ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN NO. 252 BIRD AND DENIS ISLANDS, SEYCHELLES by D. R. Stoddart and F. R. Fosberg Issued by THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Washington, D. C., U.S.A. ~ u l ~ ' l 9 8 1 Contents 1. Geography and ecology of Bird I s l a n d , Seychel les In t roduct ion Morphology and s t r u c t u r e Climate Vegetation Flora Inve r t eb ra t e s Rept i les Mammals Birds History 2 . P l an t s recorded from Bird I s l and 3. Geography and ecology of Denis I s l a n d , Seychel les In t roduct ion Morphology and s t r u c t u r e Climate Vegetation Flora Inve r t eb ra t e s Rep t i l e s Mammals Birds History 4 . P l an t s recorded from Denis I s l a n d 5. References Manuscript received May 1980 --Eds. L i s t of F igures 1. The Seychel les Bank 2. Bird I s l a n d i n 1976 3. Beach sediment a t Bi rd I s l a n d 4. Denis I s l and i n 1977 5. Monthly r a i n f a l l a t Denis I s l a n d , 19 71-1962 L i s t of Tables 1. S c i e n t i f i c s t u d i e s a t Bird I s l a n d 2. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Bird I s l and beach sands 3. Monthly r a i n f a l l a t Bird I s l a n d , 1951-1962 4 . Key t o t h e l i t e r a t u r e on i n s e c t s c o l l e c t e d a t Bird I s l and 5. S c i e n t i f i c s t u d i e s a t Denis I s l and 6 . Monthly and annual r a i n f a l l records a t Denis I s l and fol lowing page 11 fol lowing page 11 fol lowing page 11 fol lowing page 50 fol lowing page 50 iii L i s t of P l a t e s Bird Is land: S u r i a n a zone on t h e n o r t h e a s t shore fol lowing page 11 Bird I s l and : P i s o n i a and Cord ia woodland w i t h Suriana on t h e no r theas t shore Bi rd I s l and : T o u r n e f o r t i a parkland i n t h e no r theas t Bi rd Is land: t r e e - l i k e T o u r n e f o r t i a i n the no r theas t Bird Is land: pioneer sedges and S c a e v o l a on t h e e a s t shore Bird I s l and : pioneer Ipomoea pes-caprae on the e a s t shore Bird I s l and : pioneer sedges, S c a e v o l a and T o u r n e f o r t i a on the no r theas t shore Bird I s l and : a i r s t r i p from t h e sou theas t Denis I s land: phosphate c l i f f s with Casuar ina woodland, southwest shore fol lowing page 50 10. Denis I s l and : phosphate c l i f f s a t Murai l le Bon Dieu. 11. Denis I s land: d e t a i l of phosphate c l i f f s a t Murai l le Bon Dieu 1 2 . Denis I s land: Typha swamp BIRD AND DENIS ISLANDS, SEYCHELLES by D. R. Stoddart and F. R. Fosberg 1. Geography and ecology of Bird I s l and , Seychelles INTRODUCTION Bird I s l and is one of two small co ra l i s l a n d s on t h e northern margin of t h e Seychelles Bank, western Indian Ocean. I t i s s i t u a t e d i n l a t i t u d e 3O43'S and longitude 55O13'EI 98 km northnorthwest of Mahe, t h e main g r a n i t i c i s l a n d of t h e Seychelles (Figure 1). J.C.F. Fryer spent one week t h e r e i n 1908 and l a t e r cont r ibuted the b a s i c account of the i s l a n d (Fryer 1910). Subsequently it has been the sub jec t of b r i e f v i s i t s by geo log i s t s , b o t a n i s t s and zoologis ts (Table 1 1 , b u t no comprehensive account of t h e i s l a n d appeared u n t i l t h e recent major paper by Feare (19791, based on observations during a yea r ' s residence during a study of t h e Sooty Tern colony. The purpose of t h e p resen t paper is t o present information on t h e t e r r e s t r i a l botany of t h e i s l and , and t o c a l l a t t e n t i o n t o some e a r l y sources on i t s n a t u r a l h i s t o r y (notably t h e v i s i t by H.M.S. A l e r t i n 1882) not mentioned by Feare. Detai led information given by Feare, e spec ia l ly on t h e b i r d s , w i l l no t be repeated he re , and t h e reader i s r e f e r r e d t o h i s paper f o r a more comprehensive account. MORPHOLOGY AND STRUCTURE The i s l a n d is 1800 m long and a maximum of 830 m wide (Figure 2 ) ; Coppinger (1885) g ives dimensions only h a l f a s g r e a t , bu t both Horsburgh (1809) and Fryer (1910) give approximately s i m i l a r f igures . Figure 2 i s based on a compass t r ave r se map made i n March 1976, with add i t iona l d e t a i l from a i r photographs, and y i e l d s an a rea of 82.5 ha. No e levat ions have been determined on t h e i s l a n d , but t h e maximum height is un l ike ly t o be more than 4 m abovemean sea l e v e l . T ida l range a t spr ings is 1.2 m and a t neaps 0.9 m. Bird c o n s i s t s e n t i r e l y of reef-derived carbonate sands and f i n e g rave l s , with small q u a n t i t i e s of d r i f t pumice. Beaches a r e wide and extens ive around t h e e n t i r e coas t , except f o r some erosion and c l i f f i n g a t t h e southern point . In March 1976 t h e r e was a broad unvegetated s p i t , composed of severa l beach r idges , a t t h e nor theas t end of t h e i s l and , b u t t h i s is probably a l a rge ly seasonal phenomenon and v a r i e s Table 1. S c i e n t i f i c s tud ies a t Bird Is land Date 1771 August 1808 1822 1882 4 March 1908 24 Ju ly - 1 August 1952 27 Sept 1960 14-15 September 1962 March 1963 4 Nov. 1969 ? 1970 14 J u l y 1972 June, August-November 1973 May-October 1974 Ju ly V i s i t o r Subject Publicat ion L t W. Robinson Charting Dalrymple 1780 L t D. Thomas, Eagle H i r o n d e l l e Wrecked Froberv i l l e 1848 F. Moresby Survey Moresby 1842 R.W. Coppinger General Coppinger 1885; H.M.S. A l e r t co l l ec t ing Bowdler Sharpe 1884 Hemsley 1885 L t C. H. Simpson Charting Admiralty Chart L t F.M. Leake H.M.S. S t o r k J.C.F. Fryer General survey Fryer 1908, 1910 and co l l ec t ing D. Vesey-FitzGerald Birds E.S. Brown Insec t s Mattingly and Brown 1955 M. Ridley, R. Percy Birds Ridley and Percy 1957 C . J . P iggot t Coconuts Piggot t 1968, 1969 B.H. Baker Geology Baker 1963 C . J e f f r e y Botany Jef f rey 196 2 R. Bailey Birds Bailey (1967) F.L. Lambrecht I n s e c t s Lambrecht 1971 J. Procter Botany Procter 1970 C. J. Feare Birds, Feare 1973a, genera l ecology 197330, 1975,1976a, 197633, 1976c, 1979 Feare and High 1977 1976 25-27 D.R. Stoddart Botany, This paper March general ecology 1977 L.G. Nikiforov Geology and Nikiforov e t a l . e t a l . sediments 1978 i n locat ion with t h e monsoons from the nor theas t t o t h e northwest s i d e s (cf . the t r a c e of t h e 1960 shore from a i r photographs i n Figure 2 ) . P iggot t (1968, 53) concluded from the exis tence of t h i s s p i t t h a t the i s l and was increas ing i n s i z e , bu t t h i s seems unlikely. The beaches face a reef f l a t 300 m wide, which d r i e s a t low springs, on the southeast s i d e , but t h e western beaches overlook deeper water. Table 2 gives c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of beach and berm sediment samples from s i t e s around t h e coas t , based on sieving a t 0.25@ intervals , and Figure 3 g ives cumulative curves and sample locat ions . The beach samples (from mid-beach) a r e general ly r a t h e r coarser than the beach c r e s t samples, though t h i s i s only a t a l l pronounced on t h e leeward coast . A l l t h e samples l i e i n the coarse t o medium sand s i z e range, a r e well t o moderately well sor ted , exh ib i t l i t t l e skewness, and a r e p la tykur t i c t o mesokurtic. Nikiforov e t a l . (1978, 46-61) measured t h e height of beach r idges a t t h e nor theas t point reaching successively 2-3, 3.1 and 3.4 m from sea t o t h e vegetated i s l a n d surface (datum not s t a t e d ) . Holes were d r i l l e d i n t h e second and t h i r d of these u n i t s t o depths of 6.75 m; subsurface sediment samples were mainly coarse-grained and poorly sor ted calcareous sands with s h e l l and mollusc fragments. The centre of t h e i s l a n d was a l s o d r i l l e d t o a depth of 5.2 m below the surface; t h e sediments were unsorted carbonate mater ia ls with near-surface cementation. Nikiforov e t a l . (1978, 53) inkerpre t t h i s cemented layer a s an ancient beachrock, dated a t 2500-2700 years B.P., b u t from t h e i r descr ip t ion it appears t o be a phosphate rock. Phosphate rock covers much of the c e n t r a l p a r t of Bird Is land. Figure 2 shows the d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h i s mater ia l according t o Baker (1963, 46-48) and Piggot t (1968) . The phosphorite has maximum thicknesses of 1-2 m, and wel ls i n it penetra te t o the water t a b l e a t depths of 1.5-2 m. The rock i s brown and speckled, well-cemented and dense a t t h e surface bu t crumbly below. The upper surface i s i n t r i c a t e and f rac tured, with many loose blocks, while the lower l i m i t of t h e rock i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y broadly loba te and i r r e g u l a r . A sample of t h e phosphorite has been analysed by T.P. Scoffin, who f inds P2O5 28.2% and CaO 52.7%. He comments: "The rock i s extensively phosphatized and g ra ins a r e hard t o iden t i fy . There a r e some unaltered cora l gra ins bu t most g ra ins a re completely o r p a r t i a l l y replaced. Those t h a t a r e p a r t l y replaced have undergone c e n t r i p e t a l phosphatization a t t h e i r r i m s . There i s a dense brown phosphatic f i n e grained o r amorphous c r u s t on t h e gra ins . This c r u s t is not banded. One g ra in shows unaltered carbonate cement needles i n s k e l e t a l chambers. There a r e bladed g ra ins showing undulose ex t inc t ion which may be broken pieces of an e a r l i e r phosphate cement." The surface guano overlying the cemented mater ia l has been l a rge ly removed f o r export. P iggot t (1968, 39) descr ibes the s o i l overlying the phosphorites a s Jemo Ser ies , i n con t ras t t o t h e Shioya Ser ies of t h e r e s t of t h e i s l and . Table 2. Charac te r i s t i c s of Bird Is land beach sands Sample 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Location Posit ion West Bay Beach Berm Northeast Beach Bay Berm Southeast Beach Bay Berm Southwe s t Beach Point Berm Northeast Beach Point Berm Northwest Beach coas t Berm @ mean 1.44 0.78 1.56 1.25 1 - 3 1 1.68 0.92 0.93 1.59 1.37 1.55 0.89 @ median 1.40 0.81 1.46 1.15 1.21 1.72 0.83 0.92 1.08 1.34 1.40 0.92 CLIMATE Bird I s l and f a l l s within the general Seychelles r6gime of an extended period of dry Southeast Trade winds from April t o November, and a wet season of northwesterly winds and calms during December t o March. Ra in fa l l records a re ava i l ab le only f o r 1961 and 1962, t o t a l l i n g 2358 and 1589 mm respect ively; the monthly f igures show considerable v a r i a t i o n between the two years (Table 3 ) . The incidence of r a i n f a l l i n 1961-62 was very s imi la r t o t h a t of Denis Is land (Table 5 ) , though with marked divergences i n December 1961 t o February 1962. Feare (1979) a l s o measured r a i n f a l l , recording 703 mm between 15 August and 5 November 1972. Table 3. Monthlv r a i n f a l l a t Bird I s l a n d , 1961-1962 (Id Year Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug 9 - - - - 1961 364.7 366.5 142.0 73.1 1.5 1.3 30.2 164.1 319.0 226.3 Nov Dec - - Year 1961 469.1 200.1 2358.1 1962 112.3 128.5 1588.5 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun J u l Aug Sep Oct - - - - - - - - - - Mean 290.8 295.6 81.9 127.6 107.1 18.4 29.8 148.6 294.5 123.5 Nov Dec Year - - - Mean 290.7 164.3 1973.3 Source: S toddar t (1971) VEGETATION Horsburgh (1809, 1261, i n t h e f i r s t desc r ip t ion a v a i l a b l e , says t h a t Bird I s l a n d "is very low, with small bushes on i t " , and a l l l a t e r n ine teenth century accounts a r e broadly s i m i l a r . "Le s e u l vgggtal qui pousse s u r c e t t e t e r r e d&sol&e, e s t l e v e l o u t i e r [ ~ c a e v o l a taccada]" , comments F r o b e r v i l l e (1848, 9 9 ) . Moresby (1942, 12) found it "a small sandy i s l a n d wi th a few shrubs on i t " i n about 1822, and P e l l y (1865, 231) p u t s it i n t h e c l a s s of "low sandy i s l a n d s , spr inkled with scrubby brushwood". In 1882 Coppinger (1885, 211) supplied more d e t a i l during t h e v i s i t of H.M.S. A l e r t . He found a "dense t h i c k e t of bushes, which forms a f r i n g e around t h e margin of t h e i s l and" (presumably mainly Scaevola t accada ) ; a c e n t r a l a r e a with "scrubby g r a s s ... [and] seve ra l introduced p l a n t s gone wild"; and "two o r perhaps t h r e e Casuarina". By t h e time of F r y e r ' s v i s i t i n 1908 t h e r e was s t i l l a narrow marginal b e l t of Scaevola and Tournefort ia a rgentea bushes about 10 m wide; a bare a r e a with p r a c t i c a l l y no vegeta t ion , comprising t h e Sooty Tern colony; rough ground on t h e phosphate rock, wi th herbs and g ras ses ; and a small coconut p l a n t a t i o n extending e a s t t o west ac ross t h e c e n t r e of t h e i s l and . The composition of t h e herbaceous ground cover was no t recorded, though F r y e r ' s c o l l e c t i o n s included Cassytha f i l i f o r m i s , Ipomoea pes-caprae and Tribulus c i s t o i d e s ; Boerhavia repens and Por tu laca c l e r a c e a were probably a l s o widespread. A few yea r s be fo re F r y e r ' s v i s i t , a v i s i t i n g mag i s t r a t e i n 1903 had enumerated 6000 coconuts, mostly young, with "a few f i l a o s " [Casuarina] and th ree a c r e s (1.2 ha) of maize (Seychel les Archives, C/SS/74(11, 139) . In s p i t e of t h i s genera l impression of a v i r t u a l l y t r e e l e s s landscape, however, it is worth not ing t h a t i n 1908 Fryer recorded both Calophyl lum inophy l lum and Termina l ia c a t a p p a , t oge the r with Hernandia sonora and Morinda c i t r i f o l i a , n e i t h e r of which have been seen s ince (though t h e Morinda is very probably p r e s e n t ) . Nevertheless , it i s c l e a r t h a t t he vegeta t ion today d i f f e r s g r e a t l y from t h a t of t h e pe r iod be fo re 1908. The whole i s l a n d i s now covered wi th coconut woodland, managed a s a p l a n t a t i o n , wi th p e r i p h e r a l t a l l Casuarina and a l i t t o r a l hedge of Scaevo la taccada . Feare (.I9791 d i s t ingu i shed seven physiographic and vege ta t iona l u n i t s , b roadly congruent with t h e following: 1. L i t t o r a l hedge, dominated almost exc lus ive ly by Scaevo la taccada and extending almost cont inuously along t h e west and southeas t coas t s . The hedge i s about 5 m t a l l and 10-25 m wide. Its inne r margin is o f t e n marked by t r e e s of Guet tarda s p e c i o s a , and along t h e southeas t shore it i s f r o n t e d f o r about 2 0 0 m by a low zone of Suriana mar i t ima ( P l a t e 1). 2. L i t t o r a l woodland of Thespes ia populnea, found on t h e no r theas t coas t where t h e shore is aggrading and where, a s Feare (1979) s t a t e s , t h e phosphat icsandstones outcrop. P i s o n i a g r a n d i s and Cordia subcordata a r e a l s o p resen t i n t h i s u n i t ( P l a t e 2 1 , b u t a re r a r e . Thespes ia i s a l s o found on t h e c l i f f e d eroding shore a t t h e south poin t . 3. Casuarina woodland. This has been p lan ted a s a windbreak i n s i d e t h e Scaevola hedge, e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e southwest and e a s t e r n p a r t s of t h e i s l a n d and around t h e se t t lement . Many of t h e t r e e s a r e 25-30 m t a l l , b u t i n r ecen t yea r s many have been f e l l e d f o r use i n cons t ruc t ion . 4. Coconut woodland. A t a l l c losed woodland of coconut palms, wi th a ground cover which v a r i e s wi th s u b s t r a t e . On sand t h e su r face is occupied by g ras ses , L i p p i a and o the r low herbs ; on phosphat ic sands tone by t a l l Kalanchoe p i n n a t a , Nephro lep i s and Carica papaya a s wel l a s a d ive r se low herbaceous f l o r a . Small gardens a r e s c a t t e r e d through the p l a n t a t i o n s . Weeds such a s Achyranthes aspera and P h y l l a n t h u s c a s t i c u m a re ubiqui tous. In 1962, according t o P iggo t t (1968, 41) the p l a n t a t i o n s y i e lded 40 tons of copra p e r annum, wi th 10-40 n u t s pe r t r e e . 5. T o u r n e f o r t i a parkland ( P l a t e s 3 and 4 ) . In t h e northwest p a r t of t h e i s l a n d , where t h e Sooty Terns n e s t , t h e r e is an open a r e a of Boerhavia r e p e n s and Por tu laca o l e r a c e a , dominated by mature t r e e s of T o u r n e f o r t i a a r g e n t e a and occas ional shrubs of Scaevo la and Sur iana . The Tournefortia t r e e s a re 4-5 m t a l l . The vegetat ion of t h i s area i s now managed t o promote the breeding of the t e r n s (Feare 1976). 6. Pioneer herbaceous vegetat ion (Pla tes 5, 6 and 7) . This i s extensive i n the nor theas t bay and on the nor theas t s p i t . It is dominated by Ipomoea pes-caprae, grasses and sedges, and small shrubs of Scaevola and Suriana. Terns a l s o n e s t here , though i n lower dens i t i e s . 7. A i r s t r i p herbaceous vegetat ion, with a low mat of Lippia nodif lora and other herbs and grasses (Pla te 8 ) . 8. Settlement, with a diverse co l l ec t ion of introduced weeds and decorat ive p l a n t s ( including Tabebuia heterophylla, massive Ficus benghalensis, and Calophyllum inophyllum), and crop p lan t s . Many of these were introduced a t an e a r l y date. Coppinger (1885) recorded coconuts, Casuarina, cotton, sugarcane, papaya, yam and gourd i n 1882; Fryer (191C) added maize and tobacco i n 1908. Conversely p l a n t s such a s Catharanthus roseus were no t recorded u n t i l 1962, and Stachytarpheta jamaicensis and Ricinus communis not u n t i l 1970, though presumably introduced considerably e a r l i e r . The ex ten t of the phosphorite on Bird Is land r a i s e s quest ions about the poss ib le former ex ten t of Pisonia grandis woodland, i n view of Fosberg's hypothesis of t h e r o l e of ac id Pisonia humus i n the p rec ip i t a t ion of phosphate cement. Pisonia i s now r a r e on Bird (only a s ing le t r e e was seen i n 1976) , but Feare (1979) drew a t t e n t i o n t o the existence of l i t t e r and humus beneath Scaevola, Tournefortia, Suriana and Cyperus, suggesting t h a t these may s u b s t i t u t e f o r Pisonia i n t h e phosphate reaction. Collect ions were made of l i t t e r from beneath e i g h t species of t r e e s and shrubs i n 1976, and pH was measured over a 27 day period i n t h e laboratory. pH l e v e l s were s t a b l e during t h i s period, and averaged a s follows: Scaevola 5.3 Casuarina 6.4 Guettarda 5.7 Tournef o r t i a 6.6 Suriana 6.0 Pisonia 6.9 Thespesia 6.3 Cordia 7.2 None of these dry-season l i t t e r samples resembled t h e deep humus found under Pisonia woodland elsewhere, however, and it is unlikely t h a t such high pH l e v e l s would lead t o phosphate p rec ip i t a t ion . These measurements do not , of course, resolve the quest ion of t h e former existence of Pisonia woodland on Bird Is land; but i f it ever d i d e x i s t it had c l e a r l y disappeared before 1882. FLORA The f l o r a of Bird Is land, excluding sea-grasses, t o t a l s 101 species, about h a l f introduced. Of these, 43 were recorded by Coppinger o r Fryer i n o r before 1908; J e f f r e y recorded 7 i n 1961-62, Procter 37 i n 1970, ~ e a r e 55 i n 1972-74, and the present study 62. The f l o r a includes s ix teen t r e e species , but of these probably only P i s o n i a , T h e s p e s i a , Cordia , T o u r n e f o r t i a and Guet tarda are nat ive , and some of these may have colonised n a t u r a l l y s ince the transformation of t h e i s l and i n t h e e a r l y twentieth century. Shrubs a r e represented only by Scaevo la and S u r i a n a , both indigenous. I t should be noted t h a t both Fryer (1908, 1910) and Summerhayes (1931) mis ident i f ied Sur iana a s Pemphis a c i d u l a , a s d i d Procter (1970); Pemphis is not found on the i s l ands of t h e Seychelles Bank, nor indeed is it found i n t h e western Indian Ocean i s l ands nor th of S t Joseph Atol l . Christensen's (1912) record f o r Bird of Acrost ichum aureum i s almost c e r t a i n l y a l o c a l i t y e r r o r , s ince A. speciosum is found on Denis Is land and is not otherwise recorded f o r Bird Island; and t h e same is c l e a r l y t r u e f o r Typha j a v a n i c a , recorded f o r Bird by Summerhayes (1931). INVERTEBRATES Feare (1979) has recorded the presence during h i s s t a y on Bird I s l and of land crabs,Myriapoda, Insec ta and Arachnida. In addi t ion , Fryer made co l l ec t ions of i n s e c t s and some o the r groups i n 1908. Table 4 keys t h e subsequent l i t e r a t u r e of i n s e c t determinations from Bird. Only Lepidoptera, Coleoptera and Orthoptera a r e a t a l l well represented. However, the records of Diptera have been extended by s t u d i e s of t h e mosquitoes by Mattingly and Brown (1955) and Lambrecht (1971). Aedes a l b o p i c t u s , A. a l b o c e p h a l u s and C u l e x p i p i e n s a r e a l l b i t e r s and from time t o time abundant. In addi t ion , from Fryer ' s co l l ec t ions , Budde-Lund (1912) records a t e r r e s t r i a l isopod, H i r s t (1911) f i v e species of spider , and H i r s t (1913) a scorpion. REPTILES Feare (1979) records nes t ing by Green and Hawksbill t u r t l e s . I t is worth noting t h a t Dalrymple's char t of 1780, based on the Eagle survey i n 1771, i s annotated "many t u r t l e " . There i s now no means of knowing e i t h e r t h e s i z e of t h e former nes t ing population o r the s c a l e of the decline i n numbers. Fryer a l s o co l l ec ted the two common geckos , Hemidact y l u s f r e n a t u s and Phelsurna madagascar iens i s (Boulenger 1911); Feare (1979) suggests t h a t the former may have been introduced. Fryer did not c o l l e c t the common skink ~ a b u i a s e c h e l l e n s i s . MAMMALS Bird Is land was formerly known a s I l e a w Vaches marines, though Table 4. Key t o t he l i t e r a t u r e on i n s e c t s c o l l e c t e d a t Bird I s l a n d Family Number of spec i e s Source Orthoptera 9 Bol ivar 1912, 1924 Dermaptera 1 Burr 1910 Odonata 1 Campion 1913 Hemiptera 9 D i s t a n t 1913 Neuroptera 1 Needham 1913 Lepidoptera 11 Meyrick 1911; Fryer 1912 Coleoptera Champion 1914, 1917 ; Gebien 1922; S c o t t 1912, 1913; S i ca rd 1912 Hymenoptera 1 Fore l 1912 Diptera Lamb 1912; Matt ingly and Brown 1955; Lambrecht 1971 i n h i s paper Feare (1979) makes no mention of t h e former ex i s t ence of marine mammals t he re . Horsburgh (1809, 126-127) r e f e r s t o "Sea Cows, o r Bird I s l and" , and comments t h a t "When t h i s i s l a n d was explored by t h e Eagle Cruizer , from Bombay, i n 1771, many sea- l ions (probably Manutees o r l a r g e s e a l s ) were seen on t h e beach1'; Dalrymple's c h a r t o f 1780, from t h e same survey, i s annota ted "many Seals" . Moresby (1842) c a l l s t h e i s l a n d I l e aux Vaches. F r o b e r v i l l e (1848, 99) paraphrasing an account da t ing from t h e wreck of t h e H i r o n d e l l e i n 1808, s t a t e s : "Les vaches marines s e t r a i n e n t souvent s u r l e s dunes pour y dormir au s o l e i l , e t , dans c e t & a t , on peu t l e s entendre s o u f f l e r de b i e n l o i n : c e t animal e s t peu redoutable malgr6 s a t a i l l e gnorme e t s e s den t s menacantes; nos ma te lo t s en assomm&ent p l u s i e u r s pendant n o t r e s g j o u r , mais nous n 'en f a i s i o n s p a s beaucoup de cas , l a c h a i r n ' en &ant pas supportable; une s e u l e t o r t u e nous f a i s a i t p l u s de p l a i s i r lo rsque nous parvenions l a surprendre". Fryer (1910, 15) commented t h a t " t h e r e i s no doubt t h e i s l a n d was t h e haunt of t h e spec i e s of dugong known a s Vache marine, which un fo r tuna te ly has long ceased t o e x i s t " . No such animal was recorded by t h e A l e r t i n 1882, o r s i n c e t h a t t ime. In d i scuss ing t h e s e and o t h e r records , I have concluded t h a t t h e records r e f e r r e d t o s e a l s of unknown spec i e s r a t h e r than t o dugongs (S toddar t 1972). BIRDS Early accounts agree on the grea t s i ze of the b i rd populations. In 1771 the Eagle found "birds innumerable" (Horsburgh 1809, 127). The f i r s t collections and observations on b i rds were made by Coppinger i n 1882; subsequently Fryer made observations i n 1908 which were u t i l i s e d by Feare (1979) . Coppinger (1885, 212 ) spec i f ica l ly s t a t e s t h a t there were "no land birds" a t the time of h i s v i s i t . Given the sparse vegetation and h i s fami l ia r i ty with land birds of the Seychelles is lands , it is unlikely t h a t he would have f a i l e d t o record them had they been present. By the time of Fryer 's v i s i t the Madagascar Fody Foudia madagascariensis and the Ground Dove Geopelia s t r i a t a had been introduced. Coppinger mentions "multitudes of white egrets" and collected two males of Bubulcus i b i s (Bowdler Sharpe 18841, the f i r s t record of t h i s presumably native species; Feare (1979) had taken Fryer ' s reference t o a "white heron" a s the f i r s t mention of t h i s species. The Mynah Acridotheres tristis was f i r s t recorded by Feare (19791, and the date of i t s introduction a f t e r Fryer 's v i s i t i s not known. Of the seabirds, Coppinger i n 1882 found the groundl'everywhere excavated by burrows of pe t re l s" , and collected a male Puffinus pacif icus (Bowdler Sharpe 1884, a s P. chlororhynchus); he a l so s t a t ed t h a t "many gannets a re breeding on the island". Fryer found boobies "breeding i n small colonies a t the edge of the goelet te Sooty Tern colony". He names the species Sula piscator (= S. s u l a ? ) , a s does Gadow (1907), who comments t h a t "The guano of Bird Island, Seychelles, was pr incipal ly formed by a g rea t colony of t h i s species". In the 1930s Vesey-FitzGerald (1941) found both nesting Masked Boobies Sula dactyla t ra and immature Red-footed Boobies S. sula . To fur ther complicate matters, Coppinger (1885, 213) re fe rs t o "a large brown bird" which was probably a Brown Booby Sula leucogaster. According t o Feare (19791, a l l three species are occasionally seen today. There must remain some doubt a s t o which were present and breeding i n the nineteenth century, though the absence of t r ee s suggests t ha t only the ground-nesting Masked and Brown Boobies could have been numerous. Other ear ly seabird and shorebird records a re of l e s s i n t e r e s t . Coppinger (1885) mentions "a g rea t flock of f r i g a t e bi rds" , and t e rns i n "great numbers"; he collected a Brown Noddy Anous s to l i dus (Bowdler Sharpe 1884). Fryer (1910) a l so mentions the noddies nesting i n Scaevola and Tournefortia, and r e f e r s a l so t o a "large grey tern" and a gull . Of migrants, Coppinger mentions "great f locks of turnstones and curlews" (Bowdler Sharpe 1884 c i t e s skins of the former) and "a few oyster catchers". Fryer l ists turnstone, plover, curlew, sanderling, whimbrel and s t i l t , a s well as the moorhen Gallinula chloropus, a l l of which are l i s t e d by Feare (1979). Nothing is t o be added t o Feare 's (1976) account of the Sooty Tern colony. He suggests t h a t t h i s numbered over 1,000,000 pa i r s i n 1907. By t h e mid 1930s, with h a b i t a t change and in te r fe rence , it had decl ined t o 65,000 p a i r s (Vesey-FitzGerald 1941) and by 1955 t o 18,000 p a i r s (Ridley and Percy 1966). Thereaf ter it recovered t o 120,000 p a i r s i n 1966 (Ridley and Percy 1966) and t o 395,000 p a i r s occupying 11.7 ha by 1973 (Feare 1976). Feare est imated t h a t during h i s study the b i r d s l a i d some 300,000 eggs during t h e per iod 8-17 June. I n add i t ion t o t h e comprehensive l i s t of vagrants and migrants recorded by Feare (1979), the re a r e subsequent records by Feare and High (1977) and by Turner and Forbes-Watson (1976). HISTORY The e a r l y h i s t o r y of Bird I s l and is v i r t u a l l y unknown. The Eagle c a l l e d the re and charted t h e i s l a n d i n 1771. The Hirondelle , a French p r i v a t e e r with 180 people on board, was wrecked t h e r e i n 1808. "They proved water by sinking a p i t i n t h e sand, remain'd the re 22 days u n t i l they constructed a r a f t , on which a p a r t a r r ived a t Mahe" (Moresby 1842). Thereaf ter , a p a r t from Moresby's own v i s i t i n 1822, the re i s no information before t h e v i s i t of H.M.S. A l e r t s i x t y years l a t e r . Feare (1979) has out l ined t h e major changes i n the ecology of t h e i s l a n d brought about by guano mining and t h e in t roduct ion of t h e coconut. The former began i n 1895: before t h a t , i n 1882, Coppinger (1885, 211) found only two negroes s a l t i n g f i s h and b i rds . By e a r l y February 1896 385 tons of guano had been removed, and by e a r l y Apr i l 500 tons (Seychelles Archives B/44.195, 233). During 1900-1905 a t o t a l of 17,000 tons was exported, and t h e resource was apparently exhausted by 1906 (Baker 1963). The population a t this time (1903) numbered 42 men, 17 women and 31 chi ldren (Seychelles Archives C/SS/74(1), 139) ; subsequently it declined t o a t o t a l of 12 i n 1931, bu t then increased a s t h e p lan ta t ions were es t ab l i shed , t o 25 i n 1947 and 49 i n 1960. The p lan ta t ions had t h e e f f e c t of d r a s t i c a l l y reducing t h e a r e a avai lable f o r nes t ing seabi rds , and during the genera l disturbance in t roduct ions included r a t s , mice, donkeys, p igs , goats , c a t s and dogs. A new phase was opened i n 1971-73 by the c l ea r ing of t h e a i r s t r i p s and t h e opening of t o u r i s t accommodation, bu t t h i s increased a c c e s s i b i l i t y has coincided with a new ecologica l awareness on t h e p a r t of t h e owners and i n a considerable i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n of s c i e n t i f i c s tudies . ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We thank M. Guy and Mme Marie-France Savy f o r t h e i r generous help on Bird Is land i n 1976. 9 SILHOUETTE I E CURIEUSE \$HE PRASLIN COUSIN' COUSINE- I - M A R I E ANNE eTROMPEUSE ROCKS OMAMELLE I :-BRISANS ROCKS 'CHIMNEY ROCKS 4"30' -NODDY ROCK L'ILOT- . *;RIGATE Fig. 1. The Seychelles Bank BIRD KEY LANSING 1904 BOWMAN 1915-16 Figu re 2 . B i r d Key i n 1904 and 1915-16 (Millspaugh 1907, Bowman 1918) . BOWMAN 1915-16 b LONG K E Y Figure 3. Bush Key and Long Key i n 1915-16, 1937 and 1977 (Bowman 1918, Davis 1942, and S todda r t i n 1977) . 2 Scaevolo Cr] Sand a Rhlzophoro c Coconut 5 Sh~ngle Avlcenn~a ~ e s u v ~ u m Rubble Casuarlno Coklle. Sesuvlum. Euphorblo. lpomoeo - Beach rldge cres t o Surlano 0 Opunt~a .m*m Undercut shoreline T Tournefort~a Tall grasses 0 I I / Figure 4 . Bush and Long Keys i n 1977. BOWMAN 1915-16 EAST K E Y LANSING 1904 QJ 0 200 ? 5. Sand Key and East Kev in 1904. 1 9 1 ? - I & ? a 7 7 Sand Beach r idge crest Undercut shorel ine Cliff Scaevola Suriana x dead Suriana Tournefortia Ca ki le Sesuv i u m Uniola grassland w i th Suriana, Iva, Tournefortia - Figure 6 . East Key in 1977. Figure 7. Garden Key i n 1904, 1911-13, 1915-16, and 1937 (Millspaugh 1907, Vaughan 1918, Bowman 1918, and Davis 1942). LOGGERHEAD r\ Figu re 8 . Loggerhead Key i n 1904, 1915-16, 1937 and 1977 (Millspaugh 1907, Bowman 1918, Davis 1942, and S t o d d a r t i n 1977) . MI LLSPAUGH 1907 I B O W M A N 1918 Figu re 10. Sand o r H o s p i t a l Key i n 1904, 1915-16, and 1977 (Millspaugh 1907, Bowman 1918, and S t o d d a r t i n 1977) . ~ A D R Y TORTUGAS /y\ A PEDRO CAYS / 0 MORANT CAYS / \ ALACRAN / \ / v \ v GLOVERS REEF / \ Figure 11. Species-area r e l a t i o n s h i p s f o r t h e Dry Tortugas keys and o t h e r c o r a l i s l a n d s i n t h e Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea. Sources: Pedro Cays: Chapman 1944, S t e e r s 1940, S t e e r s et al. 1940, Zans 1958, Fosberg unpublished obse rva t ions i n 1962; Morant Cays: Chapman 1944, Asprey and Robbins 1953; Alacran: Fosberg 1962; Glover ' s Reef: woodland on Bush Key and t h e ex tens ive mangrove on Long Key. Compare t h i s view wi th t h a t i n Davis (1940) , p l a t e 12 . P1. 2 . Bush Key: herb m a t dominated by Sesuviwn a long t h e south c o a s t . 1(" - / P1. 3. Bush Key: Tournefortia and Opuntia scrub on t h e narrow e a s t e r n s p i t . P l . 4 . Bush Key: t a l l Conocarpus woodl~and on t h e eroding no r th shore . -, . ;:=, .,: , - . . l -. . y-..J~iL*&tg& * P I . 5 . Bush Key: Avicennia woodland i n t h e e a s t e r n bay. P1. 6. Eas t Key: Uniola paniculata and Iva imbricata on t h e e a s t e r n r i d g e . P1. 7. East Key: Uniola paniculata a t t h e e rod ing n o r t h e a s t p o i n t . P1. 8. East Key: open vege t a t i on of UnioZa, Sesuviwn, and Cakile ( fo reground) i n t h e sou th-cen t ra l p a r t of t h e key. P1. 9 . Loggerhead Key: t a l l Casuarina woodland i n t b e middle of t h e key, seen from t h e anchorage on t h e e a s t s i d e . P1. 11. Sand Key: s e e n from t h e west end ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN NO. 254 NATURAL HISTORY OF RAINE ISLAND, GREAT BARRIER REEF by D. R. Stoddart, P. E. Gibbs, and D. Hopley Issued by THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Washington, D. C., U.S.A. July 1981 CONTENTS Introduction General description Geology and geomorphology Topography Lithology Stratigraphy Sediments Interpretation and subsequent observations Phosphate deposits Water supply Vegetation and flora Invertebrates Marine Turtles Birds Ducula s p i l o r r h o a s p i l o r r h o a R a l l u s ph i l i p p e n s i s y o r k i ~ a l l i n u l a p o r p h y r i o m e l a n o t u s P u f f i n u s p a c i f i c u s Pterodroma a r m i n j o n i a n a h e r a l d i c a F r e g a t a m i n o r Frega ta a r i el S u l a l e u c o g a s t e r p l o t u s S u l a s u l a r u b r i p e s S u l a d a c t y l a t r a p e r s o n a t a P e l e c a n u s c o n s p i ci 11 a t u s Phae t hon r u b r i cauda S t e r n a b e r g i i S t e r n a f u s c a t a n u b i l o s a S t e r n a a n a e t h e t u s a n a e t h e t u s Anous s t o l i d u s p i l e a t u s Anous m i n u t u s m i n u t u s Larus n o v a e h o l l a n d i a e forsteri A r e n a r i a i n t e r p r e s i n t e r p r e s P l u v i a l i s s q u a t a r o l a P l u v i a l i s d o m i n i c a f u l v a Numenius phaeopus v a r i e g a t u s Limosa 1 appon ica b a u e r i C a l i d r i s r u f i c o l l i s C a l i d r i s acumina ta E g r e t t a a l b a modes ta E g r e t t a s a c r a Nycticorax caledonicus hilli Merops orna t us Hi rundo ni gri cans ni gri cans Myiagra rubecula rubecula Aplonis metallica metallica Disturbance by Man Construction of the Beacon Wreck of the Enchantress Beche-de-mer Fishery Phosphate mining Acknowledgements References List of Figures The northern Great Barrier Reef, showing the location of Raine Island. Raine Island and its reef. Monthly distribution of rainfall at Willis Island, 1921-1971 (data from Taylor 1973). Raine Island in 1844, from Jukes (1847), vol. I, p. 338. Profile of Raine Island, from Jukes (18471, vol. I, p. 339. Map of Raine Island. The areas in the central guano flat are the seabird survey areas detailed in Table 2. Topographic profile of Raine Island. Sediment samples from Raine Island. Histogram of curved carapace length of turtles measured on the nest, night of 3 November 1973. 10. Section and elevation of the Raine Island Beacon, 1844, after Bateson (1972), p. 201. List of Tables 1. Visitors to Raine Island. 2. S u l a l e u c o g a s t e r and S u l a d a c t y l a t r a in sample areas of the central guano flat, midday, 3 November 1973. L i s t of P l a t e s (grouped a t t h e end of t h e paper) Raine I s l and i n 1844, from Jukes (1847). The c e n t r a l guano f l a t from t h e west end of t h e i s l a n d , looking towards t h e Beacon. The r idge i n t h e foreground i s t h e s i t e of t h e o l d guano rai lway. Eas tern end of t h e c e n t r a l guano f l a t , with Brown and Masked Gannets. Mounds of rubble and s tones i n t h e c e n t r a l guano f l a t . Massive beachrock on t h e no r theas t shore. Grooved and furrowed beachrock on t h e no r theas t shore. Beachrock now d i s t a n t from t h e beach on t h e nor th shore. Phosphatic beachrock unconformably over ly ing o l d eroded beachrock a t t h e e a s t end of t h e i s l and . C l i f f s i n phosphate rock a t t h e sou theas t end of t h e i s l and . I r r e g u l a r lower su r face of t h e phosphate rock, forming caves, on t h e south s i d e o f t h e i s l and . Note t h e nes t ing Tropicbi rd beneath t h e overhang. D e t a i l of t h e columnar s t r u c t u r e of t h e phosphate rock. Detached remnants of phosphate rock , south s i d e of t h e i s l a n d . Western sand beach, showing e a r l y morning t u r t l e t r a c k s . T u r t l e n e s t s on t h e beach c r e s t a t t h e west end of t h e i s l a n d . Green T u r t l e on t h e no r theas t beachrock. T u r t l e remains i n L e p t u r u s grass land of t h e high r idge . Shearwater burrows i n f i n e guano a t t h e west end of t h e c e n t r a l guano f l a t . Mound i n t h e c e n t r a l guano f l a t with juveni le Lesser Fr iga te-b i rds . 19-21. Juven i l e Lesser Fr iga te-b i rds . 22. Brown Gannets l i n i n g t h e beachrock a t t h e e a s t end of t h e i s l and . 23. Brown Gannets on beachrock on t h e no r theas t shore. 24. Brown Gannets on the nest in the central guano area. Note the twigs outlining the nest. 25. Brown Gannets nesting in the L e p t u r u s grassland of the high ridge. No twigs surround the nest in the vegetated areas. 26-27. Masked Gannets on the nest in the central guano area. The nest is simply a depression in the sand. 28. Hatchling Masked Gannet in the central guano area. 29. Hatchling Masked Gannet with regurgitated flying fish C y p s i l u r u s m e l a n o c e r c u s in a nest in the central guano area. 30-31. Red-footed Gannets on nests built on low A b u t i l o n shrubs on the high ridge at the west end of the island. Fledgling Red-footed Gannet on the nest at the west end of the island. Juvenile Red-tailed Tropic-bird under the phosphate cliffs at the east end of the island. The Beacon and grave at the east end of the island, seen from the south in November 1973. The Beacon as erected in 1844, from N a u t i c a l Magaz ine , vol. 14 (1845), p. 267. The Beacon in November 1973. The dark area on the lower wall is that repaired by H.M.A.S. Gascoyne in 1961. Inscriptions inside the walls of the Beacon. The grave of Annie Eliza Ellis. SAUNDERS 4 Great. .,. - &L. . -~ +-.-- ... . . ..'..>/ : . . . .... _ +- + Detache< . , :+,BIRD .., .- .... . . , > . . ' Reef . ,. . . . . . , , .. Fig . 1. The n o r t h e r n Great B a r r i e r Reef , showing t h e l o c a t i o n o f Raine I s l a n d . NATURAL HISTORY OF RAINE ISLAND, GREAT BARRIER REEF by D. R. Stoddart1, P. E. Gibbs2, and D. Hopley3 INTRODUCTION Raine I s l a n d , on t h e nor thern Great B a r r i e r Reef, i s a small sand cay 850 m long and up t o 430 m wide. I t was t h e sub jec t of now c l a s s i c d e s c r i p t i o n s by Joseph Beete Jukes and John MacGillivray dur ing t h e voyage of H.M.S. Fly i n 1843-45, when a s u b s t a n t i a l s tone Beacon was b u i l t t h e r e . Severa l o t h e r s c i e n t i f i c p a r t i e s , inc luding t h a t of H.M.S. Challenger, have v i s i t e d t h e i s l a n d , b u t no genera l account e x i s t s of it. This i s t h e more s u r p r i s i n g , s i n c e it i s t h e most important breeding s t a t i o n f o r t r o p i c a l s e a b i r d s i n A u s t r a l i a , and has r e c e n t l y been shown t o be one of t h e wor ld ' s l a r g e s t nes t ing s i t e s f o r t h e Green T u r t l e . Much of Raine was o r i g i n a l l y covered wi th guano and l i g h t l y cemented phosphate rock , which formed t h e b a s i s of a b r i e f b u t cons iderable mining indus t ry i n 1890-92. Raine i s , i n f a c t , i n t e r e s t i n g not only i n i t s e l f b u t a l s o a s a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of a c l a s s of smal l , semi-arid guano and phosphate i s l a n d s i n t h e r ee f s eas . Among those r e c e n t l y s tud ied a r e s e v e r a l i n t h e Amirantes i n t h e western Indian Ocean; Laysan i n t h e Leeward Hawaiian I s l a n d s ; and s e v e r a l of t h e smal le r Phoenix I s l ands i n t h e c e n t r a l P a c i f i c . Raine i s t h e sma l l e s t of a l l of t hese : it is h a l f t h e s i z e of McKean and B i rn i e I s l a n d s i n t h e Phoenix group, and h a l f t h e s i z e of t h e Marie- Louise i n t h e Amirantes. Bird I s l a n d i n t h e Seychel les i s t h r e e t imes a s b i g a s Raine, and most of t h e o t h e r phosphate i s l a n d s a r e much l a r g e r . But i n s p i t e of i t s small dimensions, Raine i s of s u f f i c i e n t i n t e r e s t t o m e r i t b r inging a l l t h e a v a i l a b l e information on it t o g e t h e r , t oge the r wi th new observa t ions from t h e work of t h e Royal Socie ty and U n i v e r s i t i e s of Queensland Expedit ion t o t h e nor thern Great B a r r i e r Reef i n 1973. 1. Department of ~ e o ~ r a ~ h ~ , Downing P lace , Cambridge, England. 2. Marine B io log ica l Associat ion of t h e U . K . , The Laboratory, C i t a d e l H i l l , Plymouth, England. 3 . Department of Geography, James Cook Univers i ty of North Queensland, Townsvil le , A u s t r a l i a . Manuscript rece ived August 1980 -- Eds. Table 1. V i s i t o r s t o Raine Is land N Date Vessel Vis i to r s Notes References 1815 1843 29-30 Ju ly 1844 29 May-mid September 1845 25 January 1845 April- May 1846 5 August 1850 24-25 July 1860 ( -1 S u r r y Thomas Raine F i r s t recorded s ight ing H.M.S. F l y Capt.F.P. Blackwood, Short v i s i t J. B. Jukes H.M.S. F l y Capt.F.P. Blackwood, Shore pa r ty camped t o bu i ld Blackwood 1844a, J . B . Jukes, J. MacGillivray beacon; vegetable gardens 1844b, 1844c, (June o n l y ) , Lt J.M.R. Ince es tabl i shed. Geological, Jukes, 1847, botanica l and zoological work 1871; J. MacGillivray 1846 Heroine Capt.M. Mackenzie Short v i s i t ; goats introduced Mackenzie 1845 H.M.S. J. Sweatman Bramble Heroine Enchan t ress Capt. I'Anson Short v i s i t Short v i s i t Wrecked H.M.S. ' Capt. Mangles Denham, Short v i s i t Salamander A. Rattray Sweatman, MS Anon. 1846 Lack 1953 Rat t ray 1869 Raine and o the r i s l ands Crowther 1939 leased f o r guano digging 1865 March H.M.S. Capt. Mangles Denham Herald Table 1 continued Date Vessel Visitors Notes References 1874 31 August H.M.S. Capt. G. Nares, with Short visit, botanical and Campbell 1876; Challenger H.N. Moseley, J. Murray, zoological collections Spry 1876; J.Y. Buchanan Swire 1938; Buchanan 1874; Forbes 1878; Sclater and Salvin 1878; Moseley 1879; Miers 1886; Murray 1895 1910 30 October 1911 9-15 July 1913 4-12 December 1957 July 1959 7-14 and 22 February Beche-de-mer fishery Shore camps Guano digging Shore camps W.D.K. Macgillivray, Ornithology E.H. Dobbyn W.R. M'Lennan Ornithology W.D.K. Macgillivray, Ornithology W.R. M'Lennan D. Attenborough B.B.C. film unit on Raine for 4 days J. Warharn Ornithology; plants 1961 11 H.M.A.S. K.A. Hindwood, K. Keith, Ornithology; plants November Gascoyne G.F.Mees, I.Thomas D. Woodland, A. Bartholomai Ellis 1936 Ellis 1936; Arundel, MS; Hutchinson 1950 Macgillivray 1910; North 1912 Macgillivray 1914, 1917, 1918 Macgillivray 1914, 1917, 1918 Warham 1961, 1963, 1959 Hindwood, Keith and Serventy 1963; Hindwood 1964 W bP Table 1 continued Date Vessel Visitors Notes - References 1973 1-4 James D.R. Stoddart, P.E. Gibbs, 'Geomorphology, plant This report November Kirby D. Hopley collection, ornithology, turtles, crabs Since 1973 there have been several visits to Raine Island by the staff of the National Parks and Wildlife Service of Queensland, the Department of Zoology of James Cook University, and the Australian Institute of Marine Science at Townsville. GENERAL DESCRIPTION Raine I s l a n d i s loca t ed a t t h e leeward end of an ova l pa t ch r e e f 3.5 km long and 0.75 km wide, wi th an a r e a of 210 ha , no r th of t h e Grea t Detached Reef of t h e nor thern Grea t B a r r i e r Reef system, and 100 km ENE of Cape Grenv i l l e , t h e n e a r e s t p o i n t on t h e Queensland mainland (F igures 1 and 2 ) . Its co-ordinates a r e 11?36'S and 144?01'E. Jukes (1847) descr ibed t h e i s l a n d a s 1000 yds (915 m) long , 500 f t (150 m) wide, and up t o 20 f t (6 m ) h igh above h igh water l e v e l . The c e n t r a l p a r t of t h e i s l a n d he desc r ibed a s covered with a cap of ca lcareous sandstone, te rmina t ing on i t s seaward s i d e s i n a c l i f f 4-5 f t (1.2-1.5 m ) high. The Raine I s l and Reef has been termed a "small c o r a l a t o l l " (Tizard e t a1 . 1885, 11, 530) , b u t i n t h e absence of a lagoon t h i s usage seems inappropr i a t e . The f i r s t f u l l d e s c r i p t i o n s of t h e i s l a n d a r e t hose of Jukes (1847) and MacGillivray (1846), based on obse rva t ions made du r ing t h e t ime t h a t a beacon was being b u i l t on t h e e a s t e r n end of t h e i s l a n d by Capt F.P. Blackwood and H.M.S. Fly i n 1844. The i s l a n d was subsequently occupied dur ing 1890-92, when t e n s of thousands of t o n s of phosphate were dug and exported. Twenty y e a r s l a t e r , a t t h e t ime of W. Macg i l l i v ray ' s v i s i t s , s eab i rds were abundant, and t h e i s l a n d i s s t i l l "probably t h e most important breeding s t a t i o n f o r t r o p i c a l sea- b i r d s i n Aus t r a l i an seas" (Warham 1961, 7 7 ) . I t is a l s o a major n e s t i n g s i t e f o r Green T u r t l e s , though t h i s has a t t r a c t e d l e s s a t t e n t i o n i n t h e s c i e n t i f i c l i t e r a t u r e . No weather records have ever been kept a t Raine. During Apr i l t o November t h e Southeast Trades blow cons t an t ly ; dur ing December t o March t h e Trades r e t r e a t t o t h e south and a r e rep laced by calms and n o r t h e r l i e s . Most r a i n f a l l occurs dur ing t h i s second per iod . Mean annual r a i n f a l l has been es t imated by A.T. Bath ( i n Warham 1961) a s 1000 m (40 i n c h e s ) ; t h i s i s very c lose t o t h e mean f o r W i l l i s I s l a n d i n t h e Coral Sea (16?18'S, 14g059'E) , where t h e mean annual r a i n f a l l 1921-1971 was 1098 mm (Figure 3 ) . R e l i a b i l i t y of r a i n f a l l a t W i l l i s , and probably a l s o a t Raine, i s low; annual t o t a l s a t W i l l i s over t h e pe r iod of record range from a minimum of 240 mm ( i n 1966) t o a maximum of 2024 m ( i n 1959). Overnight dew i s probably an important source of mois ture on t h e s e i s l a n d s . T ida l range has been es t imated a s 10-12 f t (3.0-3.7 m ) (Blackwood 1844a, 540; Fa i rb r idge 1950, 352) . Mean t i d a l range a t sp r ings f o r i s l a n d s c l o s e r t o t h e mainland between Cape Grenv i l l e and Cape Melv i l l e , however, ranges from 5.2 t o 6 .8 f t (1.6-2.1 m ) , i nc reas ing northwards t o 8.4 f t (2.6 m) near Cape York. GEOLOGY AND GEOMORPHOLOGY Topography MacGillivray (1846, 1474) described t h e following main f e a t u r e s of t h e i s land: ( a ) a s t eep beach, 20 yards (18 m ) o r more i n width. (b) a "more o r l e s s continuous, low, wal l - l ike border of c o r a l rock, i t s faces much decomposed by t h e weather, and hollowed o u t i n a s ingular manner. ... This rock, which ranges from a conglomerate t o a coarse sandstone, i s i n general s o f t and crumbles r ead i ly . ... This bed of sandstone i s not more than a few f e e t i n th ickness , and e x h i b i t s proof of i t s recen t formation, by containing s h e l l s and fragments of c o r a l , s p e c i f i c a l l y i d e n t i c a l with l i v i n g inhab i t an t s of t h e r e e f , and occasionally eggs of t u r t l e , apparently a s i f , while in situ i n t h e loose sand of what was then a mere sand-bank, some chemical agency had converted t h e whole t o a bed of stone". According t o MacGillivray t h e edge of t h e c l i f f reached a he ight of 24 f t (7.3 m ) above sea l e v e l . ( c ) a lower c e n t r a l a rea with a surface cover of " r i ch black mould" . Jukes (1847, I , 339) presented a schematic sec t ion through these f ea tu res . Figures 4 and 5 give Jukes ' s map and p r o f i l e of Raine I s l and a s surveyed i n 1844. Figure 6 i s a map of Raine surveyed by pacing and compass t r a v e r s e i n November 1973, and Figure 7 i s a p r o f i l e across t h e cen t re of t h e i s l a n d surveyed a t t h a t time. The datum is in fe r red from t h e measurement of a s t i l l water l e v e l a t a given time, and comparison with t i d e p red ic t ions f o r S i r Charles Hardy I s l ands , t h e nea res t p lace f o r which p red ic t ions a r e ava i l ab le ; t h e Standard Por t i s Cairns (Department of Harbours and Marine 1973). These d a t a show the following topographic f ea tu res : ( a ) t h e ou te r beach, genera l ly 20 m wide and 5 m high, with i n t e r m i t t e n t beachrock; (b) t h e unvegetated beach c r e s t , ho r i zon ta l o r f a l l i n g s l i g h t l y landwards, 20-25 m wide; (c) a low a rea of tussock grass land, varying i n width from 10 t o 80 m but averaging 30-40 m , with average e leva t ion 4 m o r a l i t t l e l e s s ; (d) a c l i f f of cemented sandstone, of i n t r i c a t e o u t l i n e i n d e t a i l and with some i s o l a t e d i s l ands of sandstone i n t h e tussock grass land, undercut and cavernous, genera l ly 1-1.5 m high, with t h e outer edge reaching a uniform height of 6 m; ( e ) a high r idge of uncemented sand, with g rass and herb cover, widest i n t h e south (average 100 m bu t varying from 75 t o 110 m ) and narrower i n the north (average 35 m, varying from 25 t o 75 m ) , with a maximum elevat ion of about 9 m; ( f ) a c e n t r a l , unvegetated f l a t , with a superficially-cemented surface of white guano, with an e levat ion of 6 m accordant with t h e height of t h e per iphera l c l i f f edges. Areas of t h e d i f f e r e n t topographic u n i t s derived by planimetry from t h e map i n Figure 5 a r e a s follows: outer beach slope 3.72 ha unvegetated beach c r e s t 3.23 ha tussock grass depression 6.75 ha high r idge c r e s t 9.58 ha c e n t r a l guano f l a t 4.04 ha t o t a l a rea 27.3 ha These f igures do not include the area of i n t e r t i d a l beachrock, which covers another 0.68 ha. Lithology The nature of the "cora l rock" was f i r s t s tudied by Jukes, both a t outcrop on h i s f i r s t v i s i t i n 1843 (Jukes 1847, I , 128) and i n quar r i e s opened during t h e e rec t ion of t h e Beacon i n 1844 (1847, I , 337-340). He found t h a t "the stone was made up of small round g ra ins , some of them apparently r o l l e d b i t s of c o r a l and s h e l l , bu t many of them evidently concretionary, having concentric coats ... not unlike some v a r i e t i e s of o o l i t e i n t ex tu re and appearance. I t contained l a rge r fragments of co ra l and s h e l l s , and some pebbles of pumice, and it yie lded occasionally a f i n e sand t h a t was not calcareous, and which was probably derived from t h e pumice. Some p a r t s of it made a very f a i r building s t o n e l b u t it got s o f t e r below, till it passed downwards i n t o a coarser cora l sand, unconsolidated and f a l l i n g t o p ieces on being touched" (1847, I , 127-128). Excavations f o r t h e quar r i e s revealed drusy c a v i t i e s with gypsum, many recent s h e l l s , and one o r two n e s t s of t u r t l e eggs (1847, I , 128, 3401, a s well a s pumice pebbles (1847, I , 337). In 1874 Moseley (1879, 299-300) observed t h a t t h e rock was evenly bedded, the bedding being hor izonta l i n the cent re and towards t h e sea round t h e shore. On t h e nor theas t s i d e near t h e Beacon he quotes a d ip of seven degrees. Moseley a l s o c o n t r a s t s t h e white sand, consis t ing of s h e l l s , c o r a l s and Foraminifera, of t h e beaches, with t h e a reas above high water mark, which were redder and had a consolidated c r u s t (1879, 300) . St ra t ig raphy Two ho les were dug during t h e Fly expedi t ion i n the c e n t r e of t h e i s l and . One dug by Jukes t o a depth of 5 f t 1 i n (1.5 m ) showed t h e following sec t ion : 0 - 6 inches ( 0 - 15 cm) "Good black vegetable mould" 6 - 9 inches (15 - 23 cm) "Stone, brown mott led with white , hard and coarse grained" 9 - 25 inches (23 - 63 cm) "Rich moist black s o i l , l i k e bog- e a r t h " 25 - 61 inches (63- 155 cm) "Stone of a l i g h t brown co lour , r a t h e r s o f t , bu t tough, and y ie ld ing slowly t o t h e pickaxe" (Jukes 1847, I , 127) . MacGil l ivray 's p i t t he fol lowing year reached a depth of 16 f t (4.9 m ) , with the following sec t ion : 0 - 3 inches (0 - 7.6 cm) "Fine c o r a l sandstone" 3 - 12 inches (7.6 - 30.5 cm) "Moist pulveru lent b lack e a r t h , resembling p e a t , bu t without any t r a c e of woody f i b r e s " 1 - 13 f e e t ( 3 0 . 5 cm - 3.96 m) "Successive d e p o s i t s , varying from coarse c o r a l conglomerate t o unconcreted ca lcareous sand mixed with a few small s c a t t e r e d fragments of c o r a l and s h e l l s " 13 - 14 f e e t ( 3 . 9 6 - 4.27 m ) "Masses and l a r g e fragments of c o r a l (of spec ie s now a l i v e on t h e r e e f ) , bleached and water-worn, loose ly inbedded i n coarse sand"; inf low of seawater took p lace a t t h i s depth. Sediments Sediment samples were taken from the beach s lope , beach berm and high r idge on t h e nor th , west and south s i d e s of t he i s l a n d ; t h e s e were mechanically analysed and components i d e n t i f i e d i n t h e f r a c t i o n coarser than 250 microns. Components were c l a s sed a s c o r a l and coralline algae, molluscs, platey Foraminifera (mainly Marginopora), sphericalForaminifera (including Baculogypsinoides), and Halirneda. All the samples are remarkably homogeneous. They lie in the size range of coarse sands (0.4 - 0.94); are well sorted (0.3 - 0.54); have near symmetrical distributions; and are mainly platykurtic. Two components dominate, molluscan fragments and spheroidal Foraminifera. Only on the leeward side do coral and coralline algal fragments contribute significantly to the coarse fraction. Molluscan fragments are more common on the beach and spherical Foraminifera on the berm and ridge, presumably because of the greater mobility of the latter. Small discrete lenses of platey Foraminifera, Halirneda and pumice were noted at the time of collection. Figure 8 gives sample curves for a beach (curve 1) and high ridge (curve 2) sample. Two samples were also taken from the centre of the island, one (curve 3 in Figure 8) from the central depression, and one (curve 4) from its surrounding ridge. The central depression sample has a mean size of 1.04, is moderately sorted, symmetrical and leptokurtic; it differs from the beach and berm sediments in its fine tail (coarser than 2.04). The north ridge sample is much finer (mean size 2.34), is poorly sorted (1.254), symmetrical and platykurtic. Its distribution differs markedly from that of the beach sands. Interpretation and subsequent observations Jukes (1847, I, 339-340) believed that the geology of the island could be explained by (1) the formation of a sand cay at the leeward end of the reef; (2) the formation of a crust by solution and redeposition of calcium carbonate above high water mark: (3) the cessation of accumulation and the cliffing of the lithified material; and (4) the later resumption of sand accumulation to form the present peripheral sand ridge. The age of the whole island he believed was indicated by the thickness of up to 2 ft of "vegetable mould" in the central depression. Moseley in 1874 compared the rocks of Raine with the "calcareous sand rock" or aeolianite of Bermuda, except that the former was more evenly bedded. Jukesls interpretation is largely confirmed by recent observations, though following the large-scale guano digging of 1890-92 it is no longer possible to be sure that surface features are not of human origin, at least in the central depression. Many later interpretations, often involving sea-level changes, are less closely related to the facts of lithology and stratigraphy than was Jukesls. Rattray (1869, 303) described Raine as "consisting of hard compact brecciated coral conglomerate, with a shelving beach of coarse coralline and shelly sand, and a scanty superstratum composed of the coral debris sparingly mixed with vegetable matter, and a thin layer of guano1'. He suggested that the present island had been formed beneath the sea and had then undergone emergence, and he termed the island an "extinct" coral reef. Neither Jukes nor MacGillivray had described a coral conglomerate or any raised reef. Several subsequent workers accepted Rattray's inference of emergence, however, from Agassiz (1898, 124) onwards. Fairbridge (1950, 352) states that Raine is " in pa r t a t l e a s t , an emerged beach rock. With a t i d a l range of 10-12 f e e t and an extra 2-3 f e e t t o include mean swash, an emergence of about 10-11 f e e t i s indicated. Rattray (1869) a l so mentioned a raised coral breccia here. A def in i te ly emerged coral reef occurs some 12 miles southwest of Raine Island (Jukes 1847). I t is 2-3 miles long and 0.25 miles wide, with P o r i t e s colonies i n the posit ion of growth 10- 12 f e e t above the present reef growth level". Fairbridge i n a l a t e r paper .(1967, 403) called Raine "the only emerged reef island on the whole outer bar r ie r ; Jukes observed tha t it consis ts of a calcareous aeol iani te , with an emerged beachrock te r race here ascribed t o the 3 m mid-Holocene stage. The aeol iani te , by analogy with other offshore occurrences i n Australia ... is probably of l a t e g l ac i a l (Wiirm) age, when sea leve l was low enough t o permit wide beaches t o form and dune accumulations t o develop". According t o Bennett (1971, 371, Raine "consists of older , so l id i f ied reef material formed a t a period when the sea level was higher", and the stone used for the Beacon was "quarried out of the so l id reef". These conclusions evidently go substant ia l ly beyond the f ac t s so well recorded by Jukes and MacGillivray i n 1843-44, and a re not supported by evidence collected then or observable now. The 3 m mid-Holocene "emerged beachrock terrace" of Fairbridge i s not beachrock, i s not emerged ( i n the sense of being now a t a higher level with respect t o sea leve l than when it was formed), and does not stand a t 3 m. The c l i f f edges stand a t 6 m and are accordant with the central guano f l a t . A l l the beachrock a t Raine Island is a t low in t e r t i da l l eve ls , and there i s no evidence t h a t any beachrock there is raised: a radiocarbon date (ANU-1591) on a T r i d a c n a valve from beachrock a t spring-tide swash level is 1180 + 65 yr B.P. (Polach et a l . 