CCiivviill RAiirghPtast,r1o9l41a-n1d965
Cadets of the newly established National Capital Wing meet
Air Force Chief of Staff Gen Carl A. Spaatz at the Pentagon, Frank A. Blazich, Jr.
circa March-April 1948. Note the lack of black cadets.
Source: Colonel Louisa S. Morse Center for Civil Air Patrol
HOistory (hereafter “Morse Center”).n January 28, 1942, the Office of Civilian Defense (OCD) issued a press release on the eligibility for licensedfemale pilots to join the new Civil Air Patrol (CAP). The release emphasized a policy statement by CAP’s NationalCommander, Maj Gen John F. Curry, who proclaimed, “There will be absolutely no discrimination as to race,
creed, color or sex” and “each member is to be accepted and assigned to duties strictly upon the basis of his or her expe-
rience and record of performance.”1 This inclusive membership statement for CAP largely governed the composition of
the all-volunteer civilian organization while under federal jurisdiction throughout World War II. 
Postwar, however, CAP’s incorporation in 1946 produced a noted shift in the racial composition of various units across
the nation. Regulations and policies governing membership did not explicitly speak of race, creed, color, or sex, resulting
in confusion and misunderstanding about policy concerning discrimination. Whereas the United States Air Force (USAF)
began to desegregate itself beginning in 1949 and continuing into the early 1950s, several CAP units instead opted to
segregate and counter the personnel actions of the USAF and Department of Defense. While the Air Force lacked legal
influence or control over CAP’s policies, its financial and material support to the civilian organization provided a means
to direct soft influence on CAP’s racial composition. CAP membership inclusivity and integration in the 1950s and into
the early 1960s thereafter vary by wing and region due to three overarching factors: organizational culture, state or local
laws or ordinances, and individual unit leadership. 
Founding and Federalized Control
The initial policies governing CAP’s membership policies are rooted in OCD itself. On May 20, 1941, President
Franklin D. Roosevelt issued Executive Order (EO) 8757, establishing the OCD under the directorship of New York City
Mayor Fiorello LaGuardia. This order gave LaGuardia responsibility to study and plan measures for civilian defense pro-
grams which included civilian auxiliaries.2Weeks later on June 25, Roosevelt issued EO 8802 banning discrimination in
the employment of workers in defense industries or government on the grounds of race, creed, color, or national origin.3
The order resulted primarily from a threat by A. Philip Randolph and other black leaders to organize a march on Wash-
ington to protest for fair opportunities for work and desegregation of the military. Roosevelt met with Randolph on June
18, and with LaGuardia present, Randolph requested either an executive order to prohibit discrimination in defense
plants or else his march would take place on July 1. With neither side giving an inch, LaGuardia called for a solution and
Randolph received his executive order.4
JOURNAL OF THEAFHF/ SUMMER 2023 47
With the inclusion of “or government” in the executive
order, the OCD, under LaGuardia instituted a non-discrim-
ination membership policy for civilian defense volunteers.5
As planning for CAP unfolded in fall 1941 within OCD,
membership would align with the parent organization. On
December 3, two days after LaGuardia used the authority
of EO 8757 to approve creation of a CAP division within
OCD, Maj Reed Landis, LaGuardia’s aviation aide, re-
moved a question about race from CAP’s enlistment form
just prior to its publication and national distribution.6 Fol-
lowing the attack on American forces in Hawaii, La-
Guardia initialed OCD Administrative Order No. 9 on
December 8, formally establishing CAP. He announced the
new organization that same evening in a national radio
broadcast. An OCD press release thereafter defined CAP
as “an organization of the civilian aviation resources of the Telegram from Cornelius R. Coffey to Maj Gen John F. Curry, December
nation for national defense service,” but neither the radio 17, 1941. Source: Morse Center.
address nor press release provided specific mention about
who was eligible to join.7 “the Illinois Wing.10 Weeks later on March 20, Jack Vilas,
Clarification about CAP’s membership policy arrived commander of the Illinois Wing, swore in Coffey as the
ten days later via telegram. On December 17, Cornelius R. commander of the 111th Flight Squadron of the Illinois
Coffey, vice president and founder of the National Airmen's Wing. The squadron consisted of 25 black and white flyers,
Association of America, wired Curry stating “Negro air pilots male and female; it is the first racial and gender inte-
throughout the United States are anxious to serve this coun- grated, uniformed operational flying unit in American his-
try in all branches of the air service. Please enlist us in the tory.11
Civil Air Patrol and command us as you see fit.”8 In his reply The integrated squadron proved a success. Re-desig-
to Coffey the next day, Curry noted no restrictions on CAP nated as Squadron 613-6 in mid-1942, the unit had well
membership as to race, creed, color, or sex. In his words, “only over 100 members. In September 1942, several aviators
the ability to do [the] job [is the] only consideration beyond flew a 2,000 mile, six-state cross country flight to gain ex-
patriotism.”9 Curry’s comments thereafter would be echoed perience for active-duty missions. Other members of this
in the OCD press release of January 28, 1942. squadron would go on to participate in the CAP courier
The outcome of Coffey’s telegram exchange with Curry service during World War II. In October 1942, Squadron
resulted in a lesser-known civil rights milestone. On March 613-6 launched a cadet program through which countless
7, 1942, the Chicago Defender headlined an article with young African American men and women in the Illinois
“Civil Air Patrol Does the ‘Impossible’ in Illinois” while dis- Wing gained their first experience with aviation. The
cussing the establishment of the 111th Flight Squadron of legacy borne from those first cadets in 1942 and 1943 lives
on today with the Cornelius R. Coffey Composite Squadron
12
Frank Blazich, Jr. is curator of modern military history in Chicago.
at the Smithsonian Institution’s National Museum of On April 29, 1943, President Roosevelt issued EO
American History. A native of North Carolina, Dr. 9339, transferring CAP from OCD to the War Depart-13
Blazich is a veteran of the U.S. Air Force, and holds a ment. Days later, a War Department memorandum
doctorate in modern American history from The Ohio charged Gen Henry H. “Hap” Arnold, Commander, Army
State University (2013.) Following his doctoral studies, Air Forces (AAF), with supervising and directing the oper-14
Blazich served as the historian at the U.S. Navy Seabee ations of CAP on behalf of the Secretary of War. AAF Reg-
Museum in Port Hueneme, California before moving to ulation 20-18 published on May 25 established CAP as an
Washington, DC to serve as a historian in the History exempted activity under the supervision of the Command-
and Archives Division of Naval History and Heritage ing General of the AAF, who would in turn delegate these
Command. From June to December 2016, Blazich served responsibilities to Lt Col Earle L. Johnson as CAP’s na-15
as the historian on Task Force Netted Navy working for tional commander.
the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations. He assumed Johnson, having led CAP since April 1, 1942, made no
his current position in January 2017. His first edited changes to the membership policies governing CAP in his16
book, Bataan Survivor: A POW’s Account of Japanese new AAF capacity. The CAP cadet program, which began
Captivity in World War II, was published by the Univer- in October 1942 via a memorandum issued by Johnson, re-17
sity of Missouri Press in February 2017. His second book, ceived official AAF recognition on May 23, 1944. This
An “Honorable Place in American Air Power”: Civil Air recognition allowed 9,000 male cadets between the ages of
Patrol Coastal Patrol Operations, 1942-1943, was pub- 15-17 years, selected on a merit basis, to attend a ten-day
lished by Air University Press in December 2020. summer camps at AAF installations nationwide from mid-July through mid-September. Each group of 25 cadets ex-
perienced the same military living as AAF airmen. CAP
48 JOURNAL OF THEAFHF/ SUMMER 2023
A student of the Coffey School of Aeronautics hand starting a Piper J–3 Cub while an instructor looks on at Harlem Airport, Oak Lawn, Illinois. The
aircraft was also used by the 111th Flight Squadron, later Squadron 613-6. Source: National Air and Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution.
National Headquarters reported the encampments came existed for segregation, although the racism prevalent in
together without incident.18 American civil society resulted in a wartime CAP with self-
In Illinois, a total of 400 cadets were slated to attend a segregated units. CAP’s active-duty operations which di-
ten-day encampment at Chanute Field from August 20-30. rectly aided the war effort, notably its coastal patrol
The encampment, however, initially excluded cadets from antisubmarine operation, remained white-only with blacks
1st Lt Coffey’s Squadron 613-6, the only squadron not rep- kept on the ground in positions of maintenance, cooking,
resented at the encampment. In an article in the Chicago or janitorial work.24 Racial equality remained a future en-
Daily Tribune, the squadron adjutant 2nd Lt Willa B. deavor.
