with reef growth, r i s i n g steeply- from 10-15 fathoms water. Owen Cay (Figure 41) , t h e easternmost and s i t u a t e d on t h e most exten- s i v e s h o a l oa tch l i e s 2; mi l e s due west of Mosquito Cay and 8 mi le s from t h e coas t . It is uninhabited, not named on cha r t s , nor have I been a b l e t o d iscover a l o c a l name f o r it, even from t h e keepers of t h e Bugle Cay l ighthouse . For ease of re ference it i s h e r e named OmCay, a f t e r Captain Richard Owen, f i r s t surveyor of t h e s e r e e f s ; i t s co-ordinates a r e 16O29;1~, 8 8 O l 5 . $ ~ ~ . The i s l a n d i s 1EO ya rds long, with a maximum width towards t h e no r th end of 40 yards. The c e n t r e of t h e cay i s low and sandy, with numerous l a r g e Avicennia and Rhizophora t r e e s , and cons iderable a r e a of B a t i s mariti-cal of such mangrove-sand cays) , Hymenocallis, and grasses. There a r e numerous low coconuts, some T-hrinax, and occas ional Cordia sebestena. None of t h e t r e e s were blown down o r uorooted by t h e hurr icane , but sho re l ine R h i z o ~ h o r a has been d e f o l i a t e d on t h e south and west s i d e s of t h e cay, but not on t h e no r th and e a s t . The main hurr icane e f f e c t has been t h e d e ~ o s i t i o n of p e r i p h e r a l sh ingle r idges , h ighes t a t t h e southern end, where t h e sh ingle i s banked a g a i n s t t h e coconuts, covers t h e whole sur face , and r i s e s t o 5 f e e t above sea l e v e l . Elsewhere t h e sh ing le ca rpe t i s t h i n n e r and does not exceed 10 yards i n width; it i s h ighes t on t h e west s ide . Along t h e e a s t s i d e , where t h e r e i s some undercut t ing of t h e o ld shore, t h e sh ing le has s ~ r e a d out i n a wider of fshore ca rpe t , 1-2 f e e t above sea l e v e l . The c a l i b r e of t h e sh ing le i s small t o medium and t h e c o n s t i t u e n t s only exceed 6 inches i n diameter a long t h e southern- most r idges . S c i ~ i o Cay - Scip io Cay (Figure 42) has much i n common with Owen Cay 24 mi l e s t o t h e ENE. It i s loca ted a t t h e nor thern end of a small shoal a rea , sur- rounded by water 12-15 fathoms deep. The i s l a n d i t s e l f i s a l igned north- south, i s 270 yards long and uo t o 1CO yards wide. The i s l a n d before t h e hu r r i cane was l a r g e l y low-lying, sandy, covered with coconuts, and with a l a r g e c e n t r a l Avicennia marsh. P e r i ~ h e r a l beach r idges , e s p e c i a l l y on t h e e a s t and southwest s i d e s , were t h i c k l y covered with Thrinax. The r e s t of t h e vege ta t ion was l i m i t e d t o s c a t t e r e d Cordia, sedges and grasses. Vegetation approached c lose t o t h e shore and was very dense, When mapped i n A p r i l 1962 t h e r e was cons iderable undercut t ing of t h e o l d shore along t h e e a s t and south s i d e s of t h e cay, e m o s i n g mats of charac- t e r i s t i c brown coconut and orange palmetto roots . The upper edge of t h i s undercut shore l i e s 1-2 f e e t above sea l e v e l ; landward t h e cay sur- f ace f a l l s r a p i d l y toward t h e Avicennia marsh o r o t h e r low-lying ground. It i s covered by a wedge of f r e s h sh ingle , t a p e r i n g a t t h e t o p of t h e shore l ine c l i f f , th ickening landward, where it ends a b r u p t l y i n a s t e e p s lope 1-2 f e e t high. Thrinax t r e e s pro t rude through t h i s f r e s h covering, which i s everywhere l e s s than 20 yards wide. On t h e e a s t s i d e t h e d e p o s i t c o n s i s t s only of c e r v i c o r n i s and small palmata sh ingle ; on t h e west s i d e t h e m a t e r i a l i s sandy,and f i n e r . On t h e west shore a l s o t h e r e i s l i t t l e evidence of c l i f f i n g and shore r e t r e a t . This p a t t e r n of depos i t ion i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t a t PappVs Cay and o t h e r cays i n t h e c e n t r a l b a r r i e r r ee f lagoon; it i s shown diagrammatically i n Figure 42- Below t h e undercut e a s t e r n shore, f o r t h e g r e a t e r p a r t of i t s length, i s a r idge of hurr icane sh ing le and rubble 10 yards wide and genera l ly l e s s than 3 f e e t high, enc los ing arms and i s o l a t e d ~ o o l s of seawater. It i s impossible t o t e l l how much t h e s e r i d g e s have a l t e r e d s i n c e t h e i r construc- t i o n i n October 1961. h a r t from t h e sh ing le ca rpe t s and r idges , t h e r e a r e few o t h e r v i s i b l e e f f e c t s of Hurricane Ha t t i e ; a handful of coconut t r e e s have f a l l e n , but apparent ly under t h e inf luence of wave r a t h e r t h a n wind ac t ion , s ince they a r e a l l c l o s e t o t h e shore. The cay i s uninhabited and no beachrock o r similar m a t e r i a l w a s seen. Colson C x -- Apart from i t s r a t h e r d i f f e r e n t shaoe, Colson Cay ( ~ i g u r e 42) p e r f e c t l y reproduces a l l t h e f e a t u r e s of S c i ~ i o Cay. The two i s l a n d s a r e only one mile a p a r t , and s e ~ a r a t e d by 1 4 fathoms water. Colson Cay i s t r i a n g u l a r , 190 yards long, with a mar&l. width of 150 yards; t h e g r e a t e r D a r t i s low and sandy, with a dense vegeta t ion of coconuts, with Thrinax, Cordia, and g ras ses , enc los ing a l a r g e c e n t r a l a r ea of Avicennia marsh and s tan- d ing water. Like Scip io Cay, t h e o ld shore has been sub jec t t o under- c u t t i n g on t h e southeas t s ide , and hurr icane sh ingle has been deposi ted both on t h e cay sur face and i n f r o n t of t h e c l i f f as a sepa ra t e r idge , enclosing pools of seawater and low-lying sh ing le spreads. The sh ing le ca roe t on t h e old cay su r face i s gene ra l ly about 20 ya rds wide, and r i s e s t o a maximum he igh t of 4 f e e t above t h e sea. The sh ing le spread below t h e c l i f f i s 15-20 yards wide, and t h e outermost sh ing le r idge i s 2-25 f e e t high. A t t h e extreme southeas t poin t t h i s r idge i s i t s e l f now being destroyed by wave ac t ion , f l u s h i n g o h t h e f i n e m a t e r i a l t o l eave a l a g of l a r g e r palmata s labs . The m a t e r i a l on t h e west shore i s f i n e r t han -- t h a t on t h e e a s t . Very few t r e e s a r e down, and those noted i n d i c a t e S-SW winds. On t h e e a s t shore t h e sh ingle has invaded a s tand of Thrinax most of which a r e s t i l l standing. Changes on t h e nor th s i d e a r e very s l i g h t , though even h e r e t h e r e i s a t h i n depos i t of sand over ly ing t h e old sur face , Bugle Cay - The i n t e n s i t y of hurr icane change a t Bugle Cay, compared wi th t h e mainly cons t ruc t iona l physiographic and very s l i g h t v e g e t a t i o n a l changes a t o t h e r cays i n t h e Placencia Tr iangles , i s a t f i r s t s i g h t su rp r i s ing , but ~ r o v i d e s y e t another i l l u s t r a t i o n of t h e increased l i a b i l i t y t o ca t a s t ro - ~ h i c danage of i s l a n d s , whose n a t u r a l vege ta t ion has been c leared f o r human occupation. Only t h e western end of t h e i s l a n d i s f r e e from man- grove (Figure 43): here t h e r e i s a n a r c u a t e s t r i p of low sand 160 yards long and 15-50 yards wide, covered wi th coconuts with no under-vegetation. The resent steel-frame l ighthouse d a t e s from 1951; t h e r e a r e a l s o t h e b r i ck remains of a former l ighthouse , and t h e l ighthouse k e e ~ e r f s wooden house. Unfortunately t h e cay w a s not v i s i t e d before t h e hurr icane , and t h i s account of change i s der ived from a post-hurr icane survey and con- ve r sa t ions with t h e inhab i t an t s . Erosion of t h e shore w a s gene ra l on t h e west and south s i d e s of t h e sand a r e a : on t h e west s i d e t h i s i s revealed by surface-sand-str ipping, roo t exposure and combing, and shore-c l i f f ing; on t h e south s i d e t h e e ros ion has been much g r e a t e r , and t h e former ex ten t of t h e land i s now revealed only by remains of t h e old l ighthouse and o the r bu i ld ings a sho r t d i s t ance from t h e present shore l ine . Ret rea t here has been a t l e a s t 10-20 yards. Great damage was sus ta ined by t h e mangrove, which was not only d e f o l i a t e d but much broken and s w e ~ t away over a l a r g e a r e a immediately ad jacen t t o t h e sand s t r i p . Between t h e sand a r e a and high mangrove t h e r e i s now an open muddy marsh with small Rhizophora seed l ings and open water , A t t h e same t ime a s t h e sand s t r i p was being eroded on i t s ou te r s ide , deaos i t i on of f r e s h sand was occurr ing t o lee- ward, extending t h e sand a r e a a c r o s s t h e marsh by up t o 15 yards. The remains of t h e o ld l ighthouse were broken down, but t h e new l i g h t was undamaged, One house disagpeared when t h e land under it was wash3d away; t h e main house was broken from i t s s t i l t s and c a r r i e d 60 yards due nor th by winds and waves be fo re be ing deposi ted on t h e marsh su r face . Since t h e hu r r i cane a wooden causeway has been b u i l t ac ross open water and mud t o reach it, and it i s s t i l l ifihabited. Lany coconuts a r e s t i l l s tanding, and t h o s e which f e l l had been c l ea red a t t h e time of my v i s i t i n Apr i l 1962. The n a t t e r n of e ros ion and d e ~ o s i t i o n , however, c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e sou the r ly winds. A t t h e t ime of my v i s i t t h e r e was a 60 yard long f r e s h sandspi t a t t h e no r th s i d e of t h e sand area , which appeared t o be a post-hurr icane cons t ruc t ion . Other b a r r i e r reef and lagoon cays Placencia Cay r rue Poin t Pa t ience Cay of S ~ e e r , Brother I s l and of J e f f r e y s , 1775) i s a mangrove i s l a n d of s t r and veneta t ion and- coconuts, loca ted-ha l f a mi le 1765, 23; Pa t ience with a small a r e a e a s t of Placencia Po in t and v i i l a g e on t h e mainland- coas t , Rhizophora w a s d e f o l i a t e d and some coconuts f e l l e d , bu t otherwise t h e r e was no s i g n i f i c a n t danage. A t Placencia i t s e l f , cons iderable damage was caused by Hurricane Anna,1961, when I had t h e oppor tuni ty t o in spec t changes on the same day, Minor damage was caused t o bui ld ings , nany coconut t r e e s were blown down, t h e whole v i l l a g e was inundated, and f r e s h sand c a r p e t s were p i l e d round t h e shores. S imi lar changes occurred dur ing Hurricane Ha t t i e , except t h a t house damage was more ccns iderable ; a more d e t a i l e d account i s outs ide t h e scope of t h i s r epor t . J e f f r e y s a l s o mapped t h e small mangrove i s l a n d s a t t h e mouth of F lacencia Lagoon as The Virgins, a.name not now used, and Speer com- mented on these f f s e v e r a l small Kays .., a t t h e mouth of a l a r g e lagoon, where t h e r e i s p len ty of T u r t l e nasses morning and evening ... i n t h e day you can g e t nonelf (1765, 23); r e g r e t t a b l y t h e t u r t l e have a l s o become l e s s numerous. These cays suf fered heavy d e f o l i a t i o n . Harvest Cay, t h r e e mi l e s t o t h e south, i s t h e 7sHobbeVs Kayff of Speer (1765,s This and o the r i s l a n d s t o t h e south, such a s Palmetto Cay, a r e more ~ r o n e r l y b a r r i e r beaches, b u i l t of t e r r i g e n o u s quart^ sand, backed by mangrove swamp, than t r u e c o r a l cays. Harvest Cay bea r s a dense vegeta t ion of coconuts, Thrinax, and mangrove, with a t a l l under- growth of B a t i s maritima, and Cladium jamaicense and o t h e r grasses . Landings were made a t t h r e e po in t s a long t h e seaward shore, but no t r a c e could be found of t h e so-called VfHarvest Hil l l f ,?fa small wooded, t ab le - topped h i l l , 82 f e e t high t o t h e tops of t h e t r e e s , which i s a good land- marksf (west I n d i e s P i l o t , I, 467; and Vermeer, 1959, 28). Cays of southern b a r r i e r reef Twenty-three f u r t h e r cays were mapped i n d e t a i l on t h e southern b a r r i e r r ee f and i n t h e b a r r i e r reef lagoon i n 1960 and 1961; t h e y were a l l photographed from t h e a i r i n 1961, t o g e t h e r wi th a number of o t h e r s not i n v e s t i g a t e d i n d e t a i l . Af t e r t h e hu r r i cane they were aga in a l l ~ h o t o g r a p h e d and observed from t h e a i r i n 1962. Observation during t h e s e f l i g h t s , and comparison of t h e a i r photogranhs, showed t h a t v i r t u a l l y no change t o e i t h e r ahysiography o r vege ta t ion had occurred on any of t hese i s l a n d s dur ing Hurricane H a t t i e . Such changes a s had occurred were a l l minor, and may o r may no t have r e s u l t e d from t h e hur r icane i t s e l f . The northernmost i s l a n d s no t a f f e c t e d by t h e h l ~ r r i c a n e were t h e t h r e e vegeta ted S i l k Cays. These w i l l n o t be d iscussed here , but it i s worth no t ing t h a t t h e name tQueen Cays11 of c h a r t s i s l o c a l l y unknown. W-uerl i r ig (1946) a l l e g e s t h a t t h e name of Queen Cays d e r i v e s from t h e seventeenth century v e s s e l Queen of Bohemia, and I r e g r e t having repeated t h i s ( i n Carr and Thcrpe, 1961, 167). According t o Lieu t . Smith, of t h e f i r s t Admiralty survey, %he Queen Cays . . . were formerly named t h e Sea l Cays ( s i c ) , now a l t e r e d t o prevent confusionis (1842, 732). The name S i l k Cays, on t h e con t r a ry , i s given t o no o t h e r i s l a n d on t h i s coas t , i s t h e only name known l o c a l l y , and should be r e s to red t o c h a r t s i n p lace of Gueen Cays. I n t h e absence of any hur r icane changes on t h e s e cays, t hey w i l l no t be d iscussed here , but w i l l be descr ibed i n a f u r t h e r paper now i n m e p a r a t i o n . , _----. \ - --. I \ I J ' \---=----- < - I ,---J \ , / \ c- -* I 'L-' '- .- r\. L 1 -,#/-.' \- d. . I - - J ,. \ I -- --- . c-\ < '. ---- \ I --' '\ .,I -. \ \ - *----, \ - '\\ '-1 \ '-1 r-.. '- - c. - .* I /-- -) \\ /-\ r---& - I .--. - -----__- ,-- - 1 IDDLE LONG 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 CAY RENDEZVOUS 0 GS BCAY REEF 0 M I L E S L 1 I I FIG. 29 COCONUT SESUVIUM. G W S E S CAY GLORY 1960 0 YARDS 50 1 I FIG. 30 TOBACCO CAY YARDS 200 SHOAL SAND SHINGLE OLD SAW OF CAY SURFACE ! FRESH SAND C A S E 1 EROOEDSURFKE WITH EXPOSED ROOTS ; ; . . , 0 . . . ;/ ----- INTERTIDAL RUBBLE BOW 1 C A Y 1 I \ \ I \ 19 6 2 / ' S H O A L S A N D .- I # & O- vMDs I- / 50 - / / I 0 / ' - z --_ _-/I _ _ - - FIG. 33 .s -- - CAYS OF CENTRAL BARRIER REEF LAGOON LASED O N ADMIRALTY CHART NO. 1797 SOUNDINGS W FATHOMS 0 LESS THAN THREE FATMOMS MORE THAN TWENTY FATHOMS 0 NAVI ICU MILES 5 AERIAL VIEW FROM NORTH OF CRICKOZEEN CREEK SLUMPING DRAWN FROM A PHOTOGRAPH LOCATION ZONE 0 MAYA FIG. 54 TRAVERSE AT GRAND BOGUE POINT, TURNEFFE ISLANDS ESTIMATED HEIGHTS IN FEET FIG. 53 C A Y B O K E L I SHINGLE CONCH SHELLS [L HYMNOCALL1S LITTOOALII [PI1 A Y I R O I I A HISPIDA COCOI(UT [ RHIZOPHO~A * < 4 ' : Y Y Y Y Y Y Y C O C O N U T S 9 Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y DEADMAN V C 0 C O N U T T H I C K E T DEADMAN FIG. 51 DEADMAN CAY II HYMENOCALLIS SESUVIUM fl SPOROBOLUS I I G R A S S E S 1 SAND - SHINGLE [[]m FRESH HURRICANE SHINGLE ................................ '. YARDS 50 FIG. 50 DEADMAN CAY I LIMIT OF DENSE COCONUTS 2 4 0 YARDS 50 [ilI[D SESUVIUM LUPHORBIA TOURNEFORT lA FRESH HURRICANE SHINGLE STRIPPED ROOTS a FRESH HURRICANE SHINGLE FIG. 49 i BIG CALABASH CAY * * EAST CAY ONE C O C O M U T T H I C K t T FIG. 48 EAST CAY i . . O M ; ..... . '.. .. ..__.' 4 LITTLE CALABASH CAY SUBMERGED SHINGLE CARPET ! 1 I 0 YARDS 5 0 I I I 0s. FIG. 47 SOLDIER C A Y F L A T FIG. 46 S H A L L O W S A N D Y B A Y M A N Y . . t FIG. 45 C O C K R O A C H C A Y CAY VI OF THE COCKROACH GROUP d i f f i c u l t y i n f ind ing t h e lagoon ent rance t o c reeks g iv ing nassage t o t h e sea. I n t h e creeks themselves, e s ~ e c i a l l y between Blue Creek and Grand Bogue Creek, d e f o l i a t i o n was no t i ceab ly g r e a t e s t and recovery l e a s t on t h e no r th s i d e of each channel. The gene ra l impression, t he re - fo re , over t h e southern h a l f of Turneffe, i s one of sou the r ly winds and waves. I n t h e c e n t r e of t h e mangrove rims, d e f o l i a t i o n has been l e s s in t ense . Many t r e e s have been blown down and onets i m ~ r e s s i o n i s of devas ta t ion , but l eaves a r e s t i l l growing. Presumably t h e s e a r e a s escaped t h e inundat ion and i n t e n s i v e wave a c t i o n which seem t o have been r e s ~ o n s i b l e f o r t h e worst d e f o l i a t i o n . Tree f a l l i n t h e mangrove a r e a s was worst i n t h e a r e a sepa ra t ing Northern and Southern Lagocns, over which t h e cen t r e of t h e hurr icane passed: t r e e s have f a l l e n i n a l l d i r e c t i o n s and it i s q u i t e impossible t o make out any dominant d i r e c t i o n from t h e a i r . It i s c l e a r t h a t g r e a t q u a n t i t i e s of water must have passed through t h e e a s t e r n bcgues of t h e Turneffe lagoons under t h e inf luence of t h e storm surge and hurr icane winds. This accumulation could only escape through t h e narrow, o f t en winding western creeks. A l l of t hese have been overdeepened by scouring, but t o an unknown amount. The over- deepened s e c t i o n of t h e creek i s gene ra l ly q u i t e narrow with very s t eep and i n p l aces overhanging s i d e s ; t h e overdeepened channel i t s e l f meanders wi th in t h e creek, and v a r i a t i o n s i n depth a r e abrupt . A t t h e western e x i t s of t h e creeks t h e r e a r e now wide spreads of f r e s h sand, forming submerged d e l t a s , t oge the r wi th s c a t t e r e d dead t r e e s and bushes dumped by f lood waters i n shoa l a r e a s , The western rim i t s e l f was completely breached a t one ~ o i n t a l i t t l e l e s s than 1 mi le south of t h e e x i t cf Grand Bogue Creek. The narrow, shallow western e x i t s of Northern Lagoon were a l s o widened and d e e ~ e n e d , and small sand d e l t a s were d e ~ o s i t e d on t h e west s i d e s of a l l t h r e e gaps, Crickozeen Creek Slumping F ina l ly , p e r s i s t e n t rumours of a n bfearthquakeli a t Turneffe, co inc i - d ing with t h e hurr icane, l e d me t o v i s i t t h e west s i d e of t h e mangrove rim, immediately no r th of t h e o u t l e t of Crickozeen Creek, Here, between t h e edge of t h e Turneffe bank and t h e mangrove rim, t h e f l o o r i s com- posed of f i n e , c m p a c t ca lcareous s i l t and sand, bound t o g e t h e r with Thalassia . Two o r t h r e e f e e t from t h e mangrcve shore f o r a l eng th of s e v e r a l hundred yards, t h e r e i s a wide crack i n t h e f l o o r , he re under only a few inches of water. The d i s l o c a t i o n , UD t o s e v e r a l ya rds wide, has v e r t i c a l s i d e s and wherever t e s t e d w a s more than 3 i fathoms deep. It i s a r c u a t e i n ~ l a n , and t h e r e a r e subs id i a ry smal le r c racks both t o t h e south and t o seaward of t h e main crack. A s h o r t d i s t a n c e out i n t o t h e bay t h e f l o o r has been t h r u s t up t o form a n a rea of shoa l sand banks and emerged sand bores; t h e h ighes t of t hese reaches 13 f e e t above sea l e v e l , and they g e n e r a l l y r resent a s t e e p f a c e towards t h e mangrove rim and a gen t l e s lope t o seaward, The gene ra l p a t t e r n of t h e s e f e a t u r e s can be seen from Figure 55, drawn from an obl ique a i r photograph. The b e s t explanat ion seems t o be t h a t r o t a t i o n a l slumping has occurred i n t h e s e f a i r l y cchesive sediments, r re sum ably under t h e s t r e s s of extreme wave condi t ions i n t h e p a r t i a l l y enclosed bay t o t h e n o r t h of Crickozeen Creek, I was un fo r tuna te ly unable t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h i s a r e a i n any d e t a i l o r t o c a r r y out a network of soundings; t h i s f e a t u r e seems t o be unusual dur ing hurr icanes, and s o far a s I could a s c e r t a i n , unique i n t h e B r i t i s h Honduras a r e a a f t e r Hurricane Hat t ie . upraised beachrock emosed by negat ive movement of sea l e v e l o r by warping of t h e Turneffe bank. A s t h e f r e s h rock i s followed southwards, i t s a l t i t u d e & c l i n e s , a s before t h e hurr icane , but i t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s r e m a i ~ t h e same. A t one po in t t h e rock was broken and found t o contain a few fragments of Maya po t t e ry , presumably of f a i r l y recent age i n geologica l terms; t h i s too ma.kes it un l ike ly t h a t t h e rock d a t e s from a high stand of t h e sea seve ra l thousand yea r s ago. No o the r t r a c e s of Naya cccupa- t i o n could be found a t Harry Jones, though t h e s i t e i s marked by Romney and o the r s , 1959, Figure 10; it has probably been l a r g e l y destroyed by shore r e t r e a t . The p o t t e r y was found exac t ly 200 yards south of t h e easternmost poin t , measured along t h e shore. These new exDosures show beyond doubt t h a t t h e rock i s an exposed cay sandstcne, not a beachrock; hypotheses of eus ta t i sm o r warping a r e t h e r e f o r e unnecessary. It i s presumably a water t a b l e o r percola t ion phenomenon s i m i l a r t o t h a t described by Russe l l (1962); t h e decreasing he igh t of t h e rock southwards simply r e f l e c t s a lowering of the water t a b l e with a decrease i n t h e he ight of t h e sandridge c r e s t . The beach was examined f o r 1i- mi les i n t h e Harry Jones a rea without f u r t h e r f e a t u r e s of i n t e r e s t being discovered, The previous s t eep shore has been f l a t t e n e d , and coconut roo t s e x ~ o s e d ; in land from this erosion zone i s a zone of depos i t ion , e s p e c i a l l y on t h e e a s t shore nor th of Harry Jones Poin t , Many c o c ~ n u t s have l o s t t h e i r crowns i n t h i s a rea . South of t h e noin t , i n t o Calabash Entrance, t h e vegeta t ion was previously denser , with fewer coconuts, and has survived b e t t e r , i n s p i t e of i t s t r ansve r se alignment t o major hurr icane winds, Cordia was i n flower here along t h e t o p of t h e beach i n 1962. It was i n t h i s sec t ion t h a t t h e L i t t l e Calabash Cay rad io was found. Turneff e Lagoon IvIangroves No systematic observat icns were made on t h e Turneffe lagoons and man- grove rims, and t h e fol lowing notes summarise miscellaneous poin ts , some of considerable i n t e r e s t , noted during journeys through t h e lagoons and on a e r i a l t r ave r ses . F i r s t , t h e supposed absence of reef-building c o r a l s f r ~ m t h e i n t e r i o r lagoons must be correc ted (ARB 87, 33). A small reef was discovered somewhat unexpectedly l a t e one evening i n Southern Lagoon; it l i e s approximately 1$ miLes due w e s t of *a l l Fishing Bogue, and about 22 mi les no r theas t of Shag Cay Bluff . The reef rose t o wi th in 2 f e e t of t h e sur face from water more than 2 fathoms deep and consisted of Montastrea annu la r i s , S ide ras t r ea s ide rea , P o r i t e s a s t r e o i d e s and ~ i l i e p o r a , S imi lar r e e f s a r e sa id t o e x i s t near Crickozeen, i n t h e nor thern p a r t of Southern Lagoon. A s i n t h e b a r r i e r reef lagoon, t h e ex ten t of mangrove d e f o l i a t i o n and recovery ~ r o v i d e s some information on d i r e c t i o n and s t r eng th of winds and waveso Thus d e f o l i a t i o n has been most i n t e n s e along t h e eas t e rn rim, though even here s n a l l b u s h e s of Rhizophora were bearing l eaves on t h e western s i d e e a r l y i n 1962. Most of t h e smal l lagoon cays, a s i n Crayfish Range, a r e completely l e a f l e s s . The western rim i s l e s s severe ly a f fec ted , though d e f o l i a t i o n i s t o t a l on i t s eas t e rn o r lagoon- ward side. A s a r e s u l t of d e f o l i a t i o n and even disappearance of small mangrove a r e a s on t h i s western s ide of t h e lagoon, t h e r e i s now grea t where t h e r idge i t s e l f i s lower, t h e undercut t ing i s l e s s apparent , bu t cemented sand i s exposed s l i g h t l y above sea l e v e l p t h e longes t continuous exposure s t r e t c h i n g f o r 100 yards. The exposure i s in termedia te i n appearance between t h a t a t Big Cay Bokel, and a t Deadman I and 11; it i s lower, but otherwise s i m i l a r , t o t h a t a t Harry Jones. It i s a t present r a t h e r ~ o o r l y cemented and sandy throughout; i n p l aces near i t s southern ex ten t it i s almost c l a y l i k e i n t e x t u r e , though gene ra l ly harder . The upper sur face i s hor i zon ta l , though i r r e g u l a r , averages 9-12 inches above low water l e v e l , and i t s widest ex ten t i s 4 f e e t . It does no t show t h e usua l f e a t u r e s of i n t e r t i d a l beachrock, such as seaward d ip , and i s probably b e t t e r r e f e r r e d t o a s a promenade of cay sandstone, without n e c e s s a r i l y implying any d i f f e r e n t o r ig in . A f u r t h e r poin t of i n t e r e s t i s t h e occurrence, a t t h e po in t i t s e l f , where t h e r idge reaches i t s h ighes t po in t , of abundant Fiaya potsherds, i n t h e upper few inches of t h e s o i l , entangled with coconut roo t s , and a l s o s c a t t e r e d on t h e su r face and on t h e narrow beach below t h e undercut c l i f f . The s o i l he re i s very black, and t h i s very r e s t r i c t e d a rea i s much overgrown with t h e bush Leucaena l e u c o c e ~ h a l a , by no means common cn t h e cays. The p o t t e r y depos i t s , l i k e t h e shore, formerly extended f u r t h e r seaward, and fragments a r e now found f o r some d i s t a n c e along t h e beach. A l l t h e m a t e r i a l found was fragmentary earthenware, with t h e exception of a s i n g l e obsidian blade, The crudeness of t h e po t t e ry , pauc i ty of obsidian, absence of c o n s t r u c t i o n a l f e a t u r e s , whole p o t s and jade, a l l con t r a s t wi th remains on some of t h e i s l a n d s of t h e southern b a r r i e r reef lagoon, t o be described i n a subsequent paper. Po t t e ry from Grand Bogue Point i s descr ibed by M r . E.W. MacKie, Hunterian Museum, Glasgow Universi ty, who i s f a m i l i a r wi th mainland B r i t i s h Honduran p o t t e r y sequences, i n Appendix 2., Un-named Poin t A i r reconnaissance showed t h e ex i s t ence of f u r t h e r ivpromefiadesit of s l i g h t l y e leva ted rock s i m i l a r t o t h a t a t Big Cay Bokel and Grand Bogue Poin t , a t a conspicuous poin t on t h e e a s t e r n sand r i m l m i l e south of Calabash Cays. Unfortunately t h e r e was not t ime t o v i s i t t h i s somewhat i n a c c e s s i b l e loca t ion . Harry Jones Point Harry Jones ( A ~ B 87, 47-49, Figure 26) was r e v i s i t e d a f t e r t h e storm; a ~ a r t from very heavy d e s t r u c t i o n of coconut t r e e s , t h e changes were r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l . D i rec t ion of t r e e f a l l v a r i e s from 230-018'~ t h e mean be ing about 300?, i n d i c a t i n g s o u t h e a s t e r l y winds. Nearshore Coccoloba has a l s o disappeared; much of t h e previous ly exposed 1rbeachrockJ has been destroyed; and a t t h e po in t i t s e l f , r e t r e a t of t h e sand r idge has exposed f r e s h cemented ma te r i a l . Immediately no r th of t h e po in t , t h e r e a r e now two exposures of f r e s h rock, with h o r i z o n t a l upper s u r f a c e s s tanding 45 f e e t above sea l e v e l . The rock i s s t i l l f a i r l y s o f t , and t h e mat r ix con ta ins coconut roo t s . A t t h e i n n e r edge, where t h e rock i s covered by t h e sand r idge , t h e s e r o o t s can be t r a c e d d i r e c t l y i n t o t h e over ly ing root m a t . This demonstrates q u i t e conclus ive ly t h a t t h e rock i s forming a t i t s present a l t i t u d e a t t h e p resen t t ime, and t h a t it i s not an v a r i e s from 300 t o 030?, with most 360-O1oO, i n d i c a t i n g sou the r ly winds. Between ha l f and th ree -qua r t e r s of t h e coconuts have been f e l l e d ; of t h o s e s t i l l s tanding , most have l o s t t h e i r crowns. The ground vegeta- t i o n has not been destroyed, excent c l o s e t o t h e shore, where f r e s h sand has been depos i t ed over a zone 15-30 yards wide. This sugges ts t h a t damage r e s u l t e d f r m storm waves only, and t h a t t h e storm surge was i n s i g - n i f i c a n t here. Ground vege ta t ion c o n s i s t s mainly of g r a s s e s and Euphorbla, wi th u n i d e n t i f i e d bushes. Broken coconut stumps and exposed r o o t s a l o n g t h e sho re l ine i n d i c a t e a n unknown, b u t roba ably small, amount of shore r e t r e a t . The r idge reaches i t s h ighes t p o i n t , 22-3 f e e t , a t i t s no r theas t end. Here su r f ace vege ta t ion has been comnletely s t r i pped from t h e near shore a r e a , l eav ing only matted coconut r o o t s and a few broken stumps. A t t h i s po in t , t oo , sand and f i n e s have been f lushed away, l eav ing only sh ingle . This p o i n t i s c l o s e s t t o t h e e a s t r e e f s , and t h u s most exposed t o both cons t ruc t ive and d e s t r u c t i v e waves. L i t h i f i e d sands a r e exposed f o r 25-30 ya rds n e a r t h e poin t , and i n t e r m i t t e n t l y on t h e beach t o t h e south and t o t h e west. The sands form a ledge varying i n width from a few inches t o t h r e e yards , s tanding up t o 2 f e e t above sea l e v e l . The upper su r f ace i s h o r i z o n t a l , and t h e rock i s undercut a t sea l e v e l on i t s seaward s ide . It i s d i r e c t l y o v e r l a i n by 12-20 i n c h e s of dense coco- nu t r o o t s a t t h e no in t , wi th s h e l l s and sh ingle ; and elsewhere by a g e n t l e sand s lope. The l a c k of s u r f a c e hardening and e ros ion i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e rock was n o t exposed be fo re t h e hurr icane. Roots i n t h e r o o t zone can be followed d i r e c t l y i n t o t h e underlying rock; and t h e whole h o r i z o n t a l s u r f a c e of t h e l i t h i f i e d sands i s marked by innumerable s h o r t segments of coconut roo t s , 2-3 inches long, pro t ruding above t h e l e v e l su r f ace . This rock has c l e a r l y been formed beneath t h e o ld cay sur face a t its p re sen t e l eva t ion , and owes noth ing t o r e l a t i v e movements of land and sea. It i s a cay sandstone ( ~ u e n e n , 1933, 86-88; Seymour Sewell, 1935? 