Regional Strategy for Mangrove Management, Conservation, Restoration and Monitoring in the Mesoamerican Reef 2020-2025 Credit: Ana Beatriz Rivas/MAR Fund Prepared by: Olga Centeno Guevara Provision, preparaon, and compilaon of texts Reviewers: Ana Beatriz Rivas, Claudio González, Steven Canty, Carlos Rodríguez Olivet, Ximena Flamenco, María José González, and Mario Escobedo With the support of: Néstor J. Windevoxhel Lora Development and Integraon Chapter 2: Mangrove Situaon in the MAR Region Preamble The product of the Regional Strategy for Mangrove Management, Conservaon, Restoraon, and Monitoring in the Mesoamerican Reef is the outcome of experts and stakeholders working together to promote the mangrove management and conservaon in the Mesoamerican Reef ecoregion. The generous en es such as the Mesoamerican Reef Fund (MAR Fund), the Embassy of Germany in Guatemala, the Smithsonian Instuon, and the GEF project Integrated Ridge-to-Reef Management of the Mesoamerican Reef Ecoregion share an interest in good resource management of the ecoregion and are implemenng acons at different levels. With their support, a workshop was organized in which 72 experts from the four countries that make up the MAR achieved a groundbreaking goal: a regional strategy for the conservaon of the mangrove ecosystem. This effort brought together the ideas, knowledge, and experience of experts in the region, which have been included in a guiding document to be used as a baseline to promote colecve acons at regional and naonal levels, according to interests, in order to coordinate roles, competencies, and potenal spaces for colaboraon. The strategy is the first step to building an acon plan that enables countries of the MAR to make progress in their own strategies and plans. This valuable input wil be widely disseminated as the basis to find comprehensive soluons to conserve this crical ecosystem for biological diversity, human life, and water quality, among others. An important step is reflected among the strategic lines of this document, which is engaging key stakeholders and sectors to opmize resources and achieve colecve results that wil lead to the sustainability of the ecosystem, including human life. Regarding the polical and instuonal aspects, the role and leadership of governments are fundamental. To this end, the first regional task wil be precisely to approach the Ministry of Environment of Belize, Guatemala, and Honduras, through the Execuve Secretariat of the CCAD, and the Mexican authories through the SEMARNAT and CONANP. They wil be required to support the management processes and al resource mobilizaon to implement the strategy and its acons. Other interested colaborators, such as research centers and academia, associaons of civil society, organizaons of indigenous peoples and local communies, the private sector, and others, wil also be approached. The strategy seeks to be a guide in draw together commied en es in search of mely soluons to conserve, restore, and monitor this important ecosystem. Contents Inials and Acronyms .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 1 1. Introducon .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 3 2. Reference Framework: Mangrove situaon in the Mesoamerican Reef ecoregion .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 5 2.1. The Mesoamerican Reef ecoregion .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 5 2.2. What are mangroves? Their importance to the Mesoamerican Reef ecoregion .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 6 2.2.1. General characteriscs of mangroves .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 6 2.3. Characteriscs of Caribbean mangroves and their funconal relaonships.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 8 2.3.1. Value of mangroves and their goods and services .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 11 2.4. Mangrove situaon in the MAR ecoregion .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 16 2.4.1. Mexico .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 16 2.4.2. Belize.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 18 2.4.3. Guatemala .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 19 2.4.4. Honduras .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 20 2.5. State of conservaon and legal and administrave scope of mangroves in the MAR ecoregion .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 21 3. Threats to mangroves of the MAR ecoregion .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 23 3.1. Background of threats .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 23 3.2. Current situaon of threats to mangroves in the MAR ecoregion .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 24 3.2.1. Results of the regional survey to experts and key stakeholders conducted by MAR Fund and the Smithsonian Instuon .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 24 3.2.2. Analysis results of current threats to the mangrove ecosystem in the MAR idenfied in the regional workshop for the strategy.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 25 4. Strategic framework for mangrove management, conservaon, restoraon and monitoring in the MAR region .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 27 4.1 Methodology .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 27 4.2. Foundaons and principles of the strategy .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 28 4.2.1. Scope .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 28 4.2.2. Purpose .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 28 4.2.3. Regional Polical Foundaons .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 29 4.2.4. Principles of the strategy.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 30 4.3. Strategy Vision .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 30 4.4. Strategy Objecves .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 30 4.5. Strategic lines .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 31 4.6. Strategy Matrix .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 33 5. Recommendaons for the implementaon of the strategy .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 49 References .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 51 Appendix 1 List Parcipants Regional Workshop for strategy development .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 55 Credit: Ana Beatriz Rivas / MAR Fund Initials and Acronyms CAC Consejo Agropecuario Centroamericano (Central American Farming Council) CATHALAC Centro del Agua del Trópico Húmedo para América Lana y el Caribe (Center for Water for the Humid Tropics for Lan America and the Caribbean) CBD United Naons Convenon on Biological Biodiversity CC Climate Change CCAD Comisión Centroamericana de Ambiente y Desarrolo (Central American Commission for Environment and Development) CECC Coordinación Educava y Cultural Centroamericana (Central American Educaon and Cultural Coordinaon) CEPREDENAC Centro de Coordinación para la Prevención de los Desastres Naturales en América Central (Coordinaon Center for the Prevenon of Natural Disasters in Central America) COMISCA Consejo de Ministros de Salud de Centroamérica y República Dominicana (Council of Ministers of Health of Central America and the Dominican Republic) COMMCA Consejo de Ministras de la Mujer de Centroamérica y República Dominicana (Council of Female Ministers of Women of Central America and the Dominican Republic) CONPAH Confederación de Pueblos Autóctonos de Honduras 1 (Confederaon of Autochthonous Peoples of Honduras) CZMAI Belize Coastal Zone Management Authority and Instute ENOS El Niño-Southern Oscilaon FAO Food and Agriculture Organizaon of the United Naons GEF Global Environmental Facility IUCN Internaonal Union for Conservaon of Nature MAR Mesoamerican Reef System MAR Fund Mesoamerican Reef Fund MAR2R Project “Integrated Ridge-to-Reef Management of the Mesoamerican Reef Ecoregion” (MAR2R/CCAD/WWF) MARN Ministerio de Ambiente y Recursos Naturales – Guatemala (Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources – Guatemala) MiAmbiente+ Secretaría de Energía, Recursos Naturales, Ambiente y Minas de Honduras (Secretariat of Energy, Natural Resources, Environment, and Mines of Honduras) NDC Naonaly Determined Contribuons Initials and Acronyms OPEV Oficina Presidencial de Economía Verde (Presidenal Office of Green Economy) OSPESCA Organización del Sector Pesquero y Acuícola del Istmo Centroamericano (Organizaon of the Fisheries and Aquaculture Sector of the Central American Isthmus) REP Rehabilitación de Ecosistemas y Paisajes (Ecosystem and Landscape Rehabilitaon) SDG Sustainable Development Goals SE-CCAD Secretaria Ejecuva de la Comisión Centroamericana de Ambiente y Desarrolo (Execuve Secretariat of the Central American Commission for Environment and Development) SEMARNAT Secretaría de Ambiente y Recursos Naturales – México (Secretariat of Environment and Natural Resources – Mexico) SER Sociedad Ecológica de Restauración SICA (Ecological Society for Restoraon) Sistema de la Integración Centroamericana SI Smithsonian Instuon SITCA Secretaría de Integración Turísca Centroamericana (Central American Secretariat of Tourism Integraon) 2 UNFCC United Naons Framework Convenon on Climate Change WWF World Wildlife Fund Credit: María José González / MAR Fund 1. Introduction The four countries comprising the Mesoamerican Reef System (MAR ecoregion), which include Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, and Honduras, have taken measures in recent years to conserve mangrove ecosystems through a legislaon aimed at its preservaon and a sustainable development by strengthening government agencies, declaring protected areas, and extended conservaon work with a basin approach. Different stakeholders and sectors have also developed acons and intervenons to improve the interinstuonal coordinaon and partnerships in order to opmize resources and to make progress in migang threats to ecosystems, including mangroves. Despite these efforts, the region connues losing mangrove cover. According to Canty et al., (2018), the MAR region has lost over 110,000 hectares in the last 20 years. Aer the Tulum Declaraon in 1997, the MAR region has become a global leader in adaptave management and acve implementaon of management acons showing results at a regional scale. Regional strategies that address the threat of climate change, conservaon of biological diversity, ilegal trade of species, deserficaon, among others, already exist. However, the region lacks a 3 unified strategy for conservaon, restoraon, monitoring, and sustainable use of mangrove resources, which is of crical importance in order to guide acons aimed at ensuring the health of mangrove ecosystems and the connuity of environmental goods and services that they provide. Based on the above, the Mesoamerican Reef Fund (MAR Fund) and the Smithsonian Instuon, with the support of the Embassy of Germany in Guatemala and the project “Integrated Ridge-to-Reef Management of the Mesoamerican Reef Ecoregion” (MAR2R), started the process for the parcipatory design of a Regional Strategy for Mangrove Management, Conservaon, Restoraon, and Monitoring (the strategy) in the MAR. As input to the preparaon process of this strategy, analysis and data systemazaon were conducted on the current situaon of mangroves in the MAR ecoregion. In addion, with the goal of idenfying threats and strategies for mangrove management, conservaon, restoraon, and monitoring in the MAR, in September 2019, a regional workshop was held with the aendance of 72 key stakeholders who represented 44 government agencies, community organizaons, indigenous peoples and afro-Honduran peoples, and non-governmental organizaons of the region. As a result of the parcipatory process, the strategy has come up with a comprehensive perspecve for the implementaon of long-term acons, with a ridge-to-reef approach and strategic objecves for five years, six strategic lines, 19 strategies, and 54 acons, with which to address and migate the main threats that affect the MAR mangrove cover and the ecosystems’ health. This strategy is a dynamic instrument agreed upon between mulple stakeholders and sectors, which wil contribute to the coordinaon of management acons, conservaon, restoraon, and monitoring of the mangrove ecosystem to reduce its vulnerability and that of coastal communies affected by climate change in the MAR ecoregion, engaging the support of those stakeholders involved in the management of such an important ecosystem. Recommendaons are presented at the end of this document to generate favorable condions for the governance and structure that enable a smoother process for the implementaon of the strategy and its sustainability acons. 4 Credit: María José González / MAR Fund 2. Reference Framework: Mangrove situation in the Mesoamerican Reef ecoregion 2.1. The Mesoamerican Reef ecoregion The Mesoamerican Reef ecoregion (MAR ecoregion) is the most extensive cross-border coral reef system in the world and the largest barrier reef in the Atlanc Ocean. The system stretches more than 1,000 km along the coasts of four countries (Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, and Honduras). It constutes a vital habitat for biodiversity protecon, including marine turtles, more than 60 types of corals, and over 500 fish species, many of which are endangered. The MAR is part of the Great Caribbean ecoregion, containing seven coastal ecosystems that have been idenfied in the Caribbean, according to Sulivan and Bustamante (1999). Of these, four coastal ecosystems were considered a priority, such as (1) systems dominated by reefs, (2) systems dominated by mangroves, (3) systems dominated by seagrass, and (4) mixed systems with reefs-mangroves and seagrass. 