Inua : Spirit world of the Bering Sea Eskimo : [exhibition catalog]

1. Inua : Spirit world of the Bering Sea Eskimo : [exhibition catalog]

Inua : Spirit world of the Bering Sea Eskimo : [exhibition catalog]

Fitzhugh, William W., 1943-

Kaplan, Susan A., 1951-

Weber, Meredith Anne

National Museum of Natural History (U.S.)

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Spirit World ofthe Bering Sea Eskimo

William W. Fitzhugh and Susan A. KaplanExhibition Curators

From the Edward W. Nelson Collection ofthe National Museum of Natural History/National Museum of Man

Smithsonian Institution

t was the time when there were no people oti^, ^.the earth. For four days the first man lay coiled lip—------

in the pod of a beach pea. On the fifth, he burstforth, falling to the ground, and stood up, a full-grown man. Feeling unpleasant, he stooped anddrank from a pool of water, then felt better. Look-ing up, he saw a dark object approaching with awaving motion until it stopped just in front ofhim. It was a raven. Raven stared intently atman, raised one wing, and pushed up his beak,like a mask, to the top of his head, and changedimmediately into a man. Still staring and cockinghis head from side to side for a better view. Ravensaid at last: "What are youl Whence did youcomel I have never seen the likes of you." AndRaven looked at man, surprised to see that thisstranger was so much like himself in shape.

Bering Sea Eskimo creation myth(Adapted from E.W. Nelson 1899)

^^''I^^ Smithsonian^ 3 InstitutionX^^j^' Libraries

Gift from

the Library of

JOHN C. EWERS

Funding support for the publication of this booklet was provided by Sohio Alaska Petroleum CompanyCirculated by the Smithsonian Institution Traveling Exhibition Servicee 1983 Smithsonian Institution

It was the time when there were no people athe earth. For four days the first man lay coiled upin the pod of a beach pea. On the fifth, he burstforth, falling to the ground, and stood up, a full-grown man. Feeling unpleasant, he stooped anddrank from a pool of water, then felt better. Look-ing up, he saw a dark object approaching with awaving motion until it stopped just in front ofhim. It was a raven. Raven stared intently atman, raised one wing, and pushed up his beak,like a mask, to the top of his head, and changedimmediately into a man. Still staring and cockinghis head from side to side for a better view. Ravensaid at last: "What are youf Whence did youcorned 1 have never seen the likes of you." AndRaven looked at man, surprised to see that thisstranger was so much like himself in shape.

Bering Sea Eskimo creation myth(Adapted from E.W. Nelson 1899)

ATHAPASKAN

Norton SounJ

^' GambelL, _/ /( Savoonga

„Kukulik

ST. LAWRENCEESKIMO

VillageTrading posl

C, Romu.

Kigiktavik/StnOlichael

•Pikmiktalik

^Pastolik

, Andreievskjfj* / / ^^^^

\ <^ Vi—^Rgfsi/oinskyPaimut •}

Starikwikhpak vi:©'^ ^^^k fJr

J(kogmut

INDIAN

KolmakofRedoubt

Kwigalogumut

Askinuk

Kaialigamut'Unakagamut

Ukogamul^

//.ire;

Tanunaky

r)p Big Lake

o

Kinugumut

YUPIKESKIMO

^Agiukchugumut^!^Stugunugumut

Anogogmuf

Chajit^mul

•^onigunugoqnut

Kxiskokwim Bay

Adopting the Eskimo way of life, Nelson traveled nearly5,000 miles on foot, by dog sled, and by kayak during hisfour years in the North. Always observant, Nelson was apioneering arctic specialist whose contributions to Es-kimo studies are all the more remarkable because he wasan ornithologist, not an anthropologist.

L

nua: Spirit World of the Bering Sea Eskimo presents aview of 19th century Bering Sea Eskimo life, its prehistoric roots, andits modern legacy. In a hostile environment the Bering Sea Eskimo hasnot only survived with ingenuity, but over the centuries created aculture unique in its rich artistic and spiritual traditions.

Most of the finely crafted hunting implements, domestic utensils, anceremonial objects in this exhibition were collected by Edward W.Nelson, a young naturalist sent to the Alaskan frontier in 1877 togather weather information for the U.S. Army Signal Service, and tocollect specimens and record observations about this unexplored areafor the Smithsonian Institution. While stationed at St. Michael, Nelsontraveled extensively in the unmapped territory along the Bering Seacoast and in the interior of the Yukon-Kuskokwim region. During hisfour-year stay he made observations not only on natural history, but onthe customs and life of the Eskimos of western Alaska. His collections,photographs, and notes describe Bering Sea Eskimo culture at a timewhen it had been little affected by contact with American whalers andtraders, and prior to the rapid cultural changes brought on by goldrushes and the spread of Christianity in the region at the end of the19th century.

This photograph shows one of Nelson's field camps, hisbidarka (three-holed kayak), and his Eskimo companionsreturning from a successful goose hunt. In addition to hisEskimo research. Nelson collected mammals, birds, fish,and insects, and wrote important scientific works onAlaskan natural history.

swan feathers and a hoop representing the stars andheavens, a potentially malevolent tunghak is shown withhis fearsome toothy mouth and his pierced, thumblesshands. The latter signified the spirit's willingness, ifproperly entreated, to release animal spirits from the skyworld so that they might be available to man on earth.

