conttributions fromThe Museum of History AxVd Technologv:Paper 32 Numismatics?an Ancient ScienceA Survey of its History EIvn\i EIr\j CLini-Stcj\t)iiHi INTRODUCTION 2 evolution ol- a sciknch .3 beginnings oe coin coi.i.ec'l'inc s middle aces and early renaissance ii renaissan(.:e and CINQLECENTO I5 SEN'ENTEENTH CEN lEIRV 22 EICHIEENTH CENTURY 25 EARLY NINETEENTH CENTURY 34 MODERN TRENDS AND ACCOMI'LISI I M EN TS -11 NUMISMAITCS IN HIE UNI I ED STATES 60 LITERATURE CITED 6S NUMISMATICS-AN ANCIENT SCIENCEA Survey of its HistoryBy Elvira EUt^i Clain-Stefaiielli INTRODUCTION This study has been prompted l)y the author'sobservation that many people resjard nuinismatiessimply as coin coUectins;, a pleasant hobby for young- sters or retired persons. The holder of siicii a view-point is unaware of the sco[)e and accomplishments ofa historical investi<;ation that traces cultural evolutionthrous^h one of the basic aspects of everyday humanlife: money. Seen as a reflection of past aspirationsand accomplishments, coins are invaluable sourcesfor scholarly research, but few people are aware ofthe tremendous amount of work done in this field bypast generations.The present monograph is intended to give only asynoptic view of the complex world of numismaticresearch. An area of knowledge that spans centuriesand contains such varying fields as primitive mediaof exchange, coins, paper money, money substitutes,tokens, medals, and decorations, can hardly be givena detailed history by a single person in a single work.Even in a survey such as this, before such wealthof material, many omissions are unavoidable, and,since this work is also intended for the n(jnprofes-sional, other omissions have been made to facilitatethe presentation. Authors and their works have beencarefully chosen to illustrate the main line of progress within specific areas. Citations of their books and articles are given in shortened form in the footnotes, willi full references appearing at the end of the paper.Because coin collections have supplied the rawmaterial for much in\estigation, the histories of someof the major private and public collections also havebeen included in this survey.In my research, I have had an excellent guide inErnest Babelon's chapter "l.a nutnismati(]ue et sonhistoire," published in 1901 as part of the first volumeof his Trailf des monnaies grecques et romaines: Theorie et doctrine. Material on recent accomplislunents hascome from reports given by specialists to the inter-national numismatic congresses. But without thehelpful assistance received from leading Europeannumismatists on the occasion of my v-isits to variousnumismatic museums, this study could not have beencom])lcted. I am indei)ted to Dr. Nils T.ucKig Rasmusson,Director of the Kunglig Myntkabinettet of theStatens Historiska Museum, Stockholm, as well asProfessor W'illy .Schwabacher and Mrs. Ulla S.Linder Welin from the same institution for theirkind interest in reading the galleys. Through theirsuggestions I have been able to benefit from the wide BULLETIN 229: CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE MUSEUM OF HISTORY .\ND TECHNOLOGY cxprrii-nce and kn(i\\kdr;e which distim^uishrs thesescholars in liieir fields. Of in\aIuaMe assistance insjatherinc; basic information aljont the actual status (jfninnismatics in difTerent countries were: i'rof. I'Vli|X'Mateaii v Llo|3is, Director of the BihUoleca dcCataluiia, Barcelona; Dr. Paul Grotenie\t-r, Directorof the Staatlichc Miinzsammlunt; in Munich; Mr.}acc|iies 'S'Non of the C^abinet des Mecl.iilles, P.iris;Mr. Antonio de Andrcadc Rebelo, Curator at theMuseu Niimismatico Portugues, Lisbon; and Pi-ol.Walter Ilavernick, Director of the Museum liirHambursische Gcschichtc, Hamburc;.My <;:ratitudc also is extended to Dr. Otto M0rkholm,Curator of the Konaielige M0nt- os, NU-daillesainiint;,Nationalmuscct, Copenhagen, to Mr. I. (i. Sp.isskii,Curator of the Numismatic Department at the Herniitaf;e, Leningrad, to Prolessoi' li.ln^ior^ Bloesch.in cfiari^e of the .\Iun/kabinett of the St.i(ltl)ibliothekin W'iiuhirthur. Sw it/eil,nuk .uul lo .Mile. .\IoniqueDu \ errlier Inmj lh<- Bil>lioihei|ue .Xalion.ile. i'aris.lor tlieir aid in .secui in^ iuiport.nil illusli .ili\-e nialeri.il;to .Mr. .Sawyer M. Mosser, l>.\eculi\e Director ofthe .American Xumismalic .Societ\-, Xew \'ork, formany practical su<;t;cstions conci-rniii',; the st\le ofthe manuscript, and to Mr. Richard P. Hreatk'u andMr. Geoffrey J I. North, Librari.ui and .AssistantLiljrarian, respectively, of the .American .Xumism.iticSociety, New York, for their continual help; to Mr.Isadore Snyderman, Xew York, for providing trans-lations froin the Russian. Pin.illy, without the assist-ance of m\' husband. Dr. Xkuhmir ( 'laiu-.Stefani-lli,this work would h.ive nevi'r reached its conclusion.EVOLUTION OF A SCIENCE About a hundred and twenty years ago, a historian,Friedrich Creuzer, called numismatics" the enlighten-ment of archeology." He charaeteri/ediir<-il laterin his Aiifsiilrj- z'l' .Kiimhmalik (ly.M). ' frssF, ".Anlgabcn und (Mcnz<'n d^(.); (aK (T'SK); liUAi'N \i'N SiiMM, ?DieMiinzc als HilfsniiUrl di 1 inillikillri lii lien Knlturluisi luiii!;"(1953). P.A.I>ER 32: NUMISM.'XTICS .^N .XNf :II'.NT SfllENCF, Pick drew a shinp distinction Ix-twccn pnic numis-matics (rcine .\umiswa!ik) and applied numismatics{angcwaniltc A'limi.u/ialik). Under the first, lie con-fined tiic simple acti\ities of collectins^. classifyinsr,and describint;; coins?a preoccupation which herated on a lower scale and which he, therefore,assiiined contemptuously to the nonspecialist, theamateur, the collector. On the oilier hand, ap])liednumismatics, accordint; to him, became the sciencethat permits the scholar to deduce from coin materialimportanl conclusions a])plicable to the related liclds of social, political, and economic history, and art andphilolo^A'. This latter approach he reserved for thescholar, the highly trained s|?xialist.This attem])t to define numismatic science failedcompletelv. Within a few years W'ilhelm Jesse con-tested these ideas bv pointing out that very olten evenpurelv descrii)li\e acti\ities require the knowledoe of a liighlv trained |)erson.'' To disregard coin catalogswould be similar to a historian's ignoring a collectionof published documents. The qualitative difierenccbetween an inferior listing of coins and a highlyspecialized publication of nmnismaiic material restsupon the apjiioach and methods used. Moreover,Jesse contended, applied numismatics cannot be con-sidered an independent science since it results from ablend of other disciplines.Starting from these ])remiscs, Jesse proceeded to state his own definition of ninnismatics as a science.Since coins were created for the ])ractical purpose ofserving as a medium of exchange, it seemed logicalthat their research should begin at this point. Thus,Jesse argued, the .search into the history of all pastforms of money?attempting to explain their origin,their evolution, their extrinsic appearance as well astheir intrinsic qualities, their relation to economics,to social and to cultural history?is the real scope ofnumismatics as a scientific and historical discipline.While .some scholars were involved in theoreticaldi.scussions of this theme, others tried to give it apractical application. For example, in the Viennacoin cabinet, .\ugust von Loehr built the collectionsand exhibits according to such a historical concept ofmoney, beginning with primiti\c media of exchangeand bringing the cxhiliits up to the present complexperiod of financial documents; and in the UnitedStates, exhibits recently arranged at the SmithsonianInstitution emphasize similar ideas (fig. 1). Beyond the basic reciuirements of accurate descrip-tion and allocation within a geographical andhistorical framework, other factors, which in\-olvehistory, law, economics, art, philology, religion, andeven philoso|)hy, must be taken into consideration.A complementary .science to all the.se disci{)lines,ninnismatics in turn utilizes them also in its ownresearch. W ith this rcap|5raisal, the field of numis-matics has expanded considerably, increasing theknowledge requirements for every numismatist.^ Thescholar has to exchange the delightful pastimes of theantiquarian and hobljyist, the Lithhahcr of the past,for the more exacting work of the scientist whomust [xjs.sess an almost encyclopedic knowledge.Specialization within a determined field or period,as a result, seems the only workable solution.When he approaches the economic function of coinsas money, the researcher today sees many new factorsentering his field of \'ision. Following this predomi-nant school of thought, numismatics should broadenits scope from a science restricted to coins or metalliccurrency, rarcheologie de la inonnaie metalique^ to ascience of all forms of money?including primitivemedia of exchange, necessity money, money sub- stitutes, and documents of value.Although primitive media of exchange generally areconsidered to be w ithin the province of anthropolog\', recent numismatic theories concerned with a philo-sophic explanation of the origin of money have resorted to the forms of value and exchange used byearly or contemporary primitives. Examples of suchtheories are Bernhard Laum's HeiUges Geld: Einehistorische L'ntcrsmhung iihcr den sakralen L'l sprung desGlides (1924), which ex])lains the origin of money asan expression of primitive cult forms and not as aphenomenon produced by economic factors; andWilhehn GerlofT's Die Enlstelmng des Geldes und dieAnjdnge des Geldivescns (1947), which emphasizes sociological factors as the explanation ft)r the origin ofmoney.As seen in the history of monetary \alues, in thehistory of prices and wages, and in the evolution ofnational economics with their ensuing theories, there is an implicit connection between numismatics and ' "Aufpabcn unci (Ircnzcn tkr Xumismatik" (1024-1926),pp. 3-5. "See Haevernick, "'Cooperation': Some Thoughts andSuggestions for the Intensification of Numismatic Research"(1958). " Gilder, "Rapport sur la numismatique moclerne," p. 104.BULLETIN 229: CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE MUSEUM OF HISTORY .AND TECHNOLOGY Tht iv)iurK? of mNm ind ^ul into <>i fx" -Icumn g ^ G Q y? M?' Miv?? niita "-.-"nssg^ i^-o--! ft MENf lOK HIKE vtMNMJU Of MtVEK f@ !^ ?"?' IS:??? >^i/r^-^^^^'M^ Si*r^ Nattonu bank sons (A)U> trKTIfKATO NIW COCM INBK.Mft ?i liU. I.?LiuLN LxHIBll 111 ill'- Siiiiilisnni.ui liiMiiiilii.il, illiiMialiii^ iiiuiiiM iial u > as tli^ lii-i(il iiiiiiKA (l)iv. Ill .Xiiniisiiialic s phuin). economics.- On the other hand, mnsi.lcrations of . and the pn.l.lenis uf the univer.e or ?l die humanhroader nature-the causal .-elatiun. iK-iueen money nnnd and >onl. as seen nt sneh work. asC-eor^Simmers I'/iilnsnpliir ,J,-^ Crhlis I^VIll). and 1.. I.ppuh s(,i!i!: I-jiirM'-j,illnx,hnl?L An/-.;n,7?v /J,?/mr// (lOIK,): Jissr. -Miinz.- unil , , , ' " Geld in Gcsdiiihtswissinscliaft" (I'll"). 'PAPER 32: NUMISMATK:S? AN ANCIKNT SC:IF,N(:K The history of an, h<)\vc\cr, oficrs a wider and morepertinent relationship with the field of numismatics ? to ihc mutual Ijenefil of both areas. In many cases,so-called apj)lied numismatics enables the art scholarto use numismatic evidence as a support or invalida-tion of certain historical conclusions or to supplyentirely new evidence that is mioljtainable elsewhere.Coins often are a iiasic historical scjurce. To thetrained eye of the archeolos^ist or historian, they mayreveal aspects of civilizations and races which havedisappeared and left few or no records. A classicexample of such research is the brilliant detectivework accomplished recently by Prof, .?\ndreas .Mfoldiof the Instituie of Ad\anced Study at Princeton. Ur.Alfoldi cast light upon the cult of Diana-llekate-Selene?a syncretistic threefold divinity venerated inthe sanctuary at Aricia (Italy)?by re-inierprelint;the figures (previously identified as nymphs) rei)re-sentcd on a tiny Roman Republican siKer coin whichhad been struck in 43 B.C."In many cases coins can help to date ancient monu-ments: the composition of hoards may serve as cir-cumstantial c\idcncc in tracing migrations, armyencampments, trade routes, or tides of colonizationand expansion. Actually, the beginnings of numis-matics as a scholarly discipline is related to such anapplication of old Roman coins in the Renaissanceand pre-Rcnai.ssancc: Italian historians used the.sccoins to help identify ancient portrait busts of em-perors or to interpret passages from classical authors.THE SOURCES OF ANCIENT COINSWhat has brought ancient coins into the hands of collectors and scholars?One answer which may seem unusual to modernman is the fact that, in earlier times, coins often cir-culated for centuries, defying national borders; themetallic content was the only guarantee necessary fortheir acceptance. One of the most eloquent examplesof such an occurrence was found in southern France,where copper coins which had lieen struck during thereign of Constantine the Great (.^.D. ?)2?) 337) stillwere circulating in remote places during the time ofNapoleon III (1852 1870).'? Another instance comesfrom .Spain, where a bronze coin of the RomanEmperor Domitian (A.D. 81-96) was found to have circulated until 1636 when it was counterstampedduring the monetary reform of Philip I\'."Another fact which contributed to the increase ofinterest in old coins was their special appeal as orna-ments and jewelcry. Many ancient rings, bracelets,necklaces, and even medieval reliquaries utilizedcoins which were considered beautiful, precious, ormiraculous. Lenormant, quoting from contemporary sources, mentions that "ancient coins in gold andsilver were used in jewels like gems." '"The main source of coins, however, especially an-cient Greek and Roman pieces, is the innumerablehoards which have been uncovered. Entrusted to safe, deep hiding places in the ground or in a river-bed in moments of danger, war, fire, or even fornormal safekeeping, these coins often are brought tothe surface, by pure chance, decades or, in many cases,centinics later. Local legends of a blue flame, awill-o'-the-wisp, monsters guarding treasures, orcurses protecting pirate hoards have helped to per-petuate the memory of tremendous wealth hidden inthe earth. Some of the most fantastic folk talesfade before many extraordinary finds. Treasures ofalmost limitless wealth, exquisite beauty, as well asinestimable value for historian and art-historian arefound continually, the number of coins sometimesexceeding tens of thousands."The ancient author Philostratus (c. 170-245) men-tions a hoard of 3000 Persian gold darics found inAntioch, Syria, before A.D. 250. In about 1543peasants discovered, in the streams of the river Streiuin Transylvania, the famous "treasure" of the Dacianking Decebalus, consisting of over 40,000 Greek gold staters.'^ The Adriatic coast of the Balkan peninsulais often the site of large finds of Roman silver denarii ? a witness sometimes of the misfortunes of a retreatingarmy which lost its entire pay chest. The devastating ? "Diana NVmoronsis" (1960).i? Friedensbcrg, Di,- Miincf in dcr h'uUurgeschichtf, p. 3. " Blancukt, "Sui la chronoloijie etablic par k-s rontrc-marques" (1907).2 La monnair dans I'antiquile, vol. 1, p. 35. Sec also Hii.L,The Medallic Portrait of Christ (1920); Zadoks-Jitta, "Notes andQuestions on Coin Ornaments" (1957), "Munsicradcn" (1958);Grierson, "The Canterbury (St. Martin's) Hoard of Prankishand Anglo-Saxon Coin Ornaments" (1955). " See Bi ANCHET, "Les rapports entre les depots monetaires etles evcnements militaires, politiques et economiques" (1936);Haevernick, "Welches Material kann die Numismatik zurFeststellung dcr Verkehrsgebietc in Deutschland im XII. undXIII. Jahrhundert licfcrn" (1936); Werner, "Munzschatzeals Quellcn historischcr Erkcnntnis" (1950-1951). " For a detailed account of this hoard, sec Martian, "Comoriardclene" (1921); NoE, Biblio!;raphy of Creek Coin'Hoards,p.265.BULLETIN 229: CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE MUSEUM OF HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY marches of armies durinc; the Seven \'ear's War(1756 1763) were the source of main- of the treastiresfound on German territory. Intricate 15yzainine andespecially Arab trade routes, confirmed h\- coin findswhich lead as far north as the Russian and Scandi-navian territories, or the widespread commercialtransactions of the \'ikings arc onK- a few aspects ofthe complex life of the Middle Ai^es w liicli have comeinto fuller lisjht throusjh in\alual)le information drawnfrom coin hoards.''liinh tides, hea\\' rainfalls, an a.xe, or a plou^li,|jy puvv accident, will unearth treasures whit h ha\e lainfor centuries or e\en milleniuuis within man's reach.Very often, of coiuse, scientific. ill\ directed e.xc.iwi-tions of historic sites yield coins alou',; with thearcheological finchnys. In numv instiUices thesecoins ser\c to d.ite other artifacts of llie site, or, if thecase requires, the coins in turn cm lie dated wilii lliehelp of objects alreadv dated. .Stuciies of coin findsfrom archeological e-\ca\ations ha\c (if'ten resultecfin valuable contriliutions to .incient numismatics.An example of such, among manv, is tlie work donein recent years Ijy a numlier of American scholars.'''The past eighteen years ha\'e prochiced, by a sur|)ris-ing coincidence in separate locations, some of th<-most extraordinary finds in ancient Greek coins.Workmen engaged in modern construction on ilie siteof an ancient Greek sanctuarv in the litlie Siciliantown of Gela found almost a thousand siKer coins.1 liis hoard has proven to be one (jf tin' t;i'eatest ac-cumulations of archaic Greek coins, containing animpressive series of .some of the best examples of coin art of the late 6th and early 5th centuries H.G. .\ fewyears earlier, a hoard of .Sxracusan dek.idr.iclims ? gcnerallv considered the most beautiful Greek coins of anticpiity?dating from the late 5th century B.C^, was 15 I'or tfic Byzantine trade, see .\df.ls(in, Lii^lil ll'ivn/;/ S:ili,/iand Byzntilim- Trade (1957) and 'Early Medieval Trade Rnntcs"(IQfiO): Grierson "Commerce in the Dark .Ages"' (l'?.S')).For tlie Viliing period, see J.?iNKriHN. Ilmlliahii, nn Iltindihl'l.il-der Wikuifiirzeit (1956); Lewis, The .Xnrllinti Sra^: Shipping niulCommerce in .Korthern Europe. A.D. 3011-UlHI (l')5K). Tor morebibliograpliiral information, sec BEROii.'^rs, "Die friilimitteiaf-terfiehe Numismatik" (i961): R.xsmcsson, ".ScandinavianMedieval .\iiinismaties" (1961). " See Bellinger. Culalngiie of Cmin i'miiid ,il Cuiuilh, I'I-j(1930), Two Roman Hoardi fiiiiii Dm ,i-r-M>?p,n (19.il). The 1 hiidand Fourth Dura Hoards (1932). '/he Si^/h. Serenlh and leiilhDura Hoards (1935). and The C.in- (19.)')); TiioMfsoN. 0.;?iJrom the Roman Throuah the Venetian Teimd (1954); C:ci.x. ConnJrom the Excavations at Curium. l'V)2-l<>53 (19.59); Bctthkv. "The Morgantina Excavations and llie Date nf (h.- Knni.uiDenarius" [in ms., to be publisiied]. chsco\cre(f in the bed of ;i sni.tli cicek in soutiiernSi( ilv. .\ find in Tunis of ( !.n't!i,iL;ini.in one-;md-;i-hall gold staters and ;i recent discoscry (jf l;n'g<.' siKcrdekadrachms from (larthaye ni;ike tliese exceedinulvrare coins?known tieiciofore from onlv ;i fi'w speci-mens?accessible now to Jii.my collectors. The liovtoiiFine .*\rts Museitm recently ac(|uired a hoarci of lifteenlate Roman ;iurei and fi\e i;old me(l;iliioiis Irum out-of the most important finds of Ronum t;old coins in thepast few decades. SitnilarK', lite iKxirds of thous;mdsof X'enetian ducats coiitinu;illv lieim; fouiuf in tlieNear East aflord incre;isiiig evidence to the histori.inof the thri\-ing trade routes wliich oik e (omiected tiiisItalian maritime republic \silli the Lewmt.In such wavs new \arieties ,ind e\-en new coin t\pesand denoniiiKitioiis coiisl;mll\' .ippe.n-, slieddim; lighton the dim imai^e of cNents or miinunirius wliic h areseparated Ijy a lorn; s]);ice of time from our owncivilization. Unfortunatel\-, records of tlicse ho, ndsoften are scattered or delifn'iateK- disioi led despitethe attem|)t of sclioLirs to register ali liiids as oftenand as faithfully as possilile.The wide possibilities for numismatic rese;irchopened up b\' expert iiucstin.ition (jf coin hoards,recognized in tlie past liy such schokirs as Rrijr E.Hildebrand or Kurt Regling, have led in recent rlec- ailes to intensified work in this liefcL .Viimerous pub-lications ha\(' ap|5e;ired in tlie posiw.ir period. I he list of (jutstandinti Euro]3e.in scholars involved in tliisresearch ranges widelv, from Sweden to Sp.iin. fromFrance to Russi.i, the countries bevoiid the lionCairtain participating actively in tlie effort, (aii- rentlv, a new |irolilein Ikis arisen: to coordin.ile, onan internatioiuil b;isis, ;jlf the efloiis ,iiid melliods ofthis scientific investigation of coin lio.nds which h.isbeen done separatelv bv the v.iiioiis n.ilion.il '.groups. .Some countries trv to solve the immense worklo.idthrough ;i systeiiKitic sc;inninu; of afl tfic d,it;i ;iv,iif,ibfe.Many [)ubfications in this aspect of researcli comefrom: Cieriihiiiv, witii Munich ,is the center loi theRoman lioaiib found in that ( oniilrv ,' .iiid I l.iiiibui '.;,for the German c,il.ilo'_; of hoaiils buried .iller .\.l).800; England, wliere J, lines D.ivid .\. Thompsonpublished ;in Iiintitniv nf /iiiliJi ( 'mii Ihuiith. A.I). iillO - I'lttI) (\')^h): ;ind East Europe.m countries, whereMrs. E. .Xohejiov c'l-i'i.'itov a in l'i.i'-;ue .iiiil .Mr. j.icek c .\ fomniission (fiieitecf f)V I'ml'. Kmn.id Isr.lfl lias lieenpreparing iii.mv ic-poils iiiulrr thi- g.n.i.il litlc Ihr l-mdmun.ynder louinelien .~eit iti P, ul\elilaiid. of uhicli Iwo h.ivc l)ei-n pnb-fislied: Kei LSI R. Olieihayein (I'K.di: I'uWKi , Rhetidand-Tjat.-: vof. I, Rheiiihesun ff 96111. PAPER 32: NUMISM.XTICS .NN .ANCIENT SCIENCE Slaski in Poland iia\c triod lo summarize in tiicirpuijlications the numerous i)ut widely scattered dataon coin hoards within their national territories.'''Extremely active also in this field arc many oul-standins; scholars such as Nils L. Rasmusson and agroup at the Kungl. Myntkaijinettet in Sweden;James D. A. Thompson, Philip Grierson, MichaelDolley, Robert A. G. Carson in England: JeanLalaurie and a group at the Cabinet dcs Mcdailles inFrance: J. Lallcmand in Belgium; and Felipe Mateuy Llopis as the leading name in Sjiain.Literary information about coin hoards is gi\-en dueemphasis in most nmnismatic publications, butattempts to make widely disj)ersed data more easilyaccessible have brought forth a new kind of biblio-graphical publication such as Sydney P. Noe's Rihli- ogrnphy oj Greek Coin Hoards (1925) and Saw'yerMosser's Bihliogrnphy of Byzantine Coin Hoards (1935).Both arc major attempts to collect all of the biblio-graphical information pertaining to the coin hoardmaterial of a specific period. .Similarly, many numismatic monogra|)hs devote special chapters to hoards. An example is RudiThomsen's recent study. Early Roman Coinage: AStudy oJ the Chronology (1957j, an attempt to review and revise the controversial problem of the dating of the so-called Romano-Campanian and early Romanissues. Mr. Thomsen regards the actual composition of hoards as essential evidence in establishing thechronological sequence of different issues and as astrong clue fur their conclusive dating.BEGINNINGS OF COIN COLLECTING \Vc probably can assume with safety that coin col-lecting extends as far back into history as coinsthemsclvTS. The incentive to gather coins as well asany other interesting object is comparable to a re-fined hunting instinct, which can be found at anyhuman age le\el regardless of social or cultural back-ground; only the motive or goal defines the differenceamong collectors. Coins as expressions of the wealthto he found in gold and platinum, odd coins as curios,old coins as historical mementos, beautiful coins asspecimens of art, coins as sentimental souxcnirs ofspecial dates, events, or places?these arc only a fewof the motives behind coin collecting. Every histor-ical period or geographical area is characterized byits peculiar interest. Even collecting as a financialinvestment has emerged as a recent trend?somethingpractically unknown in earlier limes when collectingwas determined largely by historical and artistic con-siderations.'"Since the days of the Greeks and Romans, the clas- sical authors, such as Pliny or Plutarch, have writtenabout famous art collections. Although not specifi-cally mentioned, these collections probably includedmany coins famous for their artistic qualities and evensigned by well-known artists.-" Such a probability is I" Noiiejlova-Pr.4tova, .\alezy mind v. Cechach, na Morale a ve Stezsku (1955-1958); Slaski and Tabaczynski, Wczesno^-redniowieczne skarby srrbrne Wirlkopolski (1959).i? As an example, sec Bilinski, Guide lo Coin InveslmenI (1958).? Sec FORER, Xotes sur les signatures de grateurs (1 906) ; TlTiEER,Die Tetradraehnenpragung eon Syrakus (1913). supported by the viewpoint that the beauty of ancientcoins and the apparent care used in preparing theirdies demonstrates the high regard in which the esthet-ically minded Greeks held coins. The issuing of coinsoften was a subject of national pride, an incentive forcompetition among cities. Western Greeks, especiallyin Syracuse, surpassed the rest of the Greek world inthe mastery of coin engraving. An example of ob-\ious contemporary appreciation can be seen in acup of black-glazed terracotta from South Italy, a so-called Calene kylix, of which one is preser\ed in theBoston Fine Arts Museum (fig. 2).-' This bowl uses,as a center medallion, the head of the nymph .\rethusa,reproduced from the already famous .Syracusan deka-clrachtn which had been engraved by Euainetos inthe late 5th century B.C.--To collect and even reproduce such paragons ofancient engraving was not an isolated phenomenonin the ancient world. More than likely, among the oljjects of art collected by the royal houses of thePtolemies of Egypt and the Seleucids of Syria, ormaintained in the famous collection of King Mith-ridates VI of Pontus, which was brought in triumphto Rome after his defeat by Lucullus and Pompey(65 B.C..), there were rare and beautiful Greek coins. 2' .Xnotlicr specimen from the Metropolitan Museum is re-produced in RiciiTER, "A Greek .Silver Phialc," p. 386. -- Additional information is in Evans, ".Syracusan Medal-lions" (1891), and especially Ricuter, '"Calenian Pottery"(1959) and "Ancient Plaster Casts" (19.58).8 HLLLETl.N 229: CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE MUSEUM OF HIS10R\- AND TECHNOLOGY The histdiians Pliny niul Li\ y .is wril as Cicero ! of Political Propaganda on tlicCloinagc of the Roman Republic" (19.S6). -'" MuNSTrRDEKG, 'Ubcr die Anfiinge tier Nuinismatik"(1914).5" Mow.\T, "La rcconstiiution dcs collections de coins auxler ct lie siiclcs' (1900); .see also Munstkrbikc, op. cit. .'\t any rale, these "restitution" coins do reveal acertain "numismatic" interest which could have beenresponsible in part for initiating the issues, althoua;htmdoubtedly the chief motivation was the attitudetoward coins as an official chronicle of past glory."Trajan, for example, reissued in .\.D. 107, amongother coins, silver denarii struck during the Republi-can era by the moneyer Quintus Tatius (fig. 3) : he also Fig. 3. ? Roman Rf.plbi.ic.a.v Dii.x.ARius, top,and Trajan"s "restitution" coin (author'sphoto). leissued the so-called Romano-C^ampanian didrachmw Inch had been struck e\en earlier, sometime between235 and 220 B.C. In using coins which were o\erthree hundred years old, Trajan not only recognized,as did his predecessors, the political anci religiousimportance of coins, but al.