Brown, stated Coffey received oral instructions from CAP
National Headquarters “that no provisions were available Postwar Incorporation
for Negro cadets and therefore they were not invited to the
camp.”19 Brown’s press statement apparently worked, as By January 1946, CAP’s days were numbered. From
17 members of Squadron 613-6 did attend the encamp- January 10-11, Generals Arnold and Carl A. Spaatz in-
ment and trained alongside white cadets. Cadet MSgt formed CAP leadership of the forthcoming termination of
Wardeen Mason received recognition as one of the nine the present national emergency and with it the legal au-
outstanding cadets at the encampment, receiving an AAF thority for the financial support and continuation of CAP
identification bracelet.20 (slated to cease on March 31). The generals pledged, how-
For wartime CAP, African American participation re- ever, to assist the volunteer organization to obtain a federal
mained limited and segregated. Cadet programs offered charter. Following a flurry of meetings between wing com-
the greatest mechanism for involvement. In the Michigan manders, members of Congress, and military leadership, on
Wing, 1st Lt Earsling Taylor and 2nd Lt Neal V. Loving co- July 1, President Harry S. Truman signed Public Law (PL)
founded the all-black Squadron 639-5 in Detroit in the 79-476, incorporating CAP.25The legislation authorized the
summer of 1942. As CAP’s only all-black glider squadron, incorporators – essentially all the wing commanders – to
the unit grew to include a cadet program and even para- complete the organization of CAP by drafting and adopting
chutists who participated with white CAP parachutists in a constitution and bylaws as well as regulations and poli-
the wing’s Group 639.21 In the Ohio Wing, Cleveland cies, with eligibility for membership in the corporation as
Squadron 3 launched a third, all-black male cadet detach- “determined according to the constitution and bylaws of the
ment on April 15, 1945 under the command of 2nd Lt Paul corporation.”26 As an independent corporation, CAP’s exist-
C. Smith. Capt George Bennies, commanding the Cleve- ing wartime policies and procedures would in essence have
land Group, considered the policy of segregation ideal and to be reestablished or at the least, reevaluated.
the first two detachments of the squadron consisted of only The actual process to draft a constitution and bylaws
white male cadets.22 In the Kansas Wing, Kansas City- would unfold slowly over the course of the next two years.
based Squadron 751-9, commanded by 1st Lt Harry B. Two CAP majors and Philadelphia attorneys, George Wit-
Thornton, featured over 25 male and female students- ney and Wallace D. Newcomb, were tasked to complete the
turned-cadets at the segregated Sumner High School.23 draft constitution and bylaws by April 1948 for distribution
CAP in World War II had a diversity in race and gen- to the wing commanders. As the two attorneys explained
der. Nonetheless, social mores and laws governed the com- to the CAP Board, the proposed constitution and bylaws
position of wings and squadrons. Technically no policy “will carry on the organization as it now exists and that
JOURNAL OF THEAFHF/ SUMMER 2023 49
The order declared the policy of the President to be that
“there shall be equality of treatment and opportunity for
all persons in the armed services without regard to race,
color, religion, or national origin.” The policy “shall be put
into effect as rapidly as possible,” albeit with “due regard
to the time required to effectuate any necessary changes
without impairing efficiency or morale.”32 The order repre-
sented a recommendation articulated in the 1947 report of
the President’s Committee on Civil Rights to be enacted by
Congress, but Truman’s 1948 political campaign and pres-
sure to secure the black vote pushed the executive order
through.33
Prior to issuance of EO 9981, the USAF was not the
most progressive of the services in integrating its person-
nel. As noted by historian Alan L. Gropman, in 1941 the
AAF leaders “were racist or bigoted and the institution
they led was more than segregated, it was devoid of blacks.”
By 1951, however, the USAF found itself the first service
Cadet MSgt Wardeen Mason, Squadron 613-6, seen in a slide show of to truly integrate.
34 In May 1949, desegregation came to
the 1944 Illinois Wing Encampment. Source: Morse Center. the USAF “largely because of military pragmatism,” argues
Gropman.35 As observed by Lt Gen Idwal H. Edwards, Air
Force Deputy Chief of Staff for Personnel, segregation ad-
will further include every element and every community versely impacted Air Force effectiveness, limiting the
in the country.”27 That month, the House Committee on movement of personnel while undermining operational
Armed Services held hearings on HR 5298 to establish readiness at added expense for maintaining segregated
CAP as a civilian auxiliary of the USAF.28 On May 7, not units and facilities. In April 1948, Spaatz, now Air Force
long after the legislative action was introduced, Gen Hoyt Chief of Staff, agreed. In a letter to Lemuel E. Graves of
S. Vandenberg, Air Force Chief of Staff, advised Maj Gen the Pittsburgh Courier, Spaatz concluded how “the ulti-
Lucas V. Beau, CAP National Commander, that it would mate Air Force objective must be to eliminate segregation
be highly desirable if CAP completed its corporate organi- among its personnel by the unrestricted use of Negro per-
zation in accordance with PL 79-476 to clarify its legal sta- sonnel in free competition for any duty within the Air Force
tus with the Air Force.29Weeks later on May 26, President for which they may qualify.”36
Truman signed PL 80-557 into law, establishing CAP as a With the release of EO 9981, the USAF acted immedi-
volunteer civilian auxiliary of the USAF.30 Only two days ately. The service secretary, W. Stuart Symington, expected
after this action, CAP formally adopted a constitution and his generals to either support integration or resign. Ed-
bylaws. wards briefed the flag officers on the executive order, and
The 1948 CAP Constitution and Bylaws offered little noted how the order had created the Committee on Equal-
concrete information concerning membership. In Article 7 ity of Treatment and Opportunity in the Armed Services
of the Constitution, the document stated that all those per- to monitor the progress of integration in the armed forces.37
sons who were members of CAP as of July 1, 1946 would The USAF shared with the committee its proposal for in-
automatically become members of the newly incorporated tegration which began on May 11, 1949. Within six months,
Civil Air Patrol, and all those persons who joined between 1,301 units had integrated; by June 1952, the last all-black
July 1, 1946 and May 28, 1948 would also become members USAF units disappeared.38
of the Civil Air Patrol under the new constitution and by- Although bearing the added title of “United States Air
laws. Regarding whom could become a member, within the Force Auxiliary,” CAP itself did not pursue a policy of inte-
Section 2 of the Bylaws notes that “Any United States cit- gration. Mere months after the USAF began desegregat-
izen interested in promoting the objects and purposes of ing, CAP National Headquarters published Civil Air Patrol
the Civil Air Patrol shall be eligible for membership in the Manual, Volume 1, Book 1 on August 1, 1949. It did not in-
Civil Air Patrol upon compliance with the requirements for clude any mention of EO 9981, mainly because the books
membership.”31The documents list nothing akin to an anti- were already at the printers when the executive order was
discrimination policy, and those African American mem- published. The manual does, however, mention a slight
bers presently in the corporation remained members, able variation on the membership requirements. It said eligi-
to serve in their communities. bility was “open to citizens of the United States and its Ter-
ritories, both men and women, who apply through local
Air Force Integration, CAP Regression units,” although approval by the unit commander was re-
quired for membership.39The issue of commander approval
Approximately two months after CAP unveiled its new would prove problematic, particularly for those black
constitution and bylaws, President Truman issued EO Americans desiring to join a local CAP unit where the con-
9981, desegregating the Armed Forces of the United States. cept of integration proved unwelcome.
50 JOURNAL OF THEAFHF/ SUMMER 2023
Denial of Volunteer Service
The vague nature and localized approval regarding
CAP membership came to the attention of the CAP Na-
tional Executive Board in March 1951. This body advised
the national commander on policies affecting CAP and
consisted of eight members with an elected chairman rep-
resenting the 52 wings and eight regions (a subordinate
body referred to as the National Board). During the meet-
ing of the National Executive Board from March 28-30,
1951, which was chaired by Spaatz, assembly members
laid down the first real CAP policy regarding the eligibility
of African Americans to join the organization. During this
meeting, Beau, CAP’s national commander noted “an in-
creasing number of letters are coming in from colored in-
dividuals requesting membership in the CAP,” while
acknowledging neither the National Executive Board nor
the National Board had established a policy in writing.