4

The Land, the People, the Spirits

The land that Nelson explored was varied and rich in plant andanimal resources. Unlike the regions of rugged arctic terrain to thenorth, the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta on the Bering Sea was a vast, wetlowland tundra dotted with lakes, ponds, and bogs. This expanse wasbroken by rolling hills, dramatic mountain ranges, and small volcanoes.It was a land of continual change, seasonally and from year to year,with variations in temperature and precipitation, and occasional violentstorms. Here, within an area of only 3,000 square miles, lived 7,000people—nearly a quarter of the Eskimo population of the world.

Today the Bering Sea Eskimo population numbers nearly 20,000. Yetdespite their large population and their remarkable technological andartistic achievements, the Bering Sea Eskimos remain, a century afterNelson's pioneering fieldwork, one of the least known Eskimo cultures

The connection between a caribou and its spirit or inuais shown in this illustration from the inside of a foodbowl. Spiritual links in Bering Sea Eskimo art frequentlyarc made at the throat, the beginning of the animal's"lifeline." In myths and stories spirit connections andmovements are described as thin trails of fog.

The tunghat, spirit-controllers of all animals, were be-lieved to dwell in the moon. Seen here surrounded byswan feathers and a hoop representing the stars andheavens, a potentially malevolent tungbak is shown withhis fearsome toothy mouth and his pierced, thumblesshands. The latter signified the spirit's willingness, ifproperly entreated, to release animal spirits from the skyworld so that they might be available to man on earth.

The Land, the People, the Spirits

The land that Nelson explored was varied and rich in plant andanimal resources. Unlike the regions of rugged arctic terrain to thenorth, the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta on the Bering Sea was a vast, wetlowland tundra dotted with lakes, ponds, and bogs. This expanse wasbroken by rolling hills, dramatic mountain ranges, and small volcanoes.It was a land of continual change, seasonally and from year to year,with variations in temperature and precipitation, and occasional violentstorms. Here, within an area of only 3,000 square miles, lived 7,000people—nearly a quarter of the Eskimo population of the world.

Today the Bering Sea Eskimo population numbers nearly 20,000. Yetdespite their large population and their remarkable technological andartistic achievements, the Bering Sea Eskimos remain, a century afterNelson's pioneering fieldwork, one of the least known Eskimo cultures

The connection between a caribou and its spirit or muais shown in this illustration from the inside of a foodbowl. Spiritual links in Bering Sea Eskimo art frequentlyare made at the throat, the beginning of the animal's

"lifeline." In myths and stories spirit connections and gmovements are described as thin trails of fog.

in the world. It is the purpose of this exhibition and its accompanyingpublications to portray Bering Sea Eskimo life and culture as it existedin the latter part of the 19th century through Edward Nelson's collec-tion of artifacts and his ethnography.

The people Nelson encountered differed fundamentally in language,culture, and physical attributes from more familiar Eskimos living innortherly climes. Because of the variety and abundance of resourcesavailable to them, Bering Sea Eskimos were able to occupy large, perma-nent settlements along the coast and rivers and on offshore islands.Land and sea mammals, fish, birds and bird eggs, plants, and assortedmarine life sustained them.

The Bering Sea Eskimo world was also alive with spirits and superna-tural forces. The Eskimos believed that every living creature possessed aspirit, or inua, that could take on a variety of physical forms and couldinitiate actions independent of its host. Originally, according to mythol-ogy, the inuas of animals and men had human forms. Through time,however, animals and men found it difficult to interchange physical andinua forms at will. This ability was retained by religious leaders, knownas shamans, and certain animals with especially powerful spirits.Nevertheless, the inuas remained an active force in natural events andin men's lives, and it was not unusual for a hunter to imagine he hadhad a fleeting impression of an inua, seen as a small, semi-human faceon the breast of a bird or in the eye or fur of an animal. The concept ofinua is so central to Bering Sea Eskimo life that it is featured in oneversion of their creation myth, told to Edward Nelson at St. Michael.

Above: This dance mask represents the mua oi the bearby a face within a mask.

Opposite: These Bering Strait men, women, and childrenwere photographed by Nelson in 1881. Lip labrets andtusk-shaped patterns on the men's parkas give the men awalrus-like appearance.

Among the Animals

-4 y^.^

The Bering Sea Eskimo hunter's weapons and techniques reflected hisconcern with the spirit world. He beheved that man hved among theanimals, and that his physical and spiritual well-being depended on therespect he showed his prey and their spirits, or inuas. The huntertherefore took care not to offend the inuas or the powerful tunghat, thespirit-keepers of game animals. The hunter's ability to capture animalsdepended not only on his knowledge of hunting lore but also on thedesign and craftsmanship of his weapons. The inuas were believed toappreciate the beauty of well-made implements and allowed animals tobe captured by them. The more beautiful the hunter's weapons were,the more successful he was likely to be. The hunter could also trickanimals or subdue them by enlisting spiritual aid. He made his weaponsfrom materials familiar and comforting to his prey, and he called onspirit-helpers by decorating his hunting equipment with images of his

Nunivak Island kayaks were made with a cockpit largeenough to hold both the paddler and a passenger, who satfacing the stern. The kayak is equipped with its paddle,float tray, harpoon line and sealskin float. A charm im-age depicting the mythical alligator-like pahaiyukpainted on the side of the boat protects its occupant fromattack by this dangerous beast.