-.o their historical signifi-cance. In a sense it might be said he helped to foster "numismatic" interests among the Romans.The rapid expansion of the Empire brought Romansinto contact with strange and hitherto unknown ci\ilizations. It is reasonable to assume that theenormous booty brought back to Rome by its vic-torious generals contained, among other objects ofvalue, innumerable coins which found their way intoprivate collections, along with gems and cameos ? items related to coins through subject matter andensjravinsj technique. E\en if the discriminatingtaste of the art-lo\ ing Greeks was not always evidentin the Roman public art "collections," in the parks,or in the magnificently adorned villas of patricians,the Romans certainly tried to imitate the refinementof Greek culture and to appear as patrons of the arts. It is a well-known fact, mentioned by Horace, that, 3' Mattinglv, "The Restored Coins of Trajan" (1926), witha good bibliography on the subject, and "The 'Restored' Coinsof Titus, Domitian and Nerva" (1920): see also Bernhart,fiihliographischn Wegwfiser, p. 57. ?10 BULLETIN 229: CONTRIBLTIO.NS FRO.M THE .MUSEUM OF HISTORY .WD TECHNOLOGY durina the late pcnod ?f the Rcpul.lic. patricians foin roiicaions, even if ,mi sncilKallv ,nr,??,n.-,lpaid exorlutant prices lur statuarv works.'- or. in l,v the anthors. prohal.ly had their phu e ol l?>nurPHny's words: ". . . tiiere is an ahnost more violent anion..; many art ol^ec ts. There is direct coimnenipassion for works of hue handicralt. . . . the orator on an aspect of coin colleclino; I'iinv is surprised toLucius Clrassus h.id a pair . ,f chased i;ohiets. ihe learn that "spurious methods are ohj.cts of siiulv.work ofthe artist Mentor, (hat cost llin.lllMl sestertii."-' and a s.nripl.- of a foi-ed .lenarius is caivhillv e.x- .Aus^ustus himself indul-.-d in the pleasures of the aniined .nid the .idulleraled coin is lu.w^ht foimorecollector, and it was said that he was e.xceediiii^jy ih.iii <;eiuiine ones." '"'fond of fine furniture and C:orinthian vessels. His In Liter periods, hnin die Idi (ciiIuia' and f.ir intohouses he adorned not so iiiucli with statues ,ind pic- the ':\h ccniury .\.l)., l.ime inedallioiis in hron/e andturcs as with "thii]<.;s which were curious, either for t;oId were dislriliuted hv the empenjrs on specialtheir anticpiity or r.iritv." .At his retre.il in Capri occasions.-" These lokens ,,r im|jeii.il inuniliceiieche had -Mui^e liniiis of sea-monsters . . . and also functionally coiiil)ined their role as historical ri-cordsarms of ancient lieros." " We can safelv assume (hat with their more h.isii .ispecl ,is ol>iecls of monetarysome beautiful coins loimd tfieir wav into the same value-? Ijotli of which ( .lused these picics to he keptcollection since they were t;i\en occasionallv as '^ifts. and treasured.MIDDLE AGES AND EARLY RENAISSANCE With the decline of Rome's ]iolitical miuht ? forces to them; others a'.;ain wer<- carried .iw.i\ 1 1\-undermined li\ economic chaos and sulijected to the admiration inspind h\ the immeiisitv of Rom. instcadilv nniwini; pressure of imathnn p,-,,plrs from niins, the we.iltli of prime maleri.il, the |ieileili( fthe East?Rom. in cultiiic .ind civilization soon were m innf ictiire " *"on the vera:c of collapse. The leisure of the^'ijolden \ r. i i , .?^ ' ^ \ei\' olten old p,i'_;,in representations were .isvimi-era" of .Augustus or Hadii.m was t^one, and rclro-spectiw or coiUenipl.itix e occupations like coin collectint; certaiiiK' were out of place. Mon ii\'-r,the rise of Clhristianitv , with its stron<; ascetic spirit. l,iti.'d as Clhristi.iii s\iiiliols, and it w.is not i.ire lor ,1 Hercules or an .\plirodi(e to he regarded ,is (Ihiist,the Good Slie|).ird, oi the \ ii'_;in. .Ancient yciiis with ,11 1 I I I ? . .? ? , iii\lholo"ical siihietts were inisiiiteriiretrd ,md ohenhardlv would help promote mxestiuations into coins. ^ ' 'which reflected a p.^.in p.ist populated hy nods, u.kI- '''" ''lt"l"ii''l sMpern.itui.il pow.-is. M.ueoxvi,desses, and heroes, .ill with a stron- empli.isis on sekloin did .incient coins hiil to he reu.irded asphysical beauty. .As a result, ancient coins for t.ilismans; " their insi liplioiis prcs.iiieik in mostthe most part remained in ofilivion. The Middle cases, an addition, il elinieni ol mysiilu .itioii. .\Aires, with its lioiisehokl-centered econonn', with ckissic example is a letr.iih .lehm nl Kliod<'s, incor-trade and tra\el icfhiced to a minimum, knew little rectly identified for cenliiiii-s .is uiie of llu- "ihiil\-about coins. While yold circulated freelv in the pieces of silver" for which jiid. is iietr.iy<-d the .S.i\ iourByzantine Empire, the man in the West seldom saw ^^-^,^ 4, j,i ^n,,,,!,,., insi.nu ,-. .i nuld s,,|idns struckmore than small silver coins. Under such circum-stances any collection of coins had onlv a slim ch.iiui'of sur\i\in<; the <;reat scarcitv of mint.iiile niet.ihThe attitude of tin- Middle .Aties tow.ird works olart?and ini|:)licitl\' coins- can Liest lie ch.iracterizedas follows: "'.Some saw in them monuments cil idol.ilrv , , , , , -I . 1 ? ^'- A,jiiii,il lliilcir \\\\n. xlvi. n.?.and as such repro\-ed them; others attnlmlefl manic /-i.nn. c^-, ,,-,,, /,?,/?./,??; ill die IKinie of I-'.mpeldi /eiio (.\.|). -I 1 I'M I w.isworshipped ill .Mil, in, ll.iK. .is '.irycnto dei tre m.iui," or the coin oilered iiy the Magi to the int.intChrist."* ,i?nt (l>)12). .'2 Of. MuNSTFRnrRG. op. (it., |i. 271; RiciniK, -A C.r,!, 'MiNIZ. /.m /m,?u?,. ,A A^ /,>-,?;,?>>,;,?, (IHS.2). ..s < lr,l .Silver Phiale," p. 385 ^' Pli.nv .Katural I,irnfiniis ii. 7. 14. " .SuETO.Nius, Lim of tl?- 'Iwrlve Camus: Augustus, Ixviii-lxx. vol. 1, i;"l PAPER 32: NUMis.\i.\ric:s ? .an .ANCUENT St:lKN(:E inliAlJIMIN. I Ulll,'. Vii\. I.iol "S. 3 ny If.l?ry xxxiii. liii. 147; Ci.iiro IV/nm i" M,: i v. -l,. luiiiusui.i l.,u-nrnsr ,lr 1 .M V ( I ST).Oralwn n. ' '" "" ' ""''"'/" /'"'""- "/ f'''"'>'> !' '"; H\i'""N> /"??''. 11 1 he coiiipclliini niysticisiii which sijuidcd pils;riinstoward the Holy Land was extended also to the coinswhich pious men ijnniijht back from their pilt?rima<^es.These coins sinpasscil by far the interest accorded tothe usual souxenir pieces of travelers, and they wereinvested with supernatural powers. Occasionallymounted in reliquaries, these pagan coins? bcarinsj,for example, ilie facint( head of Sol the sun-god ? became objects of Christian ijiety."*" Fig. 4.? I ETR.ADRACHM OF RiioDES, regardedas one of the "thirty pieces of silver." aspublished in 1553, and the actual coin (photosfrom Rouille, above, and counesy .AmericanNumismatic .Society). Ancient classical tradition, ne\er entirely extincteven during the darkest hours of history, began torevive with the aid of enlightened persons about theturn of the millennium. Earlier, during Charle-magne's time, Roman tradition had reappeared as astimulus for civic and cultural awakening, but withFrederick II of Hohenstaufen (1212 1250J art anderudition came into a resplendent revival which wasbuilt on an ancient and especially Roman back-ground.Frederick's newly created gold coin, apjjropriateiycalled aiigiislalis,'^ in many res[)ects reflects '" I'or ihr story of many of llusc pirtcs?regarded as theauthcnic coins o( Judas and worshipped in numerous churchesof the Middle Ages ?and their influence on contemporaryBiblical inurpretations, see Hii r, op. cit., pp. 91 ff. and espe-cially 104-114. *' Tor the "augustalis"", sec: \\ inkm.m.vn.n, "Ober dieGoldpriigung Kaiser Friedriehs If (18<)4); Pfistkr, Kniti-rI'rtrdnch II. pp. 184, 192; W.-Mir, \\',itidi,r ,Ur If.ll, pp. 2.';8,271; Wkntzel, "Dcr .Augustalis Friedriehs II und die abcnd-liindisehc Glyptik" (1952). Roman coin coitccpts and designs (fig. 5). The im-plication again seems unavoidable that there was asotu'ce of insi)iration strong enough to determine adecisive turn from medieval coining traditions backtoward earlier classical forms. The creation of thiscoin certainly suggests the presence of Roman coinsfrom which it drew an apjiarent inspiration. Canthis factor be con.sidered suflicient evidence for theexistence of coin collections? Due to the lack ofadequate documentation, we may only assume that it does.Italy, the classic land of archeological treasures,constantK' revealed e\idence of an earlier, superiorculture with sculpture, moniunents, inscriptionswhich puzzled medieval man and posed intriguina;|)roblems. In a sense it was impossible to erect spirit-ual barriers strong enough to repress the revival ofclassical culture. Even the Christian church had toadjust to the new challenge; Thomas .Aquinas pro-ceeded to complete the integration of classical learningwithin the framework of Catholic theology. It isinteresting to note that, among the preoccupations ofthese encyclopedic minds of the late 13th and 14thcenturies, monetarv theories were often a cherished Fig. 5. .-\UGUSTALLS OF FREDERICK II (l2I2- 1 250) and gold solidus of the Roman EmperorHonorius (395-423) (author's photos). su!)ject. In Di- rrgimirie priricipis Aquinas discusses thefunction and evolution of money,*- and Xicholas Ores-mius (1320-1382), in his Tractalus de origine, iure nee non cl mutationibus nwnetarum, gives numismatics the seriousconsideration of a science.*^ Gonnard regards Orcs-mius as the founder of an economic monetary doc-trine,*'' and, as Babelon states, " with Oresmius, therefinally appeared a reformer and a theoretician."During these times, when the spiritual lethargy of '- I'or .Aquinas' economic writings, sec Contzen, Thomas vonAquino (1861); Jesse, Qiiellenbuch (1924); Gonnard, Doctrir,~monelaires (1935). " For Oresmius, sec Woi.owski, Traiclie (1864); Joh.nson.The De monrla (1956); DiEi-DONNE, "La th6oric de la monnaiea Tepoquc feodale ct royale" (1909). *' Doctrines monelaires, p. 125. 12 BULLETIN 229: CON I RIBUTIONS FROM THE MUSEUM OF HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY the early Micklli- Aoes scenictl id lie piissinu .mil ack'sirc lor erudition to be awakriiinn, loiiis imnetl a wiiiulei'ltil and direct soince ol learning. As a resnit,the general C|iiest among himianists and art Icners locollect interesting and beautifnl coins spread rapiilK,and soon the pre-Renaissance period was rich withremarkable collections. An onlstandini; ex.miple ol'such art lovers is the great Florentine I'etr.nx h (I'ran-cesco Petrarca, 13(14-1374), one of llie mosl brilliantminds of the early Renaissance, the " lirst modeiiiman," as he has been called. This gre.itest amongItali.m hninanists owned ancient coins and ap]ireci-ated them liiuhK'. In his Ejw.lolai- r/r it'hii\ f:iiiiiliiiiihu\he describes with emotion the coins he bought frompeasants dtu'ing his stay in Rome, coins on which hecould decipher the names and fe.itnres of Romanemperors: ". . . si\e iit cmeiem, si\ e ut insiul])loseorum viiltus agnoscerem." He presentetl some an-cient gold and siKer coins to Emperor C'.h.ules l\' asa stimulus for the ruler to follow in his reign the ex-ample o( Rome. On this occasion Petrarch confessedhow nuich he enjoyed collecting coins: ". . . alirpiol sibi aureas argenteasque nostrorum prlncijnim elhgies.minutisslmis ac vcteribus litteris inscriptas, quae indeliciis habebam, dono cledi . . . ." *''Petrarch's interest in Roman antiquities was sharedb\' many of his friends, among them the lamous tribuneof the people and leader of a popular uprisint; ,i",iinslthe patricians in Rome, Cola di Rien/i (1313 1334).A listing of collectors in the 14th centur\- wotildinclude numerous other famous names, most ol themItalian.Bv a strange irony, Petrarch's great .idmir.nion loithese minute, ancient historic documents initiatedthe nefarious custom of "counterfeitint;" ancient coins. From his stimulus, Marco Sesto and l'r.mces\.("SlRAIIM, l.r li:n,:,l, ,1.1 Mnl.iillinf I'alu.nsi: \.i|. I, ilUDcl.;Mi-Niz, /..- '"'> " /" """ 'I" /'"/'" 0H"? \> udlnli.nn ,/, , ,t /,./,. m, pp. K., .W, 74, 7-).13 F .ttJ^f: 1 ?.(,,? ?77 iftL'J' tiitiit He/nmtr M . i,,.,^ G- Klipitfiait ^ D?fifle*?i?ofeiaiea*i?fnt -^ Fig. 6. ? Ambras Casile in the Tyrol wlicrc Aicliduke Ferdinand kept his art treasures(photo from Schlosser). Beyoiici the Alps, the Hapsbiirtjs were [jronipted tocolled coins in order to complete the portrait galleriesof the Holy Roman emperors by including the Romaniconographic scries. Old documents indicate therewere collections in Hapsburg possession as early asthe 13th century, but not until Emperor Maximilian I(1493-1519) can we speak of an actual coin collection at the Vienna court. The first reference to it occursin an inventory made by the Imperial "Kammer-diener" Heubcrgcr in 1547 during the rule of EmperorFerdinand I (1531 1564), a great patron of art whocreated the \'iennese " Kunstkammer" in 1563.?' Atthe Court of Buda in Hungary, King MatthiasCorvinus (1458 -1490) assembled a circle of humanistsand antiquarians who helped him enrich his collec-tions of art objects and ancient coins. 5' Ferdinand I referred to his collection in his will; see LuscniNVON Ebencrei'tii, Die Miinze tiL hislorischrs Denkmal, p. 39. Forthe inventory, see Holzmair, "Das wiedergefundene Inventardel Munzsammlung Ferdinands F" (1961). One of the characteristics of most of the collectionsduring the 15th and 16th centuries was their hetero-geneous content. They were planned as accumula-tions of precious objects?such as jewels and richgarments?of unusual specimens, and of curios. Theseearly periods betray little of the refinement reflectedin many of the collections of the later Renaissance,when genuine esthetic appreciation of art objects anda scholarly interest in .science and history were thechief criteria. 1 he approach of the pre-Renaissancecollector was le.ss so[)histicated; in childlike bewilder-ment, he yearned mainly for the exotic, the mystic.In the "W'underkammern"*- curio cabinets, skeletonsof strange animals, and artifacts of remote peoplesoften abounded and even took precedence over realproducts of art. Only very slowly was the mysticismof the Middle .\ges dissipated before a realistic ap- " See Schlosser's interesting work Die KunsI- und U'utidcrkam-mern dt'r Spatrenaissance (1908). ^14 BULLETIN 229: CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE MUSEUM OF HISTORY .\ND TECHNOLOGY pronch to nature and tlir chiltlish desire fur |>u/,/lingwonders was replaced by a mature jileasure in e\c]uis-ite art objects or interest in documents of the past.One of the famous "Wunderkamm<'rn'" of the Ifithcentury was in the castle of Ambras near Innsbruck(fio;. 6). Here Archduke Ferchnand {\?2'> 15''5), ason of Emperor Ferdinand I, accunnilated an ex-tensive collection of historic objects.''' Fhninij; its timethe fame of the Ambras museinn s|)read far anions;contemporaries, and many scholars and Iravelint;nobles considered it a worthwhile attraction. Amongother things, the Archduke had an excellent collectionof Greek and Roman coins, which apparently heenjoyed and studied frequently since he hail con-structed two elaborate coin cabinets w herein he couldstore his treasures (hg. 7). ,\fter his tlealh llie coins,with the rest of the collections, were sold by his son toEmperor Rudol]5h II. In 1713, durinc; the rc-ign ofC'harles \'I, many of the coins were selected byC. Mcraeus for the Vienna cabinet.Durinc; the late 14th century, France could claimthe most famous art collector and patron ol the age inJohn the Duke of Berry ( 1 341)-! 41 (>), brother of KingCharles VI. The fame of his art treasinvs, which hekept in the castle at Mehu^-sm-^'e\re, tr.ivelled far,and even a half century later an Il.ili.m scliolaroljserved that the Duke was well known as an artlover and no sum of money was too hiyli lor him toacquire an important work of art.''^ The inventoryof his collection, made bv Jules Chiillrev beiwcen1401 and 1416, inchided, in adtiilion lo a notable collection ol Roman gold ,md siht-r coins. ti\igold med.dlions with various scenes on the \i 'I he Duke liad p\H( based these ])ieces foi a Lnuin Italy witli the inlenliijn of illuslralinu llic Iol Christianitx dm in'.; the Koman {'.mpire. laiue\erse.e sumlistorx' Fig. 7. ? Coin C.\Fii\r r or AReuin ki. Ferdi-nand (>(r. Nmi:ki i.ici, M :iu'i?^i,,pln,i,p. 21. ''< .ScMI.OSSI Ti. op. lit., p. 26. inlellectualil\' was not liniiled lo a selei I numb<-r olscholars but flowed in .1 l)ro,i(ler i nrrent whiih brokethrough social barriers, tin- nmnber ol dexotees crew- ancient sources of knowledge was valued liighl)', and rapiilK . .Mlhough I'elrarch's bro.id onllook and seliol.nU .ippro.ieh confeired upon mmli^m.lli^ s the dicinl\ oi a re.il seien mnhnlli-^ ([553) l)y CluilLuimcRcmiili- (Di\-. Ill' Xiiinismaiics iiIioId). alons; with the coin ilhistrntions. Only the (?a:.^'Tnrssto fill in niissins; information can explain the aniazint;lahrications of some of these early writers. In Piii/ii/i/iiaiif dii uh'JaiUes des jilin iinnmiiii'is juisiituus ijiii on! I ill di'jnds h KunmiHii nu 11/ du iiiinidi , piil ilishcc! in Fig. 10. ? River-god Gel.\s on a coin fromSicily, interpreted as the minoi.nir bvRouille, and actual coin (plioio IVom Roiiillc,left, and author's phoio). Lyon in 1553 b\- Gtiillaunir Ronille, tlieic appear, inaddition to the drawings of real coin images, imagi-nary portraits of Adam, Noah, Osiris, Auamemnon(fia;. 9). Not onl\- was such fiction mixed with l.u Ihut also the real coins themscKcs oltcn were intcr- P.M'ER 32: NUNUSM.'S.TICS? .\N ,.\N(::IFNT SCIFNCE pretcd lo fit till- purpoM's of the .imlior. For ex.imple,the ri\er-i;od Gelas, a man-headed hull, whicliappears on an ancient coin iium the Greek city ot (ielain Si( il\', is identified as tin- minni.nn-. Gomparisonwith the actii.il coin rcxcals liow ihe drawini; wasclianucd 1 1\- adtfilion of the invented legend Mixii-l.wi^ws (fi'4. 1(1).'" In another in^l.mce, fur a coin oliIk; 'Ihracian kini; I.\ sim.ichus. wIki used the licul ol .Mex.nider ihi- (ire, it on the uh\ ervc, Rouille t.lkesthe kinc;'s name from its original (ireek on the reverse ,ind pl.Ri-s il, in a L.itin spellin;;, iic.viiJe .Mexander'shead on the hice ol' (he coin (111;. 1 1 I."''The ii,ii\e appro. icli of stu h c.irly iinljlicitionsaroused oiiK a limiled interest; more mature treatises,which appi-.ireil duiim; the ciiK|ue( into, h.id .1 wider appe.il. '1 he Itali.m hum. mist .Xnuelo Poli/.ianu(1.43.; 14')4) puhlished his Miuillii>h. 17 Goriiiany, 1 lollanci, and S|5ain. Their authors ''" ol'lcii icIU'clccl new linids in research, such as attemptsto approach [)roblenis of melrolotfv or the vahie ofancient coins.First ]:>hice among them certainly belongs to theFrench scholar Giiillauine Bude (1467-1540), afriend of Francis I. Bude won repute for an excellentcollection of Greek and Roman coins, which he usedas the basis for De asse li jmrtihus ejus, one of the mostfamous numismatic works of the [)eriod. Fublisliedin 1515, it was re{)rinti-d in 16 subsequent editions ijy1550.Wilibald Pirckheimer in Germany, with hisAestimatio priscorum numismatum (1533), HenricusMameranus, with his Priscae monetae ad hiiius nostrilemporis diversas aliquot nationum monetas supputatio (1550),and Didacus Covarrubias y Leyva in Spain, with hisVeterum numismatum collntw eum his quae modn expen-dunlur (1556) arc only a few of the authors who tried toexplain to contemjioraries the significance of ancient coins. The iiistory of prices, the juridical problems offalse coins, and the technical aspects of coin manufac-ture are some of the other questions which were dis-cussed and to which the Germans Georg Bauer[Agricola] {De mensuris el pondenbus Romanorum alqueGraecorum, 1550) and Joachim Camerarius (Historia rei nummariae Graeeorum et Lalinorum, 1556) tried tobring new answers. Fig. II. ? Tetr.\i)r,\chm of Lvsimachi's ofThrace, as reprosciiuxl by Rouille, and actualcoin (photo from Rouille and author's photo). In 1511 Margareta Pcutingcr, wife of the Germanhumanist Gonrad Peutinger, sent to her brotherC:hristoph W'elser, for publication, a numismaticpaper on the titles of Roman emperors. For thesame peri(;d Ernest Babelon '''' reports the name of Wolfgang Lazius (1514-1563), a \'icnnese doctor who,in his Commentatiorum vetustalorum numismatum (1558),first conceived the idea of a "corpus nummorum,"compendium of all the coins of antiquity? a giganticproject which has seemed too ambitious even for mod-ern numismatists. 5? Sec listings in Li'sciiin von Ebfngruuth, Allgcineine Miinz-hmde, pp. 709; Bfrmiart, IlmMticli, pp. 3-4; Babelon, Traili,vol. 1, cols. 99 ff. '? Babklon, 'Iraile, vol. 1, col. 99. Fig. 12.?Ch'ii.i.Ai'ME Bude (1467-1540), Di-rector of the Bibliothequc Xationalc, Paris(photo courtesy Bibliothequc Xationalc). In Italy I'uKio Orsini (Fuhius Ursinus), called the "father of ancient iconography," gained a wide repu-tation not only through his treatise on ancient por-traits. Imagines et elogia virorum illustrium et eruditorumex antiques lapidibus et numismatihus expressa (1570), butalso through his large collection of coins, manu- scripts, and books, and through his exceptional al)ility to detect false coins. His correspondence andtravels brought him into contact with scholars andcollectors in many countries, who, in turn, approachedhim on numerous occasions for his opinion as to theauthenticity of certain pieces. 18 BULLETIN 229: CONTRIBUTIONS I- ROM TME MUSEUM (5F HISIORV .AND TECHNOLOGY Portusial, during the 13lh tcntuiy, producccl anoutstnnclinn" collector in the person of Don Allonso ofPortugal Ctount of Ourcni id. 1460) and grandson ofKing John I. He collected many antiquities duringhis travels to Italy and (Jermany. His example wasfollowed by King Manuel 1 ( 14')5-1S21 ), who pos-sessed, according to Lyno ? Friedlaender and .Sallet, Das konigliche Miinzkabinet,pp. 12-18; Menadier, Die Sckaiisamrnlung, p. 1. Cardinal Farnese: and Filippo Cardinal Buoncom-pagni.'" The well-known scholar and maecenasFulvio Orsini (1529-1600), at his death, left 70 ??old,1,900 siher, and over 500 bronze coins, the majority ofwhich he bequeathed to Odoardo Cardinal Farnese.Pope Urban VII in 1628 made a gift of 600 silvercoins to his nephew Francesco Cardinal Barberini.The beginnings of the numismatic collection of theVatican can also he traced to this period?about1555?during the Pontificate of Marcellus II.'''*In Spain, through Philip II (1556-1598), a notedart lover, many collections were brought to theEscorial,''^ among them the coins of Antonio Agustin,Bishop of Lerida and Archbishop of Tarragona, con-sidered by many as the father of Spanish numis- matics."'' His fame was based on his work Didlogos de mfdailas, inscripciones y otras antigiiedades, published byFelipe Mey in Tarragona in 1587 and translated afew years later into Italian?/ discursi del S. DonAntonio Agoslini sopra le medaglie et altre anticaglie (1592).A Dutch scholar, Abraham van Goorle (1 549-1609),author of a treatise on Roman coins ? Thesaurus niimis-}naliim romanorum sive numrni ad Jamilias romanas spctiantes (1605)?assembled a collection of 4,000 gold,10,000 silver, and over 15,000 bronze coins. Thesee\entually came into the hands of Charles I of Eng-land. The famous "Juxon Medal" handed o\'er tothe Archbishop by Charles on the scaffold is oftenmentioned as evidence of the King's fondness for rarecoins. His collection, after many peregrinationsduring the civil wars, ended up in Sweden in QueenChristina's cabinet.In France the coin collection which Catherine deMedicis (1519-1589), wife of Henry II of France,brought with her from Italy met a similar fate: thesecoins, inherited by her son Charles of France (1560-1574), were scattered during the religious wars.\\ iihin a few decades, however, an even better collec-tion was assembled by King Henry IV (1589-1610).A French gentleman, Pierre Antoinc de Bagarris, wasassigned the task of acquiring coins for the royalcollection, which was eventually to become the famousParis coin cabinet. '" I'or the history of the Vatican coUertions, sec Ser.\fini. Lemonele del Mrdnolicre Valicano, vol. 1, introd. ?" Ibid., pp. XV-XVII. '" Garcia de l.\ 1"i:ente, Biblioteca de San Lorenzo de el Esco- riat (1935). '?" For the collection of Father .Agustin, sec Mateu y Llopis, "Un invcntari numismatic del scglc XVI" (1929-1932); forthe life of Father Agustin, see Lopez, "Iconografia di .AntonioAgustin" (1952), and Rivero, Don Antonio Agustin (1945).20 BULLETIN 229: CO.NTRIBUTIONS FROM THE MUSEUM OF HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY ?^ Fig. 14. ? Jean \'arin showing a medjl in Lmiis \l\ m a |j.iiiiiiiiL; l)\ I'r.iii<;iii,s Lfiii.iirc- (?)(aulhur's pliutd). An intrresting passage in Rayanis' i'<-|)()ii to Ilrni\- lion can lir seen in a conic inporaiA' iiainiiii'^, of hisI\'? in which he narrates the history of the coUcclion grandson, the yoiniL; I.onis XI\', aciiniring a medalof Catherine de Medicis?states that, in France, tlie "great king Francis [Francis I], Henry II, tlic othersubsequent kings and queens, tlieir \\i\'es and mothersand grand princes," and, in ltal\', the princes andlords, esjaecially the Medicis, owned important coincollections. Apparently it was inmecrss.n\ to con-vince the king of such ini|)orlance IxnaiiM' llenry I\himself stated that he wanted ,1 collcclion ' lo eniiiel-Hsh the ro\al residence, to assist the (aown Prince in which J<',m \ aiin, the director of the Paris mint, is showin',; him (fiy. 14 ).L iidouhledK, coins and especially ancient coins did|)iesenl a spec i.il interest to artists. To note just oneexample, I'ctcr I'.inl Ruliens, the !;icn i'lemishp.iinter, is known lo have lioU'-;ht a collection of l,S,()Ot) coins, which he Liter resold. 'Ilie eailic'-t known coin auction took pLice inhis education, and to oiler to conlenipoiar\ artists Levden toward the end of the Idlh centur\, u hen thegood e.\am|)les to imitate." '' Ihis piinceh' ediica- '' Baeelo.v, 1 1,111,'. \?\. 1, ml. 1211. P.A.PER 32: NU.\IISM.\TICS? .-W .WCll NT SfHFNCE collection of a French uc'iulem.ui was sold in thismanner in 1 .t')S. 21 SEVENTEENTH CENTURY The enormous upsurt^e which occurred in numis-matics during the 16th century?ilkistratcd herethrous^h only a few saHcnt examples?continued toincrease steadily during the 17th century. As ascience, numismatics had outgrown its childhood.The sometimes naive approach of the early 150()s,with their fictitious representations, tended now to be re[)laccd. Broader knowledge of numismatic ma-terial availal>le in hundreds of collections in everycivUized country contriinited to more mature andexact interpretation. The general tendency duringthe 17th centmy was an interest in registering asmuch unknown material as possible. Thus, thepublication of catalogs of collections was given specialattention.Also during the 160f)s, the development of most ofthe famous coin cabinets of pAiropc took a decisiveu]3ward turn. France, through a series of favoralilccircumstances, became the leading country in thisregard. At least two famous collections from thisperiod should i)e mentioned.Gaston, Duke of Orl<-ans (d. 1660) and Ijrother ofLouis XII 1, owned at his residence, the Palais deLuxembourg, an outstanding collection, which hehoused in six cabinets. He spared neither effort norexpense to obtain rare pieces from Italy and Greece,and he considered his collection important enough tobequeath to his ne[)hew, Louis XIV. Surprisingly,the Sun King found more than transitory interest init and, ad\ised by his Finance Minister Colbert, hebuilt the collection into one of the most outstandingcoin cabinets in Europe.Adding it to the caijinet previously set up bvHenry IV, Louis increased the collection throughcontinuous acquisitions. He had the cabinet mcnedinto the j)alace of the Louvre, entrusting it to the careof Pierre de Craca\i, a friend of the philosopherBlaise Pascal. French missionaries and ambassadorsin Italy, Greece, and the Orient received specialorders from the king to be on the lookout for ancientcoins. During this time, serving as his chief agentwas Jean Foy Vaillant (1632 1706), a name whichwas to remain associated with numismatics for cen-turies. Commissioned by Colbert to search for coinsin foreign countries, Vaillant \isited Italy, Sicily,Greece, and even Persia and Egypt. Once, ijadfortune brought him into the hands of pirates inAlgeria: in order to save some gold pieces, he did not hesitate to swallow them: at least, this is the storyhe later told a friend.'