1978, 151). There i s no evidence tha t the main cemented horizon which outcrops in the c l i f f s i s an aeol iani te (cross-bedding and similar sedimentary s t ructures seem t o be completely lacking) , and a l l the evidence indicates t h a t it i s a super f ic ia l cementation phenomenon, decreasing with depth, in the way t h a t Jukes envisaged. I t is a cay sandstone in which the cement i s par t ly phosphatic, and cementation probably represents a continuing process ra ther than a discrete event. The "raised reef" 12 miles southwest of Raine Island, described by Jukes and t o which Fairbridge r e f e r s , was a l so v i s i ted i n 1973: it is not a raised reef and there are no P o r i t e s colonies i n the posit ion of growth: it i s simply a deposit of large storm boulders near the reef edge, a l l now much eroded, and having no significance with respect t o changes in sea level. Phosphate deposits No detai led account of the Raine Island phosphates, mined i n the central area in 1890-92, has been published, and no analyses of the material are known. According t o Saville-Kent (1893, 120), "the deposits occur under three d i s t i n c t conditions: F i r s t l y , i n layers some f i f t een inches thick, immediately beneath the upper c rus t of coral conglomerate, which const i tutes the encircling plateau described by Mr Jukes; secondly, i n pothole-like hollows in the same location; and th i rd ly , i n trench-like depressions in the central black ear th basin". The c l i f f s probably r e t a i n much of t h e i r o r i g i n a l appearance, s i n c e t h e mining was c a r r i e d o u t i n t h e c e n t r a l f l a t ; they c lose ly resemble comparable c l i f f s on o the r i s l a n d s with phosphatic cementation, such a s Denis I s l and , Seychelles (Fryer 1910, 18-19, P l a t e 2 ) . The cementation i s g r e a t e s t a t higher l e v e l s and diminishes with depth; t h e lower surface of t h e cemented horizon i s i r r e g u l a r , and forms a s e r i e s of downward-directed lobes and p i l l a r s . These probably ind ica te d i f f e r e n t i a l permeabil i ty i n t h e o r i g i n a l l y uncemented sands. T.P. Scoff in has examined specimens from t h e upper p a r t of t h e c l i f f s a s p a r t of a wider study of co ra l i s l a n d phosphates. The g ra ins i n the sands a r e of va r i ab le o r i g i n : Foraminifera 40%, Halimeda 30%, cora l lo%, mollusc l o % , unknown 10%. Phosphatic cement occurs a s a wavy t h i n f i lm with laminated s t r u c t u r e coating t h e individual g ra ins ; the g ra ins themselves have been a l t e r e d c e n t r i p e t a l l y f o r d i s t ances of a few microns from t h e g ra in margins. The phosphate mineral is hydroxylapati te; t h e o the r main mineral present is aragoni te , with a t r a c e of c a l c i t e . The presence of aragoni te suggests a younge age f o r the mater ia l . Chemical composition i s 31.0% P205, 54.0% CaO. WATER SUPPLY There is no standing surface water on Raine, except poss ib ly f o r a few days immediately a f t e r storms. During the Fly expedit ion water was imported from S i r Charles Hardy's I s lands f o r t h e men building the Beacon. Jukes (1847, 11, 266) says t h a t "one o r two wel ls were sunk i n the i s l a n d , but no f r e s h water was procured; although i n one of t h e we l l s , a t a depth of 16 f e e t , t he water was only brackish, and could be used t o s lack t h e l ime, although very unpalatable t o t h e t a s t e " . Arundel i n 1890 had t o cons t ruc t a seawater d i s t i l l a t i o n p l a n t f o r h i s work force . Warham (1961, 78-79) a l s o s t a t e s t h a t the re is no f resh water and t h a t "various at tempts t o s t r i k e it by digging i n t h e p a s t have fa i l ed" . A carved i n s c r i p t i o n on t h e ins ide of the wal ls of t h e Beacon, however, apparently of mid-nineteenthcenturydate (it is mentioned i n Arundel 's d ia ry i n 1890), s t a t e s t h a t f r e s h water can be obtained a t a depth of 7 f e e t . VEGETATION AND FLORA The vegetat ion of Raine Is land c o n s i s t s of low shrubs, herbs and grasses ; t h e r e a r e no t r e e s . To Blackwood (1844a, 539) it was t h e "quanti ty of coarse green vegetat ion on it" which d is t inguished Raine from most of t h e o the r small sand cays i n t h i s northern reef area ; he was c l e a r l y th inking of unvegetated sand cays i n t h e v i c i n i t y , such a s those on Ashmore Reef. Jukes (1847, I , 127) described "a low shrubby vegeta t ion , p a r t l y of reed-l ike o r umbelliferous p l a n t s , and p a r t l y with a c lose green ca rpe t of a p l a n t with succulent leaves and stem, which we subsequently found was good t o e a t , and so went with us by t h e name of 'spinach"' ( t h i s was probably Portulaca) . MacGillivray (1846, 1475) gave a f u l l e r account, though unfortunately unsupported by specimens: "Of the Botany of the i s l e t I can give but a very meagre account, for a col lect ion of about twenty species, found by me, unfortunately went t o decay for want of a proper place of storage on board ship. Several of these species I have elsewhere observed on the main land of New Holland; among others , a long, t r a i l i n g , woody plant with conspicuous yellow blossoms [probably Tribulus c i s to ides ] , and a large white-flowered convolvulus [probably Ipomoea macranthal. Two species, very abundant, on the is land, were used by us a s vegetables, one of them under the name of spinach [Portulaca], fo r which it was considered a very f a i r subs t i tu te , and a s such served out t o the sh ip ' s company. Most of the p lan ts of the island a re more o r l ess succulent; there i s but one shrub, a slender Acacia, f i ve or s i x f ee t high, with small yellow flowers [probably Sesbania]". The surrounding sand area had "a few scat tered t u f t s of grass and other herbage" (MacGillivray 1846, 1474). A var ie ty of cul t ivated plants was introduced during the Fly expedition and during the v i s i t of the Heroine i n 1845; they aredescribed l a t e r . The Challenger Expedition i n 1874 recorded 11 species of flowering p lan ts , including two grasses. They noted fungi on dung, but no mosses, ferns o r l ichens. There was a l so no t race of the Fly vegetable gardens or of other introductions. No species l is t appears t o have been published from these col lect ions (Moseley 1879). In 1910 W. Macgillivray (1910, 224 ) found "a coarse grass , a kind of pig-face weed, and a low perennial shrub of horizontal growth, not more than 1 t o 1* f e e t from the groundanywhereland bearing grey-green leaves and a yellow flower". These were probably Lepturus repens, Portulaca sp. , and Tribul u s c i s to ides , respectively. In February 1959, a f t e r good r a in s , Warham (1961, 78) found only s ix species of flowering p lan ts , "the pr incipal one being a kind of mallow (Abutilon graveolus o r indica) which was flowering, a spinach- l i ke amaranth (Amaranthus v i r i d i s ) and a low bushy p lan t Tribulus c is toides . This bore orange flowers and i s probably the 'acacia ' of the ear ly v i s i t o r s of the island [Abutilon and Tribulus appear confused in t h i s account]. Two grasses a l so flourished: Eleusine indica, an introduced species, and Lepturus repens, a native plant . This grew qui te thickly on the dunes on the south-east side of the island. A low succulent a lso grew around the edges of the cen t ra l depression [probably Portulaca sp . ] . None of these plants was more than two f e e t high". The only published l i s t of Raine Island plants appears t o be t ha t of Hindwood e t a1 . (1963, 44) , based on col lect ions made i n November 1961 and lodged i n the Queensland Herbarium, Brisbane, and the Division of Plant Industry, C.S.I.R.O., Canberra. Six species are recorded, and it i s l i ke ly from Warham's records two years e a r l i e r t h a t others were missed. p l a n t s were c o l l e c t e d i n 1973 a n d w e r e i d e n t i f i e d by M i s s S. Reynolds a t t h e Queensland Herbarium, Brisbane. The fol lowing l is t inc ludes t h e p l a n t s c i t e d by Hindwood et a l . (1963). Gramineae E l e u s i n e i n d i c a ( L . ) Gaertn. S todda r t 5061. Also c i t e d by Warham (1961, 78) . L e p t u r u s r e p e n s R . B r . c f . v a r . r e p e n s Stodda r t 5051, 5059. Also c i t e d by Warham (1961, 78) and Hindwood et a l . (1963, 4 4 ) . Nyctaginaceae ~ o e r h a v i a s p . Stodda r t 5054 (specimen lost) .Hindwood e t a l . (1963, 44) a l s o c i t e Boerhav ia t e t r a n d r a F o r s t . , b u t t h e specimen c o l l e c t e d i n 1973 i s n o t t h i s spec i e s . Amaranthaceae A c h y r a n t h e s a s p e r a L. S todda r t 5053. C i t e d by Hindwood e t a l . (1963, 4 4 ) . Amaranthus v i r i d i s L. S todda r t 5057, 5058? Warham (1961, 78) a l s o c i t e s Amaranthus v i r i d i s . Por tu lacaceae P o r t u l a c a o l e r a c e a L. ( s e n s u l a t o ) Stodda r t 5056. Poss ib ly t h e p l a n t mentioned by W . Macgi l l iv ray (1910, 224) and Warham (1961, 78 ) . C ruc i f e r ae Coronopus i n t e g r i f o l i u s Spreng. S todda r t 5060 Leguminosae S e s b a n i a cf . a c u l e a t a P o i r . Stodda r t 5050. S e s b a n i a a c u l e a t a is c i t e d by Hindwood e t a l . (1963, 4 4 ) . Zygophyllaceae T r i b u l u s c i s t o i d e s L. S todda r t 5055. C i t ed by Warham (1961, 78) and Hindwood e t a l . (1963, 4 4 ) ; p o s s i b l y t h e p l a n t mentioned by MacGillivray (1846, 1475). Malvaceae A b u t i l o n a s i a t i c u m va r . a u s t r a l i e n s e (Noch. ex B r i t t . ) Fosb. S todda r t 5052. C i t e d a s A. i n d i c u m (L . ) Sweet by Hindwood e t a l . (1963, 4 4 ) ; probably t h e p l a n t s mentioned by W. Macgi l l iv ray (1910, 224) and Warham (1961, 7 8 ) . Convolvulaceae Ipomoea macrantha R. and S. Not c o l l e c t e d i n 1973 o r by Hindwood et al. (1963). Poss ib ly t h e p l a n t mentioned by MacGillivray (1846, 1475) . INVERTEBRATES Most o f t h e c o l l e c t i o n s o f i n v e r t e b r a t e s made a t and near Raine I s l a n d have been of marine animals dur ing t h e Challenger Expedi t ion. These a r e l i s t e d by Murray (1895, 682-688); they comprise mainly s p e c i e s o f Ostracoda, Mollusca and Foramini fe ra , wi th on ly a few l and o r shore animals . The most conspicuous, indeed t h e on ly , s e m i - t e r r e s t r i a l c ru s t acean i s t h e ghos t c r a b Ocypode. Moseley c o l l e c t e d a s i n g l e male specimen o f 0. ceratophthalma ( P a l l a s ) , recorded by Miers (1886, 238-239). I n 1973 t h e popula t ion was predominantly 0. ceratophthalma with a few 0. cordimana Desmarest, t h e two s p e c i e s being r ep re sen t ed i n a sample of 60 i n d i v i d u a l s i n a r a t i o o f 6 .5 : 1. Coenobi t id hermi t c r a b s , elsewhere common on guano i s l a n d s i n t h e c e n t r a l P a c i f i c and Ind i an Oceans and a l s o i n t h e Caribbean, appear t o be completely absen t on Raine and o t h e r Grea t B a r r i e r Reef i s l a n d s . Mole-crabs of t h e genus Hippa i n h a b i t t h e coarse sands of t h e lower beach l e v e l s ; a l though H. pacifica (Dana) was t h e only s p e c i e s c o l l e c t e d i n 1973, it seems l i k e l y t h a t H. celaeno (de Man), a commoner s p e c i e s on o t h e r r e e f i s l a n d s i n t h e reg ion ( s ee Gibbs 1978) , is p r e s e n t a l s o . Among i n s e c t s , MacGillivray (1846) noted a l a r g e s ca rab , Coleoptera i nc lud ing Hister, Necrobia c f . ruficollis, and Dermestes murinus; Pimelia; and ixod id t i c k s . Moseley (1879, 302) found an earwig Forficula under s tones and a very common l o c u s t Acridium. No f u r t h e r i n v e r t e b r a t e c o l l e c t i o n s appear t o have been made. MARINE TURTLES The Green T u r t l e n e s t i n g season a t Raine I s l a n d i s concent ra ted from October t o December; v i s i t o r s o u t s i d e t h e s e t i m e s have u s u a l l y made few t u r t l e obse rva t ions . Parsons (1962) i n h i s s tandard work on t h e Green T u r t l e makes no mention o f Raine I s l a n d , and while Bustard (1972) inc ludes Raine I s l a n d i n a map a s an important n e s t i n g s i te he makes no mention o f it i n h i s t e x t . Yet Raine i s c e r t a i n l y one of t h e l a r g e s t Green T u r t l e n e s t i n g si tes i n t h e world, and could be t h e l a r g e s t remaining s t i l l undis turbed by man. J u k e s ' s f i r s t v i s i t i n J u l y 1843 produced few records . "There w e r e a few t u r t l e t r a c k s on t h e beach, b u t w e d i d n o t succeed i n t a k i n g any, though many dead ones were s c a t t e r e d about t h e i s l a n d " , e s p e c i a l l y a t t h e f o o t o f t h e c l i f f (Jukes 1847, I , 130) . During t h e 1844 v i s i t , MacGillivray (1846, 1479) found t h a t "during t h e months o f June , J u l y and August, t h e t u r t l e occur red a t i r r e g u l a r i n t e r v a l s , gene ra l l y s i n g l y , b u t i n t h e beginning of September they became more numerous". I n t h e fol lowing year a p a r t y from t h e Bramble found t h e c l i f f s and q u a r r i e s " f u l l of t h e remains [of t u r t l e s ] ... who had f a l l e n over on t h e i r backs and per i shed miserably". They took 14 t u r t l e by tu rn ing them on t h e beaches a t n i g h t , some of them being of 250-300 l b s weight (roughly 110-140 k g ) . Sweatman (MS, 94-95) g ives a graphic account of t ak ing t u r t l e dur ing t h i s v i s i t . Mackenzie (1845, 494) , c a l l i n g with t h e Heroine on 25 January 1845, "obtained four teen l a r g e t u r t l e s , each averaging fou r cwt [ca 200 kg]" . I n August 1874 t h e C h a l l e n g e r found only t h e carapaces of numerous dead t u r t l e s (Moseley 1879, 302). Conversely, Macgil l ivray (1910, 224) , on 30 October 1910, found " g r e a t numbers of t u r t l e s ... on t h e beach and i n t h e shallow water round t h e boat" . On 4 December 1913 he found t h a t "about t h i r t y t u r t l e s were crawling up t h e beach near where we landed, and t h e shallow water contained hundreds of them", coming ashore a t n i g h t t o n e s t (Macgil l ivray 1917, 6 7 ) . During t h e F l y v i s i t , MacGillivray (1846, 1478-1479) noted t h a t a l l t h e t u r t l e seen were Green, C h e l o n i a mydas , and t h a t they l a i d c l u t c h e s of a t l e a s t f i f t y eggs. He found t h a t t h e hatching young su f fe red p reda t ion by f r i g a t e b i r d s and sooty t e r n s , and s i x t y y e a r s l a t e r Macgil l ivray (1917, 84) recorded predat ion of eggs by Crested Tern S t e r n a b e r g i i and S i l v e r Gull Larus n o v a e - h o l l a n d i a e . Green T u r t l e were nes t ing during t h e v i s i t t o Raine I s l a n d i n 1973. Tracks were counted round t h e i s l a n d each morning. Measured a t t h e f o o t of t he beach, t h e per imeter of t h e i s l a n d occupied by sand ( inc luding t h e low and discontinuous narrow beachrock of t h e nor thern c o a s t ) t o t a l s 1600 m, and t h a t occupied by beachrock 500 m (76 and 24% r e s p e c t i v e l y ) . Numbers counted on t h e beach only were a s fol lows: Tracks Animals Night of 31 October 324 162 1 November 245 12 3 2 November 2 30 115 3 November 2 70 135 During t h e n i g h t of 3 November, animals were a l s o counted on t h e n e s t both on sandy beaches and a l s o in land from beachrock shores. The r a t i o of t racks:animals on t h e beaches can then be used t o i n f e r t h e number of t r a c k s which might be expected on t h e beachrock shores , t o g ive an e s t ima te of t h e t o t a l number coming ashore f o r t h e whole i s l a n d on t h a t n igh t . The r e s u l t s a r e : Beach Beachrock Whole i s l a n d ( a ) Animals counted on n e s t 87 38 125 (b ) Numbers i n f e r r e d from t r a c k s 13 5 Rat io (b) : ( a ) 1.55 I n f e r r e d t o t a l numbers 135 59 I n subsequent surveys, B i r t l e s (1978) es t imated t h e numbers of nes t ing t u r t l e s a t 11,800 i n 1974, 50 i n 1975, 1000 maximum i n 1976, and 50-100 i n 1977. Kowarsky (1978) a l s o made ground and a e r i a l observa t ions i n January 1976, b u t although t r a c k s were numerous he could no t make any e s t ima te of numbers. For comparison, a t I l e Europa, Mozambique Channel, sometimes s t a t e d t o be t h e l a r g e s t Green T u r t l e colony i n t h e world, Hughes (1974) es t imated 5,000 emergences a y e a r , and Servan (1976) 1300 a yea r . The prime nes t ing h a b i t a t on Raine i s t h e unvegetated sand a r e a s of t h e beach c r e s t , though a cons iderable number of t u r t l e s do n e s t i n t he o u t e r L e p t u r u s tussock g ra s s l and between t h e beach and t h e c l i f f s . P lan imet r ic measurements on Figure 5 i n d i c a t e a t o t a l a r e a of unvegetated beach c r e s t of 32,300 sq m. A t u r t l e 1 m long r e q u i r e s an a r e a of n o t l e s s than 1.54 s q m f o r i t s n e s t i n g depress ion . Hence t h e r e a r e approximately 21,000 p o t e n t i a l non-overlapping n e s t s i t e s i n t h e beach c r e s t a r ea . Two hundred t u r t l e s nes t ing i n one n i g h t would have 161.5 sq m each i n which t o choose a n e s t i n g s i t e . Each s i t e would have roughly 1 chance i n 100 of being s e l e c t e d . These c a l c u l a t i o n s g ive some i d e a of t h e p o s s i b l e p o t e n t i a l s i z e of t h e Raine I s l and colony. Elsewhere on t h e Great B a r r i e r Reef, on vegeta ted i s l a n d s , t h e s i z e of nes t ing a r e a a v a i l a b l e i s a l i m i t i n g f a c t o r i n t h e number of succes s fu l n e s t i n g s (Bustard and Tognet t i 1969): a t Raine I s l and t h i s i s un l ike ly t o be so . Kowarsky (1978) quotes a c l u t c h s i z e a t Raine of 105.8 + 22.0 eggs (n = 6). The curved carapace length of females on t h e n e s t was a l s o measured on t h e n i g h t of 3 November, and Figure 9 p r e s e n t s a histogram of t h e r e s u l t s . 124 animals were measured. The mean length was 109 cm, s tandard dev ia t ion 5.29 cm; t h e sma l l e s t measured was 90 cm long, and t h e l a r g e s t 122 cm. Bustard (1972, 138-141) quotes average f i g u r e s of 107 cm curved l eng th f o r Great B a r r i e r Reef Green T u r t l e s , and ranges of 89-127 cm. Curved length can be converted t o s t r a i g h t length us ing t h e formula der ived f o r Aldabra t u r t l e s by F r a z i e r (1971, 390) , and t h e c a l c u l a t e d s t r a i g h t l eng ths then used t o compare popula t ions i n d i f f e r e n t p a r t s of t h e world. The Raine I s l a n d t u r t l e s a r e very s i m i l a r i n s i z e t o those of Aldabra, markedly b igger than those of Ceylon, Yemen and Sarawak, and markedly sma l l e r than those of Guyana, Ascension I s l a n d and Surinam ( d a t a l i s t e d by F r a z i e r 1971, 380, and Servan 1976, 424) . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e 1973 d a t a , Kowarsky (1978) g ives mean s t r a i g h t l eng th of 100.2 + 5.5 and mean curved length 108.6 + 5.1 cm f o r fou r i nd iv idua l s a t Raine I s l and . While measuring t h e t u r t l e s i n 1973 it was observed t h a t animals d i f f e r e d markedly i n degree of curva ture of carapace. I n some t h e curva ture was so shallow t h a t it i s p o s s i b l e they belong t o C h e l o n i a d e p r e s s a Garman, t h e F la tback T u r t l e (Bustard 1972, 74-88) r a t h e r than t o C h e l o n i a mydas L. According t o Limpus (1978) , tagged t u r t l e s from Raine I s l and have been recovered from south of Cooktown, Queensland, through t h e Torres S t r a i t and southern Papua New Guinea t o Aru I s l and , Indonesia. I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e Green T u r t l e , Boulenger (1889) a l s o r eco rds t h e Hawksbill Eretmochelys imbricata ( a s Chelone imbricata) from Raine, b u t no subsequent r eco rds a r e known. BIRDS Raine I s l a n d i s a major breeding s t a t i o n f o r s e a b i r d s , and probably t h e most impor tan t i n terms of numbers of s p e c i e s on t h e Grea t B a r r i e r Reef. I t h a s l a r g e breeding c o l o n i e s of Brown and Masked Gannets, Noddies, Sooty Terns , and Wedge-tailed Shearwaters . I t i s a l s o a breeding s i t e f o r t h e Red- ta i led Tropic-bird and t h e Lesser F r i g a t e - b i r d , o therwise r a r e on t h e Great B a r r i e r Reef. There a r e no comparable seabird-breeding s t a t i o n s (except f o r co lon ie s of Noddies and Sooty Terns) between Raine and t h e Capricorn and Bunker I s l a n d s a t t h e southern end of t h e Reef. There i s a l s o a r e s i d e n t l and b i r d , t h e Banded Landra i l , many sho reb i rds , and a number of migran ts and vag ran t s recorded. The f i r s t o r n i t h o l o g i c a l obse rva t ions were t hose o f Jukes and MacGillivray i n 1843-44 dur ing t h e v i s i t s of t h e Fly. Moseley made obse rva t ions and c o l l e c t i o n s dur ing t h e Challenger v i s i t i n August 1874. The f i r s t ex t ens ive r e c o r d s a r e t hose of MacGillivray and M'Lennan i n 1910, 1911 and 1913. The most d e t a i l e d account of Raine I s l a n d b i r d s i s t h a t of Warham (1961) , fo l lowing h i s v i s i t i n February 1959. Warham's l ist i s used a s t h e b a s i s f o r t h e p r e s e n t account , though nomenclature fo l lows S t o r r (1973); w e a r e most g r a t e f u l t o C.W. Benson f o r h i s a s s i s t a n c e wi th and comments on t h i s l is t . Following Warham, K.A. Hindwood and o t h e r s a l s o v i s i t e d Raine dur ing a survey o f s e a b i r d s of t h e Coral Sea i n November 1961; t h e i r r eco rds a r e a l s o incorpora ted h e r e . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e b i r d s l i s t e d h e r e , E l l i s (1937, 179) a l s o r eco rds " seve ra l long-legged and long -b i l l ed i b i s e s " , " t h r e e common crows", and " seve ra l d iminut ive hawks". MacGillivray (1846) a l s o r eco rds s e v e r a l s p e c i e s of u n c e r t a i n synonymy, inc lud ing Charadrius virqinianus, Thalasseus strenuus, Callocalia arborea, and Porzana. Ducula spilorrhoa spilorrhoa (Gray) Tor re s S t r a i t Pigeon One migrant b i r d i s recorded ( a s Myristicivora spilorrhoa) by E l l i s (1936, 178) . Rallus philippensis yorki (Mathews) Banded Landra i l Recorded a s Rallus philippensis? by MacGillivray (1846, 1476-77) i n 1844, and subsequent ly f i g u r e d by Gould (1848, V I , 76 ) . I t was "very abundant a l l over t h e i s l a n d " , under v e g e t a t i o n , beneath overhangs, and i n shearwater burrows. MacGillivray found it very wary, though it ran and r a r e l y flew. H e caught " g r e a t numbers" (up t o 45 i n a day) with h i s dog. In 1874 Moseley co l l ec ted two males and one female (Forbes 1878). Under the name Rallus pectoralis Moseley described it a s tame, and e a s i l y knocked down with s t i c k s o r caught by hand. I n August t h e r e were fu l l - f ledged young (Moseley 1879, 301). On t h e b a s i s of t h i s record Kikkawa ( 1 9 7 6 ) l i s t s R. pectoralis Lewin Water Ra i l a s a sepa ra te spec ies (but see d iscuss ion below). During 1890-92 t h e r e were i n i t i a l l y l a r g e numbers, bu t "a welcome addi t ion t o t h e t a b l e they were. Their numbers were ma te r i a l ly lessened during our occupation of t h e i s l a n d , but some were l e f t t o c a r r y on the restocking" ( E l l i s 1937, 177-178). Macgillivray i n October 1910 simply records "numbers" running over t h e i s l a n d (1910, 226) . There a r e no f u r t h e r records u n t i l Warham's v i s i t i n February 1959. I t was then "very numerous and ... o f t e n seen i n t h e daytime skulking among t h e herbage o r running about beneath t h e caves and c a v i t i e s under t h e c l i f f s . A t n igh t they spread ou t a l l over t h e i s l a n d and were o f t e n seen on t h e dunes where they fed on t u r t l e eggs exposed by the subsequent diggings of o the r t u r t l e s . ... Two n e s t s were discovered ... t h e i r eggs being hidden beneath t h e th ick herbage" (Warham 1961, 8 3 ) . Warham a l s o noted t h a t t h e r a i l s could be approached c lose ly a t n igh t . The desc r ip t ion agrees with t h e s i t u a t i o n i n 1973, except t h a t dead b i r d s were numerous on t h e ground, both on t h e high r idge and beneath t h e c l i f f s . Several of these dead b i rds were co l l ec ted . Two males were a l s o co l l ec ted by Hindwood e t a l . (1963, 38) i n November 1961; one i s i n t h e Western Aust ra l ian Museum (no. A87551 and t h e o the r i n t h e C.S.I.R.O. c o l l e c t i o n (no. CSIRO 301). S to r r (1973) s t a t e s t h a t R. p. yorki, a small , dark race , i s very common i n t h e Torres S t r a i t s i s l ands and on low i s l a n d s of t h e Queensland coas t from Pandora Cay t o Lady Musgrave I s l and ( i n 1973 we observed r a i l s on Hope I s l ands , T u r t l e I s l ands , Three I s l e s , and Pel ican I s l a n d ) . A second race , R. p. pectoralis, is of uncer ta in s t a t u s but evident ly r a r e i n Queensland. The p e c t o r a l band i n yorki i s darker (chestnut cinnamon r a t h e r than pa le cinnamon) and narrower (6-10 mm wide r a t h e r than 14-30 m m ) . C . J . O . Harrison has kindly re- examined specimens from Raine I s l and i n t h e B r i t i s h Museum (Natural His to ry ) , together with those taken a s dead b i r d s i n 1973. The t h r e e Challenger specimens which included a young b i r d , suggest ing recen t breeding, a r e of t h e southern race , pectoralis. S.A. Parker has examined Raine I s l and specimens i n Aust ra l ian museums, and found them t o be yorki, and t h e specimens taken i n 1973 were a l s o of t h i s form. Harrison comments: "It seems probable from t h e evidence t h a t both Aust ra l ian races a r e migratory t o some degree, and t h a t both could p o t e n t i a l l y occur i n Raine I s l and i n passage. There a r e o the r references i n l i t e r a t u r e t o t h e species breeding on t h e i s l a n d but no subspeci f ic recogni t ion of them. There i s no c l e a r ind ica t ion of t h e s t a t u s o r o r i g i n of t h e b i r d s which do o r d i d ( i n t e r m i t t e n t l y ? ) breed on t h e i s land. Dead bodies might be those of f a i l e d migrants." Gal l inu la porphyrio melanotus (Temrninck) Eas te rn swamp-hen This common Torres S t r a i t migrant i s named ( a s Porphyrio melanotus) by Warham (1961) from an observa t ion by E l l i s (1936) . E l l i s r e f e r s t o "some game-birds with dark b lue plumage, a pa tch of white below t h e t a i l , s t rong r ed beak, and long r e d l e g s and f e e t ... known a s pukekos i n New Zealand'', which were seen on " seve ra l occasions" ( E l l i s 1936, 179) . Diomedea chrysostoma F o r s t e r Grey-headed Alba t ross This is l i s t e d f o r Raine I s l a n d by Kikkawa (1976) on t h e b a s i s of a r e f e rence by Hull (1925). Hull saw a b i r d near Lizard I s l a n d i n June 1924 which "answered f a i r l y we l l t o t h e d e s c r i p t i o n of Diomedea chrysostoma, except f o r t h e neck shading. The mate ... a F i l i p i n o , s a i d he had seen a s i m i l a r b i r d a t Raine I s l e t ..." (Hull 1925, 1 5 ) . Th i s is c l e a r l y an unce r t a in record . Pu f f inus p a c i f i c u s (Gmelin) Wedge-tailed Shearwater I n May 1844 MacGillivray (1846, 1478) noted ( a s Puff inus ------?I "a small colony of t h e s e b i r d s among some rank herbage which concealed t h e en t rances t o t h e i r burrows, i n which they were e a s i l y caught ... it is poss ib l e t h a t they a r e , i n a g r e a t measure, noc turna l" a s a t Heron Is land . Under t h e name Puff inus sphenurus, Macgil l ivray and M'Lennan made s e v e r a l observa t ions dur ing 1910-1913. I n October 1910: " A t t h e north-western end of t h e i s l a n d many burrows of a P e t r e l a r e found. We dug o u t s e v e r a l t o a depth of 4 o r 5 f e e t , and found them t o con ta in e i t h e r one o r a p a i r of b i r d s (Puff inus sphenurus) . There a r e no eggs. I t seems t h a t t h e b i r d s a r e only c leaning o u t t h e i r burrows and w i l l probably l a y i n a month's time" (Macgil l ivray 1910, 226) . I n J u l y 1911 t h e shearwater was aga in " in i t s burrows". M'Lennan "obtained s e v e r a l s k i n s , and noted t h a t each burrow contained two b i r d s . He v i s i t e d t h e burrows a f t e r dark , and waited f o r some t ime, and saw only one b i r d l eave , b u t could hear mournful c a l l i n g i n a l l d i r e c t i o n s . A male and female i n each burrow" (Macgil l ivray 1914, 141) . I n December 1913 Macgil l ivray (1917, 83-84) noted "many burrows", some 6 f t long, i n t h e c e n t r e of t h e i s l a n d , most wi th one egg and some with downy young. I n February 1959 Warham (1961, 80, 83) found "some hundreds of burrows", wi th " l a rge young i n down, some with f e a t h e r s 1.25 inches long on t h e wings". I n November 1961 Hindwood e t a l . (1963, 38) noted breeding, without f u r t h e r d e t a i l . I n 1973 inhab i t ed burrows were concentrated on t h e high r idge a t t h e western end of t h e i s l a n d . This colony of shearwaters i s t h e only one on t h e Great B a r r i e r Reef no r th of t h e Bunker and Capricorn I s l a n d (Lavery and Grimes 1971; Serventy e t a l . 