Beau recommended issuance of a policy statement about
the membership eligibility of African Americans wanting
to join CAP. His recommendation, however, recognized the
fact that the two boards set the policies “for more than one
Wing, whereas the individual Wing Commanders may set
the policy within their Wings as long as they are in con-
Maj Gen Lucas V. Beau, CAP National Commander, 1947-1955. Source: formity with the general policies as promulgated by the
Morse Center. boards.” Without further explanation in the minutes of the
National Executive Board, the senior leadership unani-
Later that month, Fabius Russell, a two-year member mously decided to not amend the constitution or bylaws
of the Ohio Wing, wrote to President Truman. A member but defer the issue of African American membership eli-
of the Youngstown Squadron, Russell had attended en- gibility to the individual wing commanders – all white
campment at Lockbourne Army Airfield the previous year men.44
with other Ohio Wing members without incident. The base, The National Executive Board chose not to establish a
coincidentally, was home to the all-black 477th Composite policy concerning the membership eligibility of African
Group (later 332d Fighter Wing) commanded by Col Ben- Americans as they believed the issue—or political sensi-
jamin O. Davis, Jr.40When Russell attempted to attend the tivity—did not warrant a specific policy. Multiple CAP
1948 encampment at Selfridge Air Base in Michigan, he wings, from their inception in late 1941 had embraced and
was denied participation on grounds of his race and told propagated diversity within their ranks. Although written
he could not even visit the base on visitors’ day. As he noted records are often lacking, photographs of white and black
to President Truman, Russell wrote “I feel that this is more CAP members serving together exist, notably of cadet
of an injustice than the segregation that I run into daily. I members in the Illinois, National Capital, and New York
want to continue to prepare myself as a member of CAP Wings. Photographs of Illinois Wing cadets at encamp-
and well as near as possible, but I do believe that I should ments in the late 1940s are remarkable considering the
be permitted to participate in all of the activities that aid racial climate in the nation, with male cadets of both eth-
this preparation.”41 The White House responded to Rus- nicities seen eating, training, and serving together. In
sell’s letter on September 14, stating “the president has a Washington, DC, the National Capital Wing had an inte-
deep personal interest in seeing to it that persons like your- grated cadet program from its inception in March 1943,
self are not denied an opportunity to join in activities that when the future wing existed as only an oversized
are shared by other citizens.”42 squadron.45 By the 1950s, the wing’s integrated cadet drill
Russell left Civil Air Patrol. He would serve honorably team proved extremely competitive at the Middle East Re-
in the USAF during the Korean War and then go on to earn gion competition and frequently represented the region at
his Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine, the nation’s first recorded the National Drill Competition. In the New York Wing,
African American osteopathic radiologist.43 Although EO those units in and around New York City featured African
9981 moved the USAF to desegregation, its civilian auxiliary American, Puerto Rican, and immigrant children from
remained an organization of civilian volunteers, subject to across the world finding a home in CAP. While it is impos-
the values and cultural norms of the communities where sible to claim perfect racial harmony among the wing per-
squadrons formed and met. Moving into the 1950s, CAP and sonnel, race did not prove to be the limiting factor for those
the USAF would increasingly confront the nation’s civil who wished to volunteer and serve.
rights struggles, with the former’s auxiliary status influenc- Since the National Executive Board left the issue of
ing the latter’s attention to membership policies. African American membership in the hands of wing com-
JOURNAL OF THEAFHF/ SUMMER 2023 51
Even before the Baltimore Afro-American published
any of its findings, Donald J. Strait, Air Force Deputy As-
sistant Secretary for Reserve and ROTC Affairs, issued a
memorandum of record on April 23 to explain the relation-
ship between CAP and the USAF. Strait emphasized the
USAF had no authority to exercise control or establish any
policy over CAP, particularly regarding membership. The
USAF acknowledged publicly that the CAP National Board
“does not have a policy of discrimination so far as member-
ship is concerned. However, local CAP commanders are
permitted the latitude of determining who will be accepted
as a member of CAP. In certain states where segregation
is still an unsolved problem” – southern states or those
states with Jim Crow laws – that “distinction in member-
ship is possibly practiced.”48 This was a diplomatic way to
admit there was discrimination and segregation happening
Illinois Wing cadets sharing a meal together at summer encampment, in CAP.
ca. 1948-1950. Source: Morse Center. The May 4, 1957 issue of the Baltimore Afro-American
had not one but two stories about how African Americans
manders, a few wings decided to use the opportunity to in Maryland had attempted to join the Civil Air Patrol but
deny black CAP membership. The issue of discrimination were denied membership. The first detailed how three high
made no appearance in official CAP records throughout school freshmen attending Charles Hamilton Houston
the majority of the 1950s, but the issue came to the front Junior High School 181, James A. Watson, Van C. Webb,
in April 1957. That month, reporters from the Baltimore and Victor Cole, had attempted to join the Maryland Wing
Afro-American newspaper began investigating matters re- at the Friendship International Airport but were told by
garding segregation in the Maryland Wing. When CAP CAP personnel that “we don’t accept colored cadets.”49 Lt
National Headquarters learned of the news investigation, Col Albert W. Ward, Maryland Wing vice commander, and
they reached out to the then-Maryland Wing commander, secretary of the Maryland State Tax Commission, denied
Col A. Paul Fonda, who admitted on the record that the having knowledge of the students applying.50 Notably,
wing did not have any black members. But Fonda also Fonda previously told Capt H. Ross Miller, Deputy Chief of
stated that “we are making a study of establishment for Information Services at CAP National Headquarters, that
an all-colored squadron. We do not plan to integrate into Ward had “fairly strong anti-negro feeling[s].”51
white groups.” Fonda further mentioned that he had sur- The second story detailed the denial of a transfer of a
veyed Maryland Wing personnel. Cadets had no objection CAP member from the Alabama Wing to the Maryland
whatsoever to integration, but most of the senior members Wing. From June to December 1956, Reverend Julius Car-
in the wing were opposed to it. As for the issue of integra- roll, an associate pastor of the Sharp Street Methodist
tion, he admitted anticipating trouble on this score for Church in Baltimore, and a licensed pilot and aircraft
many months and “we’ll have to find a way to deal with owner with over 1,500 flight hours, had attempted to
it.”46 transfer into the Maryland Wing after serving in the
Frank Burnham, a public affairs officer at CAP Na- Tuskegee Squadron of the Alabama Wing. The Maryland
tional Headquarters, was interviewed by reporters from the Wing, however, refused to transfer and process the rev-
Baltimore Afro-American. Burnham explained that, “as far erend’s personnel file and they continued to give him a bu-
as the Air Force is concerned, there is no segregation [in reaucratic runaround. Carroll further reached out to the
CAP]. But you know the situation as well as I do, particu- USAF liaison officer assigned to Maryland Wing and even
larly down South,” and added that CAP found it advanta- had the Airplane Owners and Pilots Association ask for
geous to have segregated units in the South. He further official attention in the matter. Perhaps because of the in-
stated that racial discrimination in CAP is “against national quiries by the Baltimore Afro-American reporters, CAP
policy and CAP is too important a program to become in- National Headquarters said they would personally ad-
volved with the problems of segregation. Thus, there is a dress the matter with Fonda and advise him to take “fa-
policy of non-discrimination for Civil Air Patrol.” The truth vorable action” on the request for membership.52 Herein
of the matter is there was no such policy. In Washington, too, Fonda had acknowledged in his telephone conversa-
Burnham pointed to the National Capitol Wing as having tion with Miller on April 9 that he had heard from Carroll
an integrated drill team and two “colored’ squadrons, with “relative to admission of colored personnel to Maryland
the Syphax Squadron, commanded by Maj Charles E. CAP units.”53
Wren, being the largest overall squadron in the wing. Wren An editorial in the same issue of the Baltimore Afro-
himself denied segregation in the wing but admitted there American titled “But we’re interested” referenced the three
were “white” and “colored” squadrons, with integration young men denied CAP membership. The editorialist ob-
purely voluntary and as a result of  the geographic location served that CAP received annual appropriations of federal
of those units within the district.47 tax dollars, “extracted from the pockets of all Americans,
52 JOURNAL OF THEAFHF/ SUMMER 2023
paper, two more media accounts brought attention to the
CAP segregation issue. On May 11, the Baltimore Afro-
American published the story of how another potential
adult senior member and licensed pilot, Howard Whims,
was denied admission into the Maryland Wing and instead
sought assistance from the National Capital Wing to es-
tablish a squadron in Adamstown, Maryland.56 Four days
later on May 15, Louis Lautier of the National Negro Press
Association publicly asked President Dwight D. Eisen-
hower during his news conference at the White House the
following question: “Would you comment on the extent to
which the Civil Air Patrol program is open to all the people
without discrimination and, as an auxiliary of the Air
Force, do you think it should seek recruits from all seg-
ments of the population?”57
President Eisenhower, previously reticent on civil
National Capital Wing drill team at the 1956 National Drill Competition, rights matters, offered a fascinating reply. He reminisced
Amarillo Air Force Base, Texas. Source: Morse Center that his first contact with CAP went back to its beginnings
when he was an operations officer at the War Department.
