SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONSVOLUME 66, NUMBER 6 PHONETIC TRANSCRIPTION OFINDIAN LANGUAGES KBFORT OK COMMITTEE OF AMERICANANTHKOPOEOGICAL ASSOCIATION (Publication 2415) CITY OF WASHINGTONPUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTIONSEPTEMBER, 1916 BALTIMORE, Ml)., I'. S. A. PHONETIC TRANSCRIPTION OF INDIAN LANGUAGESREPORT OF COMMITTEE OF AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGICALASSOCIATIONThe following report is based on several meetings held in NewYork in January, 1913, April and May, 1914, and January, 191 5, by aquorum of the committee of the American Anthropological Associa-tion, charged with the drawing up of a phonetic system for tran-scribing Indian languages, consisting of F. Boas, Chairman, P. E.Goddard, and E. Sapir, Secretary, further on correspondence withthe remaining member of the committee, A. L. Kroeber.GENERAL PRINCIPLESIt is essential that each simple sound be consistently representedby the same symbol.These symbols, as far as possible, should be those associated inpast use with sounds similar to the ones they are chosen to represent.For the sake of appearance and to avoid distracting the attentionof the reader, mixture of fonts and unusual characters should beavoided unless indispensable.In texts accompanied by interlinear translations all characters andmarks of punctuation not strictly phonetic, such as capitals, commas,and periods, should be eliminated excepting, however, symbols intro-duced for facilitating grammatical analysis.In order to reduce the cost of publishing texts, only such diacriticalmarks and accents as are essential for adequate transcription shouldbe employed.Where a uniform and fairly adequate system has already beenemployed in the recording of a particular language, it will usually bebest to continue its use in further work with that language to facili-tate comparisons and to avoid confusion. For purposes necessitatingthe comparison of different languages and requiring phonetic accu-racy the more rigid system should be applied.The committee considers that the needs to be met by a phoneticsystem for transcribing American languages are several. For thespecialist who wishes to analyze and discuss the sounds of a languagea very considerable number of symbols and a variety of modifyingaccessories in the form of diacritical marks and accents are necessary.Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections. Vol. 66, No. 6. 2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 66Such an elaborate system proves too complicated for students who areless thoroughly trained in phonetics and therefore less discriminatingin their perception of sounds. For the recording and printing oflarge bodies of texts, a too elaborate and detailed system is expensiveand often impracticable. The main objects to be secured in a largeseries of texts are a full vocabulary and ample illustrations fromwhich the range in the meanings of words and phrases can be deduced.It is not necessary that words recurring many times in such textsbe transcribed each time by symbols indicating all their phoneticfeatures. It is, however, necessary that each phonetic unit be un-mistakably distinguished from all others.The committee has been led, therefore, to submit a comparativelysimple system of transcription adapted to the ordinary purposes ofrecording and printing texts. To provide for the recording anddiscussing of the complex and varied phonetic phenomena encoun-tered in American linguistics, a fairly detailed and comprehensivesystem has been provided. It is necessarily of such character that itcan be employed only by a specialist in phonetics. By its aid it isto be hoped that the phonetic features of all of the extant NorthAmerican languages may be discussed and compared. A. RULES FOR THE SIMPLER SYSTEM I. VOWELS I. Quality.—It is important that each vowel having a distinctquality or timbre be represented by a definite character. Since theLatin alphabet has only five vowel characters, it will usually benecessary to supply others. For a full system of vowels the use ofGreek characters is recommended. Since these are not always avail-able and present other difficulties in their use, Roman characters witha diacritical mark above the letter, particularly macron (a), may alsobe utilized. The following symbols are recommended : a, as in English father. a, as in English but.a, as in English hat.e, as in English fate. £, as in English met.i, as in English pique. i, as in English pin.o, as in English note. o, approximately as in English not (better as oin German voll).u, as in English rule. v, as in English put.These values correspond exactly to the recommendations of B (seep. 9). If it is desired to avoid Greek characters, o, and a, thefollowing alternate system is recommended : NO. 6 PHONETIC TRANSCRIPTION OF INDIAN LANGUAGES 3 a, as in English father. a, as in English but.a, as in English hat.e, as in English fate. e, as in English met.i, as in English pique. i, as in English pin.6, as in English note. o, as in English not (better as o in German voll).u, as in English rule. u, as in