-Through \'aillant's profound knowledge of the suijject and his relentless drive, many interesting coinscame into the royal collection. A dedicated scholar,he also [)ublished many works on ancient numismaticscovering a variety of subjects, from the coins of theSeleucides, Ptolemies, and Arsacides to the popularfield of Roman coins." The most noteworthy amonghis publications was Numismata imperatnrum Rnmanorumpraeslanlma (1694).The French royal collection, thus enriched, becameone of the king's favorite pastimes. Because hewanted it always located within his immediate reach,he had the cabinet transfered in 1683 to Versailles.Louis had the habit of visiting his collection daily,dexoting much time and enthusiasm to the studyof coins. He remarked that he enjoyed doing itiiecause he could always find something new to learn.To be custodian of the coins, the king hired a Swissnumismatist and engraver Andre Morell (1646-1705),who was assigned the task of publishing an inventoryof the collection. Morell, an exceptionally giftedscholar and an excellent designer, conceived of hiswork as a general synopsis (" recueil") of all existingancient coins in European collections. He intendedto accompany his descriptions with adequate draw-ings. This plan, a revival of Lazius' "corpus" idea,was doomed to failure, and Morell never succeededin fulfilling his dream. Moreover, the treatmentwhich he received in France was not exactly conduciveto promoting his work. Twice imprisoned in theBastille for his religious i)cliefs, he finally decided toleave the country. When he was asked by the Princeof Schwartzenberg and by the Prince Elector ofBrandenburg to arrange their collections, Morelldeparted in 1691 and spent the rest of his life inGermany. 'Ihe major collections of the period find their bestdescri]3tions in the prefaces which Vaillant, a contem-porary of Morell, added to his voluminous work.In these pages he usually listed the chief cabinets hehad consulted during his trips through variouscountries. From them we can obtain a fairly goodidea of numismatics as a hol)l)y in that age. Among Babelon, Trailf, vol. 1, col. 138. ' Sec the list of his works in Babelon, Traill, vol. l,col. 142.22 BULLETIN 229: C:OXTRIBUTIONS FROM THE MUSEUM OF HISTORY .AND TECHNOLOGY the outstandintr cullcctions which he saw wore tliecabinet of Queen Clhrisiina of Sweden (at tliat timein Runie), the ccihectiiin cjI Alessamho l',n nese inParnij.'^ tlie ciiilectidn nl the Este in Modena (ciatini;IViini the hue MOds),''' the Sa\ii\'a calnnet in Turin,the Lax'asjna Collection in Genua, and numerous othercollections in the Low t^iuntries. Swiizerl.nid. .S|)ain,and Germany.In Enqland, \'aillant studied tlie culieelion ofJames II, who had huilt his e.ilnnel around a micleusinherited h(jm his predecessors ,nrion'4 thiin ( )li\-erClromwell. Other English cabinets an- mentitjnetlb\ \aillant. such as the collections of the Duke ofBuckini;h.nn, Henry Hyde, and Comit Armidel. In1677 the antiquarian Elias Aslimole ( I(il7-16''2) laidthe foimdation at ( )\ford for a museum that todayhouses the famous Hcberden Coin Room. .\ole\\(jrlh\' rowil coin c.ibuuls in other parts ofEinope \\ere the collection ol the kint; of Di-nmarkand especially that ol (^ueen C'hri^lina of .Swcclrn.Stinmlali-d b\- the e\tensi\c collection of ( )le Worm(d. 1034), rector ol CopenhaLjen Uni\-ersitN-, I'redc- rick III of Dennunk assembled ,i remarkable uioupof coins, chielly Roman, which was pubiislu'd b\'Holtjer Jacobaeus in Id'id.''' 1 Ins i;roup lormed thenucleus for the \vorld-famous Ro\al C'olleclions ofCoins and Medals of the DcUiish Xalional Museumin Copenhatjen."'The core of the collection of (.hieen CUiristina inSweden can Lie traced back to her royal ancestors.'^Part of this assembla'_;e of o\er 13.11(10 coins (which theQueen took with lier after her abdiealion in l(i.34) h.RJbeen started durini; the Idth cen(ur\ . Some ol the coins h.id come hom wai' boo(\-, others h.id been '^ifts v^ Fi;;. 15. ? Medai. o\- Qiiia.N Ciikivuna ofSweden (i<)2(5 i()Hi)) (plmiu tiMiii l')ililii. ' .\ ( ,il.iln(; iif the Faniesc c;i)kl. .slhcr, anil rnppei- cuius \v;ispublished in lU vols. Iiy the Jesuit lather PiDRCsi, / i>m./// . . . (1694-1727). "'?There is a catalot; of the eollci tion in.ule in Is-ln liyCalcac.nini. '' Sec the history of the C^iiicnhacjen Roy.il Cluin Cahinet livBreiten.stein, pp. 5-15 in part 1 of Danish ,Seri)n, see Rasmcsson. "Mynkunskap och inyntsamlande i Svirisje liire ankring I (.40" (193.3). F.M'ER 32: NU,\nSM.-\TlC:S- .\N .ANCaENl- S(:lFNf:K m,iii\' mipoil.ml pieces, were accessible (o scholarsfor s I ltd \ at he I- home the l'.il,i//o Riario .ilia i,un'-;,n,i.Since the collection was espeei;ill\ sU-onL; in ihiCJreek ,md Roman series, il sei\i-d .is ,i sotnce ol relen nee Icjr most of (he promini-nl numism.Hists ol lli.U period. .\l her de.idi, Chiislin.i jell o\er d.OOO (iiiiis, whithpassed iiKo (he possession ol Prince I .i\ io ( )ileseali hi, a nephew of I'ope Iiinocenl XI.Abonl (ii<- s.mie lime, llie Fxalin (cilleclion olI'redeii.k Willi. mi I (Id Id l().S,Sl of br.nideiiburL;,the "(iie.it l^lectoi ," w.is described b\ conlempor.iries .IS ?'deseiA in;; llie \isil ,iiid the .iltenlioii ol .ill lliosew ho ( ulli\ .lie iiileresiiie^ things." ' .Mre.uK incre.ised "Bsiiii'iN, /;./;., Mil. 1, (III. 13.'. lor the history nl thei.iliinrlsrc 1 nil I.I M Nl>l K and Saiiii. /).- /..ikh'/i./ii- MiiiiZ-hihinrl (1.S7-). 23 suljstanlially Ijy Frcclcrick's predecessor, GeorgeWilliam (161<)-i640), this coin cabinet in 1686 ab-sorbed the famous collection of the Rhinegrave CharlesLouis. The latter assemblage numbered over 12,000pieces, of which a catalog had been published in1685 in Heidelberg by Laurenz Beger. By 1690 theBerlin collection contained over 22,000 coins.Often mentioned in connection with the GreatElector of Brandenburg is one of the most significantnames in the field of numismatics in the 17th cen-tury- Ezechiel Spanheim (1629-1710). .Swiss byliirth, this eminent scholar s[)cnt many years in the ca|)itals of Europe. He joined Queen Christina'slearned group of friends in Rome and mo\ed in thedijilomatic circles of Paris, where for twelve years hewas a sjjccial en\oy (fig. 16) of Frederick \\'illiam 1.His cnc\clo|H-dic knowledge in history, art. geography,art history? all based on a full mastery of the ancientauthors- made him one of the prominent numis-matists of his day. His chief publication Dissiitalio --iMIf.s Fig. i().?Ezr.ciiiF.i. Si'ANHiaM (1629-1710),Prussian amliassador to Paris and distin-guished iiumismalisl (photo courtesy Biblio-theque N'alionalc, Paris). Fig. 17. ? Ch.ari.es P.'\ti.n, famous French coincollector of the 17th century (photo courtesyBibliotheque Xationale, Paris). dc piacslnnliii rl iisti mimisrnatum ari/K/iio/iini (1664) mustcertainly be considered the work of a master.From Spanheim's notes on his life at the Frenchcourt should be quoted a passage which casts vividlight on the way in which numismatics and coincollecting were practiced in Paris in the late 1600s.At the home of the Duke of Aumont, Spanheimwould meet with a group which can be designated acoin collectors' club, con\ening weekh' to discuss nu-mismatic problems. "They imposed on themselvesthe task of illustrating Roman history through in- scri]3tions and ancient coins, and in this connection,describing the life of the emperors by assembling allcoins struck under their reign. Every member of thegroup had to discuss the ein[)eror's life and to lectureon ii before the gathering in order to benefit fromthe acK ice of those present. . . ." *? Although thiswas in the full reign of the "siecle dcs kunicrcs" ? that peak of I'"rench cultural life when the brilliantconversations of the literary circles, "les salons," ofa Mnie. de Sevigne. were the model for high societv *" Sec B.VBELON, haili-, vol. 1, col. 154. 24 BULLETIN 229: CONTRIBUTIONS FROM 1111, MUSEUM OF HISTORY .VND TECHNOLOGY Fig. 18.? I rriE I'ace IVdiii jubcirs /../ Sciniri'd:\ iiii'i/fiil/n (piiiild (iiiirlrsN- Bil)licill]i"-(HR'X.ilidnaic, Pjiis), it is slill siiiprisiiiL; lo Icirii (if ihc siiiinioi si,m,-|.n-> Older t(i prdniule inlorniation ol a lirciadernaliiic, certain authors tried to jirescnt a s\ nupsis ul,or an introdni lion to, the entire lukl of n isnialics.A Geinian, Tileniann I'l iese, (crtainK made a re-niarkalile attempt m this (hreition in \^''2. Whilethe linal thiee Imoks ol his M iintz-S'/iii-i;r! (( ioin Miiroi )Con\-enlinnall\- presented ,1 descriptiiui ul (JiiinancoinaL;es, his lirst I louk eslalilished them within theIramewdik cjI a ijeneral thecir\ of coins an nnusnalapproach for those times. .Moul; siniiLn' lines theJesuit l.nher Lonis joliert's hook on the siii-nce cifcoins, /.ij Sill III I' i/i \ riii',liiilli\. scr\cd lor iiearK- twocenturies as ,1 lirst-rate releicnce woik (liu. ISi.I'nlilished Inst in Paris in l(i'i2, it was rc-ediicd in1718 in (ierm.ni, in 1728 in l)nlch and ll.ilian, and still later in a very popular I'lench edition li\ l')imard cle La liastille in Paris in 173').E\en lor l^th- anti 1 8th-centnr\' m.ni a generalcons|ieclus ol nnmismalic pnl ilic ations, ,is toda\'. wasalmost impossil lie. Hooks and pamphlets of e\er\'sort alKjiHulcd, conlusing the niuraineil peison insettrch of inlormation and rendering sei iou^ reseaichlor tlie scholar more ,md more dilhcult. .\s anapproach to the piiiMem. 1 >il iliograpliical h.mdiiookswhich I'onhl give a good s\ nopsis of the \arionsspccializetl pnl ilic.il ions were ((inipiled during theInDDs. Philipp l.,iliKe's Hih/inl/in n .\ iiiiiiiiiinn ildtilllound a lolldw<-r m B. H. Slru\e"s liihlmlliii n iiiiiiii\- iiiiilit II iiiiliijiini inn ( Ul') 1 1 : lidl h were e\lensi\ el\ en 1 a f',; I'd I ly johann C'. 1 liisch's liihliulhr, n iiiiiiii\iiiiili, u. pui ilishcdalmost a ccntitrv later, in 1761), at .Xnremherg.EIGHTEENTH CENTURY With the acKiait of tlie 18th century which pro- ni.m ol the im(|ne((nlo l.ided aw.i\ in m.m\ in-duced the ffreat cultural r<'\()littions, the I'reni h lai( v- sitances an( I were icplacid i \ a mill e mm leihaliclopcdists, Rousseau and X'oltaire, (loethe and interest in (ontempoi ary lile. I he l.li/.ihi dian cul-Kant?a new spirit penetrated all the sciences. The lural achieMinenl in l.ngland and the liiilhaiit risenai\c curiosity of the past ga\e wa\- to a more rigorous ol I'lench ail .mil htii.ilurc diiiiug the leign ola|)|)roach: the casual treatmcnl of materials, often l.ouis \l\' ga\e people more conhdcnce in theirhapha/ardl\- accumulated, was rephiied liy more own creations.methodical arrangements: new fields, heretofore < oni- iXiimismaiics, as did .so many of the other scii-nces,Ijletely disregarded or disdained, c.une into impor- licuelncd fiom this new trend, and new lields weretance. The ancient ideals which had inspired the opened for research. I he old sSslem ol publishing P.APER ^2: NT'MISM,\TIf:S -AN .WCIKNT SCIl'.NCE 25 Fig. 19.?Ei.iAS Brenner (i 647-171 7), fatherof Swedish numismatics, in a painting byMikael Dahl (1680) (plioto com'tesy Kimgl.Myntlcaljincttet, Stockhohn). catalogs of threat collections was continued hut, atthe same time, advanced and inore specialized studieswere given increased attention. The Middle Agesand the contemporary period furnished no\cl andattractive subjects.The late 1600s already had witnessed a strongmovement in this direction. In France, Frangois LcBlanc's Traile historique dcs monnojs de France (1690); inSweden, Elias Brenner's Thesaurus nummorum Suecn-Gothicorum vetustus (1691);'*' and in Holland, PierreBizot's Histoirc mctallique de la Rijmhliqiie de llollande(1687) were all remarkable |iublications rcpre.scnta-ti\-e of the new trends. 'I'heir example was followedin ])ractically e\ery leading country in Europe. InGermany during the 1700s there appeared a clusterof authors who treated numismatic problems from thestandpoint of individual principalities. An outstand- ing writer among them was Wilhelm Ernst Tentzel(1659-1707), whose Saxonia numismatiea, published infour volumes from 1705 to 1714, is still considered astandard reference for Saxon coinages.A few names, among the many remarkable writersof the 18th century, include: in Switzerland, GottliebEmanuel von Haller, author of a work on Swisscoins {Schweizerisches Aliinz- und Aiedaillenkabinet,1780-1781); in Spain, Enrique Florez {Medallas de las coloru'as, 1757-1773): in Italy, Guido Antonio Zanetti(J\'uova raccolla delle monete e Zfcche dTlalia, 1775-1789),Prince Gaijricle Torremuzza, author of a classic study-on the ancient coins of Sicily {Skiliae populorum etiirbiurn, 1781), Francesco de' Ficoroni [Piomin aniicht. "' Strombom, "Elias Brenner i unga ar" (1947); Hogberg, 'Klias Brenner," (1955). Fig. 20. ? Enrique Fl(5rez (i 702-1 773),Spanish numismatist (photo courtesy Biblio-thequc Xationale, Paris). 26 BULLETIN 229: CONTRIBUTIONS FROM TIIF MISEUM OF HISTORY .A.ND TECHNOLOGY 174(1), and Loclo\icii Antonio Muiaiori,^-' whoinilialcci tlic slncK' of ineciie\'al Italian nuniisnialics(Di (liiYius /iKiuiKir i^itinihiis, 1738); in I'rancc, NicolasMahndel ^^ (DiSicitalidii hislnnqiic sur liw //inuimris'aniiquis iFE^/iagiir, '), Josrpli IVllrrin^' (Raiinl lie nit'i/ail/i'S lie mis, 17(i2, and Rtiiiiil i/r r/inlni/lis dt-/n-ii/ihs ft lit- n/lii. 17()3); and in England, Stc|ihcn M.Leake (.\iinimi hiilannici Inihiiiu, 172()).In order to be al)Ie to niasler ilie continuously c;ro\\inc; bulk ol contenipoiars' material, with itsne\er-endinll\Uiiiilii;isDiunlcti-Cahiiitt (1750-1760), and later ). C. xonSoothe's Auserltsini's iinhborinL; countries, areexcellent reference books still used extensixely at thepresent time.During the same period, \arious numismaticdictionaries were puljlished for tlie purpose of hel])in'_;collectors become more familiar with the basic "2 Fur a Ijiography of Muiatori, .see Lum, "Vile
  • iirtru:i- ift numattar vtlnuin (17.S5-18tl5), in 9 \iiluines, with a supplement in 18(12 1SII5,in Leipzig: and tiie work of the S])anish mnnismalistT omas .\ndres de (jusseme, l)u(inn/nin immnmiiltidgtiii)i/l, which was |niblished in six \i)Iunies (1773-1777) in Madrid. l-'iy. 21.? n.wii) .S.wiri I .Maum (i~o(i 17H0),(irrniui niunisinaiisl (I)iv. of .Xuiiiisni.ilicsphoto). The earl\ \ears of the I Nth ceiunrv also saw therecognition of niniiismatii s .is an .ii\, Iki/I mid ilii ilmiiiis 'ii iiliiiili'iiiiliii gn,'ilii\,liiii mill iniiii\,li,n Allniitiiiiiii (on lliescience of numismatics as a source lor Kom.m and ( ireek anti(|uilies).^'' Tliis course was ])ui>hshed later(I lalle, 1766) in book lorm.I'lom 172'! to 175(1, I'rolcNsoiJoh.inn l)a\id Kohlerof Altdoil published weeklv commeiUaiies andhisloiieal expl.inatious on national and loreiijn(oins and medals in a series he c. tiled /fisliiituhcMiiiiZ-l'ili'digiiiig (llistoiiial Goin Amnsemeni).i'recursors in the late l^lli century were lentzei's ??> KcM.ii, -'.Xiis dcr Ccschii htc ilcs Kolicrtinuin" (I'M-I). PAPER 32: NUMISM.VnCS ?AN A.NCIF.NT Sr:iKNC:i; 27 Bi|tonfcl;ctiims-ffic(uf(igim0Irilet ?pcil/ ?armncn ?H(rf)an6 mctftuficti^c un6 raceCfjaler/ iDucatcti/ @(f)auflucfen/ IMippcnunb?n5crc font>ctbal;rc ?ol5>-un5> @ilbcr- jnunjm ?cn mantf)ctIoi) filter, iufamm?n LXIV. Stucfi-,Accurat in ^upfer geflBdjen, bcfcf)ticben un6 au6 6cr ^ifletie?m|ianblicf) . Fig. 22. ? Frontispiece and Title P.age from the early numismalic periodical IlistorischeMiitK-Belusliguiig, published by J. D. Koliler (Div. of Xuniisinatics photo). Monallkhe Unlerredungen (Leipzig, 1689-1698) and theHislorische Rcmarques der neufstcn Sachen in Eiiropa(Haml)urg, 1699-1705). Adorned with artistic en-gravings of coin and medal designs, Kohler's publi-cation is a real treasure chest of information, andeven today it constitutes delightful reading for thenumismatist and historian (fig. 22). The two-volumeindex, compiled by Johann Gottfried Bernhold in1764- 1765, contains a complete key to the 22 \olumes.Kohler's "periodical" stimulated many imitators inNuremberg as well as other places.*"A survey of numismatics during the 18th centurywould be incomplete without mentioning the noted .?\ustrians, Joseph Eckhel and Joseph von Mader. ??' For further information, sec LisciiiN von Ebengreuth,Allgrmrinf Aliiti^unde^ p. 12. The Abbot Joseph Hilarius Eckhel (1737-1798),"who was director of the Imperial Coin Cabinet in\ienna and, at the same time, taught classicalarcheology' at the University, devoted his entire lifeto the study of ancient coins. No one more deservesthe title of "father of ancient numismatics." On thebasis of his principles? applied in the arrangeincntof liis major work, Doctrina nummorum vcterum, publishedin eight volumes between 1792-1798 in Vienna ? rests the subsequent organization of the entire fieldof ancient numismatics. .\ merciless critical faculty which weeded out faultyinterpretations and apocryphal data, a brilliant ca- *' For a biography of Eckhel, sec Kennp:r in Allgemeinedrillsche Biographic, vol. 5; Franke in Neue dentsche Biograpliif. vol. 4; see also Bergmann, "Pflcgc der Numismatik in Ostor-reich" (1857); DuRAND, MedaiUes el jetons, pp. 60-64. 28 BUI.l-ETIN 229: CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE MUSEUM OF HISTORY .\ND TECHNOLOGY Fig. 23. ? The Austrian Abbot Joseph I lilaiinsEcklicl (1737-1798), father III aneieni nuiiii---maiics (plioto courtesy KunsthisiorisehesMuseum. \ ienna). pacitN fur synthesis which \isunhzccl the s;cneial imt-Hncs of ancient coinaije in its ninijnitncle, a metiiudicalmind w hich estabhshed the basic principles on whichto build a tlawless scientific arrangement? these areEckhel's outstanding characteristics. With him began a new era in the study of ancient numismatics: rigid scientific methods entered the field of research,supplanting the casual approach of ihe amateur withhis haphazard search for answers. "Prolegomena generalia," tlie first 24 cliaplers ofvolume one in his Dnitriiiu inmiininuiii, can lie C(jn-sidered a basic introduction to niuuismalics. I'or tlu-first time in its histor\- the basic elements of ancientGreek and Roman numismatics metals, jxmderalsystems, organization of mints, significance ol coin-types, coins in their relation to the his|oi\ ol artare amph' discussed. In dealing witii aiu ieiil (hceknumismatics (in the first four \-olnmes ol his work),Eckhel adopted a geographical arrangement instead (j1tlie alphabetical grouping generalK in use tip to his time. 1 his s\s|rm, |)re\iousl\ adsdcaleil b\ ilu-I'reneh collector and scholar Joseph Pelh-riii '" butne\cr worked out in (jei.iil, remains the fouiularioii ofCireek numisiiialii s to ilir pnsiTit d,i\. Modern schi.ilars also follow I.ckliil in otln'i' nspects: maiu'ol his findings or altribiilions ha\c never li<-en ques-tioned. In the field of Rom, in niimisnialii s, to whichhe de\xitecl the last four vdIuhh-s ol his Diuiinin iiiini-iiionim, Eckhel systematizi'd an immense treasurehouse of information, setting up a scientific, chrono-logical sef|uence of coin issues in a basic arrangementwhich has not essentially altered during a hundred andfifty years of numismatic work.Although his fame cannot comp.Tre with Eckliel's,Joseph \'on Mader ^'' (17.S4-181.Sj, professor at theUniversity of Prague, must lie considered eciuallv apioneer in his own lield. lie succeeded in |3uttingonto a scieittilic basis medie\al numismatics, which until then had not progressed beyond the preparatoryphase of random listings, i lis "essays" on liracieates, ] tr sue h iilicr die Brnhtc^iliii (17''''), ^irrilir I'nsiuh uhrrdie Braklcalen (bSd')), and especialK his six-volumeKiiliuhe Beiliaae zur Miiirjjiiide ,le\ M illehilln<. (1803-1813) changed the basic approaih to this held ofstud\ . FAMOUS COLLECTIOXS OF THE CEXTURY .\t this point a lnief survey of the major cafiinets inEtn'ope during the 18th century will disclose not onlyinformation about the growth of important museumcollections but also facts about numismatics as afavorite pastime of the intellecttial elite. It is onlv natural that Italy, the iierpetual source ofantiquities, should account lor some ol llie oulslandingcollections of coins. Here, as in other le.idingcountries of Europe, countless person, iges ol renownin the social pages or in the world ol lellers and science,collected, exhibited, studied, and tliscussed coins.A deeplv felt love for art and art objeels and a genuineunderstandinL; for hislorieal .ind s( ienlilie prolilemsinspired Italian collectors. The dukes of Tuseaiiy '"'and the princely families, the ('hiyi, the (^oioiuia, theliarberini, the Pamphili, .ill h.id iheii .in lie.isures.Names such as Prince Eivio ( )desealelii, C.irdinalMassiiui. Cardinal .Mbani, Prince Borghese. i'rinee I'APER NUMISM.A.TICS AN ANCII'.NI SCIl'.NCK "liAHIHlN, /).?/-'. vol. l.lllis. I'd 177. ' Hi KCM.VN.N, "I'llcui- (I. 1 .Xilinisnuilik ilir)sliri<-i( h" (IS61).p. 33. '"'(iiiRI, Anlir/tM inimisniilhl . . . in ni;iii l/irullim .\l,l!;ill l>:iil\F.liunue (iilsi-iniilllir (1"-Ill). 29 Torrcmuzza, iXfonsitiiior Stcfano Borgia, FerdinaiidoCospi of Bologna, ManlVcdo Scltala of Milan,Gcronimo Corrcr, and Honorio Arigoni of \'enice,"'are only a few among an impressive group of peoplewho were moved for various reasons to treasure coins.Many of their collections?varied or highly special-ized, modest or excessively wealthy?have disap-peared, their treasures scattered without a trace.Others were transmitted practically untouched tolater generations, their records in perfect order. Asa result, many famous pieces today can be traced totheir original ownersliip, some as far back as twocenturies.Of special interest is the histcjry of the \'atican C.n'inCabinet. After a slow start during the 16th and 17ihcenturies, the de\'elopment of the cabinet took anunexpected turn upward in the late 1700's. PopeClement XII (1730-1740) envisioned an outstandingmuseum which would give artists and visitors toRome occasion to sec great works of art. As part ofthe collections he visualized also a group of Romancoins. Accordingly, in 1738 he bought from Ales-sandro Cardinal Albani a remarkable group of 328Greek and Roman coins and medallions, paying theimpressive sum of 1 1,000 scudi.'^ These coins, highlyregarded by his contemporaries, were housed in thenorth wing of the newly constructed papal library;they formed substantially the nucleus of the VaticanCoin Cabinet. His successors, especially BenedictXIV (1740-1758), Clement XIV (1769-1774), andPius VI (1775-1799), spared neither efforts normoney to add new treasures. In addition to theRoman coins and the rare mcdalions in which thiscollection was remarkably rich, a very good repre-sentative series of the Roman popes was added.Pius VI surpassed his predecessors in enriching the\'atican Coin Cabinet. In 1 794 he bought for 20,000scudi the famous cabinet of Queen Christina ofSweden, a collection by then in the possession of theOdescalchi family. Within the short span of a few-decades the popes succeeded in bringing their collec-tion to the highest level, equal almost to the ParisRoyal Cabinet. Unfortunately, within a few yearsmany of these exceedingly rare pieces were scatteredforever by a turn in history.In 1799, during the French occupation of Rome,innumeraijle coins were seized by individual .soldiers ?' .Vumismala . . . Miisei Honorii Arigoni Veneti ii'l usum jiwentulis rei mimmariae sluJinsar (1741). ' N'KNirri, Aniii/iia numismala . . . ex museo Ahxandri S.R.F..Card. Albani ill I'liliciinain Ihbliothecam . . . (1739-1744). of the French revolutionary army. Only a part ofthe original Vatican Cabinet could be transported toParis according to the plans (jf the Directoire in Paris.Count Camillo Serafini gives a detailed account ofthese events and concludes the story of the regrettablehappenings with the observation that "it could betruly said that the cabinet did not exist anymore." ''The Vatican collections, however, were rebuilt inlater years. It was (mly natural during this period of enlighten-ment, when art and science were benefiting greatlyfrom the impulses emanating from France, that most(jf the potentates of Europe would pay attention toone of the most intellectual of aristocratic pastimes.Indeed, Frederick the Great of Prussia, Louis XV ofFrance, Maria Theresa of Austria, her husbandClharles VI, Duke Anthon Giinther of Schwarzenberg,and Frederick II of Saxe-Gotha competed amongthemselves for the acquisition of entire collections orof famous single pieces. Charles VI carried his numis-matic fervor so far that he did not want to be separatedeven during military campaigns from some of hisfavorite coins. Accordingly, he had a portable coincase made which accompanied him on to the battle-fields of Spain.This period holds a special importance for thegrowth of the Vienna Coin Cabinet, which by 1663numbered over 15,900 pieces. Numismatics was cul-tivated at the Viennese court during the reign espe-cially of Joseph I, Charles' older brother. In 1709the emperor brought the Swedish scholar Carl GustavHeracus (1671-1725) from the court of the Princes ofSchwarzenberg. After Joseph's death in 1711,Heraeus continued his services with Charles VI, whoentrusted him with the task of integrating the ratherscattered coin holdings of the Viennese ''.Schatzkam-mcr." '" Heraeus not only organized the Vienna coincabinet but also substantially increased its treas- ures. Enjoying the financial and moral support ofthe numismatically inclined emperor, Heracus pur-chased many rarities on his numerous travels. In1713 he added to the Vienna Cabinet 1,200 selectpieces from the Ambras collection in the Tyrol. .\i)out the same time, the scholarly dissertations onancient coins by Father Erasmus Froehlich (1700-1758),"^ librarian and professor of archeology, added "3 MoneU del Medngliere Valicano, vol. 1, pp. L-LI. ?< Bergmann, "Pflcge der Numismatik in Osterrcich" (1856).pp. 32-34. "'- For a bibliography of his works, sec Babelon, Traiie, vol. 1 . cols. 169-170. _30 BULLETIN 229: CONTRIBUTIONS I-ROM IHE MUSEUM OF HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY Fig. 24- ? "C^\eini;t Lchis X\"' at the CLibimi dcs Medaillcs in Paris (phuto courlcsy Biljliiilli<''(|uc Xaliuiialr). to the prestige of Austrian luiniisniatics. Aimtliercollection of repute, during tlie rei'gn of Ciharles \'I,was the C(jin caljinet of Apostolo Zeno of \"enice,historian to the Emperor. Tiiis famous collection nlancient Greek and Roman cnins |jassed in 1747 to tiiemonastery of St. llorian in L pper .\ustria, where iiremained for over two hundred \cars until it w.is solil at auction in \ ieiuia after Wiirld \\ ,\v II. f)urini;the Na])oleonic era. the .\uslri.ni ( h.mcellcjr Metter-nich liuilt a comprehensixe collec lion ol coins andmedals in his Konigsherg Gastle.In France, Louis XV continued only half heartedlythe interest which the Sun King had shown for coins. .After 172(1 the ro\'al caljinet'"' was transferred from Versailles to Paris and set uji in a lavish arrangemeiuin the librar\ of the king in the ancient palace ol theMarc|uise de Lanilierl, where it can he seen in itsoriginal setting to this d.i\ digs. 24, 25). 'I'he little |)rincii).ilit\ ol S.rxe-( njlh.i couUl claim animportant colleclion \\ hii li li.id lieen .isseniMed l)\its princes (fig. 2()). I'lcdcriik II (Id'M I7.i2) pro- cl.iini<-d thai he cic.Hed ihis ( .iliincl '"lor llir repiu.i-licju of ( )nr I'rineiK llipu^i-, .md Inr ihe good ol thepiililir." '''Among the inslructions i;iven in 1744 I )y his suc-cessor I'lcderick III to Pi of. Si lil.ii-uer, curator of the collection, the following seems |)erfeclK' to delinecnralorial duticrs: "I'he curatoi' is su|)i)osed to show 9?J. Bahi i.oN, Lrs hew,, ,!? Cahw.i ,nil?i?.'