Men believed that their use of beautiful tools and weap-ons pleased the inuas and made game more abundantand easier to catch. The spirit of a friendly predator—perhaps a wolf—adorns this harpoon socketpiecc; andsealskin float plugs show faces of the short-eared owl, aninua or tunghak face, and a smiling male-female imagedisplays the conventional "man-in-the-moon."

quarry's natural predators. This imparted the predator's strength, power,or swiftness to the hunter or his weapons. He could then approach theanimal and kill it. Hunters also used amulets to protect themselvesfrom malevolent spirits and dangerous beasts like the palraiyuk, analligator-like monster known to attack hunters in their boats. To wardoff its assault and insure a successful hunt, images of this creature werepainted on the sides of one's kayak or umiak and were used as emblemson hunting hat ornaments and harpoons. Other alluring charms andprotective amulets, including carved and painted plaques depicting thestylized faces of man and woman, were placed in the boat or on thebody of the hunter.

Fish and waterfowl were the primary foods of Eskimos inhabiting therivers and interior lakes, although they also captured land game such ascaribou, grizzly and black bears, wolves, foxes, and other animals withthick fur, which were used for clothing, ornamentation, and trade.Coastal people hunted seals, walrus, and small whales, and caught seabirds and fish. Both groups exchanged resources with each other and

Among the Animals

The Bering Sea Eskimo hunter's weapons and techniques reflected hisconcern with the spirit world. He beheved that man lived among theanimals, and that his physical and spiritual well-being depended on therespect he showed his prey and their spirits, or inuas. The huntertherefore took care not to offend the inuas or the powerful tunghat, thespirit-keepers of game animals. The hunter's ability to capture animalsdepended not only on his knowledge of hunting lore but also on thedesign and craftsmanship of his weapons. The inuas were believed toappreciate the beauty of well-made implements and allowed animals tobe captured by them. The more beautiful the hunter's weapons were,the more successful he was likely to be. The hunter could also trickanimals or subdue them by enlisting spiritual aid. He made his weaponsfrom materials familiar and comforting to his prey, and he called onspirit-helpers by decorating his hunting equipment with images of his

Nunivak Island kayaks were made with a cockpit largeenough to hold both the paddler and a passenger, who satfacing the stem. The kayak is equipped with its paddle,float tray, harpoon line and sealskin float, A charm im-age depicting the mythical alligalor-like paliaiyukpainted on the side of the boat protects its occupant fromattack by this dangerous beast.

Men believed that their use of beautiful tools and weap-ons pleased the inuas and made game more abundantand easier to catch. The spirit of a friendly predator—perhaps a wolf—adorns this harpoon socketpiece, andsealskin float plugs show faces of the short-eared owl, aninua or tunghak face, and a smiling male-female imagedisplays the conventional "man-in-the-raoon."

quarry's natural predators. This imparted the predator's strength, power,or swiftness to the hunter or his weapons. He could then approach theanimal and kill it. Hunters also used amulets to protect themselvesfrom malevolent spirits and dangerous beasts like the paliaiyuk, analligator-like monster known to attack hunters in their boats. To wardoff its assault and insure a successful hunt, images of this creature werepainted on the sides of one's kayak or umiak and were used as emblemson hunting hat ornaments and harpoons. Other alluring charms andprotective amulets, including carved and painted plaques depicting thestylized faces of man and woman, were placed in the boat or on thebody of the hunter.

Fish and waterfowl were the primary foods of Eskimos inhabiting therivers and interior lakes, although they also captured land game such ascaribou, grizzly and black bears, wolves, foxes, and other animals withthick fur, which were used for clothing, ornamentation, and trade.Coastal people hunted seals, walrus, and small whales, and caught seabirds and fish. Both groups exchanged resources with each other and

with neighboring Indians, Aleuts, Siberians, and European traders, toobtain materials not available at home.

Bering Sea Eskimo economy and lifestyle were strongly influenced byseasonal changes in both animal populations and the landscape. Thewelcome arrival of migratory birds and fish in the spring signaled theend of the long winter. During spring and summer coastal Eskimos

tended herring nets while interior people used nets, spears, and traps tocapture salmon and whitefish from rivers and lakes. Eskimos huntedwith bow and arrows, nets, snares, and spears, and captured moultingbirds in large numbers in communal drives involving many boats andhunters. Even the eggs of ducks, geese, swans, and other waterfowl weregathered for food. Much of this food was not eaten immediately but wasdried or placed in storage pits in the ground for use during wintermonths. A wide assortment of edible plants were also gathered, amongthem the roots of the cotton grass plant, looted from hidden cachesmade by mice. Fruits of various sorts were used to make treats likeagoutak, a delicacy composed of berries mashed with fish liver and sealoil.

With the coming of winter Eskimos put their kayaks aside andadopted hunting strategies and equipment tailored over the course ofthousands of years for survival in a frozen land. Using dog sleds andsnowshoes Eskimos crossed the frozen seas, lakes, and marshes, trap-ping land mammals and fish, and searching for life beneath the ice forsustenance.