5 0 2 f ~ ) formed beneath t h e r o o t m a t , presumably a t t h e water t a b l e , and exposed by t h e storm; it i s q u i t e probably be ing formed elsewhere beneath t h e s u r f a c e of t h e Big Cay Bokel sand r i d g e a t t h e p re sen t day. I f case- hardened and weathered it would be i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e from t h e Harry Jones l i t h i f i e d sands. Grand Bogue Poin t The sand r i d g e a l s o outcrops at t h e shore, and was v i s i t e d , immediately south of Grand Bogue, a t Grand Bogue Poin t ; it extends southwards from t h i s p o i n t f o r about 3 m i l e s t o Rope Walk, bu t only t h e nor thern 600 ya rds could be i n v e s t i g a t e d (J?igure 54). Mangrove f r i n g e s each s i d e of t h e Bogue proper, and t h e sand r idge only appears a t i t s mouth. I n i t s f i r s t 100 ya rds it r i s e s from 2 t o 4 f e e t above sea l e v e l , reaching 4$ f e e t a t i t s easternmost po in t , and then f a l l s g radua l ly southwards as t h e shore curves away i n t o a l a r g e bay. The r idge i s covered wi th coconuts, wi th a f a i r l y dense ground cover of g r a s s e s and shrubs. The shore has e v i d e n t l y su f f e red some r e t r e a t du r ing Hurricane Ha t t i e . A t t h e Poin t i t s e l f t h e shore i s s t e e p l y undercut f o r about 170 yards, forming a s t e e p c l i f f up t o 4 f e e t high, capped wi th coconut r o o t s , overlooking a very narrow beach and p a t c h i l y ove rdee~ened water. South of t h e Poin t , The Eas tern Sand Ridge The windward s i d e of t h e e a s t e r n mangrove rim of Turneffe I s l ands i s f r inged f o r much of i t s length by a low, coconut-covered sand r idge. This extends from nea r Northern Bogue t o Harry Jones Poin t , a d i s t ance of about 8s mi les , though it i s here gene ra l ly s e ~ a r a t e d from t h e e a s t e r n reef f l a t by a s t r i p of Rhi~ophora . It extends d iscont inuous ly along t h e embayed e a s t shore between Calabash En.trance and Grand Bogue; and again forms a long unbroken r idge on t h e south s i d e of Grand Bogue, a s f a r a s Rope VJalk. I ts southernmost ex tent i s found along t h e southeast-facing shore of Big Cay Bokel. For d i s t r i b u t i o n d e t a i l s , see AEB 87, Figure 14. It i s almost wholly sand, genera l ly 3-4 f t i n he ight near i t s seaward shore, and d e c l i n e s i n he ight westwards t o pass beneath t h e lagoon- f r i n g i n g mangroves. It i s wholly ~ l a n t e d t o coconuts, with an undercover of H p e n o c a l l i s , g ra s ses , and p r o s t r a t e p l an t s , with i n t e r m i t t e n t patches of Tournefort ia , Suriana and Cocccrloba. The r idge i s c l e a r l y s i m i l a r i n o r i g i n t o t h e sand r i d g e s along t h e windward s i d e s of such b a r r i e r r ee f i s l a n d s a s Ambergris Cay and Cays Caulker and Chapel; but t h e f a c t t h a t mngrove i s of ten found t o windward of it sugges ts t h a t it may not now be an a c t i v e l y growing f e a t u r e . L i t h i f i e d sands extending w e l l above high water l e v e l have been des- c r ibed from t h e sand r idge a t Harry Jones Point , Calabash Entrance ( ~ i i o n , 1956) and a sc r ibed t o a r ecen t negat ive sea- leve l s h i f t ( ~ e r m e e r , 1959). The Harry Jones exposure was considered i n some d e t a i l i n ARB 87, 47-49, when it was concluded t h a t because of i t s v a r i a t i o n i n he ight t h e rock could not be ascr ibed t o e u s t a t i c movements, bu t may i n d i c a t e t i l t i n g , Af t e r t h e hurr icane , t h e whole e a s t e r n sand r idge was inspec ted from t h e a i r , and v i s i t e d a t a number of d a c e s . Seve ra l f r e s h outcrops of com- oa rab le l i t h i f i e d sands were found, which throw doubt on t h e i n t e r o r e - t a t i o n of t h e Harry Jones rock as a t r u e i n t e r t i d a l beachrock; and it now seems t h a t t h e s e highstanding l i t h i f i e d sands can be explained without re ference t o any kind cf e u s t a t i c o r t e c t o n i c movements. Fresh l i t h i f i e d sands were p a r t i c u l a r l y noted a t Big Cay Bokel, Grand Bogue Poin t , and Harry Jones Point . Big Cay Bokel Rig Cay Bokel i s a l a r g e mangrove i s l a n d , some 900 yards no r th of Cay Bokel, forming t h e southernmost s e c t o r of t h e Turneffe mangrove rim. It i s roughly t r i a n g u l a r , with maximum N-S dimensions of l m i l e , and E-W width of two-tnirds of a mile . The whole i s l a n d c o n s i s t s of mangrove, except f o r a narrow s t r i ~ fac ing t h e southeas t r e e f s , and a small a r e a a t i t s nor th poin t , both of which c o n s i s t of coconut-covered sand r idge. The southeas t r i dge i s t h e longes t , exkending f o r about 1100 yards: f o r most of i t s l eng th it i s o r i en ted NO70 Eo The r idge approaches c l o s e s t t o t h e e a s t e r n reef at i t s nor theas t e rn extremity, and d iverges south- westwards, becoming lower, and even tua l ly being separa ted from t h e r ee f f l a t by a narrow mangrove rim. The south and southwest shores of Big Cay Bokel c o n s i s t i n g wholly of mangrove, were devas ta ted by t h e hurr icane, and t h e Rhixophora i s now l e a f l e s s and appa ren t ly dead, On t h e lowlying sandy a r e a , immediately i n t h e gee of t h e mangrove f r inge , many coconuts have f a l l e n , o r i en ted 020-030 . Along t h e sand r idge prooer o r i e n t a t i o n of f a l l e n coconuts Deadman V Four hundred yards nor th of Deadman I V l i e s t h e l a s t of t h e Deadman Cays: Deadman V (ARB 87, 39-40). I n 1960 it was a low-lying sandy i s l a n d some 50 yards long, with a l a r g e a r e a of Rhizophora t o leeward. The cay w a s devoted t o coconuts, with a very sparse undercover of Sesuvium, Q p e r u s and Sporobolus. There was some dead mangrove and small Rhizophora seed l ings along t h e south shore, and a gnarled old Avicennia a t t h e e a s t e r n ~ o i n t . During Hurricane H a t t i e t h e d r y land a rea suf fered eros ion on a l l shores with t h e formation of i r r e g u l a r undercut c l i f f s (Figure 52). Sur- face sand was s t r ipped over about ha l f of t h e a rea , with exDosure and combing of coconut roots . The stwm of t h e old Avicennia s t i l l s tands a t t h e e a s t point . Roots a r e combed from south t o north, and along t h e nor th shore t h e r e i s one major i n l e t , presumably cu t back by water pouring ac ross t h e cay surface. Piost of t h e coconut t r e e s have d i s a ~ p e a r e d ; a few t runks on t h e cay surface a r e or iented 320-350?, i n d i c a t i n g winds a l i t t l e e a s t of south. Between t h e exposed roo t zone and t h e much de fo l i a t ed man- grove i s an a r e a of sDarse Sporobolus and Eu~horb ia . Cay Bokel Cay Bokel be fo re t h e hurr icane was t h e southernmost cay of t h e Turneffe I s l ands (ARB 87, 35-37). It was t r i a n g u l a r i n shape with s i d e s about 35 yards long, and was low and sandy. No p a r t of t h e cay rose more than 2 f e e t above sea l eve l . A s i n g l e l i n e of beachrock 55 yards southwest of t h e i s l a n d ind ica ted r e t r e a t toward t h e nor theas t . There w a s a semi-automatic l ighthouse on t h e cay, b u i l t i n 1944, and a l a r g e house. The l ighthouse overlooked t h e foundations of a second l i g h t 7-12 yards of fshore i n water 1-2 f e e t d e e ~ , s a i d t o have been destroyed i n t h e 1931 hurr icane. A concrete seawall between t h i s wreckage and t h e shore was a l s o much broken and awash. Northwest of t h e s tanding l ighthouse was t h e concrete base of y e t a t h i r d , t i l t e d and only p a r t l y exposed, s a i d t o have been destroyed i n t h e 1945 hurr icane. The cay w a s almost devoid of vegeta t ion except f o r coconut palms: therewas a patchy cover of Ambrosia h isp ida , and a few l i l i e s , Hymenocallis l i t t o r a l i s . Before t h e hurr icane t h e r e were some Rhizophora seedlings, but no mature mangrove. During Hurricane H a t t i e t h e i s l a n d disappeared, with t h e l o s s of six l i v e s ( ~ i g u r e 53). The a r e a of t h e cay i s now covered with 4-5 f e e t of water, with 6-9 f e e t i n p laces ngar t h e l ighthouse. The l i g h t i t s e l f has f a l l e n on i t s s ide , o r i en ted C45 . The 1945 Lighthouse base has been completed exposed, with a l a r g e l i v i n g D i d o r i a adjacent t o it. Across t h e middle of t h e o ld cay a r e a t h e r e i s a shingle shoa l car ry ing only a foo t of water, and sh ing le has a l s o accumuiated over a wide zone t o south and southwest of the cay , without breaking surface. The j e t t y has d i s - appeared, and a l l t h a t remains of t h e vegeta t ion cover i s a s i n g l e submerged coconut t runk. There i s a t nresent no s ign of accumulation of sand t o form a sandbore a t t h i s poin t ; it seems unl ike ly , a f t e r so many l o s s e s due t o hurr icanes , t h a t t h e s resent l i g h t w i l l be re-erected here , and more probable t h a t it w i l l be t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e Turneffe IPnainlandlr a t Big Cay Bokel. Deadman I11 - Deadman I11 (ARB 87, 38-39, Figure 18) was a small i s l a n d 50 yards l cng and 35 yards wide before t h e hurr icane . It was covered with a t h i c - k e t of Conocarpus, Laguncularia, Avicennia and Tournefort ia , with a few coconuts, and a n undercover of Sesuvium, Ipomoea and Sporobolus. The coconuts have f a l l e n and t h e bushes a r e a l l de fo l i a t ed , but otherwise t h e changes a t Deadman I11 have been minor. Fa l len t r e e s a r e or ien ted 320?, i n d i c a t i n g winds and waves e a s t of south. The formerly sandy sur face i s now covered wi th sh ing le , Deadman I V (ARB 87, 39) i s t h e l a r g e s t i s l a n d i n t h e group, and l i e s about 20C yards nor th of Deadmar! 11. Before t h e hurr icane it was oval- s h a ~ e d , with maximum dimensions of 125 ya rds N-S and 95 yards E-\Vo The e a s t e r n shore was formed of low-lying rubble r a t h e r than sh ingle , and t h e i s l a n d sur face was gene ra l ly sandy, e s p e c i a l l y towards t h e west s ide . The western bay was very shallow wi th many Rhizophora seed l ings and mature Avicennia a long t h e shore. On t h e i s l a n d t h e vegeta t ion cover was dense and d i f f i c u l t t o ~ e n e t r a t e , l ~ u c h of t h e seaward shore was l i n e d with a hedge of Tournefort ia , backed by Coccoloba t h i c k e t ; elsewhere t h e upper beaches were covered wi th Sesuvium, E u ~ h o r b i a , S ~ o r o b o l u s and o the r grasses . The c e n t r e of t h e cay was covered with a palm t h i c k e t , wi th coconuts and Thrinax. Erosion was severe du r ing Hurricane H a t t i e on a l l s i d e s of t h e i s l a n d excent t h e nor th ( ~ i ~ u r e 51) , The amount of r e t r e a t i s shown, f o r example, by t h e now nearshore remnants of t h e Coccoloba t h i c k e t on t h e southeas t s i d e , A l l t h e vegeta t ion on t h e windward s i d e - Tournefort ia hedge, E u ~ h o r b i a , Sesuvium - has been destroyed, and t h e e a s t e r n h a l f of t h e cay i s blanketed by f r e s h sh ing le up t o 30 yards wide. The i n n e r edge of t h i s ca rpe t reaches 3-4 f e e t above sea l e v e l . On t h e seaward s i d e t h e o ld cay sur face can only be seen a t t h e southeas t corner , where it forms a n undercut c l i f f , most ly cons i s t ing of coconut roo t s , i r r e g u l a r i n d a n , wi th a s i n g l e small a r e a of cemented sand a t i t s base. The western h a l f of t h e cay i s a h l o s t unrecognisable, both i n plan and i n vegetat ion. It appears t o have been inundated and subjec ted t o sur face eros ion; most of t h e vegeta t ion has been k i l l e d and l eaves and branches s t r i ~ p e d ~ but much remains i n t h e p o s i t i o n of growth, Eleven coconuts a r e s t i l l s tanding wi th a number of Thrinax oalms, and t h e r e i s a f a i r l y luxur i an t ground cover of Ageratum, Euphorbia, grasses , and ~ a t c h e s of Sesuvium, There i s now only a handful of Rhi%ophora seedl ings. The mature Avicennia and &guncular ia has d i s a p ~ e a r e d . The g r e a t change i n o u t l i n e of t h e leeward shore may seem su rp r i s ing , but it was previously very low-lying, and only a l i t t l e sand r e - d i s t r i b u t i o n would be necessary t o s h i f t t h e shore l ine cons iderable d i s t a n c e s landward o r seaward. old cay su r f ace and i s not an u ~ l i f t e d beachrock: t h e s t a t e ' o f cementation, i n c l u s i o n of coconut r o o t s , and c o ~ ~ p a r i s o n of exposures be fo re and a f t e r t h e hu r r i cane a l l demonstrate t h a t it i s a contemporary f e a t u r e , simply exposed by erosion. Rubble i s strewn over t h e eroded cay sur face , and b l anke t s it com- p l e t e l y a long t h e n o r t h s i d e ; t h e maximum height towards t h e e a s t end i s 3 f e e t above sea l e v e l . The coconut c o v w has been destroyed, though t e n damaged t r e e s remain s tanding. lqost of t h e t r u n k s have disappeared, b u t a few remain, o r i en t ed 355-020?, i n d i c a t i n g sou the r ly winds and waves. The former f r e s h sand s p i t at t h e western end has disappeared, bu t m y be beginning t o reform. L i t t l e vege ta t ion surv ives from before t h e storm: a few l i l i e s (~;ymenocal l is l i t t o r a l i s ) p ro t rude through t h e sh ing le a t t h e e a s t end, and t h e r e a r e one o r two Borr ich ia bushes n e a r t h e cen t r e . The Sesuvium patch a t t h e west end su rv ives i n smal le r form, Otherwise t h e i s l a n d i s unvegetated a n a r t from very spa r se Eunhorbia, Ageratum and C,y-peruso Deadman I1 Deadman I1 ( ~ i g u r e 50) l i e s 150 ya rds no r th of Deadman I; before t h e storm it was roughly c i r c u l a r , wi th N-S and E-W diameters of 80 yards , The seaward shore was composed of f i n e sh ing le r i s i n g t o a c r e s t 2-3 f e e t above sea l e v e l , from which t h e su r f ace dec l ined eastwards t o t h e wide and sandy leeward shore, The leeward shore i t s e l f faced a shal low sandy bay with numerous Rhizophora seedl ings . There w a s nc: mature man- grove on t h e cay a p a r t from one o r two t a l l Avicennia and Laguncularia racemosa on t h e leeward shore. The cay was p lan ted t o coconuts, bu t t h e -- undergrowth was not c leared . The upper beach was covered wi th Sesuvi-m and E u ~ h o r b i a , wi th S ~ o r o b o l u s and o t h e r g r a s s e s on t h e leeward s i d e , pas s ing in l and under a dense t h i c k e t of Conocarpus, Sur iana and Borr ich ia . Tournefor t ia g n a ~ h a l o d e s w a s seen a t one po in t on t h e northwest shore, The cay su f f e red e ros ion on a l l s i d e s dur ing t h e hur r icane , bu t e s p e c i a l l y on t h e e a s t s ide , which r e t r e a t e d an average of 12 yards , Along most of t h i s s i d e a low-lying ~ l a t f o r m of s o f t promenade rock w a s exposed, wi th h o r i z o n t a l bu t p i t t e d upper sur face , conta in ing coconut r o o t s as sing landward beneath a s t e e p l y undercut cay margin, a l s o of coconut roo t s . One o r two coconut bo le s , detached from t h e cay, a r e s t i l l s tanding nea r t h e e a s t uo in t . The composition of t h e ~romenade rock i s va r i ab l e : i n t h e south it inc ludes sh ing le , northwards it becomes almost clayey. Above t h e undercut e a s t e r n c l i f f l i n e t h e r e i s a narrow zone of s t r i p p e d roo t s , followed in l and by a b lanket of f r e s h sh ing le p i l e d a g a i n s t dead bushes and t r e e s . The s h i n g l e has a maximum width of 25 ya rds and r i s e s 2 f e e t above sea l e v e l . I ts i n n e r edge i s a r c u a t e and s teep; t h e r e s t of t h e i s l a n d i s covered with dead bushes, wi th a l i t t l e l i v i n g Borr ich ia arborescens, Ageratum l i t t o r a l e , Sesuvium portulacastrum, I r e s i n e d i f f u s a , Caki le lanceolata. , and Sporobolus .~ A l l t h e coconuts - except e i g h t have f a l l e n , with d i r e c t i o n s i n d i c a t i n g sou the r ly winds and waves. A l l t h e p e r i p h e r a l Rhizophora i s dead, amd t h e Avicennia and Lagunculariakvedisappeared. Much rubSle has been s c a t t e r e d over t h e - nearshore a r e a on t h e e a s t s i d e of t h e cay. t h e a r e a enclosed by them, formerly t h e cay proper , i s now covered wi th 2-3 f e e t of water, and of t h e Suriana t h i c k e t t h e r e i s no t r a c e , Cutside t h e mangrove t h e reef f l a t has an average depth of 1 foo t . Towards t h e west end of t h e former cay, morecver, e ros ion has cu t a d e f i n i t e scour channel, heading i n a scour hole a t l e a s t 6 f e e t d e e ~ , some 15 ya rds from t h e o ld windward shore, and extending wi th decreas ing denth a c r o s s t h e reef f l a t t o leeward, This cu r ious concent ra t ion of e ros ion on what was formerly one of t h s h ighes t o a r t s of t h e reef f l a t i s of i n t e r e s t . The Deadman Grour, The Deadman Cays c o n s i s t of f i v e small i s l a n d s on t h e e a s t e r n reef f l a t , f o u r m i l e s from t h e southern end of Turneffe ( ~ R B 87, 37-40). The cays a r e numbered f o r convenience from scu th t o north. Befcre t h e hurr icane Deadman I was 110 yards long and var ied i n width from 20 t o 32 yards , The i s l a n d i s a l igned t r a n s v e r s e t o t h e r e e f , immediately nor th of a l a r g e reef gap; it was everywhere low, but rose a t i t s e a s t e r n end t o not more than 3 f e e t above sea l e v e l , The e a s t e r n end cons is ted of small, r a t h e r blackened sh ingle ; westward t h e propor t ion of sh ingle decreased, u n t i l a t t h e west end it was com- posed e n t i r e l y of f i n e sand, prolonged by a submerged sandspi t f o r a f u r t h e r 10-20 yards lagoonward. Along t h e south shore cemented sands 'were exposed f o r nea r ly 1 0 yards ; t h e s o f t and ~ o o r l y indura ted rock w a s h o r i z o n t a l and aassed under t h e beach sand; t h e ex?osure was only a few inches wide and 3-6 inches above sea l e v e l . There were many Rhiz cphora seedl ings-along t h e west, southeas t and nor th s h o r e s of t h e cay, The whole i s l a n d was covered with coconuts about 30 f e e t t a l l , w i th a ground cover of Sesuvium, Euphorbia, Hymenocallis and grasses . A t t h e low western e n d , t h e f r e s h sandspi t was being colonised by Sesuvium and a couple of Tournefor t ia bushes, There was a s i n g l e mature Avicennia a t t h e e a s t e r n end, Severe e ros ion occurred dur ing t h e hurr icane a long t h e whole of t h e south shore ( ~ i g u r e 49), The l a r g e Avicennia a t t h e e a s t end stood, and enables one t o a c c u r a t e l y l o c a t e t h e two cays before and a f t e r t h e storm, Deposition occurred a long t h e whole of t h e nor thern shore; hence t h e genera l e f f e c t i s one of a nortnward mcvement of t h e cay. Surface sand has been s t r ipped frcm t h e whole a r e a , exposing combed coconut roo t s , l i t t e r e d wi th f r e sh debr i s . The g r e a t e r p a r t of t h e south shore i s now formed by a v e r t i c a l s t e p of coconut r o o t s from which most of t h e sediment has been f lushed. The previous ly noted a r e a of cemented sand i s now exposed f o r a t o t a l of 75 yards round t h e cay shore, with a t o t a l width 01-2$ yards , The uoper su r face i s h o r i z o n t a l but p i t t e d and i r r e g u l a r i n d e t a i l , and l i e s a l i t t l e above high t i d e l e v e l . The cementation i s i r r e g u l a r but gene ra l ly weak; however, i f b e t t e r cemented t h e f e a t u r e would c l o s e l y resemble t h e wide conglomerate p la t form descr ibed a t Half Noon Cay, Lighthouse Reef (ARB 87, 69-72) and t h e ftpromenadesfq found by S t e e r s a t Morant Cays, Jamaica (1940a, 1940b). There i s no doubt t h a t t h e Deadman I promenade has been formed a t i t s present l e v e l under t n e been c u t a t t h e no r theas t and southwest e x t r e m i t i e s o That a t t h e south- west end c u t s a c r o s s t h e base of t h e former sandsp i t , a fragment cf which surv ives on i t s south s i d e ; t h i s channel i s l e s s than 1 fathom i n depth. That a t t h e no r theas t end extends a long t h e whole of t h a t side of t h e cay, and is i n i t i a t e d i n a scour hole more than 3 fathoms deep, wi th v e r t i c a l and i n p l aces overhanging s i d e s wi th in a few f e e t of t h e shore. Smaller scour holes have been cu t i n t h e cay sur face , p a r t i c u l a r l y near t h e n a r t h end, where one conta ins a few inches of s tagnant water. One of t h e c l d conch s h e l l peninsulas has survived t h e storm, but i t s p o s i t i o n has s h i f t e d s l i g h t l y and it i s now an i s l and . Nearly a l l t h e coconut t r e e s have disappeared; 5 a r e s t i l l s tanding , and a few f a l l e n t runks near t h e no r th end shcw a f a i r l y cons tant or ien- t a t i o n of 320-330'. h e r much of t h e sur face , e s p e c i a l l y towards t h e l e e s ide , however, t h e o r i g i n a l ground vegeta t ion has survived, and it i s poss ib l e t o recognise t h e p o s i t i o n of old t r a c k s through t h e t u r f cover between houses which have now disappeared. A l l t h e Rhizophora seed l ings have been swent away. East Cays One and Two Eas t and n o r t h of Big Calabash a r e two smal le r i s l ands . East Cay One was formerly separated from Big Calabash by a shallow channel only 14 yards wide, ca r ry ing up t o 12 inches water, wi th many Rhizophora seedl ings. The cay i t s e l f was small and round, 40-50 yards i n diameter , with much coarse and blackened c o r a l rubble a long i t s e a s t shore. Most of t h e i s l a n d was f l a t and sandy and d i d not r i s e mcre than 3 f e e t above sea l e v e l . I n 1960-61 t h e vegeta t ion c o r ~ s i s t e d of a dense bushy growth of Suriana maritima and Conocarpus e rec tus , with s e v e r a l l ~ w Rh i~ophora and t a l l e r Avicennia t r e e s around i t s margin. There were two d i s t i n c t clumos of coconuts, t o t a l l i n g l e s s than a dozen t r e e s , near t h e c e n t r e of t h e cay. During t h e hurr icane shore l ines r e t r e a t e d 5-10 yards round almost t h e e n t i r e margin of t h e cay; su r face sand was removed, and t h e su r face l i t t e r e d wi th fine-medium c o r a l debr is . It seems l i k e l y t h a t some of t h e vegeta t ion had been removed before t h e storm t o bu i ld houses, s ince t h e r e were a number of new concrete house found&tions nea r t h e cay cen t r e i n 1962. However almost a l l t h e pre-hurricane vegeta t ion has been destroyed: a s i n g l e coconut s t i l l s tands, with two Avicennia t r e e s and a small bush of Borr ich ia arborescens; t h e former dense growth of Conocarpus and Suriana has disappeared, except f o r a t a n g l e of dead bushes. Much rubble i s s c a t t e r e d along t h e seaward shore, and a shallow scour channel heads between t h i s cay and Big Calabash. Big Calabash East Two has suffered even more severely. I t was loca ted about 9C yards no r th of East One, and cons is ted of a narrow s t r i p of land, 50 ya rds long and gene ra l ly l e s s than 1 0 yards wide, with some sh ing le a t i t s e a s t end. Most of t h e cay w a s low and sandy and d i d no t r i s e more than 18 inches above t h e sea. It was prolonged westward by a f r e s h sandspi t . Before t h e storm t h e vege ta t ion cons is ted of a p e r i - phe ra l b e l t of Avicennia and Rhizophora, a c e n t r a l t h i c k e t of Suriana maritima and coarse grasses , and two o r t h r e e low young coconuts. The i s l a n d has been almost e n t i r e l y destroyed: t h e p e r i p h e r a l mangrove s t i l l remain i n p o s i t i o n of growth, though d e f o l i a t e d and appa ren t ly dead, but up along t h e southwest shore, The considerable e ros ion on t h e e a s t s i d e i s balanced by denos i t ion on t h e west. Here t h e j e t t y formerly stood i n 7-8 f e e t of water f o r most of i t s l eng th , Now t h e only s e c t i o n s t o surv ive a r e te rminal pos t s a t each end: n e a r l y t h e whole of t h e a r e a between t h e s e ~ o s t s i s occupied by a ~ e n i n s u l a of f r e s h sand, 25 yards long, and 40 yards wide a c r o s s i t s base. The average th i ckness of t h i s wedge of sand must be 5-6 f e e t . Immediately of fshore t h e bottom f a l l s away very s t eep ly , so t h a t w i th in 3 f e e t of t h e shore depths of 1 fathom and probably nea r ly 2 fathoms a r e found. The o u t e r s lope of t h e sand ~ e n i n s u l a must be comparable i n s teepness t o o u t e r s lopes of f r e s h sand accumulations onland. Because of weather condi t ions it was not poss ib l e t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e reef condi t ions t o seaward of t h e cay, but much of t h e Thalass ia f l a t had been bur ied by f r e s h medim shingle . A l l houses and o the r i n s t a l l a t i o n s have been destroyed. I n hay 1962 t h e only s i g n s of h a b i t a t i o n were house foundat ions, a s o l i t a r y tyw- w r i t e r r u s t i n g on t h e sand, and q u a n t i t i e s of l ead from radio b a t t e r i e s . A s an i l l u s t r a t i o n of t h e ex t r ao rd ina ry power of hurr icane waves, t h e r a d i o t r a n s m i t t e r i t s e l f , measuring roughly 1 x 2 x 3 f e e t , a heavy ob jec t , was subsequently found near Harry Jones Poin t , having been t r a n s - norted approximately 30CO yards a c r o s s water everywhere more than 1 fathom d e e ~ , and then lodged on a sandy sur face , surrounded by vegeta t ion 3 f e e t above . the sea. The coconut t r e e s have been completely destroyed. A t t h e time of t h e re-survey t h e r e was a very sparse ground cover of Agerat-m, Wedelia, Cakile and grasses. Big Calabash Cay Big Calabash Cay l i e s some 300 yards no r theas t of L i t t l e Calabash Cay wi th which it i s connected by a very shallow sandy r e e f - f l a t . The cay i s a l igned NNE-SSl*r, o a r a l l e l t c t h e r e e f , and i s about 170 yards long (ARB 87, 42, Figure 2 ~ ) , Before t h e storm i t s width va r i ed from 35 t o 55 yards, and it was uniformly low and sandy. The maximum e leva t ions were on t h e e a s t s ide , where a sand r idge rose t o 2-3 f e e t above sea l e v e l . There was no sh ingle on t h e i s l a n d , but i n s e v e r a l p l aces t h e shore was marked by banks of conch s h e l l s . A s p i t of f r e s h sand extended 20 yards southwards from t h e main i s l and . The whole cay was' p lanted t o coconuts, which formed a ragged canoDy only 20-30 f e e t high. Apart from these , t h e ground sur face was covered with g ras ses , both low, forming a t u r f , and t a l l e r , i n s c a t t e r e d clumps. Rhizophora seedl ings were numerous c l o s e inshore , with t a l l e r Avicennia near t h e no r th end. There were seve ra l houses on t h e i s l and , one of them very s u b s t a n t i a l . The leeward bay gave anchorage i n 4-5 f e e t , though scme d i s t a n c e offshore, a s t h e f l o o r sloped gradual ly. Damage dur ing t h e hurr icane was severe, but l e s s so than a t L i t t l e Calabash Cay. The whole of t h e seaward shore r e t r e a t e d from 2 t o 12 