5 Altogether, the MAR ecoregion covers approximately 464 mil km2, including 192 mil km2 of basins and 272 km2 of various marine ecosystems. The topography of the region has vast karsc plains with warm climates and slight surface runoff, parcularly in the Yucatan peninsula and the northern region of Belize. In the south, on the other hand, between south Belize, Guatemala, and Honduras, the MAR is dominated by mountain ranges, located very near to the coastal region, producing more rain, primarily associated to the trade winds, and with significant water supply from rivers and coastal lagoons. Although mangroves contribute to the protecon of coastal communies from the adverse effects of climate change, the Caribbean coasts of Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, and Honduras –according to the United Naons Framework Convenon on Climate Change (UNFCCC)– are located in one of the most vulnerable regions. Marine and coastal resources of the MAR ecoregion provide livelihoods to key economic sectors (fisheries and tourism) and more than two milion people in the region. For example, it is known that thousands of tourists visit the region every year, alured by the opportunity of diving in secluded locaons, swimming with possibly the highest global concentraon of whale sharks, and also relaxing on spectacular beaches. Marime transportaon is another acvity economicaly significant in the MAR ecoregion. The four countries that comprise the region have important ports in the area, and, at least in two cases, these ports are the only way that the Caribbean can commercialy communicate with the world. This economic acvity is also connected to the ecosystemic service of protecng the coasts provided by mangrove ecosystems. Regarding the financial contribuon from the MAR ecoregion, it is esmated that only in Belize, the MAR generates between USD 395 and USD 559 milion in goods and services (Healthy Reefs Iniave, 2010). According to UNEP, ISU, ICRI, and Trucost (2018), the financial benefits of key sectors –tourism, fisheries, and coastal development– of the Mesoamerican Reef for the four countries amounted to approximately USD 6.2 milion in 2017, mainly from the tourism sector, equivalent to 70% of the total; that is, approximately USD 4.4 bilion. The financial return approximately amounts to USD 4.2 bilion, with indirect benefits equal to USD 1.9 bilion. Ironicaly, these acvies pose a threat to the same resource on which they depend. The role that the mangrove ecosystem plays in this economy, highly dependent on the coastal region and its acvies, is further explained in this secon. Work wil be carried out to establish the current role of mangroves in obtaining, directly and indirectly, many of these benefits (fisheries, tourism, others), as wel as the risk of losing them due to poor management and other human-induced threats, aggravated by the impact of climate change. Learning about mangroves in the MAR ecoregion is the first step to beer understand their value for biodiversity conservaon and contribute to their economic benefits. It is essenal to also understand their needs and requirements for their establishment, the implicaons for their health, and their sensivity to threats, parcularly to the effects of climate change. 6 . 2.2. What are mangroves? Their importance to the Mesoamerican Reef ecoregion 2.2.1. General characteriscs of mangroves Mangroves are complex ecological systems. They occur as tropical coastal forests and cover approximately 152,000 km2 of the global surface (Spalding et al., 2010). In terms of evoluon, mangroves had its origin and disseminaon during the Mesozoic period, approximately 175 milion years ago, during Pangea, in the shores of Tes, just when the connents divided. As a result, mangroves near the center of origin, in the region known today as Asia-Pacific and part of the Paleotropics (India, Southeast Asia, and Malaysia), are much more diverse than Neotropical mangroves (Chapman, 1970 and Walsh, 1974). These ecosystems in America are limited to five or six genera, according to different authors. The lowest diversity occurs in the Caribbean, dominated by four mangrove genera: Rhizophora, Avicennia, Laguncularia, and Peliciera, and two mangrove genera associated with Conocarpus and Mora (Table 1). Discrepancies in the bibliography regarding the diversity of mangrove species and genera are due in part to the controversial taxonomy of various genera, and especialy to the different criteria in determining the inner edge in which a transion area is found, where halophilic species coexist with species of brackish environments or freshwater. This ecotone is the result of a salinity gradient and dal flooding that flows in response to seasonal fluctuaons and the intensity of rains, wind, river flow, and dal range (Brinson et al., 1974). The trees typical of mangroves, which establish to a large extent the structure of the ecosystem and physical distribuon, are characterized by having a series of adaptaons that alows them to successfuly colonize transion areas between marine and freshwater ecosystems, as wel as in regions with very unstable soil. The most characterisc adaptaons of mangroves are: 1) Vivipary reproducon with propagules. That is, germinated seeds separated from the tree that produces them; 2) Mechanisms in leaves to reduce evapotranspiraon and water loss; 3) Physiological mechanisms for salt excreon; 4) Mechanisms to increase or complement respiraon in roots; 5) Root systems adapted to unstable soils, and 6) Most genera are able to reproduce throughout the year, but they share the ability to bloom profusely during the dry season. Table 1. Mangrove genera commonly found in Mesoamerica. Genus Local Name Avicennia Black mangrove or ixtatén 7 Conocarpus Green buonwood Laguncularia White mangrove Rhizophora Red mangrove Peliciera Tea mangrove Mora Alcornoque or mora Source: Own preparaon based on Windevoxhel (2010) and Jiménez (1994). Tree mangrove species are highly plasc. They are quite adaptable to a wide range of crical factors that determine their presence. This adaptability alows them to sele in very diverse condions, thus, be part of an ecosystem that includes mulple ecotones between freshwater and marine ecosystems, which is crucial for keeping an extremely high biological diversity. The ability of mangroves to stay in an opmal development state depends on several factors, including salinity, soil, and nutrients (Table 2). Table 2. Key factors for opmal development of mangroves in the Neotropics. Factor The opmal range for mangrove development Salinity O to 45 ppm. It can be freshwater, brackish, and marine (facultave halophiles) Light Require abundant light (obligatory heliophiles) Temperature 59 to 104 °F, tropical and subtropical Coastal Physiography Sedimentary, fluviomarine plains, river and estuary deltas Soil types Alocthonous and autochthonous Reduced soils and typicaly rich in nutrients Tides Interdal zone Nutrients Retains nutrients and exports organic maer Input of freshwater Maintains appropriate condions and thus, its producvity Selecve predaon1 It may be a factor in specific locaons and specific condions Source: Own preparaon based on Windevoxhel (2010). 2.3. Characteriscs of Caribbean mangroves and their funconal 8 relaonships Caribbean mangroves may be characterized in different ways based on their geographic locaon. Those located in connental coastal areas or large islands, for example, are strongly related to land-based processes and wide basins with greater runoff. Caye mangroves or in smal islands are mostly dominated by their internal nutrient acvity and the effects of des and waves, as wel as by their relaonships with other associated ecosystems such as coral reefs or seagrass meadows. One parcular characterisc of mangroves is their close funconal relaonship with other coastal and land ecosystems and with marine ecosystems. Figure 1 shows the funconal relaonships of ecosystems in coastal wetlands. It is necessary to recal that this is a conceptual model and that, in parcular cases, the locaon of some ecosystems might change or even some of their funconal relaonships. Yet it is a very close representaon of what can be found in the Caribbean, both on islands and mainland. Mangroves of smal cayes or islets with simpler dynamics may be an excepon. 1 Predaon refers to a biological interacon between two organisms, a predator and prey, in which one of them becomes the food of the other. They prey may be enrely or paraly consumed by the predator. Funconal relaonships between ecosystems linked to coastal wetlands Swamp Grassland Swamp Forests Mangroves Marine Meadows Coral Reefs Sandy Beaches Sediment retenon Sediment retenon Sediment retenon Sediment retenon Wave buffer Abatement of coastal winds Nutrient absorpon Nutrient absorpon Nutrient absorpon Nutrient absorpon Nutrient absorpon Local absorpon of nutrients Slow freshwater discharge Slow freshwater discharge Slow freshwater discharge Decrease of marine currents Decrease of marine currents Decrease of marine currents Export of fish and invertabrate larvae Export of fish and invertabrate Export of fish and invertabrate Export of fish and invertabrate Export of fish and invertabrate Wave buffer Contribuon to infiltraon larvae larvae larvae larvae Breeding habitat Breeding habitat (birds, reples, etc.)Contribuon to infiltraon Contribuon to infiltraon Wave buffer Key habitat for fish and Habitat for biodiversity Habitat for biodiversity Breeding habitat Wind and wave abatement Habitat for fish and invertebrates invertebrates Wind abatement Breeding habitat Breeding habitat Breeding habitat Habitat for biodiversity Biomass exporter Biomass exporter Habitat for biodiversity Habitat for biodiversity Habitat for biodiversity Biomass exporter Mainland 9 Reef Floodable zone Mangroves Seagrass / Marine meadow Environmental Services Swamp Grassland Swamp Forests Mangroves Marine Meadows Coral Reefs Sandy Beaches Freshwater recharge Storm buffer Storm buffer Storm buffer Storm buffer Storm buffer Retenon of suspended sediments Freshwater recharge Freshwater recharge Digeson of organic maer Digeson of organic maer Habitat for biodiversity Habitat for biodiversity Freshwater retenon Freshwater retenon Sediment retenon Sediment retenon Carbon sequestraon Digeson of organic maer Digeson of organic maer Habitat for biodiversity Habitat for biodiversity Sediment retenon Sediment retenon Carbon sequestraon Habitat for biodiversity Erosion migaon Retenon of polutantss Carbon sequestraon Habitat for biodiversity Retenon of polutants Carbon sequestraon Retenon of polutants Figure 1. Funconal relaonships of the ecosystems typicaly found in coastal wetlands of the Caribbean. Source: Nestor Windevoxhel. 10 Credit: María José González / MAR Fund Ecosystems acvely interact among themselves, oen mixing and providing areas in which components are combined. The conducng element of the connecon is water, and, usualy, water determines how funconal relaonships work. Common factors among al floodable terrestrial ecosystems dominated by freshwater are their ability of sediment retenon, increased water residence me, and their contribuon to infiltraon. Generaly, al tree systems play an important role by reducing and moderang microclimates and reducing or dissipang wind. It is important to note that these are mainly two-way relaonships between adjacent ecosystems. Marine and coastal-dominated ecosystems have funcons associated with the dissipaon of energy, waves, and marine currents. Also, their structures keep coasts protected and with low energy. Funconal relaonships in ecosystems include serving as a habitat for a number of species. Frequently, species from one ecosystem move to and reproduce in another, or spend stages of their life cycle protected in one of the ecosystems adjacent to a coastal wetland. These funconal relaonships are essenal because the protecon of mangrove requires them to remain for a long me. Addionaly, these funconal relaonships determine most of the ecosystemic services that we get from mangroves and their adjacent ecosystems. For example, the effect of wind or current and wave dissipaon are determinants as they contribute to the protecon against storms. The increase in me of water residence and concentraon in mangroves has two effects: the first one serves as a water reservoir and prevents flash or violent floods; the second one colects sediments and nutrients. Also, it contributes to the freshwater retenon and infiltraon feeding groundwater layers and prevenng coastal saline intrusion. Finaly, the accumulaon of nutrients and sediments alows exporng organic maer that is processed by mulple species as food, contribung to the food chain and providing for the development of organisms that are important 11 to fisheries for direct consumpon. 