1971, 124) . A t t h e Heron I s l a n d colony, b i r d s a r e p r e s e n t from October t o A p r i l (Moulton 1961). I n 1960 t h e f i r s t b i r d s a r r i v e d a t Heron I s l and on 8 October, and t h e f i r s t eggs were l a i d on 15 December. Each day t h e b i r d s l e f t t h e i s l a n d a t 5 a.m. and re turned a t 7.45 p.m. (Gross, Moulton and Huntington 1963). Pterodroma a r m i n j o n i a n a h e r a l d i c a (Sa lv in) Trinidade P e t r e l Recorded f o r t h e f i r s t t ime i n A u s t r a l i a and photographed on 22 February 1959 by Warham (1959, 1961: Serventy et a1.1971). Warham a l s o found an egg which may belong t o t h i s b i r d . F r e g a t a m i n o r (Gmelin) Grea ter F r iga t e -b i rd There a r e s eve ra l e a r l y r e f e rences t o t h i s spec i e s on Raine I s l a n d , poss ib ly i n e r r o r f o r F. a r i e l . S t o r r (1973, 8 ) s t a t e s t h a t m i n o r apparent ly breeds i n Torres S t r a i t , while a r i e l breeds on Rocky I s l and (Gulf of C a r p e n t a r i a ) , Raine I s l a n d , and ' G i l l e t t Cay ' , Swains Reefs , i n t h e southernmost s e c t o r of t h e Great B a r r i e r Reef, A p r i l t o August. Bennett (1971, 60) f i g u r e s j uven i l e b i r d s on t h e n e s t a t t h e l a t t e r l oca t ion . Serventy et a l . (1971, 155) s t a t e t h a t m i n o r i s no t known t o breed a t Raine I s l and . I t i s normally a t r ee -nes t ing s p e c i e s , and thus might no t be expected t h e r e , though small numbers a r e found on t r e e l e s s i s l a n d s i n t h e Phoenix Group, Cen t r a l P a c i f i c . F . m i n o r i s recorded from Raine I s l and a s F . a q u i l a by MacGillivray (1846) , quot ing L t J .M.R. Ince. Specimens were s a i d t o have been s e n t t o Gould, b u t they a r e no t mentioned by Gould (1865). F . m i n o r i s a l s o mentioned dur ing t h e C h a l l e n g e r v i s i t by Tizard e t a l . (1885), and one male and fou r females were s o i d e n t i f i e d by S c l a t e r and Sa lv in (1878, 650) a s c o l l e c t e d by t h e C h a l l e n g e r on 31 August 1874. These specimens were, however, c i t e d a s F . a r i e l by North (1912, 353) , and they were a l s o so l i s t e d by Ogilvie-Grant (1898, 449) . Two of t h e specimens, i n t h e B r i t i s h Museum (Natural H i s t o r y ) , have been found and re-examined by C.W. Benson, who confirms them t o be a r i e l and not m i n o r ( see next spec i e s ) . Warham (1961, 83) i n 1959 saw 4-5 b i r d s i d e n t i f i e d a s F . m i n o r , a l l apparent ly a d u l t females. I t was p o s s i b l e t h a t an a r e a of 40 empty n e s t s might belong t o t h i s s p e c i e s , s i n c e t h e s e were on t h e ground and a l l t h e a r i e l n e s t s he saw were on bushes. There i s , however, no breeding record of F . m i n o r y e t f o r A u s t r a l i a . Lavery and Grimes (1971) c i t e Raine a s a poss ib l e breeding s i t e f o r t h i s s p e c i e s , b u t i t s s t a t u s t h e r e remains t o be e s t a b l i s h e d . Frega t a a r i el Lesser F r iga t e -b i rd Raine I s l a n d i s one of only two Great B a r r i e r Reef breeding l o c a l i t i e s f o r t h i s spec i e s (Lavery and Grimes 1971). In J u l y 1843 Jukes (1847, I , 129) found "young of a l l ages". I n May 1844, MacGillivray (1846, 1478) , under t h e name A t a g e n a r i e l , r epo r t ed "small co lon ie s of about a dozen ind iv idua l s . Its n e s t i s formed of small dry tw igs , r a i s e d about a f o o t from t h e ground, o r sometimes placed upon a t u f t of herbage, a f o o t i n diameter"; he noted one egg. Ince ( i n Gould 1848, V I I , 72) descr ibed it "breeding i n c o l o n i e s a t i t s S.W. co rne r ; t h e n e s t being composed of a few smal l s t i c k s c o l l e c t e d from t h e shrubs and herbaceous p l a n t s which a lone c l o t h e t h e i s l a n d , and p laced e i t h e r on t h e ground o r on t h e p l a n t s a few inches above it. The eggs ... gene ra l l y one , b u t occas iona l ly two". Ince found s t a g e s from f r e s h eggs t o 2-3 week ha t ch l ings . Stomach c o n t e n t s comprised young t u r t l e s , squid and c r abs . I n August 1874 t h e C h a l l e n g e r found 30-40 n e s t s wi th young we l l advanced (mostly i n t h e a i r ) b u t no eggs. A l l t h e n e s t s were i n a smal l pa t ch near t h e c l e a r e d a r e a , and c o n s i s t e d o f compact p la t forms of twigs and g r a s s 8 i nches i n diameter r a i s e d on bushes above t h e ground s u r f a c e (Moseley 1879, 301-302: S c l a t e r and Sa lv in 1878) . The i d e n t i t y of t h e s e b i r d s has been d i scus sed under t h e p rev ious spec i e s . Two specimens were re-examined by C.W. Benson a t Tring: No. 80.11.18.119: a d u l t male, no d a t e No. 80.11.18.442: young b i r d s t i l l p a r t l y i n down, no da t e . Both a r e F. a r i e l , a s l i s t e d by Ogilvie-Grant (1898, 449) . I n October 1910 Macgi l l iv ray (1910, 226; North 1912, 355) found 50 f ea the red young on t h e e a s t s i d e of t h e i s l a n d nea r t h e c e n t r e , presumably from eggs l a i d i n May-June. The n e s t s were f l a t p la t forms of s t i c k s and g r a s s 4-6 inches above t h e ground. I n J u l y 1911 MtLennan found 150 n e s t s : "Severa l co lon ie s of F r iga t e -b i rd s were seen near t h e beacon ... They were e i g h t i n number, of from t h r e e t o t h i r t y n e s t s . I counted 150 n e s t s a l t o g e t h e r , s e v e r a l of which conta ined one egg each; two o f t h e s e were on t h e p o i n t of ha tch ing . The r e s t of t h e n e s t s conta ined one young b i r d each, i n a l l s t a g e s of plumage, from a couple of days o l d t o b i r d s ready t o f l y " (Macgi l l iv ray 1914, 148) . I n December 1913 n e s t i n g was ove r ; f l edged young were a l l over t h e i s l a n d and soa r ing i n t h e a i r . Macgi l l iv ray (1917, 181-182) took and desc r ibed one male and one female specimen. Warham i n February 1959 es t imated t h e popula t ion a t 2000, many p o s s i b l y from elsewhere, and counted about 150 n e s t s . There were no eggs. The young were a l l a b l e t o f l y though t h r e e o r f o u r s t i l l spen t a l l day on t h e n e s t . 80 p e r c e n t of t h e 500 b i r d s i n t h e a i r dur ing t h e day were j uven i l e s . Each b i r d on t h e ground was perched on a dwarf shrub of A b u t i l o n o r T r i b u l u s . The f r i g a t e s were seen ha r ry ing Red-footed and Masked Gannets, and a l s o f i s h i n g . Warham (1961, 80, 84; Serventy e t a l . 1971, 156) a l s o g ives n o t e s on behaviour. Hindwood e t a l . (1963, 39) confirmed t h e breeding and c o l l e c t e d one female i n November 1961 (Queensland Museum No. 0 .9135) . I n November 1973 a d u l t males and females were numerous bo th perched on t h e pa rape t of t h e Beacon and soa r ing i n t h e a i r a t t h e e a s t end of t h e i s l a n d . There were two concen t r a t i ons of j uven i l e s n o t y e t f l y i n g : one of about 120 b i r d s on a mound i n t h e c e n t r a l guano f l a t (F igure 51, and another of about 65 juven i l e s immediately t o t h e n o r t h , on t h e L e p t u r u s tussocks between t h e c l i f f and t h e beach c r e s t . Og i lv i e (1975) estimated t h e populat ion a t 300-500. For notes on d i e t , see under S u l a l e u c o g a s t e r . Su la l e u c o g a s t e r p l o t u s (Fors te r ) Brown Gannet There a r e severa l l a r g e colonies of Brown Gannets on the Great Bar r i e r Reef i s l ands , including those on Ashmore Banks and Pandora Cay near Raine I s l and , and on Raine I s l and i t s e l f (Lavery and Grimes 1971, Serventy e t a l . 1971, 172). In t h e 1840s, however, numbers were apparently small. Jukes (1847, I , 129) i n Ju ly 1843 found a few with young, forming a f lock nes t ing separa te ly from the Masked Gannet. I n May 1844, under the name S u l a fiber, MacGillivray noted: "The well-known brown booby breeds upon Raine 's I s l e t , bu t i n small numbers, a s I found i t s n e s t the re only once" (MacGillivray 1846, 1478). Specimens, presumably MacGil l ivrayls , were repor ted a s Sula fusca by Gould (1848, V I I , 781, and t h e r e i s a specimen (10/~u1/2/C/6) marked 'Blackwood Col lec t ion ' i n t h e University Museum of Zoology, Cambridge ( C . W . Benson, pe r s . comm.).Moseley co l l ec ted a male i n August 1874 (Sc la te r and Salvin 1878, 651) and described "a s l i g h t nes t of green twigs and g rass on t h e ground" (Moseley 1879, 301), bu t g ives no ind ica t ion of abundance. By the time of Macgil l ivray 's f i r s t v i s i t on 30 October 1910, however, n ine ty per cen t of t h e nes t ing b i r d s cons is ted of t h i s species . In Ju ly 1911 M'Lennan found them a l l over t h e i s l and , and Macgillivray described them " in thousands a l l over t h e p lace" (1917, 181). A t t h e time of h i s October v i s i t t h e r e were eggs, naked young, young i n down, and young fledged. Most c lu tches were of two eggs, va r i ab le i n s i z e and shape. MacGillivray noted t h a t i n these cases only one survived, probably because of t h e i n i t i a l d i f f e rence i n s i z e of t h e ha tchl ings . The n e s t was simply a depression i n the sand, 3-4 inches deep and 8-12 inches i n diameter, with a few s t i c k s surrounding it (Macgillivray 1910, 224). In Ju ly 1911 the re were severa l n e s t s with one egg, e i g h t with two, bu t no hatched young, and nes t ing had c l e a r l y only j u s t begun (Macgillivray 1914, 148). In December 1913, nes t ing was f in i shed , very few eggs were l e f t , and t h e r e were young b i r d s everywhere (Macgillivray 1917, 181) . Further observations by Macgillivray, with a photograph, a r e given by North (1912, 351-353). I n February 1959 it was again t h e most p l e n t i f u l b i rd : Warham (1961, 80) est imated a t o t a l population of 7,000-9,000. He saw only two s e t s of eggs; t h e young were mostly i n down, fea thered o r f l y i n g , but s t i l l fed by t h e i r parents . In add i t ion t o b i r d s on t h e n e s t the re were about 2,000 b i r d s roos t ing on t h e beaches i n l i n e s fac ing t h e sea . Warham notes various aspects ,ofbehaviour and draws a t t e n t i o n t o t h e d i f fe rence i n c a l l between male (h i s s ing) and female ( a deeper c a l l ) . \ I n November 1961 Hindwood e t a l . (1963, 21; Hindwood 1964, 309) est imated t h e r e were a t l e a s t 2,000 p a i r s . The n e s t s contained well- incubated eggs o r very small n e s t l i n g s , and the re were a few l a r g e downy young. Most of t h e b i r d s were i n t h e c e n t r a l hare a rea . The d i f f e r e n t i a l su rv iva l of l a r g e r n e s t l i n g s i n a c l u t c h of two was again noted. The Brown Gannet was t h e most abundant nes t ing seab i rd i n November 1973. Most of t h e b i r d s were on t h e c e n t r a l f l a t s . The n e s t was a s l i g h t depress ion , o f t e n broken through t h e su r face c r u s t , surrounded by twigs. Breeding was i n t h e s t a g e descr ibed by Hindwood i n November 1961, except t h a t few n e s t s had young. I n a count of 100 n e s t s , 45 contained a s i n g l e egg and 55 two eggs. Four contained ha tchl ings . Counts were made of b i r d s on t h e ground a t midday on 3 November i n f i v e sample a r e a s of t h e c e n t r a l guano f l a t s (Figure 5 ) . These a r e a s t o t a l l e d 2370 sq m, o r 5.9 pe r cen t of t h e a r e a of t h e f l a t s . 162 b i r d s were p r e s e n t , g iv ing a mean dens i ty i n t h e sample a r e a s of 6.8 pe r 100 m 2 . Ext rapola t ing these f i g u r e s t o t h e whole of t h e c e n t r a l f l a t s g ives a t o t a l number o f b i r d s of 2764. This f i g u r e does no t inc lude a d u l t b i r d s absent while feeding , b i r d s i n t h e a i r a s a r e s u l t of our own presence, o r b i r d s i n t h e high-ridge g ras s l ands surrounding t h e f l a t s . D e t a i l s of t h e counts a r e given i n Table 2. Data given by Nelson (1970) suggest a mean nes t ing dens i ty of 15 b i r d s (7.5 p a i r s ) p e r 100 m 2 , with some co lon ie s very much more crowded. The l a r g e s t colony recorded by Nelson i s of 8,000-10,000 b i r d s ; our f i g u r e s suggest a t o t a l populat ion h a l f t h i s s i z e , and probably r a t h e r more than t h e 2,000 p a i r s es t imated by Hindwood i n 1961. Since our v i s i t P. Ogi lv ie (1975) has est imated t h e populat ion a t 2,000-3,000. Co l l ec t ions were made of r e g u r g i t a t i o n s produced by a d u l t s of t h e gannets Sula dactylatra and S. leucogaster and t h e young of t h e l e s s e r f r i g a t e Fregata ariel. The d i e t of t h e gannets appeared t o be c h i e f l y f i s h , with t h e exocoet id Cypsilurus melanocercus (Ogilvy) forming t h e predominant element, bu t a few small i nd iv idua l s (mantle length l e s s than 10 cm) of t h e ommastrephid squid Symplectoteuthis oulaniensis (Lesson) ' were noted. S imi lar small-s ized specimens of t h i s squid formed t h e bulk of d i e t of t h e young f r i g a t e b i rds . The importance of both t h e Exocoetidae and t h e Ommastrephidae i n d i e t s of b i r d s i n t h e P a c i f i c has been d iscussed by Ashmole and Ashmole (1967). 1 . The nomenclature of t h e forms of t h e ' spec ie s ' Symplectoteuthis oulaniensis remains t o be e luc ida ted . The specimens taken on Raine a l l l ack l i g h t organs (yellow patches) on t h e d o r s a l su r face ( see Clarke 1965) and thus correspond t o t h e spec ie s A of Ashmole and Ashmole (1967). Table 2. S u l a l e u c o g a s t e r and S u l a d a c t y l a t r a i n sample a r e a s of t h e c e n t r a l guano f l a t , midday, 3 November 1973. Sample a r e a Area, sq m S u l a l e u c o g a s t e r S u l a d a c t y l a t r a Number Density/100 m2 Number ~ e n s i t y / 1 0 0 m2 Tota l 2370 162 6.835 4 1 1.730 The sample a reas cover 5.86% of t h e 40,440 s q m of t h e c e n t r a l guano f l a t s . Ext rapola t ion from the mean measured d e n s i t i e s g ives t o t a l numbers of 2764 S u l a l e u c o g a s t e r and 699 S u l a d a c t y l a t r a . S u l a s u l a r u b r i p e s Gould Red-footed Gannet Under t h e heading " S u l a ------?" MacGillivray (1846, 1478) descr ibed "a small spec ie s of gannet , which we named p rov i s iona l ly t h e 'white booby'. I ts change of plumage a r e remarkable and puzzl ing. Ear ly i n June, t h i s spec ie s , t h e young having been f o r some time ab le t o f l y , forsook the i s l a n d during t h e day, r e tu rn ing a t n i g h t t o r o o s t i n a l a r g e body of s e v e r a l hundred". Gould (1848, V I I , 79) repor ted t h i s spec ie s a s S u l a p i s c a t o r , breeding i n "grea t numbers", and quotes MacGil l ivray 's es t imate of a populat ion of "severa l hundreds". He a l s o no te s t h e v a r i a b l e colour . MacGil l ivray 's specimen was l a t e r descr ibed a s S u l a n i c o l l i by Grant and Mackworth-Praed (19331, d i s t ingu i shed by r e d f e e t , ash-brown upper p a r t s , white rump and t a i l , b u t Murphy (1936) considered it t o be only a colour phase of S u l a s u l a , and Warham (1961) agrees. Moseley c o l l e c t e d a female i n August 1874, and t h i s was repor ted a s S . p i s c a t o r i n S c l a t e r and Salv in (1878, 652) . Moseley (1879, 301) described "one o r two of i t s n e s t s made i n t h e bushes, l i k e those of t h e noddies, r a i s e d s i x inches from t h e ground". More information comes from t h e v i s i t s by Macgil l ivray and M'Lennan. In October 1910 Macgil l ivray (1910, 225) found "nes t s i n groups i n d i f f e r e n t p a r t s of t h e i s l and . A l l of t he n e s t s a r e placed on t h e ho r i zon ta l shrubby growth, and a r e a c l e a r f o o t o r more from t h e ground. The n e s t c o n s i s t s o f a s u b s t a n t i a l interwoven platform of s t i c k s , about 8 t o 12 inches i n diameter , depressed t o about an inch i n t h e c e n t r e f o r t h e recept ion of t h e s i n g l e egg". The young were then f u l l y f ledged and many roos t ing . In Ju ly 1911 M'Lennan found "grea t numbers" bui ld ing n e s t s , s eve ra l n e s t s with one egg each, and a few with young (Macgillivray 1914, 148). I n December 1913 a few s t r a g g l e r s were s t i l l nest ing. A few n e s t s had one egg, more had young, bu t t h e r e s t had l e f t the n e s t . Macgillivray bel ieved t h a t t h e colour changes were age colour phases (1917, 180-181). Other observations by Macgillivray, with a photograph taken i n October 1910, a r e given by North (1912, 348- 349) . Warham (1961, 80) estimated t h e population a s 300 i n February 1959. Nesting was then over; he saw one egg and two p a i r s with downy young, and i n f e r r e d t h a t t h e breeding season l a s t e d from June t o January. The n e s t s were b u i l t 2 f t from t h e ground on what he termed Tribulus bushes. He a l s o found l a r g e r o o s t s along t h e south s i d e of t h e i s l a n d , mostly i n low shrubby bushes s i x inches from t h e ground o r i n t h i c k grass . Most of t h e day is spent a t sea , and t h e b i r d s appear during t h e l a t e afternoon. Warham a l s o descr ibes t h e colour phases. Hindwood et a l . (1963, 38, 41) co l l ec ted two females (C.S.I.R.O. numbers 299, 300). I n November 1973 t h e r e were two a reas with Red-footed Gannets. One on t h e high r idge a t the northwest end of t h e i s l a n d , with about 50 b i r d s during t h e day, cons is ted of n e s t s on low Abutilon bushes 1-2 f e e t above t h e ground. Many of the n e s t s had young i n down. Another a rea on t h e high southern r idge comprised about 100 roos t ing b i r d s during t h e day (Figure 5 ) . Ogilvie (1975) est imated t h e populat ion a t 150. According t o d a t a given by Lavery and Grimes (1971) and Serventy e t a l . (1971, 173-5) t h i s small colony on Raine I s l and is t h e only breeding s t a t i o n f o r t h e Red-footed Gannet on t h e Great Bar r i e r Reef. Sula d a c t y l a t r a personata Gould Masked Gannet Jukes (1847, I , 128) found a few with young i n Ju ly 1843. MacGillivray (1846, 1478) reported it, a s Sula personata, a s "never very numerous" and s a i d it l e f t the i s l a n d e n t i r e l y during t h e day. Gould (1848, V I I , 7 7 ) , however, quoting Lt J . M . R . Ince, r e f e r r e d (again under S. personata) t o "considerable numbers". Moseley g ives no ind ica t ion of abundance i n 1874, b u t co l l ec ted two females (Sula cyanops i n S c l a t e r and Salvin 1878, 652) ; he described the n e s t a s "a c i r c u l a r hole i n t h e e a r t h , about I f inch deep" (Moseley 1879, 301) . I n October 1910 Macgillivray found them nes t ing "promiscuously a l l over t h e i s l e t " (Macgillivray 1910, 225) , with f r e s h eggs, hatching eggs and young (Macgillivray 1917, 180) . He repor ted t h a t t h e n e s t s " d i f f e r i n no wise" from those of t h e Brown Gannet, except of course t h a t t h e r e a r e no surrounding twigs. On 10-15 Ju ly 1911 MILennan found a few nes t ing s i t e s bu t no eggs; one egg was l a i d during h i s v i s i t (Macgillivray 1914, 148) . In December 1913 nes t ing was almost over and only one n e s t had eggs (S. cyanops i n Macgillivray 1917, 180). Further information i s given from Macgi l l ivray ' s 1910 v i s i t by North (1912, 344-345), including a photograph. The n e s t depressions were s a i d t o be 3-4 inches deep and 8-12 inches i n diameter. Two-thirds of t h e c lu t ches were of two eggs. Warham (1961, 80-82) es t imated t h e populat ion i n February 1959 a s 400-500. The b i r d s were found only i n t h e c e n t r a l depression. Many of t h e n e s t s had eggs o r small young, and t h e r e were a l s o downy ch icks and f l y i n g juveni les . He i n f e r r e d a breeding season from J u l y t o March. I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e Brown Gannet, very few Masked Gannets roos ted on t h e beaches. A s with t h e Brown Gannet t h e r e i s a sexual d i f f e r e n c e i n c a l l , t h e male wh i s t l i ng and t h e female more raucous. The n e s t i s simply a depress ion i n t h e sand, wi th no twigs. He noted d i f f e r e n t i a l s u r v i v a l of t h e l a r g e r b i r d i n c l u t c h e s of two. During t h e day many b i r d s were a t s e a , and t h e number on t h e i s l a n d increased dur ing t h e n igh t . Hindwood e t a l . (1963, 34) es t imated t h e populat ion a t about 1000 p a i r s i n November 1961. The Masked Gannet was numerous on t h e c e n t r a l f l a t s i n November 1973, though l e s s abundant than t h e Brown. Counts of b i r d s on t h e ground were made a t midday on 3 November i n t h e f i v e sample a r e a s shown i n Figure 5; d e t a i l s a r e given i n Table 2 . There were 41 b i r d s i n t h e 2370 s q m sampled, g iv ing a mean dens i ty of 1.73 pe r 100 s q m. Ext rapola t ion a t t h i s dens i ty g ives a t o t a l number of 699 b i r d s f o r t h e whole of t h e c e n t r a l f l a t s , o r about one q u a r t e r t h e number of Brown Gannets p re sen t . This f i g u r e excludes b i r d s a t s ea o r temporari ly i n t h e a i r , o r i n a r e a s o t h e r than t h e c e n t r a l f l a t s . The t o t a l i s c o n s i s t e n t wi th t h e e s t ima te of Hindwood et a l . (1963), a l s o i n November, and with O g i l v i e ' s (1975) subsequent e s t ima te of 800-1000 b i r d s . The mean d e n s i t y i s c l o s e t o t h a t repor ted f o r Masked Gannet co lon ie s a t Kure and t h e Galapagos I s l a n d s by Nelson (1970), and t h e colony i s l a r g e i n terms of t h e s i z e ranges Nelson c i t e s . Of 100 n e s t s counted i n 1973, 47 contained one egg o r young and 53 two eggs o r young. 35 pe r c e n t of t h e n e s t s contained young. A marked s i z e d i s p a r i t y was noted i n c l u t c h e s of two. For notes on d i e t s ee under S. l e u c o g a s t e r . According t o Lavery and Grimes (1971) and Serventy et a l . (1971, 175-177) Raine I s l a n d i s t h e main breeding s t a t i o n of t h i s spec ie s on t h e Great B a r r i e r Reef, wi th a f u r t h e r l a r g e colony a t nearby Pandora Cay and another i n t h e f a r south on Masthead I s l and . The colony is comparable i n s i z e wi th t h e co lon ie s on Phoenix, Enderbury and McKean I s l ands i n t h e Phoenix Group. Pelecanus c o n s p i c i l l a t u s Temrninck Aust ra l ian Pel ican E l l i s (1937, 178) saw one b i r d dur ing 1890-92. The n e a r e s t breeding s t a t i o n i s on Pel ican I s l a n d , 255 km t o t h e south (personal observa t ion , 1973); Serventy et a l . (1971, 183) a l s o record a breeding colony near Thursday I s l a n d , Torres S t r a i t , 225 km t o t h e north. Phaethon r u b r i c a u d a Boddaert .Red-tailed Tropic-bird This spec ie s i s gene ra l ly absent from t h e South P a c i f i c , and Raine I s l and a s i t s only known breeding s t a t i o n i n e a s t e r n A u s t r a l i a , o t h e r than on sand cays i n t h e Coral Sea (Serventy e t a l . 1971, 160). MacGillivray (1846, 1477-1478) recorded it a s Phaeton phaen icurus ( c f . Gould 1848, V I I , 73) . He caught about a dozen beneath t h e low c l i f f s ; t h e r e were no n e s t s , bu t two were s i t t i n g on eggs. Two o r more were always hovering over t h e i s l and . There a r e two specimens (10/Phae/l/C/9, 18) c o l l e c t e d i n September 1844 i n t h e Universi ty Museum of Zoology, Cambridge (C.W. Benson,pers. comm.). I n 1874 Moseley c o l l e c t e d a young female - " the only one seen on t h e i s l a n d " . This was r epor t ed a s P. a e t h e r e u s ( i . e . t h e Red-billed Tropic-bird, no t t h e Red-tai led) by S c l a t e r and Salv in (1878, 651) , and Lord George Campbell a l s o s t a t e d t h a t "we saw no r ed - t a i l ed ones" (Campbell 1876, 162) . Ogilvie-Grant (1898, 453) , however, l is ts t h e Moseley specimen a s P. r u b r i c a u d a . C.W. Benson has re-examined t h e specimen and comments t h a t " t h i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n seems c o r r e c t . The b i r d i s f u l l y fea thered b u t no t f u l l y grown. It l acks t h e long t a i l - f e a t h e r s of a d u l t s , and t h e b i l l i s a l s o smaller (it measured, from base of s k u l l , 66 mm) and black r a t h e r than r e d i n co lour" . Macgil l ivray (1910, 227; 1914, 148) saw none i n October 1910. MILennan, however, i n J u l y 1911, found a t o t a l of seven n e s t s , t h r e e having one egg and t h e r e s t with young. These included t h r e e n e s t s on t h e 9 t h (one wi th 1 egg and two wi th 1 young), two n e s t s on t h e 10th (one with 1 egg, one with 1 young), and one n e s t on t h e 15th (with 1 egg) (Macgil l ivray 1914, 148-149). Macgil l ivray (1917, 182-183) found them s t i l l nes t ing i n December 1913, a l l except one with young. In February 1959 Warham again found seven p a i r s nes t ing , s i x wi th l a r g e fea thered young, and t h e o t h e r wi th an egg. Up t o twelve b i r d s were seen i n t h e a i r during t h e a f te rnoons . Hindwood e t a l . (1963, 27; Hindwood 1964, 309) found s i x p a i r s i n November 1961. Two females were c o l l e c t e d (Queensland Museum No. 0.9133: C.S.I.R.O. no. 298). Severa l n e s t s were seen i n 1973, e i t h e r i n hollows beneath t h e c l i f f s o r beneath l a r g e beachrock s l a b s . No eggs were found, bu t l a r g e f ea the red young were p resen t . Two o r t h r e e b i r d s were gene ra l ly i n t h e a i r over t h e i s l and . Ogi lv ie (1975) found 23 n e s t s , some wi th eggs, and gave t h e populat ion a s more than 25. S t o r r (1973) l ists only t h i s spec ie s a s p r e s e n t on Raine Is land . Hydroprogne c a s p i a ( P a l l a s ) Caspian Tern Recorded by MacGillivray (1846), and l i s t e d a s a breeding spec ie s by Serventy et a l . (1971, 209) . S t e r n a b e r g i i Lich tens t e in Crested Tern This spec ie s was no t mentioned by e i t h e r Jukes o r MacGillivray i n 1843-44. I t may be t h e spec ie s descr ibed by Gould (1848, V I I , 23) a s T h a l a s s e u s p e l e c a n o i d e s , t h e Torres S t r a i t s Tern, on which he quotes MacGil l ivrayls observa t ion of " th ree small p a r t i e s upon a low r idge on one s i d e of t h e i s l a n d " , not ing t h a t it bred i n June. Otherwise t h e f i r s t record i s t h a t by M'Lennan on 9 Ju ly 1911, when he observed a small colony i n t h e c e n t r e of t h e i s l a n d (Macgil l ivray 1914, 141). Macgil l ivray himself found two small co lonies i n t h e cen t r e i n December 1913. "The b i r d s themselves were very numerous ... they were f requent ly seen i n t h e e a r l y morning ca r ry ing o f f t u r t l e s ' eggs from t h e sandy shore when these had been unearthed by t h e nes t ing r e p t i l e s " (Macgil l ivray 1917, 8 4 ) . A few were seen by Warham (1961, 87) i n February 1959, bu t were no t breeding; and none were seen by Hindwood e t a l . (1963, 38) i n November 1961. Lavery and Jones (1971) map l a r g e co lon ie s of t h i s spec ie s on Michaelmas and Upolu Cays, near Cai rns , and on t h e Barnard I s l ands ; Serventy et a l . (1971, 219) record colonies i n t h e Bunker and Capricorn Groups. S t e r n a f u s c a t a n u b i l o s a Sparrman Sooty Tern The f i r s t record a t Raine i s t h a t by Jukes i n Ju ly 1843, when he found young of a l l ages (Jukes 1847, I , 129). I n May 1844 MacGillivray (1846, 1476-771, under t h e name T h a l a s s i p o r a f u l i g i n o s a , found it breeding i n l a r g e co lon ie s , on t h e ground, and s a i d t h a t many eggs were taken. Gould (1848, V I I , 33) r e f e r s t o it a s Onychopr ion panaya. Moseley i n August 1874 found it breeding i n g r a s s around t h e shore; Tizard e t a l . (1885) descr ibe it a s "exceedingly abundant" on " f l a t ground above t h e shore l ine covered with g ras s" . "The s t r e t c h e s of f l a t ground above t h e shore were abso lu te ly f u l l of t h e brown f ledged young of t h i s b i r d . Eggs were a l ready very scarce" (Moseley 1879, 301) . Saunders (1878) records C h a l l e n g e r mate r i a l . Macgil l ivray (1910) recorded Sooty Terns i n October 1910, and i n July 1911 MILennan found them ( repor t ed a s Onychopr ion f u l i g i n o s a ) "nes t ing i n t e n s of thousands a l l over t h e i s l a n d " (Macgillivray 1914, 142). In December 1913, Macgil l ivray (1917, 85) found them coming i n from t h e sea a t about 5 p.m. " i n immense numbers", c i r c l i n g without landing , then leaving again a t dawn, presumably a s a pre l iminary t o breeding. Sooty Terns a r e a l s o recorded f o r Raine by Alexander (1925). I n February 1959 Warham (1961, 87-88) found "vas t numbers" on t h e dunes, e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e south . The b i r d s were never seen on t h e ground i n 1959, though t h e i r numbers increased a t n igh t . Warham s t a t e d t h a t t h i s spec ie s breeds between Apr i l and November, and i s p resen t b u t does no t a l i g h t between December and March. Hindwood et a l . (1963, 38) found i n p resen t i n November 1961. I n November 1973 Sooty Terns were abundant on t h e ground i n L e p t u r u s grass land on t h e high r i d g e , e s p e c i a l l y towards t h e west end, during t h e hours of darkness, but they were absent during t h e day. According t o Lavery and Grimes (1971) and Serventy e t a l . (1971, 227) , Raine I s l and i s t h e major breeding s i t e of Sooty.Terns on t h e Great B a r r i e r Reef, though t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l o t h e r l a r g e co lon ie s no r th of Michaelmas Cay, a d i s t r i b u t i o n very s i m i l a r t o t h a t of t h e Noddy Anous s t o l i d u s . S t e r n a a n a e t h e t u s a n a e t h e t u s Scopol i Br id led Tern Reported by Macgil l ivray (1910) and Macgil l ivray (1917, 8 5 ) , who recorded t h i s spec i e s (as Onychopr ion a n a e s t h e t a ) nes t ing i n "g rea t numbers" i n c r e v i c e s and on p i l e s of rock i n t h e c e n t r e of t h e i s l a n d i n December 1913. Warham (1961, 88) found very few i n February 1959 and thought they had a l r eady l e f t t h e i s l a n d . They a r e s a i d t o breed under t h e c l i f f s . Lavery and Grimes (1971) s t a t e t h a t Raine i s t h e major breeding s i t e f o r t h i s spec i e s on t h e Grea t B a r r i e r Reef, b u t t h e r e a r e many l e s s e r s i t e s a long t h e Reef (Serventy e t a l . 