yards, l eav ing a ragged undercut sho re l ine of t ang led coconut roo t s . The leeward shore a l s o r e t r e a t e d from 5 t o 1 C yards, c h i e f l y through scouring by waves flowing over t h e cay and forming plunge ho le s on t h e l e e s ide ; t h e s e ho le s average 5-6 f e e t deep. The l e e shore e ros ion has no t l e f t such a n undercut and ragged shore l ine a s on t h e seaward s ide , except a t t h e southwest end, and a l s o where longe r scour channels have a ~ p a r e n t l y dead, The Conoca r~us and coconuts have been swept away, and t h e cay now c o n s i s t s of a rugged accumulation of coa r se s h i n g l e and sand r i s i n g only a few inches above sea l e v e l . Between So ld i e r and Blackbird Cays a c r e s c e n t i c r i dge of f r e s h sh ing le and rubble, 30 ya rds long, has been formed nea r t h e r ee f c r e s t . It i s sha rp ly asymmetric, with c o r a l blocks up t o 1 2 inches long on i t s seaward s ide , and f i n e sh ing le and sand t o leeward, Fore sh ing le breaks su r f ace t o form a r idge immediately no r th of t h e S o l d i e r Cay Elbow, and extends f o r 3C-5C yards. Nei ther of t h e s e accumulations e x i s t e d be fo re t h e hur r icane . Calabash Cays Calabash Cays a r e a group of f o u r i s l a n d s immediately south of Calabash Entrance on t h e Turneffe e a s t r e e f s , Two of t h e cays a r e l a r g e i s l a n d s ( ~ i g and L i t t l e Calabash cays) and were formerly t h e c e n t r e of t h e Turneffe coconut i n d u s t r y ( see ARB 8'7, 41-42, F igure 19-20). L i t t l e Calabash Cay L i t t l e Calabash Cay i s t h e most sou the r ly i n t h e group. Before Hurricane H a t t i e it was r e g u l a r i n shape, with maimm dimensions of 95 x 60 yards . Along t h e seaward s i d e a r i d g e of sand r o s e t o a he ight of 2 s f e e t above t h e sea ; a ~ a r t from t h i s t h e s u r f a c e was low, f l a t and f e a t u r e l e s s . There was a l i t t l e undercut t ing a long t h e no r theas t shore; b u t e ros ion on t h e south s i d e had been r e t a rded by t h e b u i l d i n g of a p i l e -wa l l backed by conch s h e l l s . Conch s h e l l s were s t rewn a long much of t h e cay beaches, and a t t h e no r th end t h e r e was a 15-yard long penin- s u l a of coconut husks. The i s l a n d overlooked a r ee f f l a t , covered with Thalass ia , and ca r ry ing only 6-8 i nches of water . Immediately t o leeward, however, t h e water deepened r a p i d l y t o g ive anchorage i n '7-8 f e e t of water c lo se inshore . L i t t l e Calabash Cay was t h e main c l e a r i n g house f o r t h e Turneffe coconut t r a d e , There was a long p i e r and warehouse, a sma l l commissary, and dwel l ing houses. Coconut b o z t s made r e g u l a r runs i n t o Bel ize, and t h e cay had i t s own w i r e l e s s t r a n s m i t t i n g and r ece iv ing s t a t i o n . Natura l vege ta t ion had 'been a h o s t e n t i r e l y c l ea red f o r coco- nu t s , except f o r a s ~ a r e e ground cover of g r a s s e s and Ageratum. The hu r r i cane made g r e a t changes a t t h i s cay. The conch-shell ram- p a r t s and t h e southern p a l i s a d e s proved q u i t e inadequate as a p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t hu r r i cane waves, and a long t h e no r theas t , e a s t and southeas t s i d e s t h e shore r e t r e a t e d between 1 0 and 30 yards. The l i n e of t h e much broken p a l i s a d e s can be t r a c e d some ya rds of fshore (Figure 4'7); between t h e p a l i s a d e s and t h e cay t h e water i s 1-2 f e e t deep. Scour ho le s a long t h e o ld sho re l ine on t h e southeas t s i d e a r e 4-5 f e e t deep. Concrete blocks and wooden houseposts in shal low water i n d i c a t e t h e former s i t e s of houses. The cay sur face has been much eroded; a long t h e e a s t s i d e coco- n u t r o o t s a r e exposed and t h e shore i s c l i f f e d . Over t h e r e s t of t h e a r ea , i n s p i t e of v e r t i c a l e ros ion of about 1 f o o t , few r o o t s a r e t o be seen, but t h e whole a r e a i s now i l l -d ra ined , wi th a number of s tagnant pools of water. A low f r e s h sand r i d g e 5-8 ya rds wide h a s been thrown Most of t h e o r i g i n a l vegeta t ion had been removed f o r coconuts, with t h e exception of low, soray-swept bushes of Tournefor t ia gnaphalodes, Coccoloba u v i f e r a and Suriana maritima a long t h e seaward sh ing le r idge and a t t h e no r th end, There were qa tches of Ses~ivium and Euphorbia along t h e r idge f r o n t , bu t a p a r t from spa r se S ~ o r o b o l ~ t h e cay su r face under t h e coconuts was ba re , The coconuts themselves were about 40 f e e t high. Numerous Rhizophora seed l ings were growing i n shallow water a long t h e west and south shores of t h e cay. These s a l i e n t f e a t u r e s of S o l d i e r Cay can no longer be recognised, The seaward sh ing le r idge has been destroyed, and f i n e su r face m a t e r i a l s scoured frcm t h e o ld cay su r face t o a depth of up t o 2 f e e t , The su r face now c o n s i s t s of a f l a t , lcw-lying a r e a of exgosed coconut roo t s , with s c a t t e r e d f r e s h white c o r a l blocks, gene ra l ly l e s s than 1 f o o t diameter. The margins of t h e old i s l a n d , which can s t i l l be t r a c e d as a d i s - t i n c t but low undercut c l i f f l i n e , demonstrated marginal e ros ion o n d l s i d e s of 5-10 yards, g r e a t e s t a t t h e no r th and south ends. A t t h e south end t h e old s ~ i t of f r e s h sand has been swegt away, and a number of p i l l a r - l i k e remnants of t h e o ld cay now s tand some yards from t h e present shore. Along t h e e a s t and west shores t h e r e has been cons iderable accu- mulat ion of f r e s h sh ingle . Along t h e e a s t shore t h i s forms a low, r a t h e r ragged carne t , extending f r ~ m t h e old shore a c r o s s t h e shallow and dry ing r e e f - f l a t on which t h e i s l a n d s t ands , The seaward shore l ine shown on Figure 46 i s t o some ex ten t an approxinat ion, s ince t h e ca rpe t i s so low and broksn t h a t it i s d i f f i c u l t t o say where t h e sh ing le ends and t h e sea begins, None of t h e sh ing le i s h igher than t h e ercded old cay su r face , The hurr icane d e p o s i t s a long t h e west s i d e a r e much more extens ive , forming a zone 25 yards wide and 85 yards lcng , The sh ing le i s thrown up i n t o two r idges , convex westwards, enc los ing a low-lying Lone between t h e r idges and t h e o ld cay. The r i d g e s themselves have an average e l eva t ion of 2 f e e t but r i s e t o 3 f e e t i n one p lace , This i s now t h e h ighes t o a r t of t h e i s l a n d . A l l except f o u r of t h e coconut t r e e s have disappeared, t oge the r with a l l t h e Tournefort ia , Suriana, Coccoloba, Sesuvi.m, Euphorbia, and grasses of t h e old seaward shore, A s i n g l e withered-looking Coccoloba has sur- vived. The r e s t of t h e vegeta t ion i n $jay 1962 was probably a post- hu r r i cane growth, It c o n s i s t s of a very s c a t t e r e d and spa r se cover of Sporobolus, Cyperus, Ageratum, and a few oatches of Por tu laca o leracea , - The coconuts which remain do not appear very vigorous. There a r e now no Rhizophora seedl ings r o w d t h e cay, The p i e r and a l l houses have disappeared, except t h a t some house p o s t s can s t i l l be seen a t t h e extreme south end of t h e cay, which enables one t o a c c u r a t e l y super- impose pre- and post-hurr icane maps i n Figure 46, Seven people d i e d h e r e dur ing t h e hu r r i cane . S o l d i e r Cay i s now a b leak and d e s e r t place, almost devoid of s o i l , and u n l i k e l y t o be r e s e t t l e d i n t h e nea r f u t u r e , Blackbird Cay was s i t u a t e d about 100 ya rds NNE of S o l d i e r Cay: a small, c r e s c e n t i c i s l a n d , 70 yardslong, formed of sand and sh ing le wi th l a r g e r c o r a l s l a b s on t h e seaward s ide . Along t h e seaward shore were a number of mature R h i z o p h o ~ and Avicennia t r e e s , and t h e main p a r t of t h e cay was covered wi th Conocarpus bushes, wi th t h r e e s o l i t a r y young coconuts. The Rhizophora and Avicennia remain, but a r e now l e a f l e s s and i n n e r o r leeward zone cf t h i n rubble deoos i t s , wi th ~ a t c h e s of exposed r o o t s , This rubble has i n p l aces s l i g h t l y extended t h e leeward shore lagoonward. The Avicennia-Conocar~us t h i c k e t a t t h e south end i s much broken and ncw a o o a r e n t l j dead. There has been scme over-deepening of t h e f l o o r between Cay V and Cockroach Cay. Other Cays. The att tern of change cn cays VII-XliVIII conforms t o t h a t descr ibed f o r Pe l i can Cap and Cay V, Leeward mangrove has been dsfo- l i a t e d ; windward bushes anpear dead b u t remain i n p l ace , except c l o s e t o t h e shore where they have been s w e ~ t away by wave a c t i o n o r bur ied by a f r e s h sh ing le s ~ r e a d , Local and g e n e r a l l y s l i g h t over-deepening has .taken l lace between some of t h e cays. Some of t h e smal le r i s l a n d s (XI, X U , UV) have v i r t u a l l y disappeared. Pe l i can Cay Pe l ican Cay (not t o be confused wi th Cay 11, a l s o so named, of t h e Cockroach ~ r o u n ) i s a sinall i s l a n d measuring 1CO x 5C yards , s i t u a t e d 12 m i l e s south of North?rn Bogue (AB 87, b4-459 Figure 23 )0 I n 1960 t h e whole land a r e a was surrounded by a b e l t of Hh izo~hora , wi th a l i t t l e Avicennia and Conocarpus; t h i s rim was i n t e r r u p t e d i n only t h r e e p l aces , two of them narrow boat-entrances l i n e d with conch s h e l l s , The cay su r f ace , t hen no t more than 18 inches above t h e sea , w a s f l a t and f e a t u r e l e s s , b u i l t of g rey sand, and p lan ted t o coconuts. I n J u l y 1961 t h e r n e o p h o r a rim had been completely c l ea red from t h e no r theas t s i d e , It was inhab i t ed a t t h i s t ime by a Carib fisherman, and had two small h u t s ; it i s very s i m i l a r i n form and apnearance t o o t h e r Carib-inhabited cays of t h e b a r r i e r r ee f lagoon, such a s ldeewee Cay and (southern) Rendezvou-s Cay. During t h e hur r icane t h e h u t s were d e s t r ~ y e d , a l l t h e coconuts f e l l e d and t h e sand a r e a s t r i p p e d of s u r f a c e vegeta t ion . The p e r i p h e r a l mangrove was a l l d e f o l i a t e d and much broken, and had not regained i t s l eaves by Xay 1962, S o l d i e r and Blackbird Cays --- Sold ie r and Blackbird Cays a r e l o c a t e d a t t h e easternmost po in t of t h e e a s t r ee f of Turneffe (ARB 87, 43-44, F igures 21-23)0 So ld i e r Cay i s t h e l a r g e r of t h e two; before t h e storm it w a s 145 ya rds long, with a maximum width of 55 yards , The seaward, southeast-facing shore, 110 ya rds long, was formed of grey i n t e r l o c k i n g sh ing le r i s i n g t o a f a i r l y cons tan t c r e s t l i n e 5,5 f e e t above t h e sea , Frcm t h e c r e s t l i n e , t h e cay sur face , c o n s i s t i n g of f i n e grey sand with c o r a l fragments, s loped gradual ly towards t h e lagoon, where t h e leeward beach, of f i n e white sand, formed a d i s t i n c t r i dge , e s p e c i a l l y a t t h e no r th end of t h e cay, The seaward sh ing le r i dge i t s e l f continued round t h e no r th end of t h e cay, and f i n e r sh ing le was found f o r about 20 ya rds a long t h e no r the rn end of t h e l e e shore, Only a t t h e southern ex t r emi ty was t h e r e any undercut t ing; b u t here t h e low c l i f f cu t i n grey sand was f ronted by a f r e s h sandsp i t , 20 yards wide, a l r e a d y be ing colonised by vegeta t ion , c o l l e c t i o n of specimens, but c l e a r l y s u f f i c i e n t t o preserve t h e fragments a g a i n s t wave a t t a c k , The l a r g c s t of t h e o u t c r o ~ s i s 8 yards long and t r e n d s a t r i g h t angles t o t h c shore; a t i t s seaward edge it s t ands 4 feetabove t h e present shinglc; sur face ; i t s su r face i n c l i n e s s l i g h t l y upwards in l and ; but a t i t s inne r edge t h e sur face s t ands only 6 inches above t h e more steeply-banked sh ingle . The o the r main remnant i s much smal le r , but s t ands nea r ly 5 f e f t above t h e m e s e n t sea l eve l . The i n n e r zone of deoo- - s i t i o n i s evidenced by t h c invas ion of Bursera and Cordia s tands by f r z s h sh ingle . Zs elsewhere t h e Cordia i s much more broken than t h e Bursera. Rhizophora has been completely d e f o l i a t e d , but a air of Ospreys, Pandion h a l i a e t u s , were n e s t i n g h e r e i n 1962. The high bank of white sh ingle a g a i n s t t h e dark d e f o l i a t e d vegdta t ion nakes t h e cay d i s t i n c t i v e from t h e seaward s ide . Cay I11 disanaeared dur ing Hurricane Hattie, and Cay I V was s t r i ~ p e d of vegcta t ion . Cay V ( f i g u r e 45) of t h e Cockroach Groua, not previous ly mapped, i s t h e next northwards t o Cockroach Cay i t s e l f . It i s s i m i l a r i n s i z e t o Pe l ican Cay, being 150 y w d s long and 60 yards wide, and it a l s o c o n s i s t s of a seaward sand a r e a , backed by leeward mangrove. The vegata t ion of t h e d r y a r e a c o n s i s t s mainly of Coccoloba, a few coconuts, Borr ich ia arborescens, Ageratum maritinurn, and now d a d un iden t i f i ed bushes. The f r e s h sh ing le spread i s here n e i t h e r s o wide nor so ex tens ive a s a t Ps l i can Cay, nor has any cemented rock been exposed. The maximum height of t h e sh ingle i s not more than 3 f e e t , and t h e width of thz: sh ing le spread i s not more than 30 yards , The vege ta t ion has been conp le t e ly de fo l i a t ed , but most of t h e branches remain i n d a c e . Cockroach Cay i t s e l f (Figure 45) i s a long narrow i s l a n d , immediately n o r t h of a wide gap i n t h e Turneffe e a s t r e e f . I n 1960 it was 310 ya rds long and 55-60 yards wide (cf . ARB 87, 46 and Figure 25) . Its seaward shore f o r a d i s t a n c e of 180 yards was formed by a sh ing le r idge r i s i n g 3 f e e t above sea l e v e l , back of which t h e cay sur face was composed of sand with s c a t t e r e d broken cora l . The cay appeared t o b s extending north- wards, and t h e nor thern sec t ion i s most ly sandy. The vegeta t ion cons is ted almost e n t i r e l y of c l o s e l y a l an ted coconuts, with a few s c a t t e r e d s tunted Cordia, and a ground cover of E_uphorbia, g ra s ses and scdges. There were numerous Rhizophora seed l ings a long thd leeward shore, and a t t h e southern- most poin t t h e r e was a t h i c k e t of dense Avicennia and &nocarpus. During t h e hurr icane t h e coconut cover w a s almost e n t i r e l y s t r ipped ; only f i v s dead t runks remain s tanding. Few f a l l e n t runks remain on t h e cay sur face ; most have been washed o f f t h e cay i n t o t h e narrow back-reef lagoon. There has been s l i g h t backcut t ing along t h e whole of t h s seaward shore, e s p e c i a l l y a t t h e no r theas t end, where r e t r e a t has exnosed a few patches of poorly cemented sand a t sea l e v e l , Here t h c shore i s v e r t i c a l , and formed of coconut roo t s ; elsewhere it i s lower and masked by coarse c o r a l rubble. Piuch of t h e f r e s h sand a t t h e nor th po in t has a l s o been eroded away, l eav ing only a submerged sand shoal. On t h e cay su r face t h e r e a r e gene ra l ly t h r e e zones v i s i b l e : an o u t e r zone, wi th exposed, combed coconut roots , devoid of vegeta t ion exceat f o r b a t t e r e d but recognisable Cordia, and l i t t e r e d with f r e s h d e b r i s ; an in t e rmed ia t e zone, r e t a i n i n g some pre- hu r r i cane surface vegeta t ion , i nc lud ing patches of t h e o ld t u r f cover, bu t much l i t t e r e d wi th c o r a l d e b r i s and with some exposed roots ; and an of inundation, i n sand s t r i ~ p i n g and root-combing, but most of thti coconut t r c e s were s t i l l standing. Direct ion of t r c c f a l l var ied from 190 t o 310?, i n d i c a t i n g genera l ly t a s t s r l y wave d i r ~ c t i o n s . hos t of t h e pre-exis t ing ground vegeta t ion must havc b,.?en swc:nt away; i n Xay 1962, t h e r e was only a very sparse covering of E u ~ h o r b i a and i i g e r a t ~ ~ . Crawl-, t h e w ~ s t c ; r m o s t of t h c t h r e e r1orthu.m cays, a l s o su f fe red l a s t damage; it c o n s i s t s e n t i r e l y of mmgrovz, which i n Apri l , 1962, was a l r eady beginning t o bear new leaves. The Cockroa.ch Group Thc n.me Cockroach Groun has h c m anpl ied t o a l i n e of 28 i s l a n d s , mostly sand and nangrovc: cays, on t h ~ mst s i d c of Turneffc, no r th of Nor- t h e r n Bogue. Cockroach Cay i s t h e l a r g e s t i s l a n d i n t h e group, and t h e only one inhabi ted when mappcd i n 1960. The cays between Cockroach Cay and Dogflea C2y wcrc a l s o seen a t c lose q u a r t c r s a t t h i s t ime; but t h o s r south of Cockroach Cay wcrc known only from low-al t i tude a i r photographs. After t h e hurr icane Cockroacn Cay was re-mapped, and two oth:r cays t o t h e nor th wcre a l s o mapped; a l l t h e r e s t were again photographed from t h ? a i r . Dogf l e a Cay, t h e n o r t h c r m o s t of t h e group, l acks nangrov< altogether . Before the hurr icane it was a sml l i s l a n d , perhaps 30 yards i n dimc;ter , with a c l u s t e r of coconuts and a dcnse undsrgrowth of bushes, probably Suriana. and Conocamus. This i s l a n d disappeared dur ing Hurricane Ha t t i e , and now e x i s t s only a s a sand shoal , Psl icar , Cay ( ~ i g u r e 44) i s a l a r g o r i s l a n d i m c , d i a t c l y south of Dog- f l e a ?ay (cay I1 of thc Cockroach Group i n Figure 24, ARB 87) ; it was v i s i t e d f o r t h e f i r s t t ime i n Easy 1962. Before t h e hurr icane it had been -2 niangrovo-sand cay, with coconuts, Thrinax, and s tands of Cordia scbest,:n.i. and Burscra simaruba on the: sand a rea , which probably rose t o a he ight of 4-5 f e e t above sea 1 ~ ~ 1 . Thi.: le2ward shores wore f r inged with mangrove. The ~hysiogra.phy of t h i s cay roba ably c l o s c l y r e s m b l e s t h a t of most o the r cays i n t h e Cockroach G r o u ~ . The grouping of species i n t h s t m e cover i s very marksd: i n t h e nor theas t mainly Burst:ra, much entwined with Ipomoea tuba; i n t h e southwest, only Cordia. The i s l a n d i t s e l f i s nea r ly - 150 yards long and 75 yards wide. When v i s i t e d i n May 1962 t h e h ighes t v a r t s were a long t h e nor theas te rn s ide , where f r e s h hurr icane sh ingle w a s ~ i l e d up t o a maximum he ight of 7 f e e t above sea l e v e l , i t s steep-sloping inne r edge a b u t t i n g a g a i n s t a t h i c k e t of Thrinax palms, Southwards t h e he ight of t h e f r a s h sh ing le spread decreases, a . t t h e same t ime widening from 20 t o 50 yards. While a long t h e nor th shore t h a sur face i s undoubtedly higher than before, a long most of t h e e a s t shore t h e r e a r e two zones t o be d is t inguished: an ou te r zone of erosion and i n n e r one of dzposi t ion. The o u t e r zone i s revealcd not i n t h e usua l way by exposed r o o t s and under- cu t t ing , b u t by upstanding remnants of conglomerate rock, presumably formed beneath t h e previous sur face . The rock i s cavernous, formed of coarse c o r a l sh inglz with i n d i v i d u a l fragments up t o 12 inches long, weakly cemented with a brown sandy cement. The cementation, which r e c a l l s s i m i l a r nearsurface cementation a t Half Noon Cay (chapter 7 ) ) i s t o o poor f o r t h s V I , HURRICANE DAXAGE ON TUlliUSFFE ISLANDS Turneffe I s l a n d s c o n s i s t of a groun of mangrove cays on a shallow reef - f r inged bank 303, mi l e s long and 10 m i l e s wide a t i t s m a x i m u m ex ten t . The mangrove forms a rim on both e a s t and west s i d e s of t h e bank, enclo- s i n g two shal low lagoons wi th depths of 1-3 fathoms. iluch of t h e more exposed e a s t e r n s i d e of t h e mangrove rim i s f r inged by a sand r idge , i n t e r m i t t e n t l y developed between Big Cay Bokel and hor the rn Entrance, and covered with coconuts, A number of smal l sand and sh ing le cays have been b u i l t a t r ee f gaos a long t h e narrow e a s t e r n r ee f s . A ~ a r t from t h e s e and t h e e a s t e r n sand r idge , t h e whole land a r e a of t h e bank i s mangrove,mud, and open water, For a f u l l e r desc r in t ion , see Am 87, 31-49, Figures 14-26. Hurricane H a t t i e crossed Turn t f f e d iagonal ly , from a ~ p r o x i m a t e l y Pe l ican Cay, 17?2k~IL, on t h e e a s t s i d e , t o between Crickozeen and Ambergl5s Creeks, about 17?22~N, on t h e west s ide . According t o t h e r epor t from Cay Bokel (chapter 2 ) t h e eye of t h e hurr icane extended s u f f i c i e n t l y f a r south t o be experienced f o r a few minutes a t t h i s po in t ; t h i s may ind i - c a t e a more sou the r ly motion i n t h e channel between Turneffe and t h e b a r r i e r r ee f . The ex ten t of hurr icane damage i s here descr ibed f o r i nd i - v idua l cays from nor th t o south, The Northern Cays, t h e Cockroach Group and Pel ican Cay l i e t o t h e no r th of t h e storm t r a c k ; a l l t h e r e s t l i e t o t h e south. The Northern Cays - North of t h e main mass of t h e Turneffe lagoon mangroves a r e t h r e e l a r g e r cays: Three Corner Cay, Crawl Cay, and biauger Cay, FIauger Cay i s t h e noi-thernmost, a long narrow mangrove i s l a n d , o r i en ted east-west and s l i g h t l y convex northwards. The c e n t r a l p a r t has been c leared , and when v i s i t e d i n 1960 was low and sandy, with prominent clumps of Rhizophora a long both i t s nor th and south shores. There were a t t h i s t ime s e v e r a l houses and a 64 f o o t high l ighthouse , b u i l t i n 1885, on t h i s c e n t r a l s ec t ion , which was bounded a long i t s nor thern shore by a t h i c k masonry wall . There were l e s s than a dozen coconuts on t h e c l ea red a r e a , which d id not r i s e more t h a n 2 f e e t above sea l e v e l ; Bafuis maritima covered most of t h e a r e a , with Sesuvium, Ageratum maritimum and Cgperus planifol*. The lobes of t h e cay cons i s t ed e n t i r e l y of Rhisophora, with no dry land , Hurricane H a t t i e caused severe danage. The mangrove was completely d e f o l i a t e d , and some clumps a long t h e nor th shore d i s a p ~ e a r e d . The masonry w a l l bounding t h e d r y sand a r e a was brokeri, and sand scoured out on t h e landward s ide . Coconuts and o t h e r s t r and vegetationwereremoved, su r face sand was s t r ipped , l e a v i ~ g a low-lying i l l - d r a i n e d su r face a t o r only s l i g h t l y above sea l e v e l . Shallow channels were cu t through t h i s su r face on e i t h e r s i d e of t h e l ighthouse, and f r e s h sand was depos i ted i n t h e southern bay. A l l houses disappeared, though t h e l ighthouse stood. I n e a r l y 1962 t h e cay was no longer inhabi ted , and t h e l ighthouse , though s t i l l i n working order , was no longer f imctioning. Three Corner Cay i s a l a r g e mangrove i s l a n d , shaped a s i t s name impl ies , with a smal l d r y land a r e a near i t s eas t e rn poin t . This was formerly covered with low coconuts. After t h e hurr icane t h e r e were s i g n s COLSON CAY AVICENNIA COCONUTS COROIA COCCOLOBA THRINAX FRESH HURRICANE-DEPOSITED SHINGLE W TYPICAL EAST COAST SECTION 8 SClPlO CAY FIG. 42 '5' FIG. 41 OWEN C A Y 1962 0 YARDS S A N D Y B A Y FIG 40 LAUGHING BIRD CAY 1962 COARSE HURRICANE DEPOSITS [81 POOL RIDGE, ESTIMATED HEIGHT IN FEET AVICENNIA DEAD RHIZOPHORA DENSE COCONUTS WITH UNDERCARPET OF SESUVIUM, IPOMOEA L WMEKIULLIS BBLE 0 YARDS 140 I BUTTONWOOD C A Y CONCH SHELLS COCONUT 0 COCCOLOBA El [tl AVICENNIA WlZOPHORA TRAPP'S O R MOHO CAY 196 2 . . . . . . . GRASSES AND COCONUTS, : ' C ' C c . C . C . . . , . . C ' ,C ' C . c . ' . ' . C . . . . C ' . C . . . . C . : . . c . LDW AND MARSHY . I N V E S T I G A T E D LIMIT OF VEGETATION FRESH H M l C A N 911ffiL WMENOCALLIS 0 YARDS 100 FIG 38 u COCCOLOBA - THESPESIA 0 YARDS KX) VII. HURRICANE DAMAGE ON LIGHTHOUSE RJBF Lighthouse Reef, l y i n g 11-18 mi les seaward from Turneffe I s l ands , i s t h e smallest of t h e t h r e e B r i t i s h Honduras a t o l l s i n a rea : it i s 25 mi le s long, but has a ma,Uimum width of only 4& miles. The a t o l l i s surrounded by a well-developed reef-rim, with only t h r e e major gaps, one a t t h e nor th end, t h e o t h e r s near t h e south end. The whole of t h e e a s t e r n reef north of Half Noon Cay i s unbroken and backed by a wide reef f l a t ; c o r a l growth on t h e windward s i d e i s much more vigorous than on t h e leeward reefs . The c e n t r a l lagoon i s genera l ly shallower on t h e west s i d e and deepens eastwards, with average depths near t h e e a s t r e e f s of 2-3 fathoms and-maximum d e ~ t h s probably reaching 44-5 fathoms. The shoal and d e e ~ e r areas of t h e lagoon a r e separated by a W i d d l e ReefbJ, p a r a l l e l t o t h e pe r iphe ra l r e e f s , For a f u l l e r d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e a t o l l , see ARB 87, 51-81 and Figures 27-36. There a r e two cays a t t h e nor th end of Lighthouse Reef, Northern Cay and Sandbore Cay, c o l l e c t i v e l y known a s Northern Two Cays. The former i s a l a r g e mangrove i s l and with a wide seaward s a ~ d rim; t h e l a t t e r a small sand cay. A t t h e south end of t h e r e e f , Long Cay i s comparable i n s i z e and physiography t o Northern Cay; Half Moon Cay i s a l a r g e sand and sh ingle i s l a n d ; and, before t h e storm, Hat and Saddle Cays were smaller bush-covered sandy cays. A l l t h e s e i s l a n d s l a y t c t h e south of t h e hurr icane t r ack , though t h e storm passed over t h e northernmost t i p cf t h e a t o l l and Northern Two Cays. An i n previous c h a ~ t e r s t h e i s l a n d s a r e here described frcm nor th t o south. Sandbore Cay Sandbore Cay i s t h e most n c r t h e r l y i s l a n d on Lighthouse Reef (ARB 87, 56-58), s i t u a t e d a t t h e northern end of t h e long unbroken eas t r e e f , about lOOC yards back from t h e reef edge. I n 1961 ( ~ i g u r e 56) t h e cay cons is ted i n o u t l i n e of a 9)corePr a t i t s e a s t e r n end, with two long s p i t s extending westwards, enclos ing a lagoon 4-5 f e e t deep. The gross o u t l i n e of t h e cay was t r i a n g u l a r , with s i d e s of 300-50G yards: t h e northern s p i t w a s composite and formed a block of land some 150 yards square, t h e southern s p i t w a s long and narrow, varying i n width from 20-65 yards. The whole i s l a n d was sandy and nowhere more than 3 f e e t above t h e sea. The g r e a t e s t e l eva t ions were found a long t h e nor theas t and southeas t fac ing shores. Beachrock before t h e hurr icane w a s exposed a t two poin ts : Beachrock I cons is ted of two, perhaps t h r e e subdued l i n e s of rock, dipping nor th , about 40 yards long, off t h e e a s t end of t h e cay; Beachrock I1 cons is ted of a s i n g l e l i n e of rock 50 ya rds long and 18 inches wide, with a s l i g h t seaward d ip , j u s t exposed a t low t i d e and r a t h e r d i f f i c u l t t o see, along t h e southeas t shore. The e a s t end of t h e i s l a n d had been l a r g e l y c leared f o r coconuts, but t h e r e were l a r g e a r e a s o f ground vegeta t ion a long t h e southeas t shore, and p a r t i c u l a r l y on t h e sur face of t h e two s p i t s . The southern s p i t supported Suriana maritima, Tournefort ia naph ha lodes, Conocarpus erec tus , some Avicennia, and a n undercarpet of Euphorbia, Ipomoea, t a l l grasses , and considerable a r e a s of Ambrosia hispida. Along t h e north- e a s t shore and on t h e nor thern s p i t Suriana and Tournefort ia were aga in found on t h e beach c r e s t , and Sur iana was a l s o s c a t t e r e d over t h e s p i t surface. A t t h e head of t h e lagoon t h e r e was a t h i c k e t of Suriana, Conocaruus and Coccoloba, t a l l g r a s s e s such a s Andropogon glomeratus, low g r a s s e s such Sporobolus, and Ambrosia, The pre-hurr icane d i s t r i b u t i o n of vege ta t ion i s shown i n ARB 87, Figure 28. There was some evidence of e ros ion a long t h e cay shores , shown by beachrock on t h e south shore, and undercut t ing and f a l l i n g coconuts a long t h e n o r t h e a s t shore. Both s u i t s seemed t o be expanding westwards, shown, i n t h e case of t h e no r the rn s p i t , by broad concent r ic r i dges of f r e s h sand i n t h e f i r s t s t a g e s of co lon i sa t ion by p l an t s . The main evidence of p rog res s ive movement t o t h e west, however, was ~ r o v i d e d by t h e l i g h t - house, b u i l t on t h e cay i t s e l f i n 1885. Since t h a t t ime t h e e a s t shore has r e t r e a t e d , u n t i l in 1961 t h e l i g h t s tood 80 ya rds from t h e shore. A