without regard to race or color,” and noted how the CAP The president spoke well of CAP, and deemed it a “splendid
cadet manual made no mention of race. As membership organization.” But going deeper into the matter at hand,
then listed only young men and women from the ages of Eisenhower told Lautier “I believe that we hurt ourselves
14 to 17, “it remained for Maryland to insert the qualifica- when, in military organizations, we try to discriminate
tion that all recruits must be white,” in “bitter defiance of among Americans in recruiting them. I believe that just as
not only the Air Force’s rules, but of national policy.” The a matter of efficiency is it better to use those that are ca-
CAP program, in the eyes of the editorial author, “is being pable of doing things strictly on merit and without such
deliberately sabotaged” in Maryland by prejudiced officials, things as you were talking about,” in this case, discrimina-
and they called upon Secretary of Defense Charles Wilson tion.58 The president’s comments appeared lightly in the
and his USAF subordinates to act.54 news media, summarizing that he did not approve of seg-
The articles about the Maryland Wing’s discriminatory regation in CAP. The media coverage did not produce any
membership practices reached the highest levels of the Air immediate shift in CAP’s lack of anti-dis cri mination poli-
Force. Air Force Chief of Staff Gen Nathan Twining’s Air cies.59
Staff swiftly prepared a position paper regarding the Air The next few weeks proved quiet regarding media cov-
Force support of CAP, which was now starting to come into erage of reported CAP discrimination. On June 5, Brig Gen
question because of its segregation practices. By this time, Cecil Combs, Deputy Director, Personnel Procurement and
the USAF had been integrated for a decade. Within the Training, wrote to Maj Gen Walter Agee, CAP’s national
findings of Air Staff’s paper of May 7, the authors noted “It commander, to share the Air Staff report of May 7. Combs
is obvious that in some states the membership of CAP commented that those Air Force personnel who partici-
would be adversely affected if the Civil Air Patrol were pated as region or wing liaison officers must comply with
forced into an integration policy. It is evident that members
of the white race would abstain from joining colored units.”
The paper’s authors also recognized that Civil Air Patrol
was dependent on the USAF for logistical and financial
support. If this support was removed over the issue of seg-
regation, they believed CAP would potentially collapse as
a result.
Several Air Staff recommendations observed that the
USAF was not in favor of segregation, but it was not going
to necessarily withdraw support for CAP. Although the
USAF could not dictate policy, the Air Staff recommended
that “CAP should be encouraged to initiate a program
within each state that will tend to influence public opinion
favoring integration of membership and CAP units.” As an
auxiliary of the USAF, negative publicity from CAP’s racial
discrimination invariably rubbed off on that of the uni-
formed service. Mentorship and an indirect, soft policy
hand regarding integration offered the USAF a means to
begin a shift to Department of Defense policy.55 New York Wing Cadets at a recruiting display in Manhattan, ca. 1959.
Within days after completion of the Air Staff’s position Source: Morse Center.
JOURNAL OF THEAFHF/ SUMMER 2023 53
the Air Force’s policy that there will be “no discrimination
based on race, color, religion, or national origin,” and he also
mentioned that “if their [liaison officer] advice or consider-
ation is requested in connection with CAP policies, the tra-
ditional Air Force policy in this respect should be clearly
stated and every influence should be exerted to see to it
that these principles are followed within units of the Civil
Air Patrol.”60 Subsequently, Col James W. Brown, Jr. at CAP
National Headquarters, distributed the Air Staff paper to
all region and wing liaison officers with orders to effect
compliance of the Air Force position “to the extent possible”
within their respective area of responsibility.61
Prior to Combs’ letter, reporter Ethel L. Payne of the
Chicago Defender reached out to CAP National Headquar-
ters as a follow-up to the Lautier-Eisenhower exchange.
After receiving additional details from Miller and Lt Col
Joseph H. Griffith, Jr., CAP’s national executive officer,
about CAP in general, Payne conducted a follow-up inquiry
concerning the corporation’s stated policy on membership,
about the reported incidents in Baltimore, and the number
of African Americans in CAP. Although no answer could be
provided, Miller shared the names of Cadets Charles M.
Banks of Lima, Ohio and Robert M. Bradshaw of New
Rochelle, New York who had both risen above peers nation-
wide to participate in the International Air Cadet Ex-
change (IACE) in Great Britain. Miller further shared Maj Gen Walter R. Agee, CAP National Commander, 1956-1959. Source:
contact information for the two African American squadron Morse Center.
commanders in the National Capital Wing, Majors William
H. Rhodes and Wren.62 Payne’s questions did not result in joining CAP and wishing him well in his future
any notable article about CAP’s segregation matters but endeavors.66
rather only an unattributed small article noting Banks and Spruill’s uplifting story aside, CAP membership poli-
Bradshaw’s participation in IACE.63 cies did not change in the 1950s for the inclusion of African
After a brief lull in coverage, perhaps due to the Little Americans. Squadrons and several wings remained segre-
Rock Crisis, the issue of discrimination reemerged in Au- gated, while the nation’s racial tensions reflected them-
gust 1958 when the Baltimore Afro-American published selves in CAP. The USAF, hamstrung by the legal
an article about how an annual ball for foreign cadets of relationship between itself and CAP, could do little more
IACE staged by CAP at Bolling Air Force Base (AFB) sent than encourage its liaison officers to influence the policies
invitations to only white girls while snubbing African of the civilian volunteers as opportunities allowed.
American female cadets.64 The Cleveland Call and Post re-
ported an investigation would be launched into the matter, Changes in the 1960s
but no further stories addressed the subject.65 Instead, an-
other CAP race-related story hit newsstands beginning in Newly elected President John F. Kennedy, in contrast
October and November 1958. Readers learned about to his predecessor’s passive approach to civil rights, took
Cadet James E. Spruill of West Philadelphia who had greater action to support the cause of African American
joined the Franklin Institute Air Squadron of the Penn- equality. On March 6, 1961, Kennedy issued EO 10925
sylvania Wing, becoming the first completely blind cadet which forbid the armed forces from encouraging segrega-
in Civil Air Patrol history. Spruill had become interested tion or any forms of discrimination. The order further pro-
in aviation after reading Arthur C. Clarke’s 1957 book, hibited organizations that practiced discrimination based
Going into Space, albeit in braille. CAP National Head- on race, creed, color, or national origin from using military
quarters had all of Spruill’s CAP manuals and materials facilities. Lt Gen William H. Blanchard, Air Force Inspec-
translated into braille, and his fellow squadron mates even tor General, subsequently declared that based upon the
conducted close-order drill with Spruill, having developed executive order, USAF facilities would not be made avail-
a method to steer himself along. Spruill partook in an ori- able to segregated organizations.67
entation flight and was able to handle the aircraft with Two days after publication of EO 10925, Lt Col Shirley
relative ease and maintain and sense level flight. His story R. King, commander of the National Capital Wing’s Po-
would be featured in Jetmagazine, the CAP Times, as well tomac Group, wrote to Lt Col John T. Martin in the Office
as other national publications. When Pennsylvania Gov- of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Manpower. King’s
ernor George M. Leader learned about Spruill’s story, he letter brought up a civil rights issue regarding the upcom-
penned the cadet a personal letter congratulating him on ing mid-April CAP Middle East Region conference, which
54 JOURNAL OF THEAFHF/ SUMMER 2023
Within a day, Martin forwarded King’s correspondence
to Frank D. Reeves, Special Assistant to the President.
Martin agreed with King that holding the conference on a
military installation, perhaps Fort Jackson, would allow
black CAP cadets to participate in all activities without
fear of embarrassment.70 Reeves prepared a memorandum
for the President which included King’s correspondence.