1971, 229) . Anous s t o l i d u s p i l e a t u s (Scopol i ) Noddy Jukes (1847, I , 129) found young of a l l ages i n J u l y 1843. In May 1844 MacGillivray (1846, 1476-77) r epo r t ed "myriads", bu i ld ing n e s t s of small twigs and c o r a l fragments. I n August 1874 Moseley (1879, 300) found them breeding i n g r a s s around t h e shore , bu i ld ing "a rude n e s t of twigs and g r a s s e s amongstthe low bushes, b u t o f t e n a l s o ... on t h e ground. There were p l e n t y of eggs of t h i s b i r d " ; specimens were taken (Saunders 1878). In October 1910 Macgil l ivray (1910, 226) found "noddies ... i n g r e a t numbers, b u t ... n o t y e t commenced t o n e s t " . In J u l y 1911 they were "nes t ing a l l over Raine I s l and" (MILennan i n Macgil l ivray 1914, 142) . In December 1913 they were " i n g r e a t numbers, l i n i n g t h e seashore of t h e i s l a n d o r i n small co lon ie s a l l over t h e i s l a n d , mostly composed of fu l ly- f ledged young and t h e i r p a r e n t s . Many more were con t inua l ly over t h e sea ... and towards n i g h t f a l l many morecame i n t o r o o s t on t h e i s l a n d " (Macgil l ivray 1917, 8 5 ) . Warham es t imated t h e popula t ion a t 2000 i n February 1959. Bi rds were p r e s e n t dur ing t h e day, congregat ing on t h e nor thern beach dur ing t h e a f te rnoon, and many coming i n from t h e sea a t dusk. There were dense f l o c k s on t h e c e n t r a l f l a t s dur ing t h e n i g h t . Warham thought they were c o l l e c t i n g p r i o r t o nes t ing (Warham 1961, 8 8 ) . Hindwood et a l . (1963, 38) found them p r e s e n t i n November 1961, and Ogi lv ie (1975) found some 400 b i r d s . Lavery and Grimes (1971) and Serventy e t a l . (1971, 232-233) c i t e Raine I s l and a s a major breeding s i t e f o r t h i s spec i e s , t oge the r with s eve ra l o t h e r i s l a n d s on t h e nor thern Grea t B a r r i e r Reef; t h i s d i s t r i b u t i o n i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t of t h e Sooty Tern. Anous minutus minutus Boie White-capped Noddy This spec ie s i s recorded a s Anous leucocapillus, White-capped Tern, by Gould (1848, V I I , 3 6 ) , who quotes L t I n c e ' s observa t ion t h a t it i s "very abundant" a t Raine I s l and ; t h i s observa t ion probably r e f e r s t o t h e Common Noddy. There i s no f u r t h e r record of t h i s spec ie s a t Raine u n t i l Warham's v i s i t i n February 1959. He (1961, 88) found two o r t h r e e , and s i n c e t h i s spec ie s n e s t s i n t r e e s , he d i d n o t be l i eve it bred on Raine. Hindwood et al. (1963, 38, 42) c o l l e c t e d a male i n November 1961 (Western Aus t r a l i an Museum No. A8768). A l l t h e l a r g e co lon ie s of t h i s spec ie s on t h e Great B a r r i e r Reef a r e i n t h e Bunker and Capricorn I s l ands i n t h e f a r south (Lavery and Grimes 1971; Serventy et al. 1971, 235-237). Its s t a t u s on Raine I s l and remains uncer ta in . Larus novaehollandiae forsteri (Mathews) S i l v e r Gull This may be t h e spec ie s recorded a s Xema Jamesonii i n 1844 by MacGillivray (1946, 1477) , who noted "only a few p a i r s " . Moseley (1879, 300) c o l l e c t e d it i n August 1874 (Saunders 18781, b u t s a i d it d i d no t breed. In December 1913 Macgil l ivray (1917, 86) found it " in f a i r numbers ... cons tan t ly t o be seen e a r l y i n t h e morning on t h e sandy s t r i p above h igh t i d e mark on t h e look-out f o r t u r t l e eggs t h a t had been scooped o u t by t h e s e c r e a t u r e s during t h e n igh t " . I n February 1959 Warham (1961, 88) found small numbers and no n e s t s , and noted t h a t t h e r e was no breeding record from Raine; he es t imated t h e populat ion t o be 25. Hindwood et al. (1963, 38; Hindwood 1964, 310) found "a few b i r d s " , and Ogi lv ie (1975) 3-4. This spec ie s i s very widely d i s t r i b u t e d along t h e Great B a r r i e r Reef (Lavery and Grimes 1971; Serventy et al. 1971, 196) , bu t i s unimportant a t Raine I s l and . Arenaria interpres interpres (Linnaeus ) Turnstone This spec ie s was recorded from Raine I s l a n d i n 1844 a s Strepsilas australis by MacGillivray (1846) and a s Strepsilas interpres by Gould (1848, V I , 3 9 ) . Moseley (1879, 300) found f l o c k s on t h e shore i n August 1874, b u t no n e s t s ; one male and two females were taken and repor ted a s S. interpres by Forbes (1878). Macgil l ivray (1971, 86) found s e v e r a l small f l o c k s on t h e shore i n December 1913. Warham (1961, 88) found small f l o c k s everywhere except i n t h e vegeta ted a r e a s i n February 1959. I t was noted a s p re sen t by Hindwood e t a l . (1963, 38) i n November 1961. ~l uvialis squatarola (Linnaeus) Grey Plover The only record i s t h a t of a female c o l l e c t e d by Macgil l ivray on 10 December 1913 and repor ted a s Squatarola helvetica (Macgil l ivray 1917, 86 ) . P l u v i a l i s dominica f u l v a (Gmelin) Eas te rn Golden Plover Th i s s p e c i e s was "many t i m e s noted i n a l l p a r t s of Raine I s l and" by Macgi l l iv ray (1914, 86) i n December 1913. Warham (1961, 88) found 20 p r e s e n t on t h e beach, dunes and c e n t r a l f l a t i n February 1959. Hindwood et a l . (1963, 38) r e p o r t it n o t p r e s e n t i n November 1961, b u t i n t h e same paper r eco rd a specimen c o l l e c t e d t h e r e (Hindwood et a l . 1963, 4 2 ) , a male now i n t h e Western A u s t r a l i a n Museum (No. A.8754). Numeni u s p l~aeopus v a r i e g a t u s (Scopol i ) Whimbrel The only r eco rd i s o f a s i n g l e b i r d seen by Warham (1961, 89) i n February 1959. I t was n o t seen by Hindwood e t a l . (1963, 38) i n November 1961. Limosa lappon ica b a u e r i Naumann Bar - t a i l ed Godwit The only r eco rd i s a s i g h t i n g by Hindwood et d l . (1963, 32) on 11 November 1961. C a l i d r i s c a n u t u s (Linnaeus ) Lesser Knot A m i e t (1957, 252) mentions an e a r l i e r s i g h t i n g o f t h i s spec i e s " i n t h e v i c i n i t y of Raine I s l and" . Kikkawa (1976, 319) l is ts t h e s p e c i e s f o r Raine from t h i s record . C a l i d r i s r u f i c o l l i s ( P a l l a s ) Red-necked S t i n t Th i s i s probably t h e s p e c i e s recorded from Raine a s S c h o e n i c l u s a l b e s c e n s by Gould (1848, V I , 31) and a s Actodromas a u s t r a l i s i n Gould (1865, 11, 257) ( f o r synonymy see Sharpe 1896, 545) . Four were seen feed ing a long t h e shore by Hindwood et a1. (1963) i n November 1961, and r epo r t ed a s E r o l i a r u f i c o l l i s . One male and one female were c o l l e c t e d and a r e i n t h e C.S.I.R.O. c o l l e c t i o n (Nos. 302, 303) . C a l i d r i s acuminatus (Horsf i e l d ) Sharp- ta i led Sandpiper Macgi l l iv ray (1917, 87) (under P i s o b i a acuminata) found it "common" i n December 1913. I t was no t p r e s e n t du r ing Warham's v i s i t i n February 1959 (Warham 1961, 8 9 ) . E g r e t t a a l b a modesta (Gray) White Egre t Warham (1961, 89) saw one b i r d on t h e south r i dge on 13 February 1959. E g r e t t a s a c r a (Gmelin) Reef Heron Th i s was recorded a s " E r o d i a s , two spec i e s " by J. MacGillivray (1846, 1477) i n 1844. Both phases w e r e p r e sen t : "Some white and b lue herons f requented t h e r e e f , and probably a r e permanent r e s i d e n t s , judging from some d e s e r t e d n e s t s and fragments of eggs which I saw". Gould (1848, V I , 60) c i t e s it a s Herodias j u g u l a r i s Blue Reef Heron, and n o t e s t h a t it "breeds among t h e r e c e s s e s of t h e rocks". W i l l i a m Macgi l l iv ray (1914, 145) saw one b i r d i n 1911. I t was n o t seen by e i t h e r Warham (1961, 89) i n February 1959, o r by Hindwood (1964, 311) i n November 1961, o r by ou r se lves i n November 1973. N y c t i c o r a x c a l e d o n i c u s h i l l i Mathews Nankeen Night Heron The f i r s t r eco rd of t h i s d i s t i n c t i v e spec i e s i s M'Lennanls record of "many" on 15 J u l y 1911 (Macgi l l ivray 1914, 146 ) ; he found no n e s t s bu t two young b i r d s came i n t o h i s camp. Macgi l l iv ray found one egg on 9 December 1913. Attenborough recorded one o r two j u v e n i l e s , unable t o f l y , i n J u l y 1957. By c o n t r a s t Warham (1961, 80 , 89) found "well over a thousand" i n February 1959, with s e v e r a l hundred c l u t c h e s of eggs on r i d g e s , under overhangs, and on p i l e s of rocks on t h e c e n t r a l f l a t ; t h e r e were few eggs. Warham considered t h a t t h i s s p e c i e s occupied t h e n iche on Raine t h a t elsewhere was occupied by t h e Reef Heron. But i n November 1961 Hindwood e t a l . (1963, 33) found only "about 50 b i r d s " and "no s i g n s t h a t they were breeding". I n November 1973 t h e r e was one l a r g e f l ock of about 150 b i r d s , g e n e r a l l y on t h e beach a t t h e e a s t end of t h e i s l a n d . Og i lv i e (1975) l a t e r found more than 2000 b i r d s . Merops o r n a t u s Latham Aus t r a l i an Bee-eater F i r s t recorded a s a v i s i t o r by E l l i s (1937, 1 7 8 ) , who saw " q u i t e a number" dur ing 1890-92. Ten were seen i n two groups on 11 November 1961 by Hindwood e t a l . (1963, 71. Hirundo n i g r i c a n s n i g r i c a n s V i e i l l o t Tree Martin F i r s t recorded by John MacGillivray i n 1844. A few b i r d s were seen by Warham (1961, 89) i n February 1959 and recordedas H y l o c h e l i d o n n i g r i c a n s . It is recorded a s P e t r o c h e l i d o n n i g r i c a n s ( V i e i l l o t ) by Kikkawa (1976, 332) . Monarcha m e l a n o p s i s ( V i e i l l o t ) Black-faced F lyca tcher This i s c i t e d by Macgi l l iv ray (1918) and recorded by Kikkawa (1976, 333) . Myiagra r u b e c u l a r u b e c u l a (Latham) Leaden F lyca tcher According t o Warham (1961) t h i s i s t h e s p e c i e s c i t e d a s R h i p i d u r a by John MacGillivray i n 1844. One was seen by W . Macgi l l iv ray (1918, 198) on 10 December 1913, and two t h e fo l lowing day, a l l i n t h e Beacon. A p l o n i s m e t a l l i c a m e t a l l i c a (Temminck) Shin ing S t a r l i n g One b i r d was seen on t h e Beacon by W . Macgi l l ivray on 10 December 1913. DISTURBANCE BY MAN When t h e F ly a r r i v e d a t Raine t h e r e was no t r a c e of n a t i v e occupat ion (Jukes 1847, I , 1 3 0 ) , and t h e r e i s no reason t o suppose t h a t t h e i s l a n d had eve r been occupied be fo re t h i s t ime. During t h e n ine t een th cen tu ry , however, cons ide rab l e d i s tu rbance took p l a c e , f i r s t dur ing t h e b u i l d i n g of t h e Beacon i n 1844, most s eve re ly dur ing t h e guano d igging pe r iod be fo re 1892, and t o an unknown e x t e n t dur ing v i s i t s by beche-de-mer fishermen i n t h e 1870s and 1880s. Accessible food r e sou rces such a s n e s t i n g t u r t l e s and t h e i r eggs, and ground- n e s t i n g s e a b i r d s and t h e i r eggs, must have undergone seve re i f spasmodic i n t e r f e r e n c e a t t h e s e t i m e s . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h i s d i r e c t p r eda t ion , some of t h e s e v i s i t o r s in t roduced p l a n t s , mainly vege tab les which they at tempted t o c u l t i v a t e , and on a t l e a s t one occas ion goa t s were l i b e r a t e d t oo . During t h e F l y ' s f i r s t v i s i t , Jukes d ined "upon young boobies and f r i g a t e - b i r d s and t e r n s ' eggs - t h e l a t t e r were e x c e l l e n t , and t h e former very good, e s p e c i a l l y when cooked wi th a l i t t l e c u r r y powder" (1847, I , 129-130). I n 1 8 4 4 t h e i s l a n d w a s occupied f o r fou r months du r ing t h e b u i l d i n g l o f t h e Beacon. Jukes es t imated i n June t h a t 3000 young b i r d s (Noddies and Sooty Terns) and about 17,000 eggs had been e a t e n by t h e shore p a r t y . L a t e r , when a small p a r t y landed from t h e Bramble i n April-May 1845, Sweatman (MS, 93) r eco rds t h a t 36 dozen eggs a day were consumed by t h r e e men: "add t o t h i s t u r t l e soup, e e l s , mutton b i r d s (which Clark cooked magni f icen t ly) f i s h , spinach and damper ..." A s i s s t i l l t h e p r a c t i c e i n egg c o l l e c t i n g , Sweatman s t a t e s t h a t "Our f i r s t a c t on landing was, o f cou r se , t o break every egg on t h e i s l a n d s o t h a t a l l we c o l l e c t e d a f t e rwards were s u r e t o be f r e s h , and s o abundantly d i d t h e b i r d s l a y t h a t be s ides supplying ou r own wants a t t h e r a t e above s t a t e d we l i n e d i n t h r e e l a r g e ca sks f o r t h e use of t h e sh ip" . Gardens were a l s o e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e c e n t r e of t h e i s l a n d by t h e F ly p a r t y , and coconuts , pumpkins, maize and o t h e r p l a n t s in t roduced and c u l t i v a t e d (Jukes 1847, 11, 267) . I n January 1845 (Sweatman's manuscr ipt s ays Feb rua ry ) , dur ing the Hero ine ' s v i s i t , Mackenzie (1845, 494) p l a n t e d "cocoa-nut and va r ious o t h e r seeds , hoping they might be a b e n e f i t t o some un fo r tuna t e s h e r e a f t e r " ; f ou r months l a t e r t h e coconuts were r epo r t ed "growing very f a s t " (Anon. 1846, 549 ) . Sweatman (MS, 91) t hen desc r ibed them a s Eour f e e t t a l l b u t choked wi th weeds which had a l r eady o b l i - t e r a t e d t he p a t h s and gardens. The Bramble p a r t y c l e a r e d the weeds from round Che young . t r ee s , b u i l t f ences around them, and p l an t ed fou r more brought from t h e Murray I s l a n d s (Sweatman MS, 9 6 ) , b u t i n s p i t e of t h i s t h e s e i n t r o d u c t i o n s d i d n o t long surv ive . When t h e Chal lenger c a l l e d i n 1874, Moseley (1879, 300) p l an t ed pumpkins, toma-toes, water melons, Cape Gooseberr ies , and Capsicum, b u t no l a t e r v i s i t o r mentions any of t h e s e su rv iv ing e i t h e r . Goats were in t roduced a t an e a r l y s t a g e , according t o Lack (1953, 41) by the F ly , though t h e r e seems t o be no comtemporary evidence t h a t t h i s was so . I n January 1845, however, t h e Heroine " l e f t a male and ' female g o a t , wi th two bags of r i c e " (Mackenzie 1845, 494 ) . Sweatman (MS, 92) i n Apr i l found them " f r i sk ing about t h e i s l a n d i n good condit ion bu t very wild and shy", and by August t h e r e were t h r e e young (Anon. 1846, 549). There i s a mention of "numbers" of goats being present a t t h e time of t h e wreck of t h e E n c h a n t r e s s i n Ju ly 1850, but otherwise no l a t e r record. The goa t s were doubtless ea ten during t h e beche-de-mer and guano digging per iods , i f they had not d ied out be fo re , and they were themselves probably responsible f o r t h e disappearance of t h e F l y ' s vegetable gardens. Early v i s i t o r s continued t o ob ta in food suppl ies from t h e seab i rds and t u r t l e s . The H e r o i n e i n 1845 "obtained fourteen l a r g e t u r t l e s ... a l s o an immense number of eggs, and t h e crew k i l l e d b i r d s ou t of number1' (Mackenzie 1845, 494). The B r a m b l e par ty a l s o took fourteen t u r t l e by turning them on t h e beaches (Sweatman MS, 94-95). Buchanan (1874, 127-128) records t h a t t h e C h a l l e n g e r only l e f t " a f t e r a s u f f i c i e n t number of b i r d s had been k i l l e d " . Similar inc iden t s , though not recorded i n t h e n a u t i c a l o r s c i e n t i f i c l i t e r a t u r e , must have been numerous throughout t h e n ineteenth century. Construction of t h e Beacon A s e r i e s of shipwrecks on t h e Great Bar r i e r Reef near Great Detached Reef (including those of t h e C h a r l e s E a t o n i n 1834, the F e r g u s o n i n 1840, and t h e M a r t h a R i d g w a y i n 1841) l e d t o a proposal by Capt lack wood' t h a t a Beacon be e rec ted on Raine I s l and t o guide sh ips using t h e Outer Passage route through t h e Bar r i e r Reef. The Beacon was o r i g i n a l l y t o be t r i a n g u l a r i n p lan and 60 f t high, bu t a s announced by Blackwood (1844b) it was proposed t o b u i l d a tower 50 it high, 25 f t i n diameter a t t h e base, and 16 f t i n diameter a t t h e top , and t o make it more conspicuous by pa in t ing it with black and white bands each one t h i r d t h e he ight of t h e building. Blackwood f i t t e d o u t f o r t h i s expedit ion i n Sydney, obtaining "twenty picked convic ts , c h i e f l y masons and quarry men", and taking on s t o r e s and prefabr ica ted wooden huts . The capta in had t o spend E180.14.5d on mason's t o o l s s ince both t h e Government and t h e Engineers Department refused t o supply them. The F l y , with t h e B r a m b l e and t h e P r i n c e G e o r g e , s a i l e d on 27 March 1844, and commenced landing on Raine on 27 May. Jukes wrote t o h i s s i s t e r Amelia on 26 May: "Our lumber c o n s i s t s of twenty convic ts , and an immense quant i ty of plank timber, houses, barrows, jumpers, pickaxes, spades, and a l l manner of bui ld ing, digging, and b l a s t i n g mater ia ls . A l l t hese w i l l have t o be c a r r i e d i n boats through a heavy sea s i x miles, a s t h e sh ip cannot anchor nearer 1. This account i s based on t h e Capta in ' s l e t t e r s from H.M.S. F l y , Blackwood's R e m a r k B o o k s , and t h e engineering drawings, ink sketches and watercolour drawings i n S k e t c h e s a n d v i e w s , vol. 6B, i n t h e archives of t h e Hydrographic Department, Royal Navy, a s well a s on published accounts. We a r e g r a t e f u l t o t h e Hydrographer, Admiral D.W. Haslam, f o r access t o the records. Raine ' s I s l e t than t h a t . I expect t h i s w i l l take u s two o r th ree weeks, a s twenty of our crew a r e t o be landed, and provis ions and water f o r f o r t y men f o r t h r e e months a r e no t r i f l i n g matter . The bread alone w i l l be 2500 l b s " (Jukes 1871, 224). On 29 May he wrote again, a f t e r h i s f i r s t landing, t o r epor t t h a t he had "got on board j u s t now wet through, and so t i r e d I can hardly keep my eyes open. ... We have t e r r i b l y hard, heavy, disagreeable work landing th ings on t h i s l i t t l e deso la te i s l e t , bu t hope f i n a l l y t o accomplish our o b j e c t i n bui ld ing a beacon p r e t t y well" (Jukes 1871, 225) . The hu t s and t e n t s were e rec ted , and a quarry was opened a t t h e e a s t end of the i s land. Jukes reported t o h i s aunt on 21 June t h a t "Good bui ld ing s tone i s procured i n abundance, wooden houses and t e n t s a r e erected, l ime i s made, t h e foundation stone l a i d , and t h e f i r s t course of masonry near ly complete. Lieutenant Ince, with a pa r ty of f o r t y men, occupies t h e i s l and and superintends the work" (Jukes 1871, 226). Lime was made on t h e i s l a n d by burning Tridacna and Hippopus s h e l l s . Water, however, had t o be brought from S i r Charles Hardy's I s l ands , and timbers were obtained from t h e wreck of t h e Martha Ridgway 40 km t o t h e south. Af ter h i s f i r s t period of inves t iga t ions on Raine, Jukes found t h e rou t ine tedious : he t o l d Amelia t h a t "This period of inact ion i s becoming most oppressive t o me. I would welcome any danger o r any hardship even t h a t would break t h e monotony. I am accordingly a s d u l l , heavy, s tup id , and s p i r i t l e s s a s it i s poss ib le" (Jukes, 1871, 231). But t h e shore pa r ty under Ince had t h e Beacon f i n i s h e d by mid- September. I t had been designed by t h e F l y ' s ca rpen te r , Stephen Moore, - 'without any exception t h e b e s t Sh ip ' s Carpenter I ever met ' , Blackwood c a l l e d him - and was described by Jukes a s a c i r c u l a r tower of s tone , 40 f t high, 30 f t i n diameter a t t h e base, and with wal ls 5 f t t h i ck , "divided i n t o t h r e e s t o r i e s , each of which was p a r t i a l l y f loored , and made access ib le bya ladder. I t was roofed a t t h e top by a dome-shaped frame of wood, covered by painted canvas. Its summit was thus r a i s e d 70 f e e t above low water mark. A l a r g e tank taken from t h e Martha Ridgway was placed a t t h e s i d e , i n t o which a s e r i e s of spouts were led from t h e roof, so t h a t it would shor t ly be f i l l e d with rainwater" (Jukes 1847, I , 267). The drawings f o r t h e Beacon, i n t h e Royal Navy's Hydrographic Department archives (Figure l o ) , i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e foundation stone was 11 f t above low water mark, t h e he ight t o the top of t h e stone balus t rade was 45 f t and t o t h e top of t h e canopy 63 f t 2 inches, giving an e levat ion o v e r a l l from low water mark of 74 f t 2 inches. I t was painted i n black and white v e r t i c a l s t r i p e s and was v i s i b l e from t h i r t e e n miles. Blackwood formally repor ted on t h e work by l e t t e r t o t h e Admiralty from Surabaya on 26 October 1844. Four months a f t e r it was completed, t h e Beacon was inspected by t h e Heroine: " A t day l igh t we went on shore t o examine t h e beacon, when we l ikewise found two wooden b u i l t houses and an oven. The beacon i s s i x t y f e e t i n diameter, and about f i f t y f e e t high, and i t s wa l l s a t t h e base th ree f e e t i r i t h i c k n e s s , painted red on t h e south- e a s t s i d e , and the r e s t black, with a white cupola and black b a l l , having a spout which runs o f f it i n t o a deep tank, which we found f u l l of water. Altogether it is a subs tan t i a l bui ld ing, and well cont r ived thoughout" (Mackenzie 1845, 494). Later the same year t h e same sh ip "sent a boat ashore t o leave a l e t t e r i n t h e Post-Office" (s ince Raine a t t h i s t ime, a s Sweatman (MS, 96) a l s o t e l l s , performed t h e same kind of function a s t h e b e t t e r known Booby Is land i n Torres S t r a i t s a t a l a t e r d a t e ) , and found t h a t " the tank was f u l l of water, and t h e beacon seemed t o stand t h e weather very well" (Anon. 1846, 549). The Beacon i t s e l f was v i s i b l e from 8-9 miles from t h e deck of a sh ip and from 12-13 miles from t h e masthead (Horsburgh 1855, 883-884; Horsburgh 1852, I , 798-800; Findlay 1884, 971). When examined by Capt Denham i n 1860 the dome had f a l l e n , reducing t h e height t o 40 f t (Findlay 1884, 971), and the beams and f l o o r s had gone and t h e i ron tank d i s in tegra ted by t h e time of t h e Challenger's v i s i t i n 1874 (Tizard e t a l . 1885; Swire 1938, 11, 47-50). The s h i p ' s plumber was s e n t ashore t o c u t t h e Capta in ' s name and t h a t of t h e sh ip i n t h e stone i n s i d e t h e tower (Swire 1938, 11, SO), t h e whole surface now being covered by overlapping i n s c r i p t i o n s by casual v i s i t o r s . In 1959 Warham found t h a t p a r t of the base of the tower was s t a r t i n g t o col lapse (Warham 1963, 5, photograph), b u t t h i s damage was repai red with bags of cement by H.M.A.S. Gascoyne i n 1961. The Beacon is of some h i s t o r i c a l importance, s ince it is the o l d e s t s tone s t r u c t u r e b u i l t by Europeans i n North Queensland. Wreck of t h e Enchantress Lack (1953, 41) wr i tes : "Five years l a t e r [ a f t e r the Beacon was b u i l t ] , Captain Anson of the b r i g Enchantress, Sydney t o Sourabaya, managed t o p u t h i s sh ip ashore on the northern s i d e of the Raine Entrance desp i t e t h e warning of t h e tower. A young passenger named Buchan wrote a racy account of t h e inc ident t o h i s r e l a t i v e s i n England. He r e l a t e d how they landed on t h e i s l and , found numbers of t h e much enduring goats , and q u a n t i t i e s of sea b i r d s ' eggs on which they feas ted sumptuously". The crew rap id ly became drunk and were taken o f f by a second vesse l , t he Lady Margaret, only with d i f f i c u l t y . E f f o r t s t o obta in d e t a i l s of t h i s wreck and t o t r a c e the n a r r a t i v e account mentioned by Lack have not been a l toge the r successful . We a r e indebted t o M r . H.E. Maude who has shown t h a t t h e c a p t a i n ' s name was I'Anson, not Anson, and t h e passenger was M r . B. Buchanan, not Buchan. Maude notes t h a t t h e Shipping Gazette and Sydney General Trade List, vol . 7, no. 330 (13 Ju ly 1850), p. 186, records t h e departure of t h e Enchantress i n b a l l a s t from Sydney. The same journal , vol . 7, no. 351, p. 322, r e p o r t s i t s l o s s on the Raine reef on 24 Ju ly 1850, and p r i n t s a l e t t e r from Buchanan giving t h e d e t a i l s t o t h e owners of t h e ship. The wreck occurred i n t h e afternoon, and t h e s h i p ' s company escaped and took s h e l t e r i n the Beacon. The Enchantress was t r a v e l l i n g with t h e Lady Margaret, and everyone was taken o f f i n small boats and t r ans fe r red t o t h i s sh ip by dusk on the following day. The d e t a i l s given i n Lack's published account do not der ive from t h i s l e t t e r by Buchanan, and a l l e f f o r t s t o t r a c e t h e "racy account" Lack r e f e r s t o have f a i l e d . The main i n t e r e s t o f it l i e s i n t h e r e f e rences t o g o a t s and t o p reda t ion of s eab i rd eggs which it ev iden t ly con ta ins . There i s a l s o an account of t h e wreck i n t h e Sydney Morning Herald f o r 3 and 4 December 1850. Beche-de-mer F ishery During t h e 1880s Cooktown was t h e c e n t r e of t h e Queensland beche- de-mer f i s h e r y , when ho lo thu r i ans were c o l l e c t e d from shallow r e e f f l a t s , d r i e d , and exported t o China (Ward 1972). This t r a d e had been c a r r i e d o u t a t Raine I s l and a t l e a s t s ince t h e e a r l y 1870s. E l l i s (1937, 71-72) recounts t h a t about 1873 t h e f i s h e r y t h e r e was c a r r i e d o u t by two white and two o r t h r e e n a t i v e s (Chinese, kanakas and a b o r i g i n a l s ) . The beche-de-mer were b o i l e d , sun-dried and smoked on t h e i s l a n d , though i n t h e absence of f u e l t h i s can ha rd ly have been on a very l a r g e s c a l e . According t o E l l i s t h e a b o r i g i n a l s on one occasion murdered one of t h e whi tes , one Chinese and two kanakas, be fo re f l e e i n g from Raine; t h e bodies were bur ied by t h e surv iv ing whi te man near t h e c e n t r e of t h e i s l a n d . Phosphate mining When phosphate was f i r s t discovered i n commercial q u a n t i t i e s on Raine I s l and i s not known. I t was f i r s t mentioned when Raine, wi th o t h e r i s l a n d s , was included i n a l e a s e taken o u t i n Hobart i n 1862, f o r seven yea r s , f o r t h e purpose o f guano digging (Crowther 1939). There i s no evidence t h a t any digging under t h i s l e a s e took p l ace a t Raine, a l though t h e Arundel papers con ta in an undated newspaper c u t t i n g s t a t i n g t h a t "The G r i f f i n , under t h e command of German Harry, c l e a r e d yes te rday f o r Rain I s l a n d under c h a r t e r t o a Southernspecula tor , who holds t h e r i g h t t o t ake guano from t h a t l o c a l i t y " . Most of t h e guano digging a c t i v i t y a t t h a t t ime was i n t h e more a c c e s s i b l e Bunker and Capricorn I s l ands . The J.T. Arundel Company, which had been digging on t h e c e n t r a l e q u a t o r i a l P a c i f i c i s l a n d s dur ing t h e 1880s, t r a n s f e r r e d i t s ope ra t ions from Baker t o Raine i n 1890. John Arundel r eco rds i n h i s d i a r y t h a t be fo re s t a r t i n g work he consul ted t h e master of t h e J e n n i e S c o t t , One- eyed Robinson, who had worked on Raine i n 1879 (though on what i s n o t known), about sources of water t h e r e and on neighbouring i s l a n d s . One-eyed Robinson t o l d Arundel of t h e murder of twelve men by n a t i v e s on t h e i s l a n d dur ing t h e beche-de-mer f i s h e r y . Arundel went t o Raine wi th t h e G r i f f i n and t h e M a i l e i n August 1890 t o organise t h e digging. H i s d i a r i e s show t h a t he was on t h e i s l a n d from 20 August t o 6 September 1890 and aga in from 13 February t o 15 February 1891. The digging ope ra t ions were conducted by Albe r t E l l i s , who a l s o a r r i v e d i n 1890 (though Savi l le-Kent (1893) sugges ts t h a t e x t r a c t i o n began a s e a r l y a s 1882). There w a s a s t a f f o f 9-10 Europeans, and one hundred Asian (mainly Chinese) l aboure r s ; Arundel, a r e l i g i o u s man, shipped Chinese Bib les t o t h e i s l a n d f o r t h e i r use. A tramway was b u i l t from t h e workings t o a new j e t t y , and a "locomotive" imported. A s to rage shed was b u i l t t o house t h e guano between shipments. Export was by s a i l i n g sh ips of 1000-1500 t o n s , d i r e c t t o Europe, with t h e exception of two which went d i r e c t t o Melbourne. The guano was packed i n 60 l b sacks f o r ease of handling. Water supply f o r s o l a r g e a labour fo rce was a major problem, and a water condenser was b u i l t f o r t h i s purpose. In 1892 t h e digging ended and t h e equipment was dismantled and removed ( E l l i s 1937, 62-73, 98) . I t i s es t imated t h a t " t ens of thousands of tons" of guano were exported during t h i s b r i e f per iod (Hutchinson 1950, 256). S i r Alber t E l l i s ' s mother d ied on Raine I s l and during t h i s pe r iod , and i s bur ied i n a s u b s t a n t i a l grave with a marble s tone ad jacen t t o t h e Beacon. The i n s c r i p t i o n on t h e s tone ends with a homily which seems e s p e c i a l l y appropr i a t e i n s o remote a loca t ion : I n loving memory of Annie E l i z a wife of George C. E l l i s en tered i n t o r e s t June 29th. 1891 aged 52 yea r s Her l a s t words were Father! not my w i l l But t h i n e be done. My - God - of - Love Reader ! Be ye a l s o ready ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This r e p o r t r e s u l t s from a v i s i t t o Raine I s l and made dur ing Phase I11 of t h e Royal Socie ty and Unive r s i t i e s of Queensland Expedition t o t h e Great B a r r i e r Reef i n 1973. We thank t h e sponsors of t h e expedi t ion , and e s p e c i a l l y James Cook Universi ty of North Queensland, which made i t s research v e s s e l James Kirby a v a i l a b l e f o r t h i s v i s i t . We a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y g r a t e f u l t o C.W. Benson, Department of Zoology, Cambridge Univers i ty , f o r advice and comments on t h e b i r d s of Raine I s l and and f o r re-examining Raine I s l a n d specimens i n t h e B r i t i s h Museum (Natural History)and i n the Uriiversity Museum of Zooloyy, Cambridge; and t o C . J .O . Harr ison, S.A. Parker , and H . J . Lavery f o r o t h e r comments on b i r d s . We a r e g r a t e f u l t o D r J. Kikkawa f o r making a v a i l a b l e unpublished m a t e r i a l on h i s surveys of b i r d s on t h e Great B a r r i e r Reef, and f o r sending d a t a c o l l e c t e d by P. Ogi lv ie (1975), which M r . Ogi lv ie has allowed t o be included. D r M.R. Clarke and D r A. Wheeler determined squid and f i s h r e spec t ive ly from seab i rd r e g u r g i t a t e . For determinat ions of Crustacea we thank D r R.W. Ing le , B r i t i s h Museum (Natural H i s to ry ) . M r E . I . B u t l e r , Marine Bio logica l Associat ion, Plymouth, k indly c a r r i e d o u t phosphate ana lyses of s o i l samples. Professor H.E. Maude of Canberra helped g r e a t l y with t h e enquiry about t h e E n c h a n t r e s s , and D r Harold Fox pursued var ious l i n e s of enquiry i n Cambridge and London. D r J. Allen of Canberra k indly made a v a i l a b l e t h e r e l evan t p o r t i o n of Sweatman's journa l , through D r Roger McLean, and has allowed quo ta t ions t o appear he re . M r R.A. Langdon of t h e P a c i f i c Manuscripts Bureau, Canberra, made a v a i l a b l e copies of t he Raine I s l and s e c t i o n s of J.T. Arundel 's journa ls . Admiral Haslam allowed access t o papers of t h e F l y survey i n Hydrographic Department a rchives . D r S. 