concre te walk connect i rgcay and l i g h t was b u i l t i n 1945; i n 1 9 6 i t h i s ended 20 yards from t h e shore a s a r e s u l t of y e t f u r t h e r shore r e t r e a t . A wooden causeway had been b u i l t t o connect t h e 1961 shore with t h e - 1945 concre te walk. The average r a t e of shore r e t r e a t 1885-1945 was 3 f e e t pe r year ; 1945-1961, 4 f e e t u e r year . Beachrock I a t t h e e a s t end of t h e cay i s c l e a r l y r e l a t e d t o t h i s r e t r e a t of t h e l a s t h a l f century. I n my urevious B u l l e t i n , it was suggested t h a t i f t h e cay continued t o r e t r e a t westwards a t t h i s r a t e , t h e t ime would come when it would be pushed off t h e reef f l a t a l t o g e t h e r , l eav ing t h e l i gh thouse a s i t s only memorial. Hurricane Ha t t i e , however, d i s rup ted t h i s simule scheme. The c e n t r e of t h e storm passed over t h i s i s l a n d : wave a c t i v i t y was suf- f i c i e n t t o des t roy t h e concre te walk t o t h e l igh thouse by t h e a f te rnoon of 29 October, and as t h e storm ~ a s s e d s h o r t l y a f t e r midnight, 30-31 October, t h e l i gh thouse i t s e l f c o l l a ~ s e d i n a p i l e of rubble. Severe physiographic and vege ta t ion damage was caused by wind and wave a c t i o n as t h e cay su r f ace was submerged t o a depth of 8 f e e t dur ing t h e storm surge . Physiograuhic changes w i l l be out l ined f i r s t . The main l ineaments of t h e cay s t i l l e x i s t , though shore r e t r e a t occurred a t t h e e a s t po in t , a long t h e south shore, and a t t h e western ends of both sandsp i t so Two channels were c u t through t h e s p i t s : one 65 yards wide through t h e neck of t h e no r the rn s ~ i t , t h e o t h e r 50 ya rds wide through t h e middle of t h e southern s p i t a t i t s narrowest po in t . The f i r s t channel had been r e f i l l e d wi th f r e s h sand t o approximately i t s pre-storm he ight by May 1962, though t h e new neck i s wider t han before, w i th a n i r r e g u l a r i n n e r edge, and it i s devoid of vege ta t ion . There i s no information on t h e d a t e when t h e r e f i l l i n g began; t h e channel immediately a f t e r t h e storm i s s a i d t o have been 3 f e e t d e e ~ . The second gap, through t h e southern s ~ i t , i s sti.11 open, and v a r i e s from 2-3 f e e t d e e ~ . Beach eros ion h a s g r e a t l y i nc reased t h e exposure of Beachrock I1 a long t h e south shore: it can now be t r a c e d f o r a 0 ya rds i n a wide a r c fo l lowing t h e o ld sho re l ine . The rock i s not t o ~ o g r a p h i c a l l y conspicuous, bu t shows a no t i ceab le sea- ward d ip , and i s d i s t i ngu i shed from t h e surrounding Thalass ia by i t s l a c k of vege ta t ion . A second l i n e of beachrock, Beachrock 111, has been reveled along t h e o l d lagoon shore of t h e s p i t ; it i s a massive rock, i n f i v e d i s t i n c t , sometimes overlauping p l a t e s , j u s t breaking su r f ace and a t l e a s t 25 f e e t t h i c k ; it has a marked lagoonward (northwest) d ip . No t r a c e of t h i s beachrock was n rev ious ly apparent ; nor can it be seen a long uneroded ~ o r t i o n s of t h e lagoon shore, which uresurnably it a l s o under l ies . There i s no s i g n t h a t t h i s channel i s about t o f i l l up. Sand from t h e gap has been depos i ted i n t h e lagoon i t s e l f , forming a wide shoa l a r e a h i c h s p l i t s t h e lagoon i n t o two p a r t s : ( a ) t h e i n n e r lagoon i s now v i r t u a l l y enclosed, t h e water i n it i s s tagnant and odor i fe rous , and t h e r e a r e slimy reddish d e p o s i t s round t h e shores; (b) t h e o u t e r lagoon s t i l l has depths of 1-15 fathoms, but t h e f l o o r i s l i t t e r e d wi th blocks of l i v i n g c o r a l , some only a few f e e t from t h e skore, which were not pre- v ious ly seen. Tongues of shoal sand, emerging a s f r e s h sand s p i t s , have a l s o been b u i l t westwards from t h e ends of t h e s p i t s . A f u r t h e r f r e s h sand peninsula has been thrown up a t t h e e a s t end of t h e cay, f l ank ing an e longate scour hole s e v e r a l f e e t deep. Surface eros ion of loose sand and exposure of r o o t s has been g r e a t e s t a long t h e southern s i d e of t h e i s l a n d . Almost a l l coconuts have been swept away from t h i s s ec t ion , t oge the r with t h e Suriana and Tournefort ia bushes, though a few patches of Euphorbia and g ras ses remain. The sur- f a c e i s now l i t t e r e d wi th coarse c o r a l fragments, strewn with long coco- nu t r o o t s from whbh a l l t h e f i n e m a t e r i a l has been f lushed , and most d i f f i c u l t t o walk over, There a?-e numerous small scour holes , mostly a t t h e u ~ t u r n e d bases of coconut t r e e s . The deepest hole is found on t h e southeas t s i d e of t h e only bu i ld ing t o surv ive , a concre te house: t h e scour hole extends under t h e house foundat ions, i s f i l l e d wi th water , and i s a t l e a s t 17 f e e t deep. Had t h e undermining continued longer t h e house would c e r t a i n l y have col lapsed. A few coconut s t w s s t i l l stand a t t h e e a s t end of t h e cqy, b a t otherwise a l l t h e sur face sand and vege- t a t i o n has been removed; r o o t s a r e combed i n a NW-SE d i r e c t i o n , The house i t s e l f i s no longer used; only t h e c e n t r a l concre te s t r o n g room remains, t h e roo f s and a l l remaining wooden rooms have been broken from t h e con- s t r u c t i o n . Danage on t h e nor thern s p i t beyond t h e severed neck has been l e s s severe, The t h i c k e t of Coccoloba and Conocaraus s t i l l s t ands a t t h e head of t h e lagoon, with a number of coconut t r e e s which r e t a ined t h e i r crownso The p e r i p h e r a l Suriana and Tournefortia bushes were a l l swept c a y , and marginal e ros ion a l l round t h e shores destroyed a r e a s of grasses , guphorbia, Ambrosia e t c . I n t h e c e n t r e of t h e s p i t t h e vegeta t ion cover s t i l l sur- v ives l a r g e l y i n t a c t , though t h i n n e r and p a r t l y bur ied by f r e s h sand. The l a r g e r bushes such a s C o n o c a r p ~ , Tournefor t ia and Coccoloba were d e f o l i a - t e d and now appear t o be dead, but t h e ground cover of S ~ o r o b o l u s , Cmerus, Cakile, ~ u ~ h o r b i a and Ambrosia i s s t i l l recognisable. There i s a very g r e a t i nc rease i n t h e amount of ltburr-burry!, Cenchrus, throughout t h e a rea , bu t Ipomoea i s l e s s widemread, Surface sand has been s t r ipped and r o o t s exposed only i n smal l a r e a s on t h e southwest shore. One po in t of i n t e r e s t i s t h e occurrence i n t h e channel-like depress ions c a t i n t o t h e old s u r f a c e round t h e margins of t h e nor thern s p i t , of su r face inc rus t a - t i o n s of cemented sand, ,-& inch th i ck , covering s e v e r a l square yards. This ca l i che - l ike depos i t can be l i f t e d up i n p l a t e s up t o a f o o t i n diameter , bu t r a p i d l y crumbles i n t h e f inge r s . It may be a s a l t incrus- t a t i o n prokiuced by high i n s o l a t i o n a f t e r t h e f lood ing of t h e i s l and by t h e storm surge, A few Tournefort ia s eed l ings were seen colonis ing t h e f r e s h sand margins of t h e nor thern s p i t i n May 1962. Northern Cay Northern Cay, t h e l a r g e s t i s l a n d on Lighthouse Reef, has maximum dimensions of 3300 and 3000 yards and an a r e a of 2 i sq. miles , of which one f i f t h i s i n t e r i o r lagoon, one f i f t h i s d r y land, mainly under coco- nuts , and t h r e e - f i f t h s i s mangrove and swamp land (ARB 87, 58-62, Figure 29)0 The d ry land a r e a l i e s on t h e nor th and west s i d e s of t h e cay, where t h e shore approaches t o wi th in 400-600 yards of t h e reef , The western shore, 2600 yards long, was before t h e hurr icane s l i g h t l y under- cu t , forming a c l i f f 3-8 f e e t high, A t t h e base of t h e undercut c l i f f cemented sands outcrop i n t e r m i t t e n t l y f o r about 1500 yards: t h e base of t h e ou te r edge has a near-constant a t u d e of about 1 foo t above low t i d e l e v e l , I n 1961 t h e exposure was 6-9 inches t h i c k , and var ied i n width f r ~ m a few inches t o 2 f e e t ; t h e upper su r face was e i t h e r ho r i - zon ta l o r dipped s l i g h t l y seaward and was much p i t t e d and eroded. S labs broken from t h e main exposure l a y on t h e beach a t t h e beach angle, The rock i t s e l f was w e l l consolidated on t h e surface, but r a t h e r f r i a b l e a few inches from it , During t h e hurr icane, t h i s eas t f ac ing shore was not seve re ly a f f e c t e d by wave erosion, though t h e sand r idge overlying t h e cemented sand was pushed back s e v e r a l f e e t , I n p laces t n e cemented platform i s now up t o 8 yards i n width, and i t s upper su r face r i s e s t c 2 f e e t above sea l e v e l . The ou te r edge, previous ly exposed, is, as before , much p i t t e d and blackened, and more s l a b s have been broken off o r f rac tured . The f r e s h l y emosed sec t ion has a r e l a t i v e l y smooth upper sur face ; cementation i n t h e newly exposed a r e a i s poor compared with t h e o u t e r zone; and t h e recency of t h e consol ida t ion i s shown by t h e presence of coconut r o o t s wi th in t h e rock, A t one ~ o i n t a long t h e shore, t h e cemented platform i s buried by t h e main beach r idge, behind which a t e m ~ o r a r y s e c t i o n has been opened by t h e uprooting of a l a r g e coconut t r e e and scouring of t h e hole by waves, The rock horizon can be seen a l l round t h e hole: t h e upper sur face i s t h i n , f r i a b l e and e a s i l y broken, and t h e sand below i s uncemented ( ~ i ~ u r e 63), These exposures show t h a t t h e rock i s not an i n t e r t i d a l beachrock, but t h a t it i s forming a t i t s nresent e l eva t ion as a cay sandstone, comparable t o t h a t a t Big Cay Bokel, Grand Bogue Point , and Harry Jones, Turneffe, For a photograph of t h i s sandstone before t h e hurr icane, see Stoddart , 1962a, opposi te n 0 160 , The main shore l ine changes a t Northern Cay have taken p lace a long t h e nor th shores, between t h e nor thern limit of t h i s sandstone and t h e North Point ; t h e changes a r e shown i n d e t a i l i n Figure 57. North Poin t , nrevious ly c o n s i s t i n g of dune sands f ixed by vegetat ion, mainly Euphorbia, Ambrosia, g ras ses and a few Conocarpus bushes, with r i d g e c r e s t s r i s i n g t o 4 f e e t above sea l e v e l , has been swept away, A t r i a n g u l a r a rea of sand 80 yards long, with a base of 160 yards, a rea 64CO sq. yards, has disappeared, though i t s former l o c a t i o n i s revealed by an a rea of shoa l sand 2-3 f e e t deep, surrounded by Thalass ia , The shore l ine a t t h e base of t h e ~ e n i n s u l a now c o n s i s t s of a s t e e p l y undercut c l i f f l e t of roots . The shore l ine of t h e northern bay, west of the Point , has r e t r e a t e d an average of 1 0 yards: a c t u a l e ros ion has, however, been g r e a t e r than t h i s , The old shore, now revealed by an eroded c l i f f of grey sand, has r e t r e a t e d 25-40 yards; i n f r o n t of t h e c l i f f a f r e s h sand r idge has been banked, This r idge i s up t o 30 yards wide and 2 f e e t high, with much Thalassia , s h e l l s and echinoid remains, The coarseness and unsorted na tu re of t h e cons t i tuen t m a t e r i a l show t h a t t h e g r e a t e r p a r t of t h e r idge i s a hurr icane cons t ruc t ion , perhaps s l i g h t l y a l t e r e d and augmented by post-hurr icane wave ac t ion . Shore l ine r e t r e a t has been g r e a t e r on t h e e a s t (northwest-facing) s i d e of t h e bay, than on t h e west (nor theas t - f ac ing ) s ide . A s a r e s u l t of t h i s r e t r e a t , t h e i n c i p i e n t beachrock saen i n a small ambayment i n 1960 has been destroyed, and t h e nearshore vege- t a t i o n of Suriana, Tournefort ia and g ras ses has d i s a p p ~ a r e d , Wave a c t i o n was s u f f i c i e n t l y g r e a t 3C yards from t h a shore and 6 f e e t above sea l e v e l t o completely d e s t r o y and swcep away a l a r g e house, water tank and out- bu i ld ings on t h e northwest s i d e of t h e cay. On t h e e a s t e r n shore, damagz i s l a r g e l y r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e nor th end, Th;. j c t t y and small h u t s have been washed away, and much s h o a l sand depos i ted a long t h e nor thern of fshore a r e a , Waves a l s o destroyed pre- e x i s t i n g vegeta t ion and smothered t h e su r face wi th f r e s h sand over a zone 10-30 yards wide at, t h i s northern end. Elsewhere, damage has b e m s l i g h t , Beachrocks I11 and I V remain i n t a c t . Away from t h e shores, physiographic change i s neg l ig ib l e , even i n t h e exoosed h igher dune a r e a back of North Point where r i d g e s r i s e up t o 10 f e e t above sea l e v e l . I n s p i t a of inundation by t h e storm surgz, a t l e a s t of t h e marginal arsas, depos i t ion has been very s l i g h t . Some pock- marking of t h e su r face has r e s u l t e d from uprooting o f coconuts, bu t a p a r t from t h i s , change i n t h e i n t e r i o r has been almost wholly vege ta t iona l . Before t h e hurr icane t h e d ry sand a r e a s were covered with coconuts, y i e l d i n g up t o 20,000 n u t s a month a few y e a r s ago; r ecen t ly , however, ground vegekation had been allowed t o invade t h e coconut a reas , making them almost i m ~ e n e t r a b l e i n p laces , The t a l l e r ground vegeta t ion has been almost completely swept away by t h e storm, and access i s now easy a t a l l po in t s . Ground vege ta t ion now c o n s i s t s only of grasses , C ~ e r u s , Euphorbia, Cakile , some H p e n o c a l l i s , with g r e a t l y increased amounts of Cenchrus -burr), Probably 80% of t h e cocoriuts have f a l l e n , though l a r g e n m - b e r s a r e s t i l l s tanding, wi th and without , crowns, on t h e west s i d e of t h e no r the rn bay and a long t h e e a s t e r n s i d e ,of t h e i s l and , It i s sa id t h a t t h e s e s tanding t r e e s a r e un l ike ly t o b e a r again. Direc t ion of t r e e f a l l i s extremely regular , varying from 100-130?, t h e ma jo r i ty l y i n g 115-120'; t h e r e i s a d e f i n i t e minor i ty of ' t runks , l e s s than 5$, which have f a l l c n i n t h e oppos i te d i r e c t i o n , 320-340'. Since Northern Cay was i n t h e d i r e c t t r a c k of t h e hurr icane , it i s poss ib l e t h a t t h e main per iod of t r e e f a l l occurred between 2200 h, 30 October, and t h e passage of t h e eye a t 0100 h, 31 October, i n response t o v i o l e n t northwest wind's immediatsly preceding t h e storm cent re , and t h a t some of those which survived succumbed t o t h e equa l ly violent , south and southeas t winds which immediately followed t h e eye i n t h e e a r l y hours of 31 October, Only a t t h e extreme southwest corner of t h e cay a r e t r e e - f a l l d i r e c t i o n s a t a l l confused, Recovery of d e f o l i a t e d Rhizophora was beginning i n Nay 1962 on t h e e a s t shore of t h e cay; bu t mangrove a t t h e southwest po in t seemed q u i t e dead. The i s l a n d i s no longer inhabi ted , and it seems u n l i k e l y t h a t c a p i t a l f o r c l e a r i n g and r ep lan t ing coconuts w i l l be immediately forthcoming. It w i l l be u s e f u l t o observz t h e development of vegeta t ion on t h e cay i f human i n t e r f e r e n c e i s kept t o a minimum. It i s poss ib le , however, t t h a t a l i gh thouse t o m p l a c e t h a t a t Sandbore Cay may b e erec ted nea r Korth Poin t . This would be s a f e r dur ing hurr icanes , but t h e cay l a c k s t h e e x c e l l e n t smal l boa t harbour of Sandbore Cay and i t s shores a r e extremely exposed, e s p e c i a l l y dur ing nor thers . It i s i n a d d i t i o n i n f e s t e d by b i t i n g f l i e s , which made l i f e d i f f i c u l t even on Sandbore Cay whenever t h e y raached it; on such occasions a l l persons on t h e smaller cay used t o s l e e p a t t h e to^ of t h e l i g h t in orde r t o escape them. Saddle Cax Saddle Cay, i n 1960-61 a smal l i s l a n d 22. mi l e s no r th of Half Hoon Cay on t h e i n n e r edge of t h e main e a s t reef f l a t , has had a long h i s t o r y of hurr icane damage (ARB 87, 62-64). Before 1931 it was some 50 ya rds long; it was reduced t o ha l f t h i s l eng th i n t h e hurr icane of t h a t year , and by h a l f aga in i n 1942. Other hu r r i canes p rogres s ive ly destroyed t h e sand area and hindered f r e s h accumulation u n t i l i n 1960 only a clump of t r e e s covering a land a r e a 10 yards i n diameter rsmained. The cay sup- por ted a t h i c k e t of Rhizophora, Avicennia, Conocar~us , and a couple of coconuts, w i th a ground cover of Sesuviurn; it was used a s a nes t ing p lace by ospreys. I n my previous B u l l e t i n I suggested t h a t (la l a r g e hu r r i cane pass ing over t h e cay now would probably des t roy it al togetherrr (ARB 87, 63). Hurricane H a t t i e d id . Saddle Cay has completely disappeared as a su r face f e a t u r e , though from t h e a i r one can s t i l l see t h e a r c u a t e sand shoa l on which it stood. The shoa l a f t e r t h e hurr icane c a r r i e d 2-3 f e e t of water. Half Woon Cay Half Hoon Cay has been descr ibed and mspped i n some d e t a i l (ARB 87, 64-77$ Figures 30-34), and an e f f o r t was made i n 1962 t o s tudy hur r i cane damage i n s i m i l a r d c t a i l . Lincs of l e v e l s were aga in surveyed a c r o s s t h e cay and a f r e s h contour map prepared (Figure 58); t h i s was t h e n super- imposed on t h e 1961 contour map ( ~ i g u r e 30) and a new map prepared (Figure 59), showing by i s o p l e t h s t h e p o s i t i v e o r negat ive change i n a l t i t u d e a t any poin t , e s p e c i a l l y on t h e south and southeas t shores of t h e cay. Lines of l e v e l s were surveyed ac ross t h e i s l a n d i n 1962 i n t h e same p laces a s i n 1961 t o a i d comparison. Sediment samples taken i n 1961 a r e i n t h e Drocess of a n a l y s i s ; samples taken a t t h e same l o c a t i o n s i n 1962 had not a r r i v e d i n Cambridge when t h i s account was wr i t t en . This is , the re fo re , a pre l iminary account, and it i s hoped t o d z a l wi th sediment changes and d i s t r i b u t i o n on Half Moon Cay i n a l a t e r paper. Figure 60, showing changes i n sediment composition, l i k e t h e pre-hurricane map, ARB 87, Figure 31, i s not based on t h e sediment samples bu t on f i e l d n o t e s made dur ing t r a v e r s e s , and i s a l s o prel iminary. F ina l ly , F igure 61 shows i n o u t l i n e t h e vegeta t ion changes due t o Hurricane Ha t t i e ; f o r t h e pre-hurricane p i c t u r e , see ARB 87, Figures 33 and 34. To a l a r g e ex ten t t h e s e maps speak f o r themselves, and most of t h e important changes can be seen from them. The main f e a t u r e s of t h e cay i n 1961 (ARB 87, Figure 30) were (1) a s t e e p r idge a long t h e southeas t shore of t h e t a p e r i n g e a s t end of t h e cay, t h e c r e s t everywhere more than 7 f e e t above sea l e v e l , much of it more than 8 f e e t , and one small a r e a n e a r t h e northernmost p a r t of t h e bay, 120 yards west of t h e l ighthouse , reaching more than 10 f e e t above sea l e v e l . The r idge was b u i l t of sand wi th patches of small sh ing le a t i t s foo t ; a t i t s base t h e r e outcropped an extens ive p la t form of beachrock, and accumulations of blocks t o r n from t h i s p la t form were found a long t h e base of t h e r i d g e and i n p l aces on both t h e seaward and back s lopes of t h e r idge . (2) The southwest sh ing le r idge , decreasing s t e a d i l y i n he igh t from 9 f s e t a t t h e south m i n t t o only 3 f e e t a t i t s western end, with t h e c a l i b r e of t h e cons t i - t u e n t sh ing le decreas ing i n t h e same d i r e c t i o n , and covered wi th a t h i c k hedge of - Cordia sebestena. This s e c t i o n too , i s f r inged a t and a l i t t l e above rnean sea l e v e l fo rmuch of it,s l eng th by a conglomerate platform. (3) The cay su r f ace t o t h e no r th of t h e s e two r idges , On t h s e a s t e r n , t a p e r i n g end of t h e cay, c l ea red f o r coconuts, t h e r i dge proper i s narrow and much of t h e back s lope l i e s l e s s t han 4 f e e t above t h e sea. Along t h e western h a l f of t h e i s l a n d , covered with a dense t h i c k e t of Cordia, Bursera ,Ficus arid Neea woodland, t h ~ ground su r f ace i s g s n e r a l l y more - t han 3 f e e t and much of it 4-5 f e e t above sea l e v e l . Near t h e junc t ion between t h e s e two zones i s an a r e a i n t h e c e n t r e of t h e cay of sub- s u r f a c e cementation, poss ib ly phosphat ic , covered wi th raw humus, and i n 1960 under t h i c k F icus bush. When remapped i n 1962 t h e fo l lowing physiographic changes were apparent : Eas t e rn Sect ion. The easternmost 85 yards of t h e cay, p rev ious ly forming a s t e e p sh ing le peninsula r i s i n g 6 f e z t above sea l e v e l , has besn l e v e l l c d by wave a c t i o n t o form a low s h i n g l e and sand spread 1-2 f e e t high. The cay proper now ends i n a s t e e p c l i f f forming a p e r f e c t c ross -sec t ion of t h e i s l and . Between t h i s c l i f f and t h e l i gh thouse a number of scour chan- n e l s have e a t e n back i n t o t h e su r f ace from t h e n o r t h shore of t h e cay; t h e s e a r e up t o 5 ya rds long, and 3 f s e t deep a t t h e i r i n n e r ends; t h e y a r e appa ren t ly t h e work of waves c ros s ing t h e cay from south t o no r th , The c r e s t l i n e of t h e main e a s t r i dge has been pushed northwards; s i n c e t h e p re sen t c r e s t now l i e s on t h e o ld back s iope of t h e r idge , t h e e f f e c t has been t o lowsr t h e maximum h e i g h t of t h e c r e s t l i n e . Previous ly t h e g r e a t e s t e l e v a t i o n s l a y 12-30 ya rds from t h e sou theas t shore; i n 1962 the c r e s t l i n e l a y 30 ya rds from t h e shore a long most of i t s length . Tine g e n e r a l l e v e l of t h e r idge c r e s t i s now 6 f e e t ; n e a r t h z l igh thouse it r i s e s t o 8 f e e t , and nea r t h e middle o f t h e cay t o 9 f e e t . Landward r e t r e a t of t h e c r e s t has r e s u l t e d i n v e r t i c a l lowering of t h e sur face of a t l e a s t 3 f e e t a long t h e g r e a t e r g a r t of t h e seaward f a c e of t h e r idge ; over a d i s t a n c e of about 230 y a r d s t h e v e r t i c a l lowering has been a t l e a s t 5 f e e t , and i n one p l ace 7 f e e t . This t o some ex ten t exaggera tes t h e t r u e amount of e ros ion , which i s p a r t i a l l y a t l e a s t a landward s h i f t ; neve r the l e s s t h e c r e s t l i n e i s now lower f o r i t s whole l eng th by approxi- mately 2 f e e t and t h i s lowering i s no t wholly balanced by depos i t i on , Fresh sand has been t h i n l y spread over t h e backslope of t h s r i dge i n a r c u a t e p a t t e r n , b u t only a t two p o i n t s i s t h e measured i n c r e a s e i n he igh t a t a l l cons iderable ; i n both cases t h e inc rease i s g e n e r a l l y l i t t l e more than a f o o t , wi th a maximum i n one sma l l a r e a of 4 f e e t . Much of t h e a r e a immediately back of t h e p re sen t c r e s t has had su r f ace sand s t r i p p e d and coconut r o o t s exposed, and t h e c r e s t i t s e l f i s o f t e n s t e e p l y under- c u t on t h e seaward s i d e , i n one p l a c e forming a v e r t i c a l sand c l i f f 4 f e e t high, There has been no major change i n sediment d i s t r i b u t i o n . The former high sh ing le r i dges a t t h e e a s t po in t have disappeared, though on t h e no r th shore a remnant of t h e o l d r idge i s now perched h igh on t h e cay sur face . Fresh sh ing le i s s c a t t e r e d a long t h e r i d g e f o o t , and t h e o l d e r accumulations of conglomerate s l a b s have been s h i f t e d and augmented. Corai blccks and conglomerate s labs a r e t h in ly scat tered across the back- slope of the ridge. , Western Section. ' he western section of the cay d i f f e r s from the easterr, par t i n t h a t , f i r s t , its south shore faced the main hurricane winds, and second, it was densely vegetated. The old regular decrease i n c res t - l i n e height and shingle ca l ib re from eas t t o west, away from the eastern reefs , has been completely destroyed. I n place of t he gent le decrease i n height from 9 fee t t o 3 f e e t east t o west, the ridge now r i s e s t o a maximum of over 10 f e e t near the centre, and f o r about th ree- f i f ths of i ts length the c r e s t l i ne now stands more than 8 f e e t above the sea. The c res t has also been pushed landward: before t h e hurricane it stood an average of 25 yards frcm the shore, i n 1962 t h i s had increased t o 50 yards. Comparison of the two contour maps, therefore ( ~ i g u r e 59), shows an outer zone of net v e r t i c a l loss , of t he order of 1-3 fee t , and an inner zone of net v e r t i c a l gain of a t l e a s t 1 foot , with an area near the centre of a t l e a s t 5 fee t , The cal ibre of the mater ia l var ies . The sor t ing of sediments normal t o t h e beach has a l s o been destroyed. A t present there i s an accumuktion of coarse shingle and coral blocks a t the foot of t h e ridge; the greater part of the seaward slope i s now coarse sand, i n contrast t o the dominant shingle of t he pre-hurricane ridge; and the re i s a jumble of cora l blocks and la rge debr is i n the broken bushes a t the ridge cres t . I n laces waves overtopping the newly deposited sediments a t the ridge c r e s t during t he hurricane have scoured out plunge holes up t o 2 f e e t deep i n the old cay surface bqmnd, thus accentuating t he sharp break of slope st the inner limit of hurricane deposition, A t one place on t he seaward slope, cemented rubble has been exposed, comparable t o t h a t found i n the cay i n t e r i o r i n 1961 and recal- l i ng the Cockroach I1 exnosure on Turneffe Is lands (chapter 6 ) . 'Rere has been some low-level aggradation a t the extreme west end of the cay, a fine-shingle ridge enclosing two small pools. 