Seals were a major source of food during the winter months, and assoon as the ice was firm enough to cross, hunters set forth with theirdogs, sleds, and harpoons to search for seal breathing holes. Once a holewas located, a hunter placed a long piece of straw through the hole'ssnow-covered dome into the cavity below. When a seal approached thehole, his presence was signaled first by the sound of exhaled air bub-bling into the breathing hole. When the straw began to rise the hunterknew the seal's head was in position for a harpoon blow. After strikingthe seal, which usually killed it immediately, the hunter enlarged thehole, hauled the seal onto the ice, and prepared to take it home usinghis ivory drag handle.

\

In addition to using beautiful tools, hunters influencedanimal spirits by honoring them in dances and ceremo-nies in which colorful and imaginative masks were worn.This maskette represents a seal rising into its breathinghole, exhaling bubbles as it approaches the surface.

11

Magic to comfort a watchful seal while the huntercrawled toward it over the ice is seen in this elegant icescratcher made with real seal claws. An ivory seal in itsbreathing hole serves as a lug for fastening the lashings.

A different hunting method was used in the spring when seals baskedin the warm sun on the ice beside their holes. Crawling over the ice^ ahunter would approach a seal while it napped, hiding behind his largewhite dogskin mittens when the seal woke to look around for signs ofdanger. At this time the hunter took out his ice scratcher, an imple-ment made in the form of a seal's flipper with real seal claws, andimitated the sound of a seal scratching at his hole. Reassured, the sealcontinued its nap, allowing the hunter to approach within strikingrange with his harpoon. Seals were also captured by hunters in large-mesh nets set below the surface of the ice or in open water.

Although winter was not a very productive hunting season, sledtransportation and the availability of food stored from the summermade early winter a time of socializing and festivity. A number ofmajor religious festivals were held during this season. Neighboring vil-lages were invited to these week-long events which included story-telling, religious ceremonies, and sports competitions. Such festivalsoften led to competition between villages and served to stimulateartistic and ceremonial development.

Later, winter was frequently a time of hardship, for stored foods wereoften depleted and people were forced to survive by catching small fishand small game. But as the ice began to soften in spring, whitefishmoved up the rivers, and seals and walrus were hunted by kayak at theedge of the ice. People began to prepare for harvesting the northwardrush of animals moving into the arctic by repairing tools and clothing.

bends out of arrowshafts by inserting them through thehole in the center of the implement and bending. Theuse of caribou imagery pleased the inuas and impartedspecial powers to the caribou hunter's weapons.

This dance mask shows the inua of the caribou in thecenter (its antlers are missing) with its semi-human inuabelow and a smiling human face above. Caribou, whichdisappeared from the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta beforeNelson's arrival, were important for clothing, tool mate-rials, sinew, and food. Bering Sea people had to obtainthese products by trade, and with ritual and ceremonytried to convince the tunghak to permit the caribou toreturn.

Village Life: .Around the Hearth

One hundred fifty Eskimos lived nearly year-round in thevillage of Rasboinsky, a salmon-fishing location on thebanks of the lower Yukon River one hundred miles fromthe Bering Sea coast. During Nelson's visit its peoplewere living in snow-covered earthen houses seen in theforeground. Storage sheds, sleds, and above-ground sum-mer houses made of planks from driftwood are seen inthe rear.

Bering Sea Eskimo villages consisted of semi-subterranean sod andwood houses; qasgiq, or men's houses; storage sheds; and a cemetery.Family life centered around the hearths of individual households wherewomen tended to domestic activities—cooking, sewing, and caring forchildren.

Women spent many hours each day preparing animal materials forfood and clothing. Cooking utensils such as bowls, ladles, and kniveswere made by men and were decorated with artistic designs represent-ing hunting scenes, spiritual or mythological creatures, totemic images,and abstract designs. An extension of hunting magic and religiousexpression, these pictures constantly reminded people of the powers ofspirits and the need to be respectful in one's thoughts of and actionstoward the inuas and the traditions of one's culture. In a literal sensethese ideas were "ingested" on a daily basis, reinforcing the link be-tween men and the spiritual world in which they lived.

One of a woman's most important roles was that of seamstress, sincewell-made, tailored garments were essential for survival. Clothing hadto be light and durable, warm enough to withstand winter gales, yet notso warm that a hunter's exertions resulted in condensation which couldcause him to freeze. To make appropriate clothing for a given season oractivity, women had to know the properties of different kinds of animal

Eskimo craftsmen turned driftwood into elegant foodcontamers. This serving bowl is decorated with maskedhuman effigy handles and is illustrated with a mytholog-ical creature on its interior. Meals were served withdecorated spoons and ladles in such containers, whichwere similar to vessels used by Northwest Coast Indians.In constant use, such utensils reminded people of theirstories and traditions as they went about their dailylives.

Even fish skin had a practical use. In addition to beinglight, waterproof, and tough, it was easily made intomittens, parkas, boots, and elegant clothing bags.