English put.For vowel qualities due to mixed positions, such as the umlauted oand « in German, two dots above the letter are recommended (o).The obscure vowel, found for instance in English a of idea, may berendered by 5 (turned e).Vowels of any timbre as determined by the shape of the mouthcavity may be further modified by the addition of the resonancechamber of the nose. Such nasal quality in vowels (as in the Frenchnasalized vowels) may be indicated by adding beneath the letter ahook turning to the right (q).It is to be understood that if only one of the quaHties usuallyassociated with a roman letter occurs in the language in question, thatletter is to-be used without a diacritical mark (similarly, o is to beused instead of turned c (j) if there is only an open o in the lan-guage).2. Duration.—The duration or quantity of vowel sounds, often anessential matter, may be indicated by placing a mark after the vowel.It is recommended that a turned period (a-) or a colon (a:) be usedfor vowels long in duration, and a breve {a^ ) for those unusuallyshort. It is important that these marks be used after the vowels toavoid confusion between duration and quality or timbre, since they arenot necessarily connected, as is generally assumed to be the case inEnglish.3. Pitch.—In certain languages vowel sounds are distinguishedfrom each other by definite variations in pitch. When such varia-tions of pitch are essential, the acute accent over the vowel (d) shouldbe used for high pitch, and grave (a) for low pitch, the circumflex(a) for falHng pitch, and the inverted circumflex (a) for rising pitch.When it becomes necessary in the recording of a language to usethese accents to represent pitch, similar diacritical marks for qualityover the vowels are best avoided.4. Weak vowels.—Vowels which are of full duration and strengthbut not vpiced, such as whispered vowels, may well be representedby small capitals. When vowels are slighted in the force of enuncia-tion, but are voiced, exponent vowels should be used (w*).5. Stress.—Where variations in stress are prominent they may beindicated by placing the acute accent ( ' ) after the vowel. Secondary 4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 66 accents may be indicated by the grave accent ( " ). It should beremembered that stress accent is exceptionally mztrked in Englishand that it is less pronounced and plays a less important role inmany American languages. Unless the indication of stress is neces-sary to distinguish one word from another, it need not be printedeach time a word appears in texts. II. CONSONANTS I. Stops.—The consonants that are usually known as stops, thosein which the stream of breath is completely checked for a momentby a closure of the mouth passage, are classified in various ways.Various organs or parts of organs are employed : both lips, the tipof the tongue against the teeth or palate, the back of the tongueagainst the palate, the back of the tongue against the velum. Thesounds resulting from the release of the contact of these variousmouth parts have well-known and distinct qualities, such as thebilabial sounds of p and b, the dental sounds of t and d, the palatalsounds of k and g, and the velar sounds, not found, however, inEnglish.Various modifications of these stops uttered in the four positionsare recognized, and may be grouped in definite series. If the vocalcords are not closed and are not in operation during the uttering ofthe consonant, it is known as a surd. If the vocal cords are closedand vibrating during the entire time occupied in articulating thesound, it is a sonant. In many Indian languages sounds occur thatto the English ear appear now a surd and now a sonant. Thesestops are called intermediates, and should be consistently representedby definite symbols. Small capitals of the sonant symbols are recom-mended for these. The ordinary b, d, g, may be used when only inter-mediate surds and not sonants occur. Surd consonants are frequentlyfollowed by a strong expiration of breath, and are called aspirated inconsequence. Unaspirated surds are usually difficult to distinguishfrom intermediates.Many Indian languages have a series of stopped consonants quiteforeign to European ears. In addition to and during the usual closureof the mouth characteristic of the particular sound, the^e is a closureof the glottis. The air thus confined in the mouth is compressed andescapes with abruptness when the stop is released. These glottalizedconsonants may be indicated by following apostrophe (/>').The following system of recording the stopped consonants isrecommended : NO. 6 PHONETIC TRANSCRIPTION OF INDIAN LANGUAGES 6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 66 that they are released through the mouth positions of* the correspond-ing spirants into which they immediately merge. It has been cus-tomary to write them with two letters, as if they were compoundsounds. Were sufficient characters available, it would be better tomake use of a single symbol. For practical reasons it is recommendedthat the following combinations be used : NO. 6 PHONETIC TRANSCRIPTION OF INDIAN LANGUAGES