. (l')27); s.-r .ilsu ? Pick, "Die Miinzkahincttc" (l')20); ? s,i,j/.^.i .'V TWMISMATOI'HYI.ACIVM yK I Jl F.R 1 CI A ^.'VM . Fig. 26. ? The Coin Cauinlt uf Frrdciick II (i6<)i-i732) of Saxc-Gdlha ([ihoio cuurlcsyBibluHhei]uc Xalionale). Fio. 27. ? Sir Hans Sloane (1660-1753), famous Irish cuiiicollector, and Dr. William Hunter (1718 1783), founderof the coin cabinet at the University of (jlasgow (drawingsfroin Durand). PAPER 32: NUMISMATICS AN ANCIIKNT SCIENCE 33 was added to an carlii-r bequest from Sir RobertCotton which had l^een donated to the state in 1710.Both formed the nucleus of what was to become themost famous coin collection in the world.'* Thiscollection and others, such as the substantial bequest of Dr. William Hunter to the University of Glasgow '"'or the coins of Dr. Richard Mead (which were listedin a sale catalog, Museum Mcadianum, 1755), of JohnSwinton, and of Horace \Val|)oIc, helped place Eng-land among the leading nations in numismatics.EARLY NINETEENTH CENTURY The turbulence and insecurity created by the FrenchRevolution and the Napoleonic wars left little leisureand understanding for any kind of diversion, and, asa result, coin collecting declined for a brief period ofthe new century in many European countries. Vet,from this dormant situation an awakening soon came,generated in France by Napoleon's own grandioseplans. Deliberate jjursuit of ancient ideals and artconcepts, as conveyed in the art of David and Canova,combined with a strong feeling for national grandeur,found expression in inrmmerable medals which werestruck during Napoleon's time.Numismatic literature in the subsequent yearsclearly reflected these tendencies. Two imposingworks of French medallic art, Michel Hennin's two-volume Histoire numismatique de la revolution Jrangaise(1826) and the twenty-volume Tresor de numismatique et de glyplique (1834-1858), both devoted largely tothe Revolution and to Napoleon, were publishedwithin these decades. Related to such works wasGerard \an Loon's Histoire metallique des XVII provincesdes Pajs-Bas, which had been published almost acentury earlier (1732-1737) and now was reedited inthe early 1800s.A remarkable figure in numismatics at the turn ofthe century was the Frenchman Theodore-EdmeMionnet (1770-1842), who joined the Cabinet desMedailles in 1795. Strongly influenced by the clas-sical tendencies of his age, he pursued ideals of dissemi-nating knowledge of ancient coins among wider circlesas well as a.ssisting artists in their work by giving themthe opportunity to obtain relief reproductions ofartistic coins. His sulj)hur-paste copies of the latterfound a wide acceptance; at the same time, he pub-lished descriptions of the type, history, and rarity ofthese coins. Eventually the publications grew intoa considerable work, Description des medailles antiquesgrecques et romaines avec leur degre de rarete et lew estima- Fig. q8.?Theodore-Edme Mion.net (1770-1842) of the Cabinet des Medailles, Paris(photo courtesy Bibliotheque Nationale). tion, [iublished between 1806 and 1813 in si.x volumeswith an additional volume of plates. The Supplement,in nine volumes, was issued between 1819 and 1837.In this largest publication (up to that time) on Greekcoins, Mionnet succeeded in describing over 52,000pieces. Although the work is not flawless and itsscholarly standards are lowered by a continuous pre-occupation with establishing the commercial \alue ofcoins, it still remains, through its wealth of informa-tion, an invaluable reference.Mionnet's contemporary, the Italian AbbotDomenico .Sestini (1750-1832), a well-known traveler "? Mattisgly, 'British Museum" (1949); Walker, "EarlyHistory of Department of Coins and Medals" (1953); Boulton,The Romame of the Brilisti Musfum (n.d.). '<" For the history of the Glasgow collections, sec M.\c-donai.d's catalog Greek Coins in the Hunlerian Coltection, vol. 1,pp. ix-lxvi; for an earlier catalog, see Combe, Nummorumvelerum (1782).34 BULLETIN 229: CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE MUSEUM OF HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY and nalmalist from Florence, piihlishcd, aniont; manytitles, catalogs of \arions coin collections v\ liicli he hadvisited during his tra\'els, such as Ltitere e i/i.sserliiz'iniimimismntuhc (1813-1820) and Dcscn-wtu public collections incentral Europe was hindered by wars and revolutions, I tab. and especially southern Italy, succeeded inincreasing the number of its collections. The coincabinet of Naples,"" formed in 1757, grew rapidly ? due in part to the archeological excavations in thesurroundings of Naples?to an inventory of aboutin.OflO Greek and oyer 16,000 Roman coins. In thesame city at the same time the Santangelo Collectioncould claim an equal number of ancient coins. In1865 this collection was purchased by the city ofNaples and added to its own coin cabinet in the na-tional museum. Between 1866 and 1871 the impor-tant holdings in ancient and medieval coins of thismuseum were cataloged by Giuseppe Fiorelli.'"^ Innumismatics, Naples by this time had developed agreat tradition, which has remained unchanged to thepresent day. Here, in 1808, Francesco MariaAvellino began tlie publication of a numismaticperiodical, (hmualr nuinnniuluii, which Ibllowed only a few years behind r'ri<-drich Schlichtegroll's earlierattempt, Annalin tier gi-sammli'n .\umismalik (issued inLeipzig and Gotha between 1804 and 1806). In 1822 Archduke Maximilian donaird lu die liiyof Modena?from whence the Renaissaiui- cibiu'iof the Dukes of I'Lstc '"' had disapjjeared a collec-tion which, by 1845, could claim over 35.0(1(1 pieces.Venice, with one coin c.ibinet in the librarx of St.NLark and another in the Mu.seo Correr. Parma witha coin cabinet founded in 1740. the Brera Collectionsin the Clastel Sforzeseo in Milan,""' lar^e and smallpublic coin collections in Turin.'"' I''l(ir-1871). "'' I*ANViNi r<()SAri, "II rionliiiainciito (lei Med.iulieje F-slcnsrdi Modena" (19S(.). ""? Bi rroNi, "11 Med,ii;llcTc di Mil.iiin .il ( :.i-irellci Slor/cseo"(19.S5).1"' I'Aum I rr, litf;io Minrn ih I Minn (IKKl 1H8K). '"" Sei'iNO, // meiliiglicri- mrilurii (1899). PAPER 32: NUMISM.'XTICS?AN ANCIENT SCIENCE 35 tainin? to classical coins, were formed, probably aseducational material, in libraries and universitiessuch as Coimbra and Oporto.'""In St. Petersburg were the impressive collectionsof the Hermitage, established during the reign ofCatherine II (1762-1796). Earlier, Peter the Great(1 689-1 72.S) had been known for his cabinet ofantiquities, which included numerous ancient coinsand .several hundred contemporary medals.""In his endeavor to raise Russia to the cultural levelof other European countries, Peter encouraged thecollection of historic and artistic objects. By per-sonal order of the Tsar in January 1722 all Russiancoins prior to his reign were to be confiscated fromchurches, monasteries, and wealthy noblemen andincorporated into the palace collection. (Only thetreasures of the Kiev-Petcher monastery remainedhidden from Peter; they were discovered in the latenineteenth century.) In 1728, after Peter's death,his collection was desposited for safekeeping withthe h'tinstkamer, where it was added to collectionsleft in earlier years by Russian noblemen, such asthe early Russian coins of the boyar Peter S. Saltykov,Governor of Kazan. In 1742 the holdings of over28,000 coins of the Kunstkamer were described inan illustrated catalog written in both Russian andGerman.Many other important coin collections were as-sembled in Russia during the late 18th and early19th centuries. The well-organized cabinet of CountAndrei I. Osterman (1686-1747), the most famousRussian statesman during the first half of his century,contained, in addition to outstanding Russian rari-ties, an important series of Chinese coins. This collection was incorporated into the Kunstkamer wliile the cabinet of Count .\. P. Volynsk, whichincluded numerous Asiatic and European coins,was given in 1740 to the .\cademy of .Science.'"During the middle of the 19th century, a German,Bernard von Koehne (1817-1885), who acted as acurator of the Hermitage, published a journal,Memoires de la Societe d'Archeologie et de Numismalique deSt. Pelersbourg (1874-1852). His special field of atten-tion was the ancient coinage of the Black Sea region. I. G. Spasskii, in his "Notes on the History of Russian '"' Batalha Reis, "Muscus e colcccocs publiras" (1946). "O.Scc BiKLiAEV, Kabinel Pelra Vrltkago (1800). '" SPAS.SKII, ''Ochcrki po istorii russkoi numizmatiki," pp.40-12, 52-77. Fig. Qg. ? .\leksandr Dmitrievhtch Chertkov(1789-1858), Russian numismatist (photocourtesy the Hermitage, Leningrad). Numismatics" "^ asserts that Aleksandr D. Chertkov'searlier work on Russian coins, Opisanie drevnikhRusskikh moiwl (1834-1842) , can be considered thefirst scientific publication in the field of Russiannumismatics. In the same period, Baron Stanislavde Chaudoir published a three-volume handbook ofRussian coins which is still used, Apcrqit sur les monnaies riisses et sur les monnaies etrangeres qui ont eu cours enRussie (1836-1837).Many rare pieces, especially in the ancient field,were purchased for the Russian cabinets. Large andwidely diversified collections, containing local finds ofancient coins from the Greek colonies on the shores ofthe Black .Sea, sprang up in southern Russia. Espe-cially noteworthy were the cabinets in the Odessa "-' Ibid. 36 BULLETIN 229: CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE MUSEUM OF HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY Fig. 30. ? Baron Stankl.w de Chaudoir(1791-1858), Russian numismatist (plintocourtesy tht- Hermitage, Leningrad). niuscum, in Kerch, and at the L'ni\crsity of Kic\'.Anotlicr university coUection conkl Ije louiid as fareast as Kazan."'The early decades of the l')lh cenltiiy can l)e vi_m-sidercd a |)re[)aratory piiase for the increasingly seien-titic direction which ninnisniatics tool; in the laterlUDOs. More and more, ren(_)\\ net! pi i\ali- collectionswere incorjjorated, li\' donaticjii 01 pinch. isc, intcj thelarqe C(jllecti(jns of tin- pui)lic imisi-niiis, winii- llieywere tended I )\' skilled s|jecialists. I'roni the distin-t;iiished ranks of the latter came m.my of the oul-standint; contributions to ninnisnialic research. Oftenassociated with learned circles of imiversities, thesemen hrcjutiht into lunnismalics the accinac\' ol scliol- arl\ niclhods, a wide knowledge, and die asditenrsv i,fscKaKilic.illv 11. lined minds. Due 10 ihcii inllnciiic,even tin- so-ealltd dilcitantrs and amatems in ihcli<-ld were induced h, l(,ll,,\\ inoiv c.irrful nicthnds, ascan he seen in the p.ipeis piilihshed .i| the lime. 'I histrend ol ehannehiiL; mimisinalic inleresl .ilont^ inoieseienlilic linili;i i/r nuiiiiMiin/ir/iir.These three periodicals had, in lad, heeii precededliy sex'cral German pnhlicalions of .1 less perm.meiitcharacter. [. Leit/maiurs .\iiitii\iiiali\i-lii- ^ii/iim^ wasissued in Weissensee, Thurinnia, from l,S.i4 to ISn.i.Hermann Grote's Bldtlcr fiir Miiiirkiiinlr: I Iiiiiiiiiv,i-m heiiiiiiii\inii/i\i III .~i ihiln ifl was piiMished in Leip/i'4 Iroml(S.i5 lo I.S44 ami continued as M iinrsliiJi, 11 liom 1M57to 1877. In Berlin, Bernard \on Koehiie pnlilislu'd ^nlsilii ijl I'll) Mini--, Siioil- mill l\'ii/i/i,'ii/,iiiiili' from 18)1to |8-l(i and from 183'' to |8(i2: it w.is conlinned from18(i.i (o ]87,i as Hii/iiiii iSliilIci fiii Mimz-. -^'ni^i/- unci II ii/i/'i iiliiiiili'. .Mllioiinh their pa^es c.irrii-il interesting ciintril lulions, these e.ulier ( Jiain.in pei iiidii ,ils were ol a ralliei limiied inline nee. The le.iiliiiL' ( ierin.m ,iii(l .'\iislri.iii re\iR-s ^1 ihi In ill j in .\ iiiiii\iiiiiliL ,ind .\iiiiiii- iiiiilisilii ~ii/\iliiil/ lollowed within ,1 lew \e.n's. .\ssiiei,iled with these p<'iiodicals were some ol I hemost renowned n.imes in mimism.il ies. In l''r.iiu-e,which lei, lined ils pl.iee anion'.; die le.idiie,; n.ilionsin the Ik Id. there were: iiaron I'lei re-I'hihppeBourlier d'.XilK (l~'',i 1877"!, whose Kdni.ni l\e-pul)li(.m coins, the l,iri;esl colleetioii ul its kind inexistence.'" \M-iit to I he Paris G.iliiiiel des .Medailli's; "^ Bl.kl-siM- . C.iihniit iiiiirnMiKiln/ii' ili' I'l 'luri i \ili' niif'niiili ihCiiiim (185.S). "' uWiiiS. l\i'ilhnlii\ Mil III ntiiiiiiiiir iniihiinf fliftui^ \i'fl urii^iiiejiiujii'i'i 1,1 moil il'Aiioiisli (I.Sdl l,S(,y). P.\PER 32: NU.MISM.\TIC.S AN ANCIENT SCIl'.NCE 37 Fig. 31.?HoNORE d'Ai.bkrt, Due de Luynes(1802-1867), famous I'Vcnch collector andaulhor (photo covirtcsy Bibliotheque Na-tionalc, Paris). (1858-1862), bfcame the leading authority on thefeudal coinage of France; Justin Sabatier (1792-1870),in Monnaies byzantincs (1862), produced what still isan indisjjensable work on Byzantine numismatics.Following similar traditions, but with a specialemphasis on medieval and modern times, Belgiumand the Netherlands produced names like ConstantAntoine Serrure (1835-1898), Raymond C. Scrrure(1863-1899), Prosper D. Mailliet (1808-1886) (withthe best publication on obsidional coinages. Cataloguedescriptij des monnaies ohsidionales et de nkessite, 1868-1873), Pieter Otto van der Chijs (1802-1867),director of the coin caijinct of the University ofLcyden (with his Dc munlen der Xederlanden, 1851-1866), and P. Verkadc (with a numismatic history ofthe Netherlands, Muntboek bevattende de namen enqfbeeldingen van munten, 1848). The coin cabinet inBrussels, founded in 1830, \\ithin a few decadesclaimed outstanding rarities. In the Netherlands thegroup of coins at the University of Leyden andespecially the cabinet in The Hague "^ were themajor collections. Due Monore dc Luynes (1802-1867), one of thefounders of the Institut d'Archcologie in Rome andan outstanding .scholar, whose collection of almost7,000 Greek coins, which he gave to the Paris cabinet,was later published by Jean Babelon;"'' Louis Charles,Due de Blacas, who translated Theodor Mommsen'shistory of Roman coinage into French between 1865and 1875: and Henri Cohen (1806-1880), librarianat the Cabinet des Meclailles, who produced in hisMedailles iwperiales (1859 1868) the most popularhandbook on Roman imperial pieces. The lattcr'ssimple method of arranging the coins alphabeticallyby reverse legends under their respective emperorsmade this catalog very easy to use by a wide public,even to the present day.By midcentury, France produced scores of col-lectors and scholars well versed in ancient andmedieval numismatics. P'clicicn dc Saulcy (1807-1880), author oi Numismalique des croisades (1847) andof various studies on Byzantine and Gallic numis-matics, was also known as a collector; his 7,000 Galliccoins were donated to the Paris Cabinet. FaustinPuey d"A\ani, with Les monnaies feodales de la France Fig. 32. ? Pieter Otto van der Chijs (1802-1867), Dutch numismatist and director ofthe cabinet at the University of Leyden (Div.(if Xumisinalics |)hoto). "^ l.'iiliilngiir de la collection de Luynes: Monnaies grecques (1924-1936). "" Sec the catalog by Dompierre, C/ioix de monnaies el medailles(1910); also (Ikldkr, "Les fonctions externcs du Cabinet desMddailles de La Hayc" (1957). 38 BULLETIN 229: CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE MUSEUM OF HISTORY .AND TECHNOLOGY In England Reginald S. Puule (l,S32 1S')4), keeperof the cabinet in the British Mnsenni, initiated itsgreat scries of coin catalogs. At the same time C'.ul. William M. Leake (1777-1860), whose 12,0(10Greek coins were purchased iiy the Uni\ersily ofCambridge in 1S64, publishetj the catalog of liiscollection under the title .\1un1sni17l11 IIill,nua (1.S56)."'In 1883 Pere\' Gardner ( I .S4(i 1 ')37 1, promoter ofstudies in art and ni\ thologv as relaleti to ancientcoins, i)ublished Irjns (if Ctiick (mdi.s, a valuablework for the student. Other representatixe Britishcollectors and scholars of the ceniurv were Edward 11.Buiifiury, Arthur J. E\ans, Ilyman Montagu(author of an iiui-resting stucK' on more recent coinsof England: T/ie Cnpji,), I ni, aiul Himi-j' ('.iniiiiiii' ntulPaltiins for Coins of EiiglaiuU 18''3l, and es|)eciall\'Rogers Ruding, noted lor his earlier pulilicalion ofdocumenlar\' material Irom \arious aichixes entitledAnnah of the Coinage of Gnat Britain (2nd ed., 181') I.In Denmark the leading name was Luchig MiiUer(1809-1891),"'* in charge of ancient coins in theRo\"al Coin C'abinet and author of basic stuilies ontlie coinages of Philip II of Macedon, of Alexanderthe Great (.Wiinisinatiqiie d' AlexunJer le Grnnil, 1853)of Lysimachus, King of Thrace (Dir Atiinrm tlr\thrakiM'/wn hoiiigs Lysimachus, 1858), and on thenumismatics of C^arthage and North Africa {Numis- niatiqiie de raihunne AJiujiif, 1800-1874).In German\. worth noting among many faiiKJUsnames, are Julius I'riedlaender (1813-18S4), directorof the steadily growing coin cabinet in Berlin, KarlLudwig Grotefcnd. Alfred \on Sallet, HeinrichDresscI,"'' Hermann Grote, Emil and Ma.\ \onBahrfeldt,'-'" and Johannes Brandis, noteworthy forhis metrologieal studies Dm MinK-, Mass- and Cc- withtsivescn in Vordirnswn his aitf Ahsandii dm Crosscn(1866) which opened the way for the later treatiseof Friederich Hultsch (see p. 45).In Italy there were: Count Bartolomeo Borghesi(1781-1860), epigraphcr and numismatist, whosecomplete works?of \vhich his Ofiivri'\ nuniiuniitiijiics(1862-1864) was a part?were published in I'ranceunder the auspices of Napoleon 111; .Abbot tlelestinoCavedoni, witli luany publications on ancient numis-matics and especially on the coinages ol the Rom.m 11; Sec also l-'itzii-dliam MtiMum: l.mk,- and d-tinnl Cnllir/iaii^(l')4n-1951). ""For his biography, see JoRorNsi-.N (IH'M); 1'ic;k (IH'M). "' For liis biography, sec Fr.?.nke ('19.'i')). '-'"For Grotc, see Berghacs (1''.S2). for I'anil and NTaxBahrfeldt, sec Jesse (1953). PAPER 32: NUMISM.YnCS? AN ANOIF.NT SCIENCE Fig. 33.?LuDvir; MiiM.i.R ( ilioc) i8i)i ), D.mishnumismatist (|)hoto courtesy Konneli^e M0n-tog Medaillesamling. Onpcnhageu). Repiiblic; Criuseppe i'iorelh, with the -till \li6>i general de las mnnedas hisparm-crislianas(1865-1869) and Description generate des monnaiesantiaues de r Espagne (1870). A still useful referenceIjook which should he mentioned is the huso Catdlogode la coleccion de mnnedas y medallas (1892), representingthe important cabinet of Manuel Vidai Quadrasy Ramon. -Most of the basic reference books on Russiannumismatics were written during the later part of the19th century. Fedor Fedorovich .Schubert (1789-186.S) issued a detailed catalog of his collection in1857 and republished it later in two separate works:Monnayes russes des dernihes trois siecles (1857), andMonnaies el medailles russes (1858). A few decadeslater, another outstanding collector, Count IvanTolstoi, covered the early periods of the Russianprincipalities in such works as Drevneislne russkiernonely velihigo kniaszhestva h'ievskogo (1882) and Mone/yPsknrskie (1886). 'I'hc great specialist in ancient andmedieval numismatics, Alcksei \'. Oreshnikov, pro-duced in Russkie mnnety do 1547 gnda (1896) the classicwork on early Russian coinages. C'haudoir's Apergu sur hs monnaies russes and .Schubert's works (mentioned earlier), published in French, are, even to the presentday, the most popular reference books outside ofRussia on general Russian numismatics. Becauseof the language barrier. Christian Giel's compact list Tahlilsy russkikh monet dvukh poslednikh sloletii(1898) and Ilyin and Tolstoi's publication on Russiancoins struck from 1725 to 1801, Russkie rnonelychekanenme s 1725 po 1801 g. (1910), are referred toonly occasionally. The monumental publication ofGrand Duke Georgii MikhaiIo\itch. cousin of TsarNicholas II, represents Russia's outstanding con-tril)ution to modern numismatics: Monety tsarstvovanii(1888-1914) describes in 12 documented \olumeshis extensive collection of Russian coins, whichcover the period from the reign of Peter the Great to1890. Fig. 35. ? .Aleksei VASiT,iE\aTCH Oresumkov(1855-1933), famous Russian historian andnumismatist (photo courtesy the Mcnnitage,Leningrad).40 BULLETIN 229: CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE MUSEUM OF HISTORY" AND TECHNOLOGY Among tlie prominent mnuismatists in Polandshould bo mentioned the great medie\ alist JoacliimLelewel ( 1 780-1 S(.l ),'-' who left his homeland alterthe 1S3I ReN'ohition and chose first France and thenBclsium as places of asylnm. iXfost signiheant of hisworks is .\iiini\iniiliquc dii /)iiiri'ii-iii;r (1S33). His eon-temporary Edward H. Racz\nski (1787-1845), with a puhlie.itiijn on Polish historical medals, /., iin'iliiiilrr ill- /'iiliintic (18 iS), as it .ippeared under its IVeiu li litk-.and later (:(jimt lancric Ilutten-Cl/apski (182') 1N')6),\\ilii his lar^e (:,i/i:l,i<;Nr de la ciillrtlinii fl,^ niiiluilln ft miiiiinin's piil(iii,ii\,s (1,S7I I'Md), helped to eslahlishPoland's prestige in raimisinatics. MODERN TRENDS AND ACCOMPLISHMENTS Since numismatics from the lieginning of the I'Uhcentm y presents such a complex picture, it has seemedmore advantageous to \'iew the science in three dislinetand consecutive periods: the lailr iighlirn-hutulrols (pp.34-37), a relatiN'cly dormant s|)an, still stronulv tiedto its preceding century, hut with a slow, sleadx-awakenini;: the iiuihinhnv (|)p. 37?41), charac-terized by a conscious drive toward higher standards, a preparatory inter\-al for subsecjuent accomplish-ments; and finally, the mndirn mi. which h.is seen themost acUanced work in the histor\' ol numismatics.In this last period, the science has lollowed an un-broken line of CMilution, extendini; Irom the Im.dquarter of the I'lth century to the present chiy.While an approach aloni; geot;ra]5hical lines withineach historical period has been useful uiuil now in ihepresent study?permitting a clearer pielnre of numis-matic e\'olution within each cotnitry ?the complexitx'(if modern research makes it necessary, from this pointon, to jiroceed on the liasis of specialized fieldsin the science. Increased international cont.n ts.facilitated through modern ways of life ?which kiteron, in the 2()th century, developed into genuine inter-national cooperation through congresses, meetings.and exhifiitions?opened a new era in numism.itics. -Mthough national barriers have ne\'er impeded col-lectors from exchanging specimens heretolore. schol.iis still were tied strongly to local or national traditions.This pattern changed toward tin- end oi the P'tli cen-tury, and ver\ often new trends or methods which hadbeen developed in one country found iinmcdialcresponse in related circles abro.id.Simultaneoush-. the attitude of scholars towardnumismatics took a drastic turn, flic lime ol the "Mimzbclustigungen," a leisureK' game with old andpuzzling objects, was gone. Cione also was the spiritof Humbold. the miisersal genius who ,ipi)roached all Ill-Ids lor the enjo\ni( iit ol a eonliimons accumu-lation of knowled'_;e. .Xuiiiism.itie^ h.id re.iehed thepoint wherein the hulk of colleeti-d d.it.i. spotl\- as itm.i\ h.i\"e b<'cn. needed to be mili/i-d fir wider con-structive scholarship. I'he deepK penelratinu mind ol the specialist who is thoron'_;lil\ lamiliar with .is])ecls of specific histoi ie.d periods ,md who cmeom|irehend the lunelion of coins within a nuilti-plicits of phenomena had to re|)l,iee the wcll-xcrsedlint olteii sii|)i-rhel.tl am.iteur. " 1 o br .i Ltre.a gcn- er.il nuinismatist is beyond the powi-rs of one man," w.is st.ued as e.irlv as 1883 iiy Stanlev l..iiie-1'oole: '-'-yet this British scholar belie\ed that hi-i'_;ener,uion h.idproducetl nuinism.nists who could diLtniK the "scienceas iieimiiKj longer ser\ile but masterK ." .\umism.it-ics -no longer a mere auxiliar\' to .nx heolo'_;\ .mdliistor\' was a science in its own ri^ht .md, .is siu h.h.id to be deliiied .is to scope and method. .\nother ehar.ieteristic ol numisiii.itie resiMreh,which li.is emerged in the kist 3(1 ye.ns, is die inereas- iii'.^ numlier of spei i.il stibjet ts th.it .ire beiii'.; embracedb\ the const.mth exp.Hiding r.tn'_;e of numism.itics. .\ew ,ip|)roaches such as the stiidv of teclmic.il andesthetic aspects of coins, the laboratory methods of metalhir^ic.il research .ipplied to coins, the studs oll.iNilu Mtioiis. the iiiere.isiiiL; emph.isis on |)hotoL;raphy .IS .1 m.ijor instrument in numism.ilie studies .md asan edue.ition.il l.iclor in |jopiil,iri/in'4 coins, the 1ciiiloreenienl ol more lr.iditioii.il siibjecis likemetrology and epiL;r,ipliy .ire lindiiiL; wider amideeper a pplic.ttion. flic icl.ited siiidies of priiniti\'eiiiedi.i of exelian'-;e ,iiid espeei.illy the theory ol theorigin of n tones . .i pet snbjeet with ( lerin.m eeonon lists .111(1 immisma lists (hiring the p. 1st ceiitiirv . .ire produc-ing new .md origin. il interpret. ilioiis. i'.iper ( iirren- ciis ,ind \-.irious other (.locuments ol \alue li.iSTentered the f leiis i il modern rese.ireh. '-'I H.msk;. -I. I,clc\\c-rs Iinpiiil.mc ' in 1',iiiii|ic.im Numisin.il-ii-s" (r)61 ). i;-' Ci(?> .nil/ Miiliil^. |). 2. P.'\PER 32: NUMISM.VnCS?.AN /XNCIENr SClENfiK 41 The role of revolutionizing the course of ancientnumismatics?opening new ways and pointing outnew perspectives in its research?fell to two men,Friedrich Imhoof-Blumer in the Greek lield andTheodor Monnnsen in the Roman.GREEK NUMISMATICS Imhoof-Blumer's name trails like a comet across thefield of Greek numismatics. Born at W'interthur,Switzerland, in 1838 into a family of wealthy indus-trialists, he decided in his midthirties to devote hislife to Greek numismatics.'"^ Seldom, if ever, has an "amateur"?if this word could ever apply to Imhoof-Blumer?attained such a level of pericction in hisresearch: seldom has a numismatist brought aboutsuch significant innovations. The study of Greeknumismatics has always e.xertcd a strong attraction on collectors because of the highly esthetic quality ofGreek coins and because of the intriguing fact thatthese coins seldom bear more than the name of a cityor a ruler?thereby posing challenging problems ofidentification. Imhoof-Bhuner started as a collectorof Greek coins, but very .soon he began to publishhis own observations as he discovered many entirelyunknown or erroneously attributed coins. A long scries of articles and publications was the result,of which Monnaies ffrecques (1883), Griechische Miinzen(1890), and hleimsiatische Miinzen (1901-1902) aremajor works. No problem seemed too difilcult forhim to solve. His inquisitive spirit and his criticalapproach in using documentary and material evidencemake most of his publications models of research.Sir George Macdonald rightly has called him //maestro di color che sanno.Impressed by certain die similarities of some statersin the Greek province of Acarnania?coins whichpreviously had been attributed to various cities onthe basis of the obverse monograms?Imhoof-Blumerdecided to assign them all to the same mint.'-' Thisrecognition of the existence of identical die.s?arisingfrom a comparative study of coins?and the resultantidentification of die-link sequences was a masterstroke which opened new perspectives for the entirefield of numismatics. This approach became a basicmethod for establishing the relative chronology of Fig. 36. ? Friedrich Imhoof-Blumer (1838-1920), great Swiss collector and author in aportrait by VVilhelm v. Kaulbach (photocourtesy Mrs. L. Sulzcr-\Veber, VVinlcrthur,Switzerland). undated series such as Greek coinages. SinceWinckelmann's time '-" stylistic considerations hadbeen a major clue in delineating the time factor, but,as noted by Sir George Macdonald, ""classification by style can hardly take us beyond a grouping intoperiods, whereas die-study may carry us a stageluriher and enalile us to determine sequences withinthe periods with certainty and precision." '-''Imhoof-Blumer's principles, employed by the Ger-mans ?as in Kurt Regling's monograph on the coinsof Terina (1906)?and by British scholars, found themost brilliant api^lication, however, across the oceanin America, where Iklward T. Newell, in 1912,revolutionized the chronology and attributions ofcertain coinages of .Mexander the Great. It is i^' For additional biographical and bibliographical data, sechis obituary in R^vuf siiissr dr numismaliqtie (1920); also Engf.li,i'rieJrich ImhimJ-Blimier (1924). '" Die Miinzni Akarnmiirns (1878). '" Sec C.