The CAP situation mirrored another recent event where
the Civil War Centennial Commission planned to meet in
Charleston, South Carolina on April 11-12. As black atten-
dees would be discriminated against, Kennedy wrote to the
commission chairman, Maj Gen Ulysses S. Grant III, that
discrimination on grounds of color or race is contrary to
public policy for agencies and officers of U.S. Government-
sponsored meetings.71 In Reeves’s opinion, the same action
would be preferrable. He included a draft memorandum to
the Secretary of Defense expressing this position and ask-
ing for officials with the Department of the Air Force and
CAP to take action to ensure the conference arrangements
“meet this standard set forth by our Constitution and by
our national conscience.”72
The White House via Col Godfrey T. McHugh,
Kennedy’s military aide, routed the message to Col Robert
N. Ginsburgh, Assistant Executive to Air Force Chief of
Staff, requesting to know what actual authority the USAF
Cadet James E. Spruill with fellow members of the Franklin Institute Air had over CAP and could be done to avoid holding meetings73
Squadron, Pennsylvania Wing, ca. October 1958. Source: Morse Center. in controversial cities. Two days later, McHugh reached
out to Maj Gen Robert E.L. Eaton, Assistant Chief of Staff
was slated to be held in Columbia, South Carolina. King for Reserve Forces, and alerted him that a memorandum
shared a letter from Col John R. Taylor, South Carolina was being prepared “‘to slap the Air Force in the face’ for
Wing commander to the National Capitol Wing com- letting this happen.”74 On March 26, CAP National Com-
mander, Col F. Joseph Donohue asking for assistance “in a mander Brig Gen Stephen D. McElroy, became informed of
matter which possibly might require some diplomatic han- the situation and received word that the Air Force Chief of
dling.” Acknowledging how South Carolina remained seg- Staff Gen Thomas D. White had requested a memorandum
regated, Taylor explained the hotel for the conference on Civil Air Patrol – Air Force relationships on March 24,
venue would not allow black CAP conference attendees to as well as CAP’s policy on segregation within a day. Eaton
stay there, nor serve them in the public dining rooms. Tay- acknowledged to McElroy that he was sure White “wants
lor asked that should black members of National Capital to keep CAP from being the pawn to try and solve this
Wing choose to attend the conference that either Donohue issue” of integration.75
or another officer “would advise them of the necessity of In conversations over the ensuing two days, McElroy
separate hotel accommodations.”68 and the Air Force worked out a potential solution. McElroy
King further explained to Martin the gravity of the emphasized in his telephone conversations with the Air
matter. Recognizing CAP as an incorporated organization Staff how CAP “cannot in any way be segregated and Civil
by Congress with a USAF general officer as national com- Air Patrol is not segregated,” but that “no one must have
mander and a recipient of taxpay dollars, “we feel that it is the opportunity to use Civil Air Patrol as an argument to
wrong and certainly bad publicity to condone segregation.” settle integration or segregation.”76 A memorandum from
“We have felt for a long time that these meetings could be McHugh, however, arrived at the desk of Lt Col M.R. Walsh,
held on an Air Force Base or in some part of the region that Office of the Assistant Chief of Staff for Reserve Forces, stat-
does not have to be subjected to these unpleasant prac- ing the White House wanted the Air Force to take action
tices,” continued King. Adding further insult to injury, King about “getting away from this controversial situation.”77
wrote that the Potomac Group had selected Cadet Bruce On March 28, Eaton sent White the requested memo-
T. Stewart to attend the conference but that now he “cannot randum. The document explained the conference situation,
be sent to the Conference due to his race as the cadet would the USAF – CAP relationship on legal and financial
have to stay with a cadet from the South Carolina Wing grounds, and the 1957 Air Force policy position regarding
and there are no Negro cadets in the South Carolina Wing.” CAP and segregation. Eaton found that the Secretary of
Speaking as a CAP officer, King concluded to Martin that the Air Force did have the legal authority to host the con-
“As a leader of the group I feel that it is important for me ference at nearby Shaw AFB where all black CAP confer-
to attend this Conference but I cannot do so and keep my ence attendees could be quartered on base. He added that
respect and dignity.”69 the base commander was fully authorized and even re-
JOURNAL OF THEAFHF/ SUMMER 2023 55
celled. Ironically, the following year the Middle East Region
Conference convened in Baltimore, a city with considerable
racial problems not to mention its segregated all-white
wing.83
Approximately two weeks later, Walsh sent a candid
letter to McElroy. Referencing President Kennedy’s posi-
tion on segregation within government agencies and firms
with federal contracts, Walsh acknowledged new inquiries
into CAP. On the issue of segregation, Walsh wrote
I was most forcibly informed by some people in quite high
positions that if CAP wants to continue to receive support
from the Air Force as it does now, the CAP leaders had bet-
ter do some thorough soul searching and align their sights
with the Air Force concerning segregation. The thinking is
that it will be contrary to the President’s policy for [the] Air
Force to continue supporting CAP if that organization now
is and continues to be segregated.
He recommended that this subject be entered on the
agenda for the 1961 CAP National Board meeting at
Ellington AFB from May 5-6.84 With Walsh present as a
representative of Headquarters USAF, McElroy ended his
commander’s report by reading a letter stating the Air
Force’s personnel policy of no discrimination based on race,
color, religion or national origin. The letter noted the policy
“must be strictly enforced in connection with the adminis-
tration of any military or civilian program of the Air Force”
Letter from Lt Col M.R. Walsh to Brig Gen Stephen D. McElroy, April 12, and all Air Force personnel participating in liaison work
1961. Source: Morse Center. with CAP were enjoined to comply with the policy and
exert the policy on CAP matters.85 Nothing more on the
quested by the Secretary to provide maximum accommo- matter appears in the minutes of the board meeting.
dations and facility support to the Middle East Region con- From September 7-8, 1962, the CAP National Board
ference while convened on his base.78 met in Houston, Texas and engaged in extensive revisions
Additional factors, however, muddled the use of Shaw to the Constitution and the Bylaws. Language concerning
AFB as a conference destination. The buildings to be used membership, however, did not change nor did the assem-
consisted of 1942-vintage communal open bays, deemed in-
adequate to house VIPs or conference meetings.79 General
of the Army Omar Bradley would be the keynote speaker
at the conference and neither the USAF nor CAP wished
to embarrass him. As Eaton understood the situation, the
fact remained that the USAF furnished the federally char-
tered CAP taxpayer money, and while the uniformed serv-
ice could not control CAP policy, they could work to keep
the Air Force auxiliary out of the nation’s newspapers.80
The following day, South Carolina Wing commander
Taylor turned down the offer to host the conference. He ex-
plained to Col David S. Harter, CAP National Executive
Committee representative from the Middle East Region,
that while the distance from Columbia was not vast, the
wing had invited 40 to 50 very important persons, and in
Taylor’s words, these were “mostly politicians and if word President John F. Kennedy visits with a group of Civil Air Patrol cadets
got out that it was moved for this reason, they would not in the Rose Garden of the White House, Washington, DC, May 7, 1962.
come.…” Taylor thought best to cancel the conference. Left to right: President Kennedy, Cadet 1st Lt Sandra K. Christiansen
McElroy, in conversation with Harter, recommended the from Utah, unidentified (in back), Cadet James Ronald Aaron from Cali-
conference be postponed rather than canceled.81 Later that fornia, Cadet Maj Marilynne Sue Van Velzor from Wyoming, Cadet 1st Lt
afternoon, Taylor, Harter, and Middle East Region com- Cheryle Eguchi from Hawaii, Cadet 2nd Lt Robert P. Alms from Illinois(behind Cadet Eguchi), Cadet Capt Burton C. Andrus III from Montana,
mander Col Stanhope Lineberry concurred to postpone the and Cadet 1st Lt Thomas E. Bryan from Indiana. Source: John F.
conference.82 Ultimately, the 1961 conference was can- Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum.
56 JOURNAL OF THEAFHF/ SUMMER 2023
ity. Of considerable importance to the defense establish-
ment and notably CAP, is a section of the act known as
Title VI, “Nondiscrimination in Federally Assisted Pro-
grams.” Section 601 of Title VI reads “no person in the
United States shall on the ground of race, color, or national
origin be excluded from participation in, be denied the ben-
efits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any pro-
gram or activity receiving Federal financial assistance.”89
As a current and long-time recipient of federal funding,
CAP was accountable under Title VI.
Later in 1964, Johnson approved Department of De-
fense Directive 5500.11, “Non-Discrimination in Federally
Assisted Programs,” which would be promulgated through-
out the defense establishment. This directive effectuated
President Lyndon B. Johnson signing the Civil Rights Act of 1964 in the the provisions of Title VI. Civil Air Patrol is included among
East Room of the White House, July 2, 1964. Source: Lyndon B. John- the programs listed in Appendix A to which the directive
son Presidential Library and Museum. applied.90 In mid-1965, both the General Services Admin-
istration and the Defense Supply Agency contacted CAP
bled leaders hold any discussion regarding any discrimi- and informed the corporation that since it received federal
nation policy or segregation.86 A week after that board property from the Defense Department for educational
meeting, Col William Patterson, Maryland Wing com- purposes, it must provide assurance that the corporation
mander, admitted to reporters from the Baltimore Afro- did and would comply with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act
American that the wing remained all white, although he of 1964. On July 15, 1965, Col Turner signed forms stating
reported working with the Baltimore Board of Education CAP would comply with Title VI, including that the corpo-
to establish squadrons in the city schools.87 ration would promptly take and continue to act to effectu-
Two weeks following the assassination of President ate the agreement and letter of the law.91
Kennedy in Dallas, Texas, the CAP National Executive That fall on October 20, CAP National Headquarters
Board met at Ellington AFB on December 6, 1963. During issued CAP Regulation 39-1, “Non-Discrimination in Fed-
the conference, the chairman, Col Paul Turner, remarked erally Assisted Programs.” The regulation implemented
that people asked him about CAP’s policy concerning dis- and supplemented DOD Directive 5500.11 and thereby
crimination and he thought the policy was unchanged from placed CAP in compliance with Title VI.92 Presently, the
December 1941. To his surprise, he learned CAP had no CAP constitution of February 20, 2018 as amended, Article
policy. After a brief discussion, the board unanimously 7, governing membership declares:93
passed a resolution reading:88
Membership in Civil Air Patrol is a privilege and not a
WHEREAS it has been a standing personnel policy of the right. Qualifications and conditions for membership shall
Air Force that there will be no discrimination based on race, be established in the Bylaws and regulations. Discrimina-
color, religion or national origin tion based on age, disability, or the provisions of Title VI as
BE IT REAFFIRMED by the National Executive Commit- well as Title VII [which references employment] of the Civil
tee of Civil Air Patrol that it is the continuing policy of Civil Rights Act of 1964 was and remains prohibited.