2.3.1. Value of mangroves and their goods and services Wetlands, in general, and mangroves are characterized parcularly for water retenon and high accumulaon of associated biodiversity. As is usual, species belonging to marine and coastal ecosystems are found in ecotones. These species use the richness and producvity of mangroves during some stages of their life cycle. Thus, mangroves are frequently more diverse than their neighboring ecosystems. Although there are few structural tree species in mangroves, there are many species that use mangroves as a substrate on and off the water, some of them remain permanently and others temporarily. Paradoxicaly, wetlands have been considered wasted and useless lands for agriculture, cale farming, or urban development, for which iniaves have been devised to substute them for “more producve” acvies or rather tradional (Dugan, 1992). In the MAR ecoregion, goods for direct consumpon (Table 3) are significantly important to human communies that are associated with or live within mangrove forests. These communies usualy live on a subsistence economy strongly based on goods directly extracted from mangroves, either for their consumpon or to sel generaly in local markets. Mangrove ecological funcons are strongly related to the services we obtain from them (Windevoxhel, 1992), which can be valued with direct market methods or through indirect methodologies. Oen, these valuaons may be based on opportunity costs, establishing comparisons jusfiable in market methods that may replace the corresponding ecological service (Barbier et al., 1996). On the other hand, there are values related to future (potenal) uses and those that Barbier et al., (1996) have referred to as “non-use” values, which represent aesthec or spiritual values. There have been many proposals for grouping goods and services under different methodologies, but in the end, al use more or less the same tools, which are applied in similar ways. During the last decades, a broader acknowledgment of the value of wetlands and mangroves, parcularly in the economic context, has shown and focused on different types of goods and services offered by mangrove systems. In general, goods and services depend on the ecological funcons of ecosystems and their corresponding relaonships (Figure 1, Table 3). Table 3. Goods, services, and aributes typicaly valued in mangroves. Goods Ser v i c e s Aributes • Timber products: • Mantenimiento del nivel • Cultural and spiritual - Firewood freáco values 12 - Wood • Water quality maintenance • Ethic or preservaon - Charcoal • Flood and storm protecon value - Bark • Nutrient retenon • Opon values • Ornamentals • Sediment retenon • Fish, molusks, and shelfish • Water transport - Industrial • Recreaon opportunies - Arsanal • Research opportunies • Usable species • Erosion control • Mineral materialss • Contribuon to external • Honey economies • Salt • Carbon sequestraon • Other materials • Breeding grounds for aquac organisms Source: Own preparaon based on Windevoxhel, (1994). According to Table 3, below is a list of the main funcons of mangroves in coastal areas: 1) Storm and flood buffer, 2) Freshwater retenon, 3) Sediment retenon (nutrients and polutants), 4) Freshwater recharge (infiltraon), 5) Digeson of organic maer, 6) Migaon of coastal erosion or coastal stabilizaon, 7) Habitat for biodiversity (land, tree, and marine species), 8) Export of organic maer or support of external biomass (fisheries products and forest non-mber resources, among others) and 9) Others, depending on the classificaon. Every day, ecosystemic goods and services include more complex levels of classificaon and division, (Windevoxhel, 1992), even aempng to value intangible services such as cultural and spiritual values of ecosystems. Mangroves are closely associated with cultural values and deies, parcularly for fishermen, yet it is difficult to place a financial value on them. Other examples are opon values or quasi-opon values related to the value of products (goods or services) not esmated with the current technology but that could be relevant in the future, for example, drug precursors (Windevoxhel, 1992). It is important to menon that regarding coastal wetlands, their economic benefit is usualy determined as a whole, without considering the separate contribuon from each ecosystem involved, such as the case of the coasts of Belize (UNEP, ISU, ICRI and Trucost, 2018), with reported benefits of USD 6.2 bilion for 2017. 13 Howard et al., (2014) report in the manual on how to measure organic carbon stocks sequestered in the soil of marine ecosystems, that seagrass meadows, marshes, and mangroves are the ecosystems with the highest capacity for sequestering carbon in the soil. Mangroves have an impressive carbon sequestraon capability, at least 3 to 4 mes greater than tropical or boreal forests (Figure 2). Seagrass meadows and dal marshes have higher sequestraon capability in addion to having the least amount of organic carbon in living biomass, whereas mangroves have a high storage capability in soil as wel as in living biomass. Thus, the sustainable management of mangroves and their conservaon represent an important value in both short- and long-term migaon of climate change, which can also be valued in order to trade in carbon markets. According to Sanjurro and Whelsh (2005), mangroves had been frequently evaluated for their services and direct consumpon goods, such as mber or non-mber products. However, this has changed in the last years. One of the most frequently evaluated services includes shoreline protecon, where mangroves serve as shelter against hurricanes (Kabi and Bacon, 1977), as wel as a protecve barrier for gray infrastructure. Farber and Costanza (1987) reported nearly 30 years ago that a mile-wide reducon of coastal wetlands in Louisiana may increase the material damage caused by storms up to USD 5 milion per year. However, mangroves are valued differently across the world, reporng different ranges depending on the evaluated goods and services, as wel as the quality and quanty of the available data. Figure 2. Carbon sequestraon in the main coastal ecosystems of the Caribbean . Source: Adapted from Howard et al., (2014). There are many esmates of the value of wetlands from total values or paral valuaons of some of its ecological goods and services (Table 4). Considering the variaon in the valuaon of mangroves based on market values, the result presented by Costanza et al., (1997) seems 14 conservave. Table 4. Esmate of the value of services from mangrove ecosystems in the world Source Region Included ecosystemic Value services (US$/ha/year) Costanza et al., (1997) Global Al services 9,900 Sathirathai y Barbier (2001) Thailand Al services 27,264-35,921 Ronnback (1999) Global Fisheries 750-11,280 Windevoxhel (1994) Nicaragua Paral evaluaon 659-1,260 A b u r t o -O r o p e z a e t a l. , ( 2 0 0 8 ) M e x i c o Fin fish and blue 37,500 crab fisheries Source: Own preparaon based on Aburto-Oropeza et al., (2008). In 2007, mangroves in the MAR stretched approximately 300,000 hectares, distributed in a great number of patches (Arrivilaga and Windevoxhel, 2008). When applying the value esmate per mangrove hectare per year of Costanza et al., (1997) to the area of the MAR ecoregion, it would be equivalent to USD 2,970,000,000/year. Using the most recent esmate of mangrove cover reported by Canty et al., (2018) of 239,176 hectares in the MAR, and supposing that the cover loss does not affect the mangrove funconality, the value is esmated in USD 2,367,842,400/year for al services. This means a drasc decrease of income from mangrove goods and services of approximately USD 602,157,600 per year, in a relavely short period of me. Costanza et al., (2014) esmated the value of mangroves in USD 33 trilion at a global scale in 1995, USD 46 trilion in 1997, and USD 165 trilion 12 years later, in 2011, taking into consideraon different ecosystems and different environmental services. In their study, they also assessed the changes of values for the same ecosystems between 1997 and 2011. In the analysis, mangroves and salt marshes were aggregated, which adds complexity to the analysis of mangroves. Addionaly, they assessed the changes in cover and changes in the esmated value of benefits per hectare. The study shows that values for the mangrove-salt marsh system significantly increased in terms of benefits, from a global average value of USD 20,404/ha/year to USD 140,174/ha/year. That is, between 1997 and 2011, the value per hectare per year increased by USD 119,770 ha/year. During the same period, the authors established that the mangrove-salt marshes ecosystem was reduced from 165 milion hectares to 128 milion hectares, with a net loss of 37 milion hectares and a financial value that varied from USD 2.3 trilion per year to USD 3.2 trilion per year. These results evidence several important aspects to consider in developing a strategy for mangrove management, and that have been menoned earlier: 15 1) The importance of being cauous with the results of valuaons and recognize their scope and limitaons; 2) Try to find results that are truly comparable to those of the region from the point of view of the ecosystems, as wel as the goods and services to be valued; 3) In the case of mangroves-salt marshes, despite the losses in ecosystems, the improved or updated measuring methods show a net increase in the benefits we obtain from mangroves; 4) Many ecological services are considered public goods or shared resources, for which tradional markets are oen not the best instuonal frameworks to manage them. However, these services must be (and are being) valued, and we need to establish innovave arrangements with instuons in order to acknowledge these values. 2.4. Mangrove situaon in the MAR ecoregion The MAR region includes the four structural types of mangroves of the Caribbean (Lugo and Snedaker, 1974). Fringe mangroves stretch along the shoreline, while dwarf mangrove forests are strongly associated with lowlands in the northern part of the ecoregion, mainly in Quintana Roo, Mexico, and northern Belize. Riverine mangroves are associated with coastal lagoons and river mouths, and island mangroves are associated with smal cayes and dry coastal areas, somemes near dwarf mangroves (Arrivilaga and Windevoxhel, 2008). Mangrove forests provide a rich habitat due to the great number of aquac species associated with their root system and sediments, as wel as with the forest canopy and related freshwater flooded ecosystems, on the edge opposite to the sea. Dwarf mangrove forests, parcularly, have a very fragmented distribuon, while fringe and riverine mangroves, which have a greater structural development , are massive and occur in big patches. Mangroves associated with karsc systems in the northern part of the ecoregion are less developed compared to similar structural types in the southern part, associated with river mouths and/or coastal lagoons of the ecoregion, between southern Belize, Guatemala, and Honduras (Arrivilaga and Windevoxhel, 2008). 2.4.1. Mexico Mexico has the greatest stretch of mangroves in any country of the Caribbean, including its Central American neighbors. In fact, Mexico holds the fourth place of total mangrove cover in the world, preceded by Indonesia, Australia, and Brazil. In the Mexican MAR ecoregion, including part of the states of Yucatan and Quintana Roo, mangroves have been esmated to cover a total of 16 128,049 hectares (Canty et al., 2018). Quintana Roo is the state with the most extensive mangrove area in the country; thus, conservaon strategies in the MAR are vital for Mexico (Agráz-Hernández et al., 2006). Many mangroves in Quintana Roo are inside protected areas, and others are also Ramsar sites or UNESCO World Heritage Site. The direct alteraon of landscapes for human development is the main driver of mangrove loss in Mexico, and parcularly, in the Yucatan peninsula. In addion, in some areas poluon or changes in hydrology have caused a significant degradaon, to the extent that restoraon opportunies may now be limited (Zaldivar-Jiménez et al., 2010; Valderrama et al., 2014). The development of tourism-related infrastructure in Cancun and further south has led to a massive loss of mangroves (Spalding et al., 2010). Addionaly, these impacts have contributed to a significant, yet the less known negave effect on the underground water system of the peninsula, the anchialine system. The Yucatan peninsula and its large mangrove extension are also oen sensive to the impact of hurricanes and strong tropical storms. Research suggests that these extreme climac events can increase in scale and frequency if global temperatures connue to rise (Bender et al., 2010). The invesgaon conducted by Calderón-Aguilera et al., (2012) shows that hurricanes have an impact 2 Regarding the structural plant composion in the mangrove area, despite the differences found in the various types of forests, a structure of layers of three heights can generaly be recognized: one, including moss and leaves; second, a layer of shrubs, known as undergrowth, and the third one is a higher layer formed by trees and tree crowns. The laer, known as canopy, refers to the crown of trees