15

Great care was taken in the making of this fancy wom-an's frock or parka. Perhaps made by a mother on theoccasion of her daughter's wedding, it includes wolf,wolverine, ground squirrel, and imported white Siberianreindeer furs stitched with detailed embroidery and in-corporates the U-shaped skirt indicative of female dress.

skins and how to prepare them, just as men had to understand thehabits of the animals to be successful hunters. Women also had toknow how to clean and tan the skins, and how to size, cut, and sew allkinds of garments with special seams and features, from boots to furcaps.

Women living on the sea coast specialized in making light waterproofsummer rain gear from the intestines of seals. These they slit length-wise and sewed into strips with an interlocking seam through which noneedle penetrated fully, adorning the seams with bits of cormorantfeather and red wool. Inland women made waterproof garments fromsalmon or whitefish skins, which were quite serviceable althoughcoastal people considered this attire boorish. Winter parkas were madeby stitching duck or goose skins together, feather side out, making theirowners appear as giant birds. More common were muskrat, groundsquirrel, and caribou fur parkas, which were embellished with stripes ofmulti-colored fur and often bore an applique of bleached skin andcaribou hair embroidery. Collars and hoods were fitted with wolverineor wolf fur borders whose long slender hairs resisted the frost created bybreathing. The white fur of the domestic Siberian reindeer was preferredfor contrasting trim work. This material was greatly desired by BeringSea Eskimo traders whose wives fitted it into wedge-shaped gores de-scending from the shoulders, giving the wearer a walrus-like appear-ance. Men did not contribute directly to making garments, althoughthey procured and sometimes assisted in curing the skins and mademost of the women's sewing implements. These tools, which includedbird bone needles, ivory boot creasers, awls, spools for caribou sinewthread, and thimbles, were among a woman's most prized possessionsand often lasted her entire life. They were used daily, and becamehighly polished through the years. Before presenting them to theirwives, the Bering Sea Eskimo men decorated the implements withgeometric designs; Eskimos from Bering Strait and North Alaska carvedtheir needlecases into abstract designs of whales, polar bears, and seals.Mythological characters and symbolic religious designs were also used.

A woman's sewing tools were stored together with sinew thread, bitsof feathers, and colorful auk bills or bits of colored trade wool, in a bagcalled a "housewife" which was her constant companion. Embroideredwith caribou hair, dyed seal parchment, and trade beads, the bag had atongue-shaped flap which was cut in a female motif also seen onwomen's parka skirts, hair combs, and dance gloves, and on women'sparkas in the Eastern Arctic.

Men fashioned most of the articles of personal adornment worn bythemselves and their wives. These included fancy wear such as polishedstone or ivory labrets which men wore through slits under the cornersof their lower lip. Men's labrets were plug-shaped while women's were

17

Women kept their sewing equipment in pouches called"housewives." Housewives had an embroidered flap,similar in shape to that on the woman's frock, that wasrolled around the pouch and was secured with an ivorybagfastener. This bagfastener shows the conventional im-age of a smiling man with labrets on one side and thefrowning face of a tattooed woman, perhaps his wife, onthe reverse, accompanied by stylized parka ruffs, hoops,nets, collared seals, and hands.

18

These engraved ivory earrings festooned with strings ofglass trade beads were part of the fashionable attire of aproperly dressed Eskimo woman. In addition to beingdecorative, they indicated her status as a person able toown beads and ornaments purchased from European traders

delicate sickle-shaped ornaments to which strands of glass trade beadswere attached. Fashionable people also wore ivory hat ornamentsshaped like seals, belt buckles in the form of seal inuas and beasts,medicinal belts made from the incisors of caribou or crab claws, andearrings bearing the features of birds, seals, or mythological characters.

In addition to skinwork women fashioned baskets, bedding, and evensocks made from dried rye grass, an ever-present commodity in themarshy Yukon-Kuskokwim region. Twined baskets were strong andflexible and could hold as much as one hundred pounds of fish, yet theycould be rolled into an inconspicuous bundle when not in use. Coiledbaskets functioned as rigid, safe containers for personal effects, andwere made from grass, willow, or alder root. Feathers, bits of fur andwool, and even bird toes were woven into baskets to enhance theirappearance.

These household activities were the focus of an Eskimo child's educa-tion. Using miniature versions of adult implements, children imitatedtheir parents' activities acquiring the skills and knowledge they wouldneed as adults. For both education and amusement, adults and childrenplayed games, sang songs, and listened to stories. Fathers often carvedclever wooden toys for their children, and carved decorated ivory dollsand storyknives for their daughters. The storyknife was a girl's specialpossession. Often she saved it through adolescence and eventually gaveit to her own daughter. Girls illustrated tales by drawing in the mud orsnow with their knives.

With the Spirits: Beriii

This mask, with its twisted toothy mouth, its eyesshaped like lunar stages, its dark and light colors, and itsdots and feathers representing the surrounding stars andheavens, depicts a satiated tunghak festooned with hu-man appendages and a blood-spattered mouth. Thoughtto dwell in the moon, where shamans came to entreatthe deity on behalf of their villages, the tunghat wereoften given physical and symbolic features of this celes-tial body which was important in Bering Sea Eskimocosmology.