Air Patrol that there will be no discrimination in any ac-
tivity of Civil Air Patrol based on race, color, religion, or na- Conclusion
tional origin. 
By late 1965, almost two decades after becoming a
Over a decade since the Air Force became integrated and nonprofit corporation and nearly 15 years since the USAF
almost 15 years since the passage of EO 9981, CAP finally integrated, CAP had an established membership antidis-
had a stated policy on discrimination. crimination policy. The impetus for this policy did not come
internally from the civilian volunteers, but rather from fed-
Civil Rights Act of 1964 eral legislative changes with degrees of influence from the
USAF. Although the Air Force had no legal influence over
Months later and after considerable political maneu- CAP’s policies, their financial and material resources pro-
vering, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the landmark vided to CAP proved to be catalysts for the auxiliary’s pol-
Civil Rights Act of 1964 into law on July 2. The act out- icy shift.
lawed discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or As a civilian auxiliary of the USAF, CAP’s association
national origin nationwide, and required equal access to and uniformed similarity proved troublesome in the Civil
public places and employment. The act enforced desegre- Rights actions of the 1950s and early 1960s. From a posi-
gation of schools and the right to vote. Although it would tion of limited knowledge, members of the public could eas-
not end discrimination nationwide, the law definitively ily confuse CAP members as the uniformed Air Force.
opened the door to further progress on true national equal- When issues of segregation and discrimination reared their
JOURNAL OF THEAFHF/ SUMMER 2023 57
CAP’s early solution to the issue of antidiscrimination
empowered wing commanders to address African Ameri-
can membership on a case-by-case, community basis. As a
civilian volunteer organization, CAP squadrons and wings
directly represented local and state society and culture be-
fore mimicking the culture of the USAF. For those states
where Jim Crow policies dominated racial interactions,
CAP organizations toed the line of segregation and/or the
“separate but equal” doctrine laid out by the United States
Supreme Court during its 1896 landmark decision of
Plessy v. Ferguson.94
When actual change finally came to CAP, the organi-
zation had to choose to either accept federal policy or risk
losing its taxpayer support. Actual viable integration of
Maj Shawna R. Kimbrell, 555th Fighter Squadron, first female African Amer- African American members in CAP units came through ei-
ican fighter pilot in USAF history and former member of the Parker Com- ther the continuation of a culture of integrated operations
posite Squadron, Colorado Wing, CAP. Source: United States Air Force. dating back to CAP’s origins, or through the actions of
head in the media, the USAF suffered undesirable guilt by young cadets and adult senior members who supported
association. The CAP cadet program and search and rescue and implemented integration in squadrons and wings –
operations, however, benefited Air Force efforts and neces- both of which paved the way for the diverse civilian USAF
sitated finding a working solution. auxiliary of today. 
NOTES
1. Office of Civilian Defense, press release, 28 January 1942, Set Up in Illinois,” Chicago Defender, 7 March 1942, 12.
Binder “Legal Status, Administrative Concepts, and Relationship 11. “CAP Flyers Sworn in for Duty,” Chicago Defender, 21 March
of the Civil Air Patrol, 1941 to 1949,” CAP National Archives and 1942, 7.
Historical Collections, Col Louisa S. Morse Center for Civil Air 12. Frank A. Blazich, Jr., “Civil Air Patrol’s Unsung Civil Rights
Patrol History (CAP-NAHC), Joint Base Anacostia-Bolling, Wash- Milestone,” Volunteer 15, no. 1 (Spring 2020): 46-49.
ington, DC. 13. Franklin D. Roosevelt, Executive Order 9339, “Transfer of
2. Franklin D. Roosevelt, Executive Order 8757, “Establishing Civil Air Patrol from the Office of Civilian Defense to the Depart-
the Office of Ci vilian Defense in the Office for Emergency Man- ment of War,” Federal Register 8, no. 86 (1 May 1943): 5659.
agement of the Executive Office of the President,” Federal Regis- 14. J. A. Ulio by order of the Secretary of War, War Department,
ter 6, no. 100 (22 May 1941): 2517–18. Adjutant Gen eral’s Office, memorandum No. W95-12-43, subject:
3. Franklin D. Roosevelt, Executive Order 8802, “Reaffirming Transfer of Civil Air Patrol from the Office of Civilian Defense to
Policy of Full Participation in the Defense Program by All Per- the War Department, 4 May 1943, Binder “Legal Status, Admin-
sons, Regardless of Race, Creed, Color, or National Origin, and istrative Concepts, and Relationship of the Civil Air Patrol, 1941
Directing Certain Action in Furtherance of Said Policy,” Federal to 1949,” CAP-NAHC.
Register 6, no. 125 (27 June 1941): 3109. 15. War Department, Headquarters Army Air Forces, AAF Reg-
4. David M. Kennedy, Freedom from Fear: The American People ulation no. 20-18, Organization–Civil Air Patrol, 25 May 1943,
in Depression and War, 1929-1945 (New York: Oxford University BLS, CAP-NAHC. On 29 May 1943, Arnold redesignated John-
Press, 1999), 764-8. son, CAP’s national commander under OCD, as CAP’s national
5 While no direct policy statement appeared from OCD in commander. Office of Staff Judge Advocate, The History of the
1941, the establishment of the Citizens Defense Corps on 30 April Legal Status and Administrative Concepts of Civil Air Patrol
1942 under OCD acknowledged membership would not be denied (Maxwell AFB: CAP National Headquarters, January 1979), 2.
on grounds of race, color, sex, or religion. This would be mirrored 16. OCD, press release for Saturday morning papers, 28 March
with the establishment of the Citizens Service Corps in Septem- 1942; John F. Curry to Bertrand Rhine, 24 March 1942, BLS,
ber that year. Elwyn A. Mauck, “Civilian Defense in the United CAP-NAHC. 
States, 1941-1945,” unpublished manuscript by the Historical Of- 17. Kendall K. Hoyt to Historical Division, AC/AS Intelligence,
ficer of the Office of Civilian Defense, July 1946, Chap 6, 1-2; Chap attention Dr. Reither, memorandum, subject: Civil Air Patrol,
10, 11-12. Week Ended 27 May 1944, 27 May 1944, Folder 4, Box 1, Earle L.
6. Cecile Hamilton to Gill Robb Wilson, memorandum, subject: Johnson Papers (ELJ), Western Reserve Historical Society
Activities on Tuesday, 2 December 1941, Reel 44552, Air Force (WRHS), Cleveland, Ohio; Earle L. Johnson to all unit command-
Historical Research Agency, Maxwell AFB, AL (AFHRA). ers, memorandum, subject: General Memorandum No. 58, Civil
7. Frank A. Blazich, Jr., “An Honorable Place in American Air Air Patrol Cadets, 1 October 1942, CAP-NAHC.
Power”: Civil Air Patrol Coastal Patrol Operations, 1942-1943 18. CAP National Headquarters to all CAP unit commanders,
(Maxwell AFB, AL: Air University Press, 2020), 27, 35-36n81. memorandum, subject: Press Release on CAP Cadet Summer
8. Telegram from Cornelius R. Coffey to John F. Curry, 17 De- Camps, 14 August 1944, BLS, CAP-NAHC; Kendall K. Hoyt to
cember 1941, Barry L. Spink Collection (BLS), CAP-NAHC. Commanding General, Army Air Forces, Washington, DC, mem-
9. Telegram from John F. Curry to Cornelius R. Coffey, 18 De- orandum, subject: Civil Air Patrol, Week Ended 22 July 1944, 22
cember 1941, BLS, CAP-NAHC. July 1944, Folder 4, Box 1; CAP National Headquarters, CAP
10. “Civil Air Patrol Does the ‘Impossible’ in Illinois,” Chicago News Bulletin, 3, no. 25, 11 August 1944, Folder 6, Box 6, ELJ,
Defender, 7 March 1942, 1; “Interracial Civil Air Patrol Squadron WRHS.
58 JOURNAL OF THEAFHF/ SUMMER 2023
19. “Avers New Deal Slights Negro Civil Air Cadets,” Chicago 43. National Diversity Program, Civil Air Patrol, “Success De-
Daily Tribune, 18 August 1944, 12. spite Adversity: The Perseverance of Dr. Fabius ‘Jack’ Russell,”
20. “Chicago Civil Air Patrol Cadets,” Chicago Defender, 9 Sep- Civil Air Patrol News, 5 February 2021,
tember 1944, 5; “Air Award Won by Negro Youth at CAP Session,” https://www.cap.news/success-despite-adversity-the-persever-
Chicago Daily Tribune, 10 September 1944, S2. ance-of-dr-fabius-jack-russell/ (accessed 5 June 2022).