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"Cha l l enger" i n the y e a r s 1872-1876, under the command o f Cap t S i r G.S. N a r e s , R.N., K.C.B., F.R.S., and Capt F.T. Thomson, R . N . London. Moulton, J . M . 1961. Some o b s e r v a t i o n s on t h e Heron I s l a n d fauna. A t o l l Res . B u l l . 82: 15-16. Murray, J. 1895. A summary of t h e s c i e n t i f i c r e s u l t s . S c i . R e p t s . H.M.S. C h a l l e n g e r , Summ. S c i . R e s . 1: i - l i i i , 1-796. Nelson, J .B. 1970. The r e l a t i o n s h i p between behaviour and ecology i n t h e S u l i d a e w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o o t h e r s e a b i r d s . Oceanogr. mar. B i o l . Ann. Rev . 8 : 501-574. North , A . J . 1911-1914. N e s t s and eggs o f b i r d s found breed ing i n A u s t r a l i a and Tasmania. S p e c . C a t . A u s t r . Mus. S y d n e y , no. 1 : v o l . 3 (1911-12), 1-362; V O ~ . 4 (1913-14), 1-472. O g i l v i e , P. 1975. 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Repor t s on t h e c o l l e c t i o n s of b i r d s made du r ing t h e voyage o f H.M.S. 'Cha l l enge r ' -No. X I . On t h e Steganopodes and Impennes. Proc . zool. Soc . Lond. 1878: 650-655. Servan, J. 1976. Ecologie de l a t o r t u e v e r t e a l ' i l e Europa (Canal de Mozambique). T e r r e V i e , 30: 421-464. Serventy, D.L. , Serventy, V. and Warham, J. 1971. The handbook o f A u s t r a l i a n s e a - b i r d s . Sydney: A.H. and A.W. Reed. 254 pp. Sharpe, R.B. 1896. C a t a l o g u e o f b i r d s i n the B r i t i s h Museum ( N a t u r a l H i s t o r y ) , P a r t 24 . London: Trus tees of t h e B r i t i s h Museum (Natural H i s t o r y ) . Spry, J. J. 1876. The c r u i s e o f Her M a j e s t y ' s S h i p " C h a l l e n g e r " . Voyages o v e r many s e a s , scenes i n many l a n d s . London : Sampson Low, Marston, S e a r l e and Rivington. 388 pp. S t o r r , G.M. 1973. L i s t of Queensland b i r d s . S p e c . P u b l . W. A u s t r . Mus. 5: i - i i i , 1-177. Sweatman, J. MS. J o u r n a l o f a s u r v e y i n g voyage t o the N.E . c o a s t o f A u s t r a l i a and T o r r e s S t r a i t , i n H . M . S chooner Bramble , L i e u t . C . B . Y u l e , Commander, 1842-47. Mitchel l L ib ra ry , Sydney. Swire, H. 1938. The voyage o f the C h a l l e n g e r : a p e r s o n a l n a r r a t i v e o f the h i s t o r i c c i r c u m n a v i g a t i o n o f the g l o b e i n the y e a r s 1872- 1876 b y N a v i g a t i n g S u b - L i e u t e n a n t Herbert S w i r e , R.N. London: Golden Cockerel Press . 2 v o l s . , 192 and 168 pp. Taylor , R.C. 1973. An a t l a s o f P a c i f i c I s l a n d s r a i n f a l l . Hawaii I n s t i t u t e of Geophysics Data Report No. 25 (HIG-73-9). T iza rd , T . H . , Moseley, H . N . , Buchanan, J . Y . and Murray, J. 1885. Narra t ive of t he c r u i s e of H.M.S. Chal lenger . S c i . R e p t s . V o y . H.M.S. C h a l l e n g e r , N a r r a t i v e , 1: 1-110. Ward, R.G. 1972. The P a c i f i c beche-de-mer t r a d e wi th s p e c i a l r e f e rence t o F i j i . I n R.G. Ward, ed: Man i n the P a c i f i c I s l a n d s (Oxford: Clarendon P r e s s ) , 91-123. Warham, J . 1959. The Trinidad P e t r a l , Pterodroma a r m i n j o n i a n a , a new b i r d f o r Aus t r a l i a . Emu, 59: 153-158. Warham, J. 1961. The b i r d s of Raine I s l a n d , Pandora Cay, and Murray I s l and Sandbank, North Queensland. Emu, 61: 77-93, Warham, J . 1963. On t h e edge of t h e Coral Sea. P a c i f . D i s c o v . 1 6 ( 1 ) : 2-9. Whitley, G . P . 1938. John Gould's a s s o c i a t e s . Emu, 38: 141-167. Wild, J.J. 1878. A t anchor : a n a r r a t i v e o f e x p e r i e n c e s a f l o a t and a s h o r e d u r i n g the v o y a g e o f H.M.S. "Cha l l enger" from 1872 t o 1876 . London: Marcus Ward and Co. 196 pp. Sand beach Beachrock nm] Vegetation \ I \\-- -----_ I Reef edge - -- ---I . . / / 1 '---- I 0 metres 500 - F i g . 2 . Raine I s l and and its r e e f . M E A N MEDIAN Fig . 3. Monthly d i s t r i b u t i o n of r a i n f a l l a t W i l l i s I s l a n d , 1 0 3 1 - 1 0 7 1 ( i i a f a frnm T n v l nr 1971). B. The beacon. G. The gardens. W. The wells. P. The flagtafi: H. The huts. T. The te~its. 0. The observatory. Fig. 4 . Raine I s l a n d i n 1844 , from Jukes (1847), vo l . I , p . 338. /d a. Vegetable soil. b. Little clifl at edge of stone. c. Loose coral sand. (1. Edge of reef. e. These two lines represent high and lorn water level, thc rise and fi~ll being about 10 feet. Fig . 5 . P r o f i l e of Raine I s l a n d , from Jukes (1847) , vo l . I , p . 339. 0 metres 200 I 2 I' S m d Beachrock - Beach ridge crest @ Rubble mounds - Steep sandstone cliff Lepturus grassland Achyranthes/Abutilon Fig . 6 . Map of Raine I s l a n d . The a r e a s i n t h e c e n t r a l guano f l a t a r e t h e s eab i rd survey a r ea s d e t a i l e d i n Table 2 . Fig. F i g . 8. Sediment samples from Raine I s l a n d . 80 90 100 110 120 CARAPACE CURVED LENGTH, cm Fig . 9 . Histogram of curved ca rapace l e n g t h o f t u r t l e s measured on t h e n e s t , n i g h t o f 3 November 1973. Feet In. I The Foundofion Stone is laid J J feet above Low Water 144'06'45 I Mark, making a total height F i g . 1 0 . S e c t i o n and e l e v a t i o n a f t e r Bateson ( 1 9 7 2 ) ~ p . 201 V.R. A.D. 1844 o f 74 Feet. of t h e Raine I s l a n d Beacon, 1 8 4 4 , RAINE'S ISLET. P1. 1. Raine I s l a n d i n 1844, from Jukes (1847) . P1. 2 . The c e n t r a l guano f l a t from t h e e s t end of t h e i s l a n d , look- i n g towards t h e Beacon. The r i d g e i n t h e foreground i s t h e s i t e of t h e o l d guano ra i lway . P l . 3. Eas te rn end of t h e c e n t r a l guano f l a t , wi th Brown and Masked Gannets. P1. 4. Mounds of rubble and s tones i n t h e c e n t r a l guano f l a t . P1. 5. Massive beachrock on t h e no r theas t shore. P1. 6. Grooved and furrowed beachrock on t h e no r theas t shore . P1. 7 . Beachrock now d i s t a n t from t h e beach on t h e no r th shore . P1. 8. Phosphatic beachrock uncomformably over ly ing o l d eroded beachrock at t h e e a s t end of t h e i s l a n d . P1. 9. C l i f f s i n phosphate rock a t t h e southeas t end of t h e i s l a n d . P1. 10 . I r r e g u l a r lower su r face of t h e phosphate rock, forming caves, on t h e south s i d e of t h e i s l a n d . Note t h e n e s t i n g Tropic- b i r d beneath t h e overhang. P1. 11. Deta i l of t h e columnar s t r u c t u r e of t h e phosphate rock. P1. 12 . Detached remnants of phosphate rock, south s i d e of t h e i s land. P1. 13. Western sand beach, showing e a r l y morning t u r t l e t r a c k s . P1. 1 4 . T u r t l e n e s t s on t h e beach c r e s t a t t h e west end of t h e i s l a n d P1. 1 5 . Green T u r t l e on t h e n o r t h e a s t beachrock. P1. 16. T u r t l e remains i n Lepturus g r a s s l a n d o f t h e h i g h r i d g e . P1. 17 . Shearwater burrows i n f i n e guano a t t h e west end of t h e c e n t r a l guano f l a t . P1. 18. Mound i n t h e c e n t r a l guano f l a t w i th j u v e n i l e Les se r F r i g a t e - b i r d s . P1. 19-20. Juvenile Lesser Frigate-birds. P1. 21. J u v e n i l e Lesser F r i g a t e - b i r d s . P1. 22. Brown Gannets l i n i n g t h e beachrock a t t h e e a s t end o f t h e i s l a n d . P1. 23. Brown Gannets on beachrock on t h e no r theas t sho re . P1. 24. Brown Gannets on t h e n e s t i n t h e c e n t r a l guano a rea . Note t h e twigs o u t l i n g t h e n e s t . P1. 25 . Brown Gannets n e s t i n g i n t h e Lepturus g r a s s l a n d o f t h e h i g h r i d g e . No t w i g s su r round t h e n e s t i n t h e v e g e t a t e d a r e a s . P1. 26. Masked Gannets on t h e n e s t i n t h e c e n t r a l guano a r e a . The n e s t i s simply a d e p r e s s i o n i n t h e sand . P1. 27. Masked Gannt2t.s on t h e n?st i n t h e c e n t r a l guano a r e a . The n e s t i s simply a depression i n t h e sand. P1. 28. Hatchl ing Masked Gannet i n t h e c e n t r a l guano a r e a . P1. 29. Hatchl ing Masked Gannet wi th r e g u r g i t a t e d f l y i n g f i s h C y p s i h m s meZanocercus i n a n e s t i n t h e c e n t r a l guano a r e a . P1. 30. Red-footed Gannets on n e s t s b u i l t on low AbutiZon shrubs on t h e high r i d g e a t t h e west end of t h e i s l a n d . P1. 31. Red-footed Gannets on n e s t s b u i l t on low AbutiZon shrubs on t h e h igh r i d g e a t t h e west end o f t h e i s l a n d . P1. 32. F l edg l i ng Red-footed Gannet on t h e n e s t a t t h e west end of t h e i s l a n d . P1. 33. Juven i l e Red-tailed Tropic-bird under t h e phosphate c l i f f s a t t h e e a s t end of t h e i s l a n d . P1. 34. The Beacon and grave a t t h e e a s t end of t h e i s l a n d , seen from t h e south i n November 1973. P1. 36. The Beacon in Novanber 1973. The dark area on the lower ' 1 . 5 . 7'h E+acon as e r e c t e d i n 1844, from Nautical Magazine, . . . - . - - - - P1. 37. I n s c r i p t i o n s i n s i d e t h e w a l l s o f t h e Beacon. P1 . 38. The g r a v e of Annie E l i z a E l l i s . ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN NO. 255 SHORT ORIGINAL ARTICLES by various authors Issued by THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Washington, D. C., U.S.A. July 198 1 E D I T O R S ' N O T E I n l i n e wi th our po l i cy of not i s s u i n g s h o r t a r t i c l e s as sepa- r a t e numbers wi th t h e i r own t i t l e pages, t h e fol lowing a r t i c l e s a r e o f f e r e d a s p a r t s of a s i n g l e number. They have accumulated over a cons iderable per iod s i n c e t h e l a s t I s l a n d News and Comments appeared. They a r e grouped roughly according t o t h e i r geographic and sub jec t i n t e r e s t . Contents An e a r l y r epor t of t h e f l o r a and fauna of t h e Aldabra Page group, by E. P. Diamond 1 Geochemistry and mineralogy of carbonate rock samples from Aldabra A t o l l , Indian Ocean, by Stephen T. T r u d g i l l 11 His tory of goats i n t h e Aldabra Archipelago, by D. R . S t oddart Abbott 's booby on Assumption, by D. R . Stoddart Pene t r a t ion of hos t p l a n t t i s s u e s by t h e s t y l e t s of t h e coccoid Icerya seycheZZamun ( ~ o c c o i d e a : ~ a r g a r o i d e a ) on Aldabra A t o l l , by S. Blackmore Meteorological d a t a from U l u l I s l a n d , Namonuito Ato l l by John Byron Thomas and Mary Durand Thomas Marine benth ic a lgae of Kayangel A t o l l , Pa lau , by Roy T. Tsuda Q u a l i t a t i v e assessment o f a s t e r o i d s , echinoids and holo thur ians i n Yap Lagoon, by Deborah A. Grosenbaugh Acanthaster i n t h e c u l t u r e s of high i s l a n d s , by Charles Birkeland Acanthaster as ,a r e c u r r i n g phenomenon i n Samoan h i s t o r y by John M. Flanigan and Austin E. Lamberts D i s t r i b u t i o n and abundance of t h e Crown-of-Thorns S t a r f i s h (Acanthaster plan&) around Tongatapu I s l a n d , Tonga, by M. P. Francis Rats as avian predators : d iscuss ion , by W. R . P. Bourne Layard's b i r d hunting v i s i t t o Tromelin o r Sandy I s l a n d i n December 1856, by R . K. Brooke A submersible, rechargeable , e l e c t r i c d r i l l , by W. H. Easton A r t i f i c i a l r e e f s i n Discovery Bay, Jamaica, by Michael J. Risk D i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e decapods Brachyura and Anomura (excluding ~ a g u r i d e a ) of t h e Cryptofauna i n t h e r e e f s near Tulear , by M i r e i l l e Peyrot-Clausade AN EARLY FS3PORT OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA OF THE ALDABRA GROUP by E.P. ~ iamondl In t roduct ion Among the records i n the National Archives of Mauri t ius a t Por t Louis i s a copy of the e a r l i e s t known d e t a i l e d r e p o r t on the f l o r a and fauna of the Aldabra group, made by Sergt . F. Rivers of t h e Seychelles Constabulary. It was s e n t by the C i v i l Commissioner f o r t h e Seychelles t o h i s super ior , t h e Governor of Mauri t iuson December 30, 1878. The o r i g i n a l was forwarded t o London and a copy kept i n t h e Seychelles National Archives and another i n the Mauri t ius Archives. A t h i r d copy i s t o be found i n the Giinther Papers i n the B r i t i s h Museum (Natural History) although I have n o t seen it. A l a t e r l e t t e r i n the Mauritius Archives suggests t h a t another , more d e t a i l e d r e p o r t by Rivers may have been made and s e n t t o the Royal Society sometime i n February 1879, though I have been unable t o t r a c e it. The importance of t h i s r e p o r t t o t h e study of the changes on the Aldabra group l i e s i n i t s e a r l y da te and the apparently knowledgeable and c a r e f u l observation of the r epor te r . The r e p o r t i s dated 11 December 1878 and i s signed by F. Rivers who i s sa id , i n a covering l e t t e r , t o be of Canadian e x t r a c t i o n and t o have been a seaman before ' s e t t l ing i n Seychelles . The r e p o r t i s English with c reo le names given f o r most of the p l a n t s and animals. I have wri t ten t h e English common name, i f the re i s one, i n parentheses a f t e r the creole one and, with the f i r s t re ference of each species , have included the s c i e n t i f i c name a s well . There may be some confusion i n the use of c reo le names, which w i l l be discussed i n the conclusion. Detai led information about anchorages and geological formation of the i s l a n d s w i l l n o t be included i n t h i s paper bu t can be found i n the r e p o r t i t s e l f . AS tove Rivers a r r ived on Astove on 10 October 1878. He reported t h a t he could f i n d no t r a c e s of v i s i t s by fishermen and whalers, though the re was a well i n the southeas t which had been dug by a shipwrecked crew 'some years ago ' . C/O Department of Zoology, University of Nairobi, Nairobi , Kenya A t o l l Res. B u l l . No. 255 : 1-10, 1981. Coconuts and Other Vegetation Rivers reported t ha t the is land had no t r ee s except a few stunted 'mangliers' (mangroves of any species) and was covered with bush. He mentioned two individual coconut t r ee s , planted i n recent years, and implied t h a t few i f any others had ye t been planted. Fish Rivers reported thae f i s h ' a re not found i n quant i ty ' , but t h a t the most common were; 'varvaras' (Lutjanus bohar), ' capi ta ines rouges' (Letnrinus kallopterus or L. nebulosus), 'carangues' (Alectis indicus o r Caranx sp.) and ' v i e l l e s ' (Plectroponus maculatus o r a se r ran id) . [ ~ h e s e and a l l other t ransla t ions of creole f i s h names a r e taken from J.L.B. Smith and Mary Smith ~ i s h e s of the Seychelles, 1969.1 Turt les In Seychelles creole, a green t u r t l e i s a ' t o r t i ' while a Hawksbill t u r t l e i s cal led a ' c a r e t ' . When t rans la t ing ' t o r t i ' in to English, Seychellois often use only the word ' t u r t l e ' without the 'green' . Thus when Rivers uses the word t u r t l e alone he means only green t u r t l e s , which i s made c lear by the context i n the f u l l repor t . 'Tur t les1 (green t u r t l e , Chelonia mydas) were said t o be very abundant, although it was not the breeding season and Rivers estimated tha t h i s ship, probably a small schooner, could take a complete cargo of t u r t l e s i n three days. He reported finding 1 2 young t u r t l e s i n the bel ly of a 'varvara ' . Frigate bi rds (Freqata sp . ) and ' a i g r e t t e ' (egrets) wexe a l so said t o prey on young t u r t l e s but no evidence was given. Birds Aquatic bi rds were said t o be few with f r i g a t e s and ' a i g r e t t e ' present i n small numbers. 'Corbijeaux' (whimbrel, Numenius phaeopus) and ' a l l oue t t e s ' (small waders and shore birds) were said to be p len t i fu l . Of the land b i rds , a ' r a l l e ' ( r a i l , probably Dryolimnus cuvier i ) was mentioned, a l so the 'crow of Madagascar' (pied crow, Corvus albus) a small species of ' c o l i b r i ' (sunbird, probably Necterina sovimanqa) and a 'cardinal ' (Foudia sp. with red plumage) . A 'merle ' (bulbul, Hypsipetes sp . ) and a 'pigeon hollandais ' (Alectroenas sp . ) were said t o be present and 'smaller and paler than those found a t Seychelles' . Other animals Land crabs were said t o be p l en t i fu l and 'cypaye' (coconut crab, Birqus l a t r o ) was mentioned by name. Discussion Trees and other vegetation Rivers describes the island a s covered i n bush with a few stunted mangroves, which coincides with the description of Bayne e t a l . (1970b) generally, although a large number of planted coconuts had changed the appearance of the is land by 1968. I t i s in te res t ing t o note, however, t h a t Rivers did not mention Casuarina woodland described by Bayne e t a l . on the western r i m of the island. Fosberg and Renvoize (1970) record a r e p o r t of i t s presence i n 1919, suggesting t h a t these Casuar ina were introduced between 1878 and 1919. Marine Fauna Bayne e t a l . do n o t mention f i s h bu t agree with Rivers t h a t Astove i s a major breeding ground f o r green t u r t l e s . The presence of young t u r t l e s i n a f i s h ' s stomach implies t h a t t h e r e had been laying two t o 23 months before ( l a t e J u l y o r e a r l y August). Hawksbill t u r t l e s ( E r e t m o c h e l y s i m b r i c a t a ) a r e not mentioned by Rivers and a r e s a i d t o be r a r e by Bayne e t a l . Land fauna o the r than b i r d s Giant t o r t o i s e s (Geoche lone g i g a n t e a ) repor ted by Rothschild on Astove i n 1915 were not recorded by Rivers i n 1878. This i s perhaps a r e f l e c t i o n of the low numbers of the populat ion a t t h a t d a t e , seen a l s o on Aldabra ( see Aldabra s e c t i o n ) . Both Rivers and Bayne e t d l . agree on t h e abundance of coconut crabs . Birds Bayne et d l . agree with Rivers r e p o r t of t h e small number of seabi rds on Astove. They do no t mention t h e f r i g a t e s bu t these may have been wanderers from Cosmoledo o r Aldabra. I t i s with h i s account of landbirds t h a t Rivers d i f f e r s markedly from a l l l a t e r r e p o r t e r s (summarised by Benson 1970b). The r a i l , p i ed crow and small sunbird a r e cons i s t en t with o the r r e p o r t s bu t the 'mer le ' , the 'pigeon hol landais ' and the ca rd ina l a r e not. The word 'merle' i s used i n Seychelles t o mean a bulbul. I t might poss ib ly be appl ied t o a medium s ized thrush- l ike b i r d of another genus b u t the re i s no b i r d known from Astove t o f i t t h i s desc r ip t ion . Moreover Rivers was apparently a c a r e f u l observer f ami l i a r with Seychelles species . The 'pigeon ho l l anda i s ' i s so c a l l e d a f t e r t h e Dutch f l a g with d i s t i n c t bands of red , white and blue. I t i s even l e s s l i k e l y t o be mistaken f o r any o the r species. A s another A l e c t r o e n a s appears t o have become e x t i n c t a t an e a r l y da te on Farquahar (Stoddart and Benson 1970) , it i s poss ib le t h a t the same th ing occurred on Astove, between 1878 and Dupont's v i s i t i n 1907. I t i s however t o note t h a t Dupont repor ted seeing a S t r e p t o p e l i a p i c t u r a t a i n 1907 which no o the r observer has ever recorded. The ' c a r d i n a l ' which, a s i t s name impl ies , must have red plumage a t some s tage of i t s l i f e cycle i s t h e Seychelles c reo le name f o r Foudia m a d a g a s c a r i e n s i s . Rivers ' ca rd ina l must the re fo re have been a Foudia s p . (see under Aldabra d i scuss ion) . Cosmoledo On h i s a r r i v a l i n t h e Cosmoledo group Rivers repor ted t h a t it was f requent ly v i s i t e d by fishermen and whalers a s indica ted by t u r t l e remains on the beaches. A h u t and ' t u r t l e park ' (enclosure i n the sea f o r keeping t u r t l e s f r e s h b e f o r e shipment) on Menai I s l and had been recen t ly burnt and destroyed. A hut on Wizard Is land which had been b u i l t from the wreckage of the Merry Monarch had a l s o been burnt . There were a l s o , s i g n s of the f e l l i n g of mangroves. Trees and o the r vegetat ion ~ i v e r s reported t h a t some p a r t s of the i s l a n d would be s u i t a b l e f o r growing various palms. What he describes a s the 'remnants of an o l d grove of coconut t r e e s ' ex i s t ed on Menai and those s t i l l standing were bearing f r u i t abundantly. He believed palms took longer t o mature on Cosmoledo than on o the r i s l a n d s because of the ' g r e a t s t e r i l i t y of the i s l a n d s ' . Menai was described a s 'almost covered' with mangroves, some of about 40 o r 50 f e e t i n height and 2 o r 3 f e e t i n diameter. F i s h Fish were abundant and he est imated t h a t 8 men could s a l t o r dry 8000 l b s of f i s h a month. I n Rivers ' opinion, the capture of t h i s quan t i ty would n o t exhaust the supply a s no small f i s h were taken. The most common species were 'capta ines rouges ' , ' va rva ras ' , 'carangues ' , ' v i e l l e s ' , 'mul le ts ' ( ~ v l l o i d i c h t h y u s f l a v i l i n e a t u s , a Mugilidae o r Polyremus kuru, ' c r o i s s a n t s ' ( spec i f i c name unknown), ' ch i rugiens ' (surgeon f i s h , ~ c a n t h u r i d a e ) , ' l i o n s ' (Holocentridae) and r a i e s ' of d i f f e r e n t kinds ( rays , Stoasodon marinari , Dasyatis uarnak, Taenuira melanospila o r Torpedo fuscomaculata) . Tur t l e s and Crustacea Both t u r t l e s (green t u r t l e s ) and ' c a r e t ' (hawksbill t u r t l e s ) were abundant though t h e l a t e October, e a r l y November of Rivers ' v i s i t was ' no t y e t the season' . Crabs were sa id t o abound i n the marshes. Birds Birds of a l l kinds were p l e n t i f u l . 'Fregates l ( f r i g a t e s ) , booby 'of th ree d i f f e r e n t species ' (Sula spp.) ' p a i l l e en queue' ( t ropic- b i rds , (Phaethon l ep tu rus o r P. rubr icauda) , 'cordonniers ' ( l e s s e r noddies, Anous t e n u i r o s t r i s ) , ' fouquets (wedgetailed shearwater s , Puffinus pac i f i cus ) , ' g o e l e t t e s ' (sooty t e r n , Sterna fusca ta ) , and ' fanchins ' (b r id led t e r n s , S terna anaethetus) were l i s t e d . Rivers says t h a t the same land b i r d s were found on Cosmoledo a s on Astove, but i n g r e a t e r numbers, and t h a t the re was a l s o a ' t o u r t o r e l l e rouge' ( t u r t l e dove, S t rep tope l i a p i c t u r a t a ) . Other animals Rivers repor ted a few goats on Menai but suggested t h a t they d id no t do well t h e r e , a s many skele tons were found i n the bushes. He suggested t h a t the reason may have been the s c a r c i t y of r a i n on the i s l a n d on the year of h i s v i s i t . Discussion Coconuts and other vegetat ion The present vegetat ion of the group a s described i n Bayne e t a l . - - (1970a) i s more var ied than Rivers b r i e f desc r ip t ion suggests , no doubt p a r t l y a s a r e s u l t of in t roduct ions s ince 1878. However, it i s the p l a n t s already present i n h i s time which a r e most i n t e r e s t i n g . The ' o l d grove of coconuts1 of 1878 was reported i n 1822 by Capt. Moresby ( c i t e d i n Bayne et a l . 1970a). Moresby a l s o reported t r e e s resembling Casuarinas which Rivers did n o t mention, though he records them on o the r i s l ands . Land fauna Rivers d i d no t r e p o r t seeing g i a n t t o r t o i s e s , but the reasons may have been the same a s on Astove (see Astove d i scuss ion) . The goats which Rivers thought were doing poorly s t i l l remained, though i n small numbers, i n 1901 and had gone from Menai by 1968, though they were s t i l l on North-east I s l and i n 1961 (Bayne et a l . 1970a). Sea b i r d s Rivers repor ted 3 d i f f e r e n t species of s u l i d s a s d id Bayne et a l . (1970a) i n 1968. One species was undoubtedly Sula s u l a . I t i s however very easy t o mistake immature white boobies (Sula d a c t y l a t r a ) f o r mature brown boobies (Sula l eucogas te r ) . The only evidence f o r the presence of Sula leucogas ter i s a sk in i n t h e National museum of Kenya i n Nairobi. This sk in has been mis ident i f ied and i n f a c t i s Sula dac ty la t r a (A.W. Diamond pe r s . comm. ) . I t i s , of course, remote poss ib le t h a t Rivers knew h i s boobies well and d i d i n f a c t see a t h i r d species , perhaps Sula abbo t t i known from Assumption a t about t h a t da te c o l l e c t i o n by Abbott i n 1893 (Stoddart , Benson and Peake 1970). Rivers repor ted only 'cordonnier ' o r l e s s e r noddies (Anous t e n u i r o s t r i s ) while Bayne e t a l . saw only common noddy ( A . s t o l i d u s ) which i n c reo le i s c a l l e d 'maqua'. I t i s poss ib le t h a t Rivers missed seeing common noddies which n e s t only on small i s l e t s around the lagoon (A.W. Diamond pe r s . comm.), b u t the f a c t t h a t Bayne et a l . (1970a) saw no l e s s e r noddies, suggests t h a t he may have mistaken the two very s imi la r species . However, s ince ne i the r pa r ty was on the i s l a n d f o r more than a few days, the two species might both occur, poss ib ly a t d i f f e r e n t seasons. The f a c t t h a t wedgetailed shearwaters reported by Rivers were not seen by o r reported t o Bayne e t a l . (1970a) suggests t h a t they may have become e x t i n c t s ince 1878. The young b i r d s and eggs a re commonly ea ten by Seychellois fishermen who would therefore be aware i f they were s t i l l ex tan t ; the same h a b i t would account f o r t h e i r ex t inc t ion . The ex t inc t ion may a l s o be the r e s u l t of the r a t s , which were present by 1901 ( c i t e d by Bayne et a1 .) , i f not e a r l i e r . Land b i r d s Rivers records the land b i r d s a s the same a s Astove i . e . a r a i l , pied crow, sunbird, bulbul , ca rd ina l and 'Pigeon ho l l anda i s ' , a s well a s a t u r t l e dove. The f i r s t th ree and the t u r t l e dove were a l s o reported by Dupont i n 1907 (Benson 1970a). The p ied crow and the sunbird s t i l l e x i s t a n d ~ e n s o n suggests t h a t fu the r inves t iga t ion of remoter p a r t s of the a t o l l may reveal a r e l i c t populat ions of t h e r a i l and t u r t l e dove. For the p o s s i b i l i t i e s of the ex t inc t ion of the bulbul ' c a r d i n a l ' and 'pigeon ho l l anda i s ' , see the discussions on Aldabra and Astove. Assumption I s l and Rivers next went t o Assumption where the extensive mining f o r guano had n o t begun. He sa id , i n f a c t , t h a t the re was nothing t o ind ica te t h a t it had even been v i s i t e d recent ly . Coconuts and o ther vegetat ion The i s l and was covered with bushes of ' bo i s amanthe' (Pemphis ac idu la ) and o ther shrubs on which were found a small l i a n e used f o r dying, c a l l e d ' o r s e i l l e ' which was common i n Madagascar. There were a l s o a few s tunted 'affouche' (Ficus sp . ) and ' bo i s de n a t t e ' a s well a s mangroves. Rivers mentioned one coconut t r e e a s marking t h e landing, bu t gave no idea how many o the r s t h e r e might have been. The 'affouche' was apparently t h e p re fe r red food of t h e goats on the i s l and who would e a t even i ts bark. Fish and t u r t l e s Rivers repor ted t h a t f i s h were found on the r e e f s but n o t i n quan t i ty , the most common being 'carangues' and ' va ravaras ' . The green t u r t l e s were s a i d t o be numerous and a l s o ' b e t t e r and f a t t e r ' than those of o ther i s l ands . Hawksbills, however, were n o t numerous. Birds Aquatic b i r d s were found, bu t n o t i n l a rge numbers and no names were given. Of the land b i r d s , Rivers s a i d 'pigeon hol landais ' i s n o t found but the r e s t were ' l i k e t h e o the r i s l a n d s ' . Other animals Goats had been l e f t on the i s l a n d by passing sh ips and Rivers thought t h a t the re were 500 t o 600 of them. He described them a s being of 2 o r 3 d i f f e r e n t species a l l i n ' f i n e cond i t ion ' . Discussion I t seems l i k e l y t h a t Rivers spent only a s h o r t time a t Assumption, f o r he descr ibes it i n l e s s d e t a i l than the o the r i s l ands . By the time of l a t e r r e p o r t s , mining had s t a r t e d o r was about t o s t a r t and subsequently destroyed the n a t u r a l vegeta t ion t o a g r e a t ex ten t . F ish and t u r t l e s The green t u r t l e population which Rivers described a s numerous has been reduced d r a s t i c a l l y on Assumption (Stoddart , Benson and Peake 1970). Birds Rivers descr ibes the i s l a n d b i r d s a s being the same a s the o the r i s l a n d s i .e. Cosmoledo and Astove, excepz f o r the absence of the 'pigeon ho l l anda i s ' . Since he had previously s a i d t h a t there were t u r t l e doves on Cosmoledo and n o t on Astove, h i s remark is ambiguous. The f a c t t h a t Nicoll i n 1906 and Fryer i n 1908 both recorded the presence of the t u r t l e dove (Stoddar t et a l . 