The most prominent structure in the village was the qasgiq, or men'shouse. Larger than the surrounding houses, this rectangular, earth-cov-ered log structure with its high, pyramidal roof, was the center of BeringSea Eskimo social, religious, and ceremonial life. This served as theprincipal dwelling and workplace for the village men, who congregatedhere to make weapons, tools, utensils, containers, and children's toys.Experts in woodworking and ivory carving, the men also instructedyouths in these crafts and in hunting lore, religious beliefs, and mythol-ogy.

The qasgiq featured recreational as well as educational and work-related activities. Men gathered to smoke their pipes, share stories, takesweat baths, and make plans for trade and war. The qasgiq also servedas the site of festivals and social gatherings conducted for the commu-

20

nity and guests from other villages. In preparation for these occasions,men met in secret to carve masks, compose songs, and plan theatricalevents.

Festivals were colorful events of rich social and religious significance,that featured dramatic and symbolic art and performances. Dancing tothe resonant beat of the drums and the singing of the men's chorus,men performed dances to honor the inuas and recounted epic talesabout the exploits of Raven and other religious or mythological beings.These stories were supported by props and elaborate masks in whichreligious symbols, such as pierced hands, hoops, goggles, and lunarimages conveyed the artist's meaning to the public. Inuas and thetunghat, or animal controlling spirits, were the most common subjectsof these performances. At other times, humorous stories about animalsand hunting incidents were portrayed in skits and dance songs by actorswearing animal masks. In these performances the men danced vigor-ously, prancing about and gesticulating. Women's dances were morereserved. Women did not wear masks but swayed their bodies andwaved their hands, which were adorned with dance fans or fingermasks.

Important festivals were held in the qasgiq throughout the year, butespecially in the fall and early winter when food stores could supportthe lavish feasting which accompanied such ceremonies. The shaman,

Snuff, consisting of finely powdered tobacco taken byinhalation through snuff tubes inserted into the nostrils,was stored in decorated boxes. One is made in theform of two seals, perhaps a mother with her baby rest-ing on Its breast. Bird quill collars, glass and ivory beads,incised lifelines, and a hidden image of Raven addedspiritual elements to its elegant design and craftsmanship.

^' //'I ^

)1I

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Unlike men, women did not use face masks. When theydanced they wore small carved and painted maskettes ontheir fingers fixed with flowing ruffs of caribou hair. Thispair features beastly faces of inuas or tunghat whosemouths were set into large toothy grimaces.

the intermediary between the people and the many spirits that popu-lated the Bering Sea Eskimo world, planned and prepared for thesefestivals.

The annual, week-long celebration of the Bladder Festival honored theinuas of sea mammals killed during the previous year. The bladders ofthese animals, which held their inuas, were inflated and hung from theqasgiq roof and walls. At the end of the festival, the bladders wereritually removed, punctured, and returned to the sea through a hole inthe ice. The inuas thus freed entered the bodies of unborn seals andother sea mammals, replenishing the supply of animals available toman.

Mythology

Symbolism extended beyond religious activities into the realm ofartifacts used in everyday life. Men's tool boxes were frequently illus-trated with scenes featuring hunting magic, sled and kayak travel,contacts with Europeans, and a man's private family life. Found under-neath the lids of these tool boxes, where they were to be seen only by aman or his male associates, these paintings appear to represent hisprivate fantasies and inner feelings.

This type of depiction can be contrasted with the more formal, publicart seen on serving bowls, ladles, and other artifacts. The image of thekogukhpuk on a serving bowl recalls the belief in a huge mammoth-likecreature that once roamed the earth threatening man. These creatureswere reputedly driven underground by a powerful shaman, but return to

Myth was an active force in shaping behefs and tradi-tions. This food bowl displays the kogukhpuk. a creaturewhose features resemble the prehistoric mammoths thatonce roamed the Bering Sea region. The bowl has a two-piece bent-wood rim with stone insets and encirclinggrooves. Its interior bands are similar to the hoops andfeathers on masks and provide a cosmological frameworkfor the mammoth's spirit which resides in the animal'slifeline and skeleton.

the surface one night each year to wander and feed. Underground, theyburrow about from place to place, and should they accidentally breakthrough to the surface and breathe air, they instantly die. The tusks andbones found by Eskimos eroding out of frozen river banks and coastlinesare taken as evidence of the truth of the tale.

In addition to their strong mythology, Bering Sea Eskimos, acute intheir own observations of nature as demonstrated in the foregoing story,had their own scientific explanations for events and phenomena. Some-times, these "secular" stories conflicted with religious versions like theRaven myths, as shown in the following account of the origins of landand people.

Origins of Land and People

In the beginning there was water over all theearth, and it was very cold; the water was coveredwith ice, and there were no people. Then the iceground together, making long ridges and hum-mocks. At this time came a man from the far sideof the great water and stopped on the ice hillsnear where Pikmiktalik now is, taking for his wifea she-wolf. By and by he had many children,which were always born in pairs—a boy and agirl. Each pair spoke a tongue of their own, differ-ent from that of their parents and different fromany spoken by their brothers and sisters.

As soon as they were large enough each pairwas sent out in a different direction from theothers, and thus the family spread far and nearfrom the ice hills, which now became snow-cov-ered mountains. As the snow melted it ran downthe hillsides, scooping out ravines and river beds,and so making the earth with its streams.

The twins peopled the earth with their children,and as each pair with their children spoke a lan-guage different from the others, the varioustongues found on the earth were established andcontinue until this day.