'he topographic balance of the cay has therefore been reversed by Hurricane Hatt ie. Previously t he greates t heights, up t o 10 f ee t , were found along the southeast shore; now similar heights a r e only found on the south shore. The width of the zone affected by the hurri- cane i s very much l e s s i n t h e western section, covered with vegetation, than i n the eastern par t , cleared f o r coconuts, and it i s c l ea r t h a t the increase i n height i n the former i s largely t he resu l t of piling-UP of mater ia l against t h e dense vegetation hedge. It i s very probable t h a t considerable physiographic danage would have been caused a t the west end, had t h a t par t of t h e cay a l s o been cleared for coconuts. Over t he greater pa r t of the cay surface, especial ly a t the west end, t he re has been no topographic change, Erosion along the northern shores has a l s o been s l i gh t . A t one point, 95 yards from the northwest point, shore r e t r ea t has exposed fur ther cemented. mater ia l s imilar t o t h a t i n the middle of t he cay. The t o p of i t s outer edge l i e s 2.8 f ee t above sea level , and i t s base 1.7 feet . The exposure i s 9 f ee t wide, and r i s e s very s l i g h t l y inland; it i s covered by shingle and dark sand, with t he cay surface lying 4 f e e t above sea level . It i s c l ea r ly not a raised beachrock, but formed a t i t s present elevation beneath t h e cay surface, i n the same way a s t he possibly phosphatic rock i n t he centre of t he cay. It should be noted t h a t r e t r e a t of t h e r idge c r e s t on t h e seaward s i d e i s beginning t o e m o s e t h e base of t h e l ighthouse . This s t & s t r u c - t u r e was b u i l t i n 1931, on a much e a r l i e r b r i c k foundat ion with t h e i n s c r i p t i o n ~Vompleted December 1848. J . Grant, Build2rff . Severa l f c e t of sand wero washed away frcm t h e base of t h e l i g h t dur ing t h e hu r r i cane and t h e bottom of t h e brickwork i s now exposed, f r e e of sand, on t h e seaward s ide , Fu r the r r e t r e a t w i l l c e r t a i n l y endangcr t h e l i g h t i t s e l f , I n pa ren thes i s here , reference may be made t o a poin t made by Vermeer (1959, 9,12) t h a t t h e o r i g i n a l l i gh thouse was b u i l t i n 1845 -Widway between t h e no r th and south sidesly of t h e cay, and t h a t i t s present p o s i t i o n d i r e c t l y overlooking t h e seaward shore i n d i c a t e s ne t migra t ion of t h e cay northwards, This i s mobab ly an exaggerat ion; I have s i n c e discovered i n t h e copy of t h e Honduras Almanack f o r 1832 which formerly belonged t o Mrs. Matthew Newton, wife of t h e f i r s t incumbent of S t . Johnqs Cathedral, Bel ize, a l i t hograph of t h e 1820 l ighthouse , q u i t e c l e a r l y b u i l t on t h e c r e s t i t s e l f . It may be compared with t h e De Maync sketch, ARB 87, Figure 32. Old brickwork exposed by t h e 1961 hurr icane ad jacen t t o t h e present l i g h t could poss ib ly be t h e base of t h e o lde r l i g h t . It seems doubt fu l whether very g r e a t r e t r e a t has i n f a c t taken p lace a t t h i s poin t s ince 1820; most of t h e shore r e t r e a t has taken p lace a t t h e head of t h e bay, between t h e l i g h t and t h e south po in t , and a t t h e south poin t i t s e l f . E f f e c t on vegeta t ion - The d i scuss ion of e f f e c t s on vege ta t ion may convenient ly be d iv ided i n t o e f f e c t s on coconuts, t h e Cordia t h i c k e t , s t r and vegeta t ion , and i n t e r i o r ground vegeta t ion , A t l e a s t 80% of t h e coconuts were f e l l e d by t h e storm (FTgure 61); t h e only t r e e s t o escape were those near t h e l ighthouse a t t h e e a s t end. Sca t t e red ind iv idua l s , some r e t a i n i n g t h e i r crowns, a r e found over t h e r e s t of t h e cay, but t h e gene ra l p i c t u r e i s one oof innumerable a l igned f a l l e n t runks . Direc t ion of f a l l v a r i e s from 30-45 a t t h e e a s t end t o 50-75' over t h e r e s t of t h e cay. The ma jo r i ty of t h e t runks a r e o r i en ted about 600, c l e a r l y i n d i c a t i n g winds a l i t t l e west of southwest, which i s i n harmony wi th t h e wat te rn of shore-l ine change , Damage was a l s o severe t o t h e Cordia-Bursera t h i c k e t . I t s seaward margin was pushed landward by up t o 25 yards, l eav ing a wide e m a n s e of b a r e f r e s h sand, s c a t t e r e d i n t h e e a s t with i s o l a t e d broken Cordia and i n t h e west by broken Bursera. I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e s t r a i g h t , extremely r egu la r , pre-hurricane hedge, t h e seaward margin of t h e t h i c k e t i s now extremely i r r e g u l a r , wi th deen inden ta t ions , which a t one po in t almost c u t t h e t h i c k e t i n t o two p a r t s . Cordia su f fe red worst damage, l o s i n g branches and t runks and o f t en being wholly uprooted and p i l e d on t h e r idge c r e s t i n g r e a t confusion. Nevertheless , even t o t a l l y dead-lcoking specimens may s t i l l b e a l i v e ; one much broken t r e e was seen which t o t a l l y lacked leaves , but exh ib i t ed a s o l i t a r y f lower i n A p r i l 1962; i n such cases , of course, m o r t a l i t y may simply be delayed. Bursera suf fered l e s s damage, t h e t r u n k s g e n e r a l l y s t i l l s tanding i n t h e p o s i t i o n of growth, and r e t a i n i n g many branches, though l o s i n g a l l l eaves and wi th many r o o t s exposed. Even t h e i n n e r regions of t h e t h i c k e t were damaged, Thus, i n t h e region of subsurface cementation i n t h e cen t r e of t h e cay, p rev ious ly only reached by scrambling through a dense t a n g l e of F icus and o t h e r t r e e s y a l l t h e l a r g e r a l a n t s were blown down. The t h i n su r f ace humus has s k c e been washed away and t h e rock i s now exposed a t t h e su r f ace . Kuch of t h i s vege ta t ion rubbish has been c l ea red away and used f o r firewood. The main p a r t o f t h e t h i c k e t i s much broken, and a t a rough e s t ima te t h e mean he ight has been reduced from 25-30 f e e t t o l e s s t han 15 f e e t . The broken t r u n k s and branches make it v i r t u a l l y imaenet rab le now. Strand vege ta t ion suf fered more heav i ly s t i l l . A l l Suriana has been s w e ~ t away, t o g e t h e r with a l l Tournefor t ia , except f o r a s i n g l e specimen a t t h e e a s t ~ o i n t . P l a n t s such as S ~ o r o b o l u s and Hymenocallis i n exposed s i t u a t i o n s have a l s o disapaeared. On t h e o t h e r hand, where t h i n l y bur ied by f r e s h sand, H p e n o c a l l i s i s r e a ~ p e a r i n g , and t h e s t r and and f r e s h sand a r e a s a r e being r a p i d l y co lonised by, f o r example, Cakile l anceo la t a , Soorobolus, bu r rbu r r ( ~ e n c h r u s ) , and even a few seed l ings of Tournefor t ia , -- I n t e r i o r ground vegeta t ion has been l i t t l e a f f ec t ed . Large a r e a s i n t h e middle of t h e cay and t o t h e nor th of t h e ~ o r d i a - ~ u r s e r a t h i c k e t a r e s t i l l covered with g ra s ses , Wedelia, E u ~ h o r b i a , Ipomoea and Stachy-tarpheta, and bushes such a s Rivina hunl i l is , ~ r n o d e a ? i t t o r a l i s and z n o c a r ~ u s , Sporobolus, Cenchrus and E u ~ h o r b i a mesembrianthemifolia a r e c e r t a i n l y extending on t h e ~ r e T i o u s l ~ c l ea red e a s t e r n ha l f of t h e cay beneath t h e f a l l e n coconutso Bird Colony -- Half Moon Cay i s noted f o r t h e co lor~y of Red-footed Boobies, Sula s u l a su l a , r e c e n t l y s tud ied by Verner (1559, 1961) and Van Tets . Verner counted t h e number of b i r d s i n t h e colony as 35CO i n 1958. There does not appear t o have been any reduct ion i n numbers as a r e s u l t of Hurricane H a t t i e ; t h e c a s u a l observer has t h c oppos i te impression, l a r g e l y because of t h e breaking down of t r e e s , s t r i p p i n g of fo l i age , and g r e a t e r v i s i b i - l i t y of t h e b i r d s . However, t h e n e s t i n g season may have been de layedo For sone weeks a f t e r t h e hu r r i cane t h e b i r d s were descr ibed as wacdering on t h e beaches ,rather t han b u i l d i n g n e s t s . Cay i n h a b i t a n t s s t a t e t h a t t h e boobies normally b u i l d t h e i r n e s t s i n November, l a y i n December, and hatch i n January and February. Verner has shown t h a t i n 1958 t h e cyc l e was r a t h e r more prolonged than t h i s : eggs were being l a i d from mid- November 1957 t o m i d - A ~ r i l 1958 ( ~ e r n e r , 19619 584-585). Af t e r Hurricane H a t t i e ( ~ c t o b e r 31) , n e s t b u i l d i n g d i d not begin u n t i l February, t h e b i r d s l a i d i n March, and t h e first hatched booby was seen on A p r i l 21. By c o n t r a s t , i n 1958 Verner saw f l y i n g young as e a r l y as A p r i l 1 (1961, 584). On May 1 0 1962, du r ing a second v i s i t , t h e r e were s t i l l very many unhatched eggs. The appa ren t ly obvious conclus ion t h a t n e s t i n g was delayed by t h e hu r r i cane must, however, be accepted wi th caut ion; Verner has sug- ges ted t h a t t h e cyc l e may be of more than 1 2 months du ra t ion and hence a c t i v i t i e s a l l start l a t e r every y e a r (personal communication, 1962), Local f ishermen a l l accepted t h a t de l ay had i n f a c t occurred. Long Cag Long Cay, ' the second l a r g e s t i s l a n d on Lighthouse Reef, i s s i m i l a r in b u i l d to Northern Cay (ARB 87, 77-81, F igure 35): it i s a l i t t l e more than 2 m i l e s long, and v a r i e s i n width from l e s s t h a n 300 ya rds i n t h e south t o a maximum of 120C yards i n t h e nor th . I t s t o t a l a rea i s 52: ac res , of which 8;& i s d r y land and t h e r e s t mangrove swamp, bare mud and standing water. The main d r y land a r s a l i e s a t t h e northwest corner , and has been c leared f o r coconuts; t h i s sec t ion covers 22 acres . A f u r t h e r sand a r e a extends f o r 1800 yards a long t h e e a s t s i d e of t h e main mangrove a rea ; it v a r i e s i n width from 20-40 yards, i s genera l ly between l a n d 2 f e e t high, and i s again o lanted t o coconuts. P h y s i o g r a ~ h i c damage t o t h e northern sand a r e a was s l i g h t , apart, from shore r e t r e a t of up t o 2 yards on t h e west and e a s t shores. The north shore i s protec ted by a b e l t of Rh izo~hora , which now seems q u i t e dead. Shore r e t r e a t involved des t ruc t ion of the j e t t i e s and a l s o under- mining and unroofing of a l a r g e new house on the nor theas t shore. On t h e low-lying e a s t and nor theas t shores a t h i n new carlset of f r e sh sand has been d e ~ o s i t e d near t h e beach. On t h e higher west shore, r e t r e a t has involved c l i f f i n g , toge the r with sand s t r i o p i n g and root exposure over a namow zone immsdiately in land from the c l i f f . This i s succeeded by an i r r e g u l a r zone of f r e s h l y decos i ted sand, through which t h e o lde r vegeta- t i o n protrudes. The t o t a l width of t h e eros ion and depos i t ion zone from t h e c l i f f edge v a r i e s up t o 55 yards, but i s genera l ly 20-30 yards. Near t h e s i t e of t h e old j e t t y on the west s i d e t h e r e i s a l a r g e s tranded i r o n barge of unknown o r ig in . The most important vege ta t iona l e f f e c t has been t h e uprooting of coconuts, o f t en leaving surface depressions f i l l e d with water, These holes a r e gene ra l ly l e s s than 3 f e e t deep, but may be 2-3 yards i n diameter. Direc t ion of t r e e f a l l i s f a i r l y constant , mainly 50-60?, but i n p laces 25-30', There i s a widespread patchy vegeta t ion between t h e f a l l e n t r g e s of S t a c h y t a r ~ h e t a jamaicensis, Euphorbia, Sesuv im portulacastrum, C y ~ e r u s pla- n i f o l i u s , and g rasses , together with a l i t t l e ms maritima and Borr ichia -..- arborescens. Perhaps 70% of the t r e e s a r e down, - On t h e eas t e rn sand r idge t h e p i c t u r e i s very s imi la r . Shorel ine r e t ibea t has been minor, bu t nearshore mangroves a r e a l l de fo l i a t ed . Sophora and Suriana a r e no longer t o be seen, bu t t h e r e i s a f a i r l y continuous cover of Borrichia arborescens, with E r n ~ d e a l i t t o r a l i s , Stem,&.ia maritima, Euvhorbia, Cyperus and grasses . Near t h e shore t h e d i r e ~ t i o n of t r e e f a l l seems a f fec ted by wave ac t ion , varying from 349-010 near theomangrove edge, away frcm t h e shore, t h e d i r e c t i o n i s more c ~ n s t a n t a t 60-70 . The small mount of damage a t Long Cay c l e a r l y r e s u l t s from t h e f a c t t h a t winds were west and southwest a t t h i s point , and heavies t wave and wind a c t i o n occurred a long the mangrove c o a s t s of t h e i s l and . These were not mapped, and t h e r e i s no means of t e l l i n g i n d e t a i l how they have changed; it i s doubtfu l whether t h e r e has been any s i g n i f i c a n t shore l ine a l t e r a t i o n . Hat Cay Hat Cay i s t h e southernmost i s l a n d on Lighthouse Reef, about 1: mi les south of Long Cay. It i s sandy, with maximum dimensions of 55 x 70 yards, and t h e sur face does not r i s e more than 2 f e e t above sea l eve l . Much of t h e vegeta t ion cons is ted of mangroves ( ~ v i c e n n i a , Rhizophora, ~ o n o c a r ~ u s ) , with some Borr ichia , Suriana, Sesuviwn, Hymenocallis and ~ p o r o m 87, 81, ~i.36). The cay was not r e v i s i t e d a f t e r t h e hurr icane, bu t was photographed from t h e a i r . The e n c i r c l i n g mangrove s t i l l s tands b u t i s co rn~ le te ly de fo l i a t ed . Much of t h e i n t e r i o r vegeta t ion has disappeared, exposing b a r e sand. There has not , however, been any s i g n i f i c a n t change i n t h e s i z e o r shape of t h e cay. This i s r a t h e r su rp r i s ing i n view of i t s exposed s i t u a t i o n and t n e dcminance of southwesterly hurr icane winds. SANDBORE CAY FIG. 56 FIG. 57 0 YAROS 300 FIG. 60 ? YARDS 300 I I DISAWEARWCE O F LIMIT OF VEGETATION 1962 [*I MUDHOLE STANDING COCONUTS a FALLEN COCONUTS WITHOUT UNDERGROWTH FALLEN COCONUTS WITH UNDERGRMH FORMER EXTENT OF CORDIA-BURSERA THICKET FIG. 61 1 BQOKEN CORDIA-BURSERA THICKET HALF MOON CAY I+ SCATTERED BURSERA STUMPS VEGETATION CHANGE El SCATTERED CORDIA STUMPS 1961 - 1962 V I I I . SUIvIivIARY OF PHYSIOGRAPHIC EFFECTS I n t h e concluding c h a ~ t e r s of t h i s r eno r t t h e main physiographic, v e g e t a t i o n a l and economic changes on r ee f i s l a n d s r e s u l t i n g from Hurricane H a t t i e w i l l be b r i e f l y and s y s t e m a t i c a l l y out l ined . References a r e g iven t o cays which w e l l d i s o l a y t h e t o p i c s d iscussed , b u t no extended comparison i s made &h t h e few s t u d i e s of hur r icane e f f e c t s i n o t h e r p a r t s of t h e world. Zonation of Damage - F'romthe d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n s and maps of cays i n Chapters 4-7, t h r e e main p r i n c i p l e s concernicg physiographic change dur ing t h e h u r r i - cane emerge. These a r e : f i r s t , damage i s d i s t i n c t i v e l y zoned away from t h e s tom cen t r e ; second, damage i s g r e a t e r on small than on l a r g e , and on narrow than on wide i s l a n d s , a t any given d i s t a n c e from t h e c e n t r e ; and t h i r d , damage i s more i n t e n s e on i s l a n d s s t r i p p e d of n a t u r a l vegeta- t i o n , o r where vege ta t ion has been much a l t e r e d by man. Discussion of t h i s t h i r d ~ o i n t w i l l be found i n C h a ~ t e r s 9 and 11. The zonat ion of damage i s shown i n Figure 62, which i s n e c e s s a r i l y genera l i sed . The zone of maximum o r c a t a s t r o ~ h i c damage extends f o r 15-20 mi l e s n o r t h and south of t h e hu r r i cane t r a c k , Morth of t h e storm c e n t r e winds were northwester ly, vee r ing no r th and e a s t du r ing t h e passage of t h e storm; seas were g e n e r a l l y nor th and e a s t e r l y , wi th l o c a l nor thwes ter ly s e a s i n t h e northern b a r r i e r reef lagoon (Figures 5-1C and 13) . South of t h e storm t r a c k winds were wes ter ly , backing south and southeas t a s t h e storm ~ a s s e d . Over t h e g r e a t e r p a r t o f this a rea , sea l e v e l rose considerably, reaching a maximum of a t l e a s t 15 f e e t above normal t o t h e imniediate no r th of t h e storm t r a c k (F igure 12-13), and winds throughout t h e zone probably reached sus ta ined speeds of up t o 150 mph. A number of smal l cays disappeared i n t h i s zone (Cay Glory, Paunch Cay, Cay Bokel, S t . Georgevs Eas t Cay and o t h e r s ) ; some were c ~ m ~ l e t e l y s t r i p p e d of l a r g e r ~ l a n t s ( sergeant Vs, Goff t s and Znglish cays) ; t h e physiograohy was i n a l l c a ses much a l t e r e d , mainly by marginal e ros ion , s t r i p p i n g of su r f ace sand, and channel-cutting; and g r e a t damage was caused t o human h a b i t a t i o n s , l i gh thouses and j e t t i e s . Mangrove was completely d e f o l i a t e d , l o s t branches and w a s i n p l aces uprooted (~rowned Cays, Turneffe ~ s l a n d s ) . North and south of t h i s c e n t r a l a r e a i s a second zone, 15 m i l e s o r more wide, s u b j e c t t o l e s s extreme though s t i l l very v i o l e n t wind and wave condi t ions , bu t l a r g e l y unaffected by t h e storm surge, except t o a n undetermined e x t e n t no r th of t h e storm t r a c k , as a t Cay Caulker. Physio- graphic changes i n t h i s zone were gene ra l ly minor, be ing r e s t r i c t e d t o shor.eline r e t r e a t and c l i f f i n g , and &nor nearshore e ros ion and d c ~ o s j t i 011, b u t V ~ g ~ + . ~ f , i n n , -=pa.-i,llty -.:nrc.>mxt. t .rees, suffcred heavy rl~rnage- I n p laces , as a t Cay Caulker, where t h e vogCtat.inn bad been p a r t l y c l ea red be fo re t h e storm, waves were a b l e t o c r o s s t h e cay and excavate scour h o l e s and channels. Otherwise as a t Tobacco, South Water and Chapel Cays t h e dominant e f f e c t w a s t r e e f a l l . IvIangrove i n t h i s zone escaped defo- l i a t i o n i n t h e c e n t r e of l a r g e i s l a n d s , and i n e a r l y 1962 was a l r e a d y beginning t o recover l eaves on t h e s i d e s of i s l a n d s i n t h e l e e of h u r r i - cane winds and waves. bL t h i r d zone i n c l u d s s t h e cays bztw5en P l a c a c i a and Gladden S p i t , c e n t r a l b a r r i e r reef lagoon, whcre t h e main hurr icane winds blt:w from t h e south with r e s t r i c t e d f c t c h ac ross water 15-25 fathoms dezp. On nos t of t h c s e i s l e n d s t h e vegetational e f f e c t s werc i n s i g n i f i c a n t , but a l l had sand o r sh ing le deposi ted on t h e i r south and z a s t shores ( a s a t Trappts, Laughing Bird, Sc ip io and Colson Cays). Vegetation damage Ms only con- s i d c r a b l c on Bugle Cay, which had been c leared f o r coconuts: consid(:rable shoreline r e t r e a t accompanied t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of t h c vzgeta t ion . This zone l i e s 30-40 mi lz s south of t h e hurr icane t r a c k ; it i s not dupl ica ted t o t h e nor th i n B r i t i s h Honduran waters, where th;. b a r r i c r reef lagoon i s very shallow and t h e cays few i n number; t o t h i s ex ten t it appears t o depend on l o c a l condit ions. F ina l ly , t h c cays of Gloverqs Reef and t h e southern b a r r i e r reef and lagoon suffcrod no vege ta t iona l and l i t t l e o r no physiographic damage, 3 . ~ . W t f rm i n s i g n i f i c a n t shore l ine r ead jus tmmts ( a s a t Long Cay North, Gloverqs Fieef), which may o r may not have r e s u l t e d from t h e h u r r i c m 3 i t s e l f . The cays of Glovcrts Reef l i e only 40 milts south of the storm t r a c k and t h e small dcgrei! of damag;? may r e s u l t from t h e f a c t t h a t dmlinant water movements were p a r a l l c l i n d i r e c t i o n t o t h c southcpst reef of t h e a t o l l , on which t h c c?ys stand. A t Punta Gorda, sus ta ined ga le fo rce winds were i n s u f f i c i e n t t o cause d e f o l i a t i o n of mangrovc o r physiographic changes t o the cays o f f Punta Ycacos. The zone of no damage i s not found on the B r i t i s h Honduras Coast nor th of t h e hurr icane t r ack , except i n t h e northern part of t h e Bay of Chetmal , and on t h e mainland Yucatan coas t north of Boca Bacalar Chico, bu t these a r e a s were not inves t iga t sd . Erosions1 E f f e c t s Underwater 1. Damage t o r ee f . Destruct ion of l i v i n g c o r a l s was g r e a t e s t on t h e b a r r i e r reef immediately nor th of t h e storm t r a c k , where up t o 80$ of r'eef c o r a l s d i s a p ~ e a r e d , preslmably t r a n s ~ o r t e d by wavc a c t i o n i n t o d e e m r water. The cxtent of reef damage has been f u l l y discussed i n 'Chapter 3 and Figure 14 and w i l l not be r e ~ e a t e d he reo I n t e r n s of t h e zonation of cay dmage, maximum reef damage occurred i n Zone I, depending l a r g e l y on exposure t c waves, and t o a l e s s e r ex ten t i n Zones I1 and 111; only i n Zone 111, where damage was moderate, was any l a r g e amount of reef m s t e r i a l thrown above high t i d e l eve l . Reef damage i n Zone I V was neg l ig ib le . 2. Submarine Slumping. The only example of submarine slumping d i s - covered was th3.t a t Crickozeen Creek, on t h e west s ide of Turneffe Is lands , between t h e mangrove rim and t h e cdge of t h e bank, where physio- graphic cvidcnce i n d i c a t e s rotat ionalmovemcnt of a s e c t o r of bottom sedi- ment (chapter 6 ) . It i s not c l e a r why such slumping should be s o r e s t r i c t e d i n occurrence, nor what f a c t o r s caused slumping a t t h i s one poin t . 3. Erosion of scour holes and channels. No s i g n i f i c a n t change was caused t o underwater topography by t h e hurr icane; even where l a r g e s c a l e des t ruc t ion of reef c o r a l s occurred, t h i s only extended t o t h e removal of a t h i n l i v i n g veneer of reef m a t e r i a l from t h e sur face of r ee f patches, Th? patches t h e m s z l v ~ s , and t h e reef f l a t s , surv ive with very l i t t l e changz. lhrhcrc such s h o d a r e a s a r e covered with Thalassi?", it i s a s h p l e ma t t e r t o observe t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of scour holcs and chann,ds cut through t h e vegeta t ion mat. Such f e a t u r c s can be ssen a t Goff9s and Big Calabash Cays; t h e y a r e shallow and u n i m ~ o r t a n t f e a t u r e s , with s t w p and overhanging s ides , 2nd i t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e vegeta t ion has pre- vented f u r t h e r erosion. One i s not j u s t i f i e d i n assuming t h a t wnere t h e v&geta t ion mat does not e x i s t , erosion h3s been general , on t h e same s c a l e a s the c u t t i n g of t h e scour holes and channels; i t may be t h a t l o c a l weaknesses i n t h e Thalassia m a t have simply concentrated erosion a t t h e s e ~ o i n t s , Comparison of a i r photographs before and a f t a r t h s s t o m , even i n ? r z a s whsre rzef damagc was extremely sovore, r evea l s very l i t t l e change indeed i n shallow-water vegeta t ion p a t t e r n s ( c o g o on t h e e a s t s i d e of Turneffc, a t Calabash Cays and Cockrcach cays) , Channel c u t t i n g has only been corlsidcrable wher;: water movement has been r e s t r i c t e d by isl?.nds, a s between t h c mangrove cays of t h e Drowned Cays, bar r im- r e e f , o r through t h e narrow crecks on t h c west s i d c of Turncffe Is lands . The overdeenened channels may be dozens cf yards long and s c v z r a l fathoms deep, with s t e e ~ and overhanging s i d e s and meandering courses wi th in t h e genera l meandering p a t t e r n of t h e creeks themselves, Where no t so con- s t r i c t e d , channels arc? v-shaped i n plan and genera l ly cut i n t o t h e la'goon- edge of r e e f - f l a t s ; none have cu t back more than a few yards i n t o t h e r e e f - f l a t surface, and t h e i r depth i s r o s t r i c t e d . Constr icted channels a r c now occunied by f a s t t i d a l streams, which p r o b ~ ~ b l y i m i t i n f i l l i n g ; unconstr icted channels g m e r a l l y contain f a i r l y s t i l l water, and may be expect5d t o f i l l i n f a i r l y rapid ly . Unconstricted c h ~ r m c i s a r e &nor features; a l l l a r g e channels, such a s thosz near t h e edge of t h e coast21 she l f between Cays Chapel, Caulker 2nd i h b e r g r i s , a r e i n f a c t l i t t l e - o r un-altered nre-hurricane f ea tu res . Subaer ia l -.- 1. Destruct ion of cays. A number of cays d i s a ~ p ~ a r e d altogether i n Zont 1, inc luding Paunch Cay, S t , Georgegs Eas t Cay, Cay Glory, Cay Bokel, Big Calabash East I1 Cay, Blackbird Cay, somc of t h e Cockroach Cays, and Saddle Cay. A l l of t hese exccpt Paunch Cay were vegetated, though i n t h e case of Cay Glory t h e vegs ta t ion only cons is ted of low-lying grasses , p r o s t r a t e p l a n t s and a ve ry young ooconut; o t h e r s had mature t r e e s , inc luding t a l l mangroves and coconuts. Pos t were low-lying; all except St . Georgevs Eas t Cay were predominantly sandy, with .a l i t t l e nearshore rubble, and a l l were small. S t , Georgovs Zast , a sh ingle cay, w a s t h e l m g e s t i s l a n d t o disappear: before t h e hurr icane it w a s 120 yards long. 2. Fiarginal Erosion. Re t rea t of cay s h o r e l i n e s has taken p lace i n Zones I, I1 and 111. A l l m a t e r i a l above sea l e v c l and f o r s e v e r a l inches below it has been eroded away, i n a zone up t o 20 yards i n width, genera l ly g r e a t e s t nea r t h e hurr icane cen t re and on t h e s i d e of t h e cay f ac ing main hurr icane winds ( eas t t o t h e nor th of storm cent re , southwest t o t h e south) . This has l e f t a v e r t i c a l c l i f f , u sua l ly 1-2 f e e t high, capped by a mat of coconut roo t s from which a l l sand has been f lushed. I n p laces t h i s c l i f f e d shore l ine i s f a i r l y s t r a i g h t ; o f t e n t h e presence of near- shore coconut bolas holding up promontories has given it an i n t r i c a t e ou t l in? . Cccasional ly one f i n d s a i l l a r - l i k e remnants of t h e old cay standing outs idc t h e p resen t c l i f f a n e , as a t So ld ie r and Big Calabash Cays; t h e s e t o o a r e steep-sided and capped with coconut roots . 3. Destruct ion of unconsolidated s p i t s . This was probably un ive r sa l throughout Zones I - 111, but by e a r l y 1962 f r e s h s ~ i t s of similar genera l form had i n most cases regrown a t o r ncar t h e old loca t ion , a s a t English Cay. 4 Channel-cutting. Cutt ing of channels through cay su r faces was lirllited t o Zone I, i n t h e a r e a covered by t h e high sea surge, and t o cays wi th coconut o r o the r t h i n ground vegeta t ion . Scouring of deep channzls occurred a t S t . Georgevs Cay, and shallower channels a t Mauger and Sandbore Cays, a l l ac ross narrow necks of land. I n c i p i e n t channels were seen a t Half Pioon Cay and Deadman V Cap, extending headward from t h e l e e s i d e of cays, and a t Cay Caulker, where roadways t r a n s v e r s s t o t h e seaward shors were overdeepened i n t h e v i l l a g e . 5. Scour holes i n cay surfaces . Erosion of scour holes by overtopping waters was widespread i n Zones I - 111. They were gene ra l ly developed a t t h e margin of some obstac1.e t o water flow, such as bui ld ings (sandbore cay) or t h e upturned boles of t r e e s , using a s a nucleus t h e ho les l e f t by roo t s . Holes a t Cay Caulker a r e elongate and not a ~ p a r e n t l y r e l a t e d t o m y obs tac le . A t Half Noon Cay scour ho les were scen i n t h e l e e of sh ingle r idgzs deposi ted by t h e hurr icane i t s e l f . Scour ho les have a l s o been seen a l o n g k e l e e shores of cays, where overtopping waters reach5d t h e l ~ g o o n (cay C h a ~ e l , Cay caulker) . 6 . St r ipp ing of sur face sand. Where cays w;rc overtopped by t h e storm surge i n Zone I o r had t h e i r margins submerged by heayy wave ac t ion i n Zones I1 - 111, s t r i p p i n g of loose sur face sand w 3 s almost universa l , though genera l ly confined t o a narrow marginal s t r i p up t o 30 yards wide, immediately inlarid from t h e undercut cliffAin-?. Decxase i n e l eva t ion was gent?rall.y l e s s than 1 foo t , but t h i s involved t h e removal of a l l o r most su r face sand and s o i l , reveal ing long coconut r o o t s and occas ional ly orange Thrinax roots . Thesz a r e scmetimes combed i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of water movenent, as a t Deadman V and Big Calabash Cays. Frequently i n Zone I t h e coconut r o o t s form a, surface mat s e v e r a l inches th i ck , devoid of sand though l i t t e r e d with f r e sh debr i s ; i n Zones 11-111, however, t h e exposed root mat i s much th inne r and r e s t s on t i g h t l y packed sand, a s a t South Water Cay. 7. Erosion of consolidated depos i t s . Beachrock has been remarkably suc- c e s s f u l i n r e s i s t i n g erosion, e spec ia l ly underwatero However, a t Half Moon Cay, where t h e conglomerate platform i s much p i t t e d and eroded, wave smoothing i s apparent on t h e sur face , where seve ra l l a r g e p ro jec t ing blocks have been t o r n away. I n t h e southeas t bay t h e ou te r margin of t h e beachrock has suf fered considerable damage; l a r g e p l a t e s were broken off and thrown onto t h e shore o r u p t i l t e d i n t h e water aga ins t t h e unbroken beachrock. The only consolidated d e p o s i t s t o disappear were i n c i p i e n t beachrocks of small extent , such a s a beachrock seen i n 1961, near t h e nor th poin t of Northern Cay. Clearing of a l g a l mats on beachrock a l s o revealed much f r a c t u r i n g , which may have ex i s t ed before t h e hurr icene , 8. U ~ r o o t i n g of coconut t r e s s i n Zones I - I1 could l eave ho le s i n t h e cay su r f ace UD t o 3 ya rds i n d i m e t z r and 3 f e e t i n depth, which were l i a b l e t o scouring by waves nea r t h e shore. These ho le s may reach t h e water t a b l e , and many a r e now f i l l e d wi th watar , g iv ing su r f ace a pock-markcd a ~ ~ e a r a n c e , a s a t Long Cay, Lighthouse Reef. 9. F ina l ly , c l i f f i n g and i lndercut t ing of sand a r e a s could t a k e p l ace w e l l above sea l e v e l dur ing v i o l z n t wave? a c t i v i t y , a s on t h e s o u t h w s t sand r idge a t Half Noon Cay, where undzrcut t ing and r idge r e t r e a t has formed a v e r t i c a l c l i f f 4 f e e t h igh j u s t below t h e r i d g e c r e s t and 20 ya rds from t h e sea. Depos i t iona l E f f e c t s - Underwater 1. De l t a s and dspos i t i on cones of sand a t t h e mouths of scour c h a m e l s between cays, a s a t Drormed Cays: and s t t h e leeward end of creeks, a s on t h e west s i d e of Turneffe, a r e found i n Zones I - 11. 