1970) suggests t h a t he intended t o inc lude it on h i s l i s t . I t i s c l e a r t h a t he meant t o include the sunbird, p ied crow, ' c a r d i n a l ' , r a i l and bulbul. The sunbird s t i l l ex i s t ed on Assumption i n 1968 and probably the pied crow a s well (Stoddart e t a l . 1970). A r a i l (Dryolimnas a b b o t t i ) became e x t i n c t between 1908 and 1937 (Stoddart e t a 1 . 1970) . A s i n t h e case of Astove and Cosmoledo, n e i t h e r the bulbul nor the ' ca rd ina l ' were recorded by any o the r v i s i t o r s t o the i s l and . This omission i s more s t r i k i n g on Assumption because Abbott co l l ec ted t h e r e , though n o t i n the o the r i s l a n d s , i n 1893, and y e t f a i l e d t o f ind e i t h e r species . However, both species a r e suscept ib le t o r a t s which may have been the cause of t h e i r ext inct ion. I t i s unfortunate t h a t Rivers d id not l i s t the seabirds i n d e t a i l , so t h a t we cannot know whether he saw Sula abbot t i which Ahbott col lec ted 15 years l a t e r . Rivers appears t o have spent more time on Aldabra than on the o ther i s lands . He gave d e t a i l s of place names and geography of the i s l and and reported t h a t it was frequently v i s i t ed . Although he speaks of 'fishermen t h a t have been there f o r a long time f i s h i n g ' , he makes no suggestion t h a t there was a permanent set t lement. Coconuts and other vegetation Coconuts and maize were grown on the small i s l ands i n the lagoon. Michel was s a i d t o have about 20 grown coconut t r e e s while La Poste on I l e Picard was dist inguished by the presence of a coconut t r e e . Two o r three stunted takarnaka t r e e s (Calophyll um inophyll um) were the landmark fo r the well a t Takamaka. Mangroves were growing on a l l the i s l ands with the l a r g e s t being 4 t o 5 f e e t i n diameter. The t r e e s were, according t o Rivers, commonly 2 t o 3 f e e t i n diameter and 40 t o 50 f e e t high. Mangrove timber was s a id t o be good f o r building because it was s t r a i g h t and long l a s t i ng . Cedar Is land had some ' f i l a o ' (Casuarina) while 'vacoa Maron' (Pandanus sp . ) occurred on a l l the i s l ands i n quant i ty . The 'bois tanguin' of Madagascar (Euphorbia ? abbot t i ? ) was present a s well a s some 'bois de n a t t e ' and 'affouche' , though Rivers d id no t specify where these t r e e s occurred. Fish, t u r t l e s and other marine fauna Rivers reported t h a t the f i s h were of the same species and i n the same numbers a s they were on Cosmoledo. A s well a s these species there were 'Licorne' (unicorn f i s h , Axinurus thynnoides) s imi lar t o the one a t Mauritius. Green t u r t l e s were a s abundant a s on Cosmoledo, bu t hawksbill was f a r more numerous and 'generally of b e t t e r qua l i t y ' . The r e e f s were sa id t o be f u l l of s h e l l s , with 'pear l oys te r s ' i n quan t i ty , bu t Rivers was prevented from looking fo r them by bad weather. Birds Rivers l i s ts ' s e r i n s ' ( see discuss ion) , ' ca rd ina l ' (Foudia eminentissima o r F. madagascariensis,see discuss ion) , pigeon hol landais , hawks (Falco sp. probably F. newtoni), crows (Corvus a l b u s ) , sunbirds, t u r t l e doves, r a i l s , ' toulouse ' (coucal , Centropus toulou) , bulbuls (Hypsipetes madagascariensis) , 'corbijeawr of two species , 'one white and almost a s l a rge a s a goose' [sacred i b i s , Threskiornis ae th iop ica ] ' , the o ther the same a s i n Seychelles, (whimbrel), flamingoes (Phoenicopterus ruber o r P. minor), 'veuve' and ' p i e ' (see discuss ion) . Rivers reported t h a t there were 'almost a l l kinds of aquatic b i rd s i n quant i ty , but l ists only ' a l l o u e t t e s ' (small shorebirds and waders) and ' c ava l i e r ' (crab plover Dromas a rdeo la ) . Land animals Rivers reported t h a t 'by a l l appearances there i s [ s ic ] plenty of t o r t o i s e s on these i s l ands ' . However, though he saw ' t r a ce s ' of them, he never saw a t o r t o i s e , nor d id he, o r any of the fishermen he spoke t o , ever. see a dead carcase o r s h e l l , though the fishermen sometimes captured the animals f o r food. Rivers s a id t h a t the l a rge s t t o r t o i s e s were from I l e Picard but t h a t they were commonly caught on the p l a in s a t Cinq Cases. He f e l t t h a t , a s it was the dry season when he was the re , the t o r t o i s e s were 'hidden i n holes ' o r shady places. When it rained, they were sa id t o come ou t and be more e a s i l y caught. On Grand I l e 'some years ago' p igs were released which destroyed many young t o r t o i s e s , but the pigs were believed t o have died out because they were a l l males. There were numbers of ' f ly ing foxes ' (F ru i t ba t s , Pteropus seyche l lens i s ) , and land crabs 'of every desc r ip t ion ' were abundant. A few goats were found on I l e Picard and had been l e t loose on other i s lands . There were a l s o ' l a rge locus t s of the Madagascar species ' . Discussion Coconuts and other vegetat ion I t i s apparent t h a t on Aldabra i n Rivers' day, a s on other i s l ands , coconut t r e e s were not so widespread a s they a r e today. I f , a s Fosberg (1971) suggests Casuarina i s an introduced p l an t on the a t o l l , it was present by 1878. Takamaka t r e e s a r e s t i l l mainly r e s t r i c t e d t o the area ca l l ed a f t e r them. The l a r g e s t mangroves described by Rivers a re l a rger than any now present on the a t o l l , but Rivers may have been inaccurate i n h i s est imation of proportions a s h i s diameter seems excessive (A.W. Diamond, pers. comm.). Birds Rivers reported ' ca rd ina l ' and ' s e r i n ' fo r Aldabra, but ' ca rd ina l ' only fo r Astove, Cosmoledo and Assumption. ' c a r d i n a l ' i s present Seychelles creole fo r the introduced ~ o u d i a madagascariensis. By implication, it must be used for a b i rd which has red plumage a t some s tage . It i s never, fo r example, used f o r F. seychellensis , which i s never red. 'Ser in ' on the other hand i s used today fo r females of both species of Foudia. However, when white-eyes were s t i l l common i n Seychelles, it was used a t d i f f e r en t times fo r .Zosterop& modesta and 2. mayottensis. Rivers probably knew one of the Seychelles white-eyes. I t seems strange therefore , t h a t he d id not repor t white-eyes on Astove o r Cosmoledo where they were recorded a f t e r 1878 (Benson 1970a, 1970b), especia l ly since he d id record ' ca rd ina l ' on these i s l ands a s well a s on Assumption. No other observer has recorded Foudia from these i s l ands and it might be suggested t h a t Rivers mistook white-eyes fo r female Foudia. This mistake i s however, most unlikely, s ince , i f he did no t know a white-eye he would have ca l l ed a female Foudia a ' s e r i n ' . Therefore, the b i rds on Astove, Cosmoledo, and Assumption must have been Foudia w i t h red plumage. Foudia eminentissima on Aldabra i s i n breeding d ress i n November and December when Rivers was there and it i s l i k e l y t h a t Foudia on other i s l ands i n the neighburhood would have s imi lar breeding seasons. (September -March, according t o Benson and Penny, 1971). The fody on Astove, Cosmoledo and Assumption may have been Foudia eminentissima a subspecies of which appears on the -Cornores and i n Madagascar.as well a s on Aldabra, (Benson 1967). The reason fo r i t s ext inct ion on Astove and Cosmoledo i s not known bu t it i s reported on Aldabra t o be very suscept ib le t o r a t s (Rattus r a t t u s , F r i t h 1976), a s i s Foudia seychellensis (Diamond and Feare, i n press) . Rivers mentioned a bird l ike a 'veuve' which i s i n Seychelles creole, a paradise flycatcher (Tersiphone corvina) . However, he notes tha t it i s not the same species, a s both male and female have long t a i l s and are black. This bird i s clear ly the Aldabra drongo (Dicrurus aldabranus). Rivers a lso reported hearing a ' p i e ' which he did not see, though he implied t h a t fishermen had done so. 'P ie ' or 'p ie chanteuse' i s creole f o r t h e magpie robin (Copsychus seychellarum), the 'p ie ' implying a black and white colouring and the 'chanteuse' a song. Although the fishermen probably both saw and heard t h i s bird, Rivers only heard it. I t need not therefore have been a magpie robin, which is , a t present, r e s t r i c t ed t o Seychelles, but there seems no other l ike ly candidate e i the r resident or migrant. I t does not sound l ike the Aldabra warbler a t a l l . (Diamond, pers. comm.). A s the magpie robin was introduced t o Alphonse a t a l a t e r date, it i s possible t h a t Rivers heard a bird tha t had been introduced to Aldabra, but t h i s i s unlikely. A l l the other birds l i s t e d by Rivers s t i l l occur on Aldabra. Land animals I t i s obvious from Rivers description tha t the tor to ise population of the islands was much lower i n 1878 than a t present (see summary i n Stoddart 1971) . Rivers report merely confirms the findings of other reporters t ha t population levels were very low a t the end of the nineteenth century. I t must be noted tha t for ear ly v i s i to r s , t rave l was much more d i f f i c u l t than today, with no outboard motors and well cut paths. Tortoises i n remoter areas would not have been found because these areas were not explored. Rivers record ofgoats appears t o be the e a r l i e s t . I t i s however, possible tha t goats a s well a s pigs have introduced and extirpated more than once. (Stoddart 1971) Fish and other marine fauna Though Aldabra i s s t i l l a major breeding ground of green t u r t l e s , i t i s impossible to compare present day population levels with Rivers unquantified remarks. I t i s cer ta in however tha t the population has declined on Aldabra, although the hawksbill population may not have done so. (J. Frazier 1971.) The hawksbill she l l of 'be t te r qua l i ty ' was the famous Aldabra 'blonde' she l l . The pearl oyster and the unicorn f i sh s t i l l occur. References Bayne, C . J . Cogan, B . H . , Diamond, A.W., Frazier, J . , Grubb, P., Hutson, A . , Poore, M.E .D . , Stoddart, D.R., and Taylor, J . D . 1970a. Geography and ecology of Cosmoledo Atoll . Atoll Res. B u l l . 136: 37-56. Bayne, C . J . , Cogan, B.H. , Diamond, A.W., Frazier, J. , Grubb, P., Hutson, A . , Poore, M.E.D., Stoddart, D.R., and Taylor, J .D . 1970b. Geography and ecology of Astove. Atoll Res. B u l l . 136: 83-99. Benson, C.W. 1967. The b i rds of Aldabra and t h e i r s t a t u s . A t o l l R e s . B u l l . 118: 63-111. Benson, C.W. 1970a. Land ( including shore) b i rds of Cosmoledo. A t o l l R e s . B u l l . 136: 67-81. Benson, C.W. 1970b. Land ( h c l u d i n g shore) b i r d s of Astove. toll R e S . B u l l . 136: 115-120. Benson, C.W. and Penny, M . J . 1971. The land b i r d s of Aldabra. P h i l . T r a n s . R . S o c . L o n d . B 260: 417-527. Fosberg, F.R. 1971. Preliminary survey of Aldabra vegetat ion. ~ h i l . T r a n s . R . S o c . L o n d . B 260: 215-225. Fosberg, F.R. and Renvoize, S.A. 1970. P lan t s of Astove Atol l . ~ t o l l R e s . B u l l . 136: 101-111. Fraz ier . J. 1971. Observations on sea t u r t l e s a t Aldabra Ato l l . P h i l . T r a n s . R . S o c . L0nd.B 260: 373-410. F r i t h , C.B. 1976. A twelve-month study of the Aldabra Fody F o u d i a e m i n e n t i s s i m a a l d a b r a n a . I b i s , 118: 155-178. Nicol l , M . J . 1906. The b i r d s co l l ec ted and observed during t h e voyage of the 'Valhal la ' . Ibis, (8) 6: 666-712. Rothschild, W . 1915. On the g igan t i c land- tor to ises of the Seychelles and Aldabra-Madagascar Group, w i t h some notes on c e r t a i n forms of the Mascarene Group. Novitates Zool. 22: 418-442. Smith, J.L.B. and Smith, M.M. 1963. T h e f i s h e s o f S e y c h e l l e s . Grahamstown: Department of Ichthyology, Rhodes Universi ty. Stoddart , D.R. 1971. Set t lement, development and conservation of Aldabra. P h i l . T r a n s . R. S o c . L o n d . B. 260: 611-628. Stoddar t , D.R. and Benson, C.W. 1970. An o l d record of a Blue Pigeon ~ l e c t r o e n a s species and sea-birds on Farquhar and Providence. A t o l l R e S . B u l l . 136: 35-36. S toddar t , D.R . , Benson, C.W. and Peake, J .F . 1970. Ecological change and e f f e c t s of phosphate mining on Assumption Is land. toll R e s . B u l l . 136: 121-145. Passe Gionnet ILE MALABAR X, x Sample Locations 0 . . . . w" T THESPESIA C CORDIA V CASUARINA S SCAEVOLA O SURIANA TOURNEFORTIA PARKLAN IIIII] COCONUT WOODLAND HERB M A T a SAND FENWFh ERODING SHORE - BEACH RIDGE CREST PHOSPHORITE 0 200 Fig. 2. Bird Island in 1976 BERM - 2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 - 2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 Fig. 3. Beach sediment at Bird Island P1. 1. Bird I s l and : Suriana zone on t h e no r theas t shore P1. 2 . Bird I s l and : Pisonia and Cordia woodland wi th Suriana on t h e no r theas t shore P1. 3. Bird I s l and : Tournefort ia parkland i n t h e no r theas t P1. 4. Bird I s l and : t r e e - l i k e Tournefort ia i n t h e no r theas t P1. 5 . Bird I s l and : pioneer sedges and ScaevoZa on t h e e a s t shore P1. 7. Bi rd I s l and : p ioneer sedges, ScaevoZa and Tournefortia on t h e no r theas t shore P1. 8. Bird I s l and : a i r s t r i p from t h e southeas t 2. P l a n t s recorded from Bird I s l a n d POLYPODIACEAE Acrost ichum aureum L. Fryer , i n Chr is tensen (1912) [ i n e r r o r f o r Denis I s land?] ~ e p h r o l e p i s b i s e r r a t a (Sw. ) Schott P-rocter 4040 ( ~ a h e ) ; Fryer , i n Chris tensen (1912) ; Gardiner, i n Chris tensen (1912) ; Feare, s igh t . N e p h r o l e p i s mu1 ti f l o r a (Roxb. ) J a r r e t t S toddar t 7110 (US). P o l ypodi urn scol opendr ia Bum. f . Fryer , s. n. (K) ; Fryer , i n Chr is tensen (1912 ) ( a s P. phymatodes) [ ~ y p h a javanica Schniz l ex Rohrb. Fryer , i n Summerhayes (1931) ( i n e r r o r f o r Denis I s l a n d ? ) ] POTAMOGETONACEAE Thalassodendron c i l i a t u r n (Forsk. ) d . H a r t . Cymodocea c i l i a t a (Forsk.) Ehrenb. ex Aschers. S toddar t 7123 (US) ; Fryer , s i g h t (1910) ( a s Cymodocea) . *Cynodon d a c t y l o n (L. Pers . Stoddart 7112 (US); P roc te r , s i g h t . *Dacty loc ten ium aegyp t ium (L. ) Willd. S toddar t 7072 (US); P roc te r , s i g h t ; Feare, s igh t . *Digitaria hor izon ta l i s Willd. Procter 4049 (MAHE). ho leu sine indica (L. Gaertn. Procter 4049 (MAHE); Coppinger, i n Hemsley 1 ) ; Feare, s i g rht. Enteropogon monostachyum K. Schum. ex Engl. Procter , s igh t . Enteropogon seche l len i s (Barker) Dur. and Schinz Stoddart 7064 (US) , 7091 (US); Procter , s igh t . Eragrost is subaequiglumis Renv. Procter 4044 (MAHE) ; Stoddart 7074 (US). * ~ r a g r o s t i s t ene l l a (L.) Beauv. ex R. and S. var. t ene l l a Piggott , s. n. (K) ; Stoddart 7081 (US) ; Procter , s igh t . Eragrost is t ene l l a var. i n s u l a r i s Hubb. Vesey-FitzGerald 5656 (K) . Lepturus repens (Forst . R. B r . Fryer, s i gh t , i n Summerhayes (1931). Fryer, s i g h t , i n Summerhayes (1931) [ l oca l i t y as " I l e aux ~ a c h e s " ] . Pennisetum polystachion (L.) Schult. Fryer, no number, i n Summerhayes (1931). *Saccharurn officinarum L. Coppinger, s i gh t (1885) . Sporobolus v i rginicus (L . Kunth Fryer, no number, i n Summerhayes (1931); Procter , s ight . Stenotaphrum micranthum (Desv. Hubb. Stenotaphrum subulatum Trin. Procter 4041 (MAHE); Stoddart 7073 (US), 7129 (US); Feare, s ight . *Zea mays L. Fryer, s i gh t (1910) . CYPERACEAE Cyperus sp. Stoddart 7120 (US) . Cyperus conglomeratus Rottb. Procter 4037 (MAHE) (as C. pachyrhiza); Stoddart 7071 (US); Feare, s i gh t (as C. pachyrhiza) . Cyperus dubius Rottb. Mariscus dubius (Rottb. ) Fryer 26 (K) (as Mariscus dregeanus) ; Procter 4038 (MAHE) ; Feare, s igh t . Cyperus l i g u l a r i s L. M a r i s c u s l i g u l a r i s (L. ) Hutchinson Fryer 25 (K) (as Mariscus rufus) ; Je f f rey 1201 (MAHE) ( m i s - l abel led: t h i s specimen is from Denis I s l and ) ; Stoddart 7087 (US). PALMAE *Cocos nucifera L. Coppinger, s i g h t (1885); Fryer, s i gh t (1910); Piggott , s igh t (1969); Procter , s igh t ; Feare, s i gh t ; Stoddart, s igh t . ARACEAE *Alocasia macrorrhiza (L. ) Schott. Stoddart 7109 (US) . Colocasia esculenta (L. ) Schott. Stoddart 7118 (US). LILIACEAE sensu l a t i s s imo *Agave r i g ida Northrop var. s i sa lana Perr . ex Engelm. Agave s i sa lana Perr . Feare, s i gh t ; Stoddart, s i gh t . *Crinum sp.? Stoddart 7116 (US) . MUSACEAE *Mum sapientum L. Feare, s i g h t ; Stoddart, s i gh t . MARANTACE AE *Maranta arundinacea L . Fryer, s i gh t , i n Summerhayes (1931); Procter , s ight . CASUARINACEAE Casuarina e q u i s e t i f o l i a L. Stoddar t 7107 (US), 7133 (US) ; Coppinger, s i g h t (1885) ; Fryer s i g h t (1910); P iggo t t , s i g h t (1969); P roc te r , s i g h t ; Feare, s i g h t . MORACEAE *Ar tocarpus a l t i l i s (park.) Fosb. S toddar t , s i g h t ( j u v e n i l e ) . Ficus sp. S toddar t 7098 (US); Feare, s i g h t . * F i c u s b e n g h a l e n s i s L. Stoddart 7097 (US). F i c u s nautarum Baker Fryer , no number, i n Summerhayes (1931); P roc te r , s i g h t . AMARANTHACEAE Achyranthes aspera L . Proc te r , s i g h t . Achyranthes a s p e r a cf . var . f r u t i c o s a Boerl. E. S. Brown i n 1952-1953 (BM) . Achyranthes aspera c f . va r . v e l u t i n a (H. and S.) Townsend Stoddar t 7079 (US); Feare, s i g h t . *Amaranthus d u b i u s Mart. ex Thel l . S toddar t 7103 (US), 7127 (US). *Amaranthus caudat u s L. Fryer , no number, i n Summerhayes (1931). *Amaranthus c l e r a c e u s L . Feare , s i g h t . NYCTAGINACEAE Boerhavia d i f f u s a L. ( s e n s u l a t o ) (prob. = B. r e p e n s L . ) Fryer 32 (K). Boerhavia r e p e n s L. var . P roc te r 4043 (MAHE) (var . maris - ind ica Fosb. ) ; Stoddar t 7083 (US) ; Feare , s igh t . * B o u g a i n v i l l e a g labra Choisy Stoddart 7102 (US) . Pison ia g r a n d i s R. B r . Stoddart 7080 (US); Feare, s igh t . PORTULACACEAE Por tu laca o l e r a c e a L. var. g r a n u l a t o - s t e l l u l a t a v. Poelln. Stoddart 7088 (US); Coppinger, i n Hemsley (1885); Procter , s igh t ; Feare, s igh t . LAURACEAE Cassy tha f i l i f o r m i s L. Stoddart 7077 (US); Fryer, s i g h t (1910); Procter , s igh t ; Feare, s ight . HERNANDIACEAE Hernandia sonora L. Hernandia p e l t a t a Meissn. Hernandia nymphaeaefol ia (Presl) Kubitzki Fryer, s i gh t (1910) (as H . p e l t a t a ) . CAPPARIDACEAE *Cleome v i s c o s a L. Feare, s igh t . *cleome gynandra L. G ynandropsis gynandra (L. ) B r i q . Procter 4046 (MAHE) ; Feare, s ight . MORINGACEAE *Moringa o l e i f e r a Lam. Stoddart 7122 (US) ; Feare , s ight . CRASSULACEAE *Kalanchoe p inna ta (Lam.) Pers. Stoddart 7084 (US); Procter , s i g h t ; Feare, s ight . LEGUMINOSAE C a e s a l p i n i a bonduc (L. ) Roxb. c a e s a l p i n i a bonduce l la (L. ) Flem. Fryer 7 (K) . Cass ia o c c i d e n t a l i s L. Procter , s i g h t ; Feare, s i g h t . Sesbania s e r i c e a (Willd. Link Stoddart 7105 (US); Coppinger, i n Hemsley (1885) (as S . a c u l e a t a Pers. ) . ZYGOPHYLLACEAE T r i b u l u s c i s t o i d e s L. Stoddart 7130 (US) ; Fryer, s i g h t (1910) ; Proc te r , s i g h t ( a s T r i b u l u s sp. ) ; Feare, s i g h t . SURIANACEAE Sur iana mar i t ima L. Stoddart 7069 (US); Coppinger, i n Hemsley (1885); Feare, s i g h t . EUPHORBIACEAE Acalypha i n d i c a L. Fryer 27 (K) ; Procter 4045 (MAHE) ; Stoddart 7082 (US) ; Feare , s igh t . *Euphorbia cyathophora Murr. Fryer, no number, i n Summerhayes (1931) (as E . h e t e r o p h y l l a L. . *Euphorbia h i r t a L. Stoddart 7114 (US); Procter , s i g h t ; Feare, s igh t . Euphorbia p r o s t r a t a A i t . Procter , s i g h t ; Feare, s i g h t . * P e d i l a n t h u s ti thymalo ides (L. Poi t . Stoddart 7117 (US). * P h y l l a n t h u s amarus Schum. S t o d d a r t 7125 ( U S ) . P h y l l a n t h u s maderaspa tanus L. S t o d d a r t 7062 ( U S ) . * ~ i c i n u s communis L. S t o d d a r t 7063 ( U S ) ; P r o c t e r , s i g h t ; F e a r e , s i g h t . SAPINDACEAE *Cardiospermum ha l i cacabum L. F r y e r 24 ( K ) . MALVACEAE * A b u t i l o n i n d i c u m ( L . ) S w e e t S t o d d a r t 7106 ( U S ) , 7121 (US) ; C o p p i n g e r , i n Hemsley ( 1 8 8 5 ) ; P r o c t e r , -- s i g h t ( a s A b u t i l o n m a u r i t i a n u m ) ; F e a r e , s i g h t . * G O S S ~ P ~ U ~ h i r s u t u m L. S t o d d a r t 7104 (US) ; C o p p i n g e r , s i g h t ( 1 8 8 5 ) ; P r o c t e r , s i g h t Cas Gossypium p u r p u r a s c e n s ) ; F e a r e , s i g h t . * M a l v a s t r m c o r o m a n d e l i a n m ( L . ) Garcke P r o c t e r , s i g h t ; F e a r e , s i g h t . * S i d a a c u t a Bum. f. Feare , s i g h t . S i d a p a r v i f o l i a DC. S t o d d a r t 7124 ( U S ) . T h e s p e s i a populnea (L.) S o l . ex Correa S t o d d a r t 7076 ( U S ) ; F e a r e , s i g h t . GUTTIFERAE C a l o p h y l l u m i n o p h y l l u m L. F r y e r 17 ( K ) ; S t o d d a r t 7099 ( U S ) ( v a r . takamaka ~ o s b . ) ; F e a r e , s i g h t . *Turnera u l m i f o l i a L. S toddar t 7067 (US); P roc t e r , s i g h t ; Feare, s i g h t . PASS IFLORACEAE * P a s s i f l o r a s u b e r o s a L. S toddar t 7090 (US); Fryer , no number, i n Summerhayes (1931); P roc t e r , s i g h t ; Feare, s i g h t . CARICACEAE *Carica papaya L. S toddar t 7085 (US); Coppinger, s i g h t (1885); Fryer , s i g h t (1910); P iggo t t , s i g h t (1969); P roc t e r , s i g h t ; Feare, s i g h t . CUCURBITACEAE *Cucurbi t a s p . Stodda r t 7108 (US) . *Cucurbi t a c f . maxima Duchesne S toddar t 7134 (US) . * C u c u r b i t a moschata Duchesne P roc t e r , s i g h t ; Feare, s i g h t . [ ~ e m p h i s a c i d u l a Fors t . Fryer , s i g h t , i n Summerhayes (1931); P roc t e r , sic f o r S u r i a n a m a r i t i m a L. ) ] COMBRETACEAE T e r m i n a l i a c a t a p p a L. Fryer 16 (K) . APOCYNACEAE rht (both i n e r r o r * C a t h a r a n t h u s r o s e u s (L. G . Don V i n c a r o s e a L. Lochnera r o s e a (L. Spach Fryer 29 (K) ( a s Lochnera r o s e a ) ; Stodda r t 7086 (US) , 7101 (US) ; Piggo t t , s i g h t (1969) ; Feare, s i g h t . * Plumeria sp. Stoddart , s i g h t ( j u v e n i l e ) . CONVOLWLACEAE *Ipomoea b a t a t a s (L. Lam. Fryer, no number, i n Summerhayes (1931). Ipomoea macrantha R. and S. Ipomoea tuba (Schlecht .) G. Don Stoddart 7093 (US) ; Fryer, s i g h t (1910) ; Feare, s igh t . Ipomoea pes-caprae (L . ) R. B r . Stoddart 7075 (US) (var. b r a s i l i e n s i s (L. ) v. Oosts t r . ) ; Fryer, s i g h t (1910); Procter , s i g h t ; Feare, s i g h t . BORAGINACEAE Cordia subcordata Lam. Stoddart 7078 (US); Feare, s igh t . ~ o u r n e f o r t i a argen tea L. f . Messerschmidia argen tea (L. f . ) Johnst. Stoddart 7068 (US) ; Coppinger, i n Hemsley (1885) ; Fryer, s i g h t (1910); Procter , s i g h t ; Feare, s i g h t . VERBENACEAE L i p p i a ~ o d i f l o r a (L . ) Michx. Phyla n o d i f l o r a (L. Greene Fryer 31 ( K ) ; Procter 4042 (MAHE); Stoddart 7066 s i g h t . S t a c h y t a r p h e t a jamaicens i s (L.) Vahl Stoddart 7065 (US); Procter , s i g h t ; LABIATAE * P l e c t a n t h r u s sp. Stoddart 7115 (US). SOLANACEAE Feare, s i g h t . *Capsicum minimum Roxb. (= C . f r u t e s c e n s L.?) Feare, s i g h t . *Datura m e t e l L. S t o d d a r t 7095 ( U S ) ; P r o c t e r , s i g h t ; F e a r e , s i g h t . * N i c o t i a n a tabacum L. F r y e r , s i g h t ( 1 9 1 0 ) . *Solanurn melongena L . F e a r e , s i g h t . So lanum n i g r u m L. ( s . I . ) S t o d d a r t 7126 ( U S ) ; F e a r e , s i g h t SCROPHULARIACEAE S t r i g a a s i a t i c a ( L . ) 0. K t z e . F r y e r 33 ( K ) . BIGNONIACEAE * ~ a b e b u i a h e t e r o p h y l l a ( L . ) Hemsl. S t o d d a r t 7096 ( U S ) , 7100 ( U S ) ; F e a r e , s i g h t ( a s T a b e b u i a r o s e a ) . ACANTHACEAE A s y s t a s i a m u l t i f l o r a Kl.? S t o d d a r t 7119 ( U S ) . * A s y s t a s i a g a n g e t i c a ( L . ) T . Anders . (= A s y s t a s i a m u l t i f l o r a Kl .?) P r o c t e r , s i g h t ; F e a r e , s i g h t . RUBIACEAE G u e t t a r d a s p e c i o s a L. S t o d d a r t 7092 ( U S ) , 7132 ( U S ) ; F e a r e , s i g h t . Morinda c i t r i f o l i a L . F r y e r 4 ( K ) . GOODENIACEAE S c a e v o l a t a c c a d a ( G a e r t n . Roxb. S t o d d a r t 7070 ( U S ) ; F r y e r , s i g h t ( 1 9 1 0 ) ( a s S c a e v o l a k o e n i g i i ) ; P i g g o t t , s i g h t ( 1 9 6 9 ) ; P r o c t e r , s i g h t ( a s S c a e v o l a f r u t e s c e n s ) ; Feare, s i g h t . COMPOS ITrn Vernonia cinerea (L. ) Less. S toddar t 7061 ( U S ) ; F ryer , no number, i n Summerhayes (1931); P roc te r , s i g h t ; Feare, s i g h t . SOURCES Coppinger co l l ec t ion : l i s t e d by Hemsley (1885), pp. 16-17; a d d i t i o n a l s i g h t records i n Coppinger (1885). Fryer co l l ec t ion : F r y e r ' s paper on Bird I s l and (1910) and h i s manuscript d i a r y ; enumerations of f lowering p l a n t s i n Summerhayes (1931) and of f e r n s i n Chris tensen (1912). P roc te r co l l ec t ions : Department of Agr icul ture , Mahe, and enumeration of c o l l e c t i o n s and s i g h t records i n ' L i s t of p l a n t s recorded on Bird I s l a n d on 14 J u l y 19701, t ypesc r ip t . J e f f r e y co l l ec t ion : Department of Agr icul ture , Mahe. Feare records: s i g h t records c i t e d i n Feare (1979). S toddar t c o l l e c t i o n : determinat ions by F.R. Fosberg. A few miscellaneous c o l l e c t i o n s i n he rba r i a indica ted . Species marked * a r e judged t o be introduced. Some of t h e s i g h t records may we l l be m i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s . 3. Geography and ecology of Denis Is land, Seychelles INTRODUCTION Denis Is land i s located on t he northern margin of the Seychelles Bank i n l a t i t ude 3O48'S. and longitude 55?40'E., 89 km northnortheast of Mahe and 52 km e a s t of Bird Island. I t i s 2000 m long, has a maximum width i n the north of 1380 m , and has a t o t a l area of 1 2 0 ha (48 per cent l a rger than Bird Is land) (Figure 4 ) . The i s l and was discovered by and named a f t e r Denis de Trobriand, i n command of the E to i l e , i n August 1773, but the f i r s t f u l l account resu l t ed from the v i s i t of J .C .F . Fryer i n August 1908 (Fryer 1910). Subsequently the i s l and was v i s i t e d by B.H. Baker, C. J e f f rey and C.J. Piggott i n the ea r l y 1960s (Table 51, but the only connected account of the na tu ra l h i s t o ry of Denis remains t h a t of Fryer. The present paper i s based on a v i s i t on 10-11 December 1977; it br ings together the ex i s t ing l i t e r a t u r e , including unpublished mater ia l i n the Seychelles Archives, and a l so provides an account of the vegetation and f l o r a . MORPHOLOGY AND STRUCTURE Denis i s an i s l and formed e n t i r e l y of carbonate sands which have been extensively phosphatised. The beaches a r e narrow and apparently s t ab l e ; the re are no pronounced s p i t s or beach r idges , a s a t Bird Is land, and no storm deposits . The average surface elevation is probably only about 2.5 m, r i s i n g t o 3.5 m i n the north and nor theas t , though no instrumental determinations have been made. About 80 per cent of t he surface area i s occupied by phosphate rock, t o t a l l i n g about 95 ha, and t h i s reaches the coast t o form i r r egu l a r c l i f f s about 2 m high a t the southwest corner (Muraille Bon Dieu) (P la tes 9 and 10) and a t the pronounced indentat ion on the e a s t coast (Sans Tache). A s on Bird Island, the upper surface of the phosphate rock i s blocky and i r r egu l a r , with many loose fragments. The lower surface of cementation is i r r egu l a r and lobate , forming p i l l a r s and i n l e t s i n the c l i f f s (Pla te 11; a l so i l l u s t r a t e d by Fryer 1910, P l a t e 2 ) . This morphology i s i den t i c a l t o t h a t of s imi la r rocks a t Raine Island, Great Barr ier Reef, where t he lower surface i s a l so exposed i n c l i f f s . 