21. Neal V. Loving, Loving’s Love: A Black American’s Experience 44. Minutes [of the] Civil Air Patrol National Executive Board,
in Aviation (Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1994), 28-29-30 March 1951, pg. 42, Reel 44587, AFHRA.
54-55; Donald Strobaugh, “WW II Parachutists of the Civil Air 45. “Civil Air Unit to Organize Cadet Patrol,” Washington Post,
Patrol” American Society of Military Insignia Collectors Trading 14 February 1943, 10; Harry McAlpin, “Silver Lining,” Chicago
Post 51, no. 2 (January-March 1992): 52; “CAP Holds Maneuvers,” Defender, 6 March 1943, 15. 
Times Herald (Port Huron, MI), 19 August 1945, 1. 46. H. Ross Miller, memorandum of CIS Phone Call with Colonel
22. Juanita Morrow, “Army Secretly Jim Crows Air Cadet Corps Fonda in Venice, Fla., 9 April 1957, folder “Segregation 1,” CAP-
in Cleveland: Unprovoked Change Stirs Negro Youth,” Cleveland NAHC. 
Call and Post, 22 September 1945, 1A. 47. S.F. Yette, “CAP admits segregation but some units are
23. “School News,” Plaindealer (Kansas City, KS), 13 October mixed,” Baltimore Afro-American, 27 April 1957, 8; Hal J.
1944, 3. Articles list the squadron as Squadron 751-8, but a 1944 Basham, “Afro-American Clippings,” 29 April 1957, folder “Seg-
CAP report lists Thornton as commander of Squadron 751-9. CAP regation 1,” CAP-NAHC.
National Headquarters, “Station List,” 23 August 1944, BLS, 48. Donald J. Strait, memorandum for record, subject: Civil Air
CAP-NAHC. Patrol, 23 April 1957, Binder “Legal Status, Administrative Con-
24. Blazich, “An Honorable Place,” 73. cepts, and Relationship of the Civil Air Patrol, 1950 to 1959,” CAP-
25. Blazich “An Honorable Place,” 168-69. NAHC.
26. Act to Incorporate the Civil Air Patrol, Public Law 79-476, 49. Watson would attend Morgan State University and commis-
US Statutes at Large 60 (1946): 346–47, codified at US Code, Title sion via Army ROTC as a second lieutenant in the infantry. On 4
36, chap. 403 (2000). December 1965, he would be killed in action in South Vietnam as
27. 32nd Air Force Base Unit, National Headquarters, Civil Air a member of B Company, 2nd Battalion, 2nd Infantry Regiment.
Patrol, Proceedings of the Civil Air Patrol Board, 21 March 1948, “Vietnam War Toll Mounts as Conflict Fury Increases,” Baltimore
Reel 44587, AFHRA. Afro-American, 18 December 1965, 18.
28. U.S. Congress, House Committee on Armed Services, Hear- 50. “CAP bars tan pupils,” Baltimore Afro-American, 4 May
ing on H.R. 5298 to Establish Civil Air Patrol as a Civilian Aux- 1957, 20. 
iliary of the U.S. Air Force, and for Other Purposes, 80th Cong., 2d 51. H. Ross Miller, memorandum of CIS Phone Call with Colonel
sess., 8 April 1948. Fonda in Venice, Fla., 9 April 1957, folder “Segregation 1,” CAP-
29. Hoyt S. Vandenberg to Lucas V. Beau, 7 May 1948, Binder NAHC.
“Legal Status, Administrative Concepts, and Rel ationship of the 52. “Md. CAP stays lily white by evasion,” Baltimore Afro-Amer-
Civil Air Patrol, 1941 to 1949,” CAP-NAHC. ican, 4 May 1957, 6.
30. An Act to Establish the Civil Air Patrol as a Civilian Auxil- 53. H. Ross Miller, memorandum of CIS Phone Call with Colonel
iary of the United States Air Force, Public Law 80-557, U.S. Fonda in Venice, Fla., 9 April 1957, folder “Segregation 1,” CAP-
Statutes at Large 62 (1948): 274-75. NAHC.
31. Constitution and By-Laws of the Civil Air Patrol (Incorpo- 54. “But we’re interested,” Baltimore Afro-American, 4 May
rated), 28 May 1948, CAP-NAHC. 1957, 6.
32. Harry S. Truman, Executive Order 9981, “Establishing the 55. Document, AFPTR-E, “Air Force Support of Civil Air Patrol,”
President’s Committee on Equality of Treatment and Opportu- 7 May 1957, attached to Cecil E. Combs to Commander, Civil Air
nity in the Armed Services,” Federal Register 13, no. 146 (28 July Patrol – USAF, memorandum, subject: Air Force Position Regard-
1948): 4313. ing Segregation in Civil Air Patrol Units, 5 June 1957, Binder
33. President’s Committee on Civil Rights, To Secure These “Legal Status, Administrative Concepts, and Relationship of the
Rights: The Report of the President’s Committee on Civil Rights Civil Air Patrol, 1950 to 1959,” CAP-NAHC.
(New York: Simon and Schuster, 1947), 40-47, 162-63; Alan L. 56. “Pilot says CAP wing refused him admission,” Baltimore
Gropman, The Air Force Integrates, 1945-1964, 2nd ed. (Washing- Afro-American, 11 May 1957, 12. 
ton, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1998), 73-83. 57. The President’s News Conference, 15 May 1957, The Ameri-
34. Alan L. Gropman, “The Air Force, 1941-1951: From Segrega- can Presidency Project, UC Santa Barbara, https://www.presi-
tion to Integration” Air Power History 40, no. 2 (Summer 1993): dency.ucsb.edu/documents/the-presidents-news-conference-273
25. (accessed 6 July 2022).
35. Gropman, Air Force Integrates, xiii. 58. Ibid.
36. Gropman, Air Force Integrates, 64-65. 59. Ethel L. Payne, “Ike Breaks His Rights Silence,” Daily De-
37. Gropman, Air Forces Integrates, 67-73. fender (Chicago), 16 May 1957, 1; “President Says He’s Now More
38. Gropman, Air Force Integrates, 84-85, 102. Conservative,” Greeley Daily Tribune (Greeley, CO), 15 May 1957,
39. Civil Air Patrol, Civil Air Patrol Manual, Vol 1, Book 1 (Wash- 9; “Ike Sees Trouble if Defenses Cut,” Nashville Banner (TN), 15
ington, DC: Civil Air Patrol, 1 August 1949), 1-8. May 1957, 1-2; “Highlights of Conference Today,” Rapid City Daily
40. Gropman, Air Force Integrates, 53-59; “CAP to Train for Two (SD), 15 May 1957, 1-2; Louis Lautier, “Capital Spotlight,” Balti-
Weeks at Lockbourne,” Circleville Herald (OH), 15 August 1947, more Afro-American, 25 May 1957, 4; Louis Lautier, “Ike Voices
1; “Air Patrol Breaks 16-Day Camp Sunday,” Sandusky Register Disapproval of Bias in Civil Air Patrol: He Dodges Civil Rights
(OH), 26 August 1947, 1. Issue,” Cleveland Call and Post, 25 May 1957, 1D; Charles B. Gar-
41. Fabius Russell to Harry S. Truman, 24 August 1948, Folder nett to James W. Brown, Jr., memorandum, subject: President’s
“OF 1285-D Civil Air Patrol,” Box 1818, OF 1285-D, Air Force, U.S. Press Conference Segregation Controversy, 15 May 1957, Folder
– Misc. (1947-Mar. 1950), Official File, Papers of Harry S. Truman, “Segregation 1,” CAP-NAHC.
Harry S. Truman Presidential Library and Museum, Independ- 60. Cecil E. Combs to Commander, Civil Air Patrol – USAF,
ence, MO (HSTPLM). memorandum, subject: Air Force Position Regarding Segregation
42. Philleo Nash to Fabius Russell, 14 September 1948, Folder in Civil Air Patrol Units, 5 June 1957, Binder “Legal Status, Ad-
“OF 1285-D Civil Air Patrol,” Box 1818, OF 1285-D, Air Force, U.S. ministrative Concepts, and Relationship of the Civil Air Patrol,
– Misc. (1947-Mar. 1950), Official File, Papers of Harry S. Truman, 1950 to 1959,” CAP-NAHC. In 1958, Maj Gen Agee redistributed
HSTPLM. Combs’ letter and the Air Staff position paper to all region and
JOURNAL OF THEAFHF/ SUMMER 2023 59
wing liaison officers “in view of the large turnover in personnel 80. “Hotel May Look Like Pentagon,” The State (Columbia, SC),
during the past year.” Walter R. Agee to All Region and Wing Li- 25 March 1961, 12; document, “Resume of Telecon, Gen McElroy
aison Officers, memorandum, subject: Air Force Position Regard- to Gen Eaton,” 28 March 1961, Folder “Segregation 1,” CAP-
ing Segregation in Civil Air Patrol Units, 21 August 1958, Folder NAHC.