in which foliage performs photosynthesis. over the structure, producvity, and mangrove resistance, as part of the most important disturbing agents on mangroves. A study carried out by Adame et al., (2013) has quanfied blue carbon values in nine sites in the Sian Ka’an Biosphere Reserve, which proves, even more, the value that healthy and intact mangroves have in a warming planet. Measuring exercises of blue carbon are being performed in the natural protected areas of Yum Balam and Cozumel Island. CONABIO esmated a 10% loss of naonal mangrove cover between 1970 and 2005 (Valderrama et al., 2014; CONABIO, 2019). In the Yucatan peninsula, according to data from CONABIO, mangroves cover loss was at an annual rate of 1.8%, from 1976 to 2000, although recent invesgaons suggest that there has been some recovery due in part to restoraon efforts (CONAFOR, 2010; Valderrama et al., 2014). The loss rate in Quintana Roo is under the naonal average. According to Wilson et al., (2018), a posive trend shows that approximately 43% of the total mangrove cover in Mexico is within 32 areas protected by the federal government. Along the eastern edge of the Yucatan Peninsula, mangroves are found in wel-known protected areas near Cancun and Puerto Morelos. On the reef, they are grouped in Isla Contoy, Isla Mujeres, Cozumel, and the coral atol Banco Chinchorro (Spalding et al., 2010). Further south of Cancun, they are mainly located in the Sian Ka'an Biosphere Reserve, which is also a World Heritage site. According to Wilson et al., (2018), leading mangrove researchers are now using consistent monitoring and mapping techniques at a naonal level: the Mexican Mangrove Monitoring System, to further refine mangrove cover and loss esmates, report the resource management and catalyze ongoing restoraon work. Sciensts in the Yucatan Peninsula have developed a robust methodology for mangrove restoraon and efforts are underway at various sites. A study points out that restoraon programs should focus on the proper idenficaon of the site, the characterizaon of environmental condions, and the development of clear objecves of the program (Zaldiver-Jiménez et al., 2010). 17 Credit: María José González / MAR Fund 2.4.2. Belize In 1996, the barrier reefs in front of Belize, including mangroves found throughout the area, was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site for outstanding universal values (UNESCO, 1996). A study by the World Resources Instute (WRI) showed that mangroves contribute between $74 milion and $209 milion annualy to Belize's economy (Cooper et al., 2008). Today, much of the country's natural and cultural wealth is preserved in a wide network of land and marine protected areas. Mangroves are found in most coastal areas of Belize, including rivers, bays, and lagoons, and extend through numerous cayes and coral atols. A total coverage of 74,684 hectares has been esmated (Canty et al., 2018). In Belize, there has been a significant loss of mangroves, mainly as a result of infrastructure development or agriculture, around the city of Belize and its cayes, in Corozal, the northern district of Belize, and the popular tourist desnaon of Ambergris Caye (CZMAI, 2013). Similarly, in the south, shrimp farming and coastal development have contributed to the degradaon and loss of mangroves in several coastal areas. More recently, mangroves around Placencia lagoon and several coastal islands have been cut down, somemes ilegaly, to make way for local development projects (Mckee et al., 2009; Spalding et al., 2010). Like the Yucatan Peninsula, Belize's coastal regions, especialy its islands, also experience frequent hurricane and tropical storm impacts. Granek and Ruenberg (2007) demonstrated the role of intact mangrove forests in protecng coastal areas during extreme weather events, as wel as the resilience of mangroves to recover aer a climate event such as a hurricane or tropical storm (Piou et al., 2006). In 2009, UNESCO classified the barrier reef environment as a World Heritage Site in Danger, in part due to the sale of public lands on smal mangrove islands (UNESCO, 2009). This fact 18 catalyzed meengs of conservaon leaders in Belize to review and strengthen the country's outdated mangrove legislaon. In early 2015, the government of Belize negoated a "desired state of conservaon" with UNESCO, which sought to remove the barrier reef from the list of "Endangered site." The agreement established indicators and verificaon methods to measure progress towards the proposed target. The establishment of key legal instruments, including (1) the integrated coastal zone management plan, (2) the living aquac resources bil and (3) the new regulaon for the protecon of mangroves (approved in 2018), were fundamental instruments for the achievement of the objecves of the agreement. Finaly, in 2018, UNESCO removed Belize's barrier reef from the list of endangered sites. Belize Coastal Zone Management Authority and Instute (CZMAI), in its report of the State of the Coastal Zone of Belize 2003-2013, includes recommendaons to strengthen mangrove management, research, and monitoring throughout Belize. In 2018, the Belize Forest Department partnered with researchers at Duke University to measure blue carbon values in Turneffe Atol, the first study of its kind in Belize. The current net value of blue carbon contained in the biomass and soils of Turneffe’s mangroves and seagrass, based on a price of USD 15 per tCO2e, would be USD 3,473,072 over 25 years. These benefits would be reduced by the costs of establishment and annual management. However, these costs should be relavely low, given the extensive development work of the marine reserve and its management plan, and recent mangrove protecon regulaons. 2.4.3. Guatemala Guatemala's Caribbean coast corresponds to the shortest poron of the Mesoamerican Reef. However, the Río Dulce and the Río Motagua basin provide the most considerable freshwater runoff to the MAR. Guatemala's Caribbean coast stretches approximately 150 km along the Gulf of Honduras. The coastal environment and nearby waters are home to tropical forests, mangroves, seagrass meadows, and limited coral reefs. The dominance of estuary and freshwater systems favors the development of mangroves on the coasts. The most abundant mangroves are located in La Graciosa Bay, in the Punta de Manabique Wildlife Refuge and near the river mouths of the Río Dulce and Río Sarstún. The mangroves in Río Dulce extend to El Golfete and Izabal lake inland, mainly due to the saltwater intrusion through the estuary in these areas (Spalding et al., 2010). For the first me in 1998, Guatemala enacted the Forest Law with measures to protect mangroves. Subsequently, a joint associaon of governmental and non-governmental organizaons began mapping and monitoring the country's forests, including mangroves (Hernández et al., 2012). Large areas of mangroves in the shorelines of the Pacific coast, and to a lesser extent on the Caribbean coast of Guatemala, have been cleared to make way for agriculture and aquaculture, parcularly for shrimp farms. The conversion of coastal lands in the Caribbean has resulted in the loss of mangrove cover, parcularly in the area between Punta de Manabique and the mouth of the Río Motagua, contribung to sedimentaon and erosion. In addion, the increase in the use 19 of pescides and ferlizers in these lands has contaminated much of the coastal water in which mangroves are found (Kramer et al., 2015). Available stascs on mangrove cover and loss in Guatemala vary widely and may require validaon to determine accuracy. A FAO study, from 2005, esmates that 11km2 (1,100 hectares) of mangroves were lost between 1980 and 2005, represenng almost 10% of the country's total mangrove cover (FAO, 2005). A more recent UNEP publicaon suggests that both Guatemala and Honduras have lost up to 40% of their historical mangrove cover (UNEP, 2014). The fact is that most of the mangrove literature has tradionaly been focused on Pacific mangroves, and few studies and publicaons have been devoted to the Caribbean region. The most recent assessment that includes the Guatemalan Caribbean coast, carried out by the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources (MARN) and the Center for Water for the Humid Tropics for Lan America and the Caribbean (CATHALAC in Spanish) in 2013, states that mangroves sl cover approximately 188km2 (18,800 hectares) of land throughout the country. Today, almost 90% of the mangroves on the Caribbean coast are within the naonal protected areas (Hernández et al., 2012). In addion, the Rio Sarstun Mulple-Use Area and the Punta de Manabique Wildlife Refuge, home to extensive mangrove forests, are also internaonaly recognized Ramsar sites. 2.4.4. Honduras Honduras has important mangroves in its territory. Although mangroves on the Caribbean coast are less extensive, they have been more heavily impacted, mainly by agricultural acvies. The Bay Islands (Guanaja, Roatán, Ula) and the Cayos Cochinos archipelago also have mangrove cover, but especialy on the south coast of each island have been affected by real estate development (Spalding et al., 2010). Similar to Guatemala, the stascs available for naonal mangrove cover and loss vary widely. In Honduras, according to the results of a FAO's themac mangrove study (2005), a mangrove cover of approximately 152,500 hectares was reported in 1980, and a reducon in coverage to approximately 67,200 hectares was reported in 2005 for the whole country. As noted above, a recent publicaon suggests that Honduras has lost approximately 40% of its total mangrove cover (UNEP, 2014). The Naonal Instute of Forest Conservaon and Development, Protected Areas and Wildlife (ICF) esmates that, as of 2014, 52% of the naon's remaining mangroves are located in the Gulf of Fonseca, 33% in the Moskia, 12% in Colon-Cortés, and 3% in the Bay Islands (ICF, 2014). While there is no historical analysis study of mangroves for the Honduran poron of the MAR, the coastal plain of Honduras, between La Ceiba and the border of Guatemala, has, since 1950, been and connues to be today an area for intensive agriculture of banana, plantain, pineapples, 20 coconut trees, and more recently, palm oil, and some forest crops, with which mangrove areas gradualy have disappeared. Lately, real estate development for tourism has been added to the causes of mangrove conversion in the Caribbean area of Honduras. Across the country, firewood colecon remains a common pracce near coastal communies, as it is a source of energy for cooking and the producon of salt and coal. In popular tourist desnaons such as the Bay Islands, the loss of mangroves is oen the result of clearing the land to build hotels, roads, and other tourism infrastructure. An ICF study shows that approximately 3.3km2 (3,300 hectares) of mangroves were lost in the Honduran Caribbean, mainly as a result of a port development project at Laguna Alvarado in Puerto Cortés (ICF, 2014). Honduras also experiences hurricanes frequently, which in some cases, have had devastang impacts on the region's mangroves. In 1998, Hurricane Mitch destroyed 97% of the mangroves on Guanaja Island in the Bay Islands department (Spalding et al., 2010). Vanselow et al., (2007), show that as a result of widespread destrucon, sediment and peat loss has hindered the recovery of mangrove throughout the island. Many of the mangroves along the Caribbean coast and Bay Islands are now found in protected areas and naonal refuges, many of which are also Ramsar sites. In 2013, the enre Ula island was formaly listed as a Ramsar site, becoming the last mangrove area in northern Honduras to receive internaonal recognion. Researchers have begun to evaluate the blue carbon values of mangroves at selected sites in Honduras. A study between 2018-2019 –pending publicaon– sampled mangroves in 24 sites in three coastal areas of Honduras, including Tela and the Bay Islands. Extensive field sampling was performed to assess the composion, structure, biomass, and values of carbon stocks above and below the ground. 2.5. State of conservaon and legal and administrave scope of mangroves in the MAR ecoregion There is no analysis of the condion or viability of mangroves in the Mesoamerican Reef region, which represents an opportunity and a starng point for the process of preparaon and implementaon of the strategy, facilitated by MAR Fund in coordinaon with the Smithsonian Instuon and the MAR2R/CCAD Project. There are, however, specific assessments within protected areas that could be considered as a baseline for esmang the general state of mangroves. According to the literature consulted, there is evidence that mangroves have suffered from mulple sources of pressure, both natural and anthropogenic, and that in recent years at least 30% of their coverage has been lost (Canty et al., 2018). A piece of encouraging news is that a good poron of the mangroves in the MAR region is located within or associated with protected areas. But, as Canty et al., (2018), point out, environmental authories do not have the resources to achieve the implementaon of the regulatory framework necessary for their ful protecon. Moreover, there are other sites outside 21 the protected areas that, despite whether or not they have been designated as priority sites or with internaonal recognion, may not be adequately protected. For the above, there wil be at least three legal and administrave areas where extensive work is required to achieve mangrove conservaon, such as the folowing: 1) Strengthening of the exisng legal frameworks for the conservaon and the sustainable use of mangroves in the MAR; 2) The development of creave governance models that engage local users and the private sector in processes involved in the sustainable use of mangroves and their conservaon; 3) The incorporaon, if possible, of market methods that alow to value mangroves and recognize the value of their goods and services to society, raising public awareness on the need for conservaon. 