(Nelson 1899:482)

while Nelson was visiting a qasgiq on Sledge Island twolittle girls approached, set their dolls up in a semicirclefacing him, and then took positions behind the dollswhere all could get a good look at the stranger. The dollsshown here—men on the left and women on the right—are made without projecting arms so their suits of cloth-ing could be slipped on and off easily. The Kuskokwimcouple shown wear the traditional garb of their regionexcept for the man's hat, which is a Russian introduction.

Another myth which is frequently told and which is often found illus-trated on artifacts, is an epic tale of heroism, here paraphrased fromNelson's recorded version:

The Last of the Thunderbirds

A myth from the lower Yukon River region

Long ago, there were many giant eagles, or Thunderbirds, but allof them had disappeared except for one pair that nested in avolcano high above a Yukon River village. From there theypreyed upon caribou and people, carrying them off to feed totheir young.

One day while a brave young hunter was away tending hisfishnets, a Thunderbird carried off his wife as she fetched waterfrom the river. Returning home, the hunter learned of her fate.Fearful but with grim resolve, he gathered his hunting arrowsand climbed to the Thunderbirds' nest. There he was met by theshrill cries and fiery, shining eyes of the pair's young. Withvengeance in his heart, he loosed arrow after arrow into the nestuntil all the young birds lay dead.

He did not have to wait long for the adult Thunderbirds toreturn. Upon seeing her young dead, the mother bird utteredcries of rage and swooped down upon the hunter, her wingsbeating like a gale in a forest. As she dived toward him, thehunter fitted an arrow to his bow and sent it deep into herthroat. Giving a hoarse cry, she turned and flew off to the north,far beyond the hills.

Then the father bird circled and came roaring down. At thelast instant, the hunter crouched behind a large stone, and theeagle's claws struck only rock. As the giant bird rose to strikeagain, the hunter sprang from his shelter and, with all of hisstrength, drove two heavy war arrows deep under the bird's greatwing. Crying with rage and spreading his wings, the father birdfloated away like a cloud in the sky into the northland, and theThunderbirds were never seen again.

26

This man's tool box in the form of a black seal with ared encircling groove, skeletal line, and a ferociousmouth, has a complex narrative painted on the inside ofits lid. The figures tell the story of the mythical thunder-bird, which is seen carrying off a man and his kayak, awhite whale, and a caribou, while other caribou flee.Other scenes portray magical subjects. One man pursuesa harpooned whalc; another is connected to a "spiri-tized" wolf; and a third, wearing European dress, carriesa kettle and a bag (gold?). The fourth figure is a pregnantwoman.

27

Past and Present

This print by Eskimo artist (oe Senungetuk is titled"Emergence of Resource." In the work the artist con-trasts the presence of new technology in the form of anoil derrick and its drill with a small image of the old wayof life.

Nineteenth century Bering Sea Eskimos were part of a cultural con-tinuum dating back thousands of years. Although this ancestry cannotbe demonstrated into remote antiquity, a quiver stiffener decorated witha palraiyuk-hke beast collected by Nelson from the lower KuskokwimRiver region suggests that Eskimos using animal imagery and huntingmagic have lived continuously in this area for at least 2,000 years.Similarities in the styles of 19th century Bering Sea carvings with thoseof the ancient Old Bering Sea cultures in Bering Strait are also evident.However, until more work is done along the Bering Sea coast, which ispoorly known archeologically, the roots of the Bering Sea Eskimos andtheir relationships with other prehistoric peoples of western Alaska andSiberia will remain uncertain.

Today's Eskimo artists reflect both the deeply-rooted traditions oftheir native culture and of Western civilization. Contemporary artistswork in both traditional and new mediums, sometimes blending tradi-tional styles, materials, and ideas with concepts derived from moderninternational art and political events. Their art includes reinterpretationof age-old styles stimulated by 19th century artifacts and religiousconcepts such as those recorded by Nelson, which have long sincedisappeared from living tradition. Their work also includes commentaryon social and political events and conflicts between traditional nativeand modern industrial life, as well as a continuing concern for abstrac-tion, form, and materials. Bridging the two worlds, their work reflectsthe wide range of 20th century Eskimo e^xperiences as Eskimo artistssearch for expression and recognition as Ir^tSj nnt..4s Eskimos.

Today social and economic changes crowd the vastspaces of the Eskimo's ancient homeland. Symbolizmgsocial and spiritual solidarity of all Eskimo people fromSiberia to Greenland, Lawrence Ahvakana's "The Drum-mer" evokes the traditional values of his far-flung peopletogether with their continuing struggle to carry theircultural, social, and increasingly political identity into afuture full of uncertainty and conflicting aspirations.

29

Postscript

Completing his fieldwork for the Smithsonian in 1881, Edward Nel-son, aware that change was soon to come to the isolated people of theBering Sea coast, commented:

I trust . . . that my present notes, with the explanations anddescriptions . . . may serve as a foundation for more successfulstudy of these subjects in the future; the field is now open, butin a few years the customs of this people will be so modifiedthat it will be difficult to obtain reliable data.