\HN, ".Analyse et interpretation du style" (1953);and especially the basic work of Rf.gling, Die antike Miinzfah h'tmslwerk (1924).126 "Fifty Years of Greek Numismatics," p. 14.42 BULLETIN 229: CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE MUSEUM OF HISTORV .\ND TECHNOLOGY interesting to note thai, as early as tiic 1 87()s, anAmerican nuniismalist, Sylvester S. Clrosby?ccr-tainh nnaware ol' hnhcjof-Bknner's new metliods ? had tried, in his work The Eurly Coins of America(1875). to establish a chront)lonical arrangement inearly American coins liv studyino; their die combina-tions. At the present time, die-studies are thecommon procedure in Greek numismatics andattempts have been made recently to apply it toRoman as well as modern coinatjes.Inspired by Thcodor Mommsen's idea of creatingan extensive work on Greek coins as a companion tothe "C:orpus of Latin Inscriptions," the Prussian .\cadeniy of Sciences in Berlin assiirned to Imhoof-I51umer the direction of Die Aniiken Miin.ien Nnrd-(hiechenhitids. .Such a corpus was intended to super-sede all publications on the subject by describingevery known coin t\ pe of each city or province withina chronological .sequence, with full attention given to all av). PAPER 32: NUMISM.^TICS AN ANDIF.NT SCIKNCF; 43 Fig. 38. ? Barclay V. Head (1844-1 9 14) ofthe British Museum coin cabinet and authorof Historia tiummnrwn (pholo from CorollaNumismatka) . is . . . to build lip in oiuiinc the history of the ancientworld as it existed from the seventh ccnturv beforeour era down to the closing years of the third centuryA.D., a space of nearly a thousand years." "" Thistask Head accomplished masterfully within his 964pages.At Reginald Poole's instigation, the British Museumin 1873 began the publication, in catalog form, of itscollection of Greek coins. During a span of over hftyyears a work of impressive quality has been achieved:by 1927 twenty-nine \olunics had been issued.Maintaining EckhePs geographical sequence, thetitles include the ancient Greek coinages of Italy,Greece, the Islands, Asia Minor, Egypt, and Cyre-naica; still to be covered arc Gaul, Spain, andMauritania. While the first \olumes, on whichPoole and Gardner collaborated, adhered strictly tothe form of a catalog, the later volumes, written by '5" I'rcfarc to the fust edition, p. xvii. B. V. Head, G. F. Hill, and more recently E. S. G.Robinson?with extensive introductory studies onthe monetary history of each geographical entity ? come closer in their concept to a genuine corpus.Today this fine tradition is being continued byK<-nneih G. Jenkins, Keeper of Greek coins in theMu.scum.In addition to the catalogs, the British Museum in1932 published a selection of the most outstandingCireek coins in the museum. A Guide to the PrincipalCoins of the Greeks (reprinted in 1959 in its 4th edition)was compiled by' G. F. Hill on the basis of B. \'.Head's earlier Coins of the Ancients (1880).Contrary to the opinion of some who consider acatalog a waste of efTort, unworthy of any scholar,such puljlications are invaluable. No corpus ormonograph could be completed without the aid ofaccurate descriptions of countless specimens. Con-sequentK', an increasing number of collections,public and private, are made accessible to researchthrough such catalog ])ublications. Largest and mostimpressive is Sjlloge numrnoruw Grnecorum. the title ofan international series of publications: British,Danish, German, and, more recently, .Americancatalogs puljlished separately in those countries.This multi-volume work, which tries to apply tonumismatics the principles of the Corpus Vasnruin. stresst's especially the importance of excellent photo-graphic reproductions of e\ery specimen. Begun in1931, it is still being published.Another outstanding work which contains numerous|5hotc)graphs of coins is the catalog of the McCleanCollection oj Greek Coins (1923-1929), compiled byS. W. Grose for the Fitzwilliam Museum of CambridgeUni\'ersity and used often as a reference book. Inthe L nited States, the Museum of Fine Arts inBoston, which possesses some of the finest examplesof Greek coins (most of which came from the E. P.Warren Collection and were published earlier byKurt Regling in Die griechischen Afiinzen der SamrnlungWarren, 1936), published in 1955 their own Catalogue of Greek Coins, compiled by Agnes Baldwin Brett.Also, the J. Ward C^ollection, housed in the Metro-politan Museum, was published by .Sir George F.Hill in 1901.One of the most interesting phenomena in classicalnumismatic research is the transformation thrt)ughwhich the idea of a corpus has gone. Initially con-ceived in the 16th century as a publication whichwould encompass the entire classical world, it has beenconfined in modern times, b\- the Pru.ssian .\cademv 44 BULLETIN 229: CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE MUSEUM OF IIISIORV .\ND TECHNOLOGY of Sciences, tu ancient tireek euin;it;es, lull e\)23). "Epigraphical .Votes on Greek Coins" ir?43 l')6l)) l)\' .Marcus Tod, liil'linnnifihy of Cnrk (.'mti lliiiirds(1025 and 1037) liy Sydney P. .\oe, die studies onl.ilsiiications by Hu<;o (iaeljler (I-'dL< hiiin^iii nidkidinii- silin- Munyn. 1031 -r)42) and Osc.il R,ivi4 (??.\,,iestechniqiK.-s pour reconn.illre les moim.iies L;rec(|uesfausses," 1033) ? conliniiiii'.; ihe classic works ufJoannes .Svoronos and Sir (ieor^e Hill ' '' on dielauioLis counterfeiters (!oiislantine Chrislodoiilos .mdC'arl \\ ilhelm Becker -cast new rr_;lii onlo oilierareas. Problems conneeled with the miiiliii'4 processwere the suliject of studies b\ Sir ( n-orL;i- .M.icdon.ild("Eoose and I'ixed Dies." 1 ')(!()). Ch.iiles 1. Si lim.-m,t:arol EI. \'. Sutherland. ( )se,ir E. R.ixcl. WilKSclnvabaehcr, Ettoie C.ilnici (willi his i unlinx ci si.ilJidjuti r (I'linidiii^iii dfUr iiiniiiii' ^filir diil I // ul V si'ddii n.i',.^ 1051). and, more reeeiulv, ('. Ki.i.ix.Xew and clialleni^ini; possibilities emei L;e from l.ibo-ralor\ tests: michrochemical anaKses, specific ttr.i\il\tests, spectrographic analyses, and the application ofx-rays and namina im\s to the study ol (.oins. InBelgium Paul X.ister, in the Iniled Sl.ites E.arle K.ClaleV ((dlr/tll, III I Ji/ll/iinllliill id I'd) I III III! ( 'ill II \. I'*3">l. .111(1in C.anada Prof Willi, mi P. Wall. ice ('Impurities iniaiboean Monet. ir\ SiKei." T't!) ,iie die ii.imcs olonlv a few scholars who li,i\e been iiisliiimeiil.il inbro.ideniniT the way for a more ex.ict knowledur olihe metallic composition of aneieiu ruins ,i held olresearch opened up b\ the wuik nl K. \'. He. id. ).Hammer, and K. B. i lofm.mn before the turn ol the eentur\'. Fresh \iew])oiiits on the mel.illie suppK olthe mints, on economic ]ilienoiiien,i sm h .is die de-basement of currencies, .md on new .md poviii\emethods in the detection of .iiilhentii . I.ilse, or .ilteiedspecimens, are the pers]ieeti\(s riAciled b\ thesemethods. '^-The esthetic perfeclion of Creek coins li.is alw.i\sappealed to collectors .iiid schol.irs. Perc\ (i.irdiier,Reginald Poole ("On theek Coins ,is IllustratingGreek .Art," 1864), (ieorge F. Hill (S.-lnl Cnrk (mi>is.1'I27). and Sir .\rtliur i'.\-.ms have suggested die rel.ition between the liisliii\ of .irt .md cl.issic.ilnumism.ities. bill it is due to Kurt Reuliiii; tli.it theCh-eek coin h.is come to be gener.ilU accepted .is a 111 Svduoniis, Sriiiifiu\ ili-\ milli- cuiin fmi^ 'In fmiii'ini- C. Chns- l.uluuliis (1932); Hirr, Brikn Ihr Cmnlnfnln (I''2-)). "- .\n cxrclk-nt liibliocraphv on llie suljjcrl is in \\siiii, 'Wumnmiiliipii- rl mllhiiil,^ >lr l.ilm.ilon" (I'JiSi); see ;ils.> thejournal ArilMrniiuiry. I'.M'ER 32: NUMISM.ATICS- AN ANCII.NT Sf:iKN(;l'; 45 Fig. 39. ? Kurt Regi.ing (1876-1935), directorof tiic Miinzkabinctt in Berlin (photocourtesy Staallichc Musecn, Berlin). work of art, a inaiiifcslatioii of the hia;hly estheticmind of the ancients and an equal to major worksof art. His book Die antike Miinze als Kunstwerk(1924) has found many enthusiasts, with the rcsuhthat it has become a tradition ainons^ wider circlesof collectors and art students to consider Greek coinsalmost exclusively from the esthetic point of view.Giulio E. Rizzo's monumental pui)lication on tlu!Greek coinage of Sicily, h4onete greche della Skilia(1946), and especially Charles T. Seltman's work.Masterpieces of Creek Coinage (1949), with its excellentphotographic enlargements taken from outstandingspecimens and accompanied by explanatory text,have contributed greatly to the diflusion of thisattitude. RecenUy, Prof. W. Schwabacher has pub-lished an excellently written monograph devoted toone of the great mastcrworks in ancient Greeknumismatics, the demarcteion of .Syracuse. Das Demareleion (1958) has found wide appeal with non- specialists as well as scholars.In the late thirties, the Germans Max Hirmer andKurt Lange initiated, almost simultaneously, a newkind of publication with Hirmcr's Die schonstertCriechenmiinzen SizHiens (1940) and Lange's ColterCriechenlands (1940), Herrscherkopje des Altertums (19.38),Antike MUnzen (1947), and Charakterkopje der Well-geschichte (1949). Intended for wider circles ofamateurs and the public in general, these booksaccentuated the esthetic aspect of coins by reproduc-ing enlarged and artistically executed photographs ofbeautiful specimens. Many of the volumes carryvery little text. A few notes or a brief introductorystudy gives the reader necessary information andentrusts to pictures the function of telling the story.These very attractive publications, which usually donot limit themselves to the Greek period but freelyroam the entire span of history, have had a highlyeducative result and certainly contribute more thanany other kind of publication to the familiarizationof the uninitiated with the world of numismatics.Outstanding publications of this kind are: HerbertCahn's Monnaies grecques archdiqiies (1947), Friih-hellenistische MUnzkunst (1945); Leo and MariaLanckoronski's Das romisc/ie Bildnis in Meisterwerkender Miinzkunst (1944), Mythen imd Miinzen (1958);Leopold Zahn's Schones Geld aiis zwei Jahrtausenden(1958); and .Jean Babelon's Dauernder als Erz, dasMenschenbild auj Miinzen und Medaillen (1958)?also inEnglish as Creal Coins and Medals (1959)?with excel-lent photogra|)hs by Jean Roubicr. ROMAN NUMISMATICS Based on the preliminary works ol Count Bartolo-meo Borghesi and Celestino Cavedoni, Theodor C.Mommsen (1817-1903),"-' the famous historian ofancient Rome, issued in 1860 in Berlin his masterwork Die Gescliichte des romischen Miinzwesens. Isolatedhistorical phenomena and loose chronological ele-ments which had puzzled many of his predecessorswere solved by Mommsen and built into a singlelogical structure which attempted to define the evo-lution of a highly organized institution, the Romaii 1J3 l.Qi- additional bii)i?iai)lii< al and bibliographical informa-tion, sec Moniinsen's obituaries: Dressel in ^rilschrijl JiirNtimismatik (l'J04); Gabrici in Revisla italiana di numismatica(1903).46 BULLETIN 229: CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE MUSEUM OF HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY w- J ffrV Fig. 40. ? Theodor C. MoMMSEN (1817-1903),noted German historian (Div. ol Numis-matics photi)). mint. ScckiiiL; the hnsic printi|ilc-s which mjvcnirdthe mint and ,il the same linn- cuiisiilcrin!;' the pro-gressive develupnieiit in the organization ol [jrevioiisAsiatic and Greek mint svstenis, Mommsen tried toexplain the legal aspects of Roman eoina'_;e as pai t cjIthe fundamental state laws and to sol\<- the difiicnllproblem of chronology within the Repiil)lican coina'-;e.After Joseph Eekhel's earlier eiili'^hlcnini; work,Momnisen's apjjroach seemed to he the logical direc-tion of development for Roman numismatics. Ne\-cr-iheless, for decades to come, the erudilion ol liolh menhad to yield in popularit\' to Iliini Cohen's un-scholarly hm extremely practii al manuals on Roman coins. The hitter's methods in his l)i\n ijilmii onii'itilc i/ii nuintiaiis dc la n'/nih/iq/ii' luiiuinii (IWS^i stood lor almost tliree decades nnlii llie\- were ri-vised |)artlyl)y Ernest Babelon, who hied lo use Mommsen'sehronolonie.il systlot;ie,il arranijeminl li.isrd ont'.ount de Salis" work which (irnelKi ioilowed in hise\e<'llent cataloi; .md sttid\- Cuius nf llii' Rntmin Hipithlic III llir Ihi/iJi MiiM'iiiii (I'MO). .Mso indispcnsalile wereMax von Bahrfeldt's corrections and additions lo theselistiims, pul)lished over a |)eriod of Iwentv-lwo vearsin his three-volume .\uililiagi' iiinl lin uhhginigrn(IS'i7 -I'MO). 1 )urini; the first lliiee decades of tin- present centtirv,inteiest in Roman nunnsmatics lias (iiUen-d mainlyaroniid the imperial eoina<;e.'" .Special allentionmust he t;i\-en in ilalv to l''ranceseo (Jnecchi with hisexcellent puhlications of Rom, in med.illions andcoins, / niidiigliiiiii iiiiiiiiiii (l'n2) as well as Man, If iiiiiiaiii- (l.S'f(>), and l^odovico Laliranchi, who, in a\2,vr.\i mniiher ol studies, covered main histoiicalaspects ol the Roman lanpire. Remark, ihle ,ire liismonogra|)hs on the 01 i;,inization ol the Rom, in mintand on the coinages of .\umistus and M.^iientius.'''''Representati\'e ol (iemi.m rese.irch in the s.ime field ,ire Max Bernluii t ,ind F.iul .Sir,iek. The formerproduced a xcry s\stenuitic and uselnl h.nidhook onthe im|)erial coin,iL;e, I Iniulhin h -in Miiti-kinidt ihriniiiisiluii haisiirjil (l')2(i), while llu' hitter attemptedto ,ipph' the corpus iile,i to the coinages of tli<' secondcentury ,^.1)., with strong emphasis on the historicaliiiter|)retation ol numismatic materi,il, in his I'titii- siirliiiiigni .;/// khhimIiiii /uii li\/nugNiig i/ts .;;e(7/(77 J'l/ir-liumlnh (l').il l''i7).The de.in ol Rom.ni miinism,ili( s, liow(\cr, isILirold B. M.itlins^ly (1SH4 l')fi4), who li.is heen as- sociiited for iiumy years with the Britisli Museum. ,'\score of important puhlications seal lered o\ er ,1 period of liltv N'cars suggest his exleiisixc knowledge, hisdeep understanding ol ,1 ei\ ili/,ilioii Ioiil; past, andhis ,ihilit\' \o hriiig that era to \i\ id life for the reader. I" I'm liibliographies of this ])criod, sc-c Ri-.knii..srt, fiililidsni-/i/ii\ and Il.i.Roi.i) H. ^I,^^llNla^, ''I'lii- Rcpiiblir and ihcI'.iiK I'.iiipiic" (I'ldli; Kim. llu- I.air Knin.ui l'.m|)irc"(rx.i). 1!'' I'nr a lisl ui his uoiks, sc-c 1'.m;a\i in liiri^lu ilahana
  • ;h scholarly stand-ards?rellectcd in the chrcjuoloyical arran<;;eiuent ofthe coin material, in detailed descriptions, in profusehistorical notes, and especially in elaborate studies ofthe respective coinages which precede every volume ? should have supplanted Cohen's handbook on im-perial coins with the general public, as it has withscholars, but this has not been the ca.se.An article entitled "The Date of the RomanDenarius and Other Landmarks in Eariv Roman 13" Roman Imptrial CiiHizalion, pp. 2-3. For Mattingly's piil)-lications, .sec Copingkr, Bihtiagraphy (1956). Coinage," which Mattingly and E. S. G. Robin.sonpublished in 1933 in the Proceedings oj the BritishAcademy, brought on one of the liveliest disputes innumismatics. The British .scholars, using consider-able material evidence, proposed to move the dateof the beginning of the Roman Republican denariusfrom 269 B.C. to 187 B.C. This thesis, or as RudiThomsen called it, "the Mattingly re\'olution," foundready support in England, France, and Germany.The Rev. E. A. Sydenham, apphing these premises,wrote a handbook, The Coinage of lite Roman Republic(1952), the first of its kind in the twentieth centuryand a book which should replace Ernest Babelon's ob-solete Monnaies consulaircs. In Germany WaltherGiesecke, the best modern specialist in ancient me-trology, discussed the problem on a correspondingbasis in his bonk Antikes Geldwesen (1938) and arrived at similar conclusions which invalidated the old,traditional date.In direct opposition to this stand, there arose anItalian school under Ettore Gal^rici, LorenzinaCesano,Laura Breglia, and Attilio .Stazio.'^" .Such a disputecould hardly fail to bring numismatics of the RomanRepublic to the center of scholarly attention, and aconsiderable number of more or less authoritativehandbooks and articles have appeared in recent years,taking \arious strong positions in the controversy.In 1952 the .Austrian luimismatist Karl Pink steppedinto the deljate with his publication Triumviri Mone-tales and the Structure of the Coinage of the Roman Repub-lic. Pink is renowned as the representative of the\'icnncsc school of research, which attempts to estab-lish, on the basis of data yielded by the coins, thefundamental system of the organization of the Roman niiai. On this premise, he outlined tlie structure ofthe coinage, explaining its chronological .sequence aswell as its evolution. This "Aufbau," as it is called,was used by Pink in his study "Der Aufbau derromischen Miinzpriigung in der Kaiserzeit" (1933+ )and by other Viennese numisiuatists, such as RobertGobi and Georg Elmer, to determine the organiza-tion of the mint in the late 3rd and 4th centuries A.D.The emphasis placed by Prof. Pink on a closerstudy of the legal aspects of coinage as an expressionof the Roman state finds a counterpart in Prof.Andreas Alfoldi's proposal to give more considera-tion to stylistic elements as a clue in establishing '^" Sec the excellent outline in Thomsen, Early Roman Coins(1957); alsoSxAzio, "Progressismo c conscrvatorismo ncglistudisulla pill antira monctazione romana" (1955).48 BULLETI.N 229: CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE MUSEUM OF HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY relati-d series. The la tier's views can lie seen in hisarticle "Studien zur Zeitfolge dt-r Miinzpranuni; derromischcn Repubhl;"' (1054).''^ In addition to stylis-tic considerations. AHoldi also proposed the compara-ti\e study of dies as a possiiile kev to soKint; prolilemsof relative chronoloqv in certain coinages. He at-lenipted to apph this in his article "Tfie P(]ilrail of C 'aesar on the Denarii of 44 15. C. .infl the Seqnenceof the Issues" (l'^.~>fi). .Siniilai methods were used li\the British scholar C'.cjlin M. Kiaa\ in fiis studies ofthe Roman imperial series. Mr. Kraay was ahle tocast new lii^ht on the operation of llie Roman mint l)\ \irtue of his rtsearch on the cdp|)er coinai;e ofEmperor Galha in the liook Tlu- Ais Cmihigr nj (ialha(1036).It is (.]|j\icjiis that the numismatic hi^tor\' of tin- firstRoman emperors is especialh popul.u' with ISritishscholars. In order to complete our snr\-e\ of Rum.mniimismalics we sIkjuIiI not lail to mention Roliert ."X. Ci. ('arson, in charge of Rom.ui coins at the BritishMuseum, who has made man\ contributions to thehistorv of Roman coinage in general ,ind of RomanBritain in particular. Michael Grant is tlie aiuhorof a recent handl)ook, Rom/iii Ini/inin/ .Moiuv (l''.S4),as well as studies on the ckr "/ Muslrm .Xiimi smiths (l')St). 49 works, as well as the siuciifs of the Ainerican GeorgeC. Miles {The Cinn/it;e of the Umajyades of Spain, 1950,Early Arabic Glass Weights ami Stamps, 1948, 1951) arc real acconiplishinenls in the field of Oriental nuniis-inatic research. Also noteworthy is Gobi's attempted "Aufbau" of the Sassanian coinage.Still useful as references arc the old catalogs ofmajor Islamic collections such as Carl J. Tornberg's\umi ciififi (1846) for the Stockholm R(nal Cabinetor Aleksei K. Markov's Inrentarnu katalog tniisul-manskikh monel (1896) for the Hermitage collections.The catalog of the Berlin cabinet, h'atalog der orien-talischen Miwzcn. compiled by H. Niitzel between1898 and 1902, is of less permanent value.The picture of modern Islamic research would beincomplete without mentioning the names of PaulBalog, author of many works on technic.il |5rol)lems;Marcel Junglleisch, specialist in metrological prob-lems; Doniinic|ue Sourdcl in France; Ulla S. LinderW'elin in Sweden; A. Byko\- and E. A. Da\ido\itchin Russia; or Felipe Mateu y Llopis in Spain, whohas been publishing, among other specialized studies,a listing of Islamic coin hoards found in Spain.MEDIEVAL NUMISMATICS Whereas in ancient and, in particular, Greeknumismalics the emphasis falls \ery often upon esthetics, in the medieval and modern periodshistorical and economic factors .seem !o [ircxail.Many complex problems connected with the turbulentevents of ihe migrations and their ensuing periods ? trade relations, trade routes, economic expan.sion,penetration of foreign ethnic elements, sovereign rights, and other questions?often tind an unexpectedanswer in coin hoards. Thus, major attention isgiven to the exact historical attribution of coin findsand to a sound, comprehensive interpretation of hoardmaterials. German, French, Scandinavian, and Brit-ish scholars lead in the field of interpreting medievalfinds.After the noted Austrian scholar Arnold Luschin\on Ebengreuth,"' the study of medieval numismaticswas pursued by many German scholars such asArthur Suhle, Wilhehn Jesse, and Walter Haevernick.Since 1947, Haevernick and a group of youngernumismatists like Peter Berghaus and Gert Hatz,who ha\e centered around the periodical Hamburger Beitrdge 'iir .Xumismatik, have begun systematically tomine the enormous numismatic material of theGerman territories.'" Recently Prof. Haevernick,in collaboration with Suhic and E. Mertens, attemptedto collect the hoard material for Thuringia in Dieiiiitlclalterlichen Miinzjunde in T/tiiringen (1955). .Stimulated by this intensive work on medieval finds,many .scholars have produced first-rate studies such asmonographs on single mints or entire regions as wellas comprehensive works of a more general character.J'or exam])le. Karl Kennepohl published the historyof the coinage of Osnabriick, Die Miinzrn von Osnahriick f 1938), and Friedrich Wielandt included in his BadtscheMiinz- und Geldgcschicltte (1955) the monetary historyof Baden from the 14th century to modern times, riie history of economics and especially the history ofmedieval trade centers have benefited greatly fromsuch preliminary studies of hoards. As an illustrationof the latter, Herbert Jankuhn's Haithahu: EmIlandelsplatz der U'lkingerzeit, which went into its thirdedition in 1956, attempts to bring into focus the fullpicture of medieval trade in the Germanic north, whileeconomic historian Emil Waschinski's main preoccu-pation is the history of prices and the buying powerof money. "^ Other works of exceptional merit inGermany which draw strongly upon hoard materialare Vera Jannner's study of the beginning of thecoinage in .Saxcjny (Die Anjdnge der Miinzprdgung imHerz'igliitn Saehsen, 1952), Wilhelm Jesse's WendischeMiinzvercin (1928) and more recently his Miinz- undGcldgescltiehte Niedersachsens (1952). Jesse is also theauthor of an invaluable publication of .source materialon German numismatics: Qjte/lenbuch zur Miinz- undGeldgcschicltte des Mittelallcrs (1924).France has had a well-established tradition in thisfield since the [)ast century, a tradition which has beenkept alive through such authoritative studies as Traitede nurnismatique du moyen age (1891-1905), by ArthurEngcl and Raymond Serrure, and through such pub-lications as those by Maurice Prou on the coinages ofthe Merovingians and the Carolingians {Les monnaiesmerovingiennes, 1892; Les monnaies carolingiennes, 1896),by Gustave L. Schlumbergcr on the period of theCrusades {Nurnismatique de I'Orient Latin, 1878-1882),and by .Adrien Blanchet and Adolph Dieudonne, '" For his obituary, sec Loehr, "Das numismatischc Lcbcns-wcrk Arnold von Lu.sdiins"' (1933). '" Good bibliographical surveys on medieval numismatics arein Bkrghahs, "Die friihmittelalterliche Numismatik" (1961);Hatz, "Deutschland" (1961). '** Walirung, Preisenlwicklung und Kmtjkrajl des Grides inSclileswig-Holstnn von 7266-7864 (1952) and Die Miinz- "nd]\'dlirungspolilili des Deulschrn Orilens (1952).50 BULLETIN 229: CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE MUSEUM OF HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY avitliors ol .1 hanclliouk mi I'rcncli coiiuiucs, Manuil ilclUimiMiiiiliijtu' txiiK^am: ])iil)lishccl in 4 Nnliinirs lictwcrii\')\1 and l''3().'^" In recent limes the Lite I'iene LeGenlilliiininie ( I 'UD j 'M" l, Jaeques ^\llIl, and es|)e- cialK' Jean Lalamie are the leading names in mnnis- niatic reseairh of the earl\- and hite Middli- ALi,es inFrance. Altliousli no major wcjrk on I''i'ench feudalcoinage has heen issued witiiin the past few decades,there have been inan\' speciahzed stndies on regionalissues, on various coin types, or on coin lintls and llieiriin]5ortancc. Quite often these stndies are inter-spersed vvitli interesting discussions on the monetar\history of France.'^'In Great Britain efforts lia\e centered on a pnlih-cation similar to the s\lIo?>e ol Cireek coins. 1 he histtwo NiihinU's of the Syl/ngi- nf Cnins of l/i,' lhili\li Isli\ Aiiiiiiil lhih\li mil/ Ang/ii-\ii\iiii (juin ni tin' l-'il ?jtilliuiiiAluiiiiin (pi.T'Sl I IV Philip Cirierson, and .\ii?lii-Sii\uiiCoins in ihi' Ilnnti'iian and tin Conls ( nilLt Innis (I'Uil) I lyAnne KoKertson? are a x'ery promising heginniii',;.Numerous other studies related to the coinages ol theearly kingdom are e\ idence ol the excelleiu resultsbeing acliie\ed iit Great Britain by such scholars asMichael l)olle\, Fhili|) \'. Mill, and Ian .\. Stewart.As Grierson slated," In the detailed sliuU and anaUsisof priw marks ... in the identihcation and e\cn thereconstruction of the history of individual dies . . .English scholars ha\e pushed their study to a higherpoint th.m h.is Ijcen attained elsewhere." '"*A leading scholar of numismatic research on theMiddle Ages is Phili]^ Grierson from England.With a fine, synthesizing mind, possessing an impre.ssi\estore of numismatic and historical data, he has coveredin numerous studies almost the entire continent olEurope. Within the wide range of his research, whichbegins with the late Roman and Byzantine ])eriodsand comes up to the late Middle Ages, he encloses amultitude of geographical areas: Mediterranean,Gentral European, and Scandinavian countries, aswell as the Arabic world. The monetary relationsbetween East and West (especially llie ByzantineEmpire and the Arabs), the origin and evolution ofcertain coin den(jminations, the legal asjiects ol specialnionetarv prcjblems, the interpretation ol coin hoards, the id<-iniln .nion ol i ouinerleils aic oiiU .i liw of tiiemanilold snlijects prolied b\' (uirrson."''Also |.ironiinent in the held ol medieval mimismaticsare the Scandinavian coumries,''" especi.illv Sweden,with intensive research centeied chielK aroinid linds ol the migration period. .Scholars such as iienulFhordeman and Nils Liidvig Rasmusson in Sweden,Flails Flolst in Norway, (Jeorg (i.ilster ''' in l)eiiin,irk.and Helmer Salnio in Finland li.ivc (diiti ibnied greativto defining the rcjle pl.ived 1 1\ the .Sc .nidin.ix i.in regionin the iiKjiietarv evolution ol Europe.Gnrrentiv, nieclie\.il nnmismalics ,ilso finds widerecognition bevond the lion (liiil.iin in e.istei nEurope, in counliies. Recent reports, especialb fromC!zechoslo\ akia. i'ohnul. .ind RmiKini.i. show ili.it a ver\ acti\ e ellort is beini; di reeled I' >w ,n d e\c,i\ alionsand toward classihcation ol Im.ird iiKiteiiab' '' .Someof the re|)reseiitati\ e names include: Fiu.iniiehiNohejlox a-Fi atov.'i in ( '.zechoslov aki.i. .iiithor of ,niextensive publication on hoard m.ileii.il in bohenii.i,Moravia, and .Silesia liom .nicient times up to theI'hh century. Aiilt'ZV tnnni r L'.nln'nii. tin Mniiiv? a veSlfZiku (l').S.S FFSK); Bncur .