22 Credit: Fundación Albatros 3. Threats to mangroves of the MAR ecoregion 3.1. Background on threats According to Spalding et al., (2010), approximately 50% of mangroves have been lost globaly. On the other hand, Duke et al., (2007), indicate that during the 1990s, between 30 and 86% of mangroves were lost to deforestaon. The causes of mangrove loss, as wel as the rate of their disappearance, vary between countries and regions. For example: • The Quintana Roo region has lost 5.5% of mangrove cover since it was declared a state in 1974 (CONABIO, 2016); • Belize lost 2% between 1980 and 2010 (Cherrington et al. 2010); • A loss of at least 36% between 1950 and 2006 (TNC, 2008) has been esmated for the Guatemalan Caribbean; • In Honduras, according to the results of a FAO's themac mangrove study (2005), 23 mangrove cover of approximately 152,500 hectares was reported in 1980, and a reducon in coverage of about 67,200 hectares was reported in 2005 for the whole country. According to Sulivan and Bustamante (1999), the main threats to mangrove forests are (1) disrupon of hydrological regimes, flood control, and urban development (including tourism); (2) drainage and filing of mangrove areas to establish coastal developments and aquaculture, and (3) extracon of mangrove mber products, such as firewood, wood and construcon poles. In an exercise led by TNC between 2007 and 2008, the Ecoregional Plan of the Mesoamerican Reef System was developed (Arrivilaga and Windevoxhel, 2008). In this plan, which involved more than 145 people from at least 27 different organizaons in the MAR region, the mangrove was selected as one of the conservaon targets. The result of the threat analysis in the MAR ecoregion showed that the region, in general, has a very high threat level, while mangroves have a high threat level. Table 5 summarizes the results obtained from the exercise. Table 5. Summary of threats to mangroves of the MAR ecoregion 2008 . Threat Levels Threats High Climate change (parcularly rise of sea level), increase of temperature, and CO3 reducon. Development of tourism infrastructure. Coastal urban development. Extensive cale farming. Medium Development of infrastructure and transportaon. Shrimp aquaculture. Low Wastewater discharge. Use of agrochemicals and pescides. Damage associated with the effects of navigaon, anchoring, and spils. Source: Arrivilaga and Windevoxhel (2008) 3.2. Current situaon of threats to mangroves in the MAR ecoregion 3.2.1. Results of the regional survey to experts and key stakeholders conducted 24 by MAR Fund and the Smithsonian Instuon As part of the process of colecng informaon on the current situaon of mangroves in the MAR region, the MAR Fund team and the Smithsonian Instuon conducted a survey to experts and key stakeholders, including NGOs, academia, governments, and local communies in the region, who make up the MAR Mangrove Network, in order to learn about their percepon and the informaon available on the mangrove situaon. The most important consideraons that reflect the exisng strengths, weaknesses, opportunies, and threats (SWOT), and that are also related to mangrove management, conservaon, restoraon, and monitoring, are highlighted. Table 6 shows the results. The survey also colected informaon on topics of common interest that stakeholders idenfy as necessary to strengthen the management, conservaon, restoraon, and monitoring of the mangrove ecosystem. These are: 1) Climate change; 2) Enforcement of exisng legislaon; 3) Resource availability; 4) Studies and migaon measures for mangrove diseases; 5) Strengthening of instuons and partnerships among stakeholders, and 6) Monitoring and research. Table 6. Results from SWOT analysis of mangrove management in the MAR. Strengths Weaknesses Exisng legislaon Lack of enforcement of exisng legislaon Monitoring and Evaluaon Lack of financial resources Restoraon projects Data gaps NGOs and local interested pares Complicated governance Presence of protected areas Opportunies Threats Projects underway Complicated governance in resource Exisng legislaon management Payment for services Inadequate coastal development Blue carbon Farming (use of agrochemicals) New partnerships between key Deforestaon 25 stakeholders Poluon in bodies of water Climate change Lack of enforcement of exisng legislaon In addion to the informaon from SWOT and from common themes, data was also obtained from the concluded and ongoing projects that are implemented in the MAR ecoregion. The informaon is available in link: hps://marfund.org/en/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/Results-survey_c-mangroves-manglares.pdf 3.2.2. Analysis results of current threats to the mangrove ecosystem in the MAR idenfied in the regional workshop for the strategy As part of the results obtained during the workshop for the development of a regional strategy for mangrove management, conservaon, restoraon, and monitoring in the Mesoamerican Reef, carried out in September 2019, the folowing threats were idenfied: 1) Global climate change (temperature and sea-level rise and CO3 reducon); 2) Waste/residual water discharge and leachate infiltraon; 3) Poluon derived from aquaculture; 4) Oils and lubricants; 5) Use of agrochemicals and pescides; 6) Agroindustry; 7) Changes in land use in mangrove areas and mangrove-related basins; 8) Development of tourism, urban, road, and transportaon infrastructure (roads, ports, dredging); 9) Navigaon (anchor damage, spils, boat scars); 10) Mangrove deforestaon (mangrove extracon); 11) Dams (surface and groundwater) and hydraulic flow disrupon in the system; 12) Ilegal financing/drug-related acvies; 13) Overfishing; 14) Livestock farming; 15) Sedimentaon (although it was also considered a stressor rather than a threat, it is worth considering it). The conceptual framework established in the workshop (see Chapter 4) was the basis for this exercise, as wel as the results of the Ecoregional Analysis for the MAR 2008, prepared by TNC, and the results of the survey rendering the percepon of experts, conducted by MAR Fund and the Smithsonian Instuon in August 2019. Aer concluding the exercise of analysis and idenficaon of current mangrove threats in the SAM ecoregion, parcipants recognized the importance of having an instrument such as the strategy, which contributes to the coordinaon of acons that generate impacts on a larger scale. Although 26 many measures have been taken in the last twenty years, the threats have also increased, so it is clear that dispersed investments in the region are an addional factor that chalenges the achievement of regional impacts . Credit: Fundación Albatros 4. Strategic framework for mangrove management, conservation, restoration and monitoring in the MAR region 4.1 Methodology Human Livelihoods Communies Biodiversity (biodiversity and conservaon targets) Ecosystemic Services Human Welbeing Targets Mangrove Ecosystem 27 Associated fauna Support services (hydrobiological) Nutrient cycle primary producon Health Flora/Forest cover Regulaon services (including canopy, biomass and Carbon capture, water species composion - mber purificaon, local climate Food security and non-mber) regulaon Hydrological System Supply services Financial Income associated to the Food, water, medicinal mangrove plants, mber Base Soil Cultural services (benthos and Knowledge, educaonal Security chemical-physical factors) and aesthec values Source: Workshop Development of a Regional Strategy for Mangrove Management, Conservaon, Restoraon and Monitoring in the Mesoamerican Reef, Guatemala, September 2019. The process of developing the Regional Strategy for Mangrove Management, Conservaon, Restoraon and Monitoring in the Mesoamerican Reef 2020-2025 (the strategy) started out with a regional workshop with the parcipaon of 69 key stakeholders from the MAR region who are linked to the mangrove ecosystem management/conservaon. Among them were government officials, community leaders, as wel as representaves from NGOs, environmental funds, and donors among others. As part of the analysis of the mangrove ecosystem in the MAR ecoregion, the exisng informaon was systemazed (chapter 2), in addion to the survey sent to key stakeholders. During the regional workshop, a conceptual model was designed for the MAR mangroves, in which four ecosystem conservaon targets were idenfied: associated fauna, forest cover, hydrological system, and soil. Characteriscs, stress sources and threats were determined for each one of these targets. Based on the idenfied threats, an analysis of the current ecosystem status was conducted. Strategies were proposed for the conservaon and restoraon of the mangrove ecosystem. 4.2. Foundaons and principles of the strategy 4.2.1. Scope The Regional Strategy for Mangrove Management, Conservaon, Restoraon and Monitoring 2020-2025 is the result of the consensus among key stakeholders of the MAR ecoregion. The strategy has been laid out as a guiding plaorm of acons shared between the four countries that make up the MAR. These acons, coordinated and agreed upon between different key stakeholders of the region, wil enable the achievement of realisc and effecve conservaon goals. To that end, it is necessary to establish an acon plan with key stakeholders and strategic partners that can push 28 the strategy implementaon forward. 4.2.2. Purpose The purpose of this strategy is to enable this colaboraon among different stakeholders by providing a strategic framework to achieve coordinated acons in the MAR ecoregion, with a ridge to reef focus to: • Ensure that acons for the management, protecon, and restoraon of mangroves are coherent and complementary at al scales and between al sectors; • Promote the restoraon and maintenance of the ecological integrity of mangrove ecosystems in order to conserve the ecosystem’s goods and services; • Promote the generaon of knowledge and the exchange of best pracces among local populaons which contribute to guiding the planning and comprehensive management of mangroves and that facilitate the implementaon of the strategy; • Strengthen and build capacies of different stakeholders, such as protected area managers and local communies, to ensure the conservaon of mangroves; • Promote sustainable management and conservaon of mangroves as habitat and breeding grounds for fisheries and other wild species that support the livelihoods of residents of the region; • Promote the acons, policies and regulaons required to support the implementaon and vision of the strategy; • Promote strategic aliances among involved stakeholders and sectors in order to accomplish the purpose of this strategy. The strategy takes into consideraon the recommendaons issued by regional and internaonal agencies associated with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG), Aichi Targets, Convenon on Biological Diversity, the UN Framework Convenon on Climate Change and regional instuonal mandates from the Central American Commission for Environment and Development (CCAD, for its inials in Spanish). The laer also responds to policies, regional strategies and iniaves related to the conservaon and management of natural resources and biodiversity, parcularly those originang from the Framework Regional Environmental Strategy 2015-2020 (ERAM, for its inials in Spanish). 