No doubt Nelson would have been disappointed at the slow progressmade in anthropological studies of the Bering Sea Eskimos following hisfieldwork. To date few other studies of this important culture have beenmade. However, because of its relative isolation and the large popula-tion of Eskimos living here, most of whom still speak their own lan-guage and retain their oral history and traditional life, it is still possibleto advance the goals set by Edward Nelson one hundred years ago.Nelson's detailed accounts, together with his collection of artifacts,linguistic data, myths, and photographs preserved for study at theSmithsonian's Museum of Natural History/Museum of Man, serves as afirm foundation for these studies. Edward Nelson's private diary fromhis Alaskan fieldwork is not among his papers at the Smithsonian. Asthis important document contains information amplifying his publishedaccounts, the authors would appreciate information leading to its dis-covery.

* * *

This exhibition and publication project, originally stimulated by theHonorable Senator Ted Stevens and his late wife Anne, represents asmall step along the trail blazed by Edward Nelson. It is hoped that thiswork will kindle a new awareness of the past and present culturalresources of a spiritually and artistically rich people and that newstudies will add substantially to existing documentation. In this way,using both old and new materials, we may hope to appreciate andunderstand more about Bering Sea Eskimo culture and in so doing helpinsure the preservation and continuation of its rich heritage.

Additional Reading

Aleut and Eskimo Art: Tradition and Innovation in South Alaskaby Dorothy Jean Ray. Seattle: University of Washington Press,1981.

Ancient Men of the Arctic by J. Louis Giddings. New York: AlfredA. Knopf, 1967.

The Cama-i Book edited by Ann Vick. New York: Anchor Press/Doubleday, 1983.

The Eskimo About Bering Strait by Edward William Nelson. Wash-ington: Smithsonian Institution Bureau of American Ethnology, An-nual Report 18, 1899. (reprinted, Smithsonian Institution Press, 1983)

The Eskimos and Aleuts by Don E. Dumond. London: Thames andHudson, 1977.

The Eskimos of Bering Strait, 1650-1898 by Dorothy Jean Ray.Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1975.

The Far North: 2000 Years of American Eskimo and Indian Art byHenry B. Collins, Frederica de Laguna, Edmund Carpenter, PeterStone. Washington: National Gallery of Art, 1973.

Give or Take a Century: An Eskimo Chronicle by loe Senungetuk.San Francisco: Indian Historian Press, 1971.

Inua: Spirit World of the Bering Sea Eskimo by William W. Fitzhughand Susan A. Kaplan. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press,1982.

Lieutenant Zagoskin's Travels in Russian America, 1842-1844 byLavrentii A. Zagoskin; Penelope Rainey, translator; Henry N.Michael, editor. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1967.

Upik Lore: Oral Traditions of an Eskimo People edited by EdwardTennant and Joseph Bitar. Bethel, Alaska: Lower Kuskokwim SchoolDistrict, 1981.

A draft of this essay text was prepared by Meredith Anne Weber, a graduatestudent in art education at Pennsylvania State University, while conductingan internship with the Office of Research and Professional Training, theNational Museum of American Art. Wendy Bruneau assisted in planning theSITES exhibition while serving as an intern from The George WashingtonUniversity.

Ethnographic photographs were taken by Edward Nelson. All other photo-graphs are by Joel Breger except for those on pages 1 and 32 by HenryCollins, on pages 28 and 29 by Sam Kimura. The map is by Molly Ryan.All materials illustrated are from the collections of the National Museum ofNatural History/Museum of Man, Smithsonian Institution except for"Emergence of Resource" (Anchorage Historical and Fine Arts Museum) and"The Drummer" (Atlantic Richfield Company).

SITES is a program activity of the Smithsonian Institution thatorganizes and circulates exhibitions on art, history, and science toinstitutions in the United States and abroad.

SITES Exhibition Coordinator, Martha M. Cappelletti; PubHcationsOfficer, Andrea P. Stevens.

In conjunction M^ith the exhibition Inua: Spirit World of theBering Sea Eskimo, the Smithsonian Institution Press has issuedtwo publications. The first is a reprint of the original Nelson mono-graph, Bureau of American Ethnology Annual Report 18 (1899),entitled The Eskimo About Bermg Strait. The second is a fullyillustrated book, Inua: Spirit World of the Bering Sea Eskimo com-piled by William W. Fitzhugh and Susan A. Kaplan. These twopublications focus on this unique culture, recording the ingenuityof a people in utilizing resources and fine craftsmanship to insuresurvival in a difficult environment.

SITES is a program activity of the Smithsonian Institution thatorganizes and circulates exhibitions on art, history, and science toinstitutions in the United States and abroad.SITES Exhibition Coordinator, Martha M. Cappelletti; PubhcationsOfficer, Andrea P. Stevens.

In conjunction with the exhibition Inua: Spirit World of theBering Sea Eskimo, the Smithsonian Institution Press has issuedtwo publications. The first is a repnnt of the original Nelson mono-graph. Bureau of American Ethnology Annual Report 18 11899),entitled The Eskimo About Bering Strait. The second is a fullyillustrated book, Inua: Spirit World of the Bering Sea Eskimo com-piled by William W. Fitzhugh and Susan A. Kaplan. These twopublications focus on this unique culture, recording the ingenuityof a people in utilizing resources and fine craftsmanship to insuresurvival in a difficult environment.