\lilrej and ? )( l.i\ Flocain Rumania, with research on treasures luiimi withinthe ancient I)acian territoiv ; Stanislaw Suchodolski,I'adeusz Lewicki, and Rvs/ard Ixiersnow ski inFol.iiid; \'. F. [.mill .md \. \'. Sokolov.i in Russi.i ; Lajos Huszar in Hungary; and T. Gcrassimou inBulgaria.Interest in the mediev.il period li.is been traditionalin these eastern laiiopean comitri<'s. 'Flie pulilica-tions of Marian Guniowski in I'oland (I'mhi-frjiiktiimnrjiiatrki pn/sktr/. I'il4, .mil Cm/'in niinininiiniiPolnniar, l')3''), of C. Moisil :ind < >. Iliescu in Ru- 11'' 1 III liinlicr lnl)lioa;raphiral inlnriii:iliiiii, sii- Ckuuson, S,t,;;l Hil'liuii,?pln\ pp. 3(.-4ll: BcA.Niem i and I )ii i noN.NK,Maniiil ill- niminmnlnilli- friiiii'nu\ vol. 4, pp. 1 4.h" .Sec ^v(lN, 'i'rancc. Italie ct f^iiriil I.aliii" (l'>(il).n* R(|ioit on Medieval Numisinatii s," |)p. HO 81. 1" For soinr l)ililiiic;iai)liir,il iiilm iii.ilinn sec fluiiKsoN, "Report" (1''S.3); Mkicalf, " I'lic Uv/, inline linpiie" (T'dl);BrRGHAes, Die riuhmittelallii Hi 1" Xiiiiiisin.iiik" (I'lfd).I? Sec Rasmilsscin, .Scandin.iv i.in Mrillev.il Niiinisinalirs"(1061). i''i For a lis! of his pulilic .ilions. see (Jvisn u. Conn ,ni,l lli-.n von Kroatien, SlavonienDatmalirn und Bosiiirii (19S9). themselves to a listing of denominations, dates, and rulers. Also, since the publication of such worksrequires less effort and time, many catalogs of thiskind have been published.Good examples of situations demanding such treat-ment are found in Italy and Germany, tw-o nationswhich possess extremely intricate monetary histories.King Victor Emmanuel III sohed the problem ofdescrii)ing Italian coinages by publishing, between1910 and 1940, a huge catalog in twenty volumes,the Corpus numinoriirii Italicnrim. This work lists animprcssi\c numi)er of the coins struck In* Italiansor on Italian territories since the eighth century.A liriefcr work attempting to give a comprehensivehistory limited to modern Italian currencies waspublished in 191.S by Gio\-anni Carboneri: Monete ehigl it'll i in Italia dalla Riv(ilti~ione franccse ai nostri aiorni.The Germans, who ha\'e numerous and excellentstudies on various periods and local issues, cannotclaim a single comprehensive work on their entirecoinage. Mention should be made, howe\er, ofnoteworthy puijlications in the form of a corpuswhich place numismatic material w'ithin a historicalframew-ork, like the studies of .-Mfred Noss on thecoinages of Cologne, Treves, Jiilich, and Berg, orof Friedrich von Schrotter on the coinages of Prussia. 52 BULLETIN 229: CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE MUSEUM OF HISTORY .A.ND TECHNOLOGY R-Cccnt Goniian piililicatiDns. such as FricclrirhW'iclaiiclt's Biidivhi' Miiiir- iiinl (uhh^iscliifhtr (r)5,S) orPetcr Bcrrjhaus' .\[uii-i^,\i/ii,-/il,- drr Si,nil Dnrlmiiiu/(I'158). lia\e tried In depict the iniinetai\ liisi ir\- nfsingle cities (jr I3rinei|ialities. IVvdiicI liiese it wnnldbe difficuh to emiiiierale the maii\- aiithnrs cifC ieniiaiimonoc;ra]3hs. The liilihui^raphies proxided in (Jeli-hart's Die dailuhcn Miiriyii (/r\ Millrl,ill,r\ iiiul dn .Xi-iiyil (ri2'M and in tiriei-siin's Sr/nl liihlini^rnlihxcuN'er the most inipoitant titles. A m^ijur (.einianpill iHcalii)n which shnulcl he menliuned. hn\\c\cr,is the enc\"clijpedia of iiumisnialics. Wmli ihin h dnMiw-kinidr (r'3ll). Edited 1)\ I'liedrich \(in S( hirjt-ter. this hook is the most complete wfjik of its kind.pfovidint; aiithoiitati\c infoniialion in e\ ei\- heldof the science.Althoti<;h Schiiitter"s hook is the most acclaiined,there are soine other useful works of this kind,Alhcrt R. Fre\''s Dirlinnnrv nf .\iimisiii/ilii .\iii)ii'\(I'M 7) t;i\cs a less e.\t<'nsi\e co\cra<-;e of numismatics ill i;eneral. More recentK. Hiimherto F. Biirzloproduced in his Dii i uuiiinn dr l,i ninnrda /li^fiinin-iuiiii/- catui (\'1?U -\'1^X) an excellent reference hook forSpanish-American coina.qcs. Similar titles concernedmosth with national siihjects are Fdoardo Martinori's /..(/ iniimiii (1''15) or Felipe MaH'ti y Llopis' (UnMinnliiifiiinhii dr rniniisiiu'iluii (I'Hti).Neis;hhorina; Austria jsresents interesting feature> inthe |)uhlications of the \iemiese numismatists August v'oii Loehr and Eduard Holzmair. Continuing thetrend estahlishexl hy \'iktor \on Miller zii Aichholz(lS43-r'lli), the\ can he classed ainoivj; the mostadvanced representaii\es of the practically appliedhistor\- of money. Miller zu Aichholz's compendiouspulilication Osh-nchhisrhc .\tuii-l>ids.iitis,iii (l''2(l) ? rc\i.sed in l'M8 hy Loehr and Flolzmair?was one ofthe first national catalogs to include paper money andother documents of \alue. Tin- same trend can fii.-seen in L(jchr"s wi.)rk on the history of mone\ inAustria. O^tcrmduuhr Gridoi-sihuhir {\')Au). and m thecoin exhihits of the X'ieima cahinet prepared h\ i'rot.Loehr and Dr. Hol/mair. .Moiv^ similar lines wasthe hasic approach of the Swiss collector and numisma- tist Julius Meili. who included Brazilian paper moneyin his Das Brauliaiiiu he Gdduvsrti ( 1,S')7-I ')l).3).The concept of Includini; paper currencies in thegeneral stud\' of numismatics is de\-elopinu also inFrance, where R. Hahiekorn and jean Lalainie, inthe Bulldni de la Smuic d'Eliidr fmin I'llislairr dii Papiir- Miiiiiiaii\ ha\e ptihlished main .irlicles on tlie historyPAPER 32: NUMISMATICS AN ANCIEN'T SCIENCE of iM-ench hills horn (he file ISth ceniiir\- to ihe|)resent.Lal.iiirie. thi' le.idin'j. Ficneh iiiiniismaiist, also hasin process of piihhcalion the hest reference hook on till- ro\.il (oina'_;<- of his ii.ilion, /,ri niiiiinair\ d,-\ \ni\ drh'laiiii-, two \oluines of which h.i\c appeared ,ili'e,id\-(T'^l; r'3(,) co\-eriim die pi'ii'id u|.i lu l(d(l.In Italx. altli iii'^h rescue h in ancient mimism.iticsdominates llie oilier fields, .mention must he c.illed inan iiii|iressi\c i^roiip of studies on niedie\.il .mdmodern Itali.in numisinalics. {'rancesco and l.icole(hlerchi piihlished .ill e\celli-ii( Work on llie coinsof .Milan. /.-? inniiil,- ,!, Mdaim (lSS-1 jS'iD, whilePs'icolo Papadop'ili in.i(.le ;i siniil.ir comrihiiiion ondie coins o| llie X'eneii.in Repilhlic. /,( llliillcif ill\',l!,-ia (1(S')3 l''l''). .\ll excellent reference Work w.iv pul)lishi-d h\ ( lount ( !aiiiillo .SeiMlmi. who pro-duced, in /,( nnaicli c It hnllr /dund'tt: d, I M,'dai;hi'ri-\'ali,aun (I'Mll l'i2S),an outstanding catalog of thecoinages ol die popes. .Also noteworthx ,ire FrnesioBernareggi's recent piihlication on Itali.m i^enaiss.mcecoins. Mniii'lr d'uin , mi iilialln ilil Ruia\, inii'iiln ilaliatiii(T'^-l), and ,i L;reatl\ needed stiid\- on .Sicjli.in coinsh\ Rotlollo .Sp.dir. /,( iiiinu'lr Mii/iaiir dai^li Anr'nniM ai/Inihiiiit (I'IS'M. ( )| exceplioii.il \-alue .ire .1/"//. r,/'litis and (,'irilizaliiai in llif Midilnraiifan U'l'jA/fpiih-lislied in .\iiierica, F'^d). ,md I.i avrrnlnif dt'lla In,!(l''3S). in which the Itali.in economist ( '.irlo .\I. ( 'ipolla lirillianth" uses coins to guide him lhioiii.^li die Fis;. 43.?C:or\T Cwinro .S|.u.\ri\i (ifJ public. itiousol coin niateri.il. The seven v(j|umes of the Cataloi^iieof Indian Coins in the liiitish .\lu\,um (1.SH4 |93(>) Inidtheir parallel in the catalous of the Indian Museum inC:,tlcutt,i, ol the I'aujab .Museum in l?ihi)re, (jr ol theClenlral Museum in Madras, all of these booksptiblished by specialists such as Stanlev I-me-Poole,i\ich, nd B. \\ hiiehiMd. P.. flnirsion. .md J. .Ml.ni,'''* .More reccntiv-, Indian .uithors have contributedactivel)' to the Journal oj the Xuniismatie Soeiely ofIndia. "since coins plaved an important p.u'i in Chin.rs(l( velopment, Chinese histori.ms realized .u .m e.nlystage the imp(jrt,ince of numism.itic siudv. I heearliest coin cttalot; (iiv Liu Ch'icn) is d.ued as farback as tlie (n\i centuiv .\.l).. but. milortuiiati-ly, it has Ijeen lost as also v\ere the works of the nextf<\\ centuries. Durin<_; the .Sun dvn.istv C'dd I2"9),mimismatists, trying to interpret the <-ailv coinage,often indulged in mythologic.il expLmations whichprevailed in CUiinese numism.ilics lor man\ centiuies.Tlie .Mancliu period (1()44 l')||) r.tised this pr.icliceto a more schol.nlv .i|)pro.ich. fiiit we c.m h.irdly s|)e,ik of scientilic numism.itic n-search until thepublic. itioii in 1S3'* ol I.i Iso-hsien's i.iI.iIol; huih'uiin hui (Collection of Old Coins), a work profus<-lvannot.ited with historic.il notes.Cihinese numism.itics in the past two centuries h.isbeen described bv .Mr. W'.inL; \'ti-cirii.in: '( )n theone hand, the collector-numism.ilisls studietl thecoin s|X'cim<'ns but v\ere un.ible to coiuributi' siib- stanti.illv in decipheriny the letjends; on the otherli.ind. tlie epi^raphical scholars studied their inscrip-tions but iie'_;le( led .ill other .ispecls ol the coins. -Neither group possessed the knowledge of the otiiei',but both contributed Iov\arhy ofl,?I,an Cuius (DSO-l'lS^)>" W.vNG Yt'i-en'i'w. /?.'.ii/i Clnms, (.'uiiiu^r, pp. 4-5. PAPER .32: NUMISMATICS?AN ANCJENT SCIENCE 55 Chincst' coins were puhlislu-d in English in 1951 andin Chinese in 1957. Collecting also was widespreadand in 1940 the Chinese Numismaiic Society wasestablished in Shanghai, where it published a bi-monthly periodical until 1945.In Japanese numismatics, E. dc Villarel's "Numis-matiquejaponaise" (1892) and Neil Gordon Munro'sCoins of Japan (1904) arc sources which arc extensivelyused to the present day. They were joined in lateryears b\- Tlie Old and .Xnv Coins of Japan, a studv' b\-Toyojiro Tsukamoto. translated into English in 19.30l>y Saichiro Iiami. 'J'hc recent publications of the .\sahi Shiml)unsha (1954), of Ma.sajiro Watanabe(1955). and of .Xtsushi Koljata (1958), as well asToyosaburo .Araki's works on Japanese paper money,illustrate the intense work done in numismatics b\-Japanese collectors and scholars.In the West serious preoccupation with Far Easternnumismatics goes l)ack to the end of the 19th century,when .Xlbert Terrien de Lacouperie, with his Cata-logue of Chinese Coins . . . of the British Museum(1892), and Sir James Lockhart, with The Currency of the Farther East (1895-1898), produced not onlyexcellent handbooks for the western world but alsoserious contributions to Chinese numismatics inparticular. In more recent times these have includedthe Chinese catalog of the Numismatic Cabinet inOslo, published in 1929 by Frederik Schjoth, thestudies of Arthur Braddan Coole, A Bibliography onFar Eastern .Xumistnalics (1940) and Coins in China'sHistory (1936), and the excellent contribution ofHoward F. Bowker, American author of an extremely useful bibliography. More recently, handy referencel)ooks on the modern coinages of i)oth C'hina andJapan have been published by Americans: EdwardKann's Illustrated Catalog of Chinese Coins (1954), andJapanese Coinage (1953) by Norman Jacobs andCornelius X'ermculc.Also worth mentioning arc excellent puljlicationsby Desire Lacroix {\umismatique annaniite, 1900),Albert Schroeder (Annam, eludes numismatiqucs, 1905),as ^vell as the work by Reginald Le May, The CoinageofSiam (1932). MEDALS The medal, through its implicit artistic character,has never failed to attract collectors and students alike, .^fter the voluminous accumulation of material pub- lished by \"an Loon and Hennin or gathered in theTresor de numismatique, a more discriminating research set in during the fitial decades of the 19th century.The national medal and especially the medal of theRenaissance, with its exquisite artistic qualities, drewthe interest of .scholars. With the classic work of .\lfrcd .'Xrmand, Les medailleurs italiens des XVe et XVIeSlides, published in 1879, the Renaissance inedalbecame a popular subject. Julius Friedlaender'sstudy of Italian medals from 1430 to 1530, as well asGcorg Haloich's excellent work Die Medaille deritalienischen Renaissance (1924) were followed by SirGeorge Hill's classic Corpus of Italian Medals of theRenaissance Before Cellini (1930).About the same time, the German medal and espe- cially the medal of the period of Diirer found dueappreciation. The studies Die deutsche Medaille inkunst-und kulturhistorischer Hinsicht (1907) by KarlDomanig, based on the \'icnna Imperial CoinCabinet, and Die deutsche Schaumiinze des XVI. Jahr-hunderts, published in 1929-1934 by Georg Habichin Miinich, were great achievements which definednot only the artistic excellence of the German medalbut also its historical importance.This tradition, well established in Paris and Munich,continues to the present day. In France many re-markable publications have came from the pens of .?\lfred Armand, Ernest Babelon, Ludvig Bramsen,and Fernand Mazerolle. Currently, Jean Babelon iscontributing, through his publications (e.g.. La medaille et les medailleurs, 1927) and exhibitions, to the artistic and historic appreciation of medals. At thecoin cal^inet in Munich, Max Bernhart (1883-1952),who |3ul)lished the useful handbook Medaillen undPlaketten (1919), and Prof. Paul Grotemeyer, stillactive, have continued the excellent tradition estalj-lished there by Georg Habich.Interest in medals is equally high in other countries. .Among the outstanding scholars in this field areH. Enno van Gelder in the Netherlands, a countrywith an appreciation for medals that dates back several hundred years, Eduard Holzmair in Vienna,and .\ntonio Patrignani in Italy. .As a work ofunusual merit should be mentioned the BibliographicalDictionary of Medallists (1902-1930), published in eightvolumes by Leonard Forrer in London.Puljlic exhiiiitions of medals emphasizing historicalor artistic subjects have been arranged temporarilyin Paris (under the direction of the Paris mint), inMadrid, and in Barcelona. The Coin Cabinet in 56 BULLETIN 229: CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE MUSEUM OF HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY X'ienna and the Roval Cloin Caliiiirt in Sick klmlniilln-lratc in their excellent permanent e\hiljits thehislnricnl and esthetic evokitiim of medals.MAJOR COLLECTIONS Major changes ha\e taken jilace dnritii^ tlie lasthah centur\' in tile cle\elopnient and oi'^ani/ation olpnlihc collections. Two world wars and the ensuint;pohtical tensions could not occni' wiihcjul tleepK-allectinn a chscipline wliicli depends so mnch on intei-national collalioration. While the leadiii;^ (aliinetsin London and Paris needed onK a liriel period lorreadinstment alter the war. the (jerman tollections.which had siiflered t;ieat losses, hafi to Ik- entirelyretjruanized. Two major coin colleitions. the cai)inelsof Gotha and Dresden, for all practical pnrposesceased to exist. The coins of the former were scat-tered widely, while the tre.isiires of die hitler weremelted down in great part l>y Russian occn]>.itiontroops. riiese hea\y losses seemed oiiK' to spur Germanscholars on to an intensified acti\il\-. and new andmodernized exhiliits are the restilt. J h<' I'xilin C'alii-iiet. onh' recenth reincorporated into the lnu.^(lllncolk'ctions alter a teinporarx' journex to the SoxietL nion. now has a new exhiliition, illiistiMtiiiL; thehistiUA ol iiionex. which was arranged in six lulls li\Arthur Siihle.'''" In Munich, at the SiaatlicheMiinzsanimluna. Dr. Paul Groteme\'ei is en[;a'_;cd ina similar process of reorganizint; tlie collections andmodernizing; the exhiliits.The list of nuijor German coin caliin<'ts would beincomplete without .idding at least the names of a fewmuseums which have given special attention to anciemand medie\al coins: the Rheinischi's Landesnuiseumin Bonn and in Trier, the Riniiisch-( iermanischesZenlr.ilmuseiiin in Mainz, tlie Rdmisch-GermanischesMusetnn in (Cologne, the Altessehloss Musenni inStuttgart, the Landesmuscum in Mfmstei-. ,ind the \ cry active Museum fur Hamlini^ische tieschichtein Hamburg.In Austria. August \on Loehi- and Ldiiai mins .andniedab.''''In central F.nrope. Sw i|/erl,ind with iinporl.mi]iulilii (ollectioiis in iiern. iiasel. /iiiii h. \\ iiileiilim-.and Lans.mne. i;ives evidence of an intensive acliviivin the held of scholailv n-search,''- as well .is in aremark, ilile increase of outst.indint; piiv.iie ii lilei lions.Siniilai ti'i'iulsean be noted in Bel<_;iiim. die .Xellier-lands,"'' and in the Scaiulin.iv ian countries. Re-cently, Paul .Xaslei in lieli^iiini published the caLilo'.;of a lanioiis collection of .incient coins, la (ulliiltnnfjH II n iti' Iliiii // {\'>^'>), which is part of th<' Gabinetdes Medailles in the l-!ii)liother|iu- Rovale l). I''' KtJK, (i>sihlt'diin\ nut lot /ton. huhinit inn Atiiiit'i! (I'J-UO;(aiDiK. hiiiiinlJiji kdhinit ran iniintin (pt.S-t; I'lS"") .mil "I.csIniK tions externes du C.iliinet des .Med.iilies de I..1 ll.iye" i"i 1 li-cKseiirK and RvsMrssriN, S;,ii?is mynlhnhnin (I'JsS).See .dso StaiwAB.\i:iM R, "Die .\eueini i< liliini;" (I'lSIl).!'' See al.w the Riiideljnok to the C;o])enhat;eii ( ioin .ind Med.ilCabinet, Monlii ni; niidmllir, tmddil.diln n? iiyin tid (rJ.Sd). PAPER 32: NUMISMATICS?AN .\Nf:lENT SCIENCE 57 tKi) f ? Fi^. 44. ? Old Elegance and Modern Simplicity in Coin Exhibits?the Mint Mu-seum in Paris and, opposite, the Royal Mint Cabinet in Stockholm (Div. of Nu-mismalics photo, left, and photo courtesy Kunglig Myntkabinettet, Stockholm). in RoiiH- under the title "\'ita dei nicdaslieri," notonly iinolvcs major museum centers such as Naplesand Rome, but also it spreads far out to CJeia, Syra-cuse, or Palermo in Sicily, and to Milan or Modcnain the north.Spain reafiirms its reputation in numismatics witha scries of important |)ul)lications, outstanding {)eri-odicals, and excellent coin exhihits. A'limisma, pub-lished since 1951 in Madrid, and Numarw Hispanico,issued from the same city since 1952, are only twoexamples of excellent jom-nals which de\ote theirpages to scholarly research in Spanish and LatinAmerican numismatics. Among the numerous Sjjan-ish public coin collections, one should mention atleast the old and wealthy accumulation of ancientand medieval coins in the Museo ArqueologicoNacional in Madrid "" and the Gabincte Xuinis-matico dc Cataluna in Barcelona, with its very in- 160 For earlier pulolications of the museum, see Matku yLlopis, Calalogo de liis ponderales (1934) and Catalogo de lasmonrdas pretisigodas (1936); also Rivi ro. "'Kl Gabinetc numis-miitico del Musoo .Arqueologico dc Madrid" (1957). formative exhibit on the history of Spanish and worldcurrencies.'"" At the present time, the Fabrica .\acional de Moneda y Timbre in Madrid is prepar-ing, under L. August and Fernando Gimeno Riia, agrandiose exhibit on the history of money andmedallic art in .Spain.In Portugal, the numismatic tradition of the pastcenturies finds its expression in a continued interestin building up the public collections. A nation ofonly a little over eight jnillion people, Portugal canclaim the honor of having a national coin museum.Since 1933, the Maseu Nacional de Numismatica,housed in the Casa dc Moeda in Lisbon, has con- .solidated most of the outstanding coin collections.'**In the provinces, the Muscu Nacional de Soares dosRcis in Oporto,'"'' the coin cabinet at the University of in: For the guide to the collection, sec Amoros, Nolicin acercadel Gabinete JVumismdtico de Cataluna (1949). 'o* Batalua Reis, "Muscus e colecocs publica.s" (1946). 101) Fq,- a catalog, sec Peres, Relaqao das moedas gregas, romanas(1942). .58 BULLETIN 229: CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE MUSEUM OF HISTORY .A.ND TECHNOLOGY Cuiiiihra, the collrction at the librarv in I'nnchal(Madeira), and a collection even in No\'a Goya(Goa) are e\-idence of the interest in and alTection forcoins in this relalivelv small Latin nation.In Israel, the Kadnian Xuniismatic Museum of TelAviv, under Aric Kindler, presents a series of exhibitsillustratint; the monetary history of that nation.The general upsurge in niunismatic interest whichtook place after World War II can he noted also incoiuitries bevond the Iron Curtain? Cl7,echoslo\akia,Poland, Romania, Hungary. The trend there imdsexpression in sc\'eral publications centered chieflyaround national academics or leading museiniis andin the general tendency to reorganize public collec-tions,'? often the major repositories for privatecollections.In the United States ecjual attention has been givento the increase of study and reference collections andto public exhibitions. Man\ small and lar'_;e coin cxhiljits fill show rooms in mnseunrs, uni\crsities, cultiu'al institutions, and e\en banks. The .American ''" C;f. KlERSNowsKi. "The More Iiii|iiiii<i rsoN, Anuiiifiu .Xuuii^nmtii' S(tcirly (I'J.SO). PAPER 32 NI:MISMATICS- an ANf:lENT SCIENCE 59 only scallered acceptance, due in part to the lackof teachers in this field. Occasionally, professors ofhistory or the history of art, such as F. Crcutzer inHeidelberg, J. Overbeck in Leipzig, and especiallyThcodor Mommscn at the University of Berlin,would use coins extensively in their courses. TodayGermany continues to lead in this academic tradition.Tiie L'nixersities of Rerlin, Hambiug, Munich,Heidelberg, Gottingen, .\ funster, and Braunschweig ofTer courses in numismatics.In most of the other European countries, includingeastern Europe and Russia, it is taught at least atthe major universities, often as an adjunct of arche-ology and history, or at the national liljraries, alongwith diplomatics and epigraphy.'"- The history of coins has l)een taught since 1795 at the BibliolhequeNationale in Paris, which has had among its professorssuch men as Millin, Raoul Rochette, and the famousFrangois Lcnonnant. Portugal introduced the studyof numismatics in 1801 at the University of Coimbra,and the Bibliotcca Pul)lica in Lisbon, from 1844 tol')ll, offered niuuismalics as a compulsory course forlibrarians and archivists. The outstanding historianand epigraphist Jose Leite de Vasconcellos taughtthere iVom 1888 to 1911. In .Spain, the EscuelaSuperior de Diplomatica in Madrid, since the late19th century, and the Universities of Madrid andBarcelona, since the early 20th century, have offered cour.ses in numismatics. Their example has beenfollowed by twelve other Spanish uni\-crsitics.NUMISMATICS IN THE UNITED STATES We can assume that preoccupation with coins inthe .American colonics did not differ greatly from thatin Europe. Certainly the attention given to classicaleducation in the 18ih century would havestimulated an interest in antiquities. Despite scantdocumentation for the beginning of numismatics inthis country, scattered information from the secondhalf of the century helps us to construct a reasonalilyaccurate picture of an ancient science in a youngnation.A certain Swiss gentleman, Pierre Eugene DuSimiticre (1736-1784), who settled in New York andlater moved to New Jersey, deposited his collectionof about 135 coins with a tradesman as collateral security.'"' It is probable that John Smith, whoaccepted it, must have heard of or seen similar col-lections; otherwise, one doubts the g(Jod Quakermerchant would have considered obsolete coins as atrustworthy investment.Another early piece of information is supplied bythe diary of the Rev. William Bentley of Salem,Mass., who in 1787 presented to Judge Winthrop ofCambridge some Swedish coins and medals. Thediary suggests that Rev. Bentley was one of the earlycoin enthusiasts in this country; under the year 1791we find the following entry: "I entertained myself '?- Babelon, "Los origincs ct I'histuirc de rcnscigncmcnt dela numismatiquc" (1908); Batalha Reis, "O ensino daniimisin^tira cm Portugal" (1946); Bi'rckiiardt, "DieNumismatik an der L'niversitat Basel" (1958). '"' Gii.UNOiiAM, ".An Eiiiliteonth Century Coin Collertor"(1934). with his fWinthrop's] curious cabinet of coins andmedals. It was large and not with any antiquesbut it had a great variety of small pieces and may bedeemed the best we have in this part of the country."'"''The same minister obtained some Chinese coins froma sea captain named West and coins of other nation- alities from a Captain Elkins and a Captain Hodges.It is evident that collecting among intellectuals wasnot limited to a few isolated cases. By midcenturythe "collector-donor" tyf)e, the person interested indisseminating knowledge of coins, already had ap-peared. In 1765 a tutor at Harvard, William Moly-neus, donated 250 French coins to the college. ''^^In 1752 the Library Company in Philadelphiareceived a donation of coins, and later the .AmericanPhilosophical Society in the same city became therecipient of various collections. An entry in theEarly Proceedings of the society states, under the dateMay 15, 1801, that "Mr. Vaughan presented 32copper coins or medallions from the Soho mint[England] invented by Mr. Boulton with a list andcard descriljing the principles." ^'"' More interestingarc the entries of May 3, 1805, and July 18, 1806, men-tioning donations by President Thomas Jefferson.The earlier entry reports that a group of 150 Roman '"' The diary is discussed in an unsigned article, "OldestCoin Collection Recorded in the U.S." (1907). '" Storer, "The Harvard Collection of Coins and Medals"(1922); see also the same title of an unsigned article in TheNumismalisl (1922).i"P. 312. 60 BULLETI.N 229: CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE MUSEUM OK HISIORV .AND TECHNOLOGY bronze coins. lans^inc; from Au<;nslus lo 'Ihi-ciclosius.\\ hich were i;i\"cn to Jeflcison li\ \\Cinw icli. the8ccrotar\' of the Danish Royal Sucicix df I I(ialdr\-and Gcnealot;\ , was deposited at ihe AmericanPiiilosophical Seieiet\ In the I'nsident. who hehexed "them well worthy its accept.mcc." '' liriel' entries oi' such a;ifts can be found in stibsec[uenl \'ears in theE/nlv PiiH'iiiluii^s of the American I'hihisophicalSociety up to 1837, when a committee was assinnttl toarrange the society's coins and medals.'''Coins came to be discussed e\en in the L'nit<'(l StatesC'ong'ress. On March ^), 1S22. ihe Joint ( 'onnnittei-for the Library submitted a report on a eollectioii olFrench medals?inckidint; some coined in l''raucepertainim; to e\ents in the American Re\olution-which a certain Geor2;e \\ illiam Rrxiiin had wantedto present to the Library of Congress. This yroup olmedals ajjparently had been lost at sea with tlie bri'-;Fiictor. The interestino point here is that the reportrecommends the purchase (jf other meilals which hadbeen struck in France and \shieh relatetl to e\ents inthe Revolution.''''In New ^'ork the American Museum of the Tam-many Societ\ purchased coins in 17'),i .md 17')6.By 1811 the museum possessed atiout .idd ancientcoins?which, imforttmateh , were stolen a lew yearslater.From these \ears date lite be<-;inninL;s of the minicollection in Philadelphia. .\dam Eckfeldt, chif thefrjundina; members uf the Xumisiuatic and .\nti-ciuarian .Soci<-t\' of I'hiLidrlplii.i. it is surprisint; tonote the serious trend wliieli euin eolleetiii'-; look inthose early da\s. with peo|)le exliibitinij such emliii-siasm and a tendency to appro.ich numismatics .is ascience. The dixcrsilied interests of this i'hiladelphia circle are deinonstraleil cli'arK in the |xipers re, id atthe meetintjs b\ its meinliers. such as Henr\' Phillips, Jr., (jn classical and .\inerican iinmisni.ities. orRichard F)avicls. em medieval issues. .ShortU .liter the Phil.idelphia soeieiv w as oru.ini/ed.a second association was loriiied in .\pi il IS,3,S inNew \'ork b\' a i^rou]) of eollielors under the le.ider-ship of .'Xunustiis Sai;c a well-known coin de.iler.The New \Dik .\meiit',iii .Xiimismatic Sucieis. w liii htemporarih ehannetl its name in lS(i4 to .\merie.inNumismatic and .