2 , Deposi t ion cones a r e a l s o found a t t h e leeward ends of scour channels c u t through cay sur faces . They a r e b e a u t i f u l l y developed a t St . Georgegs Cay, Zone I. 3. Shoa.iing i n nearshore a r e a s , by depos i t i on of m a t e r i a l crcdt-d frcm cay su r f aces , e s p e c i a l l y sand. This i s w e l l secn i n t h c Sandbore Cay lagoon, Zone I. 4. S c a t t e r i n g of l a r g e b locks on reef f l a t s . I n view of t h e g r e a t des t rnc- t i o n of r e e f s it i s s u r p r i s i n g t h a t so-cal led qnegro-heads? o r reef-blccks throw up onto r e e f - f l a t s dur ing t h e storm a r e almost non-existent. Imme- d i a t e l y a f t e r t h e storm it i s s a i d t h a t more small r ee f d e b r i s was v i s i b l e above sea l e v e l , a t k a s t on t h e no r the rn b a r r i e r r e e f , bu t by e a r l y 1962 most of t h i s had disappeared. Only a t Big Calabash Cay, Turneffe , and Cary Cay, c e n t r a l b a r r i e r reef lagoon, a r e any l a r g e b locks now stranded on r e e f - f l a t s . 5. Deposi t ion of rubble ca rpe t s . This i s much more widespread i n Z o n s I - 111, though t h e amount of d e p o s i t i o n i s s t i l l small com~ared with Jaluit . Carpets a r e b e s t developed a long t h e o ld reef c r e s t , where they r i s e t o wi th in a few inches of t h e sur face , occas iona l ly emerging a s low r idges , and t e rmina t ing lagoonward i n s t e e p faces . They a r e b e s t seen along t h e b a r r i e r r e e f , as a t Cay Glory and C a r r i e Bow Cay, and on t h e Turneffe e a s t r ee f s . I n p l aces t h e sh ing le l a c k s t h i s well-defined r idge form and i s spread i n a t h i n n e r , wider ca rpe t , with imbr i ca t e palmata s l abs , a s a t G o f f f s Cay. 6. Ephemeral r ee f - c re s t s h i n g l e r i dges c o n s i s t only of t h e emergent por- t i o n s of t h e s e c a r ~ e t s , None a r e more than 3 f e e t i n he ight and most only a few ya rds long. Immediately a f t c r t h e hu r r i cane t h e y may have been more ex tens ive than when seen i n e a r l y 1962. The r i d g e s a t S o l d i e r Cay, Ca r r i e Bow Cay and S k i f f Sand a r e probably i n t h e process of des t ruc t ion . 7. Presumably t h e g r e a t amount of r ee f m a t e r i a l destroyed i n Zone I has been swept i n t o deeper water on t h e seaward ar.d lagoonward s l o ~ e s of r e e f s ; much of it may l i e a t depths of 50 f e e t o r more, Nuch vegetable m a t e r i a l has a l s o been dumped i n deeper water: i n t h e nor thern b a r r i e r r e e f lagoon t r e e s a r e seen on t h e lagoon f l o o r and even emerge abovz t h e s w f a c e a t d i s t a n c e s of s e v e r a l mi l e s from cays. No i n v e s t i g a t i o n s were made of condi t ions on lagoon f l o o r s o r i n deeper water. Subae r i a l Submarine d e p o s i t i o n a l f e a t u r e s a r e of minor importance, and with t h e exception of t h e S t . Georgeqs Cay d e l t a s , none a r e spec tacular . Subae r i a l d e p o s i t i o n a l f e a t u r e s a r e phys iographica l ly s i g n i f i c a n t , more so i n some a r e a s than i n o thers . They a r e no t w e l l developed i n Zone I on t h e b a r r i e r r e e f , b u t a r e found i n t h e same zone on t h e e a s t s i d e of Turneffe; t hey reach t h e i r most t y p i c a l development i n Zone 111, where e r o s i o n a l e f f e c t s a r e minimal. P a r t of t h e d i f f z rence i n Zone I l i e s i n vegetat ion: on t h e b a r r i e r reef t h e cays were low, small and co~onut-covered. With t h e coco- n u t s swept away, and submerged by t h e storm surge, t h e i s l a n d i t s e l f would ~ r e s e n t l i t t l e obs t ac l e t o t h e passage of sediment. On t h e a t o l l s , however, most of t h e cays were dense ly vegeta ted and n o s t of t h e vegz ta t ion r e m a i n ~ d i n p lace dur ing t h e storm, a c t i n g as a b a r r i e r t o sediment move- ment and r e s u l t i n g i n t h e piling-up of deb r i s . To i l l u s t r a t e t h i s one may c o n t r a s t t h e mainly d e p o s i t i o n a l e f f e c t s a t Cockroach I1 (pe l i can ) Cay, covered wi th Bursera-Cordia bush; and t h e d i f f e r e n t p i c t u r e a t Cockroach Cay i t s e l f , covered wi th easi ly-destroyed coconuts, where most Surface sand was s t r i p ~ e d , no sh ing le r idges wsre b u i l t , and depos i t ion was l i m i t e d t o accumulation of sand i n t h e leeward bay. There i s a s i m i l a r c c n t r a s t between depos i t ion on t h e Cordia-Bursera covered south shore of Half Moon Cay9 and eros ion on t h e coconut-cov~red southwest shore. F ina l ly , i n Z O ~ I11 one may c o n t r a s t t h e widespread depos i t ion on dense ly vegetated i s l a n d s such a s Colson, Scipio, Owen, Trappqs and o t h e r cays, and t h e cons iderable e ros ion on Bugle Cay, which had been c l ea red f o r coconuts. Subae r i a l d e ~ o s i t i o n t a k e s t h e fol lowing forms: 1. L i t t e r i n g of h e a v i l y eroded su r faces wi th coarse c o r a l rubble, o f t en of sma l l c a l i b r e , a s a t Cockroach Cay and Sandbore Cay, Zones I and 11. 2, Accumulation of c o r a l sh ingle and sand aga ins t vege ta t ion b a r r i e r s : t h i s occurs a t Cockroach I1 and Half Moon Cays (where d e b r i s i s p i l e d up t o a he ight of 10 f e e t above sea l e v e l ) , and on s e v e r a l of t h e c e n t r a l b a r r i e r reef cays, such as Owen and Laughing Bird Cays. 3 - Deposition of wider, t h i n n e r ca rpe t s , gene ra l ly of sand, on t h e cay su r face , e s p e c i a l l y i n l a n d from t h e marginal erosion zone a l r eady des- c r ibed , i n Zones I1 and 111. This f e a t u r e i s t y p i c a l l y seen a t South Water, Trappfs , Sc ip io and Colson Cays, The ca rpe t may be up t o 30 yards wide, wedging out seaward and th ickening landward, t e rmina t ing on t h e landward s i d e i n a s t e e p face , o f t en a rcua te i n plan. The sand b u r i e s t h e o ld cay su r face , which may r e t a i n i t s vegeta t ion and s o i l s , t o depths of up t o 2 f e e t . Even where t h e sand i s deepest t h e t a l l e r vege ta t ion may pro t rude through it and surv ive ( e s p e c i a l l y ~ h r i n a x ) ; where th inne r , Hymenocallis i s o f t e n s t i l l v i s i b l e and l i v i n g , Such c a r p e t s were seen a t Placencia i n 1961 011 t h e day they were deposited by Hurricane Anna.. i3urial of old s o i l horizons by r ~ e t s , mostly of rubble, was described a t J a l u i t a f t e r Typhoon Onhelia i" B l ~ r n e ~ ~ s t o c k , e d i t o r , 1961) ; i n B r i t i s h Honduras rubble c a r p e t s a r e d i s t i n c t l y r a r e , except where they form p a r t s of r idges p i l e d aga ins t vegeta t ion b a r r i e r s , a s a t Cockroach Cays. 4 , Deposition of sh ingle r idges round t h e old cay shore, which may i t s e l f have suffered erosion. Again, t hese a r e t y p i c a l l y dcvsloped i n Zone 111, where t h e r idges may o r may not ad jo in t h e old shore f o r a l l t h e i r length. I n p laces t h e main r idge may l i e some yards t o seaward, enclosing a low- ly ing sh ingle carpet o r onen w a k between it and t h e ercded shore ( ~ o l s o n , Scipio, Trappfs cays) . I n t h i s case t h e c a l i b r e of t h e m a t e r i a l i s coa r ses t i n t h e r idge, and much f i n e r i n t h e enclosed zone. Thcse of fshore r idges may pass l a t e r a l l y i n t o r idges b u i l t aga ins t and on t h e shore i t s e l f . 5. Zxtersion of leewarc! shores by sand d e ~ o s i t i o n . This was noted by mapping a t Cockroach Cay and Deadman I Cay along t h e g r e a t e r Dart of t h e leeward shore; minor extensions of shore l ines by d e r o s i t i o n was a l s o noted a t Half ibloon Cay and elsewhere, I n c i d e n t a l P h y s i o g r a ~ h i c E f f e c t s The most i m o r t a n t i n c i d e n t a l physiographic e f f e c t on cay physiography was t h e inc rease i n number of outcrops of cementcd sands. These have been descr ibed ind iv idua l ly i n t h i s repor t , and i n genera l terms i n ARB 87, 106-109, They may be grouped a s fol lcws: I n t e r t i d a l beachrock The name qbeachrockq i s here r e s t r i c t e d t o t h s narrow s t r i p s of cemen- t e d beachsands, which genera l ly d i ~ seawards, following t h e l i n e of t h e shore, a r e of very l imi t ed v e r t i c a l ex ten t , and a r e c n a r a c t e r i s t i c a i l y found on r e t r e a t i n g beaches o r on r e e f - f l a t s marking t h e s i t e s of former shore l ines . I n B r i t i s h Honduras beachrclck and beachsands contain much Halinieda and encrus t ing red foraminifera. New exDosures r e s u l t i n g from Hurricane Ha t t i e were of t h r e e types: ( a ) old r e l i c t beachrock covered with l a t e r sediments has been re -ex~osed , a s a t Goffys Cay, Carr ie Bow Cay, and p a r t i a l l y a t Paunch and Curlew Cays. (b) Inc ip ien t beachrock noted i n 1960-61 has been revealed by shore r e t r c a t and s t ands away from present shore a s t r u e r e l i c t beachrock; t h i s i s we l l shown on t h e l e e shore of South Water Cay and the south shore of Sandbore Cay. ( c ) I n o t h e r a r e a s shore r e t r e a t has revealed beachrock t h e exis tence of which was not previous ly suspected. This i s we l l shown on t h e lagoon shore of Sandbore Cay, and i n t h e pecu l i a r islandward-dipping beachrock on t h e seaward shore of Car r i e Bow Cay, None of t h i s beachrock s tands above o r below i t s i n t e r t i d a l loca t ion ; i t s p o s i t i o n r evea l s h o r i z o n t a l s h i f t s i n shore l ine loca t ion only. A t Carr ie Bow Cay, two l i n e s of f r e s h beach- rock have been revealed marking t h e p o s i t i o n of a former ephemeral sand- s p i t , which i n 1960 was subjec t t o o $ e r t o p ~ i n g by waves: i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o see how f r e s h groundwater could havc played any p a r t i n t h e formation of t h i s rock, i n t h e manner Russe l l (1962) has described. Most of t h e new i n t e r t i d a l beachrock v a r i e s considerably i n degree of cementation, but a l l c o n s i s t s of t y p i c a l beachsands, The reverse-dipping beachrock a t C a r r i e Bow Cay i s well-cemented, t h a t marking t h e ephemeral s p i t i s very s o f t , Nany of t h e s o f t e r exposures, e s p e c i a l l y on seaward shores , may not sur - v ive a g a i n s t wave a t t a c k f o r a s u f f i c i e n t l y long per iod f o r t h e secondary cementation which R u s s e l l i n d i c a t e s i s necessary f o r complete l i t h i f i c a t i o n . No f r e s h beachrock anywhere i n B r i t i s h Honduras approaches t h e toughness of long-exposed examples, such a s t h a t a t Half Moon Cay. Examination of hand samples shows t h a t f r e s h l y exposed beachrock c o n s i s t s of l o o s e l y bonded p a r t i c l e s i n a very f r i a b l e cement, wi th many open spaces; whereas i n o l d e r beachrock t h e g r a i n s a r e t i g h t l y cemented i n t o a s o l i d mass wi th few i n t e r s t i c e s , except where t h e g r a i n s a r e l a rge , dominantly Halimeda, where i n t e r s t i c e s s t i l l remain open. IEJhile it i s t r u e t h a t beachrock exvosures a r e only a s s o c i a t e d wi th r e t r e a t i n g beaches, a s Seymour S e m l l (1935, 511) and Stan ley Gardincr (1930, 16 ) recognised, t h e B r i t i s h Honduras d a t a shows q u i t e c l e a r l y t h a t massive beachrock may form on s t a b l e , and even aggrading shores , a s on t h e i n t c r i o r lagoon beach of Sandbore Cay. I n t h i s i n s t ance , t h e t h i c k c e s s of bsachrock on t h e stab16 lagoon shore much exceeds t h a t on t h e eroding seaward shore, Beachrock c l e a r l y forms beneath beaches, no t a t t h e su r f ace ; where i n c i p i e n t beachrock outcrops a t t h e f o o t of beaches, it may b6 t r a c e d in l and beneath beach sands, i n t h e same way i n B r i t i s h Honduras a s mapped by Russe l l elsewhere i n t h e Caribbean, The cause of reverse d i p i n beachrock i s unknown: i t s occurrence a t Carr ie Bow Cay and Southwest Cay 11, Gloverqs Reef (ARB 87, 97), sugges ts t h a t it may be a more wide- spread phenomenon t h a n previous ly recognised, Widespread evidence of r e t r e a t of cays a c r o s s reef f l a t s sugges ts t h a t reversed beachrock may have been formed on lagoon beaches and exposed on seaward shores a s t h e cay r e t r e a t e d completely a c r o s s it; b u t such an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n needs more sub- s t a n t i a l evidence, The r o l e of beachrock a s a s t a b i l i s i n g element i n cay physiography has o f t e n bcen s t r e s sed : t h u s S t e e r s (1937, 12) w r i t e s t h a t :%he formation of beachrock on any c o r a l i s l e t o f f t h i Queensland coas t i s a s t a b i l i s i n g f a c t o r , and t h e permanency of a n i s l e t probably depends more on t h i s f a c t o r t han on any other '$ . The presence of many exposures of r e l i c t beachrock off present cay shores shows t h a t t h i s p r o t e c t i o n i s a t b e s t imperfect ; dur ing Hurricane H a t t i e no i n s t a n c e w a s seen where t h e presence of beachrock r e s t r i c t e d shore r e t r e a t , when compared wi th nearby a r e a s l ack ing beachrock, By c o n t r a s t , well-developed and undisturbed n a t u r a l vege ta t ion appcared much more e f f e c t i v e i n cay preserva t ion . Cay Sandstone Cementation of cay sands above sea l e v e l was descr ibed by Kuenen (1933, 86-88) and Seymour Sewell (1935 , 502-512), bu t on account of i t s l e s s d i s t i n c t i v e charac te r ; s t i r s and i ~ f r e q u e n t exposure it has not o f t e n been descr ibed. Moresby (1835, l59 ) , Seymour Sewell (1935 , 502-512) and S tan ley Gardiner (1907) noted it i n t h e IJIaldive I s l ands , where Gardiner termed it 19tuffejl; Kuenen a l s o noted it i n t h e Eas t I n d i e s (1933; 1950, 434-435). Following Hurricane Ha t t i e , t h e r e i s l i t t l e doubt t h a t rock exposures on t h e B r i t i s h Honduras cays formerly i n t e r p r e t e d as poss ib l e r a i s e d beachrocks a r e i n f a c t cay sandstones, Such rocks a r e b e s t exposed a t Harry Jones Poin t ard Big Cay Bokel, Turneffe. The rock has an almost h o r i z o n t a l upper sur face , bu t may d i p l a t e r a l l y a long t h e boach with v a r i a t i o n i n t h e he igh t of t h e cay su r face i t s e l f . The upper su r face i s smooth when f r e s h , bu t becomes blackened, p i t t e d and eroded on exposure t o t h e a tmos~here . Undermining a f t e r exDosure along t h e shore may l ead t o t h e breaking o f f of s l a b s of rock, which then l i e on t h e shore a t t h e ang le of t he beach, and where t h i n may be confused wiLh i n t e r t i d a l beach- rock. This i s w e l l seen a t Northern Cay, Lighthouse Reef. T p i c a l l y , cay sandstone l a c k s t h e l a r g e unbroken Halimeda g ra ins , l a r g e f r e s h red Homotrema, and d i s t i n c t i v e v e r t i c a l size-grading of i n t e r t i d a l beachrock. I t s c o n s t i t u e n t s a r e f i n e r , and t h e cementation i n f r e s h samples i s super- f i c i a l and poor. A f t e r exposure it appears t h a t a secondary cementation t a k e s place, analogous t o t h a t which Russe l l demonstrates f o r i n t e r t i d a l beachrock (1962), r e s u l t i n g i n a tough, r inging rock; t h i s was i n f a c t noted long ago by Moresby (1835, 400). Cay sandstone i s normally e x ~ o s e d by r e t r e a t i n g shores; a t Cay Chapel it has been revealed by s t r i p p i n g of sur face sand ac ross t h e f r o n t s lope of' a beach ridge. Here it forms a n i n c l i n e d d a t e , d ipping seaward though w e l l above sea l e v e l , and s t i l l very f r i a b l e . Af t e r f o u r months of CxDcsure t h e su r face was etched i n t o hole-and-ridge p a t t e r n s o f t en a s soc ia t ed with wind eros ion i n d e s e r t s (co t ton , 1942). Nearby, t h e same rock i s seen i n a beach scarp, covered wi th 12 inches of uncemented sand and s o i l , with vegeta t ion . S imi lar though weaker cementation was seen a t Cay Caulker, i n overdee~ened roads t r a n s v e r s e t o t h e seaward beach. Nowhere was cay sandstone seen t o be ove r l a in wi th more than 3 f e e t of uncementcd sand. It i s presumably a s soc ia t ed with pe rco la t ion of r a in - water t o t h e water- table , and w a s not seen on any cay without a known fresh-water lens . The recency of t h e cementation, and formation a t t h e present a l t i t u d e a r e beyond d i spu te , A t Harry Jones, cay sandstone conta ins Kaya po t t e ry , Kost newly exposed sur faces conta in coconut r o o t s w i th in t h e rock matr ix , At t h e i n n e r edge of t h e exposed a r e a , t h e s e r o o t s may be followed up i n t o overlying undisturbed sand. Fur ther , cementation beneath cay s u r f a c e s i s l e s s advanced than on exposed a r e a s : t h i s i s we l l shown by a scour ho le cu t through t h e cay sur face i n t o underlying cay sandstone a t Northern Cay, Lighthouse Reef (Figure 63). Here a weak h o r i ~ o n of cementation was exposed on a l l s i d e s of the scour hole, with uncemented sands both above and below. Outcrops of cemented m a t e r i a l , t o o r e s t r i c t e d t o determine form, a s a t South Water Cay, a r e here i n t e r p r e t e d a s cay sandstones, r a t h e r than r e s o r t t o hmotheses of warping o r e u s t a t i c f l u c t u a t i o n s of sea l e v e l . It should be noted t h a t t h i s r e - in t e rp re t a t ion of t h e Harry Jones exposure renoves what evidence t h e r e was f o r movements of t h i s kind a t Turneffe I s l ands (ARB 87, 109-111): no f e a t u r e of t h e s e cays now r e q u i r e s any recent high s tand of t h e sea i n explanat ion of it. Promenade Rock This name i s ilsed he re f o r t h e cemented mteri.al comprising a r e s t r i c t e d topographic f e a t u r e , t h e promenade, dcscribcd by S t o e r s initially f r o m t h e Great Barrier r t ~ f Tslands (1929, 252-256; 1937s 27, 119) and i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l f o r t h e Morant Cays, Jamaica (1940a, 39-40: 1940b9 309). A t Morant Cays S t e e r s found p la t forms wi th eroded, h o r i z o n t a l upper sur- f aces , showing no apparent d ip , 12-18 inches above sea l e v e l , composed of beach sands and s i m i l a r t o t r u e beachrock. The rock su r f ace appeared t o be recemented and was much ha rde r t han t h e i n t e r i o r . Promenades always occurred on t h e windward s i d e s of cays. The s i m i l a r i t y of t h e s e prome- nades with t h e conglomerate ~ l a t f o r m a t Half Moon Cay has been p rev ious ly noted (ARB 87, 1C7). During Kurr icane Ha t t i e , low-lying platforms of cemented sand and rubble were e w o s e d by severe s h o r e l i n e r e t r e a t a t Dead- man I and I1 Cays, Turneffe, where o rev ious ly c n l y a smal l patch of sup- posedly i n c i p i e n t beachrock had been seen. These resemble t h e Half Moon Cay exposures i n everything except degree of cementation. It appears t h a t cementation of sands, s h i n g l e and rubble must t a k e wlace beneath cays a t and s l i g h t l y above sea l e v e l , and t h a t t h i s cemented m a t e r i a l has been exposed by erosion. The cernentation i s s u f f i c i e n t t o p re se rve t h e form of t h e promenade, b u t no t f o r t h e c o l l e c t i o n of specimens. A s i n t h e case of beachrock and cay sandstone, it seems l i k e l y t h a t secondary cementation occurs once t h e promenade i s ex-posed, t o t ransform it i n t o s o l i d r e s i s t a n t rock. Whether t h e Deadman exposures w i l l surv ive long enough f o r t h e secondary cementation t o t ake p l a c e has y e t t o be seen, As i n t h e case of cay sandstone t h e important c o ~ c l u s i o n i s t h a t promenades form beneath cays a t t h e i r p re sen t e l eva t ions : and t h a t t hey a r e not i n d i c a t o r s of r e l a t i v e change i n land o r sea l e v e l . This explana t ion does not prec lude t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t e l eva t ion o r d e ~ r e s s i o n has occurred, through t e c t o n i c o r e u s t a t i c causes; b u t it does mean t h a t without o t h e r evidence, pm'nenades and cay sandstone e m o s u r e s a r e not i n themselves s u f f i c i e n t i n d i c a t o r s of such movements . Shingle Rock A t Cockroach Cay I1 t h e exposure of a very coarse sh ing le rock, csmented by a brownish cement, has been descr ibed i n Chapter 6. The cement appears s u p e r f i c i a l l y s i m i l a r t o t h a t i n t h e c e n t r a l p a r t of Half Moon Cay, and i n t h e two f r e s h exwosures of t h e same rock on t h a t i s l a n d , A t Cockroach I1 t h e resent topographic form of t h e sh ing le rock i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t of t h e Cay Chapel cay sandstone: it l i e s on t h e f a c e of t h e beach r idge , i s r e s t r i c t e d i n a r e a wi th ve ry s t e e p s ides , and d i p s seawards. The main po in t of d i f f e r ence i s i n t h e brown cement. I n t h i s connection it i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o note t h a t bo th i s l a n d s where t h i s occurs have s u b s t a n t i a l a r e a s of - Cordia-Bursera bush, Other Rock F ina l ly , su r f ace i n c r u s t a t i o n of sands, perhaps r e s u l t i n g from inunda- t i o n by s a l t water dur ing t h e hur r icane , has been descr ibed a t Sandbore Cay, Lighthouse Reef. This i s ve ry f r i a b l e and t h i n , and t h e r e i s no evidence t h a t l i t h i f i c a t i o n w i l l proceed s u f f i c i e n t l y t o form a s i g n i f i c a n t topographic f e a t u r e . Apart from t h e Cockroach I1 sh ing le rock and t h e i n t e r i o r cementation a t Half Moon Cay, cemented m a t e r i a l s on cays appea r t o c o n s i s t of cay sandstone, promenade rock, i n t e r t i d a l beachrock, and a few o t h e r exDosures which may be in te rmedia te between t h e s e groups. Seymour Sewell was ffby no means f u l l y convincedrf (1935, 501) of t h e d i s t i n c t i o n between cay sand- s tone and beachrock. Cay s a n d d o n e formation i s appa ren t ly a s s o c i a t e d with f r e s h water ~ e r c o l a t i o n ( ~ u e n e n , 195G, 434-5) ; and Russe l l (1962) has r e c e n t l y assembled evidence t o show t h a t primary cementation i n beach- rock formation i s a l s o a s soc ia t ed with t h e presence of a f reshwater l ens . While t h e r e a r e Inany examsles, some c i t e d i n t h i s r epor t , where it i s d i f f i c u i t i f no t impossible t o accept t h e r o l e of freshwater i n beachrock formation, c h i e f l y on l o c a t i o n a l grcunds, it i s p e r t i n e n t t o enquire , i f Russe l l i s c o r r a c t ir, t h e cases he descr ibes , what t h e e s e e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e s a r e between i n t e ~ t i d a l beachrock and o the r rocks a s soc ia t ed wi th f r e s h water but develoaed w e l l above high t i d e 1.evel. I f t h e r e i s , i n f a c t , no e s s e n t i a l d i f fe rence , then t h e usefu lness of beachrock a s a r e l i a b l e ind i - c a t o r of changes of l e v e l must be very much reduced, i n s p i t e of t h e f a c t t h e f i e l d exposures of t h e two types of rock a r e c h a r a c t z r i s t i c a l l y corn- pl-etely d i f f e r e n t . PATTERN OF HURRICANE DAMAGE TO SAND CAYS CAY DESTROYED @ MAJOR WYSIOGRAWK DAMAGE VEGETATION MAJOR VEGETATION BUT LITTLE @ PHYSIOGRAPHIC DAMAGE 0 LITTLE VEGETATION CHANGE W l MUCH MARGINAL SAND AND SHINGLE DEPOSITON 0 NO SIGNIFICANT CHANGE DEPTH LESS THAN THREE FAT-S 0 20 WUTICAL MILES e FIG. 62 HURRICANE SCOUR HOLE SMOOTH SURFACED U)NG - EXPOSED SANDSTONE EXPOSED BY MUCH ERODED RECESSION OF SHORE CAY SANDSTONE TILTED BLOCK OF ERODED SANDSTONE SOFT SANDSTONE I I . . . . UNCONSOLIOATED SAND Section of Cay sandstone at Northern Cay FIG. 63 fie VEG2TA;'IORkL EFmCTS CF THE HUREiICANE Vegetation Types and Zonation of Damage Damage t o vege ta t ion a t any p lace during t h e hurr icane depended on t h e l o c a l s t o m condi t ions ( l a r g e l y a funct ion of d i s t a n c e and d i r e c t i o n from t h e storm c e n t r e ) ; whether t h e vegeta t ion was a f f e c t e d by d i r e c t submergence and wave a c t i o n o r by t h e wind a lone; t h e type of t h e vege- t a t i o n ; t h e spec ie s involved; and t h e na tu re of t h e subs t r a t e . The main vegeta t ion t y p e s of t h e B r i t i s h Honduras cays correspond q c i t e c l o s e l y with those descr ibed f o r t h e F l o r i d a Keys by Davis (1942) and t h e Jamaican cays by A s ~ r e y and Rotbins (1953). IVe nay b r i e f l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e t h e f ol.lowing t y p e s : Beach vegeta t ion , l o c a l l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e d according t o s ~ b s t r a t e and exposure. I n t e r i o r vege ta t ion on c l ea red sand cays. Marginal vegeta t ion , forming a low t h i c k e t a t t h e t o p of t h e beach, between t h e beach vegeta t ion and t h e i n t e r i o r woodland o r palm t h i c k e t ; d i f f e r e n t i a t e d according t o s u b s t r a t e and aspec t . Wocdland, mainly C o r d i a - B u r s t h i c k e t . Palmetto woodland, mainly Thrinax, Coconut p l a n t a t i o n s , with o r without under- growth. Other introduced p l a n t s a r e grouped a s Type 6a. Acrostichum marsh. Rhizophora marsh. Avic ennia .woodland. I n t e r i o r vege ta t ion on dryland a r e a s of sand-mangrove cays. Submarine vegeta t ion . 1. - Bsach vegeta t ion This t y p i c a l l y c o n s i s t s of p r o s t r a t e vines, low herbs and some g r a s s e s ( ~ a u e r , 1959). Species inc lude Ipomoea pes-caprae, Sesuvium portulacastrum, E u ~ h o r b i a mesembrianthemifolia, Cakile lanceola ta , Vigna l u t e ~ l a , -- Sporobolus v i rk in i cus . Damage l a r g e l y depended on t h e degree of hurr icane modif ica t ion of t h e s u b s t r a t e i t s e l f , and t o a l e s s e r ex ten t on d i r e c t e f f e c t s on p l a n t s . Thus if a beach has been s h i f t e d landward and v e r t i c a l l y eroded, t h e vege ta t ion on it w i l l obviously have been destroyed. Kear- shore vege ta t ion on exposed beaches i n Zones I - I11 was t h e r e f o r e damaged, t h e d e s t r u c t i o n extending r i g h t a c r o s s t h e i s l a n d i n t h e case of some cays i n Zone I. Where inundat ion occurred wi thout beach eros ion , t h e b e s t su rv ivo r s a r e t h e g ra s ses ; o t h e r p l a n t s such a s Ipomoea and Sesuvium seem t o have been swept away by wave ac t ion . 2. I n t e r i o r vege ta t ion Except where a r t i f i c i a l l y c leared , most cay su r f aces beneath coco- n u t s a r e covered wi th a low mat of herbs, g ra s ses , e tc . , o f t e n i n d i s - t i n c t zones. Species i nc lude s t a c h f l a r ~ h e t a ,jamaicensis, Ipomoea Des- caprae, Canavalia rosea, Euphorbia mesembrianthemifolia, Eo b l o d g e t t i i , & - us ~ l a n i f o l i u s , F i m b r i s t g l i s c,ymosa, Wedelia t r i l o b a t a ; g r a s s e s such a s E r a g r o s t i s , Sporobolus and Andropogon; bushes such a s Ernodea l i t t o r a l i s , E r i t h a l i s f r u t i c o s a and Rivina h d l i s ; and t h e l i l y Hynenocal l is l i t t o r a l i s . h!ear t h e margins, e s p e c i a l l y of sma l l cays i n Zone I, damage resembles t h a t t o beach vege ta t ion : sand-s t r ipp ing and depos i t i on of sand and sh ing le may des t roy o r damage vege ta t ion over a p e r i p h e r a l zone up t o 60 ya rds wide, b u t gene ra l ly l e s s t han 20 ya rds wide i n Zones I1 - 111. I n zones I1 - I11 t h e i n t e r i o r s of cays were not submerged by t h e storm surge and t h e ground vegeta t ion su f f e red no cons iderable change. Clear ly , t he re fo re , t h e r e l a t i v e amount of marginal d e s t r u c t i o n and l ack of change i n t h e i n t e r i o r w i l l depend on t h e s i z e and shape of t h e cay concerned. Bur ia l n e a r cay margins appeared t o k i l l a l l p l a n t s except t r e e s and tk l i l y Hymenocallis, which o f t en pro- t r u d e s through sand ca rpe t s . 3 . Kargina l vege ta t ion This r a t h e r u n s a t i s f a c t o r y name i s app l i ed t o a t p i c a l vege ta t ion of bushes 3-6 f e e t t a l l a t t h e t o p of t h e beach, forming a t r a n s i t i o n zone between t h e beach vege ta t ion and i n t e r i o r woodland o r coconuts. Cons t i tuent spec i e s d i f f e r with s u b s t r a t e and aspec t : Tournefor t ia gnaphalodes i s t y p i c a l on exposed shores , e s p e c i a l l y on sh ing le , Suriana maritima on more pro tec ted shores , e s p e c i a l l y on sand. Other bushes, o f t en s tun ted , inc lude Coccoloba uvi fe ra , Borr ich ia a rborescens and Conocarpus e rec tus , wi th S ~ o r o b o l u s , Hymenocallis and o t h e r low beach and i n t e r i o r p l an t s . I n Zone I, where t h e r i s e i n sea l e v e l and v io lence of wave a c t i o n both reached a maximum, t h i s vege ta t ion type has d i s - appeared. Re-location of beaches has des t royed a l l mature Tour r~e fo r t i a and Suriana on Lighthouse Reef, Turneffe I s l a n d s and t h e no r the rn b a r r i e r reef . Sophora tomentosa has a l s o disappeared i n t h i s zone. Damage i n Zones I1 and I11 was much l e s s , b u t even a t South Water Cay, where beaches suf fered l i t t l e change, Tournefort ia and Sur iana have markedly decreased through wave ac t ion . 