4.2.3. Regional Polical Foundaons Some of the instruments that frame and provide support to the strategy are the folowing: ALIDES: (Alianza Centro Americana para el Desarrolo Sostenible): The Aliance for the Sustainable Development of Central America was endorsed by the Central American presidents in October 1994, to achieve growth through a process of progressive change in human quality of life, represented by economic growth with social equality, the transformaon of producon methods and paerns of consumpon based on ecological balance, an important foundaon for the region. ERAM: (Estrategia Regional Ambiental Marco): The Framework Regional Environmental Strategy 2015-2020 tackles the current chalenges in the region and addresses new sustainability problems in the current systemic crisis, driving an environment-friendly economy that enables the eradicaon of poverty 29 and social inequalies by promong a sustained inclusive and equitable growth. It fosters and promotes synergies between mullateral and regional environmental agreements of which the MAR countries are signatories. This contributes to sustainable growth and to the integraon process of the region. ERAS: (Estrategia Regional Agroambiental y de Salud): The Regional Agro-Environmental and Health Strategy has the general goal of promong a cross-sector mechanism for agro-environmental management, with a strong focus on sustainable management of land, biodiversity, variability and climate change, agro-environmental business, and healthy spaces and lifestyles, aimed at sustainable human growth. ERB: (Estrategia Regional para la Conservación y Uso Sostenible de la Biodiversidad): The Regional Strategy for the Conservaon and Sustainable Use of Biodiversity in Mesoamerica seeks to promote and enable the cooperaon and coordinaon of acvies in the region in order to aain understanding, valuaon, conservaon and sustainable use of biodiversity in the Mesoamerican region, aligned with naonal policies, strategies and acon plans, as wel as with the internaonal biodiversity agenda. ERCC: (Estrategia Regional de Cambio Climáco): The Regional Climate Change Strategy is the result of a strong and dynamic process of preparaon, consultaon and inputs from both naonal and regional levels. It represents a flexible guiding instrument for SICA (Central American Integraon System) countries. The ERCC intends to become a harmonized, open and dynamic instrument of regional policy that wil alow the CCAD to folow through with their mission of developing a cooperaon and environmental integraon system that wil contribute to tackle threats and take advantage of the opportunies brought about by variability and climate change in the region. Moreover, it represents a guiding tool for the measures and addional regional acons and is an added value to naonal acons. PACADIRH: (Plan Regional de Recursos Hídricos): The Regional Plan for Water Resources represents a set of strategies and acons that guide and harmonize the joint development of hydrological wealth across the Central American isthmus, aligned with sustainable development concepts, parcularly regarding shared and cross-border watersheds. 4.2.4. Principles of the strategy Taking into consideraon the rapid decline of mangrove cover, in addion to the increased threats to the ecosystem, the strategy proposes the folowing work principles that contribute to the implementaon of the strategic lines and proposed acons: • Regional vision; • Shared responsibility; • Resource opmizaon; • Gender equality and youth; • Mulcultural approach; • Ridge to reef work approach; • CBD ecosystem approach (2004)3. 4.3. Strategy Vision 30 The mangrove ecosystem has the condions that make it resilient to the effects of global change (climate change and other anthropic effects), and is acknowledged in the Mesoamerican Reef System as a priority for sustainable development that alows the conservaon of the natural capital as the foundaon for the provision of goods and services that contribute to human wel-being. 4.4. Strategy Objecves General objecve: To implement management, conservaon, restoraon, and monitoring acons in the mangrove ecosystem that reduce its vulnerability, and that of coastal communies, to climate change in the MAR ecoregion. Specific objecves: 1) Manage, conserve, restore and monitor the mangrove ecosystem in the MAR ecoregion; 2) Promote sustainable livelihoods that reduce stress on the mangrove ecosystem; 3 It refers to the adaptaon based on ecosystems and its link to the MAR ecoregion. According to the CBD Secretariat (2004), the Ecosystem Approach represents the fundamental framework of acon of the CBD, where an integrated management and the restoraon of lands, water bodies and living resources are proposed, because it promotes conservaon and sustainable use in an equal, parcipatory and decentralized way. It includes social, economic, ecological, and cultural aspects in a geographic area outlined by ecological boundaries. 3) Promote the effecve applicaon of legal frameworks that protect the mangrove ecosystem through strengthening of instuons and key stakeholders; 4) Strengthen the governance and effecve parcipaon of al sectors that are linked to the mangrove ecosystem in the MAR ecoregion; 5) Develop a knowledge management, monitoring, and surveilance system of the mangrove ecosystem that feeds the decision-making process of stakeholders in the region; 6) Ensure financial resources for the implementaon of the strategy, including instruments that promote equity and mulculturality in the MAR ecoregion. 4.5. Strategic lines Based on the analysis of the informaon provided (conceptual model of MAR mangroves, foundaons, principles, vision, and objecves) in the process of developing the strategy, the necessary strategies and acons are proposed to conserve, restore, and monitor the mangrove ecosystem. As a result of the systemazaon of the informaon, the folowing six themac strategic lines are proposed for the MAR ecoregion: 1) Management, conservaon, restoraon and monitoring of the mangrove ecosystem; 2) Economic alternaves to reduce stress on the mangrove ecosystem; 3) Implementaon of the legal framework and instuonal strengthening for conservaon, restoraon and monitoring of the mangrove ecosystem; 4) Governance and effecve parcipaon of al sectors and stakeholders for 31 management, conservaon, restoraon and monitoring of the mangrove ecosystem; 5) Research, management, and knowledge transfer; 6) Core components that enable the implementaon of the strategy. Acons, indicators, relevant stakeholders, strategic partners, and esmated costs were idenfied for each strategic line to support its implementaon. Credit: Ana Beatriz Rivas / MAR Fund 32 Credit: MAR Fund 4.6. Strategy Matrix 1. Strategic line: Management, conservaon, restoraon and monitoring of the mangrove ecosystem in the MAR ecoregion. 33 Objecve: To manage, conserve, restore and monitor the mangrove ecosystem in the MAR ecoregion. Expected outcome: Management, conservaon, restoraon and monitoring of the mangrove ecosystem has been promoted and implemented in a parcipatory and effecve way. Strategy Acons Indicators Relevant Strategic Esmated Cost Stakeholders Partners US$ 1.1.1. Promote and Number of land-use plans 400,000 implement land-use planning focused on use of water. focused on water use in watersheds associated with mangroves. 1.1.2. Map fresh water Number of water Pending data colecon systems (water colecon systems. harvesng). 1.1.3. Valuate goods and Number of valuaon 150,000 services related to water use in studies of goods and 1.1. Use and watersheds with mangroves. services conducted in the Governments Internaonal implementaon of four countries. Municipalies cooperaon climate change Academia Fundaons adaptaon measures 1.1.4. Promote policies and Number of naonal or NGOs Private sector 300,000 based on ecosystems. guidelines to develop municipal policies that Community Universies nature-based coastal promote nature-based members Environmental funds infrastructure that contributes infrastructure. NGOs to improve resilience skils in populaons, alowing to save water and contribung to improve their livelihoods. 1.1.5. Include the flow of blue Number of countries that 400,000 carbon in naonal accounts include blue carbon in and reports. their naonal accounts. 1.2 Mangrove 1.2.1. Diagnosc of mangrove Updated diagnosis of the Governments 100,000 restoraon to increase condion and status in the current mangrove Academia cover in the MAR MAR ecoregion. condion in the MAR NGOs ecoregion. ecoregion. 1. Strategic line: Management, conservaon, restoraon and monitoring of the mangrove ecosystem in the MAR ecoregion. 34 Objecve: To manage, conserve, restore and monitor the mangrove ecosystem in the MAR ecoregion. Expected outcome: Management, conservaon, restoraon and monitoring of the mangrove ecosystem has been promoted and implemented in a parcipatory and effecve way. Strategy Acons Indicators Relevant Strategic Esmated Cost Stakeholders Partners US$ 1.2.2. Establish a standardized Regional protocol of best Governments 400,000 mangrove restoraon protocol restoraon pracces and Academia and a protocol to measure the health measurement NGOs health of mangroves. validated by stakeholders. 1.2 Mangrove restoraon to increase cover in the MAR 1.2.3. Determine priority areas Priority restoraon sites 100,000 ecoregion. for restoraon of the mangrove have been determined in ecosystem in the MAR each country. ecoregion, considering Governments connecvity aspects and Municipalies results from the diagnosc. Academia NGOs Community 1.2.4. Carry out restoraon Number of restored members The cost may be acons in priority mangrove hectares in each country esmated aer areas. and in the region. determining the sites and the number of hectares to be restored. 1.3.1. Diagnosc of the main Most crical Governments sources of contaminaon in sources/threats of Municipalies 400,000 mangroves at the watershed contaminaon for each Academia level, including a map with country. NGOs contaminaon sources. 1.3. Monitoring of Map of contaminaon mangrove health in sources for mangroves. protected areas. 1. Strategic line: Management, conservaon, restoraon and monitoring of the mangrove ecosystem in the MAR ecoregion. 35 Objecve: To manage, conserve, restore and monitor the mangrove ecosystem in the MAR ecoregion. Expected outcome: Management, conservaon, restoraon and monitoring of the mangrove ecosystem has been promoted and implemented in a parcipatory and effecve way. Strategy Acons Indicators Relevant Strategic Esmated Cost Stakeholders Partners US$ 1.3.2. Monitoring and Protected areas with Governments 600,000 surveilance of the mangrove monitoring and Academia ecosystem within coastal surveilance systems for NGOs protected areas in the MAR. mangroves. • Establish joint monitoring systems between stakeholders responsible for the protecon of natural resources within protected areas; • Development and applicaon of remote monitoring systems. 1.4. Environmental 1.4.1. Promote the Number of feasibility Governments Pending data sanitaon of the construcon of waste water studies for treatment Municipalies colecon coastal region in the treatment plants in coastal plants. MAR ecoregion. communies priorized by country. Number of coastal water treatment plants built. Internaonal cooperaon Fundaons Private sector Universies 1.4.2. Promote the Number of systems or Governments Environmental funds Pending data development of solid waste experiences of solid waste Municipalies NGOs colecon management systems where management. Community they are lacking and improve members the exisng ones in coastal communies. 2. Strategic line: Economic alternaves to reduce stress over the mangrove ecosystem in the MAR ecoregion. 36 Objecve: To promote sustainable livelihoods that reduce stress over the mangrove ecosystem. Expected outcome: The social vulnerability of coastal populaons in the MAR ecoregion relying on the mangrove system has been reduced. Strategy Acons Indicators Relevant Strategic Esmated Cost Stakeholders Partners US$ 2.1.1. Idenfy and promote Number of pilot iniaves 400,000 blue economy models at a local idenfied and implemented. scale. 2.1.2. Improve the fishing Four experiences of 400,000 markeng and producon improved markeng chains chain. for the fishing sector have Governments been applied. Municipalies Academia Internaonal NGOs cooperaon 2.1.3. Strengthen the At least two fishing Community Fundaons 200,000 organizaon of the fishing associaons have been members Private sector 2.1 Idenficaon and sector. strengthened and have Private sector Universies strengthening of improved their organizaon Environmental funds livelihoods and/or in each country. NGOs sustainable producve acvies for coastal 2.1.4. Promote and implement At least one ecotourism 330,000 communies in the sustainable ecotourism and experience is implemented in MAR ecoregion. community tourism acons. mangrove areas per country. 2.1.5. Conduct economic One feasibility study per Academia feasibility studies for: country and/or type of NGOs 200,000 economic acvity. Private sector • Extracon and use of Community mangrove tannins as members environmentaly-friendly dyes; • Apiculture (mangrove flower honey); • Coconut oil; • Recycling micro-enterprises; • Handcras; • Sargassum; • Others. 2. Strategic line: Economic alternaves to reduce stress over the mangrove ecosystem in the MAR ecoregion. 37 Objecve: To promote sustainable livelihoods that reduce stress over the mangrove ecosystem. Expected outcome: The social vulnerability of coastal populaons in the MAR ecoregion relying on the mangrove system has been reduced. Strategy Acons Indicators Relevant Strategic Esmated Cost Stakeholders Partners US$ 2.2.1. Idenfy and design Idenficaon of at least one 200,000 forestry incenves, both forestry incenve mechanism private and public, for for conservaon and conservaon and restoraon of restoraon of mangroves in mangroves in the MAR the MAR ecoregion per ecoregion. country. 2.2.2. Promoon and adopon Number of experiences of Governments Internaonal 400,000 2.2. Promoon of of incenves by competent mangrove incenves adopted Municipalies cooperaon incenves for the authories in each country; e. in each country. Academia Fundaons conservaon and g. forestry authories, as wel NGOs Private sector restoraon of the as private en es. Private sector Universies mangrove ecosystem. Community Environmental funds members NGOs 2.2.3. Implementaon of Number of forestry 400,000 forestry incenves for the incenves implemented. conservaon and restoraon of mangroves in the MAR ecoregion. 