\rchaeolo<_;ie.il .Soeiet}'. was repre-sented by an extrentely active ttroup of ]X'ople "promi-nent in civic afl'airs" like Edward Groh, Dr. J. H.Gibfis. and 11. Whitiiiore.Joseph N. r. Leviek (1S31 1''(I8), .supported b\- ,ifew others, jiromoted the idea of a periodic.il, .iiidin 1866 he initiated the |)ulilic,ition of the AmeiiKinJournal of .Xitmismatus. 'File ])ur|)ose of this jonrn.ilwas defined In' one of its founders as restinn on thehict that "all this time there li.is been no public. itionattempted which, besides beim; of historic, il \-alue,should act as check u|)on all nelarious ,'iiul improper acts, either in tlie m.mul.ieture, collection, or s.ile olcoins and medals." "-'A series of similar ori^.mi/ations spr.m',; up in186(1, the Boston Nninismatic Soeietv ; in 1864, theRhocU- island Xuniismatic .'\ssociation in i'rovidence,followed b\' the X'ermont .Numisinalic Societ\' inMontiK'lier, ami the Western Peiiiisx K'.ini.i Nninis-matic Socielv in I'ittsburnli. The respeeli\'e constitu-tions and li\laws were published as follows: Hostoii.1867; Providence, 1S6.S; .Montpelier. I8''7; and I'itts-burnh, 1883. .Ml of these uroups .ittest to the steadih'increasiiTj; interest in coin eolleclin',; in the eastern 1-1 I'roceedinss (186''). p. 3.i"- Issue of May, 1 8ti6. p. 1 . PAPER 32 NUMISM.ATICS?AN ANCIENT SC:iENCE 61 states. To them mis,'hi l)e added the Numismatic andAntiquarian Society of .Nhmlreal, established in 1863in Canada.Inten.se activity in collectina; and studying themost diversified categories of coins from all over theworld now set in. .Still very strong was the interestin early coinages, with special preference given to theRoman. At the same lime, however, there could beobserved a growing preoccu[)atioii with the nationalcoinage. The reports of the meetings of the numis-matic associations accurately reflect this general trend.We learn, for example, that in the Boston circle, one ofthe most traditional and representative groups on theEast Coast. William Sumner Appleton (1840-1903),po.s.sesscd a remarkable collection which was well-defined both in the classical and in the .-\nierican field.This collection today is housed in the .MassachusettsHistorical Society. Jeremiah Colburn (181.S-1891),editor of the American Journal of Numismatics after 1871,F. G. Scavy of Boston, and Robert C. Davis of Phila-delphia, all had authoritatisc collections of .American coins.A distorted piclurt- of ninnisniatics in the UnitedStates would be given if the implication emerged thatinterest was limited only to the eastern coast. Con-temporary accounts in the 1860s from Fort Wayne,Inch, concerning a miscellaneous collection of 2,000pieces; from Bellevue, Ohio, where a collector wasrobbed of his "copperheads"; from Omaha, Neb.,where Byron Reed a.ssembled an outstanding collec-tion of ancient, inodern, and .'\merican coins; and areport of J. Henry .Applegate on the situation in col-lectors' circles in California?indicate the extent ofnumismatic interest in the central and western states,which until recently was not channeled into well-organized efforts as in the East.Throughout the country, at the same time, scores ofhandbooks and publications on a \ariety of othernumismatic subjects were started, reflecting researchof the midcentury which often centered around thepaper currencies of colonial times. Such efforts prolj-ably were motivated, in part, by a desire to evaluatethe unfortunate financial ex[)eriences of the precedingcentury.Among other publications of the [leriod should bementioned William M. Gouge's S/iorl History oj PaperMoney arul Banking in the United States (1833), WilliamSumner's History of American Currency (1874), andespecialK Joseph B. Felt's Historical Account of Massa-chusetts Currency (1839), which was develojied from two lectures given before the Ma.ssachusetts Historical .Society. In a few decades, Henry Phillips publishedhis excellent Historical Sketches of the Paper Currency ofthe American Colonics (186.S-1866 ). which is still anindispensable reference.Around the middle of the ccntur\', researchon coins was largely dominated by people connectedwith the national mint: Jacob R. Eckfeldt (1803-1872) '*'^ and William E. Du Bois (1810-1881), '?" a.ssayers. and later in the sixties, James Ross Snowden(1809-1878), director of the Mint in Philadelphia.The Manual of Gold and Silver Coins of All NationsStruck Within the Past Century, pulilished in Philadelphiain 1842 by Eckfeldt and Du Bois, is, in spite of omis- sions, an outstanding handbook. Although not pur-suing high scholarly standards, this book, whichcontains detailed descriptions of the coinage of everycountry with useful accompanying tables on themetallic fineness of coins resulting from their ownassays, was an invaluable aid for collectors.In 1846 Du Bois published A Brief Account of theCollection of Coins Belonging to the Mint of the UnitedStates, in which he gives, in addition to a conspectusof the various groups of coins represented, a shorthistory of the national collection. Later, in 1860,James R. Snowden published a more detailed reportunder tlie title Description of Ancient and Modern Coinsin the Cabinet Collection of the Mint of the United States}^'"'The collection of the Mint was established ofiiciallyin June 1 838 although, as we have seen already, itsearly beginnings can be traced to the 1790s. DuBois' book mentions the provenance of certain pieces:a few ancient coins were given by Jacques G. Schwarz,U.S. Consul in Vienna; some Byzantine and Greekpieces were donated by John P. Brown, dragoman forthe U.S. Emba.ssy in Constantinojile; and a numberof Greek and Bactrian coins came from the East IndiaCompany.In 184,S, John L. Riddell, melter and refiner at theU.S. Branch Mint in New Orleans, [)ublished in thatcity A Monograph of the Silver Dollar, Good and Bad, abook which reflects the [)reoccupations of the periodwith actual monetar\- problems. "K! See Du Boi.s, "A Brief Sketch ofJacob R. Eckfeldt" (1872). '** Sec obituary of William E. Du Bois in American Journal ofNumismatics (1881). "S For other catalogs of the Philadelphia Mint collection secJohnston, A Visit to the Cabinet (1876); Smith, Visitor's Guide(1885); McClure, An Index to llie Coins (1891; 1895); U.S.Bureau of the Mint, Ciiitle lo tlie Coltection (1913), Catalogue ojCoins (1912; 191.3; 1914) and Catalogue (1928).62 BULLETIN 229: CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE MUSEUM OF HISTORY .XND TECHNOLOGY The Miiniial liy Eckfcldt and Du liois, lurntioiiedaljove, found a parallt-l work in Montixnille W.Dickcson's The Aiihiiran .\iimisnialh Mmimd (1S3')),which, despite the criticism it nTei\ed, went throu'^^hthree editions ijy 1865. .As laul(\ as nnich ol' tiieinformation was. the basic concept of the l)o(jk iielpedit to achiexe a standard which wa.s never ec|ualcd inlater pubUcations of this kind.The New \'ork group claimed as its Iradina; menCharles I. Bushnell (1826-1883), a well-known col-lector and author (jf a book on tokens. An Ainnis^ininilof Tradi'imeti' s Cards. Puliliod 7ii/.r>i\, rli . (bSSS), andJohn Howard Hickco.x, author of .!? /fisinma/ A:-, a jeweler from .\ew Hamp-shire who had established his business in Boston.This work can be regarded as the mosl outstandingcontribution of the United States to numism.iiicresearch in general.In this book one of the thorniest problems in thehistory of .American coinage, the issues of the C^olonies,found an authoritatix e presentation whicli lias ni-\ erbeen siu"passed. The basic concept of the work wasto consider coins as essentialh' an expression of tlieirtime. The\' were thorouro\ed in-valuable in many instances and frequcnth was usedby other mmiismatists. Unfortimately, from a meanshis system has \ery often become an end in itself, itsuse degenerating into a senseless pursuit, as can beseen in recent publications which promote rcscaicliinto the progression of die cracks as an cxclusi\ e aimof numismatics? an activity which entirel)- neglectsC;rosl.)y"s historical approach.A strong interest in medals toward I he end of lliecentury emerged again; they were stutlied hom thehistorical rather than the artistic point of \iew. None-theless, Joseph F. Loubat's Mefhillii Hi\l(iry nf IhrUnited .Stales of .America. I776-I!i741), ,l^ well ascomprehensi\e works on ihe yener.il currencies ol ilu'L'nited States, such , IS .\. B.ii Ion I lepburn's I/islmynfCoiiiai;e and Current r in llie I'nilid Slules (19(l.i) o,-C. .Nettel's Mnney Supply nj lli,- Amenean ('nlmiics titfnieI72l> (1'I34). The slud\ of Confederate currencs .is rellecletl in R.iph.K 1 P. Tlii.nrs very r.ire Reiiislet nfIssues nf ( .'nnfderale Slates 7 leasiii y .\ntes, published inliie kite I'Hii centur\. .in.iin bee.ime popiil.n in I'llSwith Willi.im W. Hradlieer's Cnnfedeiale and SmilluinState Currency. The snhieel w.is reex.iinined in 1947by Philip H. Ch.ise in (Jaifdeiale Treasuiy \nli s: 7licI'aper .\Jnney of llic Cnnfcdiialc Slal, s nf .[innha .ind inl''.54 by Rich.ird f'. Todd in his excellent liistoiie.ilstudy Confi del ale lunanic. Fig. 46.?Ai.urirr R. Fri.v (18-,!'. ii)i()),American autliur nf Dnliniiniy ol .\uiiiisiiiatnNanie.i (])liiil(i Iroiii I lie .\wiiismalisl). In the e.iiK dec .ides of the twenlielh centuryemerged a man who succeeded in esi.iblishing the])restige of .\merican lese.irch in tiie ii(4(l ol s( ientilicmnnism.itics I'.dward T, Newell (188(i l')!!). \.iU-Uraduate antl, licim I'Mn until his de.ilh, presidentof the .\ineric.m .Numism.itic Siiriet\ . .\ distinuiiishedstudent ol outsl,mdin'4 repul.ition in the nnmism.itii- will 111, he re\(iliitioni/.ed the lield of .1111 ii'iit (ireekniinhsm.ilics b\ lenroiipiu'.^ and red.iting (eil.iincoin.iges of .Mexaiulei the Crc.il on .111 enliiel\- newand scii'iitilic b.isis. ,\l till- s.iine lime he set in motion ,1 piililishingtrend whiili helped to pi. ice the Inited St. lies anions65 Fig. 47. ? Edward T. Nev\-ell ( 1886- i 941).Icadine; American aulhority in ancientnnniiKnuitics (Div. of Numismatics photo). the Icadina; nations in numismatic research. On hisinitiative the American Numismatic Society began topublish in 1920 various studies in a series calledNumismatic Notes and Monographs. To this titlesubsequently were added others: in 1938, NumismaticStudies, a .series devoted to works of larger size; in1946, Museum J\fotes, an annual confined to Ijrief articles written chiefly by the nuiseuin stafl'; in 1947, .Ytimismalic Literature, an excellent bil)liographicalreview; and in 1950, the Hispanic Numismatic Series,a joint publication in coo[)eration with the HispanicSociety of .America. ''-'As a result, in subsequent decades many outstandingworks in the field of ancient and foreign numismaticshave been published. Ncwell's classic studies, TheCoinage of Demetrius Poliorcetes (1927), The Coinage ojthe Eastern Seleucid Mints (1938), and The Coinage ofthe Western Seleucid Mints (1941), '" were followed by aseries of excellent monographs by Sydney P. Noe,Alfred Bellinger, Samuel R. Milbank, and LouisWest in the field of ancient numismatics. In order tocomplete the [jicture, one should add a few representa- tive names in \'arious other specialties: George C.Miles on Islamic and Ibcro-Hispanic coinages. How-land Wood and Robert Nesmith on Central and SouthAmerican problems, Harrold E. Gillingham and[anics C. Risk on orders and decorations, WilliamII. Uillistin and Kenneth Scott on bank notes andcounterfeiting, and Sydney P. Noe and Eric Newmanon .'\merican munismatics.In re\'iewing the past few decades of numismaticresearch in this country, one cannot escape the im-pression that almost all scholarly activity has beencentered around the publications of the AmericanNuinsiniatic .Society. Even in the field of nationalmimismatics only sporadic and imsystematic attemptshave been made by other groups to direct researchtoward higher .scholarly standards. Walter Breen'smany contriijutions to various topics of Americaninterest have not yet been channeled into a majorhistorical study.On the other hand, the United States has producedexcellent handbooks which are a genuine asset togeneral numismatics on the collector's level. WayteRaymond has published a series of guidebooks onmodern world coinages of the 19th and 20th centuriesas well as on United States coins. '^^ His tradition hasbeen continued by Richard S. ^'eoman with a yearlyedition on the United .States series, '^^ and now ex-tended by Yeoman to modern foreign coinages (.-1Catalogue oJ Modern World Coins, 6th ed., 1 964). RobertFriedberg's Gold Coins of the World (1958) and espe-cially his handijook Paper Money of the United States (5th eel., 1964) present many useful features for collectors.Worldwide acceptance has been accorded to JohnS. Davenport's handbooks on the dollar-sized silvercoins of Europe and Germany since 1700.'*^More scientifically significant contributions havecome from the Economics Department of the Univer- sity of PennsyK'ania, with such works as Anne Bezan-son's Prices and Inflation During the American Rev(dution(1951), and from the Harvard Department of Eco-nomics, as reflected in the series Harvard EconomicStudies. Both have published special studies con-cerned with historical aspects of monetary and priceproblems and with banking in Em'opc as well as inthe early [jeriods of this country. "- For more dctailid information, see .Adelson, AmericanAumismalic Socifty (1958). "3 For his bibliography, see Tit Numismatist (1941), pp.268-269. I"' CoiJis of the World: Ninelernlli Century Issues (1953), Coins ofllie World: Twentieth Century Issues (1955), Standard Catalogue ofUnited Stales Coins (1957). '?5 Guidebook of the United States Coins (1963).i?? European Crowns Since 1H00 (1947), German Tatrrs Since 1S0O(1949), German Talers 1700-1S00 (1958), European Crowns 1700-WOO (1961).66 BULLETIN 229: CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE MUSEUM OF HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY For new perspectives on research into American niiniisniatics we lia\e to turn to the Xuniisinalic Xotesand Monographs series of the American XnmismaticSociety. Svdney P. X'oe's slucheson the early coinagesof Massachusetts and on the Castine hoard'''" andthe brilliant studies of Eric Newman on other topicsof colonial numismatics '''* ha\c opened a new andpromising era for scientilic research into Americancurrency.Numismatics as the science of inonev \ iewrd withinthe multi|)licity of historical phenomena aiipears tol)e successfully estalilished. I'he words written acentvn-y ago l)\' James Ross Snowden seem hest toexpress our thoughts:In gi\ing a history of the coins of the UnitedStates we shall not go so far into the details of thesubject as to take notice of the ditTerent "varieties" i'';.\"f;(' /-'iifjiind iind W'llhnr Titr Coinngf uf .\fi:s.s<:tiiiiuits(1943), (hik Tree Ciiinage of Massminnelh (1047), I'lne TierCninas,e of Masstiehii>ells (1952), lite Ci^ltiie Defmsil: An Ariieridin//oar,/ (1942). "" Cniitaoe for Colonial \'ugi/na (195()) and Seeiel iij the GiiudSamarilan Shilling (1959). caused by cracked dies, the addition or omissionof a leal in the laurel, a larger' or smaller IcKcrin the legend or inscription, and lh<' lomitless rjlher niiiiule and scirceK delinable dillerenccswhich are loimd. upon ( luse, inspeclion. lo existin the coins of nearly cverv vear in wliicli llie\-haxe been issued. These little lechnicalilies maybe im[)ortant to those collectors of coins wlio paymcK'c regard to the selfish desire of lia\ing some-thing which no one else possesses tirm to ihehistoric or artistic inteiesi which allaclies lo a coin. We iherelore confine ouiseKcs In an illiis-tralion of those t hangi's in the types ol the cciinswhich are of material and deliniie char.ic ter. andwhich are produced by design and nol li\ acci-dent, introducing, as we proceed, olhcr lacls in regai'd to the coinage wlii( h are iiidic pmilyhistoric than the descri[)tioii, .iiul which iii.is be of inteiest or tend to throw some light upon contiij\'erted poinls.'''-' I''" D, \i iif'liiin uf AmienI ,nul Mmlein (.'niiis, p. 101. P.^PER 32: NUMISM.-\TICS?AN .\NCIENT SCIENCl'. 67 Literature Cited Adelson, Howard L. Early medieval trade routes. American Historical Review(January 1960), vol. 65, no. 2, pp. 271-28'7. ? . Light weight solidi and By~ant>ne trade during the sixth and seventh centuries. (No.138 in Numismatic Notes and Monographs.) New York: American Numis-matic Society, 19.S7. . The American Aumismalic Society: 1H58-195S. New 'S'ork: American Nu-mismatic Society, 1958.At;Rlcoi..\ [Georg B.-\uer]. De mensuris et ponderihus Romanorum atque Graecoriim.Ba.scl, 1550.Agustix, Antonio. Didlogos de medal/as, inscripciones j otras antiguedades. Tarragona,1587. Second edition: Edit. (?) Don Andres Gonzales. Madrid, 1744.Italian edition: / discorsi del S. Don Antonio Agostini sopra le medaglie ed altre anticaglie. Rome, 1592.Alfoldi, Andre.\s. Diana Nemorensis. American Journal oj Archaeology (Princeton,N.J., 1960), vol. 64, pp. \31-\44. . Studicn zur Zcitfolge der Munz])ragung dcr romischen Repuhlik. Schwei- zerische Numismatische Rundschau (Bern, 1954), vol. 36, pp. 5-30. . The main aspects of political propaganda on the coinage of the RomanRe[)ui5lic. Pp. 63-95 in Essays in Roman coinage presented to Harold Mattingly,O.xford, 1956. ? . The portrait of Caesar on the denarii of 44 B.C. and the sequence of theissues. Pp. 27-45 in Centennial Publication of the American Xumismatic Society,New York, 1958.American Historical Review (New York, 1895+). [A journal.]American Journal of Archaeology (place of publication varies, 1885-[-).American Journal oJ Numismatics (New York, 1866-1924).Amor6s, Jose B.\rr.'\. Xoticia acerca del Gahinete Numismdtico de Cataluna y su Museo.Barcelona, 1949.Andres de Gi^'SSeme, Tomas. Diccionario numismalico general para la perfecta inteligenciade las medallas antiguas, sus signos, notas, e inscripciones y generalmente de todo lo que secontiene en etlas. 6 vols. Madrid, 1773-1777.Andrews, Arthur. Australasian tokens and coins. Sydney, 1921.Annalen der gesammten Numismatik (Leipzig and Gotha, 1804-1806). [A journal.]Annali: Istituto Italiano di Xumismatica (Rome, 1954-[-)- [A journal.]Die antiken Miinzen Xord-Griechenlands. By various authors. 4 \ols. incl. \ar. parts.Berlin: Prussian Academy of Sciences, 1898-1935. [For indi\idual titles seePick, Pick and Regling, Str.\ck, Gaebler, Fritze.]68 BULLETIN 229: CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE MUSEUM OF HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY Anzt'ion d,-r p/nl.-/?\l. h/aur da .Inrru lus. hn, Akadnnu- an Wis.n.schaflni (\'icm,;i,1864+ ). [Ckinlril unions in M'rial luiin]Aqi'INAS. Thomas. On the goveniam;- uf luln-, (\^c rcuiininc priiu ipiiiii). Traiisl. (;. B.Phflan. Londuii and New York, 1")3S.Araki. ToYOSABi'Ro. //?n-,M/i// ( Provincial paprr cuiTcncv ) . In |apan<-s,- Kvoto1958. ' ' ? '^iV/z-w/w/ (Private pa prr money). In Japanese. K\oio, i')5,S.Arcluunwitn. Ihilh'lni nf thv Rfsaiirli l.,ihi.?ilnn for ArdiaeolonY and Ihr Ihshny of Art,0\-fnrd L'liimsi/r iOxl'ord, \')5Si^). [.\ journal]Arm AND, Alfred. I,,s medailhws ilalinn d,s .\'IV ,/ Xl'Ir surhs. 3 \-ols. PcHMs, 1879.Second edition: 1883-1887.AsAHl Shimbinsha. h'.-ihai tin 1,'kislii (History of money). In Japan<-se. Tokyo, I ').=.4,Atti.velli, EmmaM'EI, Jo.seph. .\)imiig)a/dii;, lS.i6-l,S37.CHERTKUV, AlEKSANDR DmITRIF.V'K :II. Opisilllir dirrillljl lllsJ.l/./l llinli.l . 1 v,,U.Mosco^v, 1834-1842.C:illjs. PiETER OlTii VAN DKR. /),' iiiiiiilcii ihr Xnlnlmiilai van ,/r nor-^ir i,,,/ni lotnan lie Panfioilir ran (oinl (ArC)), ') vols. Hanrlcin. 18.S1-IS(>6.C'.iiuWE.v, Richard 11. PadiKin loi ^nirs of Roman coins. P]). Sd (,S in RniaisMina-faints. I)\ \arious authors. Duke L'ni\ ci-sit\- Press. 1'I3(,.Cli'uan-ja (Chincsr numismatics). Sh.uii^liai. 1'I4(I-1')43. [Hi-ni(jn(lil\ pnl ilic.ition01 Chinese; .\imiismatic .Socici\-.]Cicero. The Vaiinc oration-,. In Latin and English. Tiansl. E. II. (4. (iiccnwood.2 vols. London and New Voik: (4. P. Putnam's .Son, l'i28; l')33.C:iROixA, Carlo XL Lr aiTiiitiin- ihlla lira. Milan. l')3,s. . Mniny. fruci anil nnliyilion in tlir .\I,;lilrrrantiin inn 1,1. jiftli I,, s,'r,nl,;iilliccnturr. Princeton, 1''36.CoDRlNGTOX, Oli\-er. Manila/ of Musiilniiin niiinnniatns. (No. 7 in .\sialie SocietyMono'_;raphs. ) London, i'i04.CoHE.N', HeN'RI. Di'\, I iftioii i^,'ii,'iiili' ,1, \ rnoiinai, s ilc la i,f,iililiiiu,- loniain,. I', iris, 1837. . Descriflion lii\toi iqii,' ,l,\ ni,,nnai,'\ /inlif,',. s,iiii /'rmfiic loiiiain , oniniiiin'ni, nl ajipi'li'cs rn,',lail/,'\ iiiif,nal,\. ^ vols. P.nis, 183')-1868.Second edition: 8 vols. I'aris, 188(1-1892.Reprinted: Leipzis;, 1930; CJraz, 1955.Cdin aiul Stamp Join n,il ( Kans.is Cit\' ,ind .\ew ^'ork, 1873-1876).Coin Coll,; Ion J,mm, il ( .\'ew \'oi-k, 1873-1888). [Xcw series: I A' Scoit St.nnp andC:oiii C:o., 1''34 l'?38: l,v Wayte Rasniond, 1 939-1 ')34.]Coin Joiniial (Lancaster, I'a., 18^8-1882).Co.MBE, Cn.\RI ES. .\ iiinnioi iitii V, 1,1 11)11 popiiloi iiiii ti inhiiiin. qui in mils,,' (liiliilnii / flint, r assirvantin ilcstriplio. jioniis illiistrata. London, 1^82.CiiMP.E, 'rA\'I r)R. Wiiiiim fopuloiiini ,1 i,i^iiiii niiiiii qui in .Miiun Ih it,iiiiihii a,l\,i r,intii> . London, 1814.Con'^ii\ inl,inalion,ilil,'iiiiiiii\in,itiqi/,\ Pai'is, l''()l). |,\ report.]Congrls ml, I national il,' niinii\in,ili,/iii' ,1 il'ait r/r la tm'ilaill, ioiit,iiiforain, : .\l,'imiii,\. Brus- .seis. rno.Congih int.iiiational ih iiiiiiii\in,itiqiii : I',iiis,t, II Jiiilht, 105.}. 2 \'ols. (\ol. \ , /uippoil.s,1933: \()1. 2, .1,1,-., l')37.i i'aris, 1933; 1937.Congiissii intiina'ional,' ill immmnati, a: Rihi'ioni. Romi\ I'Hij.Co.N'l'ZE.v, LlEI\Rlf:ll ( '. \\ . 1 lioinas ron .\qiiino ah rollsifiits, lia/lli, li, i S, In ijt^t, II, > :Km B,ihag -iir nati,iiial,,L,inonii\i Inn I )ogm, ng, uiii, lit, ,1, \ M ill, laltn \. Eeip/ii;, I8(d.Cool E, .\RTHfR Bl.;AI)n.\.\. .1 hihliogi afliy on lun l-'.,i\t,rii iiniiii\inati, . ,iiiil ,iii unioninilix of rnrri7i,r. iliaini.. ,niil ,iiiiul,1s "/ III,' tin i'.,Jst. Pekinr;, 1'I4(). . Coins III Cliiiia\ lii\toir. Tienlsin, 1936. ,Se( ond edilion: l')37.CoiM.\(a:R, II. S. .\. l',il)lio^ra|)liy of ll.nold .M.illin'jiv's works, 191(1 l')33. P|)-1-12 in I'lsuiy, in /\'om,in Coinage piru-nlril to Hmohl .M'lttinglr. I)\ various .nuliors,O.xlord. l')36.PAPER 32: Nl'MISM.'\TICS? A.N ANCII'.NT SCIKNCE '-3 Corolla numi.smatica: Xumismatic essays in honour oj Barclay V. Head. Londtm : OxfordUniversity Press, 1906.Corjius nummorum Itaiuorum. 20 vols. Rome, 1910-1940.Cor[)us miinnionun Pahiestincnsium (Jerusalem, 1956+). [A series.]Cc)V.ARRl'Bl.\s DE Lm'VA, DiDAr:us. Vctaurn numismatum collatio cum his quae rnodoexprmlunim jmhlica cl rcgia auclontate percusa. Salamanca [1556].Laicr ctlilions: Colosi;nc, 1580; Valencia, 1785.Cox. DoRorHV II.\N.\.\H. Coins from the excavations at Curium, 1932-1953. (No. 145in iVumismalic Notes and Monographs.) i\e\v \'ork: .Amcriran NnniisniaticSociety, 1959.CRosB^?, .S^l.VESTER S.\GE. The early coins of Ameiica and the laws governing their issue.Boston, 1875.Rejnintcd: Chicaa;o, 1945. d'Aili.v, B.aron Pierre-Phimppe Bourlier. Recherches sur la monnaie romaine depuis son origine jusqua la rnort d'Augustc. 4 vols. Lyon, 1864 -1869.D.\si, ToMAS. Esludio de Ins reales de a oeho. 5 vols. \'a!encia, 1950-1931.Davenport, John S. European crowns 1700-1800. Galesl)urtj, III., 1961. . European crowns since 1800. Buffalo, 1947. . German talers 1700 1800. Galcsburs;, 111., 1958. . German talers smce 1800. Galesbursr, Hj., 1949.Deacon, James Hunt. Thc^^ ingots" and '^assav offce pieces'" of South Australia. Mel-bourne [1952].Desnei'X, Jules. Les tetradrachmes dWkanthos. Revue helge de numismatique (Brus- sels, 1949), vol. 95, pp. 5-120.Dickes(3N, Montrovti.i.e Wilson. The American numismatic manual of the currency or money of the aborigines, and colonial, state, and United States coins. Philadelphia,1859. Third edition: 1865.Dieudo.nne, Adolph Edmond. La theorie de la monnaie a Tepocjue feodale et royale. Revue numismatique (Paris, 1909), .ser. 4, \<)1. 13, pp. 90-109. . L'oeuvre numismatique d^ Ernest Bahelon (1854 1924). Paris, 1924. [Reprintedfrom Revue numismatique (Paris, 1924).]DoMANir;, K.-\RL. Die deutsche Medaille in kunst- und kulturhistorischer Hinsicht. X'icnna,1907.Dompierre de Chaufepie, Henri Jean de, and Kerkwijk, A. O. van. Choix demonnaics et medailles du Cabinet royal de La Have. The Basque, 1910.Dressel, Heinricii. Nekrolou; Theodor Mominscn. J^eitschrift fiir .Xuniismatik (Ber-lin, 1904), vol. 24, pp. 367-376.Du Bois, William Ewing. A brief account of the collection of coins belonging to the Mintof the United States. Philadelphia, 1846. . A brief sketch of Jacol) R. Eckfeldt, assayer of the Mint of the UnitedStates at Philadelphia. Pp. 547-552 in mjI. 12 of Proceedings of the AmericanPhilosophical Society, Philadelphia, 1872. . Joseph J. Mickley: The interesting career of a linguist, antiquarian and musician.Boston, 1878.Du Bois, William E. [OI)ituary.] American Journal of .Xumismalics (Boston, 1881),\(j1. 16, no. 2, pp. 44-46.Dlr.wd, .Anthony. Medailles etjetons des numismates. Geneva, 1865. 74 Bri.ir.Tix 229: contributions from thk museitm of history .'\nd technology pMiIy jnouolings: Awni.aii P/ii/,niiji/ii,,!lSo,i,/r. Fhihidrlj.hia, ISS-l.EcKlKiDT, Jac.b RiKsK, aiui l)r Bnis, W 11 HAM E\viN<^ 7/(, muNim/ of n?l,J andstiver (Oiiis (if (ill naliiins sliiuk unlhiii the fast faitiur. l'hil,i(lrl|.lii,i, lS-12.Ec:KIIEL, Joseph FIiiarris. Dailntia nummmum v,-l,iiirii. ,S vols, \icmi.i. 1 ~')2 - 1 7')S.AJdtiida: \'icnnn, 1826.Latci rclilion: Sxols. X'ienna, 1S28-183').Edwards. J< i.nai ii w. Cataldi^iif (if Cmf and Rdmaii (nins in the niiinismalu ((ill.dKin afI'alc Collig(\ New 1 la\cn, ( lumi., l.SSO.Engel, Arthur, and Serrurk, Ra\M(.)ND. TkiiIi' dc nnnii\ni,ifi(/Nc dn innvm (i'^c. 3voLs. Paris, IB'M-l'tdS.Engeli, Adoif. I'ii,(lii,h ItnlKKif-liluina, IS.IS lOJl). W'intcrtlmr, l')24.Eppich, E. 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[Place?] 1550.82 BULLETIN 229: CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE MUSEUM OF HISTORY .AND TECHNOLOGY Mark.,\-, An,Kshl K.ASTAMiN.n-,,,;,,. InvnU.nmi hataho wusulm.mskdJ, tmmeiImj<,;,itnisli,iv,> Enmhi-Ji,!. 2 vols. St, l'ct( rshurs;, 1806.M..\RSDKN, Wll HAM. .\iii,iiM??l,l nnnilalia illinhala. 2 \nls. l,(Hi(lnii, I,S2.i 1,S2.^.M.\RTi.\\. I. Cuinori ,iid,-|,-iu-. liuhliiiiil Sufutaljt \,w,,ui,.,l? , li,.maN, ( Budi.ircst,l''21i, vol. 1(1, nos M 4(1. |i|). 1.1 21.M.VRTiN, C:mi in. SuisM'. Pp. ^5-3^8 in xol. 1 ?r Connnsu, wtnnarj.nu.lr .!, mmusma-tua, Ruiur, 1 ''(,].Mariimiri, F>i)ii.\Ruii. Im ninriila. Rome, I'M.S.Minim's Cinn and Stamp Colhrlm', Masia-nic [Vh\\AiM\->\\l\. Pa., 18(r l,s-2; 1882 lS')l).MATia- V Ll.oi.is, Feiipe. Hihl,?giafia ilr la htstoua muu.tana ih E^aha. M,i,lri,|:C'.asn ck- '1 inil.)i-e, 1''58. . Bililiografia nuniismalka de Esp.in.i v Portugal icicinii,- a h,s sit;l(js \||1a X\ I. P|). 383-3'M in vol. 1 ol' {Amgnan nilnnarjunal,' ,/i iiiiiniM/ialu a,Ronif, I'lfil. . Caldlngn ,1, las wninihn /n.riMonihn _v nsig,?/i/s ,1,1 Cahinrl,- Aiininm/ili,,, ,IdMils, II Arijihiili'ioko .\,i,i,iiiiil. M.idrid, l'l3f). . Cald/iioii ,/,' I, IS l?iii,l,i,il,s 1,11,11, 1,iii?i ,l,i Mils,;, .\i,/ii,?!,',-;/,,i .\,?,,?!?l. .Madrid1934. . (liiMiN,, /ii\/',/nii-ii ,/,' /////iiiM/iiin,,!. IJ.n'Cclona, I'MO. . La tniiii,,l,i isjiau,,!,!. I-i.u'rclon.i, I'Md. . L'n inwntano niunisniatic o del srglc Wl. i!,,l,th, .\n/!i,?/,',!^i,? ('! ariauona,l')2'l l')32i, n(j. 40, ]-,p. 7.T 8(,.Matti\t;i.v, Haroid. The Brili.sli Museum. \,-ir ^calami .\ iinii'.in.ili, j,?iiii,il(l')4<)), vol. .S, no. 3. pp. 73 83. . Coins ,ij III,- Raman /-'ni/,!,,' in lli, liiitish M us, urn. \(;ls. Lundou,1'I23 1''62. . R,iinan iniiis finm lit,- t,.',/ii\/ lint,'. In III,' fall ?[ tli,- U',\/,in /jn/'ii,. Lcmdon,1928. Second edition: l''(,(l. . Riiman impiiial iivilizatinn. London, 1957. . 