2 6 Table 5. S c i e n t i f i c s t u d i e s a t Denis Is land Date 1775 12 Aug. 1906 29-31 March 1908 2-8 August 1927 1960 Sept 1962 March 1977 10-11 December V i s i t o r D. de Trobriand E t i o l e W. F. Stephens J.C.F. Fryer J. Hornell E. S. Brown C . J . P iggot t B.H. Baker C. J e f f r e y F.L. Lambrecht D.R. Stoddart Subject Discovery Phosphate General survey and co l l ec t ing Col lec t ing Insec t s Coconuts Geology Botany Insec t s Botany General ecology Publicat ion De Trobriand, i n Fauvel 1909 Stephens 1906aI 1906b Fryer 1910 Burleigh 1979 Mattingly and Brown 1955 Piggot t 1968, 1969 Baker 1963 J e f f r e y 1962 Lambrecht 1971 This paper According t o Piggot t (1968, 551, t h e phosphate rock is more than 1 . 2 m t h i c k i n t h e nor theas t bu t th inner elsewhere. Baker (1963, 41-46) describes a double horizon of cementation i n the nor theas t , i n t h e following sec t ion : 5-46 cm: phosphate rock, 30-90 cm: unconsolidated sand, 18-30 an: phosphate rock. According t o Baker t h e phosphate rock is th icke r i n t h e cent re of t h e i s l and , where it forms a s i n g l e horizon. The cemented mate r i a l i s over la in by guano, much of which has been removed f o r export. P iggot t (1969, 63) terms t h e s u p e r f i c i a l ma te r i a l a Jemo S e r i e s s o i l , i n con t ras t t o t h e Shioya S e r i e s of t h e r e s t of t h e i s l a n d , and Baker (1963) g ives t o t a l P2O5 content of guano samples of 31.5, 28.2 and 7.8 p e r cent . Towards t h e eas te rn s i d e of t h e i s l and t h e r e a r e elongate water- f i l l e d depressions about 1 m below t h e general surface l e v e l . It i s no t known whether these a r e n a t u r a l o r whether they r e s u l t from guano- digging opera t ions e a r l i e r t h i s century. They contain f r e s h water and hydromorphic s o i l s , which a r e unusual on western Indian Ocean c o r a l i s l ands . P iggo t t (1969, 63) g ives t h e following p r o f i l e : C-13 cm Black c lay loam with coarse s o f t crumb s t r u c t u r e , containing about 10 per cent P2O5 and 20 p e r cen t organic matter. 13-38 cm Brown phosphatic sandstone; very dark i n the upper pa r t but ge t t ing pale below; the sand being f a i r l y coarse. 38-46 cm Coarse white sand, with the watertable a t 46 an. In addit ion t o the phosphate rock, beachrock outcrops extensively along the southeast shore, where it was noted by Fryer i n 1908. Remnants of beachrock ind ica te t h i s t h i s beach was formerly longer, but the coast i t s e l f seems t o be a s t ab l e one. Beachrock a l so outcrops in te rmi t ten t ly along the shore of the west bay. Tidal movement of sand suggests t h a t the beachrock i s much more extensive than t he outcrops a t any time suggest. A s a t Bird Island, surface reef i s only extensive along the eastern s ide of the island. The shoal on which Denis stands i s very much smaller than t h a t of Bird, and the surrounding surface of the Seychelles Bank i s 55-75 m deep. CLIMATE Rainfal l records were maintained a t Denis Island from 1951 t o 1962 (Table 6, Figure 5 ) . The mean annual r a i n f a l l over 1 2 years was 1730 mrn, with extremes ranging from 1176 t o 2643 rnm. In the two years (1961-62) fo r which records were a l so kept a t Bird Island, the Denis Island r a i n f a l l was subs tan t ia l ly g rea te r (12 per cent g rea te r i n 1961, a wet year, and 19 per cent g rea te r i n 1962, an average year) . I t i s in te res t ing t h a t the pa t te rn of wet and dry years a t Denis during 1951-1962 c losely resembles t h a t a t D'Arros i n the northern Amirantes (Stoddart, Coe and Fosberg 19791, suggesting a general regional control of r a i n f a l l va r i ab i l i t y . December and January a re the wettest months and July much the d r i e s t . A l l months show considerable var ia t ion i n r a i n f a l l t o t a l s from year t o year, but Denis does not experience the prolonged dry seasons and severe droughts which occur on coral i s lands i n t he southern Seychelles. VEGETATION De Trobriand i n 1773 described the vegetation of Denis Island as follows: "quelquespartiesdel'isle sont coupdespardes esp&cesdepra i r i es dont l ' he rbe p a r a i t tr8s bonne quelqu'autres p e t i t e s port ions sont d'une t e r r e assez s8che melge de sable: environ l a moiti6 de l a surface de l ' i s l e e s t couverte d 'assez gros arbres mais dont l e bo i s m'a sembl6 e t r e t rop gros e t t rop spongieux pour e t r e propre 3 l a construction des vaisseaux" ( i n Fauvel 1909, 47). These t r e e s may well have been Pisonia grandis. Fryer (1910, 19) unfortunately concluded t h a t "the vegetation is of no i n t e r e s t , being a l l secondary i n character and dependent on the coconut cu l t iva t ion t o which i t s whole surface i s devoted". He did, however, d is t inguish a l i t t o r a l hedge of Scaevola, Tournefortia and Suriana (wrongly iden t i f i ed by both him and Summerhayes (1931, 278) a s Pemphis acidula) , with Hibiscus t i l i a ceus . Trees Table 6. Monthlv and annual r a i n f a l l records a t Denis Island Year 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 Mean Jan - 253.7 281.2 221.0 300.0 541.3 210.0 350.3 104.6 322.6 134.6 419.9 429.5 Feb - 70.6 139.9 190.5 0 243.6 190.2 75.7 120.9 71.4 227.8 430.8 344.7 Mar - 162.8 121.9 299.5 57.2 120.1 158.2 287.8 89.2 184.9 15.2 205.5 5.6 Apr 54.9 105.4 75.4 12.2 129.8 97.8 67.8 158.7 129.3 200.2 78.2 118.1 May 161.5 40.6 66.8 120.6 11.9 147.3 124.2 277.9 61.2 93.7 0 202.9 Jun - 0 140.9 72.6 106.7 0 0 60.2 638.0 23.9 95.7 27.7 84.1 Ju l - 0 52.8 76.2 86.9 0 0 36.1 24.1 22.9 38.1 64.3 20.8 Aug 142.2 133.1 82.6 150.4 79.2 85.6 13.5 35.8 99.8 45.7 259.8 112.5 Nov - 0 128.5 230.1 100.6 53.6 99.3 248.9 167.9 181.9 9.9 292.3 97.0 Dec - 307.3 207.0 333.0 199.6 274.8 169.2 496.1 112.3 325.6 274.1 196.8 91.4 Year 1491.5 1426.2 1867.9 1176.3 1737.9 1312.2 2181.3 1841.7 1630.0 1557 :O 2643.9 1893.1 Source: Stoddart (1971). mentioned by him included Casuarina, Calophyllum, Hernandia, Ficus and Pisonia. He a l s o noted t h e existence of Typha; a l a rge fern (probably Acrostichum r a t h e r than t h e Aspleniam he mentions); and Catharanthus, a s well a s bananas and van i l l a . P iggot t (1969, 59-65) a l s o remarks on the number of l a rge t r e e s i n t h e e a s t and cen t re of t h e i s l a n d (Calophyllum, Hernandia, Pisonia, Ficus, Terminalia) , and found both Catharanthus and Cassytha t o be widespread. Based on the v i s i t i n 1977 and the map and co l l ec t ions then made, t h e following vegetat ion u n i t s may be d is t inguished; 1. L i t t o r a l hedge, dominated by Scaevola taccada b u t a l s o with Tournefortia a rgen teaandsur iana maritima, o f t en much covered with Cassytha f i l i f o r m i s . On i t s landward s i d e both Guettarda speciosa and Hibiscus t i l i a c e u s a r e common, and i n p laces , e spec ia l ly on t h e west and southeas t s i d e s , Scaevola i s replaced by Guettarda. The l i t t o r a l hedge on the west s i d e i s narrower, l e s s continuous and more d iverse , and i n p laces (on the s l i g h t l y eroding nor theas t shore and where the phosphate rock outcrops) it i s e n t i r e l y lacking. 2. Casuarina woodland. Casuarina e q u i s e t i f o l i a i s extens ively p lanted as a windbreak along the g r e a t e r p a r t of the coas t l ine (Pla te l o ) , forming a zone 20-100 m wide, o f t en with the t r e e s s e t out i n regular rows. Many a r e t a l l and o l d and some a r e being removed f o r timber. 3. Coconut woodland. This covers t h e e n t i r e cent re of the i s l a n d , and many of t h e t r e e s a r e about 80 years old. When t h e p lan ta t ion was begun on a commercial s c a l e i s not known, but it was probably about 1890. By 1903 t h e r e were 20,000 t r e e s y ie ld ing 50,000 nuts pe r month (Seychelles Archives C/SS/74(1), 1391, and by 1906 t h e y i e l d was 60,000 nuts per month (Stephens 1906a). P iggot t (1969) found t h e p lan ta t ion well managed, i n s p i t e of t h e age of t h e t r e e s and t h e e f f e c t s of Rhinoceros Beetle and coccids, and he commented on t h e high q u a l i t y of t h e copra i n s p i t e of t h e poor q u a l i t y of t h e nuts . The p l a n t a t i o n s a r e s t i l l s c a t t e r e d with broadleaf t r e e s - massive Barringtonia and Calophyllum and smaller Tabebuia, Morinda, Terminalia and Pisonia. The fe rn Polypodium and Kalanchoe form extens ive and dense ground cover on t h e phosphate areas ; Catharanthus and o the r weedy p l a n t s a r e widespread. P i l e s of coconut husks a r e covered with the f e r n Nephrolepis. 4. Marsh vegetat ion. The in land freshwater marshes support t a l l and impenetrable s tands of t h e f e r n Acrostichum speciosum and t h e bulrush Typha javanica (P la te 12) . The l a t t e r i s r a r e on c o r a l i s l a n d s ; it i s common on high i s l a n d s i n the Seychelles , notably on P r a s l i n and Curieuse, which a re the c l o s e s t high i s l a n d s t o Denis. Alocasia macrorrhiza i s c u l t i v a t e d i n these marshes. FLORA Fryer i n 1908 recorded a t o t a l of 29 species of p l a n t s (Fryer 1908, 1910; Summerhayes 1931); 17 species c o l l e c t e d by J e f f r e y i n 1962 a re i n t h e Department of Agriculture Herbarium, Mahe; and the 1977 v i s i t y ie lded 72 species. With occasional a rch iva l records t h e known f l o r a s tands a t 91 species , r a t h e r l e s s than t h a t of Bird I s l and , but undoubtedly more remain t o be recorded. I t is apparent t h a t many species were introduced a t Denis a t an e a r l i e r d a t e than a t Bird Island. Casuarina, T e r m i n a l i a , lime and pumpkin were recorded by the v i s i t i n g magistrate a s e a r l y a s 1903 (Seychelles Archives C / S ~ / 7 4 ( 1 ) , 1391, and i n 1908 Fryer (1908, 1910; Summerhayes 1931) recorded v a n i l l a , banana, cot ton , Datura m e t e l , Capsicum f r u t e s c e n s and Solanum n igrum, a s well a s Kalanchoe and S t a c h y t a r p h e t a . The Agave, Carica and R i c i n u s found i n 1977 must a l s o have been introduced a t an e a r l y s tage . With t h e exception of t h e mosquitoes, r ecen t ly co l l ec ted by Mattingly and Brown (1955) and Lambrecht (19711, knowledge of t h e i n s e c t fauna of Denis Is land der ives e n t i r e l y from the c o l l e c t i o n s of Fryer i n 1908. The known fauna of about 60 species is dominated, a s a t Bird I s l and , by Coleoptera, Lepidoptera and Diptera. The l i t e r a t u r e on F r y e r ' s c o l l e c t i o n s is keyed i n Table 7. In addi t ion , H i r s t (1911) records four species of sp ide r s , and H i r s t (1913) a scorpion, a l l co l l ec ted by Fryer. REPTILES When De Trobriand discovered Denis i n 1773 he recorded it a s "g&&alement couverte de tor t i ies de t e r r e e t de mer" ( in Fauvel 1909, 47). By 1908 Fryer (1910, 19) found only "a few introduced specimens" of t h e Giant Land Tor to ise Geochelone g i g a n t e a , and he commented t h a t t u r t l e s had become "very scarce" ; t u r t l e t r a c k s were seen i n 1977 on the western beach, but t h e r e i s no means of est imating the s i z e of e i t h e r t h e p a s t o r t h e p resen t population. Apart from De Trobriand's descr ip t ion , the re i s no f u r t h e r eye-witness account of t h e Giant Land Tor to ise on Denis Is land. In 1927, however, James Hornell c o l l e c t e d f o s s i l t o r t o i s e eggs, presumably from phosphori tes , on Denis. These have now been radiocarbon dated by Burleigh (1979) , and yie lded an age of 1308285 years B.P., o r i n calendar terms approximately 680f100 A.D. These eggs confirm De Trobriand's account of t h e exis tence of t o r t o i s e s on Denis Is land, and the da te , which predates the human occupation of the Seychelles, e s t a b l i s h e s t h a t they must have colonised the i s l and na tu ra l ly and no t been introduced. Fryer a l s o co l l ec ted t h e skink Mabuia s e c h e l l e n s i s and t h e gecko Phelsuma madagascar iens i s , according t o Boulenger (1911) ; by implicat ion (Fryer 1910, 19) he a l s o co l l ec ted t h e gecko Hemidacty lus f r e n a t u s . Table 7. Kev t o t h e l i t e r a t u r e on i n s e c t s c o l l e c t e d a t Denis I s l a n d Family Number of spec ie s Source Orthoptera 9 Bolivar 1912, 1924 Dermaptera 1 Burr 1910 Odonata 1 Campion 1913 Hemiptera 9 Di s t an t 1913 Neuroptera 1 Needham 1913 Lepidoptera 12 Meyrick 1911; Fryer 1912 Coleoptera Hymenoptera Diptera Arrow 1922; Champion 1914; Gebien 1922; Maulik 1931; S c o t t 1912; S icard 1912; F leut iawr 1923 Cockerel l 1912 ; Fore1 1912 ; Meade-Waldo 1912 Edwards 1912; Lamb 1912, 1914, 1922; Lambrecht 1971; Matt ingly and Brown 1955; S t e i n 1910; Theobald 1912; Bezzi 1923 MAMMALS In 1773 De Trobriand a l s o mentioned t h e presence of "vaches marines" on Denis I s l a n d (Fauvel 1909, 47 ) . There i s no o t h e r mention of t hese animals on t h e i s l a n d , o t h e r than F r y e r ' s (1910, 19) comment t h a t " t h e dugongs a r e ex t inc t " . A s with t h e s i m i l a r b u t more extens ive records a t Bird I s l and , it is probable t h a t t h e s e animals were s e a l s r a t h e r than dugongs (Stoddar t 1972, 215). BIRDS De Trobriand i n 1773 found t h e i s l a n d covered wi th b i r d s , "dont p l u s i e u r s espaces inconnues 3 c e w de nous qu i avons f a i t s des campagnes r a r e s . Ces o i s e a w Q t a i e n t si peu accoutum6s v o i r des hornmes que nous en avons p r i s une t r b s grande q u a n t i t e dans l e s a rb res e t que nous en avons tug a u t a n t que nous avons voulu avec des batons"; he a l s o speaks of " l a prodig ieuse q u a n t i t g d 'oiseaux de t o u t e s esp8ces" ( i n Fauvel 1909, 47) . The i s l and lacks the enormous Sooty Tern colony of Bird Is land, and a l s o the colony of Wedge-tailed Shearwaters. The two most abundant seabi rds , e spec ia l ly i n t h e Casuarina, a r e t h e White Tern Gygis a lba and t h e Brown Noddy Anous s t o l i d u s . Fryer (1910) recorded the former a s common but did not mention t h e l a t t e r . The Crested Tern Thalasseus b e r g i i was a l s o seen i n 1977. Fryer (1908, 1910) recorded t h e Souimanga Sunbird Nectarinia sovimanga (as Cinnyris) i n 1908, and t h i s i s the only na t ive landbird. A l l t he o the r land b i r d s a r e introduced. They include: Barred Ground Dove Geopelia s t r i a t a , introduced p r i o r t o F r y e r ' s v i s i t i n 1908; Mynah Acridotheres tristis, not mentioned by Fryer, and, a s a t Bird , a more recent co lon i s t ; Madagascar Fody Foudia madagascariensis, introduced t o Mahe i n 1879 and t o P r a s l i n i n 1904, bu t already "common" on Denis i n 1908; Turtledover S t rep tope l i a p i c t u r a t a , a l s o p resen t i n 1908; Moorhen Gall inula chloropus, "extremely common'' i n t h e marshy a reas i n 1908 and a l s o i n 1977; and escaped Gallus i n 1908. Migrants include Turnstone Arenaria i n t e r p r e s , common i n 1977, and Whimbrel Numenius phaeopus, co l l ec ted i n 1908 and seen i n 1977. There a r e no records of Tropicbirds, Boobies and Fr iga teb i rds , and they c e r t a i n l y do not nes t . The absence of a t t e n t i o n t o t h e b i r d s of Denis by previous workers on Seychelles b i r d s i s remarkable; t h e r e a r e no records f o r t h e i s l a n d given by Vesey-FitzGerald (1940, 19411, G a p e r e t a l . (19691, Loustau-Lalanne (1962, 19631, o r Be t t s (1940). HISTORY A t t he time of i t s discovery i n 1773, Denis was uninhabited and the re was no t r a c e of any human occupation. The i s l and was leased on 31 December 1815 t o Captain Lesage (Unienville 1838, I II) , presumably f o r f i sh ing and t u r t l i n g , bu t nothing a t a l l i s known of t h i s period i n i t s h i s to ry . It presumably became permanently occupied, and i n about 1880 a 40 f t high l ighthouse tower was erected. This col lapsed on 10 December 1881. A n i ron t r i p o d was then b u i l t t o hold t h e l i g h t , b u t t h i s r u s t e d badly, and a s tone l i g h t was proposed t o replace it i n 1890. The l i g h t was r e b u i l t i n August 1893 bu t Fryer (1908) found it "somewhat primit ive". The presen t cast- iron braced tower was b u i l t i n J u l y 1908-September 1910 (Seychelles Archives: B/38, 434, 472; B/39, 168; B/41, 262; ~ / 4 2 , 22, 289, 304, 319, 406; B/43, 337, 365: B/48, 172, 205; ~ / 5 0 , 37). In 1903 t h e population consisted of 27 men, 7 women and 2 chi ldren (Seychelles Archives c / s s / ~ ~ (1), 139) . In 1906 W.F. Stephen made the f i r s t r epor t on t h e guano depos i t s , which he found t o be more extensive than a t Bird Is land b u t untouched. He est imated (1906a) t h a t over ha l f the i s l a n d was covered wi th guano, g iv ing a t o t a l reserve of 25,000-30,000 tons. He took 30 samples, and l a t e r analyses (1960b) gave phosphoric ac id contents f o r t h e guano of 26.2, 31.3, 30.6 and 29.7 per cent , and of t h e underlying rock 27.3, 24.5, 20,2, 19.0 and 20.7 per cent . Serious - digging d id not s t a r t u n t i l 1929, however. Between 1929 and 1941 a t o t a l of 16,195 tons were exported, mostly i n the period 1929-1934 (Baker 1963). Af ter t h e guano digging ended, coconut palms were r a p i d l y p lanted over the whole i s land. Donkeys, p igs and pou l t ry had been introduced by t h e e a r l y 1960s (Piggot t 1969). I t is d i f f i c u l t t o give any p rec i se idea of the ecologica l h i s t o r y of Denis I s l and , s ince it, l i k e Bird, has c l e a r l y undergone profound changes i n recent centur ies . The amount of phosphate rock must ind ica te t h e existence of l a r g e seabi rd colonies within t h e p a s t f i v e thousand years. These may have been t ree-nes t ing species such a s t h e Red-footed Booby, i f t h e i s l a n d had Pisonia woodland on it, o r ground- nes t ing species such a s the Masked and Brown Boobies, i f it were l a r g e l y bare. The former exis tence of a l a r g e t o r t o i s e colony, which would requi re adequate shade, and the presence of many broad-leaf t r e e s i n t h e coconut woodland, a s well a s De Trobriand's account i n 1773, suggest t h a t t h e i s l and , unlike Bird, was wooded, and t h a t vegetat ion was not suppressed by ground-nesting b i r d s i n t h e numbers of the Bird Is land Sooty Terns. The occurrence of woodland would a l s o account f o r t h e exis tence of a na t ive sunbird and the e a r l y in t roduct ion of o the r landbirds. Presumably t h e na t ive seabi rds must have been l a r g e l y destroyed during the f i s h i n g , t u r t l i n g and coconut growing of t h e nineteenth century, and t h e t o r t o i s e i t s e l f probably became e x t i n c t a t a very e a r l y date. The very extensive guano digging and coconut p lant ing f i f t y years ago would have completed t h e ecologica l transformation. An a i r s t r i p was cu t by t h e owners of the i s l a n d i n 1975-76, and a small t o u r i s t h o t e l opened i n 1978. This should give the opportunity f o r more d e t a i l e d s c i e n t i f i c observations i n t h e fu tu re . ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We thank M. P i e r re Burckardt f o r making it poss ib le t o work on Denis I s l and i n 1977. 4. P lan t s recorded from Denis Is land POLYPODIACEAE Acrostichum speciosum Willd. Stoddart 8109 (US). Aspleni urn sp. ? Fryer (1910) (but Christensen 1912 records no f e r n s ) . Nephrolepis c f . h i r s u t u l a (Fors t . f .1 P r e s l Stoddart 8083 (US) . Pol ypodi urn s c o l opendria Bum. f . Stoddart 8097 (US) . Typha javanica Schnizl ex Rohrb. J e f f r e y 1209 (MAHE) ; Stoddart 8143 (US) ; Fryer (1908) (as ~ y p h a ) ; Fryer (1910) (as Typha angus ta ta ) ; Summerhayes (1931) ( incor rec t ly c i t e d a s from Bird I s l a n d ) . POTAMOGETONACEAE Thalassodendron ciliaturn (Forsk.) d. Hart. Fryer (1910) (as Cyodocea) . *Cenchrus echinatus L. J e f f r e y 1202 (MAHE) ; Stoddart 8140 (US). Dactyloctenium ctenoides (Steud. Bosser Stoddart 8098 (US) . * ~ r a g r o s t i s c i l i a r i s (L. ) R.Br. Jeffrey 1199 (MAHE). * ~ r a g r o s t i s t e n e l l a (L. ) Beauv . var. t e n e l l a S t o d d a r t 8 1 0 4 (US) . E r a g r o s t i s t e n e l l a (L. Beauv. var. i n s u l a r i s Hubb. S t o d d a r t 8139 (US). * E l e u s i n e i n d i c a ( L . ) G a e r t n . S t o d d a r t 8 0 8 2 (US) . - Enteropogon monostachyos (Vahl) S . and E. Jeffrey 1 2 0 0 (MAHE) (= E . s e c h e l l e n s i s ( B a k e r ) Dur . and S c h i n z ? ) En te ropogon sechellensis ( ~ a k e r ) Dur . and S c h i n z . S t o d d a r t 8 0 8 7 (US) . * Pani cum maximum Jacq . S t o d d a r t 8 1 3 4 (US). *Pennise tum p o l y s t a c h i o n (L. S c h u l t . S t o d d a r t 8 1 0 2 (US) , 8108 (US) . Sporobo lus v i r g i n i c u s ( L . ) Kunth. S t o d d a r t 8 1 5 0 (US) . Stenotaphrum d imid ia tum (L. ) B r o n g . S t o d d a r t 8 0 9 4 (US). Stenotaphrum micranthum (Des. ) C.E. Hubb. Jeffrey 1 2 0 8 (MAHE) . *Tr icho laena r o s e a N e e s Rhynchel ytrum r e p e n s ( W i l l d . ) C. E . Hubb. S t o d d a r t 8101 (US) . CYPERACEAE Cyperus cong lomera tus R o t t b . Cyperus p a c h y r r h i z u s N e e s ex B o e c k l . Pycreus o d o r a t u s (L. 1 U r b a n Jeffrey 1 2 0 5 (MAHE) ( a s var. e f f usus ( R o t t b . 1 Kuk. ; S t o d d a r t 8099 (US) ; Summerhayes ( 1 9 3 1 ) ( a s Pycreus o d o r a t u s and as C . pachyrrh i z u s ) Cyperus d u b i u s R o t t b . S t o d d a r t 8 1 2 2 (US). Cyperus l i g u l a r i s L. Je f f rey 1201 (MAHE) (mislabelled as from Bird I s l and ) ; Stoddart 8112 (US), 8144 (US). *Cyperus r o t u n d u s L . Stoddart 8142 (US). F i m b r i s t y l i s cymosa R. B r . Stoddart 8121 (US). PALMAE *Cocos n u c i f e r a L. Fryer (1908, 1910), s igh t ; Piggott (19691, s i gh t ; Stoddart, s igh t . ARACEAE * A l o c a s i a macrorrh i za (L. ) Schott Stoddart 8110 (US). LILIACEAE *Agave r i g i d a Northrop var. s i s a l a n a Perr. ex Engelm. Agave s i s a l a n a Perr . Stoddart, s i gh t . *Crinum sp. Stoddart, s ight . MUSACEAE * ~ u s a sap ien tum L. Stoddart, s igh t . CASUARINACEAE *Casuarina e q u i s e t i f o l i a L. Fryer (1910), s i gh t ; Piggot t (1969), s i gh t ; Stoddart 8085 (US) . MORACEAE F i c u s sp. Fryer (lgO8), s i g h t (as 'banyan' ) , ( l g l o ) , s igh t ; Piggott ( l969), s igh t . *Ficus benghalensis L. Stoddart 8141 (US). AMARANTHACEAE *Achyranthes aspera L. var.? Je f f rey 1210 (MAHE). *Achyranthes aspera L. c f . var. aspera Stoddart 8086 (US) . *Amaranthus c f . dubius Mart. ex Thell. Stoddart 8105 (US). NYCTAGINACEAE Boerhavia repens L. Je f f rey 1206 (MAHE) (as Boerhavia coccinea M i l l . , but probably t h i s spec ies ) ; Stoddart 8093 (US). Pisonia grandi s R. B r . Fryer (1908) , s ig h t (as ' ~ a p o u ' ) , (1910) , s igh t (as ~ i s o n i a ca lp id ia ) ; Piggot t (1969) , s igh t ; Stoddart 8148 (US). PORTULACACEAE Portulaca oleracea L. var . granula to-s te l lu la ta v. Poelln. Stoddart 8092 (US) . LAURACEAE Cassytha f i l i f o r m i s L. Piggott (1969), s i gh t (as Cassytha) ; Stoddart, s igh t . HERNANDI ACEAE Hernandia sonora L. Fryer (1908) s i gh t (as 'Bois blanc' ) , (19101, s i gh t (as Hernandia p e l t a t a ) ; Piggott (1969), s i g h t (as Hernandia p e l t a t a ) . MORINGACEAE *Moringa o l e i f e r a Lam. Stoddart 8135 (US). CRAS SULACEAE "Kalanchoe p inna ta (Lam.) Pers . S toddar t 8114 (US); Fryer , no number, i n Summerhayes (1931) ( a s Bryophyllum pinnatum Kunz. 1. LEGUMINOSAE *Canavalia g l a d i a t a DC. Fryer , no number, i n Summerhayes (1931). *Cassia o c c i d e n t a l i s L. Stoddar t 8106 (US), 8136 (US). * C r o t a l a r i a verrucosa L. Stoddar t 8111 (US). ZYGOPHYLLACEAE * T r i b u l u s terres tris L. Fryer , no number, i n Summerhayes (1931) . RUTACEAE * C i t r u s a u r a n t i i f o l i a (Chr ism. ) Swingle Noted by V i s i t i n g Magis t ra te i n 1903 (Seychel les Archives) . SURIANACEAE Suriana mari t ima L. J e f f r e y 1207 (MAHE) (mis labe l led Pemphis a c i d u l a Fors t . ) ; Stoddart 8138 (US) ; Fryer (1910), s i g h t (as Pemphis a c i d u l a ) ; Piggo t t (1969), s i g h t ; Fryer , no number, i n Summerhayes (1931) ( a s Pemphis a c i d u l a ) . EUPHORBIACEAE *Acal ypha i n d i c a L. Fryer , no number, i n Summerhayes (1931). *Euphorbia cyathophora Murr. Euphorbia h e t e r o p h y l l a L. J e f f r e y 1204 (MAHE) (as Euphorbia h e t e r o p h y l l a L . ) ; S toddar t 8090 (US). "Euphorbia h i r t a L. Fryer , no number, i n Summerhayes (1931); S toddar t 8084 (US). Euphorbia microphylla Heyne ex Roth. Fryer, no number, i n Summerhayes (1931). *Euphorbia prostrata A i t . Fryer, no number, i n Summerhayes (1931). "Pedilanthus tithymaloides (L.) Poi t . Stoddart 8151 (US) . ~h yllanthus maderaspatensis L. Je f f rey 1198 (MAHE); Fryer, no number, i n Summerhayes (1931). *Ricinus communis L . Stoddart 8125 (US) . MALVACEAE *Abutilon indicum (L . Sweet Stoddart 8116 (US) ; Fryer, no number, i n Summerhayes (1931). *Gossypium hirsutum L. Goss ypi urn maxi canum Tod . Fryer, no number, i n Summerhayes (1931). Hibiscus tiliaceus (L.) L. Stoddart 8118 (US) ; Fryer (1908) , s igh t (as ' Bois du var ' 1 , (1910) , s igh t ; Fryer, no number, i n Summerhayes 0931) . *Sida acuta Burm. f . Stoddart 8128 (US). Sida parvifolia DC. Je f f rey 1203 (MAHE) ; Stoddart 8088 (US). Thespesia populnea (L. Sol. ex Correa? Stoddart 8113 (US). Calophyllum inophyllum L. var . (probably a l l var . takamaka ~ o s b . ) Stoddart 8115 (US) , 8119 (US) ; Fryer (1908) , s i g h t (as 'Takamaka' ) I (19101, s i gh t ; Piggott (19691, s igh t . TURNERACEAE *Turnera ulmifolia L. Stoddart 8130 (US). PASSIFLORACEAE * P a s s i f l o r a s u b e r o s a L. ? S t o d d a r t 8146 (US) . CARICACEAE *Car ica papaya L. S t o d d a r t 8149 (US) . CUCURBITACEAE *Cucurbi t a c f . maxima Duche sne S t o d d a r t , s i g h t . M e l o t h r i a maderaspatana Cogn. F r y e r , no number , i n Summerhayes ( 1 9 3 1 ) . emp phis a c i d u l a Forst. F r y e r ( 1 9 1 0 ) , s i g h t ( i n error for S u r i a n a m a r i t i m a L . ) ; Summerhayes ( 1 9 3 1 ) r e p o r t i n g , F r y e r t s s i g h t r e c o r d . ] COMBRETACEAE T e r m i n a l i a c a t a p p a L. S t o d d a r t 8126 (US) ; P i g g o t t (1969 , s i g h t . BARRINGTONIACEAE B a r r i n g t o n i a a s i a t i c a ( L . ) Kurz . S t o d d a r t 8147 (not r e t a i n e d ) . APOCYNACEAE * c a t h a r a n t h u s r o s e u s ( L . ) G. Don S t o d d a r t 8124 ( U S ) , 8131 ( U S ) ; F r y e r ( 1 9 1 0 ) , s i g h t ( a s ~ i n c a - r o s e a ) ; P i g g o t t ( 1 9 6 9 ) , s i g h t ( a s C a t h a r a n t h u s ) . Ipomoea s p . Fryer ( 1 9 1 0 ) , s i g h t . *Ipomoea c o c c i n e a L . J e f f r e y 1211 (MAHE). Ipomoea macrantha R. and S . S t o d d a r t 8152 ( U S ) . *Ipomoea o b s c u r a ( L . ) Ker-Gawl S t o d d a r t 8145 (US) . Ipomoea pes-caprae ( L . ) R. Br. s s p . b r a s i l i e n s i s ( L . ) v. O o o s t s t r . S t o d d a r t 8120 ( U S ) . BORAGINACEAE C o r d i a s u b c o r d a t a Lam. S t o d d a r t 8096 ( U S ) , 8117 (US) . Tourne f o r t i a a r g e n t e a L. f . S t o d d a r t 8107 (US) ; Fryer ( 1 9 0 8 ) , s i g h t ( a s ' B o i s tabac" ) , ( 1 9 1 0 ) , s i g h t ( a s T o u r n e f o r t i a ) ; F r y e r , no number, i n Summerhayes ( 1 9 3 1 ) ; P i g g o t t ( 1 9 6 9 ) , s i g h t ( a s T o u r n e f o r t i a ) . VERBENACEAE * L i p p i a n o d i f l o r a ( L . ) Michx. S t o d d a r t 8123 ( U S ) . * S t a c h y t a r p h e t a j a m a i c e n s i s ( L . 1 V a h l S t o d d a r t 8129 (US) ; F r y e r , no number, i n Summerhayes ( 1 9 3 1 ) . SOLANACEAE *Capsicum f r u t e s c e n s L. F r y e r , no number , i n Summerhayes ( 1 9 3 1 ) . *Datura m e t e l L. F r y e r , no number , i n Summerhayes ( 1 9 3 1 ) . Solanurn n i g r u m L. v a r . americanum ( M i l l . ) O.E. S c h u l z S t o d d a r t 8103 ( U S ) . SCROPHULARIACEAE S t r i g a a s i a t i c a L. S t o d d a r t 8089 ( U S ) . BIGNONIACEAE "Tabebuia h e t e r o p h y l l a (L . ) H e m s 1 . Stoddart 8133 (US). ACANTHACEAE A s y s t a s i a b o j e r i a n a Nees Stoddart 8127 (US). G u e t t a r d a s p e c i o s a L. Stoddart 8091 (US). Morinda ci t r i f o l i a L. Stoddart 8095 (US) . Spermacoce r e p e n s (DC. ) Fosb. and Powell Stoddart 8093 ( U S ) . S c a e v o l a t a c c a d a (Gaertn.) Roxb. Stoddart 8137 (not retained) ; Fryer (1908) , s igh t (as ' ~ o i s velout ier ' ) . COMPOSITAE V e r n o n i a c i n e r e a (L. ) Less. var . p a r v i f l o r a DC. Stoddart 8132 (US). S y n e d r e l l a n o d i f l o r a (L. ) Gaertn. Stoddart 8100 (US) . SOURCES Fryer collections and observations: Fryer ' s paper on Denis Island (1910) and h i s manuscript diary (1908); enumerations of flowering plants i n Summerhayes (1931). Piggott observations: Piggott (1969). Jeffrey col lect ions: Department of Agriculture, Mahe. Stoddart collections: determinations by F.R. Fosberg. Species marked * a re judged t o be introduced. Some of the s igh t records may well be misidentif ications. 5. References Arrow, G . J . 1922. Coleoptera, Eroty l idae and Endomychidae from the Seychelles, Chagos and Amirantes Is lands. Ann. Mag. n a t . H i s t . ( 9 ) 10: 73-83. Bailey, R.S. 1-967. Migrant waders i n the Indian Ocean. Ibis, 109: 437-439. Baker, B.H. 1963. Geology and mineral resources of t h e Seychelles Archipelago. Mem. Geol. S u r v . Kenya, 3: 1-140. Bezzi, M. 1923. Diptera, Bombyliidae and Myiodaria (Coenosiinae, Muscinae, Call iphorinae, Sarcophaginae, Dexiinae, Tachininae), from t h e Seychelles and neighbouring i s l ands . ~ a r a s i t o l o g y , 15: 75-102. Bolivar , I. 1912. Orthoptera: Acrydiidae, Phasgonuridae, Gryll idae. Trans . L inn . Soc. Lond. (2) 15: 263-292. Bolivar , I. 1924. 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Monthly r a i n f a l l a t Denis I s l a n d , 1971-1962 P1. 9. Denis Island: phosphate cliffs with Casuarina woodland, southwest shore P1. 10. Denis Island: phosphate cliffs at Muraille Bon Dieu. P1. 11. Denis Island: detail of phosphate cliffs at Muraille Bon Dieu P1. 12. Denis Island: Typha swamp