2.3. Promoon and 2.3.1. Implement agroforestry Number of pilot experiences Private sector Pending data implementaon of systems in buffer zones located implemented in the MAR Community colecon sustainable and between development, ecoregion. members responsible agriculture agriculture and mangrove programs in the coastal areas, under exisng legal region of the MAR. frameworks. 2.3.2. Promote the use of Number of producers and Governments Pending data bio-ferlizers and communies adopng the Municipalies colecon bio-pescides instead of use of bio-ferlizers. Private sector agrochemicals. Community members 3. Strategic line: Implementaon of the legal framework and instuonal strengthening for management, conservaon, restoraon and monitoring of the mangrove ecosystem in the MAR ecoregion. 38 Objecve: To promote effecve implementaon of the legal frameworks that protect the mangrove ecosystem through the strengthening of instuons and key stakeholders. Expected outcome: Public policy instruments for the regional management of the mangrove ecosystem are put forward by key stakeholders. Strategy Acons Indicators Relevant Strategic Esmated Cost Stakeholders Partners US$ 3.1.1. Design, officialize and Number of countries that Governments 100,000 implement the strategy Acon acknowledge the strategy. CCAD Plan. 3.1 Strengthening and implementaon of 3.1.2. Replicate Number of trained MAR2R 250,0000 management tools that capacity-building and en es/people. CCAD contribute to the strengthening models (e.g. Blue Governments conservaon, Economy Leadership Team restoraon and –BELT– Honduras). monitoring of the mangrove ecosystem. 3.1.3. Include mangrove Mangrove restoraon has MAR2R 50,000 restoraon as an item in the been included as an item in CCAD Blue Economy Regional Agenda the Blue Economy Regional Governments and in the Decade of Agenda and in the process of Municipalies Restoraon. the Decade of Restoraon - NGOs Internaonal CCAD. cooperaon Fundaons Private sector 200,000 3.2.1. Conduct a cross-sector Cross-sector analysis in each Governments Universies analysis on regulaons for the country. Municipalies Environmental funds use and management of Community NGOs forests, protected areas, Number of acons taken to members fisheries, and tourism, in order improve the applicaon of NGOs 3.2 Standardize, to establish exisng gaps standards. disseminate and and/or duplicaon regarding implement legal the use and protecon of frameworks and mangroves. environmental guidelines linked to the 3.2.2. Strengthen the legal Number of modernized and Governments 400,000 mangrove protecon, framework and regulaons updated regulaons and Municipalies restoraon and related to the development of standards per country and in monitoring. the folowing types of the region. infrastructure regarding the use and protecon of mangroves: • Tourism; • Urban-coastal; • Roads and transportaon. 3. Strategic line: Implementaon of the legal framework and instuonal strengthening for management, conservaon, restoraon and monitoring of the mangrove ecosystem in the MAR ecoregion. 39 Objecve: To promote effecve implementaon of the legal frameworks that protect the mangrove ecosystem through the strengthening of instuons and key stakeholders. Expected outcome: Public policy instruments for the regional management of the mangrove ecosystem are put forward by key stakeholders. Strategy Acons Indicators Relevant Strategic Esmated Cost Stakeholders Partners US$ 3.2.3. Strengthen the legal At least one country 150,000 3.2 Standardize, framework and regulaons strengthening its own disseminate and related to the use of regulatory framework. implement legal agrochemicals and pescides, frameworks and promong the applicaon of environmental internaonal standards. guidelines linked to the mangrove protecon, 3.2.4. Strengthen the legal Number of updated 400,0000 restoraon and framework and regulaons standards. monitoring. related to the folowing: • Change in the use of soil in mangroves and up the watershed; • Agroindustry; • Aquaculture; • Dams; • Interrupon of water flow into the system (surface and underground water). 3.2.5. Strengthen the legal Number of strengthened 200,000 framework and regulaons naonal or municipal related to the disposal of oil regulaons. and lubricants directly into the water. 3.2.6. Develop a system of A proposal developed per Governments 200,000 fines and penales across the country. Municipalies chain involved in the consumpon of regulated/protected species. 4. Strategic line: Governance and effecve parcipaon of al sectors and stakeholders for the management, conservaon, restoraon and monitoring of the mangrove ecosystem in the MAR ecoregion. 40 Objecve: To strengthen the governance and effecve parcipaon of al sectors linked to the mangrove ecosystem in the MAR ecoregion. Expected outcome: Spaces of regional, naonal and local governance for the management of the mangrove ecosystem are strengthened. Strategy Acons Indicators Relevant Strategic Esmated Cost Stakeholders Partners US$ 4.1 Environmental 4.1.1. Establish a regional and Established regional CCAD 150,000 governance and cross-sector execuve commiee. Governments (for five years) effecve parcipaon commiee to: Municipalies for the implementaon of the strategy in • Coordinate the implementaon Acons of the strategy have Academia of the strategy, starng with the been priorized. Community colaboraon with priorizaon of planned members regional, naonal and strategies and acons; Implementaon of the NGOs local stakeholders. • Promote the development of strategy has begun. policies to make the strategy viable; Ecosystem and climate • Promote the incorporaon of change criteria have been ecosystem and climate change included in the management criteria into the naonal and instruments for mangrove regional management management, conservaon, instruments for the management, conservaon, restoraon and monitoring. Internaonal restoraon and monitoring of cooperaon the mangrove ecosystem. Fundaons Private sector Universies 4.1.2. Strengthen and provide Number of local governance Governments Environmental funds 100,000 support to local structures for structures strengthened with Municipalies NGOs environmental governance in support and training. Academia coastal communies. Community members NGOs 4.1.3. Facilitate the At least one regional Governments 400,000 coordinaon of regional, instrument of environmental Municipalies naonal and local stakeholders mangrove management Academia for the implementaon of implemented. Community regional instruments for members mangrove management at a NGOs naonal scale. CCAD 4. Strategic line: Governance and effecve parcipaon of al sectors and stakeholders for the management, conservaon, restoraon and monitoring of the mangrove ecosystem in the MAR ecoregion. 41 Objecve: To strengthen the governance and effecve parcipaon of al sectors linked to the mangrove ecosystem in the MAR ecoregion. Expected outcome: Spaces of regional, naonal and local governance for the management of the mangrove ecosystem are strengthened. Strategy Acons Indicators Relevant Strategic Esmated Cost Stakeholders Partners US$ 4.1.4. Promote and provide Number of capacity-building CCAD 100,000 technical assistance to naonal events and trained people on Governments instuons for effecve regional instruments. implementaon of regional agreements. 4.1.5. Promote models of Number of: Governments 500,000 shared mangrove management • Conservaon Municipalies within and outside protected agreements; Community areas, based on exisng • Offset models and members frameworks and policies. For programs, concession NGOs example: models; • Mangrove conservaon; • Blue carbon models. • Community management; • Implementaon of blue carbon models. 4.2.1. Strengthen the Number of governmental Governments 100,000 stakeholders responsible for instuons and community Municipalies compliance and applicaon of organizaons in training. management laws and regulaons related to the 4.2 Strengthen mangrove ecosystem in the governance related to MAR. the mangrove ecosystem and protected areas. 4.2.2. Develop governance At least one model Municipalies 100,000 models for use of mangrove developed. Community and management, such as members community concessions. Number of community NGOs concessions. 4. Strategic line: Governance and effecve parcipaon of al sectors and stakeholders for the management, conservaon, restoraon and monitoring of the mangrove ecosystem in the MAR ecoregion. 42 Objecve: To strengthen the governance and effecve parcipaon of al sectors linked to the mangrove ecosystem in the MAR ecoregion. Expected outcome: Spaces of regional, naonal and local governance for the management of the mangrove ecosystem are strengthened. Strategy Acons Indicators Relevant Strategic Esmated Cost Stakeholders Partners US$ 4.2.3. Strengthen protected Number of public/private 400,000 areas through: aliances established by government en es in • Public/private aliances with charge of protected areas. governing bodies of protected areas, the private Number of trained public sector and communies; officials. • Aliances between co-managers and the Number of protected areas private sector; that apply social and • Strengthen skils/leadership environmental safeguards. of governmental organizaons; • Respect, address social and Governments environmental safeguards. MunicipaliesAcademia Community members NGOs 4.2.4. Strengthen scienfic, Number of technicians and 400,000 technical and local community community members with skils. technical and scienfic training on mangrove conservaon, restoraon and monitoring. 5. Strategic line: Research, management and transfer of knowledge. 43 Objecve: Establish a system of knowledge management, monitoring and surveilance of the mangrove ecosystem that feeds the decision-making process of stakeholders in the MAR ecoregion. Expected outcome: The MAR ecoregion has a monitoring and surveilance system for mangrove ecosystem that feeds strategic informaon to key stakeholders for decision-making and improving the ecosystem’s management. Strategy Acons Indicators Relevant Strategic Esmated Cost Stakeholders Partners US$ 5.1.1. Develop a regional plan GCO strategy for mangroves CCAD 50,000 for Knowledge Management in the MAR, approved by Academia (KM) that includes mapping of countries Governments knowledge, priority topics, NGOs knowledge gaps, involved Community stakeholders and users, as wel members as the management mechanism. Internaonal 5.1 Promoon and cooperaon implementaon of Fundaons acons that contribute Private sector to improving Universies knowledge 5.1.2. Valuate and idenfy Number of inclusive models Academia Environmental funds 200,000management related to awareness models of to raise awareness on the the importance and Governments NGOs “intangible capital” that include intangible capital. economic value of Municipaliesbiocultural heritage sites, the mangroves in the MAR NGOspromoon of ecoregion. Community inclusive/ancestral cultural members models that respect local customs, tradions, ancestral thinking, tradional knowledge on mother nature in terms of the acons for sustainable development and management of natural and cultural resources addressing resoluons and internaonal treaes and convenons regarding the mangrove system. 5. Strategic line: Research, management and transfer of knowledge. 44 Objecve: Establish a system of knowledge management, monitoring and surveilance of the mangrove ecosystem that feeds the decision-making process of stakeholders in the MAR ecoregion. Expected outcome: The MAR ecoregion has a monitoring and surveilance system for mangrove ecosystem that feeds strategic informaon to key stakeholders for decision-making and improving the ecosystem’s management. Strategy Acons Indicators Relevant Strategic Esmated Cost Stakeholders Partners US$ 5.1.3. Conduct an economic Number of economic 200,000 valuaon of mangroves and valuaon studies of blue carbon at key mangroves on different sites/landscapes in each environmental services, such country. as protecon for extreme climate events, blue carbon, habitat and breeding grounds for fisheries and other wild species that provide livelihoods to residents of the region, etc. 5.2.1. Develop a policy on Document on regional policy CCAD 50,000 local empowerment acknowledged and inialy Academia (environmental educaon, approved by CCAD. Governments disseminaon and Municipalies empowerment regarding public NGOs policies). Community members 5.2 Implementaon of a 5.2.2. Promote exchanges Number of exchanges. Community 120,000 regional related to exisng iniaves members capacity-building plan (e.g. El Cuco, El Salvador) for a Number of parcipants. Academia for generaon of tailored replica in each country. Municipalies knowledge. Governments 5.2.3. Generate science-based Amount and number of Governments 250,000 environmental educaon generated materials. Municipalies material. NGOs 5. Strategic line: Research, management and transfer of knowledge. Objecve: Establish a system of knowledge management, monitoring and surveilance of the mangrove ecosystem that feeds the 45 decision-making process of stakeholders in the MAR ecoregion. Expected outcome: The MAR ecoregion has a monitoring and surveilance system for mangrove ecosystem that feeds strategic informaon to key stakeholders for decision-making and improving the ecosystem’s management. Strategy Acons Indicators Relevant Strategic Esmated Cost Stakeholders Partners US$ 5.2.4. Implement a regional Number of learning tools Community 250,000 awareness campaign on the generated per country and in members importance and benefits of the region. Academia, adequate management, Municipalies conservaon, restoraon and Governments monitoring of the mangrove NGOs ecosystem aimed at government en es involved in management and conservaon of mangroves, the private sector, indigenous peoples, Afro-Hondurans, local communies and the general public. Plan with research priories Municipalies 60,000 5.3.1. Establish and priorize concerning the mangrove Community research needs for the strategy. ecosystem in the MAR. members 5.3 Research and Academia knowledge NGOs management aimed at Governments solving management problems in the 5.3.2. Promote scienfic Number of invesgaons mangrove ecosystem. research focused on the completed and in progress 400,000 management of the mangrove aimed at the sustainable ecosystem in the MAR management of the ecoregion. mangrove ecosystem. Government 5.4 Implementaon of 5.4.1. denfy and implement Number of idenfied new Academia 200,000 good pracces new sustainable technologies technologies. Private sector (for idenficaon instruments for the for producve sectors that process) conservaon, affect the mangrove ecosystem Number of implemented restoraon and in the MAR ecoregion. pilot experiences. monitoring of the . mangrove ecosystem. 