1 he " iTstorcd" coins of 'J'itus, Doniitian and .\ei\,i. .\i,mi\in,ili, ('/i>,ini,ic(London, l't20), ser. 4, \oi. 2n, pp. 177-2(i7. . 1 he rcstofcd coins ol iiajan. .\iiniisniatif ('hiiiniil,- (Londun, r'2()l, sei-. .S, vol. 0, [jp. 232-278.M.\ni.\oi\-, Hariii D and H.xriudH. 'ihe RepuMic and the ciily I'.uipire. Pp.147-1.S7 in vol. 1 ol Congn.ss,, ml, niazmnal,- ill nunii\ni,ilii,i. Rome, l'*(d.MAT^r.\l;I^, II,\riii,d; Sydemiam, Edward A.; and others. 'I lu- Rum,in im/nnaliiiinag,-. \'ols. 1-5; ''. L(.indon: Spink & Sun, 1 ')23-l ')1'?; I'iSl.M.\Tn\(;i\\ 1I.\R(.)Ld B., and R(ini.\s(i,\, Edward S. (J. 7/,, ,l,ii,' ,,[ Ih, Roman ,l,niiiin\ ami oil/,, lamlminks in early Roman ininag,:. Londcm: II. .Milford, 1''33.[Reprinted Irum Pm,,;,lings nf Ihe Ihilnh Auulimr (Londcin. I'lii), \ul. 18.)M.-\liRH.:E, Jt'I.Es. .\iimnmaliijii,- ciinsUinlintinn,-. 3 \'ols. I'.uas, 1''(IS l')|2.Ma'i'ER, Leo .\r\. /)ililiogia/ihy of Miishin iiumiunali, ?. 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Copenhagen:Nationalmuseet, 1950. ? 84 BULLETIN 229: CONTRIBUTIONS FRO.VI THE MUSEUM OF HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY MnsSER, Sanvvkr M.:.\KmrK. .1 h,hhn..?l.hr ?f ny-ywlm.- u,m hn.nd.. (N,,. u- inNumismatic X?t,-s .uul .\f?iu,oT,,|.hs. ) Xru York: Amciiran Xinni.in.uicSociety. 103-1.MnWAT, Robert. L,i nc(jnstimiic.ii (Its c.ilrciicuis dr cciiiis aiix Icici I Ic sii\i.-s.Pji. 210-22(1 in Cniinih I>il,iikilinii,il ,lf .XiiiiiniiKit iqiif . I'.iiis, rxH).MuLLER, LUDNTC. /)/, .\/m;;-,7( pn?/u,' mnhnaul I, s mmniiufsdr Phihpi? II , I III. 1 M.l. i atl.is. Clcjix-nhancn, 1835.Reprinted: plates only, Basel and Stuttsart, 1957. . A'limiuniilii/ii,' ,/,' /\i,i,iiiiiu- Afiiqii,'. ,i \ols. Co|X-nlia'4cn, ISdO 1,S74.Sup|.)leiiieiU: ( lupenli.ineii. 1874.MrxRo, Xeii.G(ird.i\. Coiin nj jalni,laiil A .VI', ,1 I,: .VIY, sialci. 3 jjarts.Paris, 1S7,S -1,S82. ? Li^ Cdlliitinus in .Xumismatii .Xoies andMonographs.) XV'w \'ork: .AuuMie.ui .Xumismatii' Sociels, I'lid, . 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New York: American Numismatic Society, 1947. . 7 he Pine Tree coinage of Massachusetts. (No. 125 in Numismatic Notes andMonographs.) New York: American Numismatic Society, 1952. . The Thurium di-slaters. (No. 71 in Numismatic Notes and Monographs.)New York: American Numismatic Society, 1935. . Two hoards of Persian sigloi. (No. 136 in Numismatic Notes and Mono-graphs.) New \'ork: American Numismatic Society, 1956.Nohejlova-Praton A, Emanuela. La numismatique en Tchechoslovaquic dcpuis1945. Pp. 627-631 in vol. 2 of Congres International de Numismatique, 1953,Paris, 1957. . Ndlezv rninci v Cechdch. na .Morave a ve Slezsku. 4 \-ols. Prague: Ceskoslo-venska Akademie Ved., 1956-1958.Nordisk .Xumismatisk Arsskrift (Copenhagen, and elsewhere, 1936+ ). [A journal.]Numdrio Hispdnico (Madrid: lnstituto"Antonio Agustin" de Numismatica, 1 952-1 957).\.\ journal.]Numisma (Irvington, N.Y., 1877-1891). [A journal.]Numisma (Madrid: Sociedad Iberoamericana de Estudios Xumismaticos. 1951 +).[A journal.]Numismata quaedam cujunque formae, el melalli Musei Honorii Arigoni Veneti ad usumjurcntutis rei numinariae studiosae. 4 vols. Tarvisio, 1741.Numismatic Chronicle (London, 1st ser., 1838-1858; 2nd ser., 1861-1880; 3rd ser.,1881-1900; 4th ser., 1901-1920; 5th ser., 1921-1940; 6th ser., 1941 +).Former title: .Numismatic Journal (London, 1836-1838).Numismaticheskii Shornik (Moscow, 1955+). [.A journal.]Numismatic Journal (London)?see Numismatic Chronicle.Numismatic Journal (North Adams, Ma.ss., 1877-1878).Numismatic Literature (New York: American Numismatic Society, 1949+ ). [Abibliographical review.]Numismatic Notes and Monographs (New York: .American Numismatic Society, . 1920+). [A series]Numismatic Pilot to Ancient Coins and Their Uses (La Grange, Ky., 1876-1877). [Ajournal.]The .Vurnismatic Scrapbook Ma^aXine (Chicago, 1935+ ). [A journal.]Numismatic Studies (New York: American Numismatic Society, 1938+). [A serialpublication.]Numismatic Studies and Research (Jerusalem: Lsracl Numisiuatic .Society, 1954-t-).(A serial publication.]Numismatische Literatur Osteuropas und dcs Balkans?see Probszt, Giinther.Numismatische .^eitschrift (Vienna, 1869-1937; 1946+). [.\ journal founded byChristian Huber and J. Karabacek.]Numismatische ^eitung (Weissensee, 1834-1874). [A journal.]Numismatiska meddelanden ittgivna af Svenska numismaliskaforeningen (Stockholm, 1874-|-).[A journal.] 86 BULLETIN 229: CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE MUSEUM OF HISTORY .^ND TECHNOLOGY T/ir .\uniiu>i,ili\l (Mnmnr. Mich.. r\cl<-i alsljui _;, Md.. .ind iillu-i pl.Kcs. ISXSl).[A journal.]NurzEL. H. htil.iliin ,/,, nnnilali'iiini .\[un.z,n. 2 \i>l>. Berlin: K()ni'.^li( lie .MnMcn1 898-1 '!n2.Occo, AdcpLI'11, /iii/j,i,iliiiiii/i mill,nun mil iiuinnwuhi a fniii/:,/,, Mn^nr, ?,I !l,i,ii liiiiii.Antwerp. 1 37'*.Revised edition: Edit. Filippo .Xr^ejlati. .\filan. 17."iO.Oldest coin collection recorded in the V.S. 'The .Xiniiisinalnt (r>n7). pp. 10 12.ORESHNIKri\', Al KKSKI \'.\sn KN'ICII. Rns-.kir iiiniidr iln I ') tl iliirla. .Mosciiw, IS')f).Oresmii'S. Xiciini .\s. 'I i,i,I,iIii\ ilr uiiiiiiir, iiii,' iirf nun li iiiuldliiiiiilnis inonrlnniiii. {\\{[. ') or,S',;,7,/ Hihlinllirui uiii, hn inn I'.itiiini, 1:\- Mar[;arin\i.s de la Biknc.) Paris, 1 SS').Orsim. FrEMd. fiih{^iiii}. ti rlin^iii niiniiiii il/inliiiiiii it iriiililoi inn ,-,v iinli,/nr\ hijmlilnis el iiiniiiMiiiitihin exfne'.sii i inn iiiiiiii/nlionihii\ e\ hihlintliei a I'ldi ii ['isiiii. Rdnie. 1.37(1.Repuhlislied: 13'I8: l6ll().Reedited: In rren( h. 171(1,Ovid. Fa\li. In I.alin ami I"nt;lish. Tr.msl. Sir J.mies r;e(]rae I'ra/er. Londonand Xew \'ork: G. P. Pntnam's Son. 1''31.Owen collection of coins !;i\cn to \'ale lilirarx'. 'The .Xinni^nnihsl {1'I27). p. 27'KP,\f;.\M. .\NrciMn. Ludo\ ico Lallr.niclii. Ririsln ilnlnnin di ninnnnni/ien (Mil.ni,1''53). pp. 148-13(1.P.\WE\I R(.is.\Tl. I'kwcii. II riordin.uiiento del Med.i'-;licre F.stense di .Mmlena. Aiiiitili: hlituUi Iln/iiiiin ,/i .\innisinnlii ,i (Rome. l''3()). \-(il. 3. pp. I'M I'Ifp.P.-\P.\DOPOEI, NlOCiio. Te niniif'le ill IV/zi;/,;. 3 \-ols. \'eniee, l.S')3 I'M''.Pedrcsi, P.\oE(). I eneuni in mn iinmlli nel Fiirnese Minen e jiiihhlienli mile Imn unii^riicinleipretii'iniii. Parma. lt)''4. ? . I uieyin in in^eiiln .... 7 \-oIs. Parma, 1701-1721. . I eaesari in inetnllii ine'rjnin e piienlii . . . . 2 \'ols, Parma, 1724-1727.PeeLEREN, Joseph. Remeil de nn'dnille^ de peiifilei el de rilles. 3 \'ols. Paris, 1763. . Reeiied de iiiedndles de inis qui if mil /mini eneme eh' piihlnes mi ipii \mil pen tmnines.Paris. 17()2.Peres, D.^me^O. Rehn^du das ninedas i^res^as, r(iininia\ hi.jiiiliiitis, hdrlniiiis e dinhes. I'orto:Museu Nacional de .Snares dos Reis, r)42.Pi'iSTER. Kurt. Liinei T'liediuh IT Munieli, l')42.Philippine Xinnismatic Monoi^r.iphs (.\Ianil.i, 1948-f ). [.\ scries.]PhiIJ.IPS, Henr\', Jr. lUslmiml skehhes iif llie jiiifier iiineiier ij llie Aineriain Ciilmiies pimrIn the iidnptimi up the P'edeinl Cmntitiitmn. 2 \'ols. RoxIhiia-, .\1.iss.. 1S(i3 18(i(). . .\iniiisiinilie\: Antes iipmi the ,nlle,limi op emus iind niednh depiisiteil hy the .\nniis-iinitie mid Anti Ui7. . The date of the earliest coins, Amnisnidtic Cliioiiulc (Loudon, 1''36), .ser. 6, vol. 16, pp. 1 S. PAPER 32: NUMISMATICS?AN ANf:lF.NT SfllENC'F. 89 Koiuii.K, GuiM.AUMF.. Pi(>7njiluaire c/es medailles dcs plus rrriommfrs jursorints qui out csle (Icjuiis Ir commtnccminl du monde, avec brieve desnipliaii dr Icurs vies et faicis, rccucilliedrs tons auleurs. 2 vols. Lyon, 1553.RoussF.i,, A.^c;E. Danmarks Nationalmuseum. Copcnhas;cn. 1957.Rl'DlNc, R()f:F.RS. Annals of tin coinage of Great Bntatn and its dependencies. 4th ed. 3 vols. London, 1840. S.\b.-\tii;r, |l'sri\. Deseiiption genaale dcs monnaies hrZd'ilines fiapjx'es sous les empcieursd'Orient depuis Arcadius jusqii'a la prise dc Constantinople par Mahomet II. 2 \-ols.P;iris. 1S62.Rcprinicd: Leipzig, 1030; Graz, 1955.S.\LlN.\s, Anthnino. I.c moncte delle a)itiche citta di Sicilia. Palrrnio, 1867.S.AMBON, Lliici. Reclierc/ies sur les anciennes monnaies de Fltalie niei idionale. Najlles,1863. . Reelierelics sur les monnaies dc la piesiiu'ile ttalique depuis leur origine jusqu a lahataille d'Actum. Naples, 1870.S.AUi.nv, Louis Felicien de. .Xumismatiqitc dcs croisadcs. Paris, 1847.Scii.M K, Karl. Xationaiokonomie und Ximiismatik in ihren W'cchselljezichungen.Numismatischc ^eitsc/irift (Vienna, 1801), vol. 23, pp. 321-332.ScHjOTH, Frederik. The currency of the Far East: The Schjiith collection in the .\umis-matie Cabinet at the Cniversity of Oslo, .Xortcar. London and Oslo, 1029.ScHLOssER, Jui.ius vo.\. Die hunst- und W'undctkammcin der Spiilicnaissance. 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Howard L., ~n, S''n, (?(?n, OHAgricola (GroiK P.auci ) (14').l-1535). IS, (.8Aijiistin, Antonio. 20, 2iin, dS, S2Ajuda, collection ol tin- iii\al palace of, I,i>l>i>n, 35, 54Akerman, John \'onne (lS(IO-73), .37 .\lbani, Ales'iandro Cardinal ( l(i'12~177')), l'>, 311, 30nAlbiecht \', Duke ..I H.ivaiia, I'l .\lloldi. .\iidieas (h, IS',15), (,, On, lOn, 48, 49, 4'in, ()8, "IAlfoldi, Maiia Kadnotv, 4') .\Ilonso. Don, Bishop of r.\ora. Tl -MfoiLso, Don. of Portntjal. Cjjunt of Onieni, 1'' .Mian, John (1884-1';55), 55 .\llin, E. J.. '14 .\lphonso V, King of Sicilv and Naples. 13Altesschloss Mnsenm. Stuttgart. 57 .\mbras, Castle of, 14, 15. 30American Mnsenm of the Tammany Society. Xeu ^'l)l k City, M .\merican Numismatic Association. (>5 .\merican Numismatic Society. New York C^ity, 9, 12, 43, 5'1.61, 65, 66. 67. 85\merican Philosophical Society, Philailelpiii.i. 00, f, i\mor6s, Barra Jose, 54, 58n, o8\ndres dc Gusseme. Tomils, 27, 68\ndrews, Arthur. 55. 68\nthon, (-Jiinther. Duke of Schwarzenhurp, 30\ntonius. Cardinal of St. Mark, 13\ntwcrp?see .\Insee Rowd\pplegate, J. Henry. 02\ppleton, William Simmer, 62\quinas, Thomas (1226-74). 12, 12n, 69Araki, Toyosaburo, 56, 09\ristotle, 9\rmand, .Alfred (1805-88), 50, 69\rrigoni. Honorio. 30\rundel. Count (Thomas. 2ud Earl of .\iundln, 62, 62n, 63, 64n, 74, 75Dumbarton Oaks, Wasliini;tun, D.C., coin collection at, ()4Dupont, Henrique!, 93Durand, Anthony, l''n, 23n, 28n, 33, 74Du Simitiere, Pierre Eui;ene, 60Du Verdiei-, Monic|ue, 3Eckfeldt, Adam (I76'l-I852), 61Eckleldt, Jacob Reese, 62, 62n, (.3, 74, 75Eckhel, Joseph Hilarius, 28, 28n, 29, 35, 44, 47, 75, SOEdwards, Jonathan, 64. 75Elmer, Geori; (d. 1943), 48, 49Engel, Arthur (b. 1855), 50. 75Engeli, Adolf, 42n. 75Eppich, E,, 5, ~5Erving;, Georijc William, 61Eugene IV, Pope, 1 3Evans, Sir Artliur John (1851-1941), 8n, 3'), 45, 75Fabretti, Ariodante (1816-')4), 35n, 75Fabrica Nacional de Moneda y Timbre. Madrid, 58Farnese, Alessandio Cardinal (1468-1549), 20, 23Farnese, Odoardo Cardinal, 20Farnese family 13, 20Felt, Joseph Barlow (178')-1S6')), (,2, 75Ferdinand, Archduke of Tv 11)1, 14, 15Ferdinand I, Emperor ol the Unlv Rimian Empire, 14, 15, 1'*Ferdinand VI. King of Spain, 35Ferraro Vaz. Joaquim, 54, 75Ficoroni, Francesco de", 26, 75FiorcUi, Giuseppe (1823-95), 35, 35n, 3'). 75Fitzwilliam Museum- see McCleau (jjlii-itinnFloca, Octav, 51Morence?see Medagli. 77(hull, Edwaid (1837 I6II5), 61Giose. .Siihiev William (I). 1886). 44. 77Grnie. Heiiu.ni (1802 65). 3"". 36. 36n, "0Giotelend, Karl l.udwii; (1807 "^4), 39Gioli-meyer, P.iul, 5, 56, S'^(;iu.bei. ilerb.it Appnld (1846 162"), 47, "(nieiini. Count Roelins. 20(inillrey, Jules, 15Ginnnuski, M.iiian (b. 1881), 51, 77 Il.,bieh,(;eovge (1868 1932), 56. 77H.ilirekorn, R.iymoiiil, 53 97 Havcrnick, Walter, 3, 4n, 6n, 50, 77, 78Hanuc, The?sec Koninklijk Kabinct van MimtcnHaisii^, Marian, 41 n, 78Hall,,James, 61Hall, Vernon, 64n, 91Hallei-, Gottlieb Emanuel von (1735-86), 26, 78Haller, Loui.s, 35, 78Hainbing- sec Museum fiii Hamburgische GcschichtcHammer, J., 45Hanfmann, George, 64, ~8Harvard University CoUeetion, 60n, 64, 78, 91Hatz, Gcrt, 50, 50n, 78Haverkamp, Syvert (1648-1742), 23n, 78Haym, Nicola Francesco (1679-1730), 32, 78Head, Barclay Vincent, 43, 43n, 44, 45, 74, 76, 78, 82Heath, George Francis (1850-1907), 65Heberden Goin Room, Oxford University, 23Heckscher, Eli F., 57n, 78HeLss, AloLs, 39, 54, 78Hennin, Michel (d. 1865), 34, 56, 78Henry H, King of France, 20, 21Henry IV, King of France, 20, 21, 22Hepburn, .Monzo Barton (1846-1922), 65, 78Heraeus, Carl Gustav, 15, 30Hermitage, coin collection of, 36, 37, 40, 50Herrera y Chiesanova, Adollo, 54, 78Heuberger, "Kammerdiener," 14Hcyde, Henry, 23Hickcox.John Howard (1832-97), 63, 78Hildcbrand, Bror Emil (1806-84), 7Hill, Sir George Francis, 6n. 1 1 n, 1 2n, 43, 44. 45, 45n, 56.78,79Hill, I'lulip v., 49, 51Hirmer, Max, 46, 79Hiisch, johann Ghristoph (1698-1780), 25, 79Hirseh, Lucien de (1856-87), 57Hi3gberg, T., 26n, 79Hohnann, K. B., 45HoLst, Hans (1891-1956), 51Holzmair, Eduard (b. 1902), 14n, 53, 56, 57, 79Horace. 1Houwelingens, Erascm van, 19, 79Huber, (Christian, 86Hultsch, Ftiedrich Otto (1833-1906), 39, 45, 79Hundt, .Achim, 43Hunter, William. 33. 34Hunterian Collection, University of Glasgow, 33, 34, 34n,51, 82, 89Husz4r, Eajos (b. 1902), 51Hutten-Czapski, Count Emeric, 41, 79Iliescu, Octav, 51Ilyin, \. A., 40, 79Imhoof, C^hristoph Friedrich, 19Iinhoof-Blumer, Friedrich, 42, 43, 43n, 79Indian Museum, Calcutta, 55Ingholt, Harold, 73Institute Bonacrense de NuuiisinStica y Antiguedadc-s,Buenos Aires, 54Instituto dc Numism^tica, Paraguay, 54Israel Numismatic Society, 49Itami, Saicliiro, 56, 93 Jacobaeus, Holger (1650-1701), 23Jacobs, Norman (b. 1924), 56, 79James II, King of England, 23Jammer-Hatz, Vera, 50, 79Janin, V. L., 51Jankuhn, Herbert (b. 1905), 7n, 50, 79Jefferson. Thomas, 60Jenkins, G. Kenneth, 44Jesse, Wilhelm (b. 1887), 3n, 4, 4n, 5n, I2n, 39n, 50, 79, 80Jesus, Pablo J. de, 55Joachim, Johann Friedrich (1713-67), 27, 80Joachim II, Prince Elector of Brandenburg, 20Jobert, Louis (1637-1719), 25, 80Johns Hopkins University, collections at, 64Jorgeasen, Christian, 39n, 80John, Duke of Berry, 13, 15John I, King of Portugal, 19Johnson, Charles, 12n, 80Johnston, Elizabeth Bryant (1833-1907), 62n, 80Jones, A. H. M., 3n, 80Joseph I, Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, 30Jungfleisch, Marcel (1879-1958), 50Junta Chilena de Numismaiica, Santiago, 54Kadman, Leo (1893-1963), 49Kadman Numismatic Museum, Tel .Aviv, 49, 59Kann, Edward (1880-1962), 56, 80Karabacek, J., 86Kazan, LInivcrsity of, collection at, 37Kellner, Hans Jorg (b. 1920), 7n, 76, 80Kennepohl, Karl (d. 1958), 50, 80Kenner, Friedrich (1834-1922), 28n, 80Kent, J. P. C.,49, 49n, 80Kerch Museum, cabinet of, 37Kerkwijk, A. O. van, 74Kiersnowski, Ryszard, 51, 51 n, 59n, 80Kiev, University of, collection at, 37Kindler, Arie, 59King, Elizabeth Washburn, C^oUection. 64, 93KLsch, Guido, 13n, SOKobata, Atsushi, 56. 80Koch, Herbert, 27n, 80Kohler, Johann David (1684-1755), 13, 27, 28, 32, 79, 80Kohler, Johann Tobias (1720-78), 27, 80Koehne, Bernard de, 36, 37Koninklijk Kabinct van Munten, The Hague, 38, 57nKongelige M^nt og Medaillesamling, Copenhagen, 23, 23n,35, 39, 52, 57, 57n, 71,84Kraay, Colin M., 45, 49, 80Kraft, Konrad, "n, 49, 76Kunglig Myntkabinettct, Stockholm. 26, 50, 57, 58, 59Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna, 15, 20, 29Kuyk, J. van (d. 1949), 57n, 81Labbe, Philippe (1607-67), 25, 81Lacroix, D&ire (b. 1860), 56, 81Lafaurie, Jean, 8, 51, 53, 81LafTranchi, Ludovico (1875-1952), 47, 87Lahore?see Panjab MuseumLallemand, Jacqueline, 8Lanckoronski, Leo and Maria, 46, 81Landesmuseiuii, Miinstcr 57 98 BULLETIN 229: CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE MUSEUM OF HISTORY AND TEC:HNOI.OGY Lane-Poolf, Staiiliy (I). IHS-I). .11, A'\ S5, 81Lange, Riu t (IS'lS-l'J.S')), 4(.. KlLanzonc, Ridullij Vittoiio, "5La Saiissaye, Louis dc, 37Laum, Bcrnhaid (b. 1884), 4, 81Lausanne, coin colU-clion in, 57LavanE^a Collection, (Jcnoa. 23Lavvicncc, R. Hoc, 1 3n, 81Lazius, Wolfgang, 18, 22, 43, 81Leake, Stephen iNfartin (17(12-83), 27, 81Leake, William Martin, 30, 81Lc Blanc, Lrancois (d. 16')S), 2(., 81Le Gentilhommc, Pierre, .SILeite de Vasconcellus, Jose, ITii, 34, do, 81Leitzmann, J. J. (d. 1877), 35u, 37, 81Lclewel, Joachim, 41, 41 n, 78, 81Lc May, Reginald .Stuart (b. 1885), 5(., 81Lcnormant, Charles (1802-59), ')3Lenormant, Franguis (1837-83), 6, 6n, 60, 81Leroux, Joseph, 55, 81Levick, Joseph N. 1'., 61Lewicki, Tadeusz, 51, 5 In, 82Lewis, /Archibald Ro.'is, 7n, 82Leyden, LTniversity of, coin caliinet at, 38Library Companv, Philadelphia, 60Liebe, Christian Sigismund, 31n, 82Lilienthal, Michael (1686-1750), 27, 82Lisbon?see Ajuda; Museu da Casa da Mocd.i; MusiiiMaynenseLi Tso-hsien, 55, 82Liu Ch'icn, 55Livy, 9Lockhart, Sir James Haldanc Stewart (1858-1937), 5C., 82Loehr, August Oktav von (b. 1882), 3n, 4, 50n, 53, 57, 5"n. 82Long Island Historical Society, 64Lopez, Sarrano Matilda, 20n, 82Loubat, Joseph Florimond, Duke of (b. 1831), 63, 82Louis L King of Portugal, 54Louis XI\', King of France, 21 , 22Louis XV, King of France, 30, 31 , 32Louveau, Jean, 19, 91Luppi, C.,27n, 82Luschin von Ebengreuth, Arnold (1841-1932), 5n, 14n, 18ii.28n, 50, 50n, 82Luynes, Honore d'Alttert, Due de, 38 M.acdonald, Sir Georgi- (18(,2 -1940), 34n, 42, 45, 82Madai, David Samuel, 27, 82Mader, Joseph von, 28, 29, 82Madras?see Central MusemnMadrid?see Fabrica Naeioual de Moneda; Gabiuete .Xujuis-matico; Real Acatk-mi.i di- I.t HistoriaMahudel, Nicolas (1673-1747), 27, 82Mailliet, Prosper D., 38, 82Mainz?see R6rniscli-( inmauischi s Ziulr.ilniuscumMameranus, Henricus, 18, 82Man\iel I, King of Portugal, 19Mareellus IL Pope, 20Maria Theresa, 30Marii, Ratislav (d. 1962), 52Markov, Alcksei KoiislantinoNit. h (b. 1858), 50, 83 ?M.usdi 11. Willi un (1751 18361,49,83Martian, I., 611, 83Martin, Colin, 57ii, 83Marlinori, I'.doardo, 53, 83Massachusetts llistnnral .Society, 62, 64Massimi. Cardinal, 29M.issimi famil\-, 20 -Mateii v Llopis, I'llip, (I). I'lOli. 5. s, 2011, 5(1. 53, 54, 5Hn, 83Matthias Cor\iniis, Kiiii; of llungaiv. 14Mattinglv, H.uold, Idii, 34ii. 1~, 4~n, 48, 48n, "3, ~5. 80. 83Mattingly, Harold 15., 4~n, 49n, 83Maurice, Jules (d. I')39). 4'), 83Maximilian, .Arcliduke of Mo .Menadier, Julius ( I 854-l"13'i). 20n. 84Mcnadier, Karl, 84Mercantile Librarv .\ssocialiou, .St. LouLs, 64Mi-rtens, Eberhart, 50, 78Metcalf, D. Michael, 49n, 51 n, 84Metropolitan Museum see Ward ( lollec ilonMetternich, Prince Klemens W'enzel, 31Mexico?see .Sociedad .Xumismatita de MexicoMey, Felipe, 20Mickley, Joseph J. (1799-I8~7), 64, ()lii, 74Mikhailovich, (iiand Duke Cleorgii (1863 l')l')), 40, 84 .Milan? see Brer.i Collections .Milb.uik, .S.inuK I Kobbins (h. \'m(,). (.(. .Miles, (;eome C.ll peiUel (1). DOl), I'lii, 50, 54, 6 In, 66, 84Millii 711 .\ichlinl7, X'iklor \oii, 5V 81Millin, .\ubiii Louis (175') 1818), 60Mint Museum, Paris, 58Mionnet, riieodoie-l'.dme, 31, 8.1Missouri IIi^tolic.ll .Soci<'t\\ 64Mithridates V'l. King ol Pontus, 8Milrea, Bucnr, 51, 51 n, 84 .\Iodina see Meil.iuliere Esteuse .Modeii.i, museum .uti\ity at, 5SMoikhnlm, (Jtto, 3 .\loisil. Consi.miiu (I8~6 1958), 51MoK liens, Willi.mi, 60 PAPER 32: NUMISMATICS?AN ANCIENI" S( :IK\( :l'. 99 Momnx'ien, Thcodor Christian Matthias, 38, 42, 46, 4^, 60,76, 84Montagu, Hyman, 39, 84Xfiintrcal- see NumLsinatic and Antiquarian SocietyMoitH, Andr6, 22Mor,!,'an,John I'icrpont (1837-1913), 63Mosscr, SavvyiT McArthur (b. 1905), 3, 8, 85Mowat, RobcTt Knight (1823-1912), 10, lOn, 85Mullcr, Ludvig, 39, 85, 87Munster?see LandesmuscumMiinstcrbcrg, Rudolf (1864-1926), lOn, lln, 85Miintz, F.ug^ne Louis, lln, 13n, 85Miinzkabinett, Berlin, 39, 46, 50, 57nMunro, Neil G., 56, 85Muratori, Lodovico Antonio (1672-1750), 27, 27n, 82, 85Mus6e Royal, Antwerp, 16Museo Arquelogico National, Madrid?see Gabinete Nuinis-maticoMuseo Correr, Venice, 35Museo Historico Nacional, Buenos Aires, 54Museo Nazionale, Naples, collection of, 35, 35n, 39, 58, 71Museu da Casa da Moeda, Lisbon, 35, 58Museu Historico, Rio de Janeiro, 54, 55Museu Maynease. Lisbon, 35Museu Nacional de Soares dos Reis, Oporto, 36, 58Museum fiJr Hamburgisclie Gcschichte, Hamburg, 57Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, 7, 8, 9, 44Mushmov, Nicolas A., 52Naples?see Museo Nazionale; Santangelo CollectionNaster, Paul, 45, 45n, 57, 85Neickelio, Caspar Fricdrich, 15n, 19n, 32, 32n, 85Nesmith, Robert L, 66Ncttels, Curtis Putnam, 65, 85Newcomb, Howard Rounds (d. 1945), 65, 85Newcomer, Waldo C. (1866-1934), 63Newell, Edward Theodore, 42, 64, 65, 66, 85Newman, F.ric P., 66, 67, 85New Vork Historical Society, 64New York?see American Numismatic Society; Chase Man-hattan BankNew ^'ork State Library, 64New Zealand Royal Numismatic Society, 55Noe, Sydney Philip, 6n, 8, 45, 66, 67, 85, 86Nohejlova-PratovS, Emanuela (b. 1900), 7, 8n, 51, 5 In, 86North, Geoffrey H., 3Noss, Alfred, 52Nova Croya (Goa), coin collection in, 59Novello, Francesco, 13Numkmatic and Antiquarian Society of Montreal, 62Numismatic and Antiquarian Society of Philadelphia, 61Nutzcl, Heinrich, 50, 87Occo, Adolph, 19,87Oclescalchi, Prince Livio, 23, 29Odescalchi family, 30Odessa Museum, cabinet of, 36Omaha Public Library, 64Oporto?see Museu Nacional de Soares clos ReisOreshnikov, Aleksei Vasilevitch, 40, 87Oresmius, Nicholas, 12, 12n, 80, 87. 94Ori50), 46, 89Roberts, S. R., 54n, 89Robertson, .\nne .S.. 51, 8'1Robinson, David Monre (1880-1V5S), 64Robinson. Edward Sianlev (i., 9?, 44. 45, 48, 83, 81Rochette, Raoul, 60Rodcnwaldt, Gerhard, 43Rome, museum acti\ ity at, 58Romisch-Germanisches Museum, Cologne, 57Romisch-Germanisches Zentrahuusenni, Mainz, 57Rossi, Francesco (b. 1827), "5Roubier, Jean (b. 1896), 46RouiUe, Guillaume (1518-89), 17, 17n, 18, 9URoussel, Aage, 23n, 90Rubens, Peter Paul, 21Ruding, Rogers (17511820), 3'), ')0Rudolph II, Emperor ol the I lolv Roman Empire, 15, 19 .Sabatier, Pierre Justin, 38, ')[)Sage, Augustus B., 61 .St. Florian, coin collection of, 31St. Louis?see Mercantile Library .\ssociationSt. Louis L'niversity, collection at, 64St. Petersburg?see Societe dWreheologieSt. Mark, library of, coin cabinet iii, 35St. Mark Museum, 13Salinas, Antonino (I841-l')14), 3'), ')0Salis, Count de, 47Sallet, Alfred Fnedrich von (1842 97), 20n, 2.3n, .39, 75, ''4Salmo, Helmer, 51 .Saltykov, Peter S., 36Sambon, Luigi (d. 1873), 39, 90Santangelo Collection, Naples, 35, 39Santiago?see C:irculo de .\mi'-'..>s Niiniism.'itieos;Junt.i Chilenade NumismaticaPAPER 32: NUMISMATICS AN ANCILNT SCII.NCE .Sauk \-, LouIn I'elieien de, 38, ')0 .S,i\-(jva cabinet, Turin, 2,>S.r\e-Goth,i, coin c.ibinet of, 31. 33Si h.dk, K.nl, 5n. ')oSelijoth, Ti.-d.-rik (I.. 1846), 56, VOSchUieger, Piof., 31Sclihehtenr.ill, Triedii.h, 35Schlosser, Juhus von. '), '!?, 14, 14?, 1 Sn. 90Sehlumber.,r,-r, Gusta\r I.rini (1811 -1929), 50, 90Sehroeder, .Mbei t (1). 1851), 56, uoSchroctter, Friedrieh von (1862 19 14), 52, 53, 90, 94Schubert, Fedor Fedoro\'ieh, -10, 90Schulzc, Johann lleinrich (l68^ 1~44), 13, .r. 59, 90Schwabacher, Willy, 2, 13, 45, 46, 57, 57n, 90Sehwarz, Jacques G., 62Schwarzenberg, Prince of, 22 .Sehuinkowski, W.dler (d. TI38), 3ri, 90 .Scott, J. W., 65 .Scott, Kenneth, 66Sea\ y, F. G., 62Seltman, C:harles 'Theodore (1886 165-), 45. U,, yuScrafini, Count Clamillo, 13n, 20n, 30, 53, ')() .Serrure, Constant .\ntoine. 38 .Serrure, Ra\niiind ConNl.inl, 38, 5f), 75 .Sei\ ice, C. P., 37 .Sestirii, Domenico, 34, 35, 91Sesto, Marco, 1 3Scttala, Manfredo, 30Shanghai?see C'hinese Nnmism.itic SoiieivShih, Kalgan, 55, 80Shortt. .\dam. 55, 91 .Simniel. Georg, 5, 19 .Singhal, C. R., 55n, 91Slaski, Jacek, 7, 8n, 91Slo.uie, Sir Hans, 32, 33Smith, .\ndreu- Madsen, 62n, 91 .Smithsonian Institution, VVashini^'ton, D.C., Division ol Numismatics, 4, 5, 27, 28, 38, 47, 59, 66 .Snow den, James Ross, 62, 67, 91Snvderman, Isadore, 3 .Soeiedad Numismatica, Peru, 54Sni iedad NumismSlica de Me.Nieo, Mexico f :itv. 54Socieckide NutnLsnu'uica, Rio de,Janeiro, 55Sociedade Numismatica Brasileria, S.lo P.uilo, 55Sociele dWrcheologie et de Numism.ilir|ne de St. Peiersbuiirg36Siikolova. I. v., 5! .Soiithe, J. C. von, 27, 91 .Sourdek Dominique. 50 .South Auslrahau NumiMU.itic .Society, 55 .Soiuzo, Prince Michel C, -15, 91Spahr, Rodollc, 53S|i.inheini, T.zechiel von, 24, 91S|)a^skii, I. G., 3, .36, 36n, 'MSl.i.iliiehe Mrmzsamjuluii';, Muui( h, 56, 5"Si.i/io, .\ttiho, 48, 48n, 91Ste.ii lis, Jijhn Barker. 6 In, 91Stewart, Ian .\.. 51 .Stic kni-v, Matthew .\d.ini^, 64Stockholm sr. Kuni;li'-; M vnlk.ibinetletSt.irer. Malcolm (1>. 1862). 6iln, 'M 10] Strack, Max I.chicclit (1867-1914), 91 .Stiack, Paul M. (1904-41), 43, 47, 91Stratia, Jarobus dc, 19, 20. 91Sti'oniboiii, Sixtcn, 26n, 91Struvc, 15, B., 25, 91Stiitluart see Altcsschluss MusruiuSiichodolski. Stanislaw, 51, 51n, 91Suetonius, 10, 1 In, 91Suhlc, .?\i-thur (b. 1898), 50. 57, 57n, 78, 92Sunuu-r, William Graham (1840-1910), 92Supino, leino Bcnvcnuto (b. 1859), 35n, 92Sutherland, Carol Humphrey Vivian, 3n. 45, 49, 75, 92Svorunos, Joannes N., 45, 45n, 92Suinton, John, 34Sydenham, Edward .Mien (1873-1948), 48, 83, 92Syracuse, coin eollertioii in, 35, 58 Tabaczynski, Stanislaw, 8n, 91Teixeira de .-\ragao, Augiisto Carlos, 54, 921 el Aviv?see Kadman Numismatic MuseumTentzel, Wilhelm Ernst, 26, 27, 92 'Icrrace, Edward Lee, 64n, 92Terrien dc Eacouperie, Albert, 56, 81Thian, Raphael P., 65, 92Thomannus, Dr., 19Thompson, James David .\nthoiiv, 7, 8, 92Thompson, Margaret, 7n, 64, 64n, 92Thomsen, Rudi (b. 1918), 8, 48, 48n, 92Thordeman, Bcngt (b. 1893), 51Thurston, Edgar (1855-1935), 55, 92Ting Eu-pao, 55, 92Titus, Roman Emperor, 10Tod. Marcus N., 45, 92Todd, Richard Cecil, 65, 92Tolstoi, Count Ivan Ivanovitch (1853-1916), 40, 79, 93Tornberg, Carljohan (1807-77), 50, 93Torremuzza, Prince Gabriele Lancilotto (1727-94), 26, 30,Toynbce, Jocclyn M. C, lln, 93Trajan, Roman Emperor, 10Trier?-see Rheinisches LandesmuseumTsukamoto, Toyojiro. 56, 93Tudeer, Lauri O., 8n, 52, 93Turin?^ee Regie MuseoUniversity Mu.seum, Pliiladelphia, 64, 64n, 84Urban VII, Pope, 20 Vaillant, Jean Foy, 22, 23, 93Valencia, University of, coin cabinet at, 35Van Loon, Gerald (1683-1758), 34, 56, 93Varin, Jean (1604-72), 21Vassar College, 64Vatican Coin Cabinet (Medaglicre), 20n, 30, .30n, 53, 90Venice- -see Museo Correr; St. Mark, library of 93 Venuti, Ridolphino, 30n, 93Verkade, P., 38, 93Vermeule, Cornelius C, 56, 64, 79, 93Vermont Numismatic Society, Montpelier, 61Victor Emmanuel III, Ring of Italy, 52, 74, 93Vidal Quadras y Ramon, Manuel. 40, 72Viedebantt, Oskar, 45, 93Vienna?see Kunsdiistorisches MuseumVienna (Imperial Coin) Cabinet, 30, 56, 57Villaret, E. de, 56, 93Vives V Escudero, Antonio (1859-1925), 54Volynsk, Count A. P., 36Wahl, Rudolph, 12n, 93Walker, John (1900-64), 49, 93Walker, John, 49, 93Wallace, William P.. 3n, 45. 93. 94Walpole, Horace, 34Wang Yu-ch'iian, 55, 55n. 94Ward Collection, Metropolitan Museum, New York City. 44, 78Warren, E. P., 44Waschinski, Emil, 50, 94Washington, D.C.?sec Dumbarton Oaks; SmiUisonianInstitutionWatanabe, Masajiro, 56, 94Weil, Rudolf, 19n, 94Welin, Ulla S. Linder, 2, 50Welser, Christoph, 18Wentzel, Hans, 12n, 94Werner, Joachim (b. 1909), 6n, 94West, Louis C. (b. 1882), 66Western Pennsylvania Numismatic .Society, Pittsburgh, 61Whitehead, Richard Bertram, 55, 94Whitmore, H., 61Whittemore, T., 64Wielandt, Friedrich, 50, 53, 94Wilhelm V, Duke of Bavaria, 19Winkelmaini, Eduard, 12n, 94Winkelmann, Johann Joachim, 42Wintcrthur, coin collection in, 57Wisconsin Historical Society, 64Wisconsin, L^niv^ersity of, 64Wolowski, M. L., 1 2n, 94Wood, Howland (1877-1938), 66Worm, Ole (d. 1654), 23Yale LIniversity, coin collections at, 64Yeoman, Richard S., 66, 94Yvon, Jacciue-s, 3, 51, 51 n, 94Zadoks-Joscphus Jitla, A. N., 6n, 94Zahn, Leopold, 46, 94Zanetti, Guido Antonio (1741-91), 26, 94Zeno, Apostolo, 31Zurich, coin collection in, 57 U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTINC 0FFtCE:196S For sale by ilic Siipcrliitondcnt of Documents, I'.S. Government Printing OfficeWashington, D.C . 20402 I'ricc $1 .00