4. Woodland This group inc ludes t h e remnants of a presumably once more ex tens ive cover of woodland and t h i c k e t on t h e cays, t h e g r e a t e r p a r t of which has w e n removed f o r coconut^ s i n c e t h e European o c c u ~ a t i o n , It t y p i c a l l y c o n s i s t s a t Half Moon and Cockroach Cays of dense, o f t e n spray-swept t h i c k e t s of Bursera simaruba and Cordia sebestena, forming a canopy a i a he ight of 20-30 f e e t , On Half Moon Cay a t l e a s t t h e r e i s l i t t l e o r no ground vegeta t ion beneath t h e t h i c k e t . Cocooloba i s found round t h e margins and Ficus and Neea towards t h e i n t e r i o r of t h e t h i c k e t , I n Zofic - I damage t o t h i s t h i c k e t was of two types: d i r e c t wave damage round t h e margins and wind damage i n t h e i n t e r i o r . The f i r s t , which o f t en involved eros ion and depos i t ion of beach ma te r i a l , l e d t o uprooting of t r e e s o r s t r i p p i n g of sand and s o i l from t h e i r roots . Consis tent ly i n t h e s e c i r - cumstances Bursera remained i n t h e p o s i t i o n of growth b e t t e r than Cordia; Coccoloba was a l s o seen uprooted, though genera l ly s t i l l i n s i t u . hear- shore t r e e s not uprooted genera l ly l o s t a l l t h e i r l eaves and most bl-anche:~ and many a r e now only twi s t ed and broken stumps. A t t h e limit of wave a c t i o n on l a r g e r i s l a n d s t r e e s were bur ied by sh ingle , a s a t Half Koon and Cockroach Cays. The i n t e r i o r p a r t of t h e woodland which escaped mT1e a c t i o n a l s o l o s t a l l o r most leaves and many branches; a s a r e s u l t I s s t ima te t h a t t h e he ight of t h e canocy a t Half Moon Cay decreased by at. l e a s t 50% a s a r e s u l t . Larger t r e e s such a s Ficus were uprooted and over- turned, However, i n e a r l y 1962 l eaves were r e tu rn ing t o those t r e e s a f fec ted only by wind ac t ion , i n con t ra s t t o those which suffered inun- d a t i o n and wave a t t a c k . I n Zones I1 and 111 it i s d i f f i c u l t t o evalua t? hurr icane e f f e c t s on woodland a s a whole, apa r t from ind iv idua l species , because of i t s poor development. Judging by ind iv idua l species , damage i n Zone I11 was neg l ig ib le . 5. Palmetto Woodland This i s a l o c a l i s e d type, charac ter i sed by s tands of Thrinax pare-- f l o r a s i m i l a r t o t h o s e on t h e Jamaican coast ( ~ s p r e y and Robbins, 1953, It i s confined, a t l e a s t i n pure s tands, t o seaward shores, and i s only w e l l developed i n Zone 111. Even i n nearshore loca t ions most palmettoes survived, even where p a r t l y buried by sand and sh ingle depos i t s , Thrinax appears more r e s i s t a n t than Cocos t o wave and wind ac t ion . 6. Coconut p l a n t a t i o n This i s t h e dominant vegetat ionon sandcays,coconuts having been observed on Lighthouse Reef i n 1720 (ARB 87, 63-64), noted on Glovervs Reef i n 1804 ( ~ e n d e r s o n , 1812), and being widespread on t h e b a r r i e r reef a s e a r l y a s t h e second h a l f of t h e e ighteenth century, Coconuts were t o t a l l y destroyed where cays were washed away during t h e hurr icane, and wherever shore l ines were re loca ted . Post-hurricane shores i n Zones I - 111 a r e gene ra l ly l i n e d by f a l l e n t r e e s , giving r i s e t o a minia ture cape- and-bay ou t l ine . Away from t h e e f f e c t s of wave ac t ion , wind f e l l e d approximately 75% of a l l t r e e s i n Zone I and a t l e a s t 50% over most of Zone 11, Direc t ion of t r e e f a l l i s shown i n Figure 64, which shows a good c o r r e l a t i o n with t h e d i r e c t i o n of f i r s t hurricane-force winds (cf. F igures 6-10); note however t h a t many of these observed d i r e c t i o n s a r e inf luenced by wave ac t ion . It seems l i k e l y t h a t mos t t r ee - fa l l occurred dur ing t h e s e f i r s t hurr icane-force winds, r a t h e r than - a s Wiens suggests (Blumenstock, e d i t o r , 1961, 21) - during most i n t e n s e hurr icane winds. I n B r i t i s h Honduras these of ten seem t o have followed t h e storm cent re , and would have given d i r e c t i o n s of f a l l t h e opposi te of those observed. I n Zone I t r e e f a l l occurred e i t h e r by uprooting o r snapping above ground l eve l ; many t r e e s stood but l o s t t h e i r crowns. I n Zones I1 - 111 uproot- ing Was most evident along shore l ines , Damage t o coconuts i n Zone 11 appears t o decrease more r a p i d l y nor th of t h e storm t r a c k than south of it. Thus, while many t r e e s were f e l l e d a t Cay Chapel, fewer came down a t Cay Caulker, where even young t r e e s survive a t t h e edge of t h e seaward beach; damage was very s l i g h t a t Ambergris Cay. Cay Caulker i s t h e same d i s t ance nor th of t h e storm t r a c k (25 mi les) a s Tobacco and South Water Cays a r e t o t h e south; a t t h e l a t t e r i s l ands , 70-80% of t h e coconuts f e l l , perhaps p a r t l y r e f l e c t i n g the repor tedly s t ronger souther ly winds. Many nuts were strewn over non-inundated surfaces, but had not germinated i n ea r ly 1962. Vegetation under coconuts suffered l i t t l e damage away from storm surge areas . Most spec ies s t i l l survive (see type 2) . 6a. Introduced ~ l a n t s Introduced p l a n t s a r e genera l ly associa ted with human set t lement. Terminalia catappa i s one of t h e most widespread, and survived i n Zone I1 even i n nearshore locat ions ; it was not seen before t h e hurricane i n Zone I. Musa paradis iaca was destroyed a t Cay Caulker and a t c o a s t a l se t t lements near Mango Creek, both i n Zone 11. T a l l pines and a mango t r e e were overturned a t Cay Caulker. 7. Acrostichum rnarsh This i s l imi ted t o t h e cays of t h e c e n t r a l b a r r i e r reef lagoon a.nd t h e southern b a r r i e r reef (zones 111, IV); it appears t o have suffered no i l l - e f f e c t s except where l o c a l l y buried by sand o r sh ingle near shore- l i n e s . Acrostichum in land from Belize (zone I ) i s s t i l l l i v i n g , 8. Rhizophora marsh The major p a r t of mangrove and mangrove-sand cays c o n s i s t s of lihizophora, which i s a l s o found i n small q u a n t i t i e s round the shores of some sand cays, I n Zone I both nearshore and i n t e r i o r Rhiiophora was exposed t o inundation and severe wave ac t ion ; elsewhere i n t e r i o r Rhizophora was a f fec ted by wind albne. Throughout Zone I mangrove was completely de- f o l i a t e d , damage being g r e a t e s t on windward shores and on small i s l ands . I n t h e i n t e r i o r p a r t s of t h e Turneffe mangrove d e f o l i a t i o n was l e s s severe, and t r e e s had regained some leaves by e a r l y 1962. This suggests t h a t inundation and d i r e c t wave a c t i o n play a l a r g e p a r t i n l e a f s t r i p - ping and perhaps i n k i l l i n g ind iv idua l t r e e s . On smaller i s l ands , and on t h e Turneffe mangrove areas , t h e beginnings of l e a f re-growth on t h e lee- ward s i d e s of cays (i.e. west s i d e t o t h e nor th and e a s t s i d e t o t h e south of t h e storm t r a c k ) was noted i n April-May 1962 a t ~ o i n t s nor th of St . Georgeos Cay; and a t Southern Long and Cross Cays. These po in t s a r e r e spec t ive ly 12 mi les north and south of the storm t rack . Within t h i s bone, about 25 miles wide, d e f o l i a t i o n was t o t a l on small cays, and none a t t h i s t ime showed s igns of regeneration. Individual p l a n t s were l i a b l e t o d e f o l i a t i o n a s f a r south a s Laughing Bird Cay, nea r ly 40 mi les south of t h e hurr icane cent re , but a high proport ion of mangroves escaped defo- l i a t i o n a t d i s t a n c e s of 30-40 miles from t h e cent re . Af ter t h e hurr icane, mangrove cays i n t h e most devas ta ted a r e a had a d i s t i n c t l y reddish appear- ance from t h e a i r , and destructiDn of t h e l e a f y canopy revealed l a r g e a r e a s of s tanding water and bare mud, ~ a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e Drowned Cays and i s l a n d s northwest of B e l i ~ e . ~ n d i v i d u a l R.hixophorav t r e e s showed ext raordinary s t a b i l i t y , t y p i f i e d by t h e s u r v i v a l of a dead Rhieophora r i n g a t Big Calabash Cay I1 and Blackbird Cay, where t h e enclosed i s l a n d disappeared under wave a t t a c k . Seedlings, on- t h e o the r hand, disappeared i n l a r g e nun- bers , and had no t re-appeared i n e a r l y 1962. The d e t a i l s of mangrove cay topography, e s p e c i a l l y shore l ine form seen i n plan, a r e v i r t u a l l y unal te red by t h e hurr icane, as a i r photogra,phs demonstrate. 9. Avicennia woodland This i s i n s u f f i c i e n t l y developed on t h e cays a f f e c t e d by t h e hurr icane t o mer i t separa te comment. Like Rhi~ophora it suffered d e f o l i a t i o n i n Zones I - 11, and i n exposed s i t u a t i o n s was l i a b l e t o overturning, l o s s of branches and reduction t o a s turn . 10. I n t e r i o r vegeta t ion on c leared mangrove cays Many mangrove cays have small dryland a r e a s with coconuts and ground vegetat ion, a s a t Mauger Cay, Weewee, South Rendezvous Cay and Cat Cayo m i c a 1 p lan t s inc lude Batis maritima, Cyperus .p-lanifolius, Ch lo r i s pe t raea , Euphorbia sp., Conocarpus, Coccoloba, and T h e s ~ e s i a p o ~ u h e a . Except where inundated by t h e storm surge, and a p a r t from overturning of coconuts and o the r ta.11 t r e e s , damage t o t h i s vegeta t ion was s l i g h t , and comparable t o Wpe 2, I n t e r i o r vegeta t ion of sand cays. Idhere inundated, a s a t Three Corner Cay and Mauger Cay, l a r g e shrubs were l i a b l e t o uprooting and a l l p l a n t s t o des t ruc t ion by surface sand scouring and channel-cutting. 11. Submarine Vegetation No systematic observat ions were made on submarine vegetat ion. Through- out Zone I l a r g e r a lgae , inc luding Halimeda, disappeared from beachrock and o t h e r rocky su r faces near sea l e v e l . Thalass ia leaves appear t o have been s t r ipped by wave a c t i o n i n places, and p i l ed on beaches, a s a t Northern Cay, Lighthouse Reef, but a p a r t from s c a t t e r e d channel-cutting and hole- scouring, t h e t u r f mat was not d is turbed. Summary of Vegetat ional E f f e c t s Factors leading t o vegeta.tion damage t h u s include: (a) inundation, l imi t ed t o a narrow zone nor th of t h e storm t r a c k and t o lower margins of cays; (b) d i r e c t wave a c t i o n on marginal. vegeta t ion and ac ross t h e e n t i r e a r e a of small cays; e f f e c t of water-born boulders and o t h e r d e b r i s ; h o r i z o n t a l e ros ion of beaches, g r e a t e s t i n Zone I, a l s o i n Zones 111; surface s t r i p p i n g of sand, with consequent removal of vegeta t ion and - exposure of roots : Zones I - 111; ( f ) burying by f r e s h d e p o s i t s of sh ingle and sand, common i n marginal a r e a s of dense ly vegetated i s l a n d s i n Zone I and a l l i s l a n d s i n Zones I1 - 111; (g) e f f e c t of wind i n uprooting, snasping off and decap i t a t ing t r e e s , e s p e c i a l l y coconuts, and d e f o l i a t i n g mangrove; (h) e f f e c t of wind-driven r a i n and sea-water. To some ex ten t t h e s e f a c t o r s a r e a f f e c t e d by l o c a l physiographic and vege ta t iona l condit ions. Thus, beaches covered by dense vegeta t ion such as Cordia-Bursera t h i c k e t a r e more r e s i s t a n t t o erosion than ba re beaches: depos i t ion occurs round t h e margins but most of t h e t h i c k e t remains i n t h e p o s i t i o n of growth. Severa l examples have been noted. Further , t h e l a r g e r t h e cay, and t h e f u r t h e r from i t s shores, t h e l e s s t h e damage t o vegetat ion, except i n t h e case of coconuts, which a r e h ighly susceu t ib le t o wind damage. The p r o b a b i l i t y of ca t a s t roph ic physiographic damage and hence of vegeta t ion des t ruc t ion i s g r e a t e r t h e l e s s dense t h e vegeta t ion , t h e lower and smaller t h e cay, t h e h igher t h e storm surge, and t h e g r e a t e r t h e wave ac t ion . Vegetation damage t a k e s t h e fol lowing forms: ( a ) uprooting, p a r t i c u l a r l y of coconuts, t a l l e r t r e e s such a s Coccoloba, and shallow-rooted bushes; (b) removal of branches and twigs, a s i n Cordia and Bursera; (c) removal of leaves, most obvious i n Rhizophora, but seen a l s o i n Cordia, Bursera and many o the r p l an t s ; (d) decapi ta t ion , confined t o coconuts. . . A l l t h e s e a r e s u p e r f i c i a l phys ica l e f f ec t s . No account can be given here of such ma t t e r s a s sa l t - spray soaking, increased groundwater s a l i n i t y , and poss ib le delayed m o r t a l i t y of in ju red t r e e s , a l l of which would requi re d e t a i l e d study. To sum up: t h e most s t r i k i n g vege ta t iona l changes a s soc ia t ed with Hurricane H a t t i e were t h e widespread f e l l i n g of coconut palms; t h e widespread d e f o l i a t i o n of Rhizophora and o t h e r mangrove; and the des t ruc t ion of beach and marginal vegeta t ion , o f t en through move- ment of t h e subs t r a t e , involv ing t h e complete disappearance over a 30- mile wide a r e a of such c h a r a c t e r i s t i c cay species as Tournefort ia gnauha- lodes and Suriana maritima. These genera l conclusions r e l a t i n g damage - a t any poin t not only t o spec ies and vegeta t ion type but t o r e l a t i v e degree of wind, wave and surge ac t ion , correspond w e l l with those of Fosberg ( i n Blumenstock, e d i t o r , 1961, 51-55) and Sauer (1962). Since no attempt was made before o r a f t e r t h e hurr icane t o make complete enUJmYLti0ns of s ~ e c i e s on any i s l and , with t h e poss ib le exception of Half Moon Cay, t h e r e i s no point i n inc luding a d e t a i l e d species-by- species discussion; f o r notes on ind iv idua l spec ies see t h e cay descr ip- t i o n s i n preceding chapters . Fosberg ( ibid. 54) noted t h a t Terminalia c a t a ~ p a d i d not we l l r e s i s t wind damage, bu t i n B r i t i s h Honduras it appeared t o survive b e t t e r than most b e e s . For a d iscuss ion of post- hurricane colonisa t ion by p lan t s, and t h e s igni f icance of d i f f mini3 e f f e c t s on d i f f e r i n g vegeta t ion types i n t h e wider quest ion of cay evo- l u t i o n , see Chapter 11. FIG. 64 LIGHTHOUSE DIRECTION OF TREE FALL WRING HURRICANE HATTIE TREE FALL W E TO WIND TREE FALL PROBABLY INFLUENCED BY WAVE ACTION 9 ALL TREES SWEPT AWAY I a NO FALLEN TREES I X a HDIAN AND ECONOMIC RESULTS CF THE HURRICANE Sett lement Apart from t h e v i l l a g e s a t Ambergris Cay an ~ e d r o ) and Cay Caulker, both with a populat ion of about 300, i nc lud ing a l a r g e propor t ion of Spanish-speakers, se t t lement on t h e cays i s s c a t t e r e d and gene ra l ly ten- w r a r y . Before t h e hurr icane t h e r e were f a i r l y p e m n e n t se t t l emen t s on St . Georgeqs Cay, a ho l iday cen t r e ; on a few widely s c a t t e r e d p r iva te ly - owned i s l a n d s ( ~ o b a c c o Cay, South Water Cay, Car r i e Bow Cay, Northeast Sapodi l la Cay, Wild Cane Cay, Frenchrnanfs Cay, on t h e b a r r i e r red; Northern and Long Cays on Lighthouse Reef; Long and Southwest Cays on Gloveros Reef ); and on i s l a n d s wi th l ighthouses , on most of which Government maintained a keeper. Apart from t h e two v i l l a g e s and St . Georgefs Cay, populat ion of t h e cays probably d i d not exceed 150 persons a t any time. Hurricane e f f e c t s on se t t l emen t were g r e a t e s t i n Zone I. On Sandbore Cay t h e l i gh thouse was destroyed, and t h i s , Northern and Long Cays a r e no longe r inhabi ted : only Half Moon Cay on t h i s reef i s s t i l l s e t t l e d . On Turneffe, t h e Mauger Cay l i g h t stood but t h e i s l a n d was made uninhabi- t a b l e ; hence i n e a r l y 1962 t h e l i g h t was a l s o ou t of ac t ion , The Cay Bokel l i g h t was destroyed, t o g e t h e r wi th t h e i s l and . Other se t t l emen t s destroyed inc lude t h e major coconut c l e a r i n g c e n t r e a t Calabash Cays; S o l d i e r Cay and Cockroach Cay. Turneffe now has no permanent i nhab i t an t s , i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e 7-8 smal l s e t t l emen t s before t h e hurr icane. On t h e b a r r i e r r e e f , English Cay l i g h t stood, and though a l l houses were washed away t h e cay was re-occupied f o r nav iga t iona l reasons almost immediately and houses were r e b u i l t , The Robinson Poin t l i g h t a l s o stood: here t h e houses were a l s o destroyed, but s ince t h e l i g h t i s automatic t h e i s l a n d has n o t been re-occupied. Bugle Cay l i g h t stood and tk cay i s s t i l l occupied. There was no change a t Hunting Cay. Other se t t l emen t s d is - appeared a t Sergeantos, Spanish and Rendezvous Cays, and almost s o a t S t , Georgefs Cay. The b a r r i e r reef i s l a n d s a r e now v i r t u a l l y uninhabited between Cay Caulker and Tobacco Cay. Forty-f ive persons l o s t t h e i r l i v e s dur ing t h e storm st able I ) . These remarks a p ~ l y t o f a i r l y permanent s e t t l emen t s i n houses. P ~ c h of t h e cay populatbn, however, i s l i t e r a l l y a f l o a t i n g one: fishermen from c o a s t a l s e t t l emen t s v i s i t t h e r e e f s f o r s e v e r a l days a t a t ime, s h e l t e r i n g i n t h e i r boa t s nea r i s l a n d s a t n ight . I n some cases they con- s t r u c t palm-thatch h u t s f o r sho r t s tays , and except ional ly a t Cay Glory b u i l t a number of houses on s t i l t s on t h e shal low r e e f f l a t f o r use dur ing t h e grouper season. This mainland-based v i s i t i n g continues, par- t i c u l a r l y i n t h e case of Caribs from Stann Creek and nearby v i l l a g e s , who continue t o v i s i t Weewee, South Rendezvous and o t h e r cays. The resumption of permanent se t t lement on t h e more devas ta ted cays w i l l pre- sumably await t h e i r re-vegetation, which may t a k e s e v e r a l years . Economy The most widespread economic resource on t h e cays before t h e h u r r i - cane was coconuts, which su f f e red heavy damage i n Zones I - 11, p r e c i s e l y those a reas , c l o s e t o Bel ize, where they had previous ly been most heav i ly explo i ted . Coconuts p lan ted now could begin y i e l d i n g a f t e r 1970; bu t it seems u n l i k e l y t h a t e i t h e r pub l i c o r p r i v a t e c a ~ i t a l w i l l be f r e e f o r coconut investment i n view of demands on t h e mainland and t h z now-acknow- ledged v u l n e r a b i l i t y of t h e crop. A r e h a b i l i t a t i o n programme was put i n t o ope ra t ion fo l lowing Hurricane J a n e t i n 1955: %he f u t i l i t y (of t h i s ) was c l e a r l y demonstratedlf a f t e r Hurricane H a t t i e , according t o a r epo r t or. a g r i c u l t u r a l damage by Wilson, J o l l y arid C n o ~ i n (1961). I n 1962 coconuts i n B e l i ~ e and o t h e r c o a s t a l s e t t l emen t s were sca rce and expensive, and n u t s imported from Rua,tan, Bay I s l a n d s , found a ready sa l e . The complete d e s t r u c t i o n of boat-bui lding y a r d s a t Robinson Poin t Cay and c e s s a t i o n of boat-bui lding a t Cay Caulker have been noted. Small- s c a l e p r i v a t e boat-bui lding cont inues a t Half Moon Cay, bu t nowhere e l s e . It seems u n l i k e l y t h a t boat-bui lding w i l l be resumed on t h e i s l a n d s on a commercial b a s i s , and t h e i n d u s t r y w i l l become even more l o c a l i s e d i n Bel ize. The only i n d u s t r i e s c a r r i e d out on t h e cays now a r e small-scale: ffcorningif of f i s h f o r t h e Be l i ze market, and domestic product ion of coco- nu t o i l f o r cooking. Fauna No sys temat ic observa t ions were made on l and fauna, The ~ i g s a t Cay Bokel and Calabash Cays, Turneffe, disappeared dur ing t h e storm, but t h o s e a t Half Yoon Cay took re fuge i n woodland and survived. Numbers of chickens disappeared on inhab i t ed cays i n Zone I. No observa t ions were made on t h e s u r v i v a l of r a t s , Iguana, Ctenosaura, Anolis and o t h e r l i z a r d s on t h e cays on which t h e y were found. Condit ions a f t e r t h e hu r r i cane were c e r t a i n l y i d e a l f o r r a t s , wi th much broken vege ta t ion deb r i s . E f f e c t s on b i r d s seem t o have been neg l ig ib l e . During t h e passage of t h e eye, Captain Eustace of t h e Tac t i c i an noted t h a t ifhundreds of b i r d s , a l i v e and dead, were c l u s t e r e d round t h e funnel , among them a few ~ a r r o t s , who were pro- bably s ~ e e c h l e s s f ; t h e s e p a r r o t s must have been b l o w from t h e mainland by nor thwes ter ly winds, a s ~ a r r o t s have only been seen on one i s l a n d , P lacencia Cay, n e a r t h e mainlando Ospreys were widely n e s t i n g on damaged cays i n e a r l y 1962, and Fregata magnificens i n l a r g e numbers on Man-of- War Cay, c e n t r a l b a r r i e r r ee f lagoon. A s noted i n Chapter 7, t h e n e s t i n g ~ e r i o d o f t h e r ed footed booby, Sula s u l a s u l a , may have been delayed by s e v e r a l weeks a s a r e s u l t o f t h e storm, though t h e r e may be an a l t e r n a t i v e explanat ion. A f t e r t h e hu r r i cane one was impressed by t h e absence of b i r d s from many damaged i s l a n d s , e s p e c i a l l y Pe l icanus o c c i d e n t a l i s and Fregata magnif icens from t h e h e a v i l y damaged i s l a n d s of t h e no r the rn b a r r i e r r e e f , It i s poss ib l e t h a t t hey moved southwards t o t h e undamaged cays i n Zone I V . I n s p i t e of t h e inc rease i n a r e a of s tanding water on many cays, no s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e i n t h e number of mosquitoes and o t h e r b i t i n g i n s e c t s was not iced on any i s l and . X I . POST-HURRICANE ADJUSTMENTS AND PRCSPECT This f i n a l chan te r b r i e f l y summarises changes i n physiography and vege ta t ion between Hurr icane H a t t i e , 30-31 October, 1961, and t h e t ime of t h e re-survey 4-7 months l a t e r , n o t e s probable f u t u r e adjustments i n t h e l i g h t of experience a t J a l u i t A t o l l , PIarshall I s l a n d s , and comments b r i e f l y on t h e e c o l o g i c a l imp l i ca t ions of t h e spread of coconuts i n t o t h i s r ee f a r e a i n post-Colurnbian t ime and t h e poss ib l e change i n dominant h u r r i - cane e f f e c t s which has r e s u l t e d from it. Topography Des t ruc t ion of t h e r e e f i n Zones I - I1 removed an e f f e c t i v e b a f f l e which had p rev ious ly l i m i t e d wave a c t i v i t y on cay shores . Now waves s u f f e r l e s s bottom r e t a r d a t i o n a t t h e r ee f edge, and l a r g e r waves reach cay shores , Seve ra l fishermen commented on t h i s , which has r e s u l t e d i n a gene ra l s t e e ~ e n i n g of cay shores and inc reas ing roughness of anchorages. A t t h e same t ime, r e e f d e s t r u c t i o n has l e d t o t h e supply of i nc reas ing amounts of d e b r i s , now nredominantly sh ing le and rubble, bu t u l t i m a t e l y as t h i s i s comminuted, of sand-size m a t e r i a l a l so . Th i s accounts f o r t h e r ap id regrowth of t e m o r a r y s ~ i t s , as a t English Cay, and tk appearance of unvegetated sandbores, e i t h e r where no cays had p rev ious ly been seen ( ~ a c k v s Cay and t h e small sandbore n o r t h of Goffvs cay) o r where cays had long s i n c e disappeared ( s l a s h e r sandbore). Where cays had disappeared dur ing t h e hur r icane , cons t ruc t ion of embryonic sand cays which do no t y e t reach t h e su r f ace has begun, a s a t Paunch Cay ( b u i l t of sh ing le ) and Cay Glory ( b u i l t o f sand). Shallow channels c u t i n cays a t water l e v e l a r e i n p l aces f i l l i n g up (nor thern channel a t Sandbore cay), though a t S t , Georgeqs Cay r ap id t i d a l c u r r e n t s appear s u f f i c i e n t t o keen a t l e a s t fou r of t h e channels nermanently open. The combined e f f e c t of increased wave a c t i o n , increased d e b r i s supply and anpa ren t ly increased sedimentat ion w i l l presumably come t o an end with t h e regrowth of r e e f c o r a l s and a r e t u r n t o pre-hurr icane condi t ions . Complete recovery i n t h e more devas- t a t e d a r e a s may t a k e two decades o r more (c f . Stephenson, Endean and Bennett , 195 8) . Conversely, as a t J a l u i t , t h e r e i s some evidence t h a t c o n s t r u c t i o n a l sh ing le f e a t u r e s on r e e f - f l a t s a r e uns tab le s t r u c t u r e s , a t l e a s t on wind- ward shores , I n 1962 sh ing le r i d g e s round some cays were being destroyed by t h e f l u s h i n g out of sand and f i n e sh ingle , l eav ing a l a g of coa r se r rubble. A t J a l u i t , over a per iod of t h r e e years , l a r g e r e e f - f l a t r i d g e s on windward shores were pushed toward t h e i s l a n d , l eav ing low rubble t r a c t s o r even ba re reef f l a t , though leeward r i d g e s su f f e red l i t t l e change lumenst stock, Fosberg and Johnson, 1961, 619). Topographic f e a t u r e s l e a s t l i a b l e t o change a r e d e p o s i t i o n a l sand and sh ing le forms above t h e reach of wave ac t ion : t h e s e inc lude r i d g e s and c a r p e t s of sand and s h i n g l e p i l e d on t h e o ld cay s u r f a c e up t o h e i g h t s of 1 G f e e t above sea l e v e l . M a t e r i a l i n t h e s e r idges , which a r e being colonised by vegeta t ion , may be broken down by weathering, b u t on ly f u r t h e r storm a c t i o n can remove them a s topogranhic f e a t u r e s , Scour ho le s on cay s u r f a c e s a r e l i a b l e t o slow f i l l i n g wi th vege ta t ion d e b r i s and wind-blown sand. Presumably a r e a s where s u r f a c e sand and s o i l have been completely s t r i pped w i l l a l s o be re - c o l o i i s e d by p l a n t s , and new s o i l formed over a per iod of yea r s , Vegetat ion The main vege ta t ion changes s i n c e t h e hur r icane have been t h e co loni - s a t i o n of f r e s h sand and sh ing le a r e a s by p l an t s . On t h e completely devas ta ted i s l a n d of t h e nor thern b a r r i e r r ee f t h e c h i e f co lon i se r was undoubtedly Por tu l aca o le racea , followed by Euphorbia mesembrianthemifolia and Sesuvium por tu lacas t rum, Other c o l o n i s e r s i nc lude Cyperus p l a n i f o l i u s , F i m b r i s t y l i s cymosa, Ipomoea ~ e s - c a p r a e and Cakile l anceo la t a . Elsewhere i n Zone I Por tu l aca was much l e s s important , and on s t i l l - v e g e t a t e d i s l a n d s f r e s h sand c a r p e t s were being r a o i d l y co lonised by I~omoea and Sesuvium, r a t h e r than Por tu laca . Severa l i s l a n d s , c h i e f l y on t h e a t o l l s , showed a cons iderable i n c r e a s e i n Cenchrus, which had p rev ious ly been kept i n check by human i n t e r f e r e n c e . Following t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e coconut canoDy a t Half !400n Cay, Wedelia t r i l o b a t a seemed l e s s widespread. I n s n i t e of t h e c o r n ~ l e t e d e s t r u c t i o n du r ing t h e storm of Tournefor t ia i n Zones I - 11, small seed l ings were sprout ing on most devas ta ted i s l a n d s i n 1962, and may surv ive t o ma tu r i t y , Recent spread of coconuts and changing hu r r i cane e f f e c t s The g r e a t d e s t r u c t i o n of coconuts and l a c k of i n c e n t i v e t o c l e a r t h e d e b r i s and r e d a n t may ~ o s s i b l y l e a d t o some r eve r s ion t o n a t u r a l con- d i t i o n s on t h e cays. There i s i n f a c t cons iderable evidence t h a t h e a v i e s t devas t a t ion on cays occurred p r e c i s e l y where human i n t e r f e r e n c e wi th n a t u r a l vege ta t ion and c l e a r i n g f o r coconuts had progressed f u r t h e s t , Many examples a r e given i n t h i s r e p o r t of ad j acen t i s l a n d s o r even sec- t i o n s of i s l a n d s where depos i t i on occurred i n t h i c k l y vegeta ted a r e a s and e ros ion i n s e c t i o n s c l ea red f o r coconuts or houses. I f now t h e coconuts a r e not ren lan ted , and the. cays a r e allowed o r even encouraged t o develop a cover of Cordia, Bursera, ~ h r i n a x and dense shrubby undergrowth, t hen i n f u t u r e hur r icanes , Dart a t l e a s t of t h e vege ta t ion cover may su rv ive i n t h e Dos i t ion of and form a nucleus f o r sand and sh ing le deposi- t i o n , a s a t Half 1100n9 Cockroach I1 and elsewhere i n 1961. I n t h i s way hu r r i canes might augment r a t h e r t han decrease o r even des t roy reef i s l a n d s . Complete c learance f o r coconuts and