5. Strategic line: Research, management and transfer of knowledge. Objecve: Establish a system of knowledge management, monitoring and surveilance of the mangrove ecosystem that feeds the 46 decision-making process of stakeholders in the MAR ecoregion. Expected outcome: The MAR ecoregion has a monitoring and surveilance system for mangrove ecosystem that feeds strategic informaon to key stakeholders for decision-making and improving the ecosystem’s management. Strategy Acons Indicators Relevant Strategic Esmated Cost Stakeholders Partners US$ 5.4.2. Exchange of experiences Number of exchanges of Government 200,000 using virtual plaorms and/or experiences. Municipalies “social networks”, such as the Community Regional Environmental Number of parcipants. members Observatory (REO-CCAD), Red NGOs Manglares y Pastos Marinos de Mesoamérica, Redmanglar Internacional para la Defensa de los Ecosistemas Marino-Costeros y la Vida Comunitaria (RMI), among others. 5.5.1. Map the mangrove Map of the current mangrove Governments 400,000 cover using the same cover for the MAR region. CCAD methodology in the four Regional countries. technical-scienfic mangrove commiee. Official map of mangrove 5.5.2. Officialy establish the cover for the MAR. Government 150,000 current mangrove cover of the CCAD 5.5 Measure current MAR region recognized by the Academia mangrove cover in the authories. (Baseline of official MAR ecoregion. Internaonal cover for the MAR). cooperaon Fundaons Private sector Universies 5.5.3. Develop the regional Percentage of annual change Governments Environmental funds 60,000 monitoring system of the of forest cover. Mangrove experts NGOs annual rate of change in forest cover. 6. Strategic line: Core components that enable the implementaon of the strategy in the MAR ecoregion. Objecve: Ensure financial resources for implementaon of the strategy, with instruments that promote equality and mulculturality in the 47 MAR ecoregion. Expected outcome: Instruments of equality, mulculturality and financial sustainability are applied in the implementaon of strategy acons. Strategy Acons Indicators Relevant Strategic Esmated Stakeholders Partners US$ 6.1 Outline an 6.1.1. Prepare a porolio of Porolio of potenal donors. Governments 150,000 acon plan for the donors and of project profiles. For Municipalies financial example: Number of submied Academia sustainability of the profiles/proposals for the strategy. • Forum with donors and partners for implementaon of the strategic Community implementaon of the strategy; members • Proposal to the Green Climate Fund lines of the strategy. NGOs to fund projects for the Private sector implementaon of the strategy’s Funds raised for the strategy. acon plan; CCAD • Green Development Fund for the SICA Region, program related to investments aimed at the restoraon of forest landscape. 6.2 Ensure the 6.2.1. Link gender and youth to Number of women and youths Governments incorporaon of Mullateral 50,000 al strategic lines and promote effecvely involved in the Municipalies gender and youth in their involvement in mangrove implementaon of strategies and Cooperaon Community the implementaon management in the MAR acvies of the strategy. organizaons members of the strategy. Research ecoregion. (parcularly women organizaons and youth), NGOs CCAD Academia Number of mechanisms of 6.3 Incorporate a parcipaon and inclusion of 6.3.1. Incorporate the world view indigenous peoples and local 100,000 mulculturality of indigenous peoples and local communies promoted by the Governments approach in the communies of the MAR strategy. Municipalies implementaon of ecoregion in al the acons within NGOs the strategy. the strategy framework. Number of field intervenons in Academia which indigenous peoples and local Indigenous peoples communies take part. Community 6.3.2. Develop guidelines to Number of developed naonal members 100,000 foster inclusion and cultural policy instruments, guidelines and Private sector relevance at regional, naonal and regulaons that include cultural CCAD local levels across different relevance and gender aspects sectors. internaonaly recognized4. 4 Convenons and treaes on CBD, CC, Deserficaon, etc., must be observed, parcularly voluntary guidelines regarding environmental and social safeguards, Convenon 169, UN Declaraon on the Rights of Indigenous and Tribal Peoples, for example. 48 Credit: María José González / MAR Fund 5. Recommendations for the implementation of the strategy. The strategy is an instrument that contains a set of strategies and acons necessary to achieve the goal of conserving, restoring and monitoring the mangrove ecosystem in the MAR ecoregion. The strategy includes processes that involve different melines, as wel as different priority levels of intervenon. In view of the above, in order to implement the strategy in a mely manner, we recommend the folowing polical, strategic, technical, and operaonal aspects: Polical • Promote aliances with different sectors and different stakeholders to generate the 49 instuonal coordinaon that wil provide the adequate condions for the effecve implementaon of the strategy in the MAR ecoregion, taking into consideraon a ridge to reef approach. • Share the strategy at a regional scale with agencies of the Central American Integraon System (SICA) and its specialized secretariats, parcularly through the CCAD, SITCA, CAC, CECC, COMISCA, CEPREDENAC, COMMCA. Involve the focal points of the naonal authories of these secretariats, especialy on the topic of environment and sustainable development. Strategic • Develop agreements at the global, regional, naonal, and local scales to enable the adequate condions for the implementaon of the strategy at different levels of intervenon. • Develop a resource mobilizaon strategy to promote the sustainability of the acons. Technical/Operaonal • Promote the creaon of an Execuve and Intersectoral Regional Commiee (see Acon 4.1.1), with the goal of promong the development of an acon plan with priories that take into consideraon the needs of the ecosystem and coastal communies, available resources –human and financial–, as wel as the interest of states and donors in mangrove conservaon, restoraon and monitoring in the MAR ecoregion. • Create an interim Regional Commiee that defines the role and purpose of this enty, its representavity, that sets priories and develops a plan of acon for the ERCRMM. 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Appendix 1 List Participants Regional Workshop for strategy development Parcipants list: Regional Workshop Development of a Management Strategy, Conservaon, Restoraon Mangrove Monitoring in the Mesoamerican Reef September 18-20, 2019, Guatemala City No. Name Email Country Organizaon Sector 1 Alison Arriola arriola_alison@yahoo.com Belice UNESCO Gob 2 Jennifer Chapman jen@blueventures.org Belice Blue Ventures ONG 3 Fabian Kyne fabian@blueventures.org Belice Blue Ventures ONG 4 Angeline Valenne avalenne@marfund.org Belice MAR Fund ONG 55 5 Azelea Gile dataresearcher@coastalzonebelize.org Belice Coastal Zone management Authority Gob 6 Carianne Johnson cjohnson@caribbeanclimate.bz Belice 5Cs ONG 7 Heidy Waters hwaters@ debelize.org Belice TIDE ONG 8 Myles Philips mphilips@wcs.org Belice WCS ONG 9 Ninon Marnez nmarnez@ub.edu.bz Belice UB Academia 10 Roosevelt Blades unesco.secgen@moe.gov.bz Belice UNESCO Gob 11 Julio Montes de Oca Julio.MONTES@iucn.org Costa Rica UICN ONG 12 Miguel Cifuentes miguel.cifuentes@cae.ac.cr Costa Rica CATIE / Blue Chalenge Academia 13 Ronald McCarthy ronaldmccarthy1862@gmail.com Costa Rica Consultor Academia 14 Alejandra Navarrete anavarrete@oceanfdn.org EEUU The Ocean Foundaon ONG 15 Karen Douthwaite karen.douthwaite@wwfus.org EEUU WWF ONG No. Name Email Country Organizaon Sector 16 Steve Canty cantys@si.edu EEUU Smithsonian Instute Academia 17 Juan Ramón Cortéz jcortez@sica.int El Salvador MAR2R Gob 18 Luis Castelanos luis.castelanos@sica.int El Salvador MAR2R Gob 19 Melany Machado melanymachado@yahoo.com El Salvador Proyecto COSUDE Golfo Resiliente CCADGob 20 José Ricardo Cales jcales@sica.int El Salvador MAR2R Gob 21 Mario Escobedo mescobedo@sica.int El Salvador MAR2R Gob 22 Ana Beatriz Rivas arivas@marfund.org Guatemala MAR Fund ONG 23 Anabela Barrios anabela_barrios@yahoo.com Guatemala CALAS ONG 24 Anaité López silvia.lopez@inab.gob.gt Guatemala INAB Gob 25 Blanca Rosa García blanca.garcia@iucn.org Guatemala UICN ONG 26 Carlos Godoy carlos.godoy@conap.gob.gt Guatemala CONAP Gob 27 Carlos Rodriguez Olivet crodriguez@marfund.org Guatemala MAR Fund ONG 28 Claudio González cgonzalez@marfund.org Guatemala MAR Fund ONG 29 Dámaris Eguizabal deguizabal@marfund.org Guatemala MAR Fund ONG 30 Dolores Cabnal lola@aktenamit.org Guatemala Asociación Ak-tenamit PI 31 Dr. Michael Grewe wz-1@guat.auswaerges-amt.de Guatemala Embajada Alemania Donante 56 32 Emilio Pitán e.pitan@fundaeco.org.gt Guatemala Asociación Amantes de la Tierra ONG 33 Guilermo Gálvez g.galvez@fundaeco.org.gt Guatemala FUNDAECO ONG 34 Ing. Erick Alvarado erik.alvarado@conap.gob.gt Guatemala CONAP Gob 35 Jorge Ordoñez jordonez@fcg.org.gt Guatemala FCG ONG 36 Jorge Ruiz jorge.ruiz@wetlands.org Guatemala Wetlands Internaonal ONG 37 José Ismael Ordóñez ismael.ordonez@wetlands.org Guatemala Wetlands Internaonal ONG 38 Joseph Chirix joechirix@gmail.com Guatemala Asociación Sotzil PI 39 Juan Cusanero jucel.7@gmail.com Guatemala Asociación Sotzil PI 40 Juan José Chiriz juanjo1320@gmail.com Guatemala Asociación Sotzil PI 41 Lucy Calderón lcalderon@marfund.org Guatemala MAR Fund ONG 42 Luisa Fernández lmfernandez@marn.gob.gt Guatemala MARN Gob 43 Manuel Lorenzana manuel.lorenzana@kfw.de Guatemala KfW Donante 44 Marco Cerezo m.cerezo@fundaeco.org.gt Guatemala FUNDAECO ONG No. Name Email Country Organizaon Sector 45 María José González mjgonzalez@marfund.org Guatemala MAR Fund ONG 46 Melany Ramírez mlramirez@uvg.edu.gt Guatemala UVG Academia 47 Mónica Morales administracion@ada2.org Guatemala ADA2 ONG 48 Néstor Windevoxhel nwindevoxhel@gmail.com Guatemala Consultor Academia 49 Olga Centeno ocentenog@gmail.com Guatemala Consultor Facilitadora 50 Patricia Cabrera pcabrera@marfund.org Guatemala MAR Fund ONG 51 Pedro Julio García pjuliogarcia@gmail.com Guatemala USAC-CEMA Academia 52 Pilar Velásquez pvelasquez@wwfca.org Guatemala WWF ONG 53 Samuel Coloma samuel.coloma@conap.gob.gt Guatemala CONAP Gob 54 Sonia Solís ssolis@wwfca.org Guatemala WWF ONG 55 Úrsula Parrila ursula.parrila@iucn.org Guatemala UICN ONG 56 Yvonne Ramírez yramirez@fcg.org.gt Guatemala FCG ONG 57 Aldo Flores Marín aldo.floresmarin@yahoo.com Honduras MiAmbiente Gob 58 Arlene Rodriguez arlene.rodriguez@unah.edu.hn Honduras CURLA-UNAH Academia 59 Belkis Ramírez proteconroatan@bicahn.org Honduras BICA Roatán ONG 60 Claudia Guerrero claudia@estudiosmarinos.org Honduras CEM ONG 61 Domingo Alvarez nelygc_80@yahoo.es Honduras CONPAH PI 57 62 Elsser Brown Evans elsser_brown@yahoo.com.mx Honduras MOPAWI PI 63 Gustavo Cabrera gustavocm67@gmail.com Honduras CCO ONG 64 Ian Drysdale drysdale@healthyreefs.org Honduras HRI ONG 65 Skarleth Pineda spineda85miambiente@gmail.com Honduras MiAmbiente Gob 66 Ileana Lopez ileana.lopez@un.org Jamaica UN Environment ONG 67 Nicole Brown nicolebrown@canari.org Jamaica CANARI ONG 68 Alejandra Serrano ale@elaw.org México Casa Wayúu/ELAW ONG 69 Chrisan Alva Basurto chrisan.alva@conanp.gob.mx México CONANP Gob 70 Claudia Teutli teutliclaudia@gmail.com México UNAM Academia 71 Jorge Herrera jorge.herrera@cinvestav.mx México CINVESTAV Academia 72 Laura Abril Eloisa Valencia lar_abril@hotmail.com México Asociación Sembrada Semila Sagrada PI Lara Credit: Claudio González / MAR Fund