“Segregation 1,” CAP-NAHC. 81. Document, “Resume of Telephone Conversation, Colonel
61. James W. Brown, Jr. to all region and wing liaison officers, Harter to General McElroy,” 29 March 1961, Folder “Segregation
memorandum, subject: Air Force Position Regarding Segregation 1,” CAP-NAHC.
in Civil Air Patrol Units, 7 June 1957, Binder “Legal Status, Ad- 82. Document, “Resume of Telephone call from Gen McElroy to
ministrative Concepts, and Relationship of the Civil Air Patrol, Col Wangeman (Clearance #1097),” 29 March 1961; document,
1950 to 1959,” CAP-NAHC. “Resume of Telephone Call from General McElroy to General
62. Document, interview between Miss Ethel L. Payne (Chicago Eaton,” 29 March 1961; Stanhope Lineberry to All Wing, Group
Defender), Col Griffith and Capt Miller, 4 June 1957; document, and Squadron Commanders, MER, CAP and All Region Staff and
telephone conservation – Capt Miller and Miss Ethel L. Payne Conference Moderators, memorandum, subject: 1961 Regional
(Chicago Defender), 4 June 1957, Folder “Segregation 1,” CAP- Conference, 29 March 1961, Folder “Segregation 1,” CAP-NAHC;
NAHC. “CAP Meet in May,” Greenville News (SC), 11 April 1961, 1; God-
63. “Rambling Round Up,” Chicago Defender, 15 June 1957, 2. frey T. McHugh, memorandum for record, subject: Civil Air Patrol
64. “Girl cadets charge snobbery at ball,” Baltimore Afro-Amer- Middle East Region Conference, 29 March 1961, Folder “Civil Air
ican, 16 August 1958, 1. Patrol,” Box 17, GTM, JFKL.
65. “Probe CAP Ball,” Cleveland Call and Post, 30 August 1958, 83. “Conferences Held by Middle East, Southwest Regions: Bal-
1D. timore Panel Emphasizes Knowledge of CAP Missions,” CAP
66. “Philadelphia Boy, 15, Becomes 1st Blind Air Patrol Cadet,” Times, October 1961, 6.
Jet 15, no. 2 (13 November 1958): 12-13; “Blind Boys Joins Civil 84. M.R. Walsh to Stephen D. McElroy, 12 April 1961, Folder
Air Patrol,” Green Bay Press-Gazette (WI), 21 September 1959, “Segregation 1,” CAP-NAHC.
28; “Blind Boy Joins Civil Air Patrol,” Boston Globe, 18 February 85Civil Air Patrol National Headquarters, National Board, Civil
1959, 21; Office of Information Services, Franklin Institute Air Patrol, Minutes of Meeting held at National Headquarters,
Squadron, Civil Air Patrol, CAP Press Release, George M. Leader Civil Air Patrol, Ellington Air Force Base, Texas on 5-6 May 1961,
to James E. Spruill, 21 October 1958, Folder “Segregation 2,” CAP- 14, Reel 44598, AFHRA.
NAHC. 86. Civil Air Patrol National Headquarters, Minutes of Meeting,
67. John F. Kennedy, Executive Order 10925, “Establishing the National Board, Civil Air Patrol, 7-8 September 1962, Shamrock
President’s Committee on Equal Employment Opportunity,” Fed- Hilton Hotel, Houston, Texas, Reel 44589, AFHRA.
eral Register 26, no. 44 (8 March 1961): 1977-9; Gropman, Air 87. “CAP says no mixing in ranks,” Baltimore Afro-American, 15
Force Integrates, 125-26. September 1962, 14. Before the end of the decade, Patterson in-
68. John R. Taylor to F. Joseph Donohue, 21 February 1961, tegrated Maryland Wing during his tenure as wing commander.
Folder “Civil Air Patrol,” Box 17, White House Staff Files of God- One of those who joined the wing as a chaplain was none other
frey T. McHugh (GTM), Presidential Papers, Papers of John F. than Maj Julius S. Carroll having persevered in his intention to
Kennedy, John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, serve in the wing. “New Wing Chaplain,” Civil Air Patrol News,
Boston, Massachusetts (JFKL). March 1972, 14; Bettye Moss, “If You Ask Me,” Baltimore Afro-
69. Shirley R. King to Office of Assistant Secretary of Defense American, 12 August 1972, 5.
Manpower, attn John T. Martin, memorandum, subject: Middle 88. Civil Air Patrol National Headquarters, Minutes, National
East Regional Conference, 1961, 8 March 1961, Folder “Civil Air Executive Committee Meeting, 6 December 1963, Ellington Air
Patrol,” Box 17, GTM, JFKL. Emphasis in original. Force Base, Texas, 9, Reel 44589, AFHRA.
70. John T. Martin to Frank D. Reeves, informal memorandum, 89. Civil Rights Act of 1964, Public Law 88-352, U.S. Statutes at
9 March 1961, Folder “Civil Air Patrol,” Box 17, GTM, JFKL. Large 78 (1964): 252.
71. “Racial Quarrel Mars Civil War Centennial,” Berkshire Eagle 90. Department of Defense, Robert S. McNamara, Directive
(Pittsfield, MA), 12 April 1961, 3; “Racial Quarrel Casts Shadow 5500.11, subject: Nondiscrimination in Federally Assisted Pro-
Across Civil War Centennial,” Odessa American (Odessa, TX), 12 grams, 28 December 1964, attached to Civil Air Patrol National
April 1961, 28. Headquarters, CAP Regulation No. 39-1, “Personnel – General,
72. Frank D. Reeves to John F. Kennedy, attn. Kenneth O’Don- Nondiscrimination in Federally Assisted Programs,” 20 October
nell, memorandum, subject: Racial Segregation at Civil Air Patrol 1965, Folder “CAPR 39-1 (1965-1977), Box 3, Schell Collection MS
Middle East Regional Conference, 1961 – Columbia, South Car- 01, CAP-NAHC.
olina, 15-16 April, with attachment, John F. Kennedy to Robert 91. Howard Greenberg to Roger L. Wobbe, 9 June 1965; Carl O.
S. McNamara, memorandum (draft), 22 March 1961, Folder “Civil Sullinger to Robert L. Wobbe, 28 June 1965; John A. Mead to
Air Patrol,” Box 17, GTM, JFKL. USAF-CAP-RLOs, All Regions, memorandum, subject: Title VI
73. Godfrey T. McHugh to Robert N. Ginsburgh, memorandum, Agreement, 16 July 1965; John A. Mead to Defense Supply
24 March 1961, Folder “Civil Air Patrol,” Box 17, GTM, JFKL. Agency, 15 July 1965; John A. Mead to General Services Admin-
74. Document, “Resume of Telecon, Col Harrison (CRF) to Gen istration, 15 July 1965; Assurance of Compliance with GSA Reg-
McElroy,” 26 March 1961, Folder “Segregation 1,” CAP-NAHC. ulations Under Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, signed
75. Document, “Resume of Telephone Conversation, Gen McEl- Paul W. Turner, 1 July 1965, Binder “Legal Status, Administrative
roy to Gen Eaton,” 28 March 1961, Folder “Segregation 1,” CAP- Concepts, and Relationship of the Civil Air Patrol, 1960 to 1972,”
NAHC. CAP-NAHC.
76. Document, “Resume of Telephone Conversation, General 92. Civil Air Patrol National Headquarters, CAP Regulation No.
McElroy and Colonel Wangeman,” 28 March 1961, Folder “Seg- 39-1, “Personnel – General, Nondiscrimination in Federally As-
regation 1,” CAP-NAHC. sisted Programs,” 20 October 1965, Folder “CAPR 39-1 (1965-
77. Document, “Resume of Telecon, Col Hutchinson and Col 1977), Box 3, Schell Collection MS 01, CAP-NAHC.
Walsh,” 27 March 1961, Folder “Segregation 1,” CAP-NAHC. 93. Constitution and Bylaws of Civil Air Patrol 2016 Amended
78. AFCRF, Robert E.L. Eaton, “Civil Air Patrol Middle East Re- 20 February 2018, https://www.gocivilairpatrol.com/media/cms/
gion,” 28 March 1961, attached to William F. Harrison to Stephen CAP_Constitution_Bylaws_4BC09E935985F.pdf (accessed 8 July
D. McElroy, 3 April 1961, Folder “Segregation 1,” CAP-NAHC. 2022).
79. Document, “Resume of Telecon, General McElroy and Col 94. Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537 (1896).
Wangeman,” 28 March 1961, Folder “Segregation 1,” CAP-NAHC.
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