houses, p a r t i c u l a r l y on seaward shores , a s had taken p l ace be fo re 1961 a t S t . Georgevs, Sergearitvs and Rendezvous Cays, i s a n open i n v i t a t i o n t o c a t a s t r o p h i c damage, and s i n c e it i s no longe r poss ib l e t o regard hu r r i canes on t h i s coas t a s ve ry in f r equen t phenomena (cf . Appendix 1 ) , t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of land, vege ta t ion , p rope r ty and l i f e under such circumstances i s only a m a t t e r of t ime. Cay owners and i n h a b i t a n t s , t h e r e f o r e , must choose between immediate amenity and long- term s t a b i l i t y . I n t h i s perspec t ive , it seems &.least mobab le t h a t t h e known diminu- t i o n i n numbers of reef i s l a n d s i n h i s t o r i c t ime, as shown by t h e e a r l y c h a r t s of Speer and J e f f r e y s , and n a r t i c u l a r l y by t h e d e t a i l e d 1830 survey of Owen, has r e s u l t e d l a r g e l y from t h e increased d e s t r u c t i v e t endenc ie s of hu r r i canes s i n c e the i n t r o d u c t i o n and spread of t h e coconut by man i n post-Columbian t imes, and s p e c i f i c a l l y s i n c e about 1800. I n t h e i r n a t u r a l s t a t e s , cays, t o surv ive a t a l l , must r ep re sen t a d e l i c a t e balance between f o r c e s of a c c r e t i o n and f o r c e s of degradat ion (spender, 1937, 141): t h e y must b e i n a s t a t e of dynamic equi l ibr ium wi th t h e i r environment,. I n t h i s equil ibr ium, vegeta t ion , s t a b i l i s i n g and p r o t e c t i n g t h e cay, must p l ay a major p a r t . The c a t a s t r o p h i c changes brought about by H a t t i e and o t h e r recent hu r r i canes a r e l a r g e l y t h e r e s u l t of t h e d is turbance of t h i s n a t u r a l equi l ibr ium by c l e a r i n g of t h e o r i g i n a l vegeta t ion . Thus, under present vege ta t ion condi t ions , s t e e p high sh ing le r idges a r e r e l i c t h i s - t o r i c a l f e a t u r e s d a t i n g from dense-vegetation days: such r idges today can only be b u i l t on those cays wi th a dense vege ta t ion cover. Reef i s l a n d s themselves a r e r a p i d l y becoming t r a n s i t o r y f e a t u r e s . Des t ruc t ion of r ee f i s l a n d s has been noted on a world wide s c a l e by Stanley Gardiner, Kuenen and o thers . This i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , of increased e f f i c i e n c y of storm e ros ion and decrease i n aggradat ion fol lowing c l ea r - i n g of n a t u r a l vegeta t ion , t h u s provides a key, more immediate than t h a t of e u s t a t i c f l u c t u a t i o n s of sea- leve l , no-t only t o t h e g r e a t decrease i n numbers of cays i n h i s t o r i c t ime, but t o t h e absence of i s l a n d s i n l o c a t i o n where one would expect i s l a n d s t o form, S t e e r s has noted t h a t t h e d i f - f i c u l t y i n expla in ing t h e growth cf cays i s not s o much t o account f o r t h e i r formation but f o r t h e i r f requent absence, and t h a t same dilemma has been noted i n B r i t i s h Honduras ( ~ t o d d a r t, 1962a, 164) , Hurricane a c t i o n , fol lowing vege ta t iona l d is turbance , may provide t h e key t o t h i s and o t h e r problems: man, not na tu re , appears as t h e c u l p r i t . Conclusion Hurricane H a t t i e presented an e x c e l l e n t opportuni ty t o s tudy hurr icane a c t i o n on r e e f s by comparison of sfbefore and af te r i t maps. For t h e same reason it would be of g r e a t i n t e r e s t t o pursue t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n , a s a t J a l u i t , by a f u r t h e r re-survey i n 1965. Changes i n vege ta t ion and ad jus t - ments t o hurr icane cons t ruc t iona l and degradat ional f e a t u r e s would form t h e theme of such a re-survey, which might w e l l throw l i g h t on some of t h e admi t ted ly s lseculat ive i d e a s put forward i n t h i s f i n a l chapter . I n 1962 onevs main conclusion i s t h a t , t e r r i f y i n g a s t h e hurr icane was, i t s r e s u l t s were l e s s ca t a s t roph ic than might have been expected (even small sand cays escaped d e s t r u c t i o n ) , and t h a t t h e y would have been even l e s s - and probably dominantly aggrada t iona l r a t h e r t han d e s t r u c t i o n a l - had it not been f o r human i n t e r f e r e n c e with t h e cay environment. It i s even ques t ionable whether i n t h e long-term view hur r i canes should be con- s ide red a s unusual and ca t a s t roph ic events . Wolman and Mi l l e rqs (1960) view, t h a t it i s t h e even t s of medium magnitude occurr ing every two o r t h r e e years , which have t h e g r e a t e s t geomorphologic s ign i f i cance , i s based mainly on r i v e r s t u d i e s and need not n e c e s s a r i l y apply t o c o a s t a l f ea tu res . Let Charles Darwin have t h e l a s t word. He, too , was impressed by t h e r e s i s t a n c e of i s l a n d s t o t h e ocean waves a t Cocos-Keeling: flLet t h e hu r r i cane t e a r up i t s thousand huge fragmentsfif, he wrote i n h i s Journa l , ifyet what w i l l t h a t t e l l a g a i n s t t h e accumulated labour of myriads of a r c h i t e c t s a t work n i g h t and day, month a f t e r month?fr (1839, 548). X I 1 . APPENDICES 1- b r l y B r i t i s h Hondura,~ Hurricanes and t h e i r E f f e c t s This appzndix l i s t s t h e major B r i t i s h Horiduras hurr icanes which k v e been recorded s i n c e 1787, Sources inc lude t n e l i s ts of Xest Indian hurr icanes by Poey (1855, 1865), s tandard t e x t s on hurr icanes , e s p e c i a l l y 'Tannehill (1938), and s t u d i ~ s of B r i t i s h Hond~lran h i s t o r y by iv!rstzgen (1925 ), Burdcn (1931-35) arid Anderson (1958) Th,: i n - forma.tion i n these works on e a r l i ~ r s t o r m 1a.rgely de r ives from tho i s s u e s of t h e Honduras Almanack f o r 18299 1830, 1832 and 1836, Ctiizr sources a r e ind ica ted i n t h e l i s t , E f f o r t s were made t o ob ta in con- temporary newspper accounts f o r t n e yeriod 1830-190, but without success , The r e l evan t per iods a r e not ccvered by ti182 Bancroft Library c o l l s c t i o n i n Cal i forn ia , and I have n c t been a b l e t o d i s c o v i r a.ny o the r a rchive of e a r l y B r i t i s h Honduras n(wspaDers. Newspaper accounts of s t o m s i n t h e period 194G-1966 wzre obtained from the holdings of t h e J u b i l e e Library, Baron B l i s s I n s t i t u t e , B e l i i e . L i s t of Hurricanes 1787, September 2nd. This i s t h e f i r s t major hurr icane on record. - According t o the Honduras Almanack (1829, 52), 'YThis morning a t 3 o?clock a hurr icane came on which desola ted t h e Settlzment exceed- ing ly , destroyed every horne.cn it, but one; and considerable property; a number of l i v e s w e r e , l o s t on t h i s occasion, and many of t h e public papers. The shipping of t h e country went a l l ashore and were l o s t , ~ f Captain Allsn adds t h a t +la hurr icane i n 1787 caused t h e sea t o r i s z a t t n c entrance of t h e Bel izc River 7 o r 8 f e e t , so a s t o overflow arid des t roy nea r ly t h e whole town. Great numbers of people were drowned:' (1841, 83). P L ~ Lesley .-of t h e B l i s s I r i s t i t u t e k indly gave me t h e reference t o a l e t t e r wr i t t en by Najor Richard Hosre t o Admiral Alan Gardiner, da.ted St . Georgzvs Key, Gctober 7, 178T9 which g ives an eyewitness account of t h e storm (public Record Off ice , Admiralty Papers, i /243). Between 4 a.mo and 6 a.m. t n e wind blew a t ga le fo rce , i nc reas ing t o hurr icane fo rce a t 8 a.m. and veer ing t o south-east , By 1 0 a.m. t h e wind was s t i l l a t hurr icane f o r c e but w,s e a s t e r l y . A t about t h i s t i n e the l ~ w - l y i n g a r e a s were flooded by a w a l l of water 5-6 f e e t high. By 1 a.m, both t h e wind and t;le water had subsidedo This hurr icane was c l e a r l y comparable i n i n t e n s i t y t o Hurricane Hat t ic . For o the r b r i e f re ferences , see Nautical K a g a ~ i n e , 1848, 3979 4539 524. 1813, August 1st. Hurricane a t Belize (on August 2nd according t o . Honduras Almanacks of 1826 and 1830). Smith r e f e r s t o t n i s storm a s s t r i p ~ i n g leaves from t h e t r e e s (1842, 732) . 1813, August 25th0 Hurricane, re ference Naut ica l Magazine, 1842, 732, No d e t a i l s o 1827, August l q t h , Hurricane at. Belize; S t . George's Cay flooded on - August 20th (Alma.nack, 1829, 63). The storm rrdrove a l l t h e s h i p s on shore a t Belize's (Smith, 1842, 732). 1831, J>me 27th. Probably a minor hurr icane, between Belize and Chetumal ( ~ a n n e h i l l , 1938, l 5 2 ) , wi~ich a l s o d e f o l i a t z d t r e e s (Smith, 1842, 732). 1864, August 31st. Hurricane a t Belize. The eye passed over t h e town - itself and t h e sea rose 5 f e e t , caus ing widespread f l cod ing ( ~ a n n e h i l l , 1938, 236). 1893, June 6 th , Severe damage done by a storm a t Bel ize and i n t h e - southern d i s t r i c t s ( ~ e t z g e n , 1925, 20) 1 02, June 20th. A minor hurr icane i n t h e Bel ize a r e a ( ~ a n n e h i l l , 1938, he 1915, October 15th. ltDamage done by hurricaneit (Pietzgen, 1925, 21). - 1916, September 1st. Minor nurr icane i n t h e Chetumal area (Tannehi l l , 1938, 183 ) . 1918, August 25th. Minor nurr icane i n t h e Punta Gorda area . - 192C, October 16 th0 'iHurricane s t ruck northern part of t h e Colony, - doing cons idemble damage. The sea a t Corozal and Payo Obispo receded f o r seve ra l miles*t ( ~ e t x g m , 1925, 28) , 1931, September 1Cth. This hurr icane was u n d ~ u t e d l y one of t h e worst i n recent h i s to ry , though only popular accounts e x i s t ( ~ a i n , 1933; Burdon, 1932). The f i r s t storm warnirig was received on Septemb~r 8th. A t dawn on September 10th l i g h t r a i n was f a l l i n g , witn heavier showers a t i n t e r v a l s ; by 9.30 a.m. t h e wind was est imated a t 36 mph. It continued t o inc rease during t h e morning f ron t h e north-west, u n t i l 1 . 1 5 p.m., whsn it was est imated a t 6C mph, with pressure 28,10 inches. Between 1.35 and 2 p.m. t a z r e was a l u l l and t h e wind dropned. A t 2.05 t h e wind returned suddenly frcm t h e nor tn , according t c Cain, witn a v e l ~ c i t y of 60 m ~ h , It continued t o inc raase t o 72 mph a t 2.15 porn.; 96 myh a t 2.30; 120 r n ~ h a t 2.35; and 132 mnh between 2*50 a,nd 3 r.m. Buildings began t o col lapse s h o r t l y a f t ~ r 2015 p.m. Af te r 3 F a . t h e wind began t o f a l l rap id ly , and about a q u a r t e r t o four s h i f t e d roiind t o t h e soutL~-west . The town was flooded by a storm surge 5-15 f e e t high. Minimum r e r o r t e d pressure was 27.6 inches, Severa l hundred people were k i l l e d , though Cainvs es t imate of 2500 was probably exaggerated. 1934, June 5 th and 8th. According t o Tannehil l (1938, 212-213), a - t r o p i c a l storm crossed t h e B r i t i s h Honduras coast n c r t h of B e l i ~ e on June 5th, moved i n t o Peten, swung south i n t o t h e Montagu lowlands, out i n t o t h e Gulf of Honduras near Puer to Barrios, and then t r a v e l l e d nor th along t h e b a r r i e r reef , again pass ing c lose t o Belize on June 8 t h . 1942, November 8th. Twenty people were k i l l e d dur ing a hurr icane a t Corozal. 1945, August 31st. A small hurr icane b r ~ u g l l t rough seas and high - t i d e s dur ing t h e afternoon; 4 persons were drowned a t Calabash Cays, nighes t winds were about 60 mpn, and lcwest reported p res su re 29,23 inches , according t o l o c a l p re s s r e ~ o r t s . This was one of t h e f i r s t hur r icanes f o r which a s e r i e s of a d v i s o r i e s was received i n B e l i ~ e , but none were d e l i v e r e d t o t h e a u t h o r i t i e s u n t i l September 3rd. A s a r a s u l t , a number of hurr icane r e g u l a t i c n s were drawn up i n time f o r 1945> October 4 th . Cn October 3rd n o t i c e was rece ived of a hurr icane - mcving toward Bel ize a t a s ~ e e d of 7 knots , with winds of' 85 mph over a 30-mile r ad ius , and very rough seas , A t 1G.45 a.,m,, October 4 th , it s t r u c k t h e P ~ n t a G~iiqria a rea , des t roy ing 80;; of t n e houses i n t h a t t o m and 70% of t h e hollses i n Monkey River , A t Monkey River hurr icane f o r c e north-westerly winds were blowing a s e a r l y a s 5.30 a.m. A t 7.15 a.m. they ba.cked t o nor th , becoming more v i o l e n t , and t h e sea l e v e l began t o r i s e , By 8,30 t h e winds were nor th-eas ter ly , and t h e water s t i l l r i s i n g , A t 9.45 t h e winds reached a peak of v i o l m c e a s severe a s a t 7,15 a.m,, and then began t o abate. By 11.30 t h e hurr icane ha.s c l c z r l y passed, but Monkey Ri.ver town was s t i l l covzred wi th 18 i n c h e s c: wate::. There was no l u l l a t this ~ i z c e , but a 5 minute l u l l ms 0bsi;lved a t Erkeneegs F s i n t , and one of half-and- hour a t Snake Cay and Punta Negra, According t o t n e Da i ly Clarion of 6 t h October, Snake Cay was badly damaged. 1955, September 27th. Hurrica-ne Jane t l a r g e l y destroyed C o r o ~ a l and Chetumal. This has been described a s itone of t h e f i e r c e s t hur r icanzs i n his tory?! ( ~ u n n and M i l l e r , 1960, 7; s ee 1-7, 74). Minimum recordzd p res su re a t Chetumal, Quintana Roo, a s t h e eye passed over was 270C0 inches , and wind speeds were we l l i n excess of 120 mph; t h e Cnetm"a1 anemometer ceased recording a t 150 mph, Damage est imated a t Z l m O x was caused a t Corozal i n B r i t i s h Honduras. For a f u l l e r account of t h i s storm, see t a e U,S. Weather Bureau a d v i s o r i e s , and Pagney (1957)0 It passed t o t h e nor th of t h e B r i t i s h Honduras cays, 1960, J u l y 15th. HurricaneAbby, a minor hurr icane , s t ruck Mango Creek, - causing some shore l ine readjustment and f e l l i n g of coconut t r e e s a t Tobacco Cayo For d e t a i l s , see adv i so r i e s . 1961, J u l y 24tho Hurricane Anna, another minor storm, crossed t n e - coas t between Monkey River and Placencia du r ing t h e e a r l y hours of t h e morning, The w r i t e r was a t sea nea r Monkey River a t t n e time, and v i s i t e d t h e c o a s t l i n e t h a t dayo A number of t r e e s were down a t Placencia, which had been flooded. A c a r p e t of f r e s n sand had been depos i ted on t h e north-east shore, over- lying uneroded grassland. Houses had suf fered minor damage. Trees were a l s o f e l l e d a t Buttonwood Cayand & a nearby i s l a n d near Gladden S p i t , For meteorologica l d e t a i l s , see adv i so r i e s . 1961, October 3lst , Hurricane Ha t t i e , - Frequency of hurr icanes These recorded hur r i canes ( t n e r e i s no dcubt t h a t a t l e a s t i n t h e e a r l y period t h e r e were o the r s not s u f f i c i e n t l y severe t o be noted) occurred i n t h e fol lowing montns: June JulN August Sentember October November Between 1830 and 1900 t h e r e were only 3 recorded storms, one of g r e a t violence compared with four teen hurr icanes i n t h e s l i g h t l y s h o r t e r period 1900-1962. These 14 storms included t h e very v io len t hurr icanes of 1931, 1945, 1955 and 1961. Cry and Haggard (1962) have snown t h a t t h e d a i l y frequency of t r o p i c a l storms and hurr icanes i n t h e North 4 t l a n t i c a rea , 19C1-1960, i s g r s a t - s t i n August, Sertember and October, reaching a peak i n t h e f i r s t two weeks of September, arid a secondary maximum i n t h e middle of October. There a r e considerable d i f f e rences i n d i s t r i b u t i o n of storms i n d i f f e r e n t a reas . Thus f o r t h e At l an t i c coas t of t h e Unitad S t a t e s t h e r e i s no marked f requer~cy maximum between June and October, whereas f o r t h e At l an t i c Ocean south of 2oCN and e a s t of 55% t n e r e i s a very pronounced m2ximum i n l a t e Augl~st acd September. I n t h e western Caribbean, del imited by t h e Cent ra l American mainland between Cabo Catoche ( ~ u c a t a n ) and t h e Paraguana Peninsula ( ~ e n e s u e l a ) , H a i t i and Cuba, t n o r e i s a prel iminary maximum i n Juna, follcwed by a q u i e t period i n J u l y , beginning t o inc resse slowly i n August and Septcmber, and b ld ld ing up t o a mudrr~um i n mid-Gctober (Cry and Haggard, 1962, 343). 635 of t h e 1 1 C t r o p i c a l cyclones and 70% of t h e 57 hurricanes have begm i n t i s a r e a between September 15th and November 15th. B r i t i s h Honduras can thus reasonably expect a t l e a s t one hurr icane a decade, probably more, and more v io len t ca tas t rophic storms a t l e a s t once every t h i r t y years , pernaps more often. These storms a r e most l i k e l y t o cccur i n September o r Oct-ber. Placed aga ins t t h e background of t h e h i s t o r y of t h e cays, which presumably came i n t o exis tence soon a f t e r t h e sea reached i t s present l e v e l , hurr icanes a r e t h u s frequent phenomena, 2 0 Some Maya P o t t e r y from Grand Bogue Point , Turneffe I s l ands , B r i t i s h Honduras Euan W e PIacKie Hunterian Nuseum, Univers i ty of Glasgow Some t h i r t y fragments of more o r l e s s weathered po t t e ry were received f o r e x m i n a t i o n , a l l of whicn had been c o l l e c t e d by K r S toddar t f r m t h e su r face a t Grand Bogue Poin t (Figure 54). Although t h e major i ty of t h e p i eces do not have ~ r e c i s e p a r a l l e l s with m a t e r i a l excavated from s i t e s i n t h e Cayo D i s t r i c t of B r i t i s h Honduras, t n e a rea w i t h whicn t h i s w r i t e r has f i r s t -nand knowledge, t h e r e seem t o be s u f f i c i e n t general s i m i l a r i t i e s with o the r s i t e s i n t h e t e r r i t o r y t o permit an approximate placement of t h e c o l l e c t i o n i n t h e o v e r a l l ceramic seqaence of t h i s p a r t of Maya Cent ra l America. Two main c l a s s e s of po t t e ry a r e present (Figure 65): sherds with t r a c e s of a b r igh t red s l i p , u sua l ly termed Red ware; and p h i n sherds. Some of t h e s e l a s t may hava l o s t t h e i r s l i p through weathering, but most seem t o be fragments of p l s i n , u n s l i p ~ e d vesse ls . Red ware v e s s e l types inc lude shouldered d i shes , (0) and (P); s to rage j a r s , (g) (h) ( i ) (q) ( r ) a bowl with carved decorat ion, (1) ; a probable l i d , (n ) ; a sherd with i n c i s e d decora t ion , (k) ; a l a r g e fragment of a ring-base, ( j ) ; a s lab-foot with i n c i s e d decora t ion , ( s ) ; and a fragment of a pe r fo ra t ed s ~ o u t o r hcl low handle, (m). P l a i n vesse l s a r e most ly l a r g e s to rage j a r s , ( a ) (b) ( c ) (d) arid ( f ) , bu t inc lude one ( e ) which might frcm i t s s i z e be a weatnered exanple of t n e black S l i ~ p e d s torage j a r s ccrnmonly found a t t h e Cayc D i s t r i c t s i t e s and termed f u g i t i v e black ware. Three f r agnen t s of s c l i d p o t t e r y cy l inde r s wi th one end rounded were p resen t ; t h e s e a r e usua l ly ass7med t o be p a r t s of incense burners ( ~ o r h e g ~ i , 1 9 5 9 ) ~ Two s t ruck f l a k e s of f l i n t were a l s o included with t h e c o l l e c t i o n , I n t h e assessment of t h e chronclogica l n o s i t i o n of t h e s e sherds i n t h e anc ient Maya ceramic sequences t n e absence of polychrome pa in ted Tot te ry may be s i g n i f i c a n t . The u l t ima te phasr; a t such Class ic per iod ceremonial s i t e s a s Uaxactun, Xunantunich a r~d San J O S ~ i s d i s t ingu i shed by a marked dec l ine i n polychrcme wares; however, r ecen t work a t t h e second s i t e has demonstrated t h a t a poor woodef hut may e n t i r e l y l a c k pa in ted wares a t a t ime when they were abundant i n t h e nearby ceremonial s i t e ( ~ a c ~ i e , i n l i t t . ) The absence of ~ i n t e d snerds nay a l s o i n d i c a t e a pre-Classic o r Ea r ly C las s i c age but t h e o t h e r i n d i c a t i o n s l i s t e d below ccmbine t o favcur a much l a t e r da t e . The Red ware s to rage j a r s (h) and ( r ) have a p r o f i l e h6th a sharp angle i n s i d e t h e neck which i s c l o s e l y similar t o u n s l i ~ p e d j a r s found i n phases I V and V a t San Jos6 (~hompson, 1939, Figures 66 and 76). Red ware vesse l s with ring-bases occur a t San Jos6 from phase I1 onwards, but t h e forms most s i m i l a r t c ( j ) , with a high almost v e r t i c a l r ing , occur i n phases I V and V (Thompson, 1939, Figures 68 and 78). The two Red ware shculdered d i shes (0) and (p ) each exh ib i t a groove and a row of impressions along t h e shoulder, f e a t u r e s q u i t e w e l l p a r a l l e l e d a t San J o s & i n phases I V and V (~hompson, 1939, Figures 68, 69 and 80) and a t Xunantunich i n phases I I I b and I V (Thompson, 1942, Figure 47; PiacKie, i n l i t t . ) . The p l a i n j a r ( c ) has i t s counterpar ts a t Xunantunich i n phase I V (~hompson, 1942, Figure 6, s and t ) . The carved Red ware bowl (1) and t h e Red ware sherd with i n c i s e d decora t ion (k) a l s o have genera l analogies i n the Late C lass i c phases a t San Jose and Xunantunich. Carved Red ware occurs a t San Jose i n phases I V and V (Thompson 1939, F igures 67 and 85) and a t Xunantunich i n phase I V (MacKie, i n l i t t . ) , i n which phase a l s o appears some inc i sed Red ware ( ~ h o m ~ s o n , 1942, Figure 48). The c l o s e s t p a r a l l e l f o r t h e very l a r g e Red ware j a r (q) seems t o occur somewhat e a r l i e r , a t San J O S ~ i n phases I11 and III/IV ( ~ h o m ~ s o n , l 9 3 9 , Figure 59) ; ' and t h e slab-foot ( s ) a l s o has genera l i sed analogues i n an e a r l i e r phase of the Late Class ic , i n periods I I I a and I I I b a t Xunantunich ( ~ h o m ~ s o n , 1942, Figures 15, 24, and 41; PIacKie, i n l i t t . ) . The s o l i d p o t t e r y rods ( t ) , probably p a r t s of incense burners (Bor- hegyi, 1959), a r e known t o have been used f o r many cen tu r i e s ( ~ o r h e g y i , 1956), but they appear t o inc rease i n numbers i n B r i t i s h Honduras cerem- o n i a l s i t e s i n Late C lass i c times (liacKie, i n l i t t . ) . Thus t h e major i ty of t h e analogies drawn between t h e Grand Bogue sherds and m a t e r i a l from ceremonial s i t e s elsewhere in B r i t i s h Honduras a r e c o n s i s t e n t with t h e i r belonging t o a s t age i n Late C lass i c o r e a r l y post-Classic times, corresponding t o phases I I I b and I V a t Xunantunich and I V and V a t San Jos6. It might be expected t h a t remains from a r e a s pe r iphe ra l t o t h e nea res t main cen t re s of Maya Class i c cu l tu re , Guatemala and western B r i t i s h Honduras, should belong t o t h e period of maximum populat ion expansion, and excavations a t t h e ceremonial s i t e s of Xunan- tunich and San Josd, and t h e se t t lement s i t e a t Barton Ramie on t h e Bel ize River ( ~ h o m ~ s o n , 1939, 1942; NacKie, i n litt.; Willey, Bul lard and Glass, 1955) s t rongly suggest t h a t t h e daya populat ion i n the B r i t i s h Honduras a r e a was a t i t s maximum i n Late C lass i c times. It i s now poss ib le t o give these l a t e r phases abso lu te d a t e s i n yea r s with some accuracy. The extens ive excavations a t Uaxactun i n Guate- mala have provided a long ceramic sequence which c a n be t i e d t o many of t h e da ted s t e l a e the re , and which can a l s o be co r re l a t ed with the sequences a t s i t e s i n B r i t i s h Honduras. Ceramic analogies suggest t h a t t h e two f i n a l phases a t San Jos6, I V and V, correspond approximately t o t h e l a s t two a t Xunantunich, I I I b and I V Y and t h a t both a r e roughly coeval with t h e l a s t two phases a t Uaxactun, Tepeu 2 and 3 (~hompson, 1942; I~iacKie, 1961,220). R . E. Smith (1955, 106) p laces Tepeu 2 and 3 i n the 8 t h and 9 th Centur ies A. D. and t h e Grand Bogue sherds ought t o be of s i m i l a r age. However, Piaya a c t i v i t y on some of t h e cays of B r i t i s h Honduras undoubtedly continued l a t e r , judging by the f i n e Tlumbate p o t t e r y found on Wild Cane Cay ( M a c ~ i e , i n litt .) . This widely t raded po t t e ry has been dated t o t h e 11 th and 12 th cen tu r i e s A . D. (Shepard, 1948, 115). Descript ion of t h e sherds (diameters ind ica ted on Figure 65) : ( a ) p l a i n Light brown and orange, sand tempered; no t r a c e of s l i p ; horiz- o n t a l s t r i a t i o n s i n s i d e and .out . ( b ) dark grey c lay , l i g h t brown surfaces ; ho r i zon ta l s t r i a t i o n s ; no t r a c e of s l i p ; sand tempered. f r i a b l e l i g h t brown c l ay , sand tempered; h o r i z o n t a l s t r i a t i o n s on e x t e r n a l su r f ace ; no t r a c e of s l i p . l i g h t grey c l ay , and l i g h t brown mot t led sur faces ; sand tempered with h o r i z o n t a l s t r i a t i o n s ; no t r a c e of s l i p . f i n e l i g h t yellow-brown c l a y with orange core; sand tempered; no t r a c e of s l i p . b r i y h t orange c l ay , darker mot t led a r e a s on su r f ace ; sand tempered; marked h o r i z o n t a l s t r i a t i o n s on i n t e r i o r ; no t r a c e of s l i p . l i g h t grey c l a y , cream sur faces ; sand tempered; t r a c e s of b r i g h t red o r orange s l i p ; two f a i n t h o r i z o n t a l grooves on e x t e r i o r j u s t below angle of r i m . l i g h t grey c l a y , l i g h t brown sur faces ; brownish s l i p i n s i d e and ou t , probably r e d o r i g i n a l l y ; s a d tempered; h o r i z o n t a l s t r i a t i o n s . dark g r e y c l ay , l i g h t brown s u r f a c e s ; r e d s l i p ; sand tempered; horiz- o n t a l s t r i a t i o n s . ring-base; dark grey c l ay , cream su r faces , t r a c e s of red s l i p ; sand tempered; h o r i z o n t a l s t r i a t i o n s underneath. l i g h t grey c l ay , l i g h t orange su r f aces ; r e d s l i p on e x t e r i o r ; se.nd tempered; i n c i s e d decora t ion apparent ly done a f t e r a p p l i c a t i o n of s l i p , but weathered; p a r t of a c a r i n a t e d ves se l ; sand tempered. l i g h t grey c l ay , cream su r faces ; t r a c e s of r e d s l i p ; sand tempered; decora t ion i n c i s e d and carved ou t , probably a f t e r a p p l i c a t i o n of s l i p , bu t t oo weathered t o be sure . . l i g h t orange c l ay , sand tempered; r ed s l i p on a l l v i s i b l e su r f aces except i n s i d e tube ; small hole , smooth-sided and probably m d e before f i r i n g . l i d (? ) Grey c l a y , l i g h t brown s urfaces; sand tempered; r i n g a t t o p app l i ed s e p a r a t e l y and smoothed down; r e d s l i p on under su r f ace , upper s u r f a c e s e v e r l y weathered; h o r i z o n t a l s t r i a t i o n s on under sur face . l i g h t grey c l a y , orange su r f aces ; sand tempered; t r a c e s of r ed s l i p on both f a c e s ; upper groove at l e a s t made before a p p l i c a t i o n of s l i p . g rey c l ay , l i g h t brown su r f aces ; s l i p on both f aces , da rke r r ed than on (0 ) ; sand tempered; row of impressed marks a t shoulder made with corner of instrument w i th rec t angu la r end; ho le d r i l l e d through, presumably f o r a r e p a i r . g rey c l ay , l i g h t brown sur faces ; sand tempered; h o r i z o n t a l s t r i a t i o n s ; t r a c e s of dark red s l i p on e x t e r i o r . ( r ) similar t o (h ) . ( s ) l i g h t brown c lay; f a i n t t r a c e s of dark r ed s l i p on o u t e r surface, more c l e a r l y on upper surface; tempered with many minute fragments of white m a t e r i a l , poss ib ly s h e l l s . (t) l i g h t brown c lay; sand tempered; no t r a c e of s l i p . References: Borhegyi, S. F. 1956. The development of f o l k and complex c u l t u r e s i n t h e southern Maya area . Amer. Ant iqui ty 21: 343-356. ---------- . 1959. The composite o r 'assemble-it-yourself1 censer; a new lowland Maya v a r i e t y of t h e three-pronged incense burner. Amer. Ant iqui ty 25(1) : 51-58. MacKie, E. !d. 1961, New l i g h t on the end of t h e Maya C l a s s i c c u l t u r e a t Benque Vie jo, B r i t i s h Honduras. Amer. ~ n t i q u i t y 27(2) : 216-224. ----------. i n litt. Archaeological i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a t Xunantunich (Benque ~ i e j o ) and Pomona, B r i t i s h Honduras, i n 1959-60. Shepard, A. 0. 1948. Plumbate: a Mesoamerican t r a d e ware. Carnegie I n s t . Washington Pub. 573 : 1-176. - Smith, R. E. 1955. Ceramic sequences a t Uaxactun, Guatemala. Middle American Research I n s t i t u t e , .Tulane Univ., Pub. 20, 2 vols. Thompson, J. E. S. 1939. Excavations a t San Jose, B r i t i s h Honduras. Carnegie I n s t . Washington Pub, 506: 1-292. ---------- . 1942. Late ceramic horizons a t Benque Viejo, B r i t i s h Honduras. Carnegie I n s t . Washington Pub. 528 ( ~ o n t r i b . Amer. Antrop. Hist. 7(35) , i s sued 1940) : 1-36. Willey, G. R., W. R. Bul la rd and J . B. Glass. 1955. The Maya c o m i t y of p r e h i s t o r i c t imes. Archaeology 8(1) : 18-25. L . Q ! ? -z ? s 6 GRAND BOGUE inches