Jmay be preceded by a closure forming an affricative similar to themedial affricatives. The symbols recommended are the following: 8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 66 a.i is non-diphthongal a plus i, ai being the correspoi'»ding diphthong.Similarly, t.s is the non-afifricative t plus s, corresponding to theaffricative ts.4. Hyphens should not be used for phonetic purposes. They may,however, be used to indicate morphological analysis. Where, incontinuous text, it seems advisable to indicate somewhat looselyaffixed elements (prefixes and suffixes not thoroughly welded withstem) by means of hyphens, double hyphens may be used at the endsof lines to indicate a break in the word not meant to be of morpho-logic significance. VOWELS5. Pitch accent, where indicated at all, should be expressed bymeans of diacritical marks over the vowel. These diacritical marksare also to be used over sonant continuants (such as I, m, n, zv, z)where these bear the pitch accent. The fundamental differencebetween the system of pitch accent here recommended (the same ashas been fully described by Father W. Schmidt in various articles in " Anthropos ") and that of indicating stress is that the diacriticalmarks for the former stand immediately above the letter, whereasthose for the latter follow. High pitch is to be indicated by an acuteaccent ( ' ) over the letter; low pitch is to be indicated by a graveaccent ( " ) over the letter ; falling accent from high to low is to beindicated by a combination of the acute and the grave, i. e., by thecircumflex accent ( ^ ) ; rising accent from low to high is to beindicated by a combination of the grave and acute accents, i. e., bythe inverted circumflex accent ( " ) . When it is necessary to indi-cate middle pitch, this may be done by a vertical line above thevowel ( ' ).6. Voiceless vowels, that is, aspiration with definite vocalic timbre,should be indicated by means of small capitals of correspondingvowels.7. Nasalization should be expressed by means of a hook, turnedto the right, placed under the vowel or voiced continuant. Thus,nasalized a is indicated by a. This device may also be employed toindicate semi-nasalized consonants. Thus, b would indicate semi-nasalized b, acoustically midway between b and m.8. What might be rather vaguely termed subsidiary or weaklyarticulated vowels of various sorts are to be expressed by means ofsuperior or inferior characters. Rearticulations (such as oftenoccur in Indian languages, e. g., a •'^ in Takelma), vocalic glides,murmured or echo vowels pronounced with feeble energy, yet not NO. 6 PHONETIC TRANSCRIPTION OF INDIAN LANGUAGES 9 entirely voiceless (such as often occur in America after glottalstops), vocalic resonance of preceding consonants, and whisperedvowels are all to be expressed by superior or inferior vowels. Th^eexact usage of superior or inferior vowels should be carefullyexplained in the key in every case, so as to avoid possible confusion.If it is desired to distinguish between vocalic timbres and weaklyarticulated voiceless vowels on the one hand and vocalic glides andweakly articulated voiced vowels on the other hand, superior vowels(") naay be used for the former, inferior vowels (a) for the latter.9. The representation of vocalic qualities here recommendedattempts to combine, as far as possible, the requirements of ordi-nary usage with the demands of a consistent scientific system. Thephonetic analysis serving as a basis of the system has been takenfrom Sweet's " Primer of Phonetics."The five vocalic symbols serving as a starting point in this systemare : a, pronounced as in German Mann; e, pronounced as in Frenchete; i, pronounced as in French fini; o, pronounced as in Germanso; and u, pronounced as in German gut.Roughly speaking, the Greek forms of these letters indicate theopen (Sweet's wide) forms of the same sounds. For Greek omikron,which would be easily confused with o, inverted c {o) is substituted.Thus, upsilon (u) represents n of English full; turned c {^) repre-sents of German voll; epsilon (e) represents e of English met;iota (i) represents i of English it; alpha (a) represents n of Englishhut. According to Sweet's phonetic analysis, a is the wide form of a,but general usage demands the retention of a for the value hererecommended. The principle of simplicity (see last paragraph ofA, I, I ) will, in most cases, involve considerable simpHfication of thissystem. Thus, where but one form of i-vowel is in use, the simplesymbol i will be used for either the close or open variety.Rounded forms of front vowels are to be indicated by the umlaut( " ) over the corresponding rounded back vowels. Thus, ii indicatesthe vowel of German kuhl or French lune; o represents the vowelof German schon or French bleu; v represents the first vowel ofGerman Mutze ; j represents the first vowel of German Goiter.The use of the umlaut may be extended to indicate high-back-unrounded vowels, the corresponding high-front-unrounded vowelsbeing taken as points of departure. Thus, / and i represent the high-back-unrounded representatives of i and i, in other words, the un-rounded forms of n and v. Both of these sounds occur, for example,in Shoshonean. 10 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 66A natural extension of the system, as developed up to this point,is the use of a single dot over a vowel to indicate articulations mid-way between front and back, that is, all vowels belonging to Sweet's " mixed " category. Thus, it represents the vowel acoustically mid-way between u and ii, an example of which is w of Swedish hus.To avoid confusion with ordinary i, the superior dot of the i of thisseries should be printed a little to the left ('i).For the low-back-narrow-rounded vowel (the English aw oflaw), omega (w) may be used ; the corresponding low-front-narrow-rounded vowel, the eu of French peur, is indicated by oi, which thusfalls in line with u and o. The vowel midway in position between wand w is m.For the other vowels of Sweet's scheme no specific symbols arerecommended as yet.An obscure vowel of undefined quality may be represented byturned e, i. e., a. CONSONANTSID. Small capitals are to be regularly used to indicate voicelessforms of consonants ordinarily voiced (lateral continuants, trilledconsonants, nasal continuants). Thus, l, m, n, and r indicate voice-less I, m, n, and r, respectively. In the case of stops and spirants,where distinct characters are used for corresponding voiced andvoiceless forms, the small capital is to be used to indicate a surd-sonant intermediate (intermediate consonants here include voicelessconsonants pronounced with stress ordinarily characteristic of sonantconsonants, also surd consonants that are sonant at the moment ofrelease). Thus, g indicates the intermediate between sonant g andsurd k; similarly, z (sHghtly higher than lower case s) indicates theconsonant intermediate between s and s, equivalent to J. O. Dorsey'sturned s.Weakly articulated or barely audible consonants, also consonanticglides, are to be represented by superior letters ; thus, Malecite "w-and Wyandot -"(/-.II. A point beneath the consonant is regularly used to indicate apoint of articulation posterior to the standard point of articulationadopted for the simple character. Thus, d represents a d pronouncedwith the tip of the tongue articulating against the palate back of thealveolar ridge, that is, the cerebral d. Similarly, k may be used toindicate a velar k.A semicircle beneath the letter ( O ^s regularly used to indicate apoint of articulation in front of the standard one adopted for the NO. 6 PHONETIC TRANSCRIPTION OF INDIAN LANGUAGES II sound indicated by the simple character. Thus, if represents dentalt, as in Slavic ; ^ indicates prepalatal g.12. Four main types of articulation are recognized for the stoppedand afifricative consonants of each position ; the sonant, the surd, theintermediate (indicated by small capital forms of letters represent-ing sonant stops), and aspirated surd (represented by the sign ofaspiration (') following the symbol for voiceless surd stop). Othertypes of consonants involving synchronous articulations will be dis-cussed below.13. Three main positions are recognized for stopped consonants:the bilabial, the linguo-dental or linguo-alveolar, and the linguo-palatal or guttural. The sonant of the fi^st position is indicated byb, its corresponding surd by p, intermediate by b, aspirated surdby p\ The voiced nasal continuant of this series is represented by m,its voiceless form by m; the semi-nasal stop may be indicated by b.14. In parallel fashion, d, t, d, and T indicate corresponding con-sonants of alveolar position (the tip or blade of the tongue and thealveolar ridge are here taken as the standard point of articulation forthe linguo-dental and linguo-alveolar consonants), d, I, d, f indi-cate the corresponding sounds for the true dental series, d, t, d,and f indicate the corresponding sounds for the cerebral series.The voiced and unvoiced nasals for the three positions definedabove are respectively n, n; n, n; n, n.15. "Between the alveolar and guttural consonants is a set of dorsalconsonants, produced by the upper surface of the tongue articulatingagainst the forward part of the palate. Such consonants are indi-cated by Greek letters. The four stops parallel to those enumeratedfor the preceding positions are 8, r. A, and t'; the correspondingnasals are v and small capital v (inasmuch as capital v is identicalwith English A^, it is recommended that the lower case v be used insomewhat enlarged form).8, and correspondingly for the other characters of the series, wouldindicate dorsal consonants produced by articulating with the middlesurface of the tongue against or just back of the teeth ; 8, and corre-spondingly for the other characters of the series, would indicatedorsal consonant produced by articulating with the middle surfaceof the tongue against the back part of the palate.16. The symbols, g, k, g, and k' indicate the guttural consonantsproduced by articulating with the back of the tongue against theposterior part of the palate ; the position given by g of English good 12 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 66may be taken as the standard. The corresponding voiced nasal (ngof English sing) is indicated by i] ; its voiceless form by /y.The front palatal series (illustrated by k of English kin, or stillmore markedly by the anterior palatal ^-sounds of several West Coastlanguages) is represented by g, k, c, 1/ ; and the corresponding nasalsby '^ and /y.The back palatal series, produced by the back of the tongue articu-lating against the velum, is represented by .i^. k (or q), g, and k'; thecorresponding nasals are v and w.17. The rounded voiced bilabial spirant, or semivocalic u, is to berepresented by w; its voiceless correspondent, h (i. e., as used intranscriptions of Gothic for hw). Unrounded bilabial spirants(Eskimo / and v, according to Kleinschmidt's orthography) are tobe represented by <}> (voiceless) and /? (voiced). The dento-labialspirants are respectively represented by / and v.The interdental spirants (th of English thick and then) are to beindicated respectively by the two forms of Greek theta, 6 (voiceless)and ''/ (voiced). The spirants corresponding to the various ^-soundsare to be represented by s and 2; variations of position may be indi-cated as in the case of f-sounds, .y and 3 representing the ordinaryalveolar sibilants, s and s the dental sibilants, and .y and 2 the cor-responding cerebral sibilants. Dorsal sibilants may be represented bya (voiceless) and ^ (voiced), which symbols, however, need be usedonly when it is necessary to distinguish explicitly between dorsal andapical sibilants ; as in the case of the other sibilants, forward andbackward points of articulation may be indicated by o-, ^, and (t, ^,respectively.The spirants corresponding to the various ^-series are to be repre-sented by Greek x (or ^) and y, which correspond in position to kand g. The prepalatal spirants are to be indicated by x (as in Germanich) and y (y, pronounced as in English yes, will be the ordinarysymbol for the voiced spirant of this position, but it will be con-venient sometimes to use the symbol y for a voiced spirant of the sameor slightly posterior position of non-vocalic effect) ; for x may, whereconvenient, be substituted x. The back palatal spirants are x and y,for the former of which may, where convenient, be substituted x.Spirants that are intermediate, as regards voicing, between typicalsurd and sonant spirants, may be represented.by small capitals of thecorresponding characters for voiced spirants.Any spirant may be nasalized, to indicate which the hook, as usual,is employed. Thus, r would represent the .:; of English ceal, butnasalized. NO. 6 PHONETIC TRANSCRIPTION OF INDIAN LANGUAGES 1 3 18. The sibilants of thickish quality (English sh and 2 of ship andazure) are to be represented by c (voiceless) and ; (voiced)-. For-ward and backward articulations of these sounds are respectivelyrepresented by c, j ; c, j (cerebral c-sounds).19. Affricatives, that is, consonantal diphthongs consisting of stopfollowed by spirant of identical position, should always be writtenanalytically, that is, both stop and spirant should be represented.Thus, p is the voiceless affricative of unrounded bilabial position ; ds is the voiced affricative of ^-position. The same manner of writingapplies to affricatives the spirantal element of which is a c-sound.If the stop and following homorganic spirant do not form anaffricative but preserve their individuality, a period is to be putbetween them ; thus, t.s.20. All lateral sounds are to be indicated by / or /-like characters,the standard / being defined as an apical voiced / of alveolar position ;the corresponding voiceless sound is l or i. The correspondingdental and cerebral /-sounds are /, l. (t); and /, l. {i), respectively.Dorsal /-sounds are to be indicated by A (voiced) and small capi-tal lambda, A (unvoiced). Forward and backward articulations ofdorsal / may be represented by means of A, a ; and A (this would bethe back-/ found in many Slavic languages), a.Lateral affricatives, that is, t- or k- stop merging into lateralspirants, should be indicated analytically as in the case of all affrica-tives. tt and dl would be the normal characters used for the voicelessand voiced dorsal lateral affricatives, while the systematic renderingof these sounds is ta and 8A. fef-sounds may also occur.Nasalized laterals can be indicated by / and correspondingly forother /-sounds.21. All rolled consonants (r-sounds), whether markedly trilled ornot, are to be indicated by r or r-like characters, r indicates a voicedtongue-tipped rolled consonant in alveolar position ; r is the corre-sponding sound of dental position ; r the cerebral r. The correspond-ing voiceless consonants are respectively r, r, and r.The uvular r is to be indicated by Greek rho (p) ; the correspond-ing voiceless uvular r-sound is to be represented by small capital (p),which is best printed as small capital itahc p: p.If it is necessary to distinguish untrilled (or weakly trilled) frommarkedly trilled r-sounds, a macron is to be put above the characterto indicate the latter type. Thus, f denotes strongly trilled cerebral r.NasaHzation, as usual, is to be expressed by the hook beneath acharacter. Thus, p indicates nasalized uvular r. 14 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 66 22. Aspiration, as already indicated above in treating of aspiratedsurds, in serving as a consonantal release or concluding a syllableafter a vov^^el, is to be indicated by breathing ('). Aspiration as anindependent consonant is to be indicated by h when strong, by breath-ing (') w^hen weak.Nasalized breath may be represented by [ or It. Nasalized breathwith definite vocalic timbre may be indicated by putting the sign foraspiration under the vocalic character : thus, /. Voiceless stoppedconsonants with nasalized breath release and continuance of oralcontact during release may be indicated by putting the sign fornasalization under the character for the stopped consonant: thus, p.The peculiar strangulated-sounding /i-sounds found in Nootka andArabic may be indicated by h.23. The glottal (epiglottal) stop is to be indicated by an apos-trophe, '. Broken vowels, that is vowels cut in two by a glottalstop, may be rendered a'a or a'", and correspondingly for othervowels; the latter orthography is to be employed when the post-glottal part of the vowel is weakly articulated (murmured or whis-pered).A simple glottalized consonant, that is, a voiceless consonantpronounced with simultaneous closure of the glottis, and whoserelease also is simultaneous with that of the glottal closure, may beindicated by putting the ' over the character ; thus, p indicates aglottalized p (such consonants are found in Southern Paiute and inDelaware), p', and correspondingly for other consonants, indicatesa consonant whose release is immediately followed by a glottalclosure.A common type of glottalized consonant in American languagesis the so-called " fortis." These consonants are generally pronouncedwith simultaneous glottal closure and with glottal release subsequentto that of the oral release. We may distinguish here between thesimple glottalized stop and the true fortis produced with very highpressure and accompanying increased muscular tension of the articu-lating organs, which gives to the sound its abrupt exploded character.It is recommended that the orthography already in use (namely, p!,and correspondingly for other consonants) be retained for the truefortis ; p (and correspondingly for other consonants) should be usedto indicate the more weakly articulated glottalized consonant of thistype.A " glottal trill," that is, a vowel broken up by a rapidly succeedingseries of glottal closures (German " Knarrstimme "), may be indi- NO. 6 PHONETIC TRANSCRIPTION OF INDIAN LANGUAGES 1 5 cated by putting the apostrophe over the vowel. Thus, a is glottallytrilled a.A peculiar strangulated-sounding glottal stop found in Nootka,and bearing the same relation to the ordinary glottal stop that h bearsto h, may be indicated by '. .24. Special modifications of consonants may be brought about bysynchronous articulations, that is, by the simultaneous action of someother part of the speech apparatus than is primarily involved in theproduction of the consonant. Nasalized and glottalized consonants,two types of such " doubly articulated " consonants, have already beendiscussed. Aside from glottalization, all such synchronous articula-tions should be indicated by diacritical marks beneath the characteror by closely following inferior characters. This method seemspreferable to indicating them by means of superior characters, as inthis way confusion is avoided with consonantal glides.Labialized consonants, that is, consonants pronounced with simul-taneous lip-rounding, are to be indicated by means of inferior wclosely following the character. Thus, /«, indicates an / pronouncedwith markedly rounded lips ; similarly, kw indicates a k with simul-taneous lip-rounding (not to be confused, of course, with kw).Palatalized consonants, that is, consonants modified by the simul-taneous articulation of a large part of the surface of the tongueagainst the palate (in other words, by the tongue taking y-position),are to be indicated by closely following inferior 3;, Thus, % indi-cates a palatalized dental n. The ordinary so-called " palatal " / andn are probably best considered as palatalized dorsal / and n and shouldthus, strictly speaking, be indicated by Xy (Italian gl) and vy (Italiangn) ; ly and % would, however, be the normal methods of represent-ing these consonants.In some languages a vowel or consonant may be given a distinctvelar or guttural resonance, due to the fact that during the productionof the sound an approximation is made of the tongue and velum ortongue and posterior palate to velar or guttural closure without suchclosure being actually attained. No symbol is expressly recom-mended here for gutturalized and velarized sounds, but these sounds,where noted, should be definitely indicated in some way.25. If a consonant forms its own syllable without a preceding orfollowing vowel, that fact may be indicated by placing a small circleunder the character. Thus, n indicates syllabic n, as in Englishbutton (ba'tn). Vowels, based on H. Sweet